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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL 
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY: 


CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS, 


AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Ag Owes. ASNED Boe ALIN 


(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 


MICROSCOPY, &c- 


Edited by 
ERAN. CR ES PP -1i.L25; .BUA., 
One of the Secretaries of the Society, 
and a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Society of London ; 


WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND- 


A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc., F.LS., ¥F, JEFFREY BELL, M.A., F.Z5S., 
Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in King’s College, 
JOHN MAYALL, Juy., F.Z.S., R. G. HEBB, M.A., M.D. (Cantad.), 
AND 


J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., 
Lecturer on Zoology in the School of Medicine, Edinburgh, 


FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


POR Tbr sy YE Avr 
1888. 


PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY 
WELLIAMS & NORGATE, 
LONDON AND EDINBURGH. 


JAN 20 1903 


Royal Microscopical Society, 


(Founded in 1839. Incorporated by Royal Charter in 1866.) 


The Society was established for the communication and discussion of 
observations and discoveries (1) tending te improvements in the construction 
and mode of application of the Microscope, or (2) relating to Biological or 
other subjects of Microscopical Research. 

It consists of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-officio Fellows. 


Ordinary Fellows are elected on a Certificate of Recommendation, 
signed by three Fellows, stating the names, residence, description, &c., of the 
Candidate, of whom one of the proposers must have personal knowledge. 
The Certificate is read at a Monthly Meeting, and the Candidate balloted 
for at the succeeding Meeting. ° 

The Annual Subscription is £2 2s., payable in advance on election, and 
subsequently on Ist January annually, with an Entrance Fee of £2 2s. Future 
payments of the former may be compounded for at any time for £31 10s. Fel- 
lows elected at a meeting subsequent to that in February are only called upon 
for a proportionate part of the first year’s subscription, and Fellows absent 
from the United Kingdom for a year, or permanently residing abroad, are 
exempt from one-fourth of the subscription during absence. 


Honorary Fellows (limited to 50), consisting of persons eminent in 
Microscopical or Biological Science, are elected on the recommendation of three 
Fellows and the approval of the Council. 


Ex-officio Fellows (limited to 100) consist of the Presidents for the 
time being of such Societies at home and abroad as the Council may recom- 
mend and a Monthly Meeting approve. They are entitled to receive the 
Society’s Publications, and to exercise all other privileges of Fellows, except 
voting, but are not required to pay any Entrance Fee or Annual Subscription. 


The Council, in whom the management of the affairs of the Society is 
vested, is elected annually, and is composed of the President, four Vice-Presi- 
dents, Treasurer, two Secretaries, and twelve other Fellows. 


The Meetings are held on the second Wednesday in each month from 
October to June, in the Society’s Library at King’s College, Strand, W.C. (com- 
mencing at 8p.M.). Visitors are admitted by the introduction of Fellows. 

In each Session two additional evenings are devoted to the exhibition of 
Instruments, Apparatus, and Objects of novelty or interest relating to the 
Microscope or the subjects of Microscopical Research. 


The Journal, containing the Transactions and Proceedings of the 
Society, with a Summary of Current Researches relating to Zoology and Botany 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), Microscopy, &c., is published 
bi-monthly, and is forwarded post-free to all Ordinary and Ex-officio Fellows 
residing in countries within the Postal Union. 


The Library, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cabinet of Objects, 
is open for the use of Fellows daily (except Saturdays) from 10 a.m. to 5 p.M., 
and on Wednesdays from 6 to 9 p.m. also. It is closed for four weeks during 
August and September. 


Forms of proposal for Fellowship, and any further information, may be obtained by 
application to the Secretaries, or Assistant-Secretary, at the Library of the Society, King’s 
College, Strand, W.C. 

a 2 


patron. 
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS 


ALBERT EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES, 
K.G., G.O.B., F.BS., &e. 


Past-Presidents, 


Elected, 
Srr Rionarp Owen, K.O.B., D.C.L., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 1840-1 
S oun eLaNDLAW, Eh. D. BRS. « sis ells cls wine wie seers eisai 1842-3 
= OH GAVAR AEs IGIY;, iF aes 12 ste iste wes eerste @ ialici oe) eceiaiese siete Sualtetane 1844-5 
*James Soort Bowrrpank, WL.D., FBS. ....5 2.5 0200. 1846-7 
PIGRORGM ES UK, lyse ues fis bus ayers we ahanie nls eheushode ile ralasoxse es 1848-9 
PS AETHUR VEARRE, NT)! EID. cise se ats ne aiere ete lie louere 1850-1 
SGRORGR aVAOKSON. WM HO. 9.08 cin otslete cis ele ale Sete eae 1852-3 
*Wittiam Bengsamin Carpenter, O.B.,M.D., LL.D.,F.R.S.. 1854-5 
(GRORGREOHADBOEM jc o's cis) clever ecdlals Sas e'sielye's lores are stir 1856-7 
Shpwimy Wancesrer, MD. D., FIRS. 6. ee sc cee 1858-9 
SOHN -LHOMAS QUBR ETT ol abyss. \ccrevs alaisis Seisinis-ole"s'slelwle.s 1860 
*Ropenr J amne: Mankans, RGIS. 00. 06 cece wens occas 1861-2 
SU AARUES BROOKE, MLA: WOR S, % ¢ 4s 0¢,s 0 ese so.6 esau oe 1863-4 
AMS AGEL NISHRIG S CcER ea Susie oye c ob presen’ ecards. sheimiaeeu are 1865-6-7-8 
*Rev. JosepH Banorort Reape, M.A., F.R.S........... 1869-70 
Wri Krronmn Parker, PORIS: sc< cca oo < ciaee oe Se 1871-2 
*CoanuEs. Broone, MA. DB ics.s esis) sjelp sin sfa(ersitinalele see 1873-4 
Huney Crmton Sorey, GOLD. WARS. 22.02.5605 08 0s 1875-6-7 
FIENRY, << AMES UAGHS BEIGE S eS aie aie c.c00 » ws a's re wid a ade ois 1878 
TONE 3S. DRAGE, NE OE .C.P;, Weliso. oe basso eae 1879-80 
DP: Wanna UNBAN, eles OS. a eel ote s inless essueets <i 1881-2-3 
Rev. W.-2L. Darsinoes, Gb D, PACS... ssanes 1884-5-6-7 


* Deceased. 


COU NCik: 


Exrotep 8TH Frsruary, 1888. 


President. 
Caartes T. Hupson, Esq., M.A., LL.D. (Cantab.). 


Vice-Presidents. 
*Ropert Brairuwaire, Esq., M.D., M.R.CS., #.L.S. 
Rev. W. H. Datiineer, LL.D., F.RS. 
*Pror. CaHartes Stewart, M.R.C.S., F.L:S. 
Wiiu1am Tuomas Surroin, Esq. 


Creasurer, 
Lionet 8. Beatz, Esq., M.B., F.R.C.P., F.RS. 


Secretaries. 
*Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B., B.A., V.P. & Treas. LS. 
Pror. F. Jerrrey Bet, M.A., F.Z.S. 


Ciwelve other Members of Council. 
JosePpH Brox, Esq., F.R.A.S. 
Aurrep W. Bennett, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., F.LS. 
Rey. Epmunp Carr, M.A. 
Frank R. Cuesurre, Esq., F.L.S. 
Pror. Epgar M. CrooxsHann, M.B. 
JAMES GLAISHER, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 
*Pror. J. Wittiam Groves, F.L.S. 
*Grorce C. Karop, Esq., M.R.C.S. 
Joun Mayatt, Esq., Jun., F.Z.S. 
Apert D. Micuart, Esq., F.LS. 
Pror. Urspan Pritcuarp, M.D. 
Cuartes Tyter, Esq., F.L.S. 


Librarian and Assistant Seeretary, 
Mr. James West. 


* Members of the Publication Committee, 


+g 
i 


od ff +4 
" eet avez 
7 ‘= 


CONTENTS. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SoclrTY— 5S ee 
I.—Fresh-water Algze (including Chlorophyllous Protophyta) 
of the English Lake District. II. With descriptions of a 
new genus and five new species. By Alfred W. Bennett, 
F.R.M.S., F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas’s 
Eospitales ((Platerl®)/ec.ee aa \eeee ese eas! ce cep oe Parti lI 
Il.—Note on Micrasterias americana, Ralfs, and its Varieties. Pu 
We Mey Maskell, HR-M.S:) (Plate II) cs) ee0 en ae x 7 
IWI—WNote on the Minute Structure of ieee ees by 
Ga Gulliver ss «=. ; sr 55 11 
IV.—On the Type of a new order of Funet. Py George eae 
Re ME Sas (PlateclVi)e-cmm cise tee) lass go Leen Ps a8} 
V—tThe President’s Address. pe the ee Ww. WL Dallinger, 
vi IGIG Dy lishy DSS Cao ne ae 3) 177 
VI—A Revision of the Genus SNalnodioe Ehrb. ‘By ohn 


Rattray, M.A., B.Se., F.R.S.E. (Plates V., VI., and VIL).. Part 3 337 


Vil.—The Foraminifera of the Red Chalk. By H. W. ee 
C. Davies Sherborn, and Rev. G. Bailey.. .. .. so 383 


ViII.— Additions to the Knowledge of the Carboniferous Foramini- 
fera. By the Rev.-Walter Howchin, F.G.S. (Plates VIII. 
and IX.) pe te ee eee ; Heenan oe oo, let db GSB: 


1X.—Note on the Reproductive Condition of Orbitolites complanata, 
var. laciniata. By Henry B. Brady, F.R.S. (Plate X.) .. Part 5 693 


X.—Notices of New Infusoria Flagellata from American Fresh 
Waters. By Alfred C. Stokes,M.D. (PlateXI.) .. .. ,, 698 


XI.—A Revision of the Genus Auliscus, Ehrb, and of some allied 
Genera. By John ae M.A., B.Sc., F.B.S. (Plates 
NUE XVI air swe, BS og a0. oo. 66. Jetman 3 Goll 


XII.—Note on the Large Size of the saute of Acis Orientalis. By 
Hy eurey, bell MWA. Sec, heMeSs. soy u see e sees colm a ostas co) aces 921 


SumMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ZOOLOGY AND BoTANY (PRINCI- 
PALLY INVERTEBRATA AND CryproGamiA), Microscopy, &c., INCLUDING ORIGINAL 
CoMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.* 13, 186, 386, 546, 705, 923. 


ZOOLOGY. 
A.-—VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 
a, Embryology. 


PAGE 
LeypiG, F.i—Animal Ovuun... . FO ew eng | td ee ice be JAE ae 
Carini, A.—WMaturity of the Oniit FCM OO MO nena Sa Deere oe 15 
Scuutrzs. O.—Awis of Frog Ovum te Aon. Boon? 15 
KAczaNnvDER, J.—Relation of Medullary Caal and "Primitive Streak oo no Pas 15 


* In order to make the classification complete, (1) the papers printed in the 
‘ Transactions,’ (2) the abstracts of the ‘ Bibliography,’ and (3) the notes printed in 
the ‘ Proceedings’ are included here. 


Vill CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
JENSEN, O. S.—Spermaiogenesis .. . seo sale” tale Wale Mes) “tee core STOUT 
Janosix, J.—TZwo Young Human Embry We sisal (ate ndsley’ oysia antes Acti ae a san 16 
Geriacn, L.—Eaperimental Embryology «1 on eu nee wee 16 
Betvoner, G.—Polar Globule of Mammalian Ovum... 301. a0 . Part 2 186 


Ryver, J. A., & G. Ferrerotr—Vestiges of Zonary Denti in Mouse See 186 


Usxow, N. ip: velopment of Blood-vascular Par of the Chick.. Soft op 187 
Haswey, W. A.—Development of Emu ee wap ee J fee). os ae 187 
Scuanz, F.~Fate of the Blastopore in Amph beana br 189 
FLemMinc, W.—Spermatogenesis of Salamander .. «1 se ee we eg 189 
Broox, G.—Germinal Layers in Teleostei .. «1 ss 06 ae fp 189 
Fusari, R.—Segmentation of Teleostean Ova... «1 «1 as 53 191 


Cunnincuam, J. T.—Zggs and Larvex of Teleosteans .. .. «6 « «+ vy 191 


ZimcLer, H. E.—Origin of Blood in Teleostei Foy SGhewis Mace oO eo 192 
CunnincuamM, J. T.—Ovu of Bdellostoma .. Foe wo Go 192 
Marcacci, A.— Influence of Movement on De peloping ae ne 30 sp 193 
HarscHEK, B.—Significance of Sexual Reproduction .. «1 26 ue weg 193 
Detmer, W.-—Jnheritance of Acquired Characters Sst, aes scam (Sas 193 
WIEDERSHEIM, R.— Ancestry of Man ..  .. «2 06 oe oF 08 28 99 193 


WEISMANN, A.—Degeneration .. Ge acisy oie gclelgl ina) Pee acl mamES 194 
First, C. M.—Spermatogenesis of Marsupials Je Se awh: Gon lee. 0) Eon 


Mant, F. P.—First Branchial Cleft of Chick = ap 387 
BENEDEN, E. vAN—Attachment of the Blastocyst to the Geena Wall m 

OTR be De Bae cioMiits, lials, | wise, ie dee Bry Rc ond aac cay 387 
Orr, H.—Lmbryology of Visa Be eo Meena Roce. sod PSor hoe) os 387 
Scorr, W. B.—Development of Petromyzon .. 5 388 
Swan, A.—Development of Torpedo ocellata Be 889 
Wurman, C. O.— Kinetic Phenomena a the te fea Maina and 

THECUNOLULIOM rt eieet aitcn ise ee eee ees ears ise Tes! 
Nacet, W.—Human Ovum... i ee RA Oe fo Ne hia Macoee Wes 547 
Epyer, V. v.—Spermatogenesis of anne zt 547 


Orr, H.—Embryology of Lizard 1. 21 an ae ten gg 548 
Scuwinck—Gastrula of Amphibians Ho ROR BD. “Ge soak oh 549 
GortTrE, A.— Development of Petromyzon fluviatilis 50.5 166..8o0r !oG a0" <p 549 
GutreL, F.—£gg-shell of Lepadogaster .. arene 550 
Corw, G., & E. Berarp—Albuminoid Conetuenis of ‘White of faa Eas 551 
LIzsERMANN, L.—Embryochemical Investigations .. op 551 
WEISMANN, A., & C. Iscurxawa—Formation of Polar Globules in Anant 

O80 ap Oe Ferme mechan). 705 
Horrmany, C. K. ae cath haa Renicance. of the so- ealleaupree Nuclei in 

the Nutrient Yolk of Bony Fishes... : % 706 
Ryoper, J. A.—Resemblance 6f Ovarian Ova and the Primitive Fi uneera i 706 


BregRinceEr, J.—Jnversion of the Germinal Layers in the Shrew Fe 706 
Epner, V. v., & E. SertoLi—Spermatogenesis of Mammals Sans 707 
SANFELICE, F.—Spermatogenesis in Guinea-pig see cot cha, Soe Was 707 
Massarr, J.—Irritability of Spermatozoa of Frog .. 707 


Hovssay, F., & Barartton—Development of the Axolotl .. 1. 1. «% 4 707 
KvprFer, i neicnne of the Lamprey .. hits COR Dose oo wep 708 
Weismann, A., & C. Iscorxkawa—Partial Lmpreinaton now ocemcae © Ds) ae 709 
Hertwic’s (O.) ‘ Human and Vertebrate ees gy? sigh cea.” aes een 710 
Vircuow, H.—Physies of the Yolk.. .. .. ee se pe we eentOmaces 
Roux, W.—Embryonic Axis Soe = Go) SORE OW Sohe doe 90 923 
SANFELICE, F.—Spermatogenesis of Vertibestes Sd let ioe he. yes | Men aaanree 923 
Prenant, A.—Spermatogenesis of Reptiles fy |e Cae ee 924 
SipesorHuamu, H.—Fate of the vanes in Rana Tenors DIAG mete Whee hese ” 925 


CONTENTS. 


Marsuanu, A. Mitnes.—Development of the Frog 

Cuarge, 8S. F.—L£ggs of Alligator lucius . 1... 
RaFFaz£.e, F.—Lygs and Larve of Teleosteans .. .. 
WEISMANN, A.— Heredity so oc fect Meno 


Kuawnxine, M. W.—Principle of Heredity and the Pie of Meeiatics 


applied to the Morphology of Solitary Cells 
THomson, J. A.— Action of the Environment ba. Ge 
Morean, C. Liuoyp.—E£ilimination and Selection .. 
DowvDEsWELL, G. F.—Spermatozoa of Triton ..  .. 


8. Histology. 


Luxganow, S. M.—WMorphology of the Cell .. 6. 00 news 

6 WNucles of Muscle-couss. wie ice es) Wes cle 
Tawar, F.— Cell-division . 
NANsEN, F.— Histological Tilemonts ye the Centr Ee enn ee 
BamsBeks, E. VAN—Artificial Deformations of the Nucleus .. 
ScHIEFFERDECKER, P.—Structure of Nerve-fibre .. 1. 
Foa, F.—Structure of Red Blood-corpuscles .. 
Hairgurton, W. D.—Hemoglobin Crystals of Rodents? Bieod 
Ruope, E.—WNervous System of Amphioxus let Melee as 
ScuuttzE, O.—Changes of Position of Nucleus .. 
Kossret, A.—Chemistry of the Nucleus 
PritzNer, W.— Pathological Structure of the Cacia 
ScuuLtzE, O.—Segmentation in Axolotl .. 
Pinuret, A.—Glandular Cells of Stomach 
ARNOLD, J.—Division and Metamorphosis of Wanderi a Cells 
JosEPH—Histology of Nerve-fibres ..  .. ae ae 
Cunnot, L.—Development of Red Risoeeontee 
BOVERI, I'—Cell-studies 2. 2. 0 00 a 
FLEMMING (N.) on the Cell .. 1. op 
ScHOTTLANDER, T'.—Cell-division 
WapryEer, W.—Karyokinesis and Her ae 
Errera,.L.— Cellular Statics . 5c 
Micuer, A.— Fusion of ee Cells into ‘Piast 
PaneEru, J.—Secreting Cells of Intestinal Epithelium 
Daaz, H.—Spinal Ganglion-cells bc 
JAKMIOVITCH, J.—Avis-cylinder and Nee ers 
Lerypic, F.—Cells and Tissuwes.. .. 
ARNOLD, J.— Cell-division eS Ree 
Ipr, M.—Cell-membrane .. .. on 
Srernwavs, J.—Goblet-cells of Tastes of Siena A 
Frierson, M., & A. KorLarewsky—WMicro-chemistry of Nerve- mie 
Janosix, J.—Histology of the Ovary c 
Crancl, C., & G. ANGIOLELLA—Sitructure of ‘Red iF pivean ee 
Rasi-RicKwarD, H.—Peculiar Fat-cells 
WaLpeYER, W.— Karyokinesis in its Relation to Fertilization 
MinGazzini, P.—Reticulum of Muscle-fibre ..- .. 
ScuneweER, A.—Sarcolemma .. oc 
Roupe, E.—WNervous System of Aeneas 5 

y. General. 

AMANS—Aquatic Locomotion .. 1. «6 « «= 
Butscaui, O.—Growth by Intussusception .. 1. 
Sturrer, C. P.—Remarkable Cuse of Mutualism 
Lors, J.—Jnfluence of Light on Oxidation 


= bartiG 


” 


3” 


ebarine 


1x 


PAGE 
925, 
925 
925 
926 


926 
927 
927 
1065 


194 
196 
197 
198 
198 
390 
390 
390 
391 
392 
393 
393 
395 
395 
502 
503 
504 
BYE: 
ya) 
555 
906 
996 
506 
710 
712 
712 
712 
712 
713 
928 
928 
928 
928 
928 
929 


19 
907 
557 
714 


x CONTENTS, 


B.—INVERTEBRATA, 


Duranp, W. F.—Parasites of Teredo navalis 
Imnor, O. E.— Fauna of Mosses 


Lankestrr, BE. Ray—Coelom and Vets Busan of Metascs 


Arthropoda ; 6 
Curxor, M. L.— Blood of Bs Bbrata ‘3 


Cuun, C.—Pelagic Animals at Great Depths ana ee Ratations ' He 


Surface Fauna 3 
Sremer—Piysiology of Nervous Sb etim 
Grirritus, A. B.—Problematical Organs of the rior reiitin 
Fou, H.—Distribution of Striped Muscle Birt Ag Book a8 
Cuatin, J.—Myelocytes of Invertebrates ; ; 
Dvusots, R.—Lole of Symbiosis in Luminous Wianne Animals 
ZAcuHARIAS, O.—Distribution by Birds 


Mollusca. 
Fou, H.— Microscopic Structure of Muscles of Molluscs... 


PAGE 

Part 2 199 

Pe “ 199 
and 

»» Pattie ogo 

Part 4 557 

558 

5 559 

. Part 5 714 

Be ae 714 

.. Part 6 929. 

3 929 

55 930 


Part 2 199 


Scaremenz, P.—Jngestion of Water in Lamellibranchs, Gash Gpoae ai 


Pteropods 


a. Cephalopoda. 


Bartuer, F. A.—Growth of Cephalopod Shells ; 
Warass, 8.—Homology of Germinal Layers of Cephutopods 
Batumr, F. A.—Shell-growth in Cephalopoda : He 
Brock, J.—Systematic Arrangement of Cranchia . 

Buaxs, J. F., & F. A. Barner—Shell-growth in Gephalonona 
SapaTier, A. ate: matozoa of Eledone moschata .. 
GiGantic Cephalopoda : 

Warask, 8.—Germinal Layers in Geplalopods) 

Jarra, G.—Olfactory Ganglia of Cephalopods 

Weiss, F. E.—Some Oigopsid Cuttle-fishes 

Lavriz, M.—Organ of Verrill in Loligo 


ES 189 
.. Parti2 200 
. Part 3 396 
5 Bom 
a 397 
. Part 4 559 
Se 560 
. Part 6 930 
55 931 
3 931 
5 931 
3 932 


Grirritus, A. B.—Salivary Glands of Sepia oficiales. an Patella pagate my 932 


B. Pteropoda. 


PeLseneER, P.—Nervous System of Pteropods ,, 
- 5 ‘Challenger’ Pteropoda (G, Des) 
Kauipz, G.—WMusculature of Heteropoda and Pteropoda 


y. Gastropoda. 


wart 
ou 45 26 
.. Part 4 560 


Lacaze-Duruigers, H. pr, & G. Pruvor—Larval Anal Eye in Opisthobranch 


Gastropods no 
Lacaze-Dutuiers, H. eee eee ye Weis. 
Bouvier, E. L.—WNervous System of Prosobranchs 
Sarasin, P. & F.—Development of Helix Waltoni 
Groppsen, C.— Morphology of the Heteropod Foot .. is 
Korner, R.— Form and Development of Spermatozoa in Murex... 
Sautensky, M.—Development of Vermetus 
Bouvier, E. L.—Anatomy and Affinities of erent 


ScuIMKEWITSCH, W.—Development of Heart of Pulmonate Wathen : 


Frwkes, J. W.—Sucker on Fin of Pterotrachea 

Rosert, E.—Spermatogenesis in Aplysia 

GarNAULT, P.—Reproductive Organs and Goes of Helix 
BerNanD, F.—WMantle of Gastropods and Dependent Organs 


« Parte 
9 20 

” 21 

a 24 

24 

Part 2 200 

5 201 

4 204 

‘5 204 
205 

-» Part-3 397 
- - 398 
- 399 


OONTENTS 


Perrier, R.—Kidney of Monotocardate Prosobranch Gastropods,. .. .. Part3 
Tuerinc, H. von—The Orthonewra a GM ccf sete. s 
Lacaze-Dutuiers, H. DE—Classification OP Gatos, ec on the 
Arrangement of the Nervous System .. 4. 10 ee we 3 
Suiru, E. A.—Abnormal Growth in Haliotis.. 1. 26 26 se «8 Part 4 
Lacaze-Duruters, H. pE—Testacella .. 
FLEtscomann, A.—Absorption of Water 
Perrier, R.—Comparative Histology of Glandiaan Epithelium a Kidney 
of Prosobranch Gastropods .. .. ice W tae ee shart od) 
Hanitson, R.—Anatomy and Histology of ie ae eis 
GARNAULT, P.—Anatomy and Histology of Cyclostoma elegans 
Petit, L.—Lffects of Lesion of pone age Wee in Snails 
Wiiiem, V.—Creeping Movements . : 
VAYsSIERE, A.—Systematic Postion of oon ¢ 5c 
GARNAULT, F., & J. BERNARD—Anatomy of Valvata Fecal aE ais 
Prenant, A.—Spermatogenesis of Gastropods ..  . .. Part 6 
PELSENEER, P.—-Classification of Gastropoda by the Gignacers of the Ner- 
vous System C 
GARNAULT, P.—Str chi ae Development of Fag in Chitonidee 
Puate, L.—Organization of Dentalium . ss 


%° 


” 


” 


6. Lamellibranchiata. 


Dvsois, R.—Photogenic Property of Pholas dactylus .. .. .. «  « Partl 
NPAT aN ——E7¢SLOLOGY) Of, NGIAAG a.) rent) on) Mesh W aiemewerers Facil eee ante 
RAwirz, B:—WMucous Cells in Mussels .. 21 © -. os of e ce oe Eartd3 
BLANCHARD, R.—Striated Muscles in Mollusca ba acd Brio § “oe Gc 

PrLsENeER, P.—Lamellibranchiata without gills ..  .. Part 4 


Brock, J.—So-called Eyes of Tridacna and Occurrence of Poeudecitoropl 
Corpuscles in the Vascular System of Lamellibranchs . : 
SHarp, B.—Phylogeny of Lamellibranchs 


Hase.orr, B.—Crystalline Style nou Done og inn! gol no. co, Sep 

GROBBEN, C.—FPericardial Gland .. .. . i ee caemeantyo 

BLANCHARD, R.—Structure of Muscles of atnallsorcichictn ao po) bo teeNA(S 

RercHeL, L.—Formation of Byssus AG OD cee OE Pr 
Molluscoida. 


a. Tunicata. 


Lannie, F.—Central Nervous System .. .. .. «s «. « -. « Partl 
BENEDEN, E. vAN—Classification of Tunicata 5G) G0 cu Sd no | oo. Le 
Dotiey, C. 8.—Histology of Salpa.. 


B. Bryozoa. 


Korotnerr, A. DE—Spermatogenesis .. .. .. «2 «© « « oo Partl 
Verworn, M.—Fresh-water Bryozoa : ae 
HerpMan, W. A.—Reproductive Organs of ates ondean Teo -. Part 2 


Forrtincer, A.—Anatomy of Pedicellina as 
SAEFFTIGEN, A.—WNervous System of Pataca tee Fr ae pane Part 3 


Joyevx-Larrul£, J.—New Genus of Bryozoa hee PRC Sete 
MacGiniivray, P. H.—Polyzoa of Victoria Bal? BOCd CC COM On mance ates 
Korotnerr, A.—Spermatogenesis in Alcyonella .. .. .. «. « « Part4 
KRAPELIN, K.—Fresh-water Polyzoa .. Se Re Meine ee ep 
Harme_r, 8. F.—Lmbryogeny of Ectoproctous aeiaeon: Sy tease dee arteo 


JULLIEN, J.— Movements of Polypides in Zocecia of Bryozoa pe be he Parte 


xl 


PAGE 


399 
400 


401 
561 
562 
563 


715 
716 
716 
717 
718 
718 
718 
932 


933 
933 
933 


26 
205 
402 
402 
564 


564 
565 
566 
720 
935 
935 


26 
206 
207 


27 

27 
208 
208 
402 
403 
403 
566 
566 
721 
936 


Xi CONTENTS. 


Vicr.ius, W. J.— Ontogeny of Marine Bryozoa 
JULLIEN, J.—Cristatella muccdo .. .2 «se os 
JoyEUXx-LAFFvIE£, J.—Delagia Chetopteri .. 
Braem, F.— Fresh-water Bryozoa .. 


Arthropoda. 


Grassi, B.—Primitive Insects .. 

Parren, W.—Lyes of Arthropods .. : Ac 
Bruce, A. T.—Lmbryology of Insects and Tororo ae Boh ao ae 
BATTEN, Wi—Zyesiof Artinopods:... (5 es 25 as 4s. 965 cs es 
Gitson, G.—Spermatogenesis of Arthropods -< 6. ss ee ae wes 
GuruucHTEN, A. v.—Striped Muscle of Arthropods. «1 «1 «so 


a, Insecta. 
Emery, C.—Love-lights of Luciola 
5 »  Mimicry and Parasitism of Capone ater ais 
Hanpuirscu, A.—Sand-wasps 
Graper, V.—Thermic Experiments on Paspladia or eitalis 
Unecu, F.—Diminution in Weight of Chrysalis 
Craccio, G. V.—Lyes of Diptera 
BiocuMann, J.—Bacteria-like Bodies in Teens: ana one 
Meenin, P.—Fauna of the Tombs .. 5 
Raru, O. v.—Dermal Sensory Organs of eee ot 
Knipret, A.—Salivary glands of Insects ; 
M‘Coox, H. C.—Sense of Direction in Formica rufa 
FrRicken, v.—Respiration of Hydrophilus 
Seivatico, 8.—Aorta of Bombyx mori .. 
Rascuke, E, W.—Larva of Culex . Sc 
CuoLopKoysky, N.—Some Species of Chermes .. . ath WO 
VIALLANES, H.—Werve-Centres and Sensory Organs of Me culate 
PLATEAU, F.—Vision of Caterpillars and Adult Insects oo 0d oe 
Povuuton, E. B.—Secretion of Pure Aqueous Formic Acid by Lebitopioois 
Larve for the Purposes of Defence 
Suitu, T. F.—Finer Structure of Butterfly Beales 
BertKav, P.—Scent-organs of German Lepidoptera 
Minter, W.—Scent-Glands of Phryganidz .. .. Ne 
CroLtopKovsky, N.—Development of Endoderm of Blatta ¢ germanica .. ; 
Portcuinski—COomparative Biology of Necrophagous and ere 
Dipterous Larve .. .. 5 : 
Cuccarti, J.—Organization of Brain a; Sonne erythr eae ae 


. Part 6 


” 
” 


” 


.. Part ft 
oe arti2 
. Part 4 


Part 6 


JourDatn, 8.—Wachilis maritima .. E 
Lemon, V.—Brain of Phylloxera .. .. as 
Graser, V.—Polypody of Insect Embryos ts Part 4 
Ratu, O. von—Dermal Sensory Organs of Insects .. 
Scumip, E.—Sub-aquatie Respiration os 
Freipe, A. M.—Dorsal Appendages ..  «. : 
Emery, C.—So-called Digestive Stomach of some dnés.. a 
Foret, A., & G. W. Peckuam—Senses of Ants .. .. .. 5 
Verson, E.—Parthenogenesis in Bombyx mori 44 eu ee we we weg 
Piatner, G.—Karyokinesis in Lepidoptera .. .. Be ete 3 ak 
Unecu, F.—Decrease of: Weight in Winter Pupx of Pontia tyrussiee as 5 
VoritzKow, A.—Development in Egg of Musca vomitoria . a 
Henxinc, H.—Larly Stages in Development e Egg of es Bi 
Witt, L.—Development of Aphides.. .. Ap by Ae! 
KorscuEt, E.—L£gg-membranes of Insects : Part 5 


PAGE 
936 
936 
936 
937 


29 
209 
567 
938 
940 
941 


569 
570 
570 
o71 
571 
o71 
572 
572 
573 
573 
722 


CONTENTS. Xlil 


PAGE 
Rvuxanp, F.—Antennary Sensory Organs of Insects...» .. « «. Part 5 723 
Cartet, G.—Poison of Hymenoptera... Eg iih nas tensive tees 724 
Coox, A. J.—Morphology of the Legs of Hy ene s 725 
Horer, Bruno—Salivary Glands of Cockroach > 725 


Ticnommrorr, A.—Parthenogenesis in Bombyx mort... we we we egg 725 


Lucrant, L., & A. Prorri—Respiration of Silk-worm Ova .. 3 726 
CARLET, G. ee of Locomotion of Caterpillars % 726 
Wuitr, W., & G. C. Grirritas—Colowr-relation wien Pupes ia tr 

roundings oP 50 Fon MOCt Si0 So oe 20 ad Ac Hy 727 
Kessier, H. Heads om aes rivets me 727 
GRABER, V.—Primary Segmentation of the Cen es a Fasccis -- . Parté 941 
Nuspaum, J.—Germinal Layers of Meloe hn Dehn: wie Scare mes 942 
Pruanta, A. v.—WNutrient Food-Material of Bees .. 4. 64 we nee - 942 
Ginson, G.—Odoriferous Glands of Blaps Spain ces Cree ae 943 
CASAGRANDE, D.—Alimentary Canal in Aisne hess: Ch EEE RGD ates 943 
CuHATIN, J.—WNerve-terminations in Lepidoptera 3 943 
Reuter, E.—Basal Spot on Palps of Butterflies .. aoe fate R55 943 
Biscuit, O.—Development of Musca .. .. i ok as 55 944 
Branpt, E.—Larva of Sarcophila Wohlfartii in Gia of Man ate 944 
Cuccati, G.—Brain of Somomya .. .. .. « . Se aaa we 944 

8. Myriopoda. 

PLATEAU, F.—Powers of Vision .. ayes.) wasp) wae eartolu oe 
Hearucore, F. G.—Post-embryonic Dae enon a dh Fe: BO 00.8 te coon Brin 418} 
Sarnt-Remy, G.—Brain of Iulus .. .. .. « Part3 408 
Hearucores, F. G.—Post-embryonic Dae pions of Tits foriestre Syepo soe denny) Pr 
GAZAGNAIRE, J., & R. BLANcHARD.—Phosphorescence in Myriopoda .. Part 6 945 


y. Prototracheata. 


SHELDON, L.—Development of Peripatus Nove-Zealandize .. .. .. .. Partl 33 


Sepewick, A.—Development of the Cape Species of Peripatus .. .. .. Part3 409 
Sciater, W. L.—Development of a South American Peripatus FO OG. MEE 410 
Srepewick, A.—Monograph of the Genus Peripatus .. .. .. « « Part4 576 
SHELpoN, L.—Anatomy of Peripatus capensis and P. Nove Zealandizx 577 
6. Arachnida. 

Avrivituius, C. W.8.—Acarida on Trees 1. «1 06 4+ «6 «+ oe Partl 34 
PLATEAU, F'.—Vision in Arachnids ..  .. o» «+ «+ of «+ «+ » Part 2 214 

% » Respiration of Arachnida Cathal cicapaeicy- Mate sipued si Wes matcemenes™ 214 
Wacner, V.—Regeneration of Lost Parts .. .. co | Od rs 215 


M‘Cooxr, H. C.—Age and Habits of American Tar tila Ont Meee ou dS 215 
ZacHanias, O.—Distribution of Arachnida .. sem oe +s oe ee we 5 215 
Parker, G. H.—Eyes in Scorpions.. .. 2. «+ co oF oF of («« PartS 411 
Wacner, W.—So-called Auditory Hairs saul) sale aot con Sy Sonate 411 
M‘Cooxr, H. C.—WNew Orb-weaving Spider .. «1 «6 6 «2 08 0 412 
Micnar., A. D.—British Oribatide c BO 0. Oo. moe 
Precxuam, G. W. & E. G.—WMental Powers of Sa 50 owe dh 
Sarnt-ReEmy, G.—Brain of Phalangida Ae EOD S50 «dose a OA aise | ee 576 


Winker, W.—Anatomy of Gamaside .. . Part 5 729 
M‘Coox, H. C.—Relations of Structure and fae 5 Gale Changes in 
Spiders... 5 00 eee bart: Gii94o 
Faussnx, V. SS naen mee of Genmnante Ghar in Meanie ieFaeswaaen ae 946 
Wacner, V.—Blood of Spiders... «2 sew ia 946 


xiv CONTENTS. 


e. Crustacea, 


PAGE 
Kinasiey, J. S.—Development of the Compound Eye of Crangon ~ (antalimeee 
Sars, G. O.—‘ Challenger’ Cumacea : e Bs 35 
£ * ‘ Challenger’ Phyllocarida . 36 
Ganrsin1, A.—Structure of Cypridinide .. re “6 36 
Marcuar, P.—Z cretion in Brachyurous Crustacea . Part 2 216 
Rawirz, B.—Green Gland of Crayfish p 216 
Grarp, A., & J. Bonnter—The Lopyridze sie *3 216 
a Two New Genera of Fioiear dis 30 5 217 
Cuavs, C.—Lerneascus and the Philichthyde oe St ete 9 217 
Nussspaum, M.—First Changes in Fecundated Ovum of Ta 1s ; 218 
PLATEAU, F.—Palpiform Organs of Crustacea c C Pad 3 413 
Herricr, F. H.— Abbreviated Metamorphosis - Alphows “pe tts Relation - 
the Condition of Life Brag a4 oe oo dG kobe SG. ef, 414 
Broox, G.—Reproduction of Lost Paris: Fe ers so Cp 414 
Giarp, A.—Parasitic Castration in the Eucy plates of Spalenon and 
Hippolyte 3 + 414 
Mine-Epwarps, A.—F’ as AEs Cr ae of 4 price 3 415 
VALLENTIN, R., & J. T. CunnincHam—Photospheria “of Mm ptiphanes 
norvegica 30 + 415 
CuHEvreEvxX, E., & J. DE Si een Gane il Mrapnined 3 416 
Cuats, ee neeiaes and the Tanaide .. = 416 
Tuompson, I. C.—New Parasitic Copepod 55 417 
WELTNER, W.—New Cirriped .. tcp tye Pa 417 
Norman, A. M.—WNew Crustacean Parasite .. oy piss 418 
Mackay, W. J.—Intercoxal Lobe of certain Cray fides .. Part 4 977 
Hernrics, F. H.—Development of Alpheus : 35 577 
Norpevist, O.—WVoina bathycolor and the greatest d athe bi iohich Cleaners 
are found S008 oc 50 oo 0b Oe 578 
Catraneo, G.—IJntestine and iDajestine Glands of Dna 5 oo see) 728) 
Petit, L.—L£ffects of Lesions of the oe a-ceesopha sak Gan cas & the Crab 
(Carcinus Meenas) .. 5a © 03 30.) ack) 66 730 
BERGENDAL, D.—ale Lisanne: on antes 730 
Bepparp, F. E.—Lyes of Cymothoide .. Se Fe 730 
Giarp, A., & J. Bonnrer—New Species of Caachi Te wt Ks 9 Beg 731 
GuERNE, J. DE, & J. RicHarp—Geographical Distribution of iphraene Gen sy 73 
Scuwarz, C. G.—So-called Mucous Gland of Male Cypride ad ch 7al 
Sramati, G.— Castration of the Cray-fish oD = He . Part 6 947 
% », Digestion in Cray-fishes .. 6 947 
BIEDERMANN, W.—ZJnnervation of Crabs’ Claws - 947 
Bate, C. SpENcE—‘ Challenger’ Crustacea Macrura .. pane ao 948 
RosENsTApt, B.—Structure of Asellus.. sa ase Ain eer Lat keer cf 948 
Barrois, T.—Sexual Dimorphism in Amphipoda .. 949 
PEREYASLAWZEWA, SOPHIE—Development of Gammarus ns 949 
ELYMANN, E.—Zuropean Daphnide  .. 22 «2 oe we ee we - 949 
CHEVREUX, E.—Orchestia ; Sine a es 949 
Carranno, G.—Amebocytes of Oustaces Sy tee a Sddu ea Soca 949 
Vermes. 
a. Annelida: 
Wurman, C. O.—Germ-layers of Clepsine Part dion 
BeErTELu, D.—Salivary Glands of Leech 38 
Witson, E. B.—Germ-bands of Lumbricus 3 388 


GiarD, A.—Photodrilus apes ca g a wae Genus of Phospho- 
rescent Lumbricids.. .. : 50 er 40 


CONTENTS. 


MicHaAetsen, W.—Lnchytreide 

Draco, W.—Parasite of Telphusa .. : 

CUNNINGHAM, J. T.—Anatomy of Polychex tie 

Grarr, L. v.—Annelid Genus Spinther .. 

SmMONELLI, V.—Structure of Serpula 

Satensky, M.—Development of Annelids 

Bourne, A. G.— Vascular System of Hirudinea 5 

Brunorre, C.—Structure of the Eye of Branchiomma.. 

VEsDOvaKy, F.—Larval and Definite Excretory Systems in Gnenliriciaee 
BEppDARD, F. E.—Roproductive Organs of Moniligaster 


5 » So-called Prostate Glands of Oligocheta .. 
Rove, L.—Histology of Pachydrilus enchytreoides .. .. 4. 
Benuam, W. B.—New Earthworm. sialic 


Meyer, E.— Organization of rele 

JOYEUX-LAFFUIE, J.—WNervous System of Chatpiar Us Watencinss 
FRATrONT, J. Ep opjordas Be Wetec 

Sovurer, A.—Formation of Tube of legdhe bc 

Horst, R.— Cardiac Body of Annelids 

Ersie, H.—Monograph of the Capitellide 


LrexHMANN, O.—Homology of Segmental Organs and Fiferent Ducts of Genital 


Products in Oligocheta .. ‘ 
Bepparp, F, E.—Structural Characters of arereson ms 
FLercHer, J. J.—New Australian Earthworms 
Bepparp, F. E.—WNephridia of Earthworms .. 
Anatomy of Allurus tetraedrus.. 
a = Anatomy of Pericheta 
= Mucous Gland of Urochxta 


” ” 


Pate W. A.—Embryology of Vermilia cxespitosa a ponte “Asie Part 4 


Bepparp, F. E.—feproductive Organs of Phreoryctes.. : 
Bourne, G. C.—Kleinenberg on Development of Lopador pachusl 
KiKENTHAL, W.—Zaperiments on Earthworms .. «2 «1 +s 
Kouacin, N.—Russian Lumbricidz 

Eisen, G.—New Annelid, Sutroa rostrata i. ne 
Stokes, A. C.—Two new Aquatic Worms from North Wee Ad 
Coun, A.—Criodrilus lacuum 


Oligochzte 
Cunnincuay, J. Nereis of Giants conch 
MiIcHAELSEN, W.—New Enchytreide is 
ApstTuy, 8.—Laternal Morphology of Hirudinea . 
HEYMANN, J. F.—WNerve-endings in the Leech : 
FRIEDLANDER, B.—Creeping Movements of Earthworm 
Bereu, R. 8.—ELzecretory Organs of Criodrilus 


B. Nemathelminthes. 


Carnoy, J. B.— Maturation and Division of Ascaris Ova 

5a as Polar Bodies in Ascaris i ete Os 
ZacHARtias, O.—Fertilization of Arcaris iegiliceuiate PY ales 
LABOULBENE, A.—Larval Stoge of Specics of Ascaris .. 
Lez, A. BottEes—Spermatogenesis in Chetognatha 
CamERANO, L.—Life-history of Gordius .. 3 
Vittot, A.—Development and Specific Determination of Gordii a6 
Bos, J. Rirzema—WNatural History of Tylenchus.. ..  «. 
Korner, R.—Structure of Echinorhynchi .. .. s. 


aeartol 


7 Part: 2) 218 


PPeartio 
Route, L.—Formation of Embryonic aga ae Calon of a encore 


= Lathe 
BENEDEN, E. vaN—Fertilization and Segmentation in Hens is mec ineeorais 


” 


XV 


PAGE 
40 
40 
41 
42 
42 


219 


XVi CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Bovert, T.—Polar Globules of Ascaris ... «oe , ee DAth oes 
Lutz, A.— Life-history of Ascaris lumbr aes ee ‘Tenia elliptic a ae eens a 426 
Kouxtsomrzky, N.—VFertilization of Ascaris Atel Sica wnt » «o Path teoeo 
Luxsanow, 8. M.—Jntestinal Epithelium of Ascaris ..  .. +1 +6 +e yy 583 
VEJDOVSKY, F'.—Studies on Gordiide .. .« . «« - AL ce Be 5 583 
CHatin, J.—Anguillulide of the Onion .. .. 26 26 oe ve we te 585 
Bos, J. Rirzema—Tylenchus devastatrin .. «6 «s « «+ oF oF 49 585 
Kuutscnirzky, N.—Fertilization of Ascaris... .. . «+ « + «+ Part 5 736 
CAMERANO, L.—Structure and Position of Gor Bindi aoe eels Ge oh ty 737 
STRUBELL, ct ucture and Development of Heterodera Schachtit scm eas A 737 
Cuatrin, J.—Integument of Heterodera Schachtii .. .. Py 73 
Grasst, B., & 8. CaLANDRUCCIO—Lchinorhynchus pana in ian a ie 

w fae intermediary host is a Blaps B= | HON team Modano hore 739 
Serrert, O.—Ankylostomum duodenale ..  .. MODS SOC fa 739 
WALSINGHAM, Lorp, & H. D. WALKER—Gape Wor m “of Tunis AO oe | cp 740 
Lamerrr, A.—Alnormal Ova of Ascaris megalocephala .. .. « «+ Part6 953 
WiuL0o1T—Heterodera Schachtii eres SOE Ne eens Wn Soames Wit oe 953 

y. Platyhelminthes. 

TINTON, Hi—Cestoid Bmbryos. «1 6 tee a te wee oe) 
Grassi, Bi—TZenia nana.. .. Sah. whe tee a5 46 
Wricut, R. Ramsay, & A. B. MAcar.0m—Sphyranura paler ey esas, Wes 47 
Porrier, J.—New Human Distomum .. whee Hane ee 49 
Heckert, G.—WNatural History of Leucochlor or paratosum ae Merle Deets 33 49 
Haswet, W. A.—TZemnocephala .. .. Baek sore rorn. "23 50 
Linton, Ha tenaede in white of Wor pete ‘Hen’ s s Ba Geet ter Sag NSD. op 51 
DEvVoLeTzkY, R.—Lateral Organs of Nemerteans .. .. +0 se ve we 15 ol 
Husrncut, A. A. W.— Challenger’ Nemertea .. 1. 2» «1 of + 4 52 
Montez, R.— Tenia nana AC a Re EA, OCA DO sca ALS. 
Isa, 1.—Some European Triads. or 2 HOE Ans Ac. oe * 229 
Scumipr, F.—Development of Generative Or: ae of Gesell jel es |e eS ieee 
TUCKERMAN, F'.—ZJnteresting Specimen of Tenia saginata (see footnote, 

2538). co. oe Acie DOO ee 427 
ZELLER, E.—Generative ecaiiue of Daplevaen piragome yee Sngheatsie hey tess 427 
Repracuorr, W.—Second Species of Turbellarian living on Nebaliv .. .. 4, 428 
Kunstier, J.—New Remarkable Worms 50 mois Use Teen tee Uso ems 428 
Hauuez, P.—Embryogeny of Fresh-water Detinocdla Sol sad coe no mon tecnan es. Systy 
SAMENSIGYs| Wi——LGteraliOngans “cele. os se | oc ce oe 06 eel 199 587 
Fritscu, G.—Bilharzia .. .. Adem eer nee Sauer Mie 588 
Hoye, W. E.—General Sketch of the Taig BO oo om oo Le SS. 
VorttzKow, A.—Aspidogaster conchicola .. 1 ++ ue ete gg 954 
BRAN DESH G.—— EH OLOSLONMEN: “lesie | “ests aie) (ies Me loo, Weis, Nels sal Mise) tei) fis 954 
Branpt, E.— Tenia cucumerina in Man nom Soe‘ oonly ‘cow “kagit toa wears ep 955 
TGCKERMAN, Hi ——Tenid Saginata 2. ise) se oe ws tele ‘5 955 


5. Incerte Sedis. 


ZELINKA, C.—Parasitic Rotifer—Discopus aes One od co coer et iae ihe ie 


Hoop, J.—Floscularia annulata .. +e SM Bote! ses cent oe eather 
NAnsEN, F.—WNervous System of Myzostoma.. .. «1 se «+ «8 «8 499 231 
SonimKEwitscu, W.—Balanoglossus Mereschhovshkii .. .. «. «  « Part 4 588 
Greerr, L. von—‘ Challenger’ Myzostomida., .. 1. se +8 40 oe 145 590 
GuERNE, J. DE—Asplanchnide Sao ee Gam So CEE Sao ee. woe let aan Fait, 


Cosmovicl, L. C.—Contractile Vesicle of ene BH HON ohh) bo eco HERI Saw 
Winepon, W. KL R.—Aaplodiscuspiuger., G. se se) se ee oe ew og 955 


CONTENTS. 
Echinodermata. 
Hamann, O.—Histology of Echinoderms "Oe w60- 00 sca. 1820 Part 1 
5 » Wandering Primordial Germ-cells in Bcnitiodorine Bc =F 
Hantoc, M. M.— True Nature of the Madreporic System of Echinoder ee pS 
Cutnot, L.—WNervous System and Vascular Apparatus of Ophiurids .. “= 
Carpenter, P. H.—Development of Apical Plates in Amphiura squamata.. ,, 
He¥rovarp, E.—Calcareous Corpuscles of Holethurians.. .. = 
Bury, H.—Development of Antedon rosacea .. «1 0s ae Part 2 
Groom, T. T.—New Features in Pelanechinus corallinus .. » 
Sarasin, P. & F.— Budding in Star-fishes 1. 64 ewe 5 
Semon, R.—Wediterranean Synaptide .. - 
Sarasin, P. & F.—Longitudinal Muscles and Stewarts Or. in in arin: 
HORUS! “oh 0b =o nce , Part 3 
ProvnHo, H.—Researches on Darosiane peptilata ‘ond oiler Mediterr¢ ranean 
* Echinids ..  .. Cie 6c * 
DO6ODERLEIN, L. =e eheanion of Gara Soest 53 
Sarasin, P. & F.—Gemmatior in Linckia malinera ae Auer 
Dusguan, H. E.—Lmigration of Amaboid Corpuscles in Siarfiates. ro OS 
- Madreporite of Cribrella ocellata soil Aoi cues eee 5 
HAMANN, O.—WMorphology ef Ophiurids . 5 Re uF 
FLEISCHMANN, A.— Developments of Egg of Echinocar eee cor sndaten ae Part 4 
Sarasin, P. & F.—Renal Organ of Echinoids ni do. ‘do, | Wee s 
BELL, F. Jerrrery—Remarkable Ophiurid from Brazil pot ~ 
Lupwic, H.—New and Old Holothurians as ea a % 
JIcKELI, C. F.—WNervous System of ohitodemantas . Part 5 
Sarasin, P. & F.—Anatomy of Echinothurida and Pinglogony & Holinos 
dermata .. : ac . Part 6 
Grirritus, A. B. ee Grsane of Gi elas 0. ob -c0. Sao. sco oS gy 
Curnot, L.—Anatomy of Ophiurids  .. 1. we sn see + 
Bagrrots. J.—Development of Comatula .. co” OC - 
CaRPENTER, P. H.—‘ Challenger’ Comatule.. ..  .. 3) 
Coelenterata. 
Ouun, C.—Morpho’ogy of Siphonophora .. .. 1. « os Part 1 
KrukeEnBere, C. F. W.—JLnfluence of Salinity + 
5 ss Colours of Corals .. c ‘5 
Nervous Tracts in Alcyonids 35 a 
eae C. POlitonanike Santen, eal eer eee Part 2 
Lewy, J.—/ydra BD moe mca a 
Frwkes, J. W.—Are there Deegsen Medusee? Ost ay ees » 
Hickson, 8. J.—Sex-cells and Development of ano no 00) 00 OG) 
Nicuotson, H. A.—Structure and Affinities of Parkeria .. 1. 22 48 455 
MARENZELLER, E. von—Growth of Flabellum saps + 
Sruper, T.—Classification of Alcyonaria .. .. = 
GrieG, J. A—WNorse Alcyonaria.. .. eet. So Mo! 
Brooks, W. K.—New Method of Maliplcation in nace Part 3 
Fow er, G. H.—Anatomy of Madreporaria .. .. .. . + 
Wuson, H. V.—Development of Mancinia areolata 33 
Kocu, G. v.—Gorgonidz of Naples .. 5 
Frewkes, J. W.—New Mode of Life among Mana Part 4 
on $5 Meduse from New England oo 0S, (ph oe op 
cs New Physophore .. .. a6 Sad sant oe ” 
Fowzer, G. H.— New Pennatula from the Bae De 
FiscuEer, P.—Actinix of Coasts of France .. FA 
1888. b 


XvVli 


XVlil CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Buocamany, F., & C. Htnarr—Gonactinia prolifera .. «6 0s ae oe Part 4 593 
Haacke, W.—Nature of Polyparium _.... os se 06 06 oF oF 08 9 594 
Harcke., E.—System of Siphonophora ..  .. ce, fe) Gee? oo oe GCTiDROMMIEIN 
Brooks, W. K.—Life-history of Epenthesis McCr tp n. se bah ace eee 743 
Voar, C.—Arachnactis and Cerianthus ae + 743 
Vicurer, C., & H. pz Lacaze-Durutrrs—New Type of Wniieess - 745 
Miines Marsa, A., & G. H. Fowner—‘ Porcupine’ Pennatulida .. 745 
Korotnerr, A. pE—Development of Hydride «1 su ue ne we we, Part 6 963 


Kocnu, G. v.—Flabellum .. .. 5 963 
Hickson, 8. J.—Sexual Cells and ie i Stage in Development of llenon a 

plicata on. 0 50 6 a0 A - co. » 964 
Havppoy, A. C. sr eal Actinis ee on SEAEE serie. do koe. foo of 965 
Fiscuer, P.—Scyphistomata of Bonespedote WORE 55 0 cen ale, aise 965 
Hertwic, R.—Supplementary Report on ‘ Challenger iceaarn ia 3 965 

Porifera. 

Sotzas, W. J.—Sponges .. .. 3 eis Ea eel bar) ee” ne darted 
Epsner, V. v.—Skeleton of ealeineous Saenges Hon edo} oo & oso. | og} op 63 
Tae IN IME SURGE OF (HPATRIDER, G5) 166 “95 “6G 0p ob 9 so Gp 63 
Ports, E.—Fresh-water Sponges .. Ate y ow ato. cp 63 
Firpier, K.—Development of ononttia Pr acs. m Spongilla 66s om. Oo op 64 
TorseNntT, E.—So-called Peripheral Prolongations of Clione.. .. .. .. Part 2 239 
THomson, J. ARTHUR—Structure of Suberites 1. 12 « oo oF of 45 239 


Denpy, A.—Comparative Anatomy of Sponges .. +s oe oe oe «+ Part 4 594 
MacMunn, C. A.—Chromatology of Sponges... .. . s+ co «+ 8 495 595 


ToprsEntT, E.—Gemmules of Silicispongiz ee ce ope chee soy nto «Ge 596 
IGieiy, 1H, Chole co. ao. ba <00. Om dO 60 ne MES 596 
Wetner, M.—Survival of Sponge after Development of Sear Tate GEA no op 596 


Riwtey, 8. O., A. Denpy, & F. E. Scnutze—‘ Challenger’ Sponges... .. 55 597 
Nott, F. Cm atural History of Siliceous Sponges ..  .» « « « Part d 745 


Scuuuzp, F. E.—‘ Challenger’ Heaactinellida . oa 6 ” T47 
WiERZmISKi cAG——Hyresh-wateniSMONGeS fs) sl sel eee ee ei ss) 748 
Hinpz, G. J.—New Species of Uruguaya ue we | Os 748 
Bet, F. J.—WNote on the Large Size of the Spices of Acie or Wisitans .. Part 6 921 
Nassonorr—Boring Clionids » 6a 
Fiepier, K.—Vormation of Ova and SperTatieea in Sonqilla Huabitis =p 966 


Priest, B. W.—Remarkable Spicules from the Oamaru Deposit .. .. « 967 


Protozoa. 
GuLutver, G.—Note on the Minute Structure of Pelomyxa palustris .. .. Part 1 11 
Mavupas, E.—Conjugation of Paramzcium .. 1. 2s ae oe oe weg 65 
Stones, A. C.—WNew Fresh-water Infusoria .. 2 66 40 oe wees 65 
Neumayr, M.—Relationships of Foraminifera Soine GOmie GRNENAOm, Gd) s-G0k ch 66 
ScuewiaKorr, W.—Karyokinesis of EHuglypha «ss uu we weg 66 
Kinsrier, J.—Diplocystis Schneideri .. 2. 26 au ne oe wwe 68 


Greenwoop, M.—Digestion in Khizopods wees sar ak se aa on Baripeecn 
Grassi, B.—Protozoa Parasitic in Man.. : gee ee Pa 
VAGHARTAS; O:—Psorospermium sacckelis Va. fie a Sos bs ses 5p 240 
Dawson, J. W.—Lozoon Canadense 
Burrows, H. W., C. D. SHerzorn, & Rev. G. Bane ae horaratiaferd 
of the Red Chalk .. oe joe al? Glas ie arhoeess 
Mostvs, K.—Direct Division of Nae in apioies one ae hn Ree 
Anperson, H. H.—WNew Parasitic Infusoria .. 4. 11 ae ue we eg 436 
Danay, E. v.—Wonograph of Tintinnodew .. .. 


CONTENTS. 
Scntirr, F.—Spore-formation of Peridinee® .. 1. 1s as 
Harcke., E.—Radiolaria ma 866. MO “aes AGO Ioo! MACHR aan icSrere 
KounstLer, J— New Foraminifer .. oe 
Carter, H. J.— Nature of Opaque Scarlet Splenutes Fear in many Fossilized 
Foraminifera... 5G 00) | 200 Gat soe Be oo we 
Norrine, C.C.—New Boece of Aeintta poly Ase", “bec ¥ob AGGtl wholestar 


Prrroncito, E.—Lncystation of Megastoma itesiinale ae 

Howcaty, Rev. W.— Additions to the Knowledge of the Car Den ferous ere a= 
MUN CRC ma CEAOLESMV LEE SORA EAG)\ wee eens ele be es 

Birsowy’s (O.) Protozoa ods 08) = #00 dos’ Show ae 

Grouper, A.—Multinucleate Infusoria 

Mostus, K.—/olliculina ampulla .. .. 

Stoxes, A. C.—Fresh-water Infusoria of the United seas 

, Buanc, H.—New Foraminifera SY core st 

Wierzevski, A.—Psorospermium Haeckelii 

Grasst, B., & W. Scurwraxorr—WMegastoma ian 

Brapy, H. B.—Note on the Reproductive Condition of Orbitolites pate 
var, Laciniata. (Plate X.) .. : 

Stokes, A. C.—WNotices of New paneer ia Flac pela fr om Aner ican Fresh 
Waters. (Plate XT.) 5 Se S66 gb. 6 

Kunstuer, J.—Vesicular Elements of Provepiasins im rr beeen 

Meissner, M.—Physiology of Nutrition in Protozoa 

Brouyne, C. ppe—Nature of Contractile Vacuole 

Grouper, A.—Further Observations on Multinuclear ene a] 

Fasre-DomERGUE—Rescarches on Ciliated Infusoria .. 

Maupas, E.—Conjugation of Vorticellidew .. .. .. 

Fasre-DoMEeRGUE—Structure of Urceolariz .. 

FanKuAtseR, J.—Luglena 

DANGEARD, P, A.—Cry Paton tate Bp wis 

GourretT, P., & P. Rorser—-Protozoa of Corsica.. 

VeERWoRN, M.—Biological Studies on Protista a ot 

GRUBER; AV—Wew Rhizopous’ s,s. a) se ee ces as 

Carter, H. J.— Observations on Parkeria 30°! to, “Bo Sods. Se 

Suerporn’s (C. D.) Bibliography of the For re So. 60) DO. 00. on 

Bitscwx1, O.—Phylogeny of Protozoa .. 1. 1. oe ae 

GRUBER SAL——NoresionProtoz0G tse ss) Ge. cele) Uke sail. ree dee os 

RuvumeBier, L.— Various Sain and Developmental History of 
(Gol podacn esate ag ol 6G a0 “Ape sor co’ !a 

Cuark, J.—Ciliary Mosayientis Sp Opie enh na Ey) Sse bon SaGaee 

CatTaneo, G.—WNew Parasitic Ciliated apenas 

Masxei, W. M.—Fresh-water Infusoria iu Wellington Distr ae es Zea- 
land... «. Oo Ho ool a6 C0! 0) “con 80)" So wo 

Garcty, A. G-Smuglena oc ate nate Meee ie 

Brvuyne, C. pe—New Monad, Endobiella Bambehit ee 

BLANCHARD It: —Monas-Dunalit a ae se se) Geek Geet ee we 

EZIATT OL —A SCLILGOLGRGNGIALG ae) sie) oe) os) ee) ere cle Tele) ele 

5 tn  esleneaiotes og ooh ea’ ao aa 0 900 a0 oe 

Grassi, B.—Parasitic Protozoa .. .. 

Scuuserc, A.—Protozoa found in the Bromacl of Gamat 

BEpDDARD, F. E.— New Gregarine .. 1. «. 06 wea 


Part 4 


Part 5 


. Part 6 


” 


XX CONTENTS. 


BOTANY. 
A.—GenerAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology of the Phanerogamia. 
o. Anatomy: 


(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. 


PAGR 
ZACHARIAS, E.—Part taken by the Nucleus in Cell-division .. s+ ++ ve Part I 69 
Kuess, G.—Albumen in the Cell-wall .. ae ae 69 


Picut, P.—Thickening of the Cell-wall in the Baie stalk “of ue Ente wai) ia ~ 70 
Moors, 8. Le M.—Jnfluence of Light upon Protoplasmic Movement .. .. Part 2 242 
Went, F. A. F. C.—WNuclear and Cell-division 4. 1 ae oe ewe 243 
Wicanp, A.—Crystal-plastids.. .. «2 «ow - ny inh ory oo. do «(p 243 
Boxorny, T.—Separation of Silver by active Tigres AD on ge oO OG, oy 244 
Decaeny, C.—Nuclear Origin of Hyaloplasm see es ‘iiss elev anit). velo Remmeten 


Haustep, B. D.— Three Nuclei in Pollen-grains 1. «1 oe Co tf 440 
Zacuartias, E., & G. BertHoLp—Nuclear and Cell-division .. + 440 
Krapsse, G.—Structure and Growth of the Cell-wall .. Ae cy 441 
Nout, F.—Growth of the Cell-wall . vedas 442 


ZIMMERMANN, A.—Worphology and een of the Cell Soe end apdykon. sp 442 
SraspurGER, E.—Division of the Nucleus, Cell-division, and Impr ato Part 4 600 
Korscue.t, E.—FRelation between the Function and Position of the Nucleus.. 4, 601 
JAnsE, J. M.—Permeability of Protoplasm ..  «. ss 601 
Fiscuer, A., J. WIESNER, & F. Cc ulnar copa of Celt-wall 9 602 
AMBRONN, FOP ecin omism of coloured Cell-walls .. .. «ss «6 of 145 602 
Boxorny, T.— Action of basic substances on living Protoplam .. .. .« Part 5 758 
IRRERA, L.—Forms of Celis... s «5 «1 2 8 08 c8 «eo ce 499 758 
Kurss, G.—Physiology of the Cell .. 6 2 oF o8 «ss 8 6 «8 9 758 
Wie.er, A.—Plasmolysis in Flowering Plants... « 759 
STRASBURGER, E., & ZACHARIAS, E.— Division of the Watts i of the Cell Part 6 978 
FrommMann, C.—Properties and Changes of the Membrane, Protoplasm, and 

Nucleus of Plant-cells .. .«. . of pO SO Sp 980 
Went, F. A. T. C.—Jncrease of Normal Waeioles tb Divtion ato ty 981 
Wisner, J.—Albumen in the Cell-wall .. 04 se «6 06 oF «6 cs 499 982 


(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions). 
Beuzune, E., & F. W. Scutmper—Starch- and Chlorophyll-grains ,. .. Part1 70 


TscuircH, R.— Quantitative estimation of Chlorophyll .. 1. os «8 «+ 4 71 
Beuvct, G.—Formation of Starch in the EET née 980 oe | t5 Tl 
Fick, R.—Inosite .. . « Are me oor bce Ecos Mooe kop) Md 72 
ScuNETZLER, J. B.— Tannin in learns: spines SON OGe CO OU Pade © ip 72 
Barpacuia, G. A.—Chemical substances contained in the Box An) hte 72 
TscutrcH, A.—Aleurone-grains in the Seed of Myristica surinamensis.. .. 95 72 
Moors, 8. Le M.—Zpidermal Chlorophyll ad Part 2 245 


Cucini, G.—Fluorescence of Chlorophyll... .. ss» 6 06 6 «6 99 245 
Maccuratt, L.—Preparation of Pure Chlorophyll... 1. «2 se ae ee 245 


Loew, O., & T. Boxorny—Presence of active Albumin in the Colaap 9 246 
Zorr, W.—Fibrosin, a new Cell-content .. .« « «2 «ce «6 «2 «© 9 246 
Mouiscu, H.—Secretion from the Roots ..  .. 5 5 246 


PALADIN, W.—Vormation of Organic Acids in the ete a of Pints op 247 

JoHANNSEN— Localization of Emulsinin Almonds... .. «2 «6 of +» 49 247 

WakkeER, J. H.—Formation of mica sts der fos. be) eu baniioeeae 
ie 5 TNGROOLASE- 57a) «tee @icePe ati, ade) eek) Sot” Ser, ee 

Mrkoscu, K.—Structure of Starch-grains .. .. «1 06 00 ee oe 

HriH0vse, W.—Function of Tannin .. aoe come ty 444 

Scuimper, A. F. W.—Formation of Oxalate a Tae in Aine =o 


CONTENTS. 
Wakxrrr, J. H.—Crystals of Calcium oxalate 90. Sop 69 “bo too, oo Jef inna: 
KIsELEN, J.—Position and Number of Raphides .. «ss. on os ae gg 
HORNBERGER, R.—Spring-sap in the Birch and Hornbeam 4... 41 oe 45 
IBAGCARINI, P:—Spherocrystals 6. ss cs 06 «o ee . Part 4 
Tassi, F.—WNectar of Rhododendron... .. «6 «se oF 8 oo yf 
Wacener, E.—Tannin in the Crassulacexr 0? ROO AOD SOON NOU SIC DANMET CS Later 
Minrz, A.—Occurrence of the Elements of Sugar of Milk in Plants .. .. 4 
Tscuirce, A.— Development of some Secretions and their Receptacles .. .. 4 
Micuaup, G.—Alkaloid and Sugar in Cyclamen .. «6s 4 00 ae Part 5 
Hecke1, E., & F. SCHLAGDENHAUFFEN—Laticiferous product of Mimusops 
(hse! THONG “oa! GB 00 OD oe slepeaMefys «Melee Seley. evs p 
Aoton, E. H.— Formation of Sugars in the Sepist, Glands of Narcissus .. 45 
Tscurrcu, A.—Contents of the Cells of the Aril of the Nutmeg .. ss «6 4 
BERTHELOT, & G. ANDRE—Phosphorus and Phosphoric Acid in Plants .. 4, 
RENDLE, A. B.—Development of Aleurone-grains in the Lupin .. .. .«. Part6 
3 . Occurrence of Starch in the Onion 1. 22 oe oe ” 
Bexuvccr, G.—Formation of Starch in the Ohleronhyteageastes a9 Oo woo 
Scnuuz, E.—Reserve-substances in Evergreen Leaves .. «1 «6 0s 08 459 
Fiscuer, A.—Glucose as a Reserve-material in Woody Plants .. .. .. 45 
Lunpstrom, A. N —Colourless Oil-plastids in Potamogeton SG 8 Gos Sao°, np 
HOune,, FB’. v.—Substance of which Gum-arabic is formed .. 10 oe ae 5g 
Moe.ver, H.— Tannin and its connection with Metastasis .. .. 5 
(3) Structure of Tissues. 
Catvert, Acnes, & L. A. Boopte—Laticiferous System of Manihot and 
CUCL Paceenis ence Roser cee ee wom ee as Gel eeas Ga eR Artel 
HeErricuer, E.—Tubular Cells of the Fumariacez  .. 2. ov ae Fr 
TrecHem, P. van—Super-endodermal Network in the Root of the Cupre i- 
JOLLUEE B5° oo 0b 6 bom co coy, 6b Ge) Wado 54 5 
DANGEARD, P. A., & Panne ae angpment of the Fibro-vascular Bundles 
in Pinguicula ., 2. oe «» JO. "a0" 160. “06 6 
Petit, L.— Distribution of Fibr mee Buniiles in the Petiole. a0 = 
Laux, W.— Vascular Bundles in the Rhizome of Monocotyledons .. 06 60 gp 
JANNICKE, W.— Comparative Anatomy of Geraniacex .. 65 0a OO A“ 
Greece, W. H.—Anomalous Thickening in the Roots of Cras a0 50 dO RD 
Krasse, G.—Formation of Annual Rings in Wood Sea al BAP mmr; oy 
GrReEvILLIvs, A. Y.—Wechanical system of Pendent Organs.. .. 
Lourer, O.— Comparative Anatomy of Roots so ba og 08 ae 
Immicu, E.— Development of Stomata .. . .6 «es «oo «es é Part 2 
Praiit, E.—Protecting-wood and Duramen .. 4. 5. on oe newegg 
Krasser, F.—Split Xylem in Clematis ..  .. . ao. ¢ O6e 0 YO! gh 
ScHONLAND, S.—Apical meristem of the Roots of Pontetortnceie Ne 3 
Bovucer, G. 8.—Lndosperm .. oe At Part 3 
Mer, E.—Formation of the Duramen ., .. 4 00. 6e " 
SavuvaGEAv, C.—Diaphragms in the Air-canals of the Root 50 00 a 
TRIEBEL—Oil-passages in the Roots of Composite ..  .. + vs 0 & 
LrecomtTr, H.—Effects produced by the Annular Decortication of Trees. 55 eee 
SoLEREDER—Systematic value of the Perforation in the Walls of Vessels FA 
Putt, C.—Anatomy of the Leaf-stalk .. .. 1s se 0s 06 os 08 yg 
Manern, L.— Permeability of the Epidermis of Leaves to Gases .. 4. «2 4 
Vesqut, J.—Lpidermal Reservoirs for Water Ps GRC ich eae NS el WAT Tad 
HiLpEBRANDT, H.—Comparative Anatomy of Ambrosiacex and Senecioidese 3 
JUEL, O.— Anatomy of Marcgraviacew .. 1. 10 «se ov os oo we 
Lesxois, A.—Secretory Canals and Secretory Reservoirs xa Part 4 


Xxl 


PAGE 
445 
445 


72 
73 


73 


247 
248 
248 
248 
446 
446 
447 
sti 
447 
447 
448 
448 
448 
449 
449 
604 


EXli CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
MiLier, C.—Secreting Canals of Umbellifere and Araliacex contained in the 
Phloem ..  «. - « Part 4 605 
Scnarer, R. P. C ES iilience of ae Trg y of the Epider nal “Cells on the 
SOMES oo G0 59 0 +, 605 
Wiiiamson, W. C. saa eire Cells in we iniers ior of the Tissue oF Fosait 
JET on or Bo: STA ste hae’ tee ete mee 605 
Dovtior, H.—Periderm of ie, aannnoee Soe tere ale 606 
AverrTa, C.—Anomalies in the Structure of the Roots Hf Dicot, yle rae #5 666 
Dumont, A.— Comparative ase of Malvacex, Bombacex, Tiliaceex, and 
Sterculiace® .. «. a ee fs 606 
TRIEBEL, R.—Oil-receptacles in Se Sreacte of Gonpiste 2) Fo 1* eee oon ATtOMOO 
DouLior, H.—Hormation of Periderm) ‘es. oe 22 ee tee) ce ee gs 761 
Pra, E.—Protecting-wood and Duramen .. «. Saou, ce 76% 
Mer, E.—Causes which produce Eccentricity in the Pith in Pines Me = 761 
» »  Lnfluence of Exposure on the Formation of the Annual Ringen in 
the Savim.. © .. AGE Wee COL MCOL aR Nota cok MCAD) mon re 762 
Comrs, O.—WMal nero of the Vie 6G 0D. ao» ‘dt 0m ~ ad, a0 55 762 


Lignier, O.—Importance of the Foliar Fibrovascular ye mm We ge table 

AVM en | Ga. oD oe bon os se? pee | oe. URartiGmoee 
WISSELINGH, C. VAN— Wall of Sablndils Cells ae akico Mest OM settee cf Nets a 985 
PETERSEN, O. G.—Reticulations in Vessels 3. =. «« «6 ss so of 959 986 


DanGEArD, P. A.—Secretory Canals of Araucaria - 986 
Tirguem, P. van—Super-endodermal Network of the Root of Leuninose 

and Ericacee.. . BS 986 

op cs & Morar. ane cpilermal iNeteoEE of ie Rs sot of : 

Geraniacee .. .. : 40 cog eas 986 

Pe 3 Eupeorong, Wetork. in the Cores of the ‘Root oc Sa. 986 

Haoderm of the Root of Restiace® .. .. .. ss «6 455 987 

Doura07, H.—Periderm of Rosacex ae ae a 6 . 987 
TrecHem, P. van, & H. Dovutior— Plants sphich one ‘tial. Roailets without 

a Pocket . Ho 00 cc a 987 


DANGEARD, P. ess Obseroations on Pouca eum peed gabe Mucis | Nee. 4 ct, Mees 987 
59 Anatomy of the Salsolex.. co oO Go BH & 988 
Moxrsou, on SUE a me Coe Roe ROLE TON oct. Moe mee eae! eteoe | Ss 988 


(4) Structure of Organs. 
Jost, L.—Respiratory Organs... sc. ss 0» «20 e« 00 « ce ws Partl 76 


SGHIRGH- PA: —— Ong ays Oia SECHCHON soe misa) | Mes) em cte nae? Nesta) i /s|s0 sje ice ns 77 
ScuEencK, H.—Anatomy of Water-plants Ae rors atic MOON | Soe at 77 
TS orspeGon (6h, Ip! brea ra ROMS Uy COTES Go, OB 00 co cd oa oo mn. 78 
Focksr, W. O.—Dichotypy ari altos 60, 150 Al Gita Day Goat Pay 78 
Dietz, S.—Flowers and Fruit of Sainaanin ae Typha Sinn a pee 78 
Warp, H. MarsHat, & J. Duntop—Fruits and Seeds of Rhamnus ..  .. yy 78 
Lunpstr6m, A. N.—Masked Fruits - 79 
CouttrEr, J. M., & J. N. Romak Detebonment of the Fr uit ef Uinblifere. ;: 79 
Kern, O.—Azwis of the Inflorescence .. . 50% 0 5 79 
Hove iacque, M.—Development and Structure of Or angie im a young eg Je, 

and of its Suckers .... PAT tae m 80 
GRANEL— Origin of the Suckers in Pia ogamous pe ies Sau 00h = en 80 
TiecHEem, P. van—Arrangement of Secondary Roots and Buds on Boots bse Ss 80 
VUILLEMIN, P.—EZpidermal Glands.. 2. s0 se 08 00 20! ae wey 81 
Buake, J. H.—Prickle-pores of Victoria regia aC au) Mee: (Eco une 8 
Bower, F. O.—WMorphological Peculiarity es Cord, te iiatralis as Be 8I 
Heimert, A.—Nyctagince ..  .. nie Gee st Hominy icles ches * 82 


XXill 


CONTENTS. 
SoRAvER, P.—Root-tubers and Bacteria .. .. ss 6 «8 oe os « Partl 
Prrottra, R.—Lndosperm of Gelsominex (Jasmine®) ..  . A Pro. Hae ele any 
Martort#, R., & G. VoLKENs—Salt-excreting Glands of Tomesis iscinese Pe 
Kocs, L.—Organs for the absorption of vegetable food-material by plants con- 
taining chlorophyll.. .. .«. sb © od tp 
SasLon, Lecterc pu—Haustoria of the Rhingnthes hee Sent Wee ys oF 
TreeHEM, P. vaN—Structure of the root and arrangement of the rootlets in 
Centrolepidex, Eriocaulex, Juncee, Mayacexr, and Xyridex a Fr 
3 Geminate Root-hairs .. . . ” 
Marrtoto, O., & L. BuscaLtion1i—oot-tubercles of eave 5 
Warp, H. MARSHALL— Tubercular Swellings on the Roots of Vicia Faba 
Baupini, T. A.—Lmergencies on the Roots of Podocarpus .. ..  «. cf 
Cotoms, G.—Stipules nO MOO “NOOR. ROCMMECDU ED OOR GGretOs: > RCC ane 3 
Druz, .—Vernation of Leaves %, as, ss: wes. eer, we (ee se oe, ae | 99 
KRonFeELD, M.— Double Leaves bs Boe “aio 0) cosa Beep 
Lacumann—Pitcher-like Leaflets of Seapnyted ‘pinata: do, 00) 00-66. an 
barrett. — Chinging Plants ser ese * 36) Sow coe) fem ve, cel oe. “eePme gy 
Krasser, F.—AHeterophylly .... oe pyen oo yee Ost Mico Meader Corn 
Ss Colours oft Leaves aud Prints. wey corte Rome Uacumet-leemiace 55 
BrrcHe, K.—Anatomy of the Floral Axis... 4 an 5 on oe oes gy 
HeEnstow, G.—Comparative Anatomy of Flowers 1... 06 we as 
Derino, F.—Floral Nectary of Symphoricarpus .. Sc po, Migat” Sop. Mes 
OEMS Ach miiinOf -DOrrAgunee <a eel oy sof) (os, Evel aa cate cos 
Starr, O.—Laplosive Fruits of Alstremeria.. .. .. « on 
ScuRenk, J.— Vegetative Organs of Brasenia peltata .. .. 1. « « Part3 
Tuseur, C. v.—Vormation of Roots in Loranthacezx ‘ 55 
LECLERC DU SABLON—Root-hairs of the Rhinanthee ..  .. 1s ss ee 95 
Lunpsrrom, A. N.—Mycodomatia in the Roots of Papilionacee .. .. «ey 
Bruck, T.—Norphology of Underground Stems .. 1. 1. se oe te » 
Fuot, L.—Aerial Stems .... do AO: sont. 
Pree e Ine Ancltcry ap Aunmady Reduces wide Tifira estes ate i 
Dacuition, A.—Structure of the Leaves of certain of the Coniferee x 
ScouMAnnN, K.—Comparative Morphology of the Flower... 4. ” 
Keir, R.—Size and Colour of Alpine Flowers .. 1. 1s an oe ow 1g 
Haustepd, B. D.—Trigger-hairs of the Thistle-flowers ..  .. ss as 5 
IBAILLON; E.—Ovulesiof -Plantago .. 3. <0 as oo 68 os “os cp 
PrEnzic, O.—Anatomy and Diseases of Aurantiacee  ..  .. suse an 
GReEINERT, M.—WMorphology and Anatomy of Loasacezx 60, BO Go aa 
Crepin, F.— Polymorphism attributed to certain generic groups ..  .. ss 55 
Lierav, M.—Roots of Aracee.. .. Bo bo G0. co. ado u cool podem! 
Tave., F. v.—WMechanical Pr ofection of Bulbs SDE aD wooly Col entiation ty 
Scorr, D. H.—Floating-roots of Sesbania aculeata 65 Be Soe ec: op 
Tiscuem, P, van, & P. Picu1—Tubercles on the Roots of Tetnahoss Been 
Kuavscu, P.—Leaves of Bupleurum oo. oO AG G0. BN. op 
Moszius, M.—Anatomical Structure of the ire of Or eden cn 
Noack, F.—Injfluence of Climate on the Cuticularization and Thickening of 
Ce IEE Of SUT08 CUUGEE 66-66. 6h Ob 6h 05 46 sn. ce a 
BEAUVISAGE——Dracts of Cruciferae)... cs. ce ‘css seh da eee) San ose 5) 
Scuu.tz, O.—Physiological Anatomy of Stipules Bee Oba oe! Wn e VINO, Inpe her 
DaNnGEARD, P, A.—Foliar Sheath of the Salicornieew .. .. sos oe 
Went, F.—Himbryo-sac of Rosacc®.. 6s on ne, enw os es yes 
Perit, L.—Petiole of Dicotyledons ., .. G0 JOO ip lint, ep etdun a0 
Manin, L.— Development of Flowers in the ae ow EDD OO, Dos Ba way 
Scuumann, K.—Morphology of the Flowers of Gatina ele eleva oles Sein, vos yess 


PAGE 
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251 
251 
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253 
253 
253 
254 
254 
255 
255 
255 
255 
449 
450 
450 
450 
450 
451 
451 
451 
451 
452 
452 
452 
453 
453 
453 
607 
607 
607 
608 
608 
608 


608 
609 
609 
609 
610 
610 
610 
611 


XX1V CONTENTS. 


CuHopat, R.— Diagram of the Flower of ge 
Batuion, H.—Ovules of Grasses .. «2 ee new 
Ba rovr, I. B.—Replum in Crucifere® .. 1. . 
Ganon, A. G.—Fruit of Solanacew «1 aes 


Dryever, H.—Wotion of rotating Winged Fruits and eats 
Borzi, A.—Formation of Lateral Roots in Morechiyiedones 


Maney, speaoaeeiy of the Eprdermis of Leaves for Gases .. 


SouaErer, R.—Jnfluence of the Turgidity of the say Cells on tie 


Stomata .5 5° Sb) COL 60 oo . oO 
Mirrmann, R.—Anatomy of ns c6 DG 00 
Hovenacgur, M.—Propagula of Pinguicula.. .. «. 
Prirzer, E.— Flower of Orchide .. . « 
CALLONI, S.—Ovules of Rumez oun we wee 
Hyrano, K.—Seeds of Pharbitis triloba.. .. 
Huinricuer, E.—Structure of Impatiens .. .«. 
DENNERT, E.— Anatomy of Nelumbium .. 4. oe wt 
DucHartrRe, P.—Rooting of the Albumen of Cycas 
TRELEASE, W.—Subterranecan Shoots of Oxalis .. 
GortTsE, R.—Torsion of Stems «we we 
LoTHELIER, A.—Spines of certain Planis  ., 0. we 
Frist, A.—Protection of Buds... 56 
Jost, L.—Development of the Flowers of the Mistletoe ; 
JOHNSON, T.—Arceuthobium .. 1s os ana 
JUMELLE, H.—Seeds with Two Tataguments nb! 0% “40 
Bessey, C. E.—Overlooked Function of many Fruits 


Ouiver, F. W.—Trapella, Oliv., a new Genus of Pedalinex.. 


8. Physiology. 


(1) Reproduction and Germination. 


Rosertson, O.—Jnsect relations of Asclepiadew .. .. 
MacLeop, J.—Fertilization of Flowers .. .. «6 es 
ARCANGELI, G.—Flowering of Euryale ferox de as 
Nicotra, L.—Pollination of Serapias .. 1. oe os 
Roze, E.—Pollination in Zannichellia palustris .... 
Nosse, F.—Production of Sex and phenomena of Crossing 
JorpaNn, K. F.—Pahysiological Urganography of Flowers 
Roure, R. A.—Bigeneric Orchid Hybrids .. .. . 
GeEHRKE, O.—Germination of Palms... ws ws 
Burcx, W.—Zeterostylism and Self-fertilization .. 
Rogerson, C.— Fertilization of Calopogon parviflorus .. 
Linpmann, C.—Pollination of Alpine Plants Ab 
Magnus, P.—Pollination of Silene inflata 


ee 


Scuuuz, A.—Pollination and Distributian of the Saal Or eI ae 


Bateson, ANNA—L fect of Cross-fertilization on Inconspicuous Fours 


JANCZEWSKI, EH. DE—Germination of Anemone apenina 
HItDEBRAND, F.—Germination of Oxalis rubella ..  .. 
MU.uer, F.—Germination of the Bicuiba 


oo 


oe 


GreEn, J. R—Germination of the Tuber of the an ence ie 


Heceimairr, F.—formation of Endosperm in Dicotyledons .. 


Marinaun, A. K. v.—Fertilization of Euphrasia.. .. 


DammeEr, U.—Adaptation of the Flowers of Eremurus Fi: vicus to Ue oss 


fertilization 1.2 of ss «os « or ae He 
Lewin, M.—Germination of Wohbcniiedons bo Cr 
Menozzi1, A.—Chcmistry of Germination id mee a wes 


. Part 4 


Part 5 


» 


PA 


611 
611 


CONTENTS. XXV 


PAGE 
Forrste, A. G.—Cross-fertilization .. 5) co Go. oo co Jenn (3- CRE: 
Ri ey, H. N.—Self-fertitization and Glsigeney: AOOTAIES 05 65 gas 994 
Maenvs, P.—Self-pollination of Spergularia salina... 4u este ey 994 
Veircu, H. J.—Fertilization of Cattleya labiata .. 41 uu ewe 994 


(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Movements of Fluids). 


Masser, G.—Growth and Origin of Multicellular Plants .. .. «  « Partl 83 
Dorowr, L.—/nfluence of Light on the Form and Structure of Leaves... ,, 84 
DANGEARD, P. A.—/mportance of the Mode of Nutrition as a means of 

Distinction between Animals and Vegetables .. .. «. « « » Part2 257 
Uauirzscu, P. G.—Growth of the Leaf-stalk Che CON 600) pb) 0D pb | eh 258 
Bower, F. O.—WModes of Climbing in the Genus Calamus 4. 6s se wey 258 
Krevster, U.—Assimilation and Respiration of Plants Ag 00. cd. 00) ae 258 
Wiesner, J.—IJnfluence of Atmospheric Movement on Transpiration ..  ». 4, 209 
BurGerste, A.—Literature of Transpiration 12 se «» 8 «oF 0 49 259 
DetmeEr, W.—Physiological Oxidation in the Protoplasm .. . « «+ Part3 454 


Huerrret, F.— Assimilation in Plants destitute of Chlorophyll wae tae see es 455 
CuRAvPowlTzKk1—Synthesis of Albuminoids .. .. ley ais im 455 
RopEewaD, H.—felation between the Heat and the Catone Acid see off 

by Plants in Respiration ne oe Seah Nes sah Mute css 455 
SonntaG, P.—Duration of the Apical Gr aaah of the Leaf. cope Usnunsiet gs 455 


Nou, F.—J/njluence of External Forces on the Form of Piends Oa to. oO 456 
HeEnsLow, G.—Transpiration as a Function of Living Protoplasm ..  . 45 456 
ARCANGELI, G.—Injluence of Light on the Growth of Leaves .. « . Part4 614 
LirgscHer, G.—Supply of Food Constituents at at he Periods of the 

GmouthiOjn LlGntS =ise =e) fics ee ve ic oi eidy Moat enki Meee 55 614 
Krevster, U.—Assimilation and Expiration of Pianiee Sa ese sen art OmU TOS 
HILDEBRAND, F.—Production of Vegetative See Fertile Shoots of 

Opuntia .. sat nor Od: bo, sao oo 768 
Huncer, E. H.— Vi ee Ponts and yess co. or ode 6a do & 768 
Wirter, A.—Conduction of Sap through the Secondary Wood .. .. « 4 768 


AUEAND—=Derclopiment Of WHCGl a) es) ice "es: gi es rene Yast auteel sy 769 
CxiarkeE, C. B.—Root-pressure cho whe Sa Pate ae eed Doel axel, artes ss 769 
Etyine, F.—Curvature of Plants .. .. a dd. BC 769 


“ pEonEs A. B., & Mrs. cones rien: of eran Rays of the 
Solar Sopa on Root-absorption and on the Growth of Plants So gp 769 


HELRIEGEL, & WILLFARTH— Absorption of Nitrogen by Plants .. .. .» 45 770 
MeEnze, O.—Daily Assimilation of Carbohydrates .. ..  .. «» « «» Part6 994 
Dervaux—dction of Light on Roots grown in Water .. ” 995 


Vocutine, H.—Injluence of Radiant Heat on the Denial of the Flower ‘9 995 


(8) Irritability. 


WorrMann, J.—Movements of Irritation .. 05) h6- spn go <0 det ZED) 
Meenan, T.—ZJrritability of the Stamens of smenneaene ae po Go! tO 261 
GARDINER, W.—Contractility of the Protoplasm of certain Cells .. .. .. Part 3 457 
Vines, S. H.— Movement of Leaf of Mimosa pudica .. 1. ue we weg 457 


SAPOSHNIKOFF, W.—Geotropism ss 5 Boe sie ae 458 
GARDINER, W.—Power of Contractility peioieal by ee Prati of certain 
Cells SOME oc eMel al sca pisstagroe. ects Musee oy 00 po detydh ee (HIE! 


WortTMAnn, J.—Movements of Irritation of Multticeltular ins Sb 615 
Gop.ewskKI, E.—Zrritability of Growing Parts of Plants .. 1. ss 4 615 
Outver, F, W.—Sensitive Labellum of Masdevallia muscosa Hitmen HG 616 
Bateson, A., & F. Darnwin—Wethod of Studying Geotropism ..  ..  « Part 5 770 


XXVi CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Prerrer, W., & J. Massart—Chemotactic Movements of Bacteria, Flagellata, 


and Poewuee Guy EN nO erro) 7/7 
Sanperson, J. Burpon.—Electromotive Pr ies ue the ine of Dionwa.. Part 6 995 
Du ESTED P.—Case of Abolition of Geotropism .. 6 «+ «6 «+ oF 14 996 
Moors, 8. Le M.—Studies in Vegetable Biology ..  «. 3 996 


(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 


Mayer, A.—Lvhalation of Oxygen bs ae -leaved Plants in absence of 

Carbonic Anhydride 50 ce unos | eee eo 2 toe atime 
Boerum, J.—Respiration of the Potato bo. 8 nn 85 
Weumer, C., & O. Lonw—Action of Formose on Cells a stitute of Siac os 85 
Lawss, J. B., & J. H. Ginpert—Sources of Nitrogen of Vegetation .. .. Part 2 261 


Frank, B.—Formatwn of Nitric Acid in Plants .. .. Part 4 616 
RopEwaup, H.—Changes of Substance and Force connected ee re ee Part 5 771 
Boxorny, T.—Formation of Starch from various substances dp ont co. qi 
Hansen, A.—Function of the Colouring Matter of Chlorophyll .. .. .. Part 6 997 
FANKHAUSER, J.—Diastase .. . Soe Occ eo O97 
Situ, J.—Substance containing Galpin in Cr eer leignes be + 997, 
y. General. 
Koon b— Biology of Orobanche \.. \. 2n <2 (26 se cae) oe we, ete 
KronFeLp, M.—Biology of the Mistletoe Ae) Ae OO. BORE dee | ode pdbe 1 ch 86 
FRANK, B.—Root-symbiosis in the Ericacee .. .« «+ «+ «+ oF of 49 86 
Lunpstrom, A. N.—Domatia.. He 87 


* Myrmecophilous Plant bom ne od 0G. 87 
pave F. O.—Humboldtia laurifolia as a Myr eevee Plone Det rey. 88 
ReErINKE, J.—Oxidation-process in Plants after death .. .. «2 «+ « 9 88 


Krazan, F.—Retrogression in Oaks ty 88 
Outver, F. W.—Phenomenon analogous to Leaf fall ee ges 88 
Know ss, Erra L.— Curl” of Peach-leaves 3 Bo esoe ones och 89 
Asgort, H. C. pr 8.—Plant Analysis as an applied Sao biel coe Lats ts 89 
Bryerinck, M. W.—Cecidium of Nematus Caprew .. .. .. « « Part3 458 
Vouxkens’ (G.) Desert Flora .. . ca eel oe arta Ly 
DetMeEr’s (W.) Laboratory Course of Vequtalite Pidotagis. Ad ddl sa oF 617 
Vries, H. pe—Zsotonic Coefficient of Glycerin... 55 617 


Scummper, A. F. W.—Relationship between Ants and PL. ee in the Tass 3) «Part 5) 77Z 
Prinesnemm, N.—Deposition of Calcarcous Incrustations on Fresh-water 

LUT UAS= © Gen Db cooky AOL Pe OnaCOue BOR CCl OOM RE. ane ae poo cp 773 
BRENsTEIN, G.—Action of Ether on Plant-life .. «» «» 6 oF «8 49 Ts 
Trevs, M.—WVyrmecophilous Plants Bee oo ad) ac. oo © oo) wan) oo aetdn Oy Bile 
IDnenOy Diente orden JANES so oo S00 of 00 co co 50 998 
Scuumann, K.—New Myrmecophilous Plants selene % 998 


Bonnier, G.— Comparative Cultures of the same species at different alt. tudes = 999 
B.—CryYprToGaMIA. 
Arruur’s (J.C.) Report on Minnesota ..  .. gies | cena ebantvalla so 


Vaizey, J. R—Alternation of Generations in Pie pian sbi. oss wear mtoo 
Eccues, R. G.—Thallophytes in Medicinal Solutions .. .. 1 12 on gy 459 


Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


GorsEL, K.—Germination of Ferns he 0G) 60) we nam see doe agp letter iis ~&P) 
Lyon, F. M.—Dehiscence of the Sporangium uf Ferns as Did ale eee 90 
Gorset, K.—WHeterophyllous Ferns,, .. neat, MR AT LSS ee 90 


CONTENTS. XXVIl 


PAGE 
GorBEL, K.—Conversion of Fertile into Sterile Fronds .. .. .. .. «. “Part 2 261 
Bower, F. O.—Formation of Gemmezx in Trichomanes .. 6. 6. we weg 262 
Baker, J. G.—Lnterosora .. Mes UaMictEa ene ics! ser \\ve> cael 262 
Trevus, M.—Life-history of iaemadumn: CORO: SC tt MC oMBO Ces Ur fame 262 
Bucutien, O.—Prothallium of Equisetum  .. . Sse Reet sa use es 262 
Renavwt, B.—Leaves of Siyillaria and Reprtndendr OM geeenacis A so een vant eas 263 
Ktwnpie, J.—Development of the Sporangium of Polypodiacee .. .. .«. Part3 459 
M‘Nas, W. R.—Stomata and Ligules of Selaginella  .. 4, 11 ue we gy 460 
Bower, F. O.—Oophyte of Trichomanes.. .. a Os art 4 6L7 
CamrseE.LL, D. H.—Development of Gracies Siruhioptois, Hof. (Struthi- 
opteris germanica, Willd.) .. .. cetecea gOM rece net, eec 8 as 618 
Mourine, W.—Branching of the Frond of Tops Spiraea oe coc lines ets 619 
Brenze, W.— Leaves of Polypodiacee .. ECommerce aces aol i sce hese 619 


Daccomo, G.—Aspidol from Aspidium Filion STOH) 60° posctode So) wo 00 619 
LrciErc pu SasLon—Selaginella lepidophylla .. —4u nu nw wee gg 620 
Soutus-Lavsacn’s (H.) Introduction to Fossil Botany ..  .. +e we wey 620 


Wanes, S: H.—Systematic Position of Tsoctes... .. .« oo «6 oe ee Part 5 773 
VaizEy, J. R.—Derelopment of the Root of Equisetum.. .. ss «+ 08 5 773 
Lrcierc pu Saston—Antherozoids of Cheilanthes hirta .. .. .. .. Part 6 999 
BERGGREN, 8.—Apogamy in Notochlana 50 Sue oe oe 999 
Newcomen, F, C.—Dissemination of the Spores of uit Ses isthe 9 LOOO 
Muscinee. 
Varzry, J. R.—Transpiration of the Sporophore of Mosses .. .. .. « Partl 92 
Scuuize, H.— Vegetative reproduction of a Moss... oe oe oe we gy 91 
Watpner, M.—Sporogonium of Andreea and pica cb tage oem BL aa aliss 91 
MUiuuer, C.—WNew Sphagna .. as 91 
Livericut, K. G.—Rabenhorst’s ‘ Crate anne Fi flora of Coentge Hf > (Musci) - 91 
GoEBeEL, K.—Epiphytic Jungermannice .. A Mas, Jct? So. Boor. Sy 92 
Karsten, G.— Production of Gemmez by Ragateitae 50) 8c 35 92 
 Vazey, J. R.— Absorption of Water and its Relatwn to the Constination of 

the Oell-wall an Mosses) se. i 00 cel oe ee oo 06 wer § vn HAXt 2) 263 
Brereton Oy JOG Soc. oo) 60 G0 0G Go. 06 co. 263 
Sanrio, C.—Hybrid Mosses ae BA Gtr mnie pico eon ee Ae, Macy 264 
Massatonoo, C.— Distribution of Hepaies 50. BO ye 264 
Vaizry, J. R—Anatomy and Development of the Sporagnitm of ees .. Part 3 460 
Pritizpert—JInternal Peristome of Mosses .. 1. +1 00 «© «8 «8 4 461 
LrEcLEeRc pu SasLon—Antherozoords of ean, Sow eGom 50d Moon coe ea: 461 


IPHITIBERT———Leristome Of, MOSSES “tees (acl) os), sels eebapres) ayes) seh ae ath 41620 
iRussows, Hi——German Sphagnace@ ... joc 2 ss) wee) ee) gy 621 
ScHNETZLER, J. B.—Reproduction of Thamnium alopecurum Aa ao so Eta Gy 7/73 


Nou, F.—Protonem of Schistostega osmundacea.. .. Co co 774 
Russow, E.—Physiological and Comparative Anutomy 2 Beha anise. BO 00> ns Tiss 
R6LtL—Forms of Sphagnum 2. ae oe we PE Ce 208 (6) 
IBHIGIBERT——IeTIStOMens Jel Moers Venue eehy ee lel Ue 90. 00 ‘oC Part 6 1000 


Waupner, M.—Development of the Sporogonium of Andrexa pane Sphagnum ,, 1000 
MarrtroLo, O.—Hygroscopic Movements of the Thallus of Marchantiee .. 4, 1001 


Characee. 


ALLEN, T, F.—WNew Species of Characez i sn Maee ee se tee ot DARL I. oie 

- ‘s American Characez don so! So sc 0d oo og om eG) CURT 
INORDSTEDIN O:——WewlChardivs. +0 ee se oe p ee e eiueeeee. bart Glo 
INGD ISITE op ok ae 00 on on 0. od bo SH ary SOON 


” > 


XXVill CONTENTS. 


Algee. 

PAGE 

Bennett, A. W.—Fresh-water Algx. (including Chlorophyllous ee yta) 
of the English Lake District. (Platel.) .. « . .. Part igeee 

Maskett, W. M.—WNote on Micrasterias Americana ae its var ee 
@Blateil en, ve. ne bork Ooh ndde cod) GO ch oo 7 
JANSE, J. M.—Plasmolysis of Me. a Ce ee eae AON coe oor <p 93 
Hauck, F.—Choristocarpus tenellus ee ie GD heed ACen OR. OGL cr 93 
Mosius, M.—New Fresh-water Floridea.. .. «6 oF oo : 55 93 
Gono, I Vice oo og oo eh of oo cd cd so ua) co ff 93 
WILDEMAN, E. pe—Wicrospora .. . dG am 6 oo. oC “5 94 
Smiru, T. F.—Some points in Diatom-str wie ny oo. a0 out od oO fh 94 
CaSTRACANE, F.—Deep-sea Diatoms .. SO 8 5 oo 94 
Grove, E., & G. Sturt—Fossil Marine Distoms from New Teepe 50 OD 94 
Wo.tt’s (F. ) ‘ Fresh-water Algex of the United States,’ sa. 80 Ome «635 tp 94 
Scutirr, F.—Phycophein.. .. 56 co do op op Jem y Mes 
Depray, F.—Development of the Thallus of cer ria Aly oe cf 265 
Oxtver, F. W.—Sieve-tubes in the Laminariek .. : a 265 


Lacenment, G.—Development of Confervacee 1. 2 «2 oF 08 « 4) 266 
IElanscirG, A:—Algological Studies... seo» fee ewes 267 
AU WENHOFE, N. W. P:—Spha@roplea .. 2. 20 0 «6 cs 06 08 a9 267 


WILDEMAN, E. DE—Ulothrix crenulata .. 1. «6 0» « «8 «2 of Ae 268 
Porrer, M. C.—Alga epiphytic on a Tortoise on oOe e0br MGGh co. ADS | rp 268 
Scuiirr, F.— Formation of Auxospores in Diatoms Ob 50 268 
Rattray, J.—Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus, Ehro. (Plates V, VL, 

SV AUIS) Settee sie titers 00 te) wel eee See ee OT Omeon 
SrrRoErMFELT, H. F. Gi Ataciinentoraan of ve oe ort betiow mone Sao nade och 461 
Hick, T.—Physiology of Pheophycer .. oo co) OF 462 
Loew, O., & T. Bo OR Nn Olernaee reysrotonical Sed of Ae Oke COLE es 463 
Waxxur, J. H.—Crystalloids in Marine Algw  .. .. 50 5 463 


Lerraes, H.—Z/ncrustation of the Cell-wall of Acetabularia .. .. .. «6. 4 463 
Prrer, A.—Batrachospermum, Chantransia, and Lemanea .. qo 80. 464 
Waxkker, J. H.—Rejuvenescence of Caulerpa.. 0. «++ +6 oF «8 «8 499 464 
GRA aC =D aSYClaGaceh om as toon=8 woe) cane wes cell ie os “ser vos Mays 464 
SrrormFe.t, H. F. G.—New Genera of Pheozoosporee 1. «1 «6 os 5 465 


Gay, F.—Ulothriam .. .. » aiel asic Saee dent eee cal «eee 465 
Kirron, F.—WNew Species of Biddulphia ioe yi : Hee kot, co goo. top 466 
PantocsEK, J.—Fossil Diatoms of Hungary . are MON GO. cot rook ‘opt ch 466 
Woopwortn, W. M.—Apical Cell of Fucus .. .. «se . « « « Part4 621 
Scutrr, F.—Phycoerythrin .. PAN ee Prin acne GREASE aici Seach 8 cy 622 
Jounson, T.—Procarp and aca of Gracilaria * 622 
BiereLow, R. P.—Frond of Champia parvula.. .. a 623 


LacrerHEIM, G.—Development of Hydrurus .. 16 66 sen wes 623 
AsSKENASY, E.—Development of Pediastrum .. 1. 06 oe oF «8 + 4 624 
WEBER, VAN BossE—Algzx parasitic on the Sloth .. «2 «6 «5 08 oe 9g 624 
Overton, C. E.—Conjugation of Spirogyra .,  «. wth OG 00 “OD <p 625 
LacErHemM, G.—Uronema, a new genus of Gitcreaeomnerene & aD OU | Oba ef 626 
Warenm’s)(N:)) Contmbuttonsito Algology welts. 26 wie se ceo oe) gy 626 
IEVANSGIRGS (CA) Alga=floraof sBOnemia semen Nase MGS s) use se ce tas 626 
Havok anp Ricuter’s Phycotheca universalis .. .. Ahern ee es 627 
Dr Toni (G. B.) anv Levr’s (D.) Venetian Citorophycee ae om Oo ~ En 627 
Scutrr, F.—Chetoceros .. .. Boe! “50 ts? Whe Mecoee Hoe as En 627 
Rarrray, J.— Varieties of Wicca ty 0 00h co GG ™ ch. woo) te 627 
Tont, J. B. DeE—Classification of Chlorophycex Moat ph ie. Marea omg 
Hanseirc, A.—Classification of Confervoidexe Arg eaOk ee dds poe wads) icp 775 


CONTENTS. XX1X 
PAGE 
Bornet, E., & C. Fuanautt—New Genera of Perforating Alyx . Part 5 776 
WiLpemAN, E. pE—Ulothrix and Stichococcus 4. we ww pea 7 
$ LUG PION oS So. CO OC . > eT 
TONI, '@ B. DE—Diatoms from a Trygon a : 3 allel 
RatrTray, J.—Revision of the Genus Auliscus, Ehrb. sp Aaah cy some allied 
(GACERE (CHT OIUED NID) oy 65 Oo co xx we cs art6 86 
Retnscou, P. ¥.—New Genera of Fi lomibee 3c » 1002 
KLeBauNn, H.—Zygospores of Conjugatz 3 ~1002 
Morray, G., & L. A. Boopte—Spongocladia a L002 
Hanscire, A.—Aerophytic Species of Ulotrichacez » ~ 1002 
IsTVANFFI, G. —Structure of Ulothriz = 1003 
WILDEMAN, E. p—E—Bulbotrichia as = L008 
Tont, J. B. peE—Hansgirgia, a new genus of cabin. ies » 1003 
DanGEARD, P. A.—Chlorogonium » 1003 
5 35 Chlamydomonas 3c » 1004 
s is Chlamydococcus pluvialis ., - ees LOOt 
HAvprrieiscu, P.— Cell membrane and Gelatinous Envitlone a Desmiina » 1004 
Suiru, T. F.—Structure of Pleurosigma formosum nO™ ccd wn LOGS 
Lichenes. 
Forssewu, K. B. J.—Gleolichenes .. «2 se oF Part1 95 
Massreg, G.—Gasterolichenes .. +s 00 ee se is 95 
Miter, J.—Action of Lichens on Rocks 66. od uc anus 95 
HEGETSCHWEILER & STIZENBERGER—Lichens on unusual eulstnaea ae 96 
Mo.ier, A.— Culture of Lichen-forming Ascomycetes without Algz és Part 3 466 
\ WENN, IDE SOUT eo ano, eo O00. 00 op ee oO on Tech GT! 
Sypow’s:(D.) Lichens of Germany .. .» o co «8 «2 Bee ye 621 
Fungi. 
Errera, L.—Accumulation and Consumption of ae by Fungi . Part1 96 
WerrstE1n, R. v.—Function of Cystids.. AG.) 56 = 96 
SEYNEs, J. DE—Rhizomorpha subcorticalis of Armillaria onelien Me Pare 97 
Diete., P.—Uredinew .. . o68 od Es 97 
PRILLIEUX, EH. ee eeu Ovinathieian diplodiella bs a. net ee 98 
GaASPERINI, G.—WNew Disease of Lemons.. «2 +» «+ 98 
WAHRLICH, Tue SEWUPOTE 0. AO 08 Og, 3 98 
Zor‘, W.—Chytridiacea parasitic on Diatoms .. «1 we ss 5 99 
ScHROETER, J., Cohn’s ‘ Cryptogamic Flora of Silesia’ .... 9 99 
Massez—On the Type of a New Order of Fungi (P1, IV.) .. oC Part 2 173 
Frank, B.—New Forms of Mycorhiza .. .. . oe 35 268 
WETTSTEIN, R. voN—Abnormal Fructification of Sierras Paper i 269 
Morini, F.—Seaxuality of Ustilaginee .. . < aan SES Met ee ‘ a 269 
9s » Germination of the Spores in Uattaaa Ab. Shoe Boom ted 5 270 
Boupmr, E.—Tremella fimetaria .. .. ae F 5 270 
TrecHEeM, P. Van—WNew Genera of Asaoniceten Oleints and Ponoenpes OO FF 271 
ZuKaL, H.—Asci of Penicillium crustaceum .. .. .. «ws . PM» ker: 271 
Rotruert, W.— Formation of Sporangia and Oe in the Suproteqnien 100 5 271 
ScHNETZLER, J. B.—Jnfection of a Frog-tadpole by Saprolegnia feraz 55 Die 
Reess, M., &*C. Fisco—LHlaphomyces.. .. «6 2s a» oe oe weg 273 
Bruncuorst, J.—Cabbage-Hernia .. 15 «ss «» 8 oe oo os K 273 
. ape OLOLOMHUTG US = ooh 2 s/n) eels to Reis nn a aI ete - 274 
Rosinson, B. L.—TZaphrina .. Bc ie dd 274. 
VuILLemin, P.—Disease affecting Gan ea Phemcivecs 274 
Hanz, ©. O.—Oidium Fragarie 1. ws ies se oo we oe a es 274 


XXX CONTENTS. 


Rosrrvpv, E.—Fungi of Finland sob oe 
Maaenus, P.—Sterility of Fungi... aC 
ParovurttarD, N.—Classification of the ioe 


Moror, L.—Jdentity of Polyporus abietinus, Fr. and Irpex ee: eee 
O88 ape 468 
ee ”? 


Fr. “9 
GASPERINI, Cie of the aehaniieties AC 
Zorr, W.—Cultivation of Phycomycetes .. «+ 8 vs 
BerveEse, A. N.—Pleospora ic 
Harrie, R.— Trichospheria san a Happote ichia fee 
JOHANSON, ©. J—TZaphrina .. .. 


PAGE 
. Part 2 275 
. Part 3 467 
Fs 467 


Peres 
wo hy eae 
2) ee 
ot 
ae 


Srymour, A. B.—Character of the Tavares. Soden iy Parasitio Fungi 


upon their Host-plants .. .. . sett ties 
Tousevr, C. v. Pee Disease of the ovgiassne 
Brouncuorst, J.—New Potato-disease 0 a 
THUMEN, F. v., & = Ratruay—WNew Vassease.. ae 
Montez, R.—New Parasite of the Silk-worm .. 
Roiuanp, L.—Blue Coloration of Fungi by Lodine.. 
Karsten, H.— Classification and Description of Fungi .. 
Vumttemin, P.—Biological Studies of Fungi .. 


of oe oe ” 470 


#3 471 

Set at das 471 
Foal la 471 
Se Gs 471 
.. Part 4 628 
no. ap 628 
A ata) 628 


Hecke, E.—Vormation of two fertile hymenia in Poli us Tappinndias ab. 629 


Fiscuer, E.—Stretching of the Receptacle of the Phalloidet .. 
Masses, G.—Revision of the Genus Bovista .. ; 
Fricuou—Fformation of the Asci in Physalospora Bidwellit 50 
Durour, L.—Development and Fructification of Trichocladium 
Srynes, J. DE—Ceriomyces and Fibrillaria 

Saccarpo, P. A.—New Genus of Sphexriaceous Bieter oe 
Beruese, A. N.—New Genus Peltospheria 
Bovuprer,—New Mucedinex Bo Bo Ok 
Berxesz, A. N.— Scan and Pe nner Seal eee Lise 
CosTANTIN, J.—New Papulaspora .. ee 
Macunvs, eee Rope ot oat oe : 
RovuMEGUERE, C.—Fungus Parasitic on the Pines 
Sanrorn, E.—Anatomy of the Common Cedar-apple 
Puriips, W.— Luminosity of Fungi 1. 10 we wes 
Bovupier—Conidiferous Form of Polyporus biennis.. «2  « 
BREFELD, O.—Classification of Basidiomycetes «+ ws 
PATEUILLARD, N.—WNew Tubercularia .. . ho 00 
Masser, G.—Calostoma, Desv. (Mitremyces, ae gt 
Groves, W. B.—Pimina, a new Genus of ce ieee oe 
Tuimen, F. v.—Fungi of Fruit-trees .. 1. oe oc 
Bonnet, H.—Parasitism of the Truffle .. 1.  « 

Srynes, J. DE—Fungus Parasitic on the Pine-apple 
Bruncuorst, J.—Fungus Parasitic on the Salt-fish 

Barter & VuILLemMInN—“ Rouge” of the Scotch Fir ..  .. 
DaNnGEARD, P. A—Parasites of the Peridiniew .. 
VuILLEMIN, P.—Disease attacking Amygdalex 

Zorr, W.—Haplococcus reticulatus .. .. + 

LaGERHEIM, G.—New Puccinia .. . . ‘ 
Massnx, G.—Seaual Organs in Acidium Ae Lob... om 
Grarp, A.—Symbiotic Fungus in Molgulide .. te 
Lister, A.— Plasmodium of Badhamia and Br es at 
DANGEARD, P. hs INOteS ate eee 39 
Mouter, A.‘ Spermatia ” of the Ascomycetes 

Scur6tTeR, J.—Basidiomycetes .. 


Soa ss 629 


ios es 
» 629 

ns oy we BBO 
Jo= ee 
va! ids gE 
tle 

5 688 
See ee 
nc Se teem 
53) G8 

a» 1680 


Rot ot, eae ct 631 
dip os ee DESO 
Ache obe sad th 778 
Gute ate c ees 778 
He eh resi Nees, 779 
it eee teen Gs 780 
Se ine Se tess 780 
sepee: waco ras 780 


5 180 
>» M80 

5) aig 

La ee 
OV ee 
i ee 
OG rene: 
£2 


HO OO 0 782 
Pole SAE RE oo 782 
Ao coe 6 on 783 
yews 783 

" Part 6 1006 

» 1006 


CONTENTS. 


CosTaNTIN, J.—Heterobasidial Basidiomycetes 
Srynus, J. DE—Polyporex 

ParournLaRD, N.—Prototremella 
VurmLLemin, P.—Ascospora Beijerinckii .. 
Dieter, P.—Uredinex and their Hosts .. re 
Warp, H. MarsHati—Structure and Life History of Puce inia Grains Ble 
CuBONT. G.——Peronospora wilicola) 2." 42 se wes ewe 


ee »  Leronospora of the Rose ..  .. op, 60) sn6 
Morini, F.—Ascophorous form of Penicillium Phun Ae See te 
EIcHetBaum, F.—WNew Aspergillus.. 1. 1. 42 oe 


QuéLET, L.—Ombrophila and Guepinia .. 

KLEBAHN, H.—Peridermium Pini .. 

Bovupter, E.—Pilacre  .. ‘ 

WASSERZOG, H.—Fusoma.. .. 

CosTaNntTIN, J.—Diplocladium .. Sen aay eck, SHON ets 
Miter, H.—‘ Edelfiule” of Grapes .... as 
CosTaNTIN, J., & RoLLAND.—Stysanus and Hormona? on. me 
Eipam, E.—New Mould .. .. .. DOM Gdn Obie (Bd) SEDO 00 
THAXxtTeER, R.—Entomopthorex of the Ui nited States .. 
Krenitz-GEer.orr, F.—Gonidia of Gymnosporangium .. 

Harroc, M.—Recent Researches on the Saprolegnice .. 1. « 
Perronciro, H.—Chytridinn elegans, n. sp., a Parasite of the Roti itp id) ee 
TomascHEer, A.—New Chytridium.... ae 3 

CostantTIn, J.—Parasites of the Higher Fungi oop Mester e Teer | ce 


Protophyta. 
Hy—WMicrochxte a AO 0 DC COr me wGe. Boole, (58a scan Giese 
WEIBEL, E.— Vibrio from N asal Mutts ae rare ae 


as 5,  Lwo kinds of Vibrios found in decrees hag ‘Tafuson 
_ Karz, O.—Phosphorescent Bacteria from Sea-water 4. 4. ae ue 


Bary’s (A. Dr) Lectures on Bacteria ..  . ACT thG. Bt 
Scorr, D. H.—WNucleus in Osciilaria and Toh, Upciien HY ope 100 og. Cb 
Borzi, A.—Wicrochete .. .«. a dy Atte oe 8 Be 
Bitter, A.—Life-history and Mor Pikcteniee Variations of Bacterium 
JOGUTAEAES 66) HO ~ OG OB EO Oe Oe oo Doge 64 ne Ge 


Tomascuek, A., & A. Hanscrrc—Bacillus muralis 1... ae oe 
Bunwip; ©.——Bacteriaan Hailstones a) wv wiles el 


Fiscupr, B.—Phosphorescent Bacillus .. .. .. . a ee a6 
Kirasato, §8.—Spirillum concentricum, a new species = from Posen 
blood a, 66 “On ‘oo Go oD Be 


Bornet, E., & C. FLanauLtT—Filamentous eter Petints N pnioclinies. 
Smitu, J. AA—New Chromogenic Bacillus—Bacillus ceruleus AS 


BAUMGARTEN, P.—Scheurlen’s Cancer Bacillus .. .. Cait leet peare 
ie 3,  Spore-formation in the Bacillus of Genders aie 
ENGELMANN, T. W.—Bacterio-purpurin sn bx 


Gowont, M.—Cellular Envelope of the Palanan Werte es 

Borzi, A.—Development of Mischococcus confervicola .. 1. 4 ss ee 
LaGERHEIM, G.—Stichococcus bacillaris .. 46 as 

De Tont, G. B.— Remarkable Flos-aque : 
Prrroncito, E., & L. VARALDA—Composition of « cy : Muffe a 

ARCANGELI, G. See arenes MNOS 2, v2 real MOM ate 

WasserzuG, E.—Spores of the Ferments bay dol 6 Sige peGene: 
TomascHEeK, A.—Symbiosis of Bacteria with Gleocapsa agente Ae 


XXX1 


PAGE 

. Part 6 1007 
» 1007 
eeeLOOM 
LOOK 
os 1007 
ae LOO 
sa 1008 
» 1008 
3) L008 
» 1008 
3 L008 
» 1009 
» 1009 
e009 
» 1009 
= L009 
a LOO 
es 1010 
a LOLO 
a LLOKO 
on LORO, 
ay COT 
so LOM 
a LOU 
Part 1 99 
» 99 
100 
x 101 
a 102 
Part 2 275 
cf 275 
op 275 
- 276 
5 277 
a 277 
£ 278 

. Part 3 472 
a 472 
be 472 
» 473 
473 

Part 4 632 
“5 632 
on 632 
- 633 
~ 633 
a 633 
A 633 
5 634 


XXXxll CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

ARLOING, 8.—Presence of a Phlogogenous matter in the Cultures of certain 
Microbes . io, oot, 8 FOUN eho ule A cet wise ae eety Uketcamk un Deion 
GALTIER— Chr “anioanciavie Wisreae. ag) (oom Ure occ oom DSO dae 6 cy 634 
Hauser, G.—Sarcina of the Lungs righ oe + 634 
Borpont-uFrREDvzz1, G.—New Pathogenic Mic a onee in ee aaa Meenas a 634 
SPILLMANN & HavsHaLTER—VDissemination of Bacillus by Flies... 1... 635 
Gomont, M.—Relationship between Phormidium and ee oo ee 6s OTC ON Woe 
Macs, E.—Cultures of Cladothrix dichotoma .. .«. Soh ae ounets ae 7 784 
TiaGHEEEm, G.—WNew Pleurocapsa..  .. thy 784 


ScunerzueR, J. B.—Colouring matter of the EE of the Take of Bret one re 785 
JACQUEMIN, G.—Saccharomyces ellipsoideus and its Use in the Preparation 


of Wine from Barley ..  «. AY OG) Go oe od ry 785 
LAvRENT, E.—Organic nourishment of Bees apr iy cote iodo boy 785 
Ermencem, E. Van—Scheuerlen’s Cancer Bacillus Ae scos ecu eo ck 785 


IWENOGRADSKY, S:—(701 PD ACLETIO Nasi) Wee itas)) Wiss!) (eet Uwe) Wilco) ie lees 786 
TomascHEK, A., & A. Hanseinc—Bactllus muralis .. .. «6 «+ oF 49 786 
Prazmowski, A.—Spore-formation in Gacteria +e ss «+ 08 te we ogg 787 
Bitter, AW—New Marine Bacterium 14 20 news AO 5G Od ce 789 
FRANKLAND, Grace C., & Percy F. Abin w and Typical 
Micro-organisms from Water and Soil .. 14 . oF «8 «© oF 49 789 


BaumMGARTEN’S (P.) Pathological Mycology .. ss «+s 28 48 8 791 
Gomont, M.—Cellular Envelope of the Filamentous Nastoarege ate Male gists Pant 6 1012 
Borzi, A.—Chlorothecium of set, cay eeibalsoe | Gale ® ees mmm 
Daneerarp, P. A.—Leproduction of Wop sonia: Hoe sore Och ech op a LUI: 
Ansa, Av—Trochisciaand Tctrahedron;. =. 6 os a «= °«s 55 siUNo 
Retysou, P. F.—Polyedriacex Ae : edie ae poor. LONE 
Miquet, P.—Bacillus living at a ineorenure ing 70° Ce, Sea Fae ale despa 
HiscHmR—Dacterial Growthrat OCC. 3c) ee eee ae) ee | ei e055 
IEVANRGIRG AY — Cellar PB aChenia wee re) ee) vais deel Miele) Noelle tele » 1014 
Kocu, A.—ndosporous Bacteria .. Som aoe acd “oe bye ae It 
Bucuner, H.—Supposed Spores of the Typhoid Beatie Bch Dt >, LOG 
NEIsseR—Spore-formation in the Bacilli of .Xerosis conjunctive, Streplocsors 

and Cholera spirilla ee eden Reo uuaiie eel Tiwana see >, LOlG 
Gautinr, V.—Pathogenic Heise TE Mier on ae Sane Gor od. = Oey WIN 
WIEBEL, E.— Vibrios ae 3 LOU 
Ouzvier, L.— Physiological Tienes on on EHS of Glairine ae 

ONCE eB Sane waen! Wier wane an ere sds Tinwts Yona. Vag’ coum ce tenuate 

MICROSCOPY. 


a, Instruments, Accessories, &c. 
(1) Stands. 


Co.iins’s (C.) Aquarium Microscope (Fig. 1) aa <2 os arta ales 
GOLFARELLI’S (1.) Micrometric Microscope for Farce (Fig. » 5050 103 
Lenuossték’s (J. v.) Polymicroscope (Figs. 3-6) .. «2 « Bry be Bile 104 


Doururt’s (H.) Polarizing Microscope (Figs. 7-9) .. .. «2 oF «2 « 49 107 
Dvusosco’s Projection Microscope (Fig.10) .- .. «6 «2 «of « «2 499 108 


Campant’s Compound Microscopes (Figs. ll and12) .. .. ~ 109 
Winuiams, G. H.—Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.’s Eevee eee 
scope (Fig. 40) ne | Ge ae else aks wes Hare eone 


Czapski, 8.—Bamberg’s Goieroneice easeeee (Fig. 41) ieee, CeO a 280 
GaALLAND-Mason’s (R.) Microphotoscope (Figs. 42-44) Srp MOC Om Owe cy 281 
Nacuet’s (A.) Crane-arm Microscope (Fig. 62) .. . oe « « « Pait3 475 
Doumaice’s Travelling Microscope (Fig.63) .. .. «2 «2 00 0 of 99 476 


CONTENTS. 


Netson’s (HE. M.) Wechanical Stage 

INE-ADJUSTMENT by tilting the Stage (Figs. 64-7 3) 
Minor, C. S.— American Microscopes—A Complaint” 
Zuiss’s (C.) IIa. Microscope (Fig. 96) 
Basvucwin’s (A.) Microscope (Fig. 97) 
GALILEO’s Microscopes (Figs. 98 and 99) 
JosLot’s Microscope (Fig.100)  .. .. 3c 
HeEnsoupt’s (M.) Reading Microscopes (Figs. 101 ae 102) . 
Taury’s Five-tube Microscope (Fig. 120) Oc 
Scurecr’s (F. W.) Meat-examining Microscope (Fig. 121 

* Travelling Microscope (Fig. 122) 
Zeiss’s [Ta Microscope—Babuchin’s Microscope .. . swe ae 
Lerrz’s Demonstration Microscope—Old Demenethahn Mi ier Wear Fic an 
123 and 124) . ae eU SG) SOG=, Mou. ur 
Wurrr’s (8S. 8.) Dentist’s navninne Bliss (Fig. 125) Ao ac 
Bavuscw AND Lomp Opticat Co.’s ‘* Watchmaker Glass” (Fig. 126) .. 
Ganz’s (J.) Pinakoscope with Dreyfus’s Reflector (Fig. 127) 
Trr-ocuLar, Quadri-ocular, §c., Prisms (Figs. 128-132) 
AHRENS’ (C. D.) New Erecting Microscope (Fig. 161) .. 
Kirnm’s (L.) Lzcursion Microscope (Figs. 162-164) oa 
PrircHaryd’s Microscope with “ Continental ” ia thaeate (Figs 
166) 

GrirritH’s (EH. H.) omen (Fig ie 167 hae 168) 
MAYALL, J.— Necessity for a Sub-stage .. 


oe ee . ae oa oe oe 


. 165 and 


oe oe oe oe 


(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. 
GunpLacu, E.—Apochromatic Objectives 
CueapP Objectives .. : 36° G0 | BO do, te 
Swirt, J.— The Jena Optical Glass Gace 14 and 75) 53 
Vocen, H. W.—Hartnack’s new Objective aa 
Zetss’s “‘ Compensation Lye-piece 6 with 1/1 Mier onedninon 2 (Fig. 
DEFECTIVE Objectives and the Binocular Microscope 


ee oe oe oe oe 


133) 3s 
(3) Illuminating and other Apparatus. 
Zeiss’ (C.) Lris Diaphram (Figs. 13-15) ja pried weaeyah, PHAl Oeog Ane 
Epmonps’s (J.) Automatic Mica Stage (Fig. 16) .. 
RovssEver’s (C.) Life-box (Fig. 17) noe 00 
Mayer, P.—Large form of Abbe Camera Lucida ., 
Hircsucock, R.—WMay’s Apparatus for Marking Objects so. 06 
Dewirz, H.— Simple Method of Warming and Cooling under the Mieroncns 
(Fig. 18) se ° 
GraBer, V.—Apparatus for determining Sensibility to eae 
Gutsster’s (G. F.) Culture Tubes (Fig. 45) 
Gas and Moist Chambers (Figs. 46-55) . 
Ma.uarp, E.—Bertrand’s Bapractombrens 50 50 
LrexamMann, O.—Apparatus for Microphysical Tanesiagatanes oe 
Doumatcen’s Camera Lucida (Fig. 76) 30 
EXYE-SHADES 50 oe 
Dumaice’s Nose-piece for eas Objectives wr a 1) 
Matassez’s (L.) Hot Stage (Fig. 78) .. Ot BC 
HA.ustin’s (K.) “ Compressorium” (Fig. 79) 
Harpy’s (J. D.) Growing Slide (Fig. 80) 50d 
Scurecn’s (J. W.) Microscope Lamps (Figs. 81-84) 
Geruacu’s Embryoscope (Figs. 85 and 86) 
1888. 


oe oe oe 


oe oe oe oe oe oe oe oe ee 


oe 


oe o- oe oe 


oe ad 


ne Nise 
. Part 4 


XXXlil 


PAGE 


. Part 3 477 


478 
482 
637 
637 
639 
640 
ss 640 
792 
793 
794 
794 


” 


794 
795 
799 
796 
796 


: pant 6 1020 


» 1020 
1022 
1022 
1024 


. Part 2 285 


287 


” 


. Part 3 486 
. Part 4 646 


Part 5 797 


. Part 6 1025 


Parti) it 
111 
112 
113 
113 


114 
114 
287 
287 
291 
292 
487 
488 
488 
488 
489 
489 
490 
491 


XXXIV CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Hincenporr’s (F.) Auxanograph (Fig. 103)... ee we .. « Part4 646 

Cuapman, F. T,—Slide for observing Soap-bubble Films (Fig. 104) 00 it 647 
Scuiren’s (BE. A.) Hot-water Circulation Stage and eae Regulator 

CFig:105): Ase gees een seak eee Moe tree ty 60s. fous 7p 649 

BeErtTRAND’S (B.) Refractometer  .. . SMe: ce corr bay ad 3 649 

Erernop’s (A.) Drawing-board (Figs. 134 -139) nah See ee ee, ae em AGRO MOS 


Bass’ (V.) Hot Stage (Figs. 140 and 141) .. «ew 5 800 
Cuasry, L.—Capillary Slide and accessories for the ciawination of Oo8 
(Figs. 142 and 143) .. «. 06. 00) <p 801 


BEExKE, F.— Measuring Corrosion Sur. fas in lien Pr yr ie (Fi ig. 144) Ao, Too.” fp 803 
Row.anv’s (W.) Reversible Compressorium (Fig. 145) .. 00 ee ee ee 803 
Braumont’s (C. R.) Reservoir Life-slide (Figs. 146 and 147) «. we ey 804 
Le torsicvats Comets Ga 6a. S06 60 00 o8= OO CU" coy co 00 ff 806 
Stoxes, A. C.—Life Slides 1. 2 on 00 ce oe we ee egy 806 


Lamps for Microscopical Work 50 oC oe 6a). Ff 807 
Matassez, L.— Tubes for Wopsenecrnoscontc analysis (Fig. 148). a, 00 807 
Kocn’s & Max Wouz’s Reflector (Figs. 169-172) Aone hecGae sOOun ace io Part 6 1025 
Nurrauy’s (G.) Warm Chamber (Fig. 173)... ey LlODT 


ScuéOnLAND, 8.—Nodification of Pagan’s “ Groen Slide 2 (aa. 1 74) oo = OES 


(4) Photomicrography. 

IsraEL (O.) & SrenGLErn’s (M.) Photomicrographic Benes (Figs. 19 

and. 20)... .. af ie Sen art eS 
STEGEMANN’S (A) Pioisnireiranie: Caner (Fig. 21) a ake lcs yore aise 116 
MARrKTANNER’S (T.) Photo-micrographic Cameras (Figs, 22 and ME 50° op 117 
Smiru, G., Nelson’s Photomicrographic Focusing Screen 50 bd 00. 119 
LEHMANN, O.—Photomicrography of Chemical Preparations pou cor soo Jethanyy YEE: 
Nevuaus’s (R.) Photomicrographic Camera (Big. 56) 11 «6 ae we + 293 
Srerns’s (8S. T.) “ Large Photomicroscope (Fig. 57) «1 + So 00h oF 295 
TruAN, Y Luarp A., & O. N. Wirt—Photomicrographs of aoe Bas o Wes 295 
Letrtz’s small Photo-micrographic Apparatus (Fig. 106) So Gon con soo detmunek (atl) 
Proéssx’s Focusing Arrangement (Fig. 107) .. 2 6 oe se oF oF 49 651 
Capranica, 8.—Jnstantancous Photomicrography.. ++ «6 «1 «8 oF 4 651 
Bursterr’s (H.) Photomicrographic Apparatus (Fig. 149) .. .. .. «. Part 5 808 


Nevwauss’s (R.) Focusing Arrangement (Fig. 150) .. .. ste 809 
Primrsot, G. A.—Drawings v. Photographs. —Screen we the Abbe Cyne 
Tbe. 355-502 oo. 30° COS G0 os ae ac + 809 


SrencLen, M.—Jnstantaneous Photomicrogr tai Nave caret etsise Tesg Mein mae 811 
Errera, L.—Photographing moving Microscopic Objects , 7 812 
FiscnEer—Photographing phosphorescent bacilli by means of their own Pee Fr 813 
Exner, §.—Histological Structures and the Diffraction Theory (Plate IIL. 
and Figs. 24-33) .. .. we) ee art JeettS 
Vescovi, P. pp—WMethod of Beirne Of Calaaatihy the Magnification 
of Microscopic Objects in the projected images .. 
Dauuincer, W. H.—Advantages of a Knowledge of the Theory of the 
Microscope .. = «» Part 2 296 
Dopey, P. H., & R. H. Wan: FAsoupr’s Test-plates Bi 298 
Dauincer, W. H.—Daylight or Lamplight for Microscopical Oheenen Sones 302 
Neuson, E. M.—Curious Interference Phenomena with SE ie pellucida 


5 135 


Giigs.D8' G00 59). a5. es tae ae ena eerie oe mee Oe 
SPECTRA of Pleurosigma gin 3c paf eee fee 303 
JusERion’s (P.) Photomicrographic Appa firs (Fig. 175) AO Todas 200 . Part 6 1029 
Garirritn’s (E. H.) Photomicrographic Camera (Hig. 176) .. «1 4. =e yy ~— 1081 


JEsERICH’s (P.) Focusing Arrangement (Figs. 177 and 178) pie oGe) ua. eps REL 


. 


CONTENTS. XXXKV 


PAGE 

STENGLEIN’s (M.) Coarse and Fine eee Arrangements (Figs. 179 and 
180).. 5 ae ee ce apne oe att) oO L032 
NEUHAUSS, Eeedgeneaion of the or pana Yy By ye-pirece for Photomicro¢ vraphy sone LOZ 
SreneLers, M.—ZJilumination of Objects in Photomicrography .. » 1033 
Scumipt & Harnscu—Zirconium Light for Photomicrography ..  .. .».» yy 1033 
CHURCHILL’s (LorD E.) Photomicrographic Apparatus eenccsekecr Pee jae LOGI 


(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. 


Poutton, EB. B.—Learning to see with the Microscope... .. .. «. « Part3 495 

REICHERT, C.—Cover-correction .. 3 496 

Brox, R. & J.—Adjusting an Objective Ver the Tnohiess oF the Gone han 
(CHigs8T=92) ious sium ele 7 497 


Roysron-Picortr, G. W., & T. F. ‘Sarre— Vili o on the Saas of Butter erie 
Tyne! JOS. G6 60 00 Ob Ge 1 On “ S 498 
Smits, T. F.— New Appearances in Podina Seiler Oo. So: Ges gOO. Meer 499 


“New Glass just made in Sweden” so Se » 499 
Fasoupt, C.— Variation in Micr ana Mereirenents due o afer me illu 
MINALION 1. 0 oe as eh meee poe aeart om Ol: 


REINHERTZ— Testing Scr ae ier See of Rea J Marcccnest ass 815 
Surry, T. F.—Arachnoidiscus as a new Test for High-power Objectives .. 4, 815 


Neuson, E. M.—Tests for Modern Objectives a AO. 40b op 816 
Fasoupt’s (C.) Test-plates ..  .. Shel cehy (emcees camer 817 
Microscorican Optics and the Quekett Club Tee me to be wh. do ¢ 817 


MicroscoricaL Optics and the Quekett Club Journal .. 4. oe ae we Part 6 1034 


_ (6) Miscellaneous. 


Nexson, E. M.—Development of the Compound Microscope .. .. .. « Partl 136 
‘StupeNnt’s Handbook to the Microscope’ siete. ated <bean oak ress 137 
cou Uae tee n=“ ACrOSCODICAL A QUDANGES taster wale) Wilco oom cee <li oeMielclon Ny 137 
“aE Microscope and Kidney Disease” 22) 2. 26 we 00 o's se 5 138 


“ Curtosrrres of Microscopical Literature” .. se «e o6 «8 of oF 49 140 
Dauincer, W. H.—President’s Address. +s oe we we > oe) we «Part, 2 177. 
Hearuer’s ‘ Mathematical Instruments’... -» Part 3 501 
Ricker, A. W., A. D’Apnpante, & R. B. Sie ors cialianetie 5b SS 502 
Cox, ©. F.—American Microscopes.. .. .. «+ «+ o « « «» Part 4 652 
Deatu of Mr. Webb . Sie pike 3 654 
Quinn, E. P. re method of Pr cane con the sereen iNBasacenas Rock 

Sections, both by ordinary and by polarized light ..  .. .. «. « Part5 819 


Jupp, J. W.—Wicroscopy and the Study of Rocks... .. «2 «6 « 0» 43 820 
Hovuzeav, J. C.—Wicroscope and Telescope .. «1 +6 +e ve new 820 
(Cosa, es eb WOOF co 56 fon © Go too be «0d 00 Part 6 1061 


B. Technique. 
(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes. 


Stone, W. E.—Cultivation of Saccharomycetes .. . op oo oo Jeti dl Zbl 
Axssot, A. C.—ZImprovement in the method of ones Tee um for 
use in Bacteriology .. .. « 60.) Gu, .00. , 60: © & 142 


Karz, O.—Improved method for cultivating Dacron ete on Potatoes po eh 142 


Boiron, M.—WMethod of preparing Potatoes for Bacterial Cultures 5 143 
Witrartu, H.—Cultivation-bottle .. .. - AD and Bo bok Sao rsh 143 
Cunnincuam, K, M.—Collecting and Chae Desert ac 0 06 143 
Ports, E.—Collecting, Growing, and Examining Fresh-water Rn ws Part 2 305 
EISENBERG, J.—Potato Cultivations 60 Ba Po Sa pace Or S 310 


Puavur, H.—Sterilization of Potato, Apples, Ae Water for oan jietees of 310 


XXXVi CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Tarcuanorr, J., & Kotessnixorr—Alkaline Lyg-albwmen as a Medium for 

Bacteria Cultivation on elhoeere Gas > ceece (00 ae) LO ReCmeEes 
Manrrept, L.—atty Matters in Cultivation Media cd. Oy Con Oo? cy 504 
Jacost, E.—Preparation of Nutritive Media .. .« «1 «+ «6 «+ «+ Part 4 655 
FREUDENREICH, E.—Preparing Agar-agar .. «2 «ss 6 08 «8 ++ 4 656 
Raskin, M.—WMilk-peptone-gelatin for cultivating Pathogenic Micro-organisms 4, 656 
DiaKonow, N. W.— Vessel for the Culture of Low Organisms (Fig. 108) -. 657 
Bircu-Hirscurep — Cultivation of Schizomycetes in Coloured Nutritive 


MCG Te ca <er6 88 <0 ae a) fe RBA MS as A eriomeZzs 
FRANKEL, C.—Cultivation of Manone Aner iver ek see. lary cama 824 
Guopia—Bacterial Growth between 50° and 70° C. ioe tte spades 824 


RosenTHAt, J., & O. Scuutz—Alhali-Albuminate as a Nutrient Medium ess 825 
Currsman, T. Ti Jun.—Preparation of Nutrient Gelatin and Agar... 5 825 
Hire, Regs for Cultivation purposes. ..° ss os ‘se oe 06 08 15 827 
Roux, E.—Cultivation on Potato... ool sf 827 
GIAxXA, DE—Simple Method for repr diene Koel? 8 : Oulkiodtion iB ee jo op 827 
Bangs’ (V.) Modified Cultivation Vessel (Fig. 151) Ao athoattisebgheMe par. tp 828 
Preirer, A.—Cooler for quickly setting Gelatin Plates .. «1 16 ee we 15 828 


ALLEN, T. F.— Collecting and Preparing Characee me ees 828 
Mouuer, A.— Cultivation of Lichen-forming Ascomycetes without vi? BA oa op 829 
Dranonow, N. W.—Apparatus for Infecting UY) erode ender «eng. © Fr 829 
Ricurer—Agar-agar for Cultivation .. Be), eae Mee Pact 6 1036 
Pozzo, D. Dat—Albumen of Plovers’ Eggs as Nutrient Medan on Micro- 

organisms ..  «. a 108 37/ 


Bucuner, H. — New Method tin ‘Cultivating etic eos 
GHiggA SI cies ee hmach Se Dias) Ges puss veep ce. Cee: eels ny Von oem 


Rasxi, M. Milk as a Medium ore CCE Se kine ae ee see LOS 
Pawtowsky, A. D.—Cultivation of Bacillus Diibereiloets on Pointe sere ie 1038 
Rovx, E. Cultivation of Anaerobic Microbes .. . ao ono oy BE 
Thane Cultivation of the “ Typhus” Racine in coloured 

nutrient media ..  «. co Ac » 1039 
Norccreratu—WNew Method # Cudtnatin J iene in ievenen Meata for 

Diagnostic Purposes ..  .. Bae 400 Histo, Macommeccy - 0B) 


Piavut, H.—Jmprovements in Plaut? s Flasks Fe sterilizing inater Pee ome LOE 
BaRrToscHEWITScH, 8.—Fire-proof Cotton-wool Plug for Test-tubes .. .. 5, 1040 


(2) Preparing Objects. 
Scuuuize, O.—Preparing Ova of Amphibia. ws ow. eco coedetuan dl IA 
FiemMine, W.—Preparing Testicle for observing Nuclear ia so. 00 gg 146 
AutTMANN, R.—Demonstrating Cell-granules 1. «« ap OO 00 146 
Marsuauy, C. F.—Wethods of Preparing Muscle for nese ation no 6 a 147 
Oviatt, B. L.—Permanent Preparations of Tissues treated with PR Peer 


Hydrate .. 68 605-00 co OD bo. op opp 147 
Cutaract, G.— Preparing ‘gattions of IEG og ob. 00! 80 pO) od ong 147 
Verworn, M.—Wethod of investigating Cristatella nti OC on es 147 
Kuinestey, J. S.—WMethods of studying Development of Eye of Cre an naon ears 148 
ZACHARIAS, O.—Preparation of Ascaris megalocephala., +. «+» « « 45 148 


Srrepman, J. M.—Preparing Tape-worms for the Museum and the Microscope 4, 148 
Waricut, R. Ramsay, & A. B. MacatLum—Wethods of studying Sphyranura ,, 149 
Hamann, O.—Histology of Echinoderms.. .. .. so «» «8 « «8 49 149 
WATSON Ea ——Erenpaning MOUS ‘re. tre) West | ciel sie! leet) iss) lyite'oy  vecenutss 150 
Kunstter— Technique of Bacteria... .. . oy oo) 151 
LowentHaL, N.—Demonstrating the Reticulated Pr Gira in the Inter- 

stitial Cells of the Ovary ga? Bites! “sae Mee 9 tee gamer) Guano mter Receptor acre 


CONTENTS. XXXVli 


PAGE 
NANSEN, F'.—WMethods of investigating Structure of Nerve-tissues.. .. .. Part 2 312 
Bronpi, D.—New Method for Investigation of Blood... 2. we ewe gy 313 
Wray, R. 8.—WMethods of studying typical Bird’s Feather .. 2 6. we 45 314 
JACKMAN, W. S.—Mounting Tape-worms A By Uc Rad, it Ce PA 314 


ReEyNoLps, R. N.—Reeves’s Method Sok fee oh 314 
ZIMMERMANN, A.—WMode of rendering visible the beng Meme of Bordsred 

IEG Go Tou *6 ee ao 315 
PANTANELLI, D. Mounting siiall Orvateme=Diasar eatin of Rocka ss 315 
ZACHARIAS, E.—Demonstrating Nuclein and Plastin .. .. -- «» Part3 505 


KorTLaREwsky, ANNA—Preparation of Nerve-cells and Patipheral Ganglia ,, 506 
Haureurton, W. D.—Wethemoglobin Crystals .. 1. +e 20 ve weg 560 
Fiescu, M.—Preparation of Brains and other Organs... .. emus Gs 507 
Pioren, C. E. —Preparing Radula of small species of Gustronade cre #00 Suir 507 
Garsini, A.— Preparation of Cypridine O06, “Dg. s004 Hous. «p02 ¢vo0 8a hi lery 508 
BENEDEN, E, van—Preparing Ova of Ascaris pieaitecapints San SDs acid my 508 
Koruter, R.—Mode of Investigating Echinorhynchi .. 1. 66 08 + 49 509 
KUKENTHAL, W.—Preparing the Nervous System of Opheliacee.. .. .. yy 409 


Hamann, O.—Preparation of Echinodermata... .. . 50. <i¢p 510 
Kouxrscuirzky, N.—Wethods of Fixing and Presering Aacnel Tissues % Ps 510 
Zorr, W.—Jsolating Lower Alge .. .. eae Mei aco See, acme dll 


Miscutoip, A.—Preservation of Parts and Or ae of Yinsnale Vue dee toe eanicteOoS 
THANHOFFER, L. V.— Two new Methods for Preparing Nerve-cells .. .. yy 658 
Bronpi, D.—New Wethod for the Microscopical Study of the Blood .. .. 4, 659 


Ranvizr, L.—Preparation and Staining of the Spinal Cord.. .. .. $s 660 
Curaruci, G.—Demonstrating the Canalicular Prolongations of Bone 
corpuscles A) bisa: OO eCn MO Chee Gio Wide ats ete. G05 661 


PaLavino, G.—Preparing Mammalian Ovaries .. «see oe eas - 662 
JOURDAN, E.—Preparing and Staining Annelida .. «+ 0s 10 we we gg 662 
Fraipont, J.—Preparing Polygordius .. ..  « ns 662 
ZAOHARIAS’ (O.) Method of Preparing Eygs of Ascaris meqalocnhaeee a0" O50 “gp 663 
Boverr’s (T.) Method of Preparing the Eggs of Ascaris megalocephala ..  ,, 664 
Kuiimr, C. C.—Jsolating Foraminifera... 0 20 a0 ono te we gg 664 
Branpt, K.—Preparing Sphxrozoa oC O06 ido) oc. do dD. to! gp 665 
Kine, J. D.—Preparation and Mounting of ere dq: Hoch sad 00° Sos do 665 
LacrerHEm, G.—Application of Lactic Acid to the Examination of Alge .. 4, 666 
TEMPERE’S oe ) Preparations of Diatoms el - 667 
TRZEBINSKI, S.—L fect of gies Agents on ne Ganglion Sais of the 

Snipe! Cline Gn 08 a0 00 poses ad. co oo oO on Wehinn dy) cull 
Diommorr, A.—Sublimate as a Hardening Medium for the Brain «2» 4 831 
Coxiin, A ee paenon of Criodrilus lacuum .. 50 832 
Kinstier, J.—Wethod of Preparing Tegumentary Filaments of Plagéllata .. - 832 
Fiscut, R.—New Method for eee Mier eee ae from Test- 


tube Cultivations .. .. . ee s slaty 1 Uissi 4 Spier ow OS 833 
Morean, T. H.—Chitin Solvents .. .. ees Sarahia phos 5 833 
WueE p_ey, H. M.—Preparing Slides to Ta Br ownian Aenprent 65 ee 833 
Mosso, A.—WMethods of Examining Blood-corpuscles 11 .» «+ +s See 6 1040 


Leicu, R.—Preserving Blood-corpuscles for Microscopical Examination .. ,, 1041 
OsERSTEIN, H.—WMethods for Investigating the Structure of the Central 


Nervous Organs in health and disease... bo 8 BOP ye Mizal 
Petrone, L.—WMethods for Examining the sinvcnee a the Corebroneinit 

INGr Be Bc ac a9 ae » 1042 
Wet, L. A. Hane, JER aeaationt “of Bore aa Teeth oor Retareng their 

soft parts .. .% SOM so cab ice) Pais pb gain BOLos 


WoonbHEAD, G. Sue pie ie te ‘Sections of fae Spe al eran hye OSS 


XXXVili CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
KiixentHat—Cleansing the Intestine of many animals of sand .. .. «. Part 6 1044 
Roun, L.—Killing contractile Animals in a state of extension » 1044 
Frwkes, J. W.—Preparation of Embryos of Asterias .. «+ +e » 1045 
Frepier, K.—/nvestigation of Generative Products of Spongilla .. » % 1elOzo 
HAveERLANDT, G.— New Method for Marking Root-hairs and for Hardening 
and oes Plant=cells) ss «s og AO) ch. co. lone oop 6 » 1045 
Kur, L.—Preparation of Fresh-water Aly  .. +s we » 1046 
Nixirorow. M.—Simple Method for Fixing Cover-glass Pr epar ee » 1047 
(8) Cutting, including Imbedding. 
SEAmMAN, W. H.—WMyrtle-wax Imbedding Process .. . Part 1 151 
Pirrsou, G. A.—Homogencous Paraffin .. so oD 151 
ScHIEFFERDECKER’S (P.) Wicrotome for cutting ri Bicol (Fig ig. 34) he Le 152 
Moru, J. W.—Application of Paraffin Imbedding in Botany.. .. « .. Part2 315 
Privzer, E.—New Imbedding Material .. .. 6 «+ «se of oF « is 316 
Daur’s (H. F.) Microtome (Figs. 60 and 61)... oP ars eS 317 
ScoHONLAND, 8.—Jmbedding Plant Tissues .. PP co OO don cscna)) alll 
Ryper, J. A.—Celloidin-parafjin Methods of Taedaing 3 Ace Ok % 512 
Vinassa, E.—Pharmacognostic Microtome and Technique (Figs. 93 ae 94) ie 513 
DovaL, M.—Collodion for Imbedding in Embryology «6 «+ + «+ «» Part 4 667 
Scuwase’s Sliding Microtome (Fig. 109) Fo. , 200 ss 668 
ZWARDEMAKER, H.—Accessory to the Cambridge ooking Microtone (Fi igs. 

NO) c7pe4 OUD) aoe och oc SO sie ane 669 
Bumevs, H. C.—Inexpensive Seaton seothier (Fig ig. 112) ; te 670 
Avs<tuy, J.—Preparing Long Series of Sections with Celloidin ..  «. 5 670 
Prover Thickness of Microscopical Sections .. +. Sj 00 oo 4 671 
Neisser, A.—Preparing Sections from Test-tube Guttiections no a 0G 671 
Krysinsxi & G. M. Berrnger—Photoxylin for Imbedding . . Part 5 834 
CampBeLL, D. H.—Paraffin-imbedding Process in Botany .. . 53 834 
Avcruy, 8.—Further Notes on Celloidin Technique le oe eer 3 836 
Bruce’s (A.) Microtome for cutting whole sections of the Brain and Ane 

ongans (Rigs) loa and Wot) ried) esa p ees, (ele! isis) ciel wei leet ies igs 837 
Tuate’s (P.) New Microtome (Fig. ia. 5 : » 839 
Erpos, J.— Accessory for rapid cutting with the Thoma Mior Sis (Fi. 156) a 840 
Srrasser, H.—New Section-stretcher, with arrangements for removing the 

Section . «. oe f Ath odie 200 ods Von 841 
Catrucart Improved ienatome Chas 182 Pe 1183) Jo. at “pat 6 1047 
Reeves, J. E.—Thin Sections . 4 ob peniee a e 3 1048 

(4) Staining and Injecting. 
Bazes, V.—Methods for Pathological Investigations .. .. « .«. «. Partl 154 
Kuaatscu, H.—Staining of Ossification Preparations .. .. se 4 154 
HerxueEmmer, K.—Staining the Elastic Fibres of the Skin .. os » aa 
Boccarpi, G.—Staining Nerve-terminations with Chloride of Gold ae 155 
ZIMMERMANN, A.—Demonstrating the Membrane of the Bordered Pits in 

CONN ON RE as Valen Se 2 piss Wales Man tlt) Assn P Yael 8 oe m 155 
DRrupe, O:—Staining Diatoms.. “as se 0 os e* 20 | vs ow) gy 156 
Linpner, P.—Stained Yeast-preparations .. «s +s «6 48 oe we gg 156 
WESENER, F'.—Staining Lepra and Tubercle Bacilli .. «1 6s nae gy u\5y7/ 
GricorJew, A. W.—Specificness of the Tubercle Bacillus Stain .. i 157 
RoosEvELt, J. W.—WNew Staining Fluid... .. « A A GO | a0 rg 157 
Pierson, G. A.—Benda’s Modified Copper-hematox Ty Say IM Oley 158 
Derxuvuyzen, M. C.—Action of Staining.. .. «.« «« . a oe aes 158 
Hocusterter, .—WModification of Schiefferdecker’s Celloidin Gore rosion Mass ,, 159 


CONTENTS. KKK 


PAGE 
D’Apunno, G.—Staining Cultivation Media and its Results on micro-organisms Part 2 319 
Martinormi, C.—WNitrate of Silver Method .. 1 06 oe ae te weg 319 


Fresco, M.—Staining Living Preparations .. .. See ee Wao ee artion OO 
ARNSTELN, C.—Staining Nerve-endings with Methylen-bh TB ans Joe Scenes 515 
Marrinorti, G., & L. Resecort1—Demonstrating Karyokinetic Reires : 7 516 
Nout, F.—Staining Membranes in Living Siphonee AO. Og aC 3 516 


Wenpt, E. C.—Roux’s Colour-test for the detection of @ faciecus Ave tatty tty 517 
Aci Logwood Stain... .. Seer mets su et cclelaciccer hicet! | ss 517 
Borpen, W. C.—Alcoholic Winona Stain od. 90+ Mio wo 60 Gos Sp 517 
[SEMPARING PICTOCONINIMNG ss ce ae ce ee oe el 3 518 
FLemMinc, W.— Staining with Rosanilin Nitrate in paateer Gh, oc Solution 7 518 
Minurr, M. N.—WNew Injecting Mass .. . bn ab So ee 518 
Gray, W. M.—Double-staining of Nucleated lone enaniec ies Roe 608 owes YB: 
Kine, W.—Staining Nerve-endings with Gold Chioride 4. «+» + oF 4, 673 


Boccarnpt, G.—Staining Nerve-endings with Gold Chloride .. .. x 674 
“ SoHIEFFERDECKER, P.— Weigert’s Hematoxylin Method as applied oo ethoe 
than Nervous Tissues .. .. a0 00 00. oo "ed | 60. fh 674 
Bizzozero, G., & G. Vassate—Staining Mitceen. of ny OD BO ae 674 
ZIMMERMAN, A.—Staiming Leucoplasts, Eeaieinegr anes, Bocca Pit 
Membranes, and Woody Tissue .. . BG eG ebCe MONE eee 675 


Wercert, C.—New Method for Staining Fibrin nd Misroor nanan do 00 
PuatNer, G.—WNew Nuclear Stain and Note on Fimation .. 1. «1 « 4 675 
Lewin, A.—Baumgarten’s Method of Triple-staining .. 1. ss ss 
Bases, V.—Anilin-oil Safranin Solution., 1. 2 + Sh BA 0. op 676 


GrirspacH, H.—Wetanil-yellow .. .. AO tate ee CO: aay 677 
Brawns, R.—Simple Method for clearing Mathieu Todide a0, 400 fo) 677 
een, W. C.—Carmine Injections .. no So Od on oo 677 
Rostn’s, Lacaze-DutTuiers’, & FARABQUF’ 8 Injecting Syringes (Figs. 

113-115) ar aber steal on see ves 678 


For, H.—Collin’s Maeomate Coaleeolaee (Fig. 116)... 0. 00! 800% ado Ben 680 
Gray, W. M.—Double-staining of Nucleated Blood-corpuscles .. .. .. Part5 842 
Scuuttze, O.— Vital Methylen-blue Reaction of Cell-granules  .. 4. os 
Pinuirt, A.— Differential Staining of the Tissues of Living Animals .. .. 4 842 
Rorrerer, E.—Staining-differences of Unstriped Muscle and Connective 


TERME TINUED 60. 66 60 c > po: <e % 843 
Martinottri, C.—IJmprovements in ie eee anna Method fe Geer 
Nervous Tissue... aC 5 844 


ScHarrer, J.—Staining in the Study of Boe Senet are Bonen BOs mon Oe rr 844 
Prenant, A.—Preparing and Staining Mammalian Testicle.. .. 


James F. L.—Stain for the Morphological Elements in Urine .. .. .. yy 845 
Hauser, G.—Staining Spores... .. bo oo) ee Re cas a 845 
Liismorr, N.—Staining Tubercle and eecey Bacilli aR Rona Soh k ome 846 
Cuccati, G.—Alcoholic Solution of Hematoxylin .. .. 2. «5 «6 oe oy 846 
Kounossow, A.—Osmic Acid and Gold chloride Methods... .. .. «. a 846 
AtEvoul, E.—Phenol in Microscopical Technique .. - 847 


List, J. H.— Double Staining .. . RR oGs Bp Pho: tp 847 
Jacosi, E.—Hardening and Staining Ep ane. soll bers RcRMnn se 
Hoyer, H.—Jnjection Mass for the Vessels of the Spleen .. «1 se « 45 848 
Tacucul, K.—Jnjection with Indian Ink MG ipo) Sh OO. ss Os tO. 848 


Fresco, M.—Beck’s Microsyringe (Fig. 157) .. «2 wu ve so OF 849 
Mosso, A.—Wethyl-green for observing the oxen Reaction ae Death of 
Celis mer Boe) Bote 0 bbc .- « Fart6 1049 


NIKIFOROW, M.—Nuclear Cee Stain A ee we ak pet) tgs OOO 
Resecorri, L.—Staining Karyokinetic Figures .. 1. s+ oe «» «» 3 1050 


xl CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Nigirorow, M.—Safranin as a Stain for the Central Nervous System... .. Part 61051 


Hamitron, D. J.—Combining Weigert’s Hamatoxylin-copper Stain pe 

Nerve-fibre with the use of the freezing Microtome ..  .. oe toy) weer 
Fernta, L.—Staining of Elastic Fibres with Chromic Acid and Safran anin » | LORS 
Herricuer, E.—Congo-red as a Reagent for Cellulose Ae ee cp UE: 
Loomis, H. P.—Simple and rapid Staining of the Tubercle Bacillus co ce ey 


Nixtrorow, N.—Staining the Spirochete of Relapsing Fever .. «+ « yy 1054 
Souza, A. pe—Pyridin in Histological Technique .. .. » 1054 
GARBINI, A.—Modification a Garbini’s Double Stain with oe ae ee 

Safranin., +. epee cy ate: 


Worster, C.—Cong eee as a Reason Oe Tae Acids) s «| sy law 
Marrinorri, G.—Absorption of Anilin Pigments by Living Apna Cells ae. 45) welOdS 
Griespacu, H.— Theory of Microscopical Staining Py AG eto em a0, cg Libel 
Gace, S. H.—Starch injection-mass ee ie Beco SheenG woo O68 fp. (aye 


(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c. 
Mayer, P.—Fiaing Sections os wa, be oe | Soy Eb amen 


Prersou, G. A.—Substitute for Charing’ F a3 ‘ch 160 
Bryan, G. H.—WMounting in Canada Balsam by the epadine Method Ee es 160 
Warp, R. H.—Zndexing Microscopical Slides we 4 be SS. ee ae Sea 


Meates, A. E.—Medium of High See tas Index 4.0 eae | as Ge Eetbsimien 
Tayitor— Wax Cells co fee Me RL ge ee SCMMT camer meade <r 519 
Seaman, W. N.—Shellac Gana ene AR ater 520 
BRAMWELL, B.—Half-clearing method of pncearinty ie, ve Geckons .. « Part 4 680 
Pou, A.— Adaptation of Kaiser’s gelatin for arranging microscopic prepara- 

tions in rows .. or 680 
Ketter, 0. C.—Pur ‘fication of Tolu Basan for Aiorosnpea nomen 5 681 
Matassez, L.—Hot Plate Apparatus (Figs.117 and 118) .. .. -. 5 681 
ZABRISKIE, J. L.—Continuous Centering of a Cover-glass .. .. «- «+. Part 5 850 
Sremacn’s (E.) Filter-capsule (Figs. 158 and 159) «wwe ee ey 850 
KronFretp, M.—Apparatus for inclosing microscopical preparations of 


botanical objects mounted in glycerin (Fig. 160) .. .. Soe Gs 851 
Vries, H. peE—Preservation of Plants in Spirit and the Preieiion of 
Browning ot eae, ats MA ee eee Maotee Bet 55 852 


NELSON, J.— Fixing Bootie to ‘the ‘Slide 

Garpini, A.—Wounting of specimens to be poanuned with lomogencos 
MINORHAOMLLICNSES *+ ous <50 4b 2 lcd if se Mroni** 66 bes “oe - Xe Ses Waridonuem 

Marsson, Tu.—Preparing Styrax Balsam .. «1 «6 8 «+ o +» gy 1057 

Bare—Case for Cover-glasses 1. .. «+ «6 ++ 08 «8 «6 «oF we 99 1067 


5 ee 


(6) Miscellaneous. 

DissecTInG Dish (Fig. 35) .. we we se eer ise bee oe Hat elamG 
Mayet—Artificial Serum for Computation a Pinddecoueiacies oF 162 
Reeves’s Water-bath and Oven (Fig. 36) SOD, OPER CMO = ch 163 
Dory’s Balsam Bottle (Fig. 37) .. oe 163 
Erernon’s (A.) Apparatus for Stretching Monnens (Figs. 38 oe 39) 5 163 
Gace, H.—Determination of the Number of Trichinw or other Animal 

Parasites in Meat... .. At, Se 0 6 <p 164 
SELENKA, E.—WModels in Metal of Tense reel en aan ye es 165 
KronFretp, M.—Wew Reagent for Albuminoids  .. 0. + «+ oF «8 49 165 
Wuirre’s (T. C.) Elementary Microscopical Manipulation 5 “1 165 
ENGELMANN, T. W.—Colouring matter of blood as a means for dstngusi 

ing between the gas exchange of plants in light and darkness... .. Part 2 322 
Outver, F. W.—Dichrochemical Tests for Callus.. 1. 26 08 08 08 53 323 


CONTENTS. xli 
PAGE 
James's (F. L.) Teasing-Needle (Fig.95) .. é i eepatbeom 20 
Ferry & F. L. James—Wedico-legal Identification of iniocdaiains Ne seas 520 
Wiesner, J.—WMicroscopical Examination of Paper... se ws we weg 521 
ILLustTRATIONS to Microscopical Publications 46 MM cieg \icen) ey se 521 
Scan, J. F.—Leemrenhock’s Discovery of Micro-or: Sane ms Ph Mie econ 522 
(Crominmeniny Was Oy Uo t% ILMB 56 60 no go OG eo od 00 oy 522 
Corns CAe ©.) WMicroscomcal Preparations! 10s ce we ee 8m) seg 523 
ENock’s (F.) Insect Slides .. .. 5 523 
Bucuner, H., T. Lonearp, & G. = Method of iteatting the 
r widity of Bacterial Increase (Fig. 119) .. .. we wel ee arta: 682 
Hansen, BE. C.—Analysis of Water used for Brewing as eat ds Micro- 
organisms ar OO! ec :,. Eco -MROClmmos: NCONMEDO MN uos 685 
Strasser, H.— Vethods of Plastic acon trctiore SOL toc. © oo. sap seco Met atnay tolae 
Rarrer, G. W.—Making Mounts Photograplic .. deem pice. eo a 854 
Mayet—ZIJmproved method for Enumerating Biase once 39. 00 53 854 
Straus & Wurrz—Improved method a the Bacteriological E. Pannen 
Of Au =. SM eee se ones 854 
Smart, C.—-Gelatin Gutture Test for Mio ro- Sree of Water Shaan. oF 855 
ILLustRATIONS of Pond Life .. 855 


GarBInt'’s (A.) Closed Water-bath (Fig. 184) 50 6G 00 0 6G 7 sf Part 6 1058 


Vaiss, H. pe—New Application of the Plasmolytic Method... .. opp LOBE 
Perri, R. J.— New Method for aaa and Counting Bacteri ta art 
Fungi Spores in the air : 5 1059 
SCHNEIDEMHUL, ELLENBERGER & Bauaeeie pnyaivea ies “Effect of 
TREN AONE OUP IUD IABEROSGY I 5 00 00 60 0. si eSSSCS TT 
6 AMSTSUN GOS (1A URE ROTM ULE” Bo. 86 do oo eo. 6G.) oo co) eo on) gy allt) 
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SocleTY— 
December lal Sinks sek race pas crohns ce Oe ietciaa eee eget peel Grd 
January 11,1888 .. .. Spee te ONT aoe tic poe L Los 170 
February 8, 1888 (Annual Meeting) ee on Gy abso) Aue ree antiop Oop) 
Report of the Council for 1887 oreo ADO) incw sores eS 330 
Treasurer’s Account for 1887 o¢ 331 
March 14, 1888 Alig S DOMPR DO te 1OG er eon edom ice 8 aad e258 eec6e ice 332 
JNjoyabl AN ete ae segs Soo Go) ee Boe co) Ons Bor on eo enna VA 
May 9, 1888 sah Leow Gist Miao igh cme Neenerl eeu emits fons 529 
June 13,1888 =... .. Be Nope ado) coe) SRS. Sao coe MatAZL Moteiy/ 
November 23, 1887 (Converazions) ach ee sev Lee) shee, cena Son 
April 25, 1888 (Conversazione) Sarco Map Bec aser sao. pst 859 
OctoberslOMlSSSe est a. wee ate cee eae cae Se ae. 8h Part 6 1061 
Wovember 4 51SSS 0 Ge ce es, Be se en A law eg see) ge @ ROOD 


CHARTER AND BYE-LAWS. 


CHARTER. 


ee 


Victorin, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, To ann to wHom 
THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME GREETING: WHEREAS James Scott 
Bowerbank, Doctor of Laws, Fellow of the Royal Society; Rev. 
Joseph Bancroft Reade, Master of Arts, Fellow of the Royal Society ; 
Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward, Fellow of the Royal Society ; and others 
of our loving subjects, did, in the year 1839, establish a Society by 
the name of “THe Mioroscopican Soctrry or Lonpon,” for the 
advancement of Microscopical Science : 


AND WHEREAS it has been represented to us that the same Society 
has, since its establishment, sedulously pursued such its proposed 
object, by the researches of its members, and the collection and dis- 
cussion of observations, and by the publication of its transactions from 
time to time, which have contributed to the progress of Microscopical 
knowledge : 


AND WHEREAS distinguished individuals in foreign countries, as 
well as British subjects, have availed themselves of the facilities 
offered by the same Society for communicating important discoveries, 
greatly extending Microscopical knowledge; and the great and 
general interest now felt in those branches of Science, whereof the 
Microscope is an important instrument of investigation, has been 
greatly promoted and fostered by this Society : 


Ayp wHerzas the same Society has, in aid of its objects, acquired 
a considerable and important Library of Scientific Works, a large 
collection of Microscopic objects, and several valuable Microscopes, to 
which fresh accessions are constantly being made; and the said 
Society has hitherto been supported by donations and annual and 
other subscriptions and contributions to its funds, and has therefrom 
purchased and is possessed of a considerable amount of stock in the 
public funds : 


AND WHEREAS, in order to secure the property of the said Society, 
1888. e 


xliv CHARTER. 


to extend its operations, and to give it a more permanent establish- 
ment among the scientific institutions of our kingdom, we have been 
besought to grant to James Glashier, Fellow of the Royal Society, 
the present President of the said Society, and to those who now are 
or shall hereafter become members of the said Society, our Royal 
Charter of Incorporation for the purposes aforesaid : 


Now know YE THAT Ws, being desirous of encouraging a design 
so laudable and salutary, of our especial grace, certain knowledge, and 
mere motion, have willed, granted, and declared, and do by these 
presents, for us, our heirs and successors, will, grant and declare that 
the said James Glaisher, and such other of our loving subjects as 
now are members of the said Society, or shall from time to time be 
elected Fellows thereof, according to such regulations or bye-laws as 
shall be hereafter framed or enacted, and their successors shall for 
ever hereafter be by virtue of these presents one body politic and 
corporate, by the name of “The Microscopical Society of London” ; * 
and for the purposes aforesaid, and by the name aforesaid, shall have 
perpetual succession and a common seal, with full power and authority 
to alter, vary, break, and renew the same at their discretion, and by 
the same name to sue and be sued, implead and be impleaded, answer 
and be answered, unto and in every court of us, our heirs and suc- 
cessors, and be for ever able and capable in the law to purchase, 
receive, possess, hold and enjoy, to them and their successors, any 
goods and chattels whatsoever, and also to be able and capable in the 
law (notwithstanding the Statute of Mortmain) to take, purchase, 
hold, and enjoy to them and their successors a hall or house, and any 
such messuages, lands, tenements, or hereditaments whatsoever as may 
be necessary or expedient for carrying out the purposes of the Society, 
the yearly value of which, including the site of the said hall or house, 
shall not exceed in the whole the sum of 1000/., computing the same 
respectively at the time of the purchase or acquisition thereof, and to 
act in all the concerns of the said body politic and corporate as 
effectually, to all intents and purposes, as any other of our liege sub- 
jects, or any other body politic or corporate in our said kingdom, not 
being under any disability, might do in their respective concerns. 


And we do hereby grant our special licence and authority unto all 
and every person and persons, bodies politic and corporate (otherwise 
competent), to grant, sell, alien and convey in mortmain unto and to 
the use of the said body politic and corporate and their successors any 
messuages, lands, tenements, or hereditaments not exceeding such 
annual value as aforesaid. 


And our will and pleasure is, and we further grant and declare, 


* On the 1st November, 1866, Mr. Secretary Walpole notified to the President that 
Her Majesty had been graciously pleased “to command that the Society shall be 
styled the Royal Microscopical Society.” 


CHARTER. xlv 


that there shall be a General Meeting or General Meetings of the 
Fellows of the said Society to be held from time to time as hereinafter 
mentioned, and that there shall be a Council to direct and manage 
the concerns of the said body politic and corporate, and that the 
General Meetings and the Council shall have the entire direction and 
management of the same in the manner and subject to the regulations 
hereinafter mentioned. 


And we do hereby also will, grant, and declare that there shall be 
a President, Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, and Secretaries of the said 
body politic and corporate, and that the Council shail consist of the 
President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretaries, and not more than 
twelve nor less than eight other Fellows of the said Society. 


And we do hereby further will and declare that the said James 
Glaisher shall be the first President of the said body politic and 
corporate, and the other persons now being the Vice-Presidents, 
Treasurer, Secretaries, and Members of the Council shall be first 
Members of the Council, and shall continue such until the election of 
officers shall be made in pursuance of these presents. 


And we do hereby further will and declare that it shall be lawful 
for the Fellows of the said body politic and corporate hereby established 
to hold a General Meeting once in the year or oftener, for the purposes 
hereinafter mentioned; namely, that the President, Vice-Presidents, 
the Treasurer, the Secretaries, and other Members of the Council, 
shall be chosen at such General Meeting, and that the General 
Meetings shall from time to time make and establish such bye-laws, 
and vary and alter or revoke the same as they shall deem to be useful 
and necessary for the regulation of the said body politic and corporate, 
for the admission of Fellows and of Honorary and Foreign Members, 
and for the fixing the number of the Vice-Presidents and Officers, and 
for the management of the proceedings, and the estates, goods, and 
business of the said body politic and corporate, so that such bye-laws 
be not repugnant to these presents, or to the laws and statutes of this 
our realm, and shall and may also enter into any resolution and make 
any regulation respecting the affairs of the said body politic and 
corporate that may be necessary and proper: 


And we do further will and declare that the General Meetings 
shall take place at such time as may be fixed by the said Council, and 
that the present regulations of the said Society, so far as they are not 
inconsistent with these presents, shall continue in force until the same 
shall be altered by a General Meeting. 


And we further will, grant, and declare that the Council shall 
have the sole management of the income and funds of the said 
body politic and corporate, and the appointment of librarian, curator, 
and such other officers, attendants, and servants as the Council shall 

e 2 


xlvyi CHARTER. 


think necessary or useful, as also the entire management and superin- 
tendence of all the other affairs of the said Society, and shall and may, 
but not inconsistently with or contrary to the provisions of this our 
Charter, or any existing bye-law, or the laws and statutes of this our 
realm, do all such acts and deeds as shall appear to them necessary 
for carrying into effect the objects and views of the said body politic 
and corporate. 


PrRovIDED ALWaAys, and we do will and declare that the Council 
shall, from time to time, render to a General Meeting a full account 
of their proceedings, and that every Fellow of the Society may at all 
reasonable times, to be fixed by the said Council, see and examine the 
accounts of the receipts and payments of the said body politic and 
corporate. 


And we further will, grant, and declare that the whole property 
of the said body politic and corporate shall be vested, and we do hereby 
vest the same, solely and absolutely in the Fellows thereof, and that 
they shall have full power and authority to sell, alienate, charge, and 
otherwise dispose of the same as they shall think proper, but that no 
sale, mortgage, incumbrance, or other disposition of any messuages, 
lands, tenements, or hereditaments belonging to the said body politic 
and corporate shall be made, except with the approbation and con- 
currence of a General Meeting. 


AND WE LASTLY DECLARE it to be our Royal will and pleasure 
that no resolution or bye-law shall, on any account or pretence what- 
soever, be made by the said body politic and corporate, in opposition 
to the general scope, true intent, and meaning of this our Charter, or 
the Laws or Statutes of our Realm: And that if any such rule or 
bye-law shall be made, the same shall be absolutely null and void to 
all intents, effects, constructions and purposes whatsoever. 


IN WITNESS WHEREOF we have caused these our Letters to 
be made Patent. 


WITNESS OURSELF, at our Palace at Westminster, this twenty- 
eighth day of August in the thirtieth year of our reign. 


By Her Masesty’s Commanp. 


(Signed) CARDEW. 


BY E-LAWS. 


I. OxsEots > (ie en Pe a eke, Sa rere 1 
MPC ONSTITUTIONM et. L -ctt a eel. bets soso 2 Gl, care OE i oe 2-3 
III. Manacement SE ae eel oe 8 Pied bs, Oe 4 
IV. Fettows :— 
A. Election— 
(a) Ordinary Wellows 9%. a. Se Pe, es =O 
(b) Honorary Fellows erent, SaaS) bsnl 
@)elx-oficio Bellows\c | asta. ttn in om e LOKLD 
B. Admission Fee, Annual Subscription, and Com- 
position ea ee ca os nel oe ee AO 
CP PTVMGIOS sae toict | ts ae ae ae AO ey Pa) SOU 
D. Withdrawal and Removal 5 rs cf ee lest 
V. Covuncm :— 
A. Hlection .. ie = “ - * : a5 SS 
ib. Proceedings- 9.00 2-4 ade 21.) Gdn lao dos 
VI. OFrFicers :— 
A. President and Vice-Presidents AA a Gc eae ods. See aR 
B. Treasurer .. 5% ms = 3 ce if Se 55 DSK ES 
C. Secretaries Sie We FS tas Stet Ses Oe ie tO tA 
WME GrNnnnat, Memrines.. -2:4 4.'9 eso a” os on ObZTS 
AMOrdmary 25-620 Wa de Or | GENS be EEL R76 
B. Annual... soy Rr hea ee yt Geek ee 65 SIL 
Ce Specials. 9 2i/ 40 “ohh avai Ce Soe eed OR S84 
VIII. Lisrary anp CaBINET if re ete fe ee eR Br, 
IX. Papers AND PUBLICATIONS Bie Nea taxi Sen 7 OS =94: 
X. Notices ee ee ee eh eer os - wi - co) DO 
XI. ALTERATION OF ByYE-LAWS £ = te Peer SA ae! gee og 
COIN TERPRETATION US kok vate eee ie ch Se ae 100 


I. Objects. 


1. The Objects of the Society are the promotion of Microscopical 
and Biological Science by the communication, discussion, and publica- 
tion of Observations and Discoveries relating to (1) Improvements in 
the Construction and mode of Application of the Microscope, or 
(2) Biological or other subjects of Microscopical Research. 


slvin BYE-LAWS. 


II. Constitution. 


2. The Society shall consist of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-officio 
Fellows, without distinction of sex. 

3. The number of Ordinary Fellows shall not be limited. The 
number of Honorary Fellows shall be limited to fifty, and of Ex-officio 
Fellows to one hundred. 


III. Management. 


4, The management of the Society's property and affairs shall 
be vested in a Council consisting of twenty Members (all being 
males), viz.:—eight Officers (a President, four Vice-Presidents, a 
Treasurer, and two Secretaries) and twelve other Ordinary Fellows 
(hereinafter referred to as “Ordinary Members of Council”). 


IV. Fellows. 
A. Election. 
(a) Ordinary Fellows. 


5. Every candidate desirous of being elected an Ordinary Fellow 
must be proposed by three or more Ordinary Fellows who must sign 
a certificate setting forth his names, place of residence, and deserip- 
tion. The Fellow whose name stands first upon the certificate, must 
have personal knowledge of the candidate. 

6. The certificate shall be read by the President, Vice-President, 
or other Chairman, or one of the Secretaries at the General Meeting 
next after its receipt, and shall then be suspended in one of the rooms» 
of the Society, and shall be read a second time at the next succeeding 
General Meeting. 

7. The votes on any election of Ordinary Fellows shall be taken 
by ballot. 

8. The ballot shall take place at the General Meeting at which the 
certificate shall have been read for the second time. No ballot shall 
be valid unless ten or more votes are recorded ; and when at least two- 
thirds of the votes are in favour of the candidate, he shall be declared 
duly elected. 

9. The Secretaries shall send a notice of election, together with a 
copy of these Bye-Laws, to every Ordinary Fellow so elected. 

10. Every person elected an Ordinary Fellow shall sign the 
following form of declaration and shall pay the admission fee and first 
annual subscription or composition within two months from the date 
of election, or within such further time as the Council may allow. 
In default of such signature and payment the election of such Fellow 
shall be void. 


I, the undersigned, having been elected a Fellow of the Royan 
MicroscoricaL Socrery, hereby agree that I will be governed by the 
Charter and Bye-Laws of the Society for the time being; and that 


BYE-LAWS. xlix 


Twill advance the objects of the Society as far as shall be in my 
power. Provided that when I shall signify in writing to one of the 
Secretaries that I am desirous of ceasing to be a Fellow thereof, 
IT shall (after payment of all annual subscriptions that may be due 
from me, and returning any books, or other property belonging to 
the Society in my possession) be free from this obligation. 


Witness my hand the day of 18 


(b) Honorary Fellows. 


11. Any person eminent in Microscopical or Biological Science 
shall be eligible for election as an Honorary Fellow. 

12. Such person must be proposed by five or more Ordinary 
‘ Fellows, who must sign a certificate setting forth his names, place of 
residence, and description, and stating that he is eminent in Micro- 
scopical or Biological Science, and that they have a personal knowledge 
of him or are acquainted with his works. 

13. The certificate shall be laid before the Council, and if they 
approve of the person named therein, shall be read and suspended, 
and the ballot for such person shall take place in the same manner 
as is hereinbefore provided for the election of Ordinary Fellows. 

14. The Seeretaries shall send a notice of election, together with 
a copy of these Bye-Laws, to every Honorary Fellow so elected. 


(c) Ha-Officio Fellows. — 


15. The President for the time being of any Society having 
objects in whole or in part similar to those of this Society, shall be 
eligible for election as an Ex-officio Fellow. 

16. Such person must be proposed by ten or more Ordinary 
Fellows, who must sign a certificate setting forth his names, place of 
residence, and description, and the name of the Society of which he is 
President. 

17. The certificate shall be laid before the Council, and if they 
approve of the person named therein, shall be read and suspended, 
and the ballot for such person shall take place in the same manner 
as 1s hereinbefore provided for the election of Ordinary Fellows. 

18. The Secretaries shall send a notice of election, together with 
a copy of these Bye-Laws, to every Ex-officio Fellow so elected. 

i9. On any Ex-officio Fellow ceasing to be President of such 
Society as aforesaid, his successor shall ¢pso facto become an Ex-officio 
Fellow, unless the Council shall otherwise resolve, in which case 
such successor must be proposed for election and balloted for in 
manner provided in Arts. 16 and 17. 


B. Admission Fee, Annual Subscription, and Composition. 


20. Every Ordinary Fellow shall pay an admission fee of two 
guineas, and a further sum of two guineas as an annual subscription. 


| BYE-LAWS. 


21. The annual subscription shall be due on election and there- 
after in advance on the Ist of January in each year. 

22. Ordinary Fellows elected in March or April in any year shall 
be exempted from payment of one-sixth of the annual subscription 
for that year; those elected in May or June, in October, or in 
November or December, shall be exempted from payment of two- 
sixths, four-sixths, and five-sixths respectively of such subscription, 
according to the month in which they are elected. 

23. Any Ordinary Fellow who may permanently reside out of the 
United Kingdom shall be exempted from payment of one-fourth of the 
annual subscription; and any Ordinary Fellow who may be absent 
from the United Kingdom during the whole of one year, shall, upon 
notifying the fact to one of the Secretaries in writing, be similarly 
exempted during such year. 

24. The Council may remit all or any of the past or future annual 
subscriptions of any Ordinary Fellow if they shall think desirable, 
but the reason for such remission shall be stated in the resolution by 
which it is granted. 

25. Every Ordinary Fellow who may desire to compound for his 
future annual subscriptions may do so by a payment of thirty guineas ; 
or, if permanently residing out of the United Kingdom, by a payment 
of three-fourths of such sum. If such last-mentioned Fellow shall sub- 
sequently come to reside within the United Kingdom, he shall forth- 
with pay the remaining one-fourth of such sum. 

26. Honorary and Ex-otiicio Fellows shall not be liable to pay 
any admission fee or annual subscription. 


C. Privileges. 


27. All Ordinary Fellows shall be entitled to propose candidates 
for election as Fellows; to be elected, and to nominate Fellows for 
election, as Members of the Council or as Officers; to introduce one 
male visitor at any General Meeting; to receive the publications of 
the Society; and to inspect and use the books, instruments, and 
other property of the Society, under such regulations as the 
Council may from time to time determine. All Ordinary Fellows 
(being males) shall have the right to be present, to state their 
opinion, and to vote at all General Meetings. 

28. No Ordinary Fellow shall vote on any occasion, or be entitled 
to any of the privileges of a Fellow, until he has signed the declara- 
tion and made the payments mentioned in Art. 10, nor if his annual 
subscription is twelve months in arrear. 

29. Honorary Fellows shall have all the privileges of Ordinary 
Fellows, except those of proposing candidates for election as Fellows, 
being elected and nominating Fellows for election as Members of the 
Council or as Officers, receiving the publications of the Society, and 
yoting at General Meetings. 

30. Ex-officio Fellows shall have all the privileges of Ordinary 


BYE-LAWS. hi 


Fellows, except those of proposing candidates for election as Fellows, 
being elected and nominating Fellows for election as Members of the 
Council or as Officers, and voting at General Meetings. 


D. Withdrawal and Removal. 


31. Any Fellow may withdraw from the Society after having 
paid all annual subscriptions due from him, returned any books or 
other property belonging to the Society in his possession, and given 
written notice to one of the Secretaries of his desire to withdraw. 

32. The Council may remove any Ordinary Fellow from the 
Society whose annual subscription shall be more than two years in 
arrear, but before removing him shall serve him with a notice stating 
the amount of his arrears, and that in the event of non-payment 
thereof within twenty-eight days he will be lable to be so removed. 
Such removal shall not prejudice the right of the Society to recover 
the arrears at any time thereafter. 

33. Any Ordinary Fellow who shall have been removed under the 
provisions of Art. 32 may, on payment of all arrears, be reinstated by 
the Council. 

34. Whenever there may be any other cause to remove any 
Fellow from the Society, the Council shall propose a resolution to 
that effect, which shall be read at two successive General Meetings, 
and suspended in the interval in one of the rooms of the Society. 
At the second of such meetings a ballot shall be taken, and if two- 
thirds of the votes shall be in favour of the removal of such Fellow 
he shall be removed from the Society accordingly. 


V. Council. 


A. Election. 


35. The Council shall be elected at the Annual Meeting in each 
year, at which Meeting all the Members of the Council shall retire 
from office. 

36. The President and Vice-Presidents shall be ineligible for 
election to their respective offices for more than two years in succession, 
and four of the twelve Ordinary Members of Council shall in each year 
be ineligible for re-election as such Ordinary Members. 

37. The Council at their meeting in December, shall prepare a 
list of Fellows to be recommended to the Society for election at the 
ensuing Annual Meeting, which list shall be read at the General 
Meeting in January. 

58. Any three or more Fellows who shall be desirous of nomi- 
nating any other Fellow for election may do so by delivering a 
nomination paper to the Secretaries, duly signed, before the close of 
such General Meeting. 

39. The votes on any election of the Council shall be taken by 
ballot. 


hii BYE-LAWS. 


40. The names of all the Fellows nominated shall be printed in one 
balloting paper, which shall state by whom the nominations are made. 
41. Any Fellow may erase any name from the balloting paper, 
aie insert in place thereof the name of any other duly qualified 
“ellow. 

42. If for any reason a new Council shall not be elected at the 
Annual Meeting, the Council for the time being shall continue in 
office for the year ensuing, or until a new Council shall be elected by 
a Special General Meeting, and if the place of any Officer or Ordinary 
Member of Council is not filled up the Council shall have power to fill 
such vacancy. 

43. If in the interval between any two Annual Meetings the place 
of any Officer or Ordinary Member of Council shall become vacant, 
the Council shall have power to fill such vacancy. 


B. Proceedings. 


44, The Council shall hold their Meetings at such times as they 
may appoint. 

45. Meetings may be called at any time by the President or by 
three other Members. 

46. Five Members shall constitute a quorum, and if within half 
an hour from the time appointed for the Meeting a quorum be not 
present, the Meeting shall be dissolved. 

47. In the absence of the President and Vice-Presidents from 
any meeting, the Members shall choose one of their number to take 
the Chair, and such Member shall, for the time being, have all the 
authority and privileges of the President. / 

48. The votes on any question before the Council shall be by 
show of hands, unless a ballot shall be demanded by any two Members. 

49. The decision of the majority of Members voting at any 
Meeting shall be considered as the decision of the Meeting. 

50. The Council may, from time to time, appoint any Members of 
their body to be a Committee to deal with any matter referred to it. 
Any such Committee shall conform to any regulations that may be 
imposed on it by the Council. 

51. No resolution of the Council shall be rescinded by a sub- 
sequent Meeting, unless notice of the intention to propose such 
rescission shall have been sent to the Members one week prior to the 
subsequent Meeting. 

52. The common seal of the Society shall not be affixed to any 
document, except at a meeting of the Council and pursuant to a 
resolution duly passed thereat; and such document shall then be 
signed by the President, Vice-President, or other Chairman of such 
meeting, and by one of the Secretaries. 

53. At the commencement of each year the Council shall prepare 
a Report on the affairs of the Society for the preceding year. 


BYE-LAWS. hii 


VI. Officers. 
A. President and Vice- Presidents. 


54. The President shall take the Chair at all meetings of the 
Society or Council, and shall regulate the proceedings thereat. He 
shall be a member of all Committees appointed by the Council or by 
any General Meeting. 

55. In the case of an equality of votes at any Meeting, the Presi- 
dent shall be entitled to a second or casting vote. 

56. In the absence of the President from any Meeting, it shall be 
the duty of one of the Vice-Presidents to take the Chair, and he shall 
for the time being have all the authority and privileges of the 
President. 


B. Treasurer. 


57. The Treasurer shall receive all moneys due to the Society, and 
shall pay therefrom only such amounts as may be ordered by the 
Council. 

58. All moneys received by the Treasurer shall be paid by him 
to the Society’s Bankers, a sum not exceeding 20/. being retained for 
the payment of current expenses. 

59. The Treasurer shall keep an account of his receipts and 
payments, and shall produce the same whenever required by the 
Council. 

60. The Treasurer shall lay before the Council at their meeting 
in January a list of ail Ordinary Fellows in arrear of their annual 
subscriptions. 

61. Two Ordinary Fellows, one a member, and the other not a 
member of the Council, shall be appointed at the General Meeting in 
January to audit the Treasurer’s account for the past year. They 
shall have the power of calling for all necessary books, papers, 
vouchers, and information. 

62. ‘The account so audited shall be signed by the Auditors, and 
laid before the next succeeding Annual Meeting. 


C. Secretaries. 


63. The Secretaries shall take, or cause to be taken, minutes of 
the proceedings of all Meetings, and produce and read them at the 
ensuing Meetings; they shall conduct the business and corre- 
spondence of the Society ; and shall discharge all such other duties as 
are usually discharged by Secretaries of Scientific Societies. 

64. The Council may appoint an Assistant Secretary and 
Librarian, and assign to him such duties as it may think desirable, 
at such remuneration as it may deem proper. 


liv BYE-LAWS. 


VII. General Meetings. 


65. The General Meetings shall be of three kinds—Ordinary, 
Annual, and Special. 

66. Ten Ordinary Fellows shall constitute a quorum, and if within 
half an hour from the time appointed for the Meeting a quorum shall 
not be present, the Meeting shall be dissolved. 

67. In the absence of the President and Vice-Presidents, the 
Members of Council present shall choose one of their number to take 
the Chair, or if no such member shall be present, the Meeting may 
elect any Ordinary Fellow present to take the Chair, and the Fellow 
so presiding shall for the time being have all the authority and 
privileges of the President. 

68. All votes shall be taken by show of hands, except in the cases 
where by these Bye-Laws it is provided that votes shall be taken by 
ballot. 

69. The decision of the majority of Fellows voting at any 
Meeting shal] be considered as the decision of the Meeting. 

70. The President, Vice-President, or other Chairman may, with 
the consent of the Meeting, adjourn any Meeting from time to time 
and from place to place, but no business shall be transacted at any 
adjourned Meeting other than the business left unfinished at the 
Meeting from which the adjournment took place. 

71. At any Meeting a declaration by the Chairman that a reso- 
lution has been passed or lost, and an entry to that effect in the 
Minute-Book of the Society, shall be sufficient evidence of the fact, 
and in the case of a resolution requiring any particular majority, that 
it was passed by the majority required, without proof of the number 
or proportion of the yotes recorded in favour of or against such 
resolution. 

72. Minutes shall be made in a book provided for that purpose of 
all resolutions and proceedings of General Meetings, and any such 
minutes, if signed by any person purporting to be the Chairman of 
the Meeting to which they relate, or by any person present thereat 
and appointed by the Council to sign the same in his place, shall be 
received as conclusive evidence of the facts therein stated. 

73. Visitors may be present at any Meeting if introduced by 
Fellows, and provided they sign their names in the Attendance Book. 


A. Ordinary. 


74. The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall be held at 
8 o'clock p.m. on the second Wednesday in each month, from October 
to January, and March to June inclusive. 
75. The ordinary course of business shall be as follows :— 
1st. The minutes of the proceedings of the previous Meeting 
shall be read, submitted for approval, and if approved, 
signed by the President, Vice-President, or other 
Chairman of the Meeting. 


BYE-LAWS. lv 


2nd. The certificates of candidates for election shall be read 
and the ballot for the election of Fellows shall take place. 
3rd. The donations received since the last Meeting shall be 
announced. 
4th. The objects exhibited shall be described. 
5th. Scientific communications shall be read and discussed. 
6th. Any other business connected with the affairs of the 
Society shall be transacted which can be properly 
transacted at an Ordinary Meeting. 
76. No question relating to the Bye-Laws or the management or 
affairs of the Society shall be discussed or voted upon at any Ordinary 
Meeting. 


B. Annual. 


77. The Annual Meeting shall be held at 8 o’clock p.m. on the 
second Wednesday in February. 

78. Scientific communications shall not be read or discussed at 
the Annual Meeting, but in lieu thereof the following shall be the 
ordinary course of business, in addition to the matters Nos. 1 to 4 in 
Art. 75. 

5th. The Report of the Council for the past year shall be read 
by one of the Secretaries. 

6th. The Treasurer shall read an account of his receipts and 

ayments during the past year. 

7th. The Ballot shall take place for the election of the Council 
for the ensuing year. 

8th. Any alteration proposed in the Bye-Laws of the Society 
shall be discussed and, if necessary, voted on. 

9th. The President shall read his Annual Add@ress. 

10th. Any other business connected with the affairs of the 

Society shall be transacted which can be properly 
transacted at an Annual Meeting. 

79. The President, Vice-President, or other Chairman shall 
appoint two Scrutineers from among the Ordinary Fellows present, 
not being members of the Council or nominated for election thereto, 
to take the ballot for the election of the Council. 

80. The Scrutineers shall receive the balloting papers from the 
Fellows present and entitled to vote, and shall report the names of 
the Fellows elected and the number of votes to the President, Vice- 
President, or other Chairman, who shall thereupon announce the 
names of the persons elected. 

81. Any balloting paper containing a greater number of names 
for any office than the number to be elected thereto shall be rejected 
by the Scrutineers. 


C. Special. 


82. The Council may at any time convene a Special General 
Meeting. 


lyi BYE-LAWS. 


83. Any ten Ordinary Fellows may, by a requisition in writing 
signed by them specifying the object of the Meeting, require a Special 
General Meeting to be held for the purpose of discussing and voting 
upon any question relating to the Bye-Laws or the management or 
affairs of the Society; and the Secretaries, upon receiving such a 
requisition, shall call a Meeting accordingly. 

84. One week’s notice at least of every Special General Meeting 
shall be given, either by announcing the same at the Ordinary 
Meeting immediately preceding the Special Meeting, or by notice 
in writing served upon the Ordinary Fellows as hereinafter provided. 
Such notice shall state the place, day, and hour of meeting, and the 
general nature of the business for which the Meeting is called, and no 
other business shall be brought forward thereat. 


VIII. Library and Cabinet. 


85. The books, instruments, and other property of the Society 
may be inspected and used by the Fellows, under such regulations as 
the Council may from time to time determine. 

86. No instruments or other property, except books, shall be 
taken out of the Society's rooms without the permission of the 
Council. 

87. A Catalogue of the contents for the time being of the Library 
and Cabinet, and of the other property of the Society, shall be kept 
by the Librarian, who shall also keep a list of all donations to the 
Society, and of all property borrowed by the Fellows. 


IX. Papers and Publications. 


88. All papers shall be approved by the Council previously to 
being read at any Meeting, but such approval shall not be taken as 
expressing any opinion upon any of the statements contained in such 

apers. 
"89. Papers shall be read in such order as the Council shall think 
fit. 

90. The Society shall in all cases have the right to publish any 
paper read, or taken as read, at any Meeting. 

91. Papers shall be published either in the Journal of the Society, 
or in such other manner as the Council shall think fit. 

92. The copyright of a paper (and of the drawings, if any, 
accompanying it) read, or taken as read, at any Meeting shall be the 
property of the Society, unless the author at the time of sending the 
same shall stipulate to the contrary, and provided that the Society 
publish the same within six months after its receipt. 

93. The authors of papers published by the Society shall be 
entitled to such number of copies thereof as the Council shall from 
time to time determine. 


BYE-LAWS. lvl 


94, The Council may present copies of any of the publications of 
the Society to, or exchange the same with, such persons and Societies 
as they may think fit. 


X. Notices. 


95. A Notice may be served upon any Fellow either personally 
or by sending it through the post in a prepaid letter addressed to 
such Fellow at his last known address. 

96. Any notice sent by post shall be deemed to have been served 
on the day following that on which it was posted; and in proving 
such service it shall be sufficient to prove that the notice was properly 
addressed and posted. 

97. Any Fellow residing at any place not within the Postal 
Union may name an address within the Postal Union at which all 
notices shall be served upon him, and all notices served at such 
address shall be deemed to be well served. If he shall not have 
named such an address, he shall not be entitled to any notices or to 
receive any of the publications of the Society. 


XI. Alteration of Bye-Laws. 


98. No alteration in the Bye-Laws of the Society shall be dis- 
cussed or made, except.at an Annual Meeting, or at a Special General 
Meeting convened for the purpose. 

99. Notice of every alteration proposed to be made in the Bye- 
Laws shall be given either by announcing the same at the Ordinary or 
Annual Meeting immediately preceding the Meeting at which the 
alteration is intended to be proposed, or by notice in writing served 
upon the Ordinary Fellows as hereinbefore provided. 


XII. Interpretation. 


100. In the construction of these Bye-Laws words denoting 
the singular number only shall include the plural number also, and 
vice versd, and words denoting the masculine gender only shall include 
the feminine gender also, unless there be something in the context 
inconsistent therewith. 


ee. paid tink ot? 


i as sy i i of 
Be ie, GIRS WD Wit Scale 
n ; Leo i - = 


\é 5 ee 


The Title, Contents, and Index will be issued on February 15th. 


ys 1888. Part 1. FEBRUARY. { To Non-Fellows, | 
JOURNAL 
OF THE 


ROYAL 
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY; 


CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS, 


AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT. RESEARCHES RELATING TO 
ZOOLOGY AND BOTAN TZ 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 


MICROSCOPY, &c- 


Edited by 
FRANK CRISP, LLB. B.A, 
One of the Secretaries of the Society 
and a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Society of London; 
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND 
A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., F. JEFFREY BELL, M.A., F.ZS., 
Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas’s Hospital, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in King’s College, 
JOHN MAYALL, Jon., F.Z5., R. G. HEBB, M.A., M.D. (Cantad.), 
AND 
J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., 
Lecturer on Zoology in the School of Medicine, Edinburgh, 
FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 
LONDON AND EDINBURGH. 


\Prs 


(STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS, 


PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS; LIMITED, ] 


CONTENTS. 


—— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE Soommty— 


I.—Fresu-watrr Atam (1noLupiInc CaLoropHyiiovs Proropryta) 
or THE ENnaiisn Lane Distriot. II. Wire pusoriprions oF 
A NEW GENUS AND FIVE NEW sPEcIES. By Alfred W. Bennett, 
F.R.MLS., F.L.8., Lecturer on pOeny at St. Thomas's 
Hospital (Plate ay PHS ah SAN ¥ 
IT.—Novts on Memeaermaris! AMERICANA, Hates. AND ITS Vee 
By W. M. Maskell, F.R.M.S. (Plate 1.) Sees: 


III.—Norr on tue Minvute Srrvcrure or PELOMYXA PALUSTRIS. 
Dy. Gi. Cavan SAN, An ie Ponce ae aS 


SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES. 


ZOOLOGY. 


A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 
a Embryology. 


Lerypie, F.—Animal Ovum 

Carini, A.—Maturity of the Ovum... 

ScuuiTzE, O.—Avis of Frog Ovum 

KACzANDER, J.—Relation of Medullary Canal and Primitive Streak 

JENSEN, O. S.—Spermatogenesis ‘ Vine woes 

Janosix, J.—Two Young Human Embryos eRe Gao SV Meth, tee pay 

Geruacn, L.—Ezperimental Embryology... «ss nae tet 
8. Histology. 


Louxyanow, 8. M.—Morphology of the Cell. v0 6. ee ee 
a on Wrbclee, of Miagclaceu ssa so: es ok Weatee ean Ge tT de he 
Tane., F.—Cell-division .. .. ELE Oe Sig OE at Ts rah airs 


y. General. 
MENS Aqwikic LOcomayon 5.0" os 20 oe". i we de aw bless ted = see ch ee cata 
B. INVERTEBRATA. 
Mollusca. 


B. Gastropoda. 
Lica H. pr, & G. Provor—ZLarval Anal Hye in Optsthobranch 


Gastropods .. .« st ae ite Sieh Sate tt ee 
Lacaze-Duruirrs, H. * pe—Nervous System of Aplysia SER eh GROW a ee PI 
Bovyier, E. L.—Nervous System of Prosobranchs  .. se ss cs et 
Sarasin, P. & F.—Development of Helix Waltont .. 1 6s ke aw 
GRoBBEN, C.—Morphology of the Heteropod Foot BS Te One eS sae (aa 

: y. Pteropoda. ; 
PELSENEER, P.—Nervous System of Pteropods .. perisesnted paascenee 
& » ‘Challenger’ Pteropoda (Gymnosomata) .. eats fess eee oneen et 


6. Lamellibranchiata. 
Dusors, R.—Photogenic Property of Pholas dactylus .,. .. 2. 2s ew ee we 


PFAGB 


Il 


S355) 


Molluscoida. 


q Tunicata, 
LAHILLE, F.—Central Nervous System .. +» 


B. Polyzoa- 
esta A. DE—Spermatogenesis 
Verworn, M.—Fresh-water Bryozoa 

Arthropoda. 
Grassi, B.—Primitive Insects .. Res nes 
: a, Insecta. 


Emery, 0.—Love-lights of Luciola . : Ss 
4 ra Hoey and Parasitism of Camponotus lateralis a 

HAnovuirson, A.—Sand-wasps..  ., eS 
GRABER, V.—Thermic Experiments on Periplaneta orientalis .. 
Uneon, F.—Diminution in Weight of Chrysalis .. ++ «2 ss 


Cracero, G. V.—Eyes of Diptera .. .. 2 
Buocumann, J.—Bacteria-like Bodies in Tissues ‘and Ova. 
Merenin, P.—Fauwna of the Tombs .. «1 en we ee tee 


B. Myriopoda. 
PLaveau,. F.—Powers of Vision 9 6s 00 ee ae ne 
y. Prototracheata. 
SHELDON, Ee Pecclapmnent of Peripatus Nove-Zealandiz .. 
6. Arachnida. 
AURIVILLIUE, C. W. S.—Acarida on Trees .. 


e Crustacea. 


Kinestey, J. 8. —Development of the ie tent Hae oe Cong 
Sars, G. O.—‘ Challenger’ Cumacea .. ee 

Fi ‘ Challenger’ Phyllocarida SaSe Lo Bait in oe Ge 
Ganemr, A.—Structure of Cyprinide 1. - +e se noe 


Vermes. 
a, Annelida. 


WuitMan, ¥ O.—Germ-layers of Clepsine...  .. «+ »» 
Berrecit, D.—Salivary Glands of Leech .. .. «»  « 
pel tage E. B.—Germ-bands of Lumbricus .. 


Griarp, A.—Photodrilus Bers us, Type of a New Genus of Phosphorescent 


Lumbricids .. .. ‘ ieee = 
ere W.—Enchytretdz Diae Someee pace kee prameeces 
Draco, W.—Parasite of Telphusa.. .. ete 
Cunnincuam, J. T.—Anatomy of Polychata X 


Grarr, L. v.—Annelid Genus Spinther . 1. ++ « pe 
SmonELui, V.—Siructure of Serpula .. aan! tae Sten 


B. Nemathelminthes. 


Canrnoy, J. B.—Maturation and Division of Ascaris Ova 
= = Polar Bodies in Ascaris = ve 

Zacuartas, O.—Fertilization of Ascaris megalocephala 

LABOULBENE, A.—Larval Stage of Species of Ascaris.. 


y- Platyhelminthes. 


Linton, E.—Cestoid Embryos... «1 + 

Grassi, B.—Tenia nana . 

Wnricut, R. Ramsay, & A. B. MAcaLtum—Sphyranura osleré 
Porrter, J.—New Human Distomum 

Heckert, G.—Natural History of Leucoch loridium paradceum 
Hasweti, W. A.—Temnocephala .. oe 
Liyton, E.—Trematode in white of newly-laid Hen’s Egg. 
Drvo.etTzKy, R.—Lateral Organs of Nemerteans 

Husrecut, A, A. W.—‘ Challenger’ Nemertea .. 


ee 


vo 


oe 


PAGE 


City) 


5. Incertee Sedis, PAGE 
Zevinka, C.— Parasitic Rotifer—Discopus Synapte 2 6. ee ee ee te OD 
Echinodermata, 
Hamann, O.—Histoloqy of Echinoderms ae ate La EP eh: " 
RS » Wandering Primordial Germ- cells. in Echinoderms TAS ace ioe 
pani. ie M.—True Nature of the Madreporic System of Echinodermata ... .. 97 
Curnot, 8.—Nervous System and Vaseular Apparatus of Ophiurids Oe Wii athe 


Carpenter, P. H.—Development of Apical Plates in Amphiura squamata .. «58 
Hetrovarv, E.—Caleareous Corpuscles of Holothurians 4. 4. awe ee 88 


Ceelenterata. 
Cuun, C.— Morphology of Siphonophora 3 pa aaa 
Kruxenserc, C. F. W.—Influence of Salinity Pall Mie ate eet a ec 
3 9 Colowrs of Corals.. —.. FE PEAS ye at oh 
£ 9 Nervous Tracts in Aleyonids iat aad On ee ga ei ae 
Porifera. 
Sonuas, W. J.—Sponges .. — pS eo IR hal a isiacs awe NCE a eae a 


Epner, V. v.—Skeleton of calcareous Sponges TN eee 
Denpy, A.—New System of ‘Chalining# ... 9 fe a ea oe wh oe oe pe fae 
Ports, E.—Fresh-water Sponges .. Wing irre tener Tay f(% 
Fyepuer, K.—Development of Gener ative Products in  Spongilla sakes ic Swe Se 


PP ore :, 


Protozoa. 


Maupas, E:—Conjugation of Paramecium .. 0. se ae ne 
Stores, A>:C.—New Presh-water Infusoria i205 69 ek ee ee a ae, 


Necmayrk, M.—Relationships of Foruminifera .. .. xe fOb 
Scuewianorr, W.—Karyokinesis of Euglypha : 66 
Kinsrien, J.—Diplocystis Schneidert .. ~ .. ~ 68 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 


a. Anatomy, 


(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. 
ZAcHARIAS, E.—Part taken by the Nucleus in Cell-division 


Kuees, G.— Albumen in the Cell-wall .. Wn Gh aes 
Pica, P.—Lhickening of the Cell-walls in the Leuf-stalk of Aralia. «. 


(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions). 


Beizunc, E.—Starch- and Chlorophyll-grains =. 6. ee ee ee TP 
Tscutrow, R.—Quantitative estimation of Chlorophyll NRE a Ne RET ER ee ele 


Beniucr, G.—Formation of Starch in the Cllorophyll-granates Seca konpa 
Fics, R R.— Inosite 3 SPL PA aac MD pe ae ag sha ie 37 - 
Scunerzver, J. B. —Tannin in n Acanthus spinosus dain! ee Bing ey Sie, se ole ae 


BarRBAGLIA, G. A.—Chemical substances contained in the Bow .. 16 ve ewe 
Tscuurcn, A.—Aleurone-grains in the Seed of Myristica surinamensis .. .. 4. 7 


(3) Structure of Tissues. 


Gatvert, AcNEs, & L. A. Boopie-—Laticiferous System of Manihot and Hevea... —72— 
Heiricuer, E.—Tubular Cells of the Fumariacer .. Pet Real Bhs eh 
TizcHEem, P. van—Super-endodermal Network in the Root of the Caprifoliacess 5 ere 
DANGEARD, P. A., & Barsi—Arrangement of the Fibro-vascular Bundles in ~ 
Pinguicula it tpn ia: Wied baker eed 5: 
Petit, L.—Distr Ghuteoe of Bibtovasoular Bundles in the Petiole EME South aespey te ff eg 
Laux, W.—Vaseular Bundles in the Rhizome of Monocotyledons  ., ws se 
JANNICKE, W.—Comparative Anatomy of Geraniace®..  .. +1 ee me os 
Greoc, W. H— Anomalous Thickening in the Roots of Cycas... 2. ss us ve ST 
KRraspe, G.— Formation of Annual Rings in Wood 1. ete ese 
Grevitiius, A. Y—Mechanical system of Pendent Organs ~ .. 4 
Longer, O.—Comparative Anatomy of Roots Be Ve eens : 


C5) 


(4) Structure of Organs. 


Jost, L.—Respiratery Organs... as aac ee ee 

Tscuiron, A.—Organs of Meteo Be eee 
Scuence, H.— Anatomy of Water-plants BS ge Retype OSE 
Hennine, E.— Lateralness in Conifere...  -, Seyi eae tan ees 
Fockxs, W. O.—Dichotypy BERD cba ote eh eee es 
Dierz, 8.—Flowers and Fruit of Sparganium and Typha mA ae Ee 


Warp, H. Marsuauy, & J. Dountop—Fruits and Seeds of Rhamnus 

Lounpstrom, A. N. —Masked Fruits. es 
Coutrer, J. M., & J. N. Rose— Development of the Fruit of Cinbeltijera Sates 
Kuen, O. Bey Ei of the Inflorescence .. 

Hoveracqup, M eg ened onee: and. Structure of Orobanche am a young stage, and 


of its suckers oe ae 

GraNeEL-—Origin of the Suckers in Phanerogamous ‘Parasites. i 
‘TiscHem, P. van—Arrangement of peg sue Roots and Buds on Roots 
Vomzemin, P.— Epidermal Glands ; Pom SARS tas te SS ey near eee 
Buake, J. H.—Prickle-pores of Victoria regia wis Pepten Sate Ras 
Bower, F. O.—Morphological sie ee of Cor dyline astenlie ee ee 
Hermer., A.—Nyctaginew ~~ .. REE eee SUSI cat ag. eer PY aay Base 
Soravzr, P.—Root-tubers and Bacteria... pin Rat oat Cai en aT | 


B. OEE ae 
qd) Reproduction and Germination. 
Rogerson, C.—Insect relations of Asclepiadew 2... ss ee eee 
MacLeop,.J.—Fertilization of Flowers... ++ +e on ee anes 
ARCANGELI, G.—Flowering of Euryale ferou.. Rape aos. relate yo SE wa aiaks toes 
(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Movements of Fluids). 


Masser, G.—Growth and Origin of Multicellular Plants = 
Dvrovr, L.— influence of Light. on the Form and Structure of Leaves .. 


(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 
Mayer, A.—Fxhalation of Oxygen by ce ved Plants in absence Ve Carbunie 
Anhydride .. + ss a 
Borum, J.—Respiration of the Potato... Sat bet Sey St eee eke 
Werner, ©.—Action of Formose on Cells destitute of Bistch 3 ES 


y: General. 


Kocu, L.—Biology of Orobanche ie SWS pe ea tes: Sepp eens tae eee ca 
KronreLv, M.—Biology of the Mistletoe Bes Sieh a Seen: Ree 


Frann, B ’—Root-s) IML COSTE BI LBC TICACO gee oot agi So ee Be eat BN aS ORT oe 
Lunpstrom, A. N.—Domatia.. RIED ake ee eared ee 
Myr mecophilous Plants. get 


Bownr, F. 0. —Humboldtia laurifolia as a 5 a Plant . se Sea es 
RewKe, J.—Oxidation-process in Plants after death .. .. oi Seki aera: 
Krazan, F.—Retrogression in Oaks... 

Outver, F. W.—Phenomenon analogous to Leaf: fall .. Bo ae 
Know ues, Evta L.—* Curl” of Peach-leaves .. Faia ar eres y eae 
- Apsorr, H. C. pe S—Plant Analysis as an Applied Science .. 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 


Artnur’s Report on Minnesota... Faeter ss Rae ere 
Cremona ‘Maccularia, 
GorBEL, K.—Germination of Ferns .. Pie alta pi 
Lyon, F, M.—Dehiscence of the Sporangivm of Fert: se es 
GOEBEL, sae aahale ae lia Berns... +s oa ae Pe raneen es 
Gharacecs: 
AEN, T. F.—New Species of Characez «+1 ve ue te ee ote ws 
Muscinee. 
Vaizey, J. R.—Transpiration of the Sporophore of Mosses.. ++ 01 se ess 
ScHULZE, ar —Vegetative reproduction of a Moss.. 1. s+ ae nee te 
WALDNER, M.—Sporogonium of Andreea and Sphagnum .. pelt rae tat ers 


Mitrer, C.—New Sphagna .. 

ee K. G.—Rabeihorst’s * Cryptogamie Flora of Germany’ Muse) . 
GorseEL, K Peel Sie tic Jungermannie® —. SS parts eis ER a ERY POLY 
KARSTEN, G.— Production of Gemme by Fegatella RRS Pe Sete IY ERO 


Ce 


Algee. PAGE 
Jansp, J. M.—Plasmolysis of Algz See R Soak” hve iv usdatles eogn) aaah jaws pee Sed eee 
Hauck, F.—Choristocarpus tenellus Set ap ent iow 1c was. tee. cis qi taeen Cele bak he ener eem 
Mosius, M.—New Fresh-water Floridea 44 se. se ee tee ewe we OS 


Krrev, F.—Lemanea “3 sels Web eg ae ction AGG ike Fee hee een ane 
Witpeman, EB. Du—Microspora ein at Raa ts to oc el ae late Sogo hb ihe ne eee 
Surra, T. F.—Some points in Diatom-structure ae AYRE TR Hae EY ear hae 
CASTRACANE, F.—Deep-sea Diatoms _.. ia aston, eee 


Grove, E., & G. Srurt—Fossil Marine Diatoms from New Zealand .. ss cs 94 
Wour’s (F.) ¢ Fresh-water Algz of the United States’ eT mr pe et" 


Lichenes. 
Forsseni; K. B. J.—Gleolichenes webs. es ba ge i 0s ee, ae) Kee Soros |b eh we 
Massep, G. —CGasterolichenes ..  .. Sate ere ia 8-51) Bois ACR oe ee 
MiuEr, J.—Action of Lichens on Rocks “5 vai eevee Roe ae 
HEGETSCHWEILER & S1TizENBERGER—Lichens on unusual substr dbs ca oo Gah 

Fungi. 
Errera, L.— Accumulation and Consumption of Glycogen by ph Seer aig ines. 
WertstEIn, R, v.—Funcetion of Cystids  « MR Patti om 
Srynes, J. "pn— Rhizomorpha subcorticalis of Armillaria mellea. Be Fe aes ae 
Dieter, P.—Uredinee .. Seamer arty Meecha 
PRILLIEUX, E.— —Grape-disease—Comothyriwm diplodiela sina. hg Skid, Orfiod kee poe am 
G-ASPERINI, G.—New “Disedse Of, Leming a. 540 6s. wed oe eS eke cha eee eee Bae 
Waur ion, W.—New Pythium <a ; UA A ras AR eM See OAT OR. cay at 


Zor‘, W.—Chytridiacea parasitic on Diatoms DLOES pee wes iie ee tae oka een oa Nee 
Conn’s ‘ Cryptogamie: Mlova-of Silesia? ww. * task ope dos aes) oe an ke So ee ae 


sible ot 
Hy—WMicrochzte.. . AHaes, as cae ances [a apet pee te eee 
WEIBEL, E.— Vibrio from Nasal Mucus... Be sas eee eae 


» _ Two kinds of Vibrios found mn decomposing Hay Infusion. Cesc eel OD 
Karz, O.—Phosphorescent Bacteria from Sea-water .. ++ «+ +e 08 ae ee 102 
Bary's CADE) Lectures on Bacteria 655i tae! oe ie epee aa Sow Age ee 


MICROSCOPY. 
e« Instruments, Accessories, &c. 

@) Stands. 5 

Couiins’s (C.) Aquarium Microscope (Fig. 1) — «« ee Uiea hee oe alee 
GOLFARELLI’S (1.) Micrometric Microscope for Horologists fig » ga Yes steel cl eo Ue 
LenuossEk’s (J. v.) Polymicroscope (Figs. 3-6)... Kot ion kes tee eee 
Durer’s (H.) Polarizing Microscope (Figs. 7-9)..  .. es eu ee ee ewe 107 
Dusoscq’s Projection Microscope (Fig. 10) .. son ie! x Saeed aha he we eee 
CamPani’s Compound Microscopes (Figs. 11 and 12) . eb Spen eb Sab con ee Re 


(3) Illuminating and other ere. 


Zrass’:(G:) Irie Diaphragm (Figs, 1215) se 00 Seek hee veh Pee ci cee ee ae 
Epmonvs’s (J.) Automatic Mica Stage (Fig. 16)... .. se ee we ee we we AD 


Rovssever’s (C.) Life-box (Fig.17) .. RAS bs aR eL PSST Lea wer ree 28? 
Mayer, P.—Large form of Abbe Camera Lucida Seabee ed hieaek. ea kee 
Hircucocr, R.—May’s Apparatus for Marking Objects F 113 
Derwi1z, H.—Simple Method of Warming and Cooling under the Microscope (Fig. 18) 114 
GRABER, V.—Apparatus for determining Sensibility to Heat ...¢ te ee ee 


(4) Photomicrography. 2 
TsrarL (O.) & STEenGLEtN’s (M.) Photomicrographic Mier aoe. ssi 19 ae of 115. 


Srecemann’s (A.) Photomicrographie Camera (Fig, 21 116 
MARKTANNER’S (‘T.) Photo-micrographic Cameras (Figs. 22 and 28) gag inec/ oe eee 
Smiru, G., Nelson’s Photomicrographic Focusing Screen ..  . ve, othe ihe AYO. 


(5) Microscopical Optics and Pa ees : 
Exner, §8.— Histological Structures and the Diffraction Theory (Figs. 24-33) pee She 
Vescovi, P. pe—Method of Representing and a coik el the Magnification pe : 
Microscopic Objects in the projected images ..  . Raa rte (135 2 
(6) Miscellaneous. Brleauay 4 
Neuson, E. M.—Development of the Compound aoe. SOBRE wee aah geien Sal NM et ae 
‘Srupent’s Handbook to the Microscope’ Siti gh ison tae See rp ey ee 


ie Fee 


PAGE 
«TT. F. 8.’— Microscopical Advances” Beata tia a eae gk Ee Se Gh noes AOE 
“THE Microscope and Kidney Disease” Dts Pekka Me a See SLOG 
Mor.anp, H.—“ Curiosities of Micr: oscopical ‘Literature ” mcr Naaeg ole norreee AU) 
B. Technique. 
(LD Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes. 

Sronz, W. E.—Cullivation of Saccharomycetes .. me AL 

Azspor, A. C.—Improvement in the method of preparing “Blood-serum jor * use in 
Bacteriology , Paar pate 8 
Katz, O.—Improved method for cultivating Micro: “organisms on Potatoes ... .. 142 
Borton, M.—WMethod of preparing Potatoes for Bacterial Cultures .. .. ..  .. 143 
Winrarts, H.—Cultivation-bottle ..  .. Bee eee seve gel So Seeraat oe aEo 
CunNINGHAM, K. M.— Collecting and Cleaning Datiie ne Soe et AS 

: (2) Preparing Objects. 

Scuvize, O.—Preparing Ova of Amphibia .. Ree Ey ote oS 
Fiemuinc, W.—Preparing Testicle for observing ‘Nuclear Fission... .. 2. 146 
' ALTMANN, R.—Demonstrating Cell-granules .. ; Ree Vaee ee pa SO 
Magrsuaut, C.. F.—Methods of Preparing Muscle jor investigation al 147 


GyiaTt, B. L.—Permanent Preparations of Tissues treated with Potassium v3 yd ate 147 
_ CHIARAGI, nrg i ab ECLLONB IOP DONG Pasi carci se Spins dal ts pelea BON Sane LAE 


Verwory, M.—WMethod of investigating Cristatella — .. Se peered 1 of 
Kriyestey, J. S8.—Methods of studying Development of Bye of Or angon so Srey Veg ae 4S 
ZAHARIAS, O —Preparation of Ascaris megalocephala .. a2 148 


StepMan, J. M.—Preparing Tape-worms for the Museum and the Mier oscope. os 448 
WRIGHT, R. Ramsay, & A. B. Macattum—Methods oh seni Sharon woe 149 


HAMANN, O. — Histology of Echinoderms _.. eee 

WI1son, "EB Preparing. Moulds ae aes Ove Sh ape ae Rie Pea ae ee ee ee LOO 

Kunstier—Technique of Bacteria... 6. SSN meet teaver aaa tone Lie daN 
(3) Cutting, OCHe oes Imbedding. 

Seaman, W. H.—Myrtle-wax Imbedding Process «ss. eee a ee 

Pisrson, G. A.—Homogeneous Paraffin... Gomi cme dave 

SCHIEFFERDECKER’s (P.) Microtome for cutting under alcohol (Fig. 34) sek Sod ea eeek ARI 


(4) Staining and Injecting. 
‘BaBgs, V— Methods for Pathological Investigations Re ieee pee eae Une ee IGE 


KuLaatscH, H.— Staining of Ossification Preparations Prk Seep iMlees Bets aa COR Pee Cg « 
Herxnenter, K Staining the Elastic Fibres of the Skin .. .. Pa Strise “cries eH: 
Boccarpi, G.—Staining Nerve-terminations with Chloride of Gold... rears a) 
EAN, A.— Demonstrating the Membrane rae the Bordered Pits in in Conifera ard ay 
Drove, O Restate Diatoms.. .. 2 EEO, 
LINDNER, P. Saas Yeast-preparations ze BEA ese ete BEG da eae AO Need U9) 8 
Wesener, F.—Staining Lepra and Tubercle Bacilli .. Rie ioe oh Ponti, whe hay f 
Gricorsew, A. W.—Specifieness of the Tubercle Bacillus Stain. SS aR aes Sea EL 
RoosEveELtT, J. W.—New Staining Fluid .. ss eas sO ae a Bae he AEN 
Prmrson, G. A.—Benda’s Modified Copper-hematoxylin Ga MRD ead Eee ee el DD 
Dexuvuyzen, M, C.—Aciion of Staining ie Stackas 
Hocusterrer, F.—Modification of Schiefferdecker’ 8 Oelloidin Corr osion Mass. 159 
(5) Mounting, including eee Preservative Fluids, &c. 
Mayer, P.— Fixing Sections .. A i SR & Seales ets Maite Pa on epee ye Ne Soe aN 
Pierson, G. A.—Substitute for Clearing 5 a zee 160 


Ue. G. H.—Mounting in Canada Dak by the Exposure Method .. .. .. 160 
(6) Miscellaneous. 


Dissecting Dish (Fig. 35) Tee oe GL 

Mayet—Artificial Serum for Computation of Blood-eor mpuscles Poe ca tibet f(a. 

~ Reeves’s Water-bath and Oven (Fig. 36)... Sig Uaee tate oes eae eed OS 

Dorty’s Balsam Bottle (Fig. 37) — . aheTieere TO won 

ETERNov’s Apparatus for stretching Membranes (Figs. 38 and 39) . aeites 163 
Gace, H.—Determination of the Number of Trichinz or other pie Parasites in 

- Meat ni Seal Sewer cae OV oe mee Re TOe 


SELENKA, E.-—Models. im Metal ‘of Microscopical Preparations see pth Hepa) eos SOD 
Kronretp, M.—New Reagent for Albuminoids .. 0... 6. ee ne ne ee 5 
Wuite’s (T. C.) Elementary Microscopical Manipulation ..  .. .. es ee 165 


. PROCEEDINGS OF THE Society Rea ne aN pte ce! os give alls ean ae pet aa Bae A 


I.—APERTURE TABLE. 


Corresponding Angle (2 w) for Limit of Resolving Power, in Lines te an Inch, Beiie: 
Numerical RS ut acters Illuminating} trating 
Aperture. Air Water ed Mie oa White Light. | (Blue) Light. | Photography. cans : nat 
(resin u=a)}) (m= 1°00). | (= 1°99). | = 1°82). | Tey MO Taine | ear Line hi) ) 
1:52 ae rt 180°. 0’ 146,543 158,845 193 , 037 2°310 *658 
1-51 Ey “* 166° 51’ 145,579 157,800 191,767 2°280 *662 
1:50 “f a 161° 23' 144,615 156,755 190,497 2°250 * 667 
1:49 an aS 157° 12’ 143,651 155,710 189 , 227 2°220 *671 
1:48 = as 153° 39’ 142,687 154, 665 187,957 | 2°190 *676 
1:47 ea Sa 150°. 32’ 141,723 153, 620 186, 687 2°161 “680 
1:46 a bia 147° 42' 140,759 152,575 185,417 2°132 “685 > 
1:45 a Me 145° -. 6" 139,795 151,530 184,147 2°1038 +690 
1:44 se A 142°: 39’ 138, 830 150,485 182,877 2° 074 694 
1°43 za a 140° 22' 137,866 149,440 181,607 2°045 +699 
1-42 ee fe 138° 12’ 136,902 148,395 180,337 2-016 704 
1:41 Sie i 136° 8’ 185,938 147,350 179,067 1-988 *709 
1°40 a a 134° 10’ 134,974 146,305 177,797 1°960 “714 
1°39 BS ts 132°°16' 184,010 145,260 176,527 1'932 ody ib | 
1°38 ae e 130° 26’ 1338, 046 144,215 175,257 1:904 *725 
1°37 na Je 128° 40’ 132, 082 145,170 173,987 1:877 +739 
1:36 oe ae 126° 58’ 131,118 142,125 172,717 1°850 "735 
1°35 oa os 125° 18’ 130, 154 141,080 171,447 1‘823 *7A6 
1:34 os es 123°. 40’ 129,189 140,035 170,177 1:796 | «741 
1°33 180°: 0’|" 122° 6’ 128,225 138,989 168,907 1:769 "752 
1:32 ae =U 1659-56!s; 120933" 127,261 137,944 167,637 1°742 *758 
1°31 we 160°: 6’) 119° 3! 126,297 136,899 166,367 1‘716 ‘763 
1:30 is 155° 38/} 117° 35’ 125,333 135, 854 165,097 1°690 "769 
1-29 ts 151° 50’| 116° 9° | 124,369 134,809 163,827 1:664 “7715 
1:28 ar 148° 42’ | 114° 44’ 123,405 133,764 162,557 1638 “781 
127 “js 145° 27") dd 3° 21" 122,441 132,719 161,287 1°613 +787 
1-26 5 142°: 39" | T1T9 59% 121,477 131,674 160,017 1°588 , 794 
1:25 a 140°. 3’ | 110° 39! 120,513 130,629 158,747 1'563 +800 
1°24 wi 137° 36’ | 109° 20’ 119,548 129,584 157,477 | -1°538 *806 
1:23 e. 135° 17" |: 108°" 2! 118,584 128,539 156,207 1°*513 “813 
1°22 133° 4’ 106° 45’ 117,620 127,494 154,937 1°488 +820 
1:21 ae 130° 57’ | 105° 30! 116,656 126,449 153,668 1:464 826 
1:20 of 1289 55" 11042915? 115,692 125,404 152,397 1°440 +833 
1:19 oy 126°: 58’ | 1039-2! 114,728 124,359 151,128 1°416 840 
1:18 a 125° 38’ | 101° 4O’ §- 113,764 123,314 149,857 1-392 +847 
1:17 a 123° 13/ |' 100° 388’ 112,799 122,269 148,588 1°369 +859 
1:16 - L219: 26412 992.298 111,835 121,224 147,317 1'346 “862 
1:15 of 119° 41’ | 98° 20' 110,872 120,179 146,048 1°323 *870 
1:14 os 2 9 Wc heeeag (yor Lace Hae be Fe 109,907 119,134 144,777 1300 “S77 
1:13 a 1162: 20% QB9 “2 2" 108,943 118,089 143,508 1-277 *885 
1:12 os 114° 44’) 94° 55’ 107,979 117,044 142,237 1*254 >} -893 
1-11 as ISO | 93°47! 107,015 115,999 140,968 1°232 “901 
1:10 oe 111°'36' | 92° 48! 106,051 114,954 139,698 1-210 *909 
1°09 aS LOO 2 OIo aS. 105,087 113,909 188,428 1-188 POLY, 
1-08 o's 108° 36’ 90° 34’ 104,123 112,864 137,158 1:166 eed ty ds 
1:07 oe 107° 8’ |. 89° 30° 103,159 111,819 135,888 1145 “985 
1:06 = 105° 42’) 88°27’ 102,195 110,774 134,618 1*124 7 945 
1°05 ae 104°.16' | 87° 24" 101,231 109,729 133,348 1-103 *952 
1:04 ae 102° 58’ | 86° 21’ 100,266 108, 684 132,078 1:082 962 
1:03 is 101° 30 | 85° 19! 99,302 | 107,639 | 130,808 | 1:061 | :971 
1:02 53 100°°10' | 84° 18’ 98,338 106,593 129,538 1-040 +980 
1:01 a 98° 50’ | 83°17’ 97,374 105,548 128,268 1020 +990 
1:00 180° 0! OTE L | = 822 17? 96,410 104,503- | 126,998 1:000 | 17:000 
0:99 163° 48’ 96°12’ 81° 17’ 95,446 103,458 125,728 *980- 1*010 - 
0:98 157°. 2’ 94° 56’) 80° 17’ 94,482 102,413 124,458 “960 | 1°020 —— 
0-97 151° 52’ 93°. 40' | 79° 18’ 93,518 101,368 123,188 “941 J 1°03) 
0-96 147229" 92° 24’) 78° 20’ 92,554 100,323 121,918 ° G22 1°012. 
0:95 143° 36’ ESD Wefan 1 ON) Ree UF ise 7 91,590 99,278 120,648 “903 /1°058 
0:94 140° 6’ 89°. 56’ |} 76° 24’ 90,625 98,233 119,378 “884 | 17064 
0:93 136° 52’ 88° 44’ | 75° 27° 89,661 97,188 118,108 *865 7 1°075. 
0°92 ~ |} 133° 51’ 87°32’ | ‘74° 30° 88, 697 - 96,143 116,838 | *846 1 087) 
0:91: 131° 0’ 862. 20" 73238! 87,733 95,098 115,568 *828 7 1°099.-~ 
0:90 128° 19’ 85° 10'| 72° 36’ 86,769 | 94,053 114,298 7810-4 12s 
0:89 125° 45’ S40 SOL TIC) 85,805 93,008 113,028 792 el EDA es 
0:88 || 123° 17’ 82°:51' | 70°44! 84,841 91,963 | 111,758 774-1136 


Numerical 
“Aperture. Air 


(a sin u = a.)\| (m = 1°00). 


} 
0:87. || 120° 55’ 


0:86 118° 38’ 
0°85 116° 25! 
. 0°84 F14e 17? 


0:83 $499579" 
0:82 110° 16! 
0:81 108° 10° 
0:80 106°. 16’ 
0:79. | 104° 22° 
0-78 102° 383i’ 
0:77 100° 42° 
0:76 98° 56’ 
0:75 S7° 11’ 
0:74 95°. 28" 

* 0773 93° 46’ 
0:72 OAS re st he 
0-71 90° 28” 
0°70 88° 51" 
0:69) 87° 16’ 
0:68 85° 41" 
0:67 - 84° 8’ 
0:66 82° 36’ 
0:65 81° 6’ 
0:64 79° 36’ 
0°63 48° 6 
0°62 | 162 38! 
0:61 || 75° 10’ 
0:60 73° 44! 
0:59 || 72° 18’ 
0°58 70° 54’ 
0:57 69° 30’ 
0:56 68° 6’ 
0°55 66° 44’ 
0:54 65° 227 
0:53 64° 0’ 
0:52 62° 40’ 
0:51 61°. 20’ 
0:50 60° 0’ 
0:48 sy fen WG 
0-46 54° 47 
0°45 53° 30’ 
0°44 . Gy Agen BY 
0:42 49° 40’ 
0-40 47°.- 9! 

~ 0°38 44° 40’ 
0°36 42°. 12” 
0:35 40° 58’ 

- 0°84 39° 44’ 
0°32 37° 20’ 
0:30 34° 56’ 
0:28 - j|- 32° 32’ 
0:26" || 30° 10’ 
0°25 28° 58’ 
0:24 27° 46’ 
0:22 25° 26! 
0:20 FBO 42 
0:18 20° 44" 
<= 0-16 18° 24’ 
. 0°15 L7o 14! 
"~0°14 Gee Catceetey: 
he O° 12 13°47! 
E2Os20 11° 29’ 
~ 0:08 re gas i Ws 
0:06 ep Y 
0:05 5° 44’ 


APERTURE TABLE—continued. 


Water 


(@ = 1°33). 


81° 42! 


80° 34’ 
79° 37’ 
78° 20! 
77° 14’ 
76° 8 
73° 3 
73° 58! 
72° 53! 
71° 49° 
70° 45’ 
69° 49! 
68° 40" 
67° 37° 
66° 34" 
65° 32! 
64° 32" 
63° 31’ 
62° 30’ 
61° 30° 
60° 30" 
59° 30’ 
58° 30" 
57° 81! 
56° 32" 
55° Bd! 
54° 36" 
53° 38" 
52° 40! 
51° 42’ 
50° 45! 
49° 48” 
49° 5i’ 
47° 54" 
46° 58’ 
46° 9! 
45° 6! 
44° 10’ 
49° 18 
40° 28! 
39° 33° 
38° 38’ 
36° 49’ 
35° 0! 
33° 19! 
312 24" 
30° 30° 
29° 37 
27° 51" 
26° 4 
24° 18 
92° 33! 
21° 40’ 


Corresponding Angle (2 «) for 


i Limit of Resolving Power, in Lines to an Inch.) 


Homogeneous ; Monochromatic A 
Tipp sion White Light. | (Blue) Light. | Photography. 
Cis esa), [ee ee eee eds, 

ine .) Line F.) near Line h.) 
69949% 83,877 90,918 110,488 
68° 54’ 82,913 89,873 109,218 
68° 0! 81,949 88,828 | 107,948 
67° 6’ 80,984 87,783 106,678 
66° 12’ 80,020 86,738 105,408 
65° 18’ 79,056 85,693 104,138 
64° 2+" 78,092 84,648 102,868 
63° 31’ 77,128 83,603 101,598 
62° 38’ 76,164 82,558 | © 100,328 
61° 45’ 75,200 81,513 99,058 
60° 52’ 74,236 80,468 97,788 
60° 0’ 13,272 79,423 96,518 
59° 8" 72,308 78,378 95,248 
58° 16’ 71,343 77,333 93,979 
O71? 24" 70,379 76,288 92,709 
56° 32’ 69,415 75,242 91,439 
55° 41’ 68,451 74,197 90,169 
54° 50’ 67,487 73,152 88,899 
93° 59° 66,923 72,107 87,629 
53° 9! 65,959 71,062 86,359 
52° 18’ 64,599 70,017 85,089 
o1° 28’ 63,631 68,972 83,819 
50° 38’ 62,667 67,927 82,549 
49° 48’ 61,702 66, 882 81,279 
48° 58’ 60,738 69,837 80,009 
48°" 9! 59,774 64,792 78,739 
47° 19' 58,810 63,747 77,469 
46° 30’ 57,846 62,702 76,199 
| 45° 40’ 56,881 61,657 74,929 
44°51’ 59,918 60,612 73,659 
$4062! 54,954 59,567 72,389 
| 43° 14 53,990 58,522 71,119 
42%::25! 53,026 97,477 69,849 
41° 37 52,061 96,432 68,579 
40° 48’ 51,097 55,387 67,309 
APO! 50,135 o£, 342 66,039 
39° 12! 49,169 53, 297 64,769 
38° 24" 48,205 92,252 63,499 
36° 49! 46,277 50, 162 60,959 
35° 15! 44,349 48,072 98,419 
34°. 27! 43,385 47,026 57,149 
33° 40! 42,420 45,981 55,879 
32° 5! 40,492 43,891 93,339 
30° 31’ 38,064 41,801 50,799 
28° 57’ 36, 636 39,711 48,259 
27° 24" 34,708. - 37,621 45,719 
26° 38’ 33, 744 36,576 44,449 
25° 51’ 32,779 35,531 43,179 
94° 18’ 30,851 33,441 40,639 
22°. 46° 28 ,923 31,351 38,099 
24°14! 26,995 29,261 39,559 
19° 42’ 25, 067 27,171 33,019 
18° 56’ 24,103 26,126 31,749 
18° 10’ 23,138 25,081 30,479 
16° 38’ 21,210 22,991 27,940 

Le ak 19., 282 20,901 25,400 — 
13° 36’ 17,354 18,811 22,860 
12°. 5’ 15,426 16,721 20,520 
119°°19' 14,462 15,676 19,050 
10° 34’ 13,498 14,630 17,780 
SOAS 11,570 - 12,540 15,240 
Cee 9,641 10,450 12,700 
6° 3! 7,713 8,360 10, 160 
4° 32! © 5,785 6,270 7,620 
3° 46 4,821 5, 225 6, 350 


a ak 2 : : 
BISCO VOD O> CLOTHE HS He 09,09 09 CO DO DODD ORO DO DOD bo DO ND ee ee eet et et ee ee ee 
bo 
(S*) 


Pene- 


[Illuminating] trating 


Power. 


F ash 
alr 
Nae 


1 
1 o> 
orgs) 


117 


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GREATLY REDUCED PRICES 


OBJECT-GLASSES MANUFACTURED BY 


R. & J. BECK, 


68, CORNHILL, LONDON, E.C. 


PRICES OF BEST ACHROMATIC OBJECT-GLASSES. 


Focal length. 


Sle 

_-_ 
=| 
° 
= 


ia 
i=] 
o,E 

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om 


or Cn] HAD 
ete eel 
=) 
ic) 
i= 


a 
=] 
ic) 
is 


Angle 
of 
aper- 
ture, 
about 


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| Linear magnifying-power, with 10-inch 


body-tube and eye-pieces, 


| 2000 


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Price 
No. 1. No. 2, No. 3.| No. 4,| 
cee Bee a | 
110 O 10 16 | 30 | 40 
3 oy . \ re |= 24 45 | 60 
- = 2 } 22 36 67 go 
210 07}. 30 48 g0 | 120 
" ie f } 70 112 210 280 
210 OO} 100} .160]| 3001 400 
4 O O} 125} 200} 375.) 500 
5 O O} 150} 240 | 450 | 600 
810 0} 200] 320] 600} 800 
410 O} 250) 400] 750 | 1000 
5 O O|} 400} 640 1200 | 1600 
5 5 0 |~400)} 800 } 1500 | 2000 
8 O O} 750 | 1200 | 2250 | 3000 
10.0 OQ} 1000 tase 3000, | 4000 
20 0 0 


3209 | 6000 | 8000 


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Revised Catalogue sent on application to 
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pa" 
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JOURN.R.MICR.SOC.1888. Pl, |. 


Lat 


sq00 
SPEED? 900g) 


ro) 
209. pores 


Ro 
por 
o 


570 9900 0 9 


oS 
AT AZARIAN VALANULARM ALAN UA 


a 


C00 9600500 0060 
eT  ALTARRTAL ALARA S OD LAD IAD REOALAE 


12 


West, Newman &Co. lith 


KEB.del. 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


FEBRUARY 1888. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. 


I—Fresh-water Alga (including Chlorophyllous Protophyta) of the 
* English Lake District. 1. With descriptions of a new genus 
and five new species. 


By Aurrep W. Beyyert, F.R.M.S., F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany 


‘at St. Thomas’s Hospital. 
(Read 11th January, 1888.) 


Puate I, 


Tue following is a list of species gathered in the English Lake Dis- 
trict in August and the early part of September 1887, not included in 
my previous list from the same district.* A few species only are 
noted which are recorded in that list, where it seemed desirable for 
some special reason, and these are placed between brackets. The 
gatherings were all within the county of Cumberland, in the lower 
part of Borrowdale, and near the southern end of Derwentwater, mostly 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. 


Figs. 1-8.—Hormospora mutabilis Bréb. x 200. 


1888. 


4.—Acanthococcus anglicus Benn. x 200. 

5.—Urococcus insignis Hass. (?) x 400. 

6.—Capsulococcus crateriformis Benn. Tegument with single pseudo- 
cyst, front view x 200, 


7. ” x + Tegument with nest of eight 
pseudocysts, front view x 200. 

8. ss as Empty tegument, side view 
x 200. 


9.—Chroococcus pyriformis Benn. x 200. 

10.—Gomphospheria (?) anomala Benn. x 200. 

11.—Calothrix minuta Benn. x 200. 

12.—Gonatozygon Brebissonii dBy (?) x 200. 

13.—Euastrum rostratum Ralfs, yar. cumbricum Benn. x 400. 

14.—Cosmarium globosum Buln. x 400. 

15.—Staurastrum spongiosum Bréb., var. cumbricum Benn., side view 
x 400. 

16. ” ” ” ” ” front view 
x 400, 


* This Journal, 1886, pp. 1-15, 


2 Transactions of the Society. 


from bog pools at a comparatively low elevation. On the whole, they 
were not so rich as those made in the Loughrigg district, but some 
interesting forms were obtained.* 


PROTOPHYTA. 
Protococcacr® (including PALMELLACE®). 


Gleeocystis ampla Ktz. 
Scenedesmus obtusus Mey. 
Homospora mutabilis Bréb. Figs. 1-8. 


As, according to Dr. Cooke, this interesting plant has at present 
been observed only in Ireland, as far as these islands are concerned, a 
figure is appended. The completely unbranched gelatinous sheath is 
about 37°5 w in diameter, and rounded at both ends, usually quite 
straight, but sometimes with a knee-shaped bend, as in fig. 1. The 
pseudocysts are globular or elliptical, about 20-25 w long by 15-20 pw 
broad, with bright green and strongly granular endochrome, frequently 
exhibiting rudimentary transverse bipartition (fig. 2). They are 
either in close contact or with an evident space between them. In 
only one instance (fig. 3) were the pseudocysts seen in two rows 
within the sheath. It was observed only in gatherings from a bog 
pool near the Bowder-stone, but was there abundant. 


ACANTHOCOCCUS ANGLIcUS n. sp. Fig. 4. 


Of this interesting genus, first separated by Lagerheim, as many 
as fourteen species have been described and figured by Reinsch.t I 
have already noted (see this Journal, 1887, p. 12) the occurrence of 
several of these forms in this country; the one now described I am 
unable to identify with any of Reinsch’s species. It occurs in isolated 
individuals, the stifily gelatinous or cellulose membrane of which is 
irregularly spherical, varying between 65 and 95 w in diameter, and 
is distinctly laminated or folded in several layers, and prolonged into 
long slender colourless protuberances, from one-third to two-fifths the 
diameter of the globe. ‘These spines are sufficiently solid to be dis- 
tinctly bent by passing diatoms or animalcules, thus being clearly 
distinguished from the very much more fluid envelope which, in some 
desmids, is also not unfrequently raised into spine-like prominences. 
The cell-contents are bright green and granular. This species corre- 
sponds very closely in size and in the structure of the cell-membrane 
with Reinsch’s A. énsignis, which, however, is described as without 
spines; but I cannot but think it probable that they are different 
stages or conditions of the same organism. It is larger than any of 
Reinsch’s spined species, coming nearest to A. Hystrix, but differs also 
in the nature of the cell-wall. At first sight it resembles Hremosphera 
viridis dBy., but is somewhat smaller, and at once distinguished by 


* The names of new species are printed in SMALL CAPITALS; those of species new 
to Britain in italics. 
+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., 1886, pp. 237-44. 


Fresh-water Alge, &c. By A. W. Bennett. 3 


its very distinctly spiny envelope. It is endowed with a slow motion, 
not in any way connected with the spines. It was observed only very 
sparsely in a sphagnum bog in Borrowdale. 


Urococcus insignis Hass.(?) Fig. 5. 


Pseudocyst large, solitary, nearly globular, of a brick-red colour, 
from 28 to 35 yw in diameter, inclosed in a colourless gelatinous sheath 
composed of a number of rings, which form a short stem. The species 
described under this name has been observed only by Hassall, and as 
he gives no measurements, it is impossible to identify with certainty 
my plant with his, but it appears to agree. It is larger than 
U. Hookerianus Hass., the only species of which Dr. Cooke gives 
measurements, and differs in other respects from the remaining species 

recorded as British. Bog pools, Borrowdale; very scarce. 


CapsuLococcus n. gen. Protococcacearum. 


Cellule virides, globose, solitariz vel 2-8 in familias associate, 
tegumento lamelloso, firmo vel subgelatinoso, subgloboso vel ovoideo, 
crateriformi, fusco, denique subsolido. 


CaPSULOCOCCUS CRATERIFORMIS n. sp. Figs. 6-8. 


Pseudocyst large, bright green, usually solitary (fig. 6), and then 
from 20-25 w in diameter, or even more, globular or elliptical; or 
divided into a nest of 2-8 smaller pseudocysts (fig. 7). Tegument a 
lighter or darker brown, lamellose, nearly globular or ovoid in general 
outline (fig. 8), varying in diameter from 25 to 75 or 80 yp, but with 
a deep round saucer-shaped depression (at one end when the tegument 
is ovoid), with very sharply defined rim. At the bottom of this 
depression is seated the single pseudocyst or nest of pseudocysts. 
The teguments appear to assume a darker and somewhat indurated 
character after shedding the pseudocysts (fig. 8). Bog pools, Borrow- 
dale ; not uncommon. 


CHARACIACER. 
Dictyospherium reniforme Buln. Bog pools. 


CHROOCOCCACER. 
CHROOCOCCUS PYRIFORMIS n. sp. Fig. 9. 


Pseudocysts very large, somewhat pear-shaped, 50 w long by 37°5 
broad, associated in pairs, and each pair inclosed in a very thin muci- 
lage; the two pseudocysts but slightly attached by their somewhat 
broader base. Mndochrome very bright blue-green, somewhat granular. 
Pool near Derwentwater. 


Celospherium Kiitzingianum Nag. Frequent. 
GoMPHOSPHERIA (?) ANOMALA n. sp. Fig. 10. 


Tegument quite globular, well-defined, from 110 to 120 w in 
diameter, composed of perfectly colourless and transparent mucilage. 


B 2 


4 Transactions of the Society. 


Pseudocysts light blue-green; those near the periphery of the tegu- 
ment comparatively large, 6—10 wu in diameter, and loosely scattered ; 
those towards the centre much smaller and more crowded. Bog pool 
near the Bowder-stone; not unfrequent. 

I have much hesitation in placing this organism under Kiitzing’s 
genus Gomphospheria, as its inclusion would require the modification 
of the character from which the name of the genus is taken, the 
wedge-shaped form of the pseudocysts. On the other hand, it shows 
a striking resemblance in the interspersal of a large number of minute 
pseudocysts among a smaller number of larger peripheral ones. If 
this is regarded as the more important character, the diagnosis of the 
genus will have to be modified accordingly. 


Aphanocapsa montana Cram. Bog pools; not unfrequent. 


OSscILLARIACE. 


Oscillaria princeps Vauch. Occasional. 
Symploca Ralfsiana Ktz. Among Sphagnum. 


ScyTONEMACER. 


Tolypothrix zgagropila Ktz. Bog pools. 
B flaccida Ktz. Bog pools. 


RIvULARIACE®. 
CALOTHRIX MINUTA DN. sp. Fig. 11. 


Sheaths about 12-5-20 yw in diameter, and 2-6 times as long as 
broad, yellowish-brown, several grouped together in tufts. Filaments 
several within each sheath, excessively fine, moniliform, very pale blue- 
green. Heterocysts basal, colourless, visible within the sheath. Bog 
pool, Borrowdale ; seen only floating, but probably attached in tufts 
to other alge. 


NostocacEs. 


Anabeena flos-aque Ktz. 
[ Nostoc hyalinum Benn. Occasional. | 


ALG fi. 


PEDIASTRE®. 
Pediastrum rotula Br. 


SoRASTREZ. 
Sorastrum bidentatum Reinsch. 


PANDORINER. 


Eudorina elegans Ehrb. 
Gonium pectorale Mill. 


Hresh-water Algx, de. By A. W. Bennett. 5 


DeEsMIDIES. 


Spheerozosma pulchellum Rabh. 
Hitherto, according to Dr. Cooke, not observed in Great Britain. 
Docidium granulatum Benn. (in Journ. R. Mier. Soc., 1887, 
p- 8). Occasional. 
Gonatozygon Brebissonii dBy (?). Fig. 12. 


Cells perfectly straight, very long and slender, 24~30 times as 
long as broad, 7°5 wu broad, 190-250 w jong, very nearly uniform in 
diameter throughout, with slightly dilated and truncate extremities, 
and no constriction in the centre. Endochrome homogeneous, with a 
single row of from 2U-24 vesicles down the centre; extremities and 
small space in centre colourless. ‘The whole clothed with short very 
_ thickly-set spines or hairs. 

I am somewhat doubtful about this identification, as I only saw 
the celis detached, and not united into filaments, and as also it was 
not seen in conjugation. It differs also somewhat in size from the 
description and figures, being longer and narrower. Bog pools, 
Borrowdale ; occasional. 


Closterium rostratum Ehrb. 
= lineatum Ehrb. 
me setaceum Ehrb. Pool near Derwentwater. 
| Micrasterias papillifera Bréb. | 
The character given in text-books—“ Frond bordered by a row 
of minute granules ”—is by no means accurate in all cases; as often 
as not I find them scattered over the whole surface of the frond. 


Micrasterias angulosa Hantsch. 
Euastrum humerosum Ralfs. 
55 Jenneri Arch. Frequent. 
= rostratum Ralfs., var. cUMBRICUM n. var. Fig. 13. 


About the size of the typical form, but narrower in proportion to 
its length ; average length 45-50 yu, breadth 25 w ; the outline nearly 
rectangular ; each segment with two rounded lobes, each projecting 
about as far as the blunt terminal beak ; terminal lobe rather deeply 
divided at the apex. A single large prominence near the centre of 
each segment. Bog pools; frequent. 

Cosmarium bioculatum Bréb. 

‘3 pygmeum Arch. 

Fe Wittrockii Lund. Frequent. 
Cosmarium globosum Buln. Fig. 14. 

Minute ; outline elliptical ; length 20-30 »; breadth 15-20 p; 
segments sub-reniform; sinus acute. Endochrome homogeneous, 
without vesicles; cell-wall not punctated. Bog pools ; frequent. 


Cosmarium quadrum Lund. 
This fine species was found in one gathering only. 


6 Transactions of the Society. 


Cosmarium Broomei Thw. 
e sphericum Benn. (in Journ. RK. Micr. Soc., 1887, 
p. 10). Occasional. 
y, ochthodes Nords. 
es speciosum Lund. Occasional. | 
Cslogjlinares annulatus dBy. Bog pools; not unfrequent. 
Xanthidium antilopeum Bréb. Bog pools ; occasional. 


No British locality is given by Dr. Cooke, but it has been gathered 
in this district by Mr. Bisset. 
Xanthidium cristatum Bréb. 
Arthrodesmus octocornis Ehrb. 
Staurastrum armigerum Bréb. 
Hs spongiosum Bréb, var. CUMBRICUM n. var. 
Figs. 15, 16. 

Side view somewhat longer than broad, about 60 pu long, 50 pw wide ; 
each segment elliptical, with an oval protuberance in front, covered 
with hyaline bifurcate processes. Front view triangular, with slightly 
convex sides and obtuse angles, about 48-52 w in diameter, completely 
covered with bifurcate hyaline processes. Slightly larger than the 
typical form, not so orbicular in outline, and distinguished by the pro- 
tuberance on each segment. Moss pool, Grange-in-Borrowdale. 


Staurastrum pygmeum Bréb. 


Length 23 1; breadth 26 « ; each segment nearly elliptical. Pool 
near Derwentwater. 


Staurastrum tumidum Bréb. 


This fine desmid was not unfrequently seen ; always inclosed in 
dense hyaline jelly. 


Staurastrum cornubiense Benn. (in Journ. R. Micr. Soc., 1887, 


eli): 
brachiatum Ralfs. 
5 tricorne Bréb. 
: inflexum Bréb. 
7 paradoxum Mey. 
= proboscideum Bréb. 


- aculeatum Menegh. 


ZYGNEMACER. 
Zygnema pectinatum Ag. 


MEsocaRPE®. 
Staurospermum capucinum Ktz. 


JOURN .R.MICR.SOC.1888.P1.10. 


Tom i ak 


sel clei Jee ie i ae 


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aetoro 
Chiba ay 


SEF 
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a) 


II.—WNote on Micrasterias americana, Ralfs, and its Varieties. 
By W. M. Masxent, F.R.M.S. 
(Read 14th December, 1887.) 
Puate II. 


Since the publication of Mr. Ralfs’s work on the British Desmidies, 
its author must have been pleased to observe the great extension 
which the study of these beautiful little organisms has received. 
From 1848 until the present day, scarcely a year hag gone by 
without an increase in the number of species and of the works 
relating to them, so that in fact the list of writers on desmids is now 
-quite of respectable, even formidable length, and the study of these 
plants is getting to be almost as complicated and difficult as that of 
diatoms. The time has arrived when a comprehensive monograph of 
the family is not only desirable but necessary. 

The present note has been prepared in anticipation of such a 
work. Simplification is, I take it, much to be desired in all scientific 
manuals, and especially so in these days of almost infinite subdivision 
and specialization of observation. So close and minute is nowadays 
the examination of the minuter forms of animal and yegetable life, so 
careful is the diagnosis of each, so numerous are the workers in nearly 
every branch, that the separation of “species,” “varieties,” and “forms,” 
has become almost unbearably multiplied: differences so slight as to 
be apparent only to the very closest scrutiny are necessarily looked 
on as sufficient distinctions, and the student is wearied, confused, and 
perhaps frightened, by the infinite labours entailed upon him. Not 
only so; he is also puzzled by the fact (at least in the microscopic 
forms) that there is no absolute uniformity even in things which he 
has considered identical. A desmid, for example (I speak from my 
own observation) kept in a growing cell for some days, will undergo 
minute changes which it requires a good deal of knowledge of the 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. 


Fig. 1.—Mierasterias americana Ralfs, forma genuina. 
wana Fs - »» integra Turner (forma 6 Rabenhorst). 
Sees - a » recta Wolle. 
ey 1 oe re »» spinosa Turner (MS.). 
ea ey - 55 »  alfsii Turner (forma 8 Ralfs). 
ay 0: > “e » major Wills. 
ad “¢ »  excelsior Wallich (Turner MS.). 
4.8 a 53 »  Mahabuleshwarensis Hobson. 
eo: ES re » Wallichii Grunow. 
3 10: = r- »  Wallichii forma suecica (Turner MS.). 
rl x. a 35 Hermanniana, Reinsch. 
OR ne # 5  jijiensis Macdonald. 
AS: a ~ » ampullacea Maskell. 
», 14. x 9 »»  ampullacea var. B Spencer. 


The magnification of these figures is not uniform, as the object has only been to 
exhibit gradations of outline. 


8 Transactions of the Society. 


family not to mistake for real variations. Sometimes we attain a 
position where it may be possible to simplify this, and to reunite 
under one species, as merely “forms” of it, various plants, whether of 
one or of different countries, which their discoverers may have con- 
sidered to be separate. I believe that this can now be done with the 
desmidian species Micrasterias americana. 

In a paper of mine in 1880 (Trans. New Zealand Inst., xiii. 
p. 304), on New Zealand Desmidiex, I reported the existence of a 
plant to which I gave the name of M. ampullacea, and I indicated 
that it was nearly allied to M. americana. Mr. Archer, in 
‘Grevillea,’ September 1881, referred my plant nearly to M. Her- 
manniana Reinsch. I understand that Professor Nordstedt, of 
Lund, would include mine and some others under M. Mahabulesh- 
warensis Hobson. My object in writing now is to advocate that 
all these, and the other cognate forms, should be merely considered 
as variations of one type species; and I select M. americana as the 
type, because it was the first described. 

The outline of M. americana was very correctly delineated in 
Mr. Ralfs’s work, first under the name M. morsa, afterwards 
corrected. Since that time, as far as I know, thirteen plants more or 
less closely resembling the original have been described from various 
countries. The last of these was reported by Dr. Spencer (Trans. 
New Zealand Inst., xiv. p. 296 and pl. xxii.) as a variety of my 
M. ampullacea, and although at first sight there undoubtedly is 
no very close resemblance between it and Mr. Ralfs’ type, yet when 
all the fourteen plants are placed together, the gradations are seen to 
be so gradual that they form a regular series. With the object of 
showing this, I have attached hereto figures of them all in juxta- 
position. For most of these figures I am indebted to the kindness 
of Mr. Barwell Turner. Beginning with the type-species No. 1, 
it will be seen that the two lateral lobes of each segment are broad at 
their bases, and are cut at their extremities into four short cylindrico- 
tapering lobules. In the forms 2, 5, 4, and 5, there is not much 
difference in this respect; No. 2 has its side lobes apparently even 
widening towards their ends, or rather with an indication of a small 
fifth lobule on each side which will be useful for comparison 
presently. In No. 6 the side lobes are evidently narrower and more 
deeply incised in the middle, giving an approach to the form No. 7, 
where the incision is deep enough to produce the effect of only two 
divaricating lobules. This form passes easily into No. 8, and thence 
into No. 9, where we have a more pronounced extra lobule than in 
No. 2. From No. 9 the gradation to No. 14 is quite easy; in fact, 
if it were not for other points to be mentioned presently, all these last 
forms are almost alike. 

In point of fact, judging merely by general outline, the whole 
series might be divided into two groups: the one including those 
forms in which the lateral lobes are obscurely bifid; the other, the 
forms in which they are distinctly bifid. The extra lobule appears 


Note on Micrasterias americana. By W. M. Maskell. 9 


to be accidental, and is here not taken into consideration. The first 
group would include Nos. 1 to 6; the second Nos. 7 to 14. Even 
then, when a plant is found which will lessen the apparently more 
distinct gap between No. 6 and No. 7, the two groups would be 
merged into one. 

There are, however, two other considerations which seem to me to 
forbid the subdivision into only two groups. The first is the presence 
or absence of serrations on the middle or terminal lobe; the second 
is the shape of the lateral lobes and lobules. Whilst anxious, as I 
remarked just now, for simplification of species and varieties, I believe 
the convenience of students and observers will be consulted by em- 
ploying subdivision wherever clearly marked, just as a farmer finds it 
convenient to separate shorthorns from Devons, or Leicesters from 
Cheviots. A glance at the accompanying figures will show that there 

‘are three different shapes of the lateral lobes and lobules, and three 
different characters of the edges, whether all round or on the median 
lobe. I propose therefore the following arrangement as probably 
correct, and at the same time likely to help a student to identify or 
to allocate correctly any plant whicn he may find agreeing with the 
series. 

Micrasterias americana Ralfs. 


* Lateral lobes thick, lobules short. 
1. Forma genuina Ralfs. 
,  tmtegra Turner (forma b Rabenhorst). 
recta Wolle. 
, spinosa Turner (MS.). 
»  Lalfsii Turner (forma 8 Ralfs) MS. 
5 major Wills. 


> OV O2 bo 


** Lateral lobes with directly-tapering lobules: sides of 
median lobe smooth. 


7. Forma excelsior Wallich (Turner MS.). 
8. ,,. Mahabuleshwarensis Hobson. 
9. ,, Wallchit Grunow. 
10. ,, = Wallichit forma suecica (Turner MS.) 


** * Tateral lobes with sinuous or flask-like lobules: sides 
of median lobe smooth. 


11. Forma Hermanniana Reinsch. 
12. ,, ~—_ fiyiensis Macdonald (1856), perhaps. 


**** Lateral lobes with flask-like lobules; sides of median 
lobe serrated. 


13. Forma ampullacea Maskell. 
***** Lateral lobes with flask-like lobules: margins of all 
the lobes smooth. 
14. Forma ampullacea var. 8 Spencer. 


10 Transactions of the Society. 


The sketch of Mr. Macdonald's Fijian plant from which my figure 
has been taken is on too small a scale to show whether the median 
lobe has a smooth or a rough shaft. 

As a matter of strict classification, perhaps, a regular series 
might be formed from the whole genus Micrasterias, even such 
apparently dissimilar plants as M. denticulata Brébisson, and 
M. dichotoma Wolle, which might be placed at opposite poles, ex- 
hibiting the generally trilobate form characteristic of the whole 
series. ‘T'o some extent the same might be done in other genera, say 
Cosmarium, Stawrastrum, or Closterium ; but in these the gradations 
would not be nearly so easy to find at present. Micrasterias, a small 
genus of few species which run almost into one another, offers a good 
opportunity for some such simplification as I have endeavoured to 
effect in one case. | 

There is, as has been hinted above, a slightly wider gap between 
my No. 6 and No. 7, than between any two others, and probably 
this is an inducement to separate my series into two. Still, the gap 
is so slight that I think it may be disregarded, and it only needs the 
finding of one specimen of either of these two plants varying the 
least bit either way, to fill it up as much as in other cases. 

The suggestion which I have made may be, perhaps, by some con- 
sidered trivial, and taken per se is of course only interesting to students 
of the Desmidiee. Yet I venture to express the thought that it may 
have a wider bearing, and that future generations of workers in 
science may not be over-thankful to those who, with the very best 
intentions, are nowadays multiplying “ species” with such exuberant 
fertility. The remark applies to all branches of zoological and 
botanical inquiry as far as my experience extends. At the present 
rate, the papermakers and bookbinders profit greatly, and the shelves 
groan more and more under the weight of books; but there is pro- 
spect of much trouble and weariness for future students. 


tee) 


I1I.—WNote on the Minute Structure of Pelomyxa palustris. 
By G. GULLIVER. 
(Read 11th January, 1888.) 


Tis interesting Protozoon was first described by Greef, and there is 
a good account of it in Prof. Ray Lankester’s article in the ‘ Encyclo- 
peedia Britannica.’ It is found in mud at the bottom of pools, often 
in association with Amab#x and other allied forms. It is distinguished 
by its large size—for it often attains to a diameter of 1/30 in.—its 
sluggish movements by means of blunt pseudopodia, and its voracity, 
the protoplasm having in general much foreign matter in it. On 
looking at living specimens, it struck me that the minute structure 
was probably more complicated than might at first be imagined; and 
the large size of the animal enabled my friend Mr. Pode to cut some 
sections which form the subject of the few remarks which I wish to 
make. ‘These sections were exceedingly friable, but portions remain 
in a sufficiently perfect condition to allow me to demonstrate a few 
points which I venture to think have not before been sufficiently 
dwelt upon. My remarks refer first to the exoplasm, and secondly to 
the endoplasm. 

Exoplasm.—Professor Ray Lankester divides the Protozoa into 
Gymnomyxa and Corticata, the former containing, besides many other 
forms, Amceba, and the genus which is the subject of these remarks, 
and the latter the higher Protozoa only. The distinction which he 
makes between the two groups rests upon the statement that a 
definite cortical layer is present only in the latter. He says, “The 
distinction into so-called exoplasm and endoplasm recognized by 
some authors is not founded on a permanent differentiation of sub- 
stance, but is merely due to the centripetal aggregation of granules 
lying in a uniform undifferentiated protoplasm. This may be true of 
many forms, but the sections under the Microscope show that not 
only is there in Pelomyzxa a distinction into exoplasm and endoplasm, 
but that the two, instead of passing into one another gradually, as 
one would have expected, are sharply defined by a definite boundary, 
without transitional phases of structure. The exoplasm forms a 
complete investment to the endoplasm in the form of a layer of 
uniform thickness apparently composed of delicately reticulated firm 
protoplasm, containing small vacuoles, and, as I think, devoid of 
nuclei, such few as are seen being apparently pushed on to its sub- 
stance from the endoplasm beneath. In the process of hardening, 
this layer readily separates from the subjacent softer endoplasm. 
Here and there a large vacuole, and in some cases a diatom or other 
foreign body can be seen in its substance. 

Endoplasm.—This is evidently much softer, more friable, and 
has its parts more loosely held together than the outer layer. Prof. 
Lankester speaks of it as composed of a richly vacuolated protoplasm, 


12 Transactions of the Society. 


containing numerous small nuclei and not a single large nucleus as 
in the allied Amaba. It appears to me, however, that it is in reality 
composed of a number of nucleated cells loosely held together. What 
have been taken for vacuoles seem to me to be the delicate translucent 
cells, the nuclei alone of which are visible in the entire animal, 
especially when unstained. These cells are about the size of a white 
blood-corpuscle. Prof. Lankester suggests to me that they, with their 
nuclei, may be swarm-spores; and though I feel inclined to regard 
them as the permanent arrangement of the protoplasm, and to look 
upon the animal as one of those Protozoa which have been described 
as multicellular, yet without examining other individuals to see how 
far the structure is permanent, it would be premature to speak 
definitely. 


SUMMARY 


OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING ‘TO 
LZ, O70 OG ALN. DB OT A NY. 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 
MICROSCOPY, &c., 


INCLUDING ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.* 


ZOOLOGY. 
, A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 
a. Embryology.t+ 


Animal Ovum.{—Prof. F. Leydig gives a preliminary notice of 
the results of his investigations into the egg-cell. 

Germinal Rudiment and Egg-follicle.—It is now generally recognized 
that the egg is from the first a cell, and that it does not commence as a 
nucleus ; the error of observation is due largely to the small quantity 
of protoplasm which often surrounds the nucleus. As bearing on the 
question of the affinities of Annelids, Arthropods, and Vertebrates, the 
author points out that if we can imagine a germ-cord from the stroma of 
the ovary of a mammal it would have a close resemblance to free cords, 
such as those of the leech. The earliest mark of differentiation is that 
the cell-mass divides into germ-cells and matrix-cells, the former 
becoming the primordial ova, and the latter the follicular cells; these 
latter excrete cuticular layers, so that the follicular wall becomes 
thicker and takes on the character of connective tissue. The relation of 
the secreting matrix-cells and the cuticle to the primordial ova is exactly 
the same as that which obtains between the ganglionic sphere of a spinal 
ganglion and the investment. A membrana granulosa, or layer between 
the egg and the follicular wall is, when present, a later addition ; the 
author is inclined to refer its origin to leucocytes and matrix-cells. In 
Lithobius and Geophilus leucocytes certainly enter from the stalk of the 
follicle, while in mammals the elements of the granulosa are derived 
from the matrix and connective-substance cells of the follicle. The 
granulosa of a mammal and the follicular epithelium of an insect appear 
to be corresponding structures. 

Egg-cell.—Germinal spots are of two kinds ; some have the characters 
of Amebe with pale margins, and consist of spongioplasm, hyalo- 


* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “we,” and they do 
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, 
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of 
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, and to 
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have 
not been previously described in this country. 

+ This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called 
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Reproduction, and allied 
subjects. 

t Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 608-12, 624-7. 


14 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


plasm, and nuclear spot; others have a dark margin, a fat-like 
cortex, and paler contents. Notwithstanding these differences there are 
some indications of the passage of the former into the latter state. The 
germinal spots arise from the nodal points of the nuclear framework ; 
when they multiply, the larger germinal spot produces a brood by 
gemmation and fission ; differences are exhibited in different groups of 
animals. In consequence of their amoeboid nature, germinal spots 
which have become independent are capable of uniting into columns, and 
it must, therefore, be supposed that the transversely striated cords are 
not always directly due to the multiplication of germinal spots. 

The membrane of the germinal vesicle may present differences in 
one and the same animal; for example, in Triton it may be proportion- 
ately thick and perforated, or it may be thin and apparently without 
pores, and possibly it may disappear altogether. 

The name of mantle-layer is applied to a layer of germinal vesicles, 
first described by Eimer in reptiles; it is only temporarily present, and 
presents numerous variations ; it consists of granules, which look like 
germinal spots, and are often so grouped as to seem to have a radial 
striation. An account is promised of observations which seem to show 
that this layer is connected with processes of germinal spots. Among 
the general structural relations of the egg we must reckon the cavity 
around the germinal vesicle, which is filled by a clear, very soft and 
almost fluid protoplasm ; from this space hollow passages extend into the 
yolk, where they vary considerably in form and direction. This cavity 
was first noticed by Pfliiger. 

The germinal vesicle, which is ordinarily spherical, may be seen in 
the fresh state to exhibit depressions and processes, or pits and lobes, 
which may be regarded as due to movements. But it must remain 
uncertain whether this change in form is due to the vesicle itself or to 
the whole egg-cell. 

The yolk consists of spongioplasm and homogeneous hyaloplasm, to 
which are added vitelline granules and spheres. The spongioplasm is 
generally a fine closely-felted network, without any regular arrangement, 
but in others there are pretty regular concentric lines, or radially 
arranged bands. The intermediate spaces vary in size, but are often 
very small; in addition to these there may be larger cavities arising 
from the germinal vesicle, extending through the yolk in a radial 
manner, and anastomosing with one another. It is erroneous to suppose 
that the spaces seen by Reichert in the yolk of bony fishes were due to 
coagula. When larger yolk-spheres appear and become regularly 
arranged in the periphery of the egg we can distinguish an outer from 
an inner yolk. It has often been supposed that nuclear and cellular 
structures may be seen in the yolk, before the commencement of segmen- 
tation. These bodies are of two kinds; some resemble germinal spots, 
while the others are like thickenings of the nodal points of the spongio- 
plasm. The former are really germinal spots, which have passed into 
the yolk ; the others resemble the secondary nuclei of other cells, and of 
the egg of Ascaris megalocephala. As to what becomes of them there is 
some difficulty, but it seems to be certain that they do not form the 
material for the membrana granulosa. Prof. Leydig’s own observations, 
supported by those of Heider and Blochmann on Arthropod ova, lead 
him to suppose that they form a cellular layer round the yolk, but that 
the boundaries between the cells are not well marked; the “internal 


5 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 5 


epithelium” of Clark, Eimer, and Klebs, the existence of which has been 
so often denied, may be dueto them. As to the function of the second 
kind of bodies no suggestion is offered. 


Maturity of the Ovum.*—Dr. A. Carini discusses the problem of 
maturity in the ovum. He refers to the probable importance of fhe 
inquiry, as Thury has emphasized, in connection with the determination 
of sex. In an historical résumé he notes the various contributions which 
from Barry onwards have been made to this subject. Barry referred to 
the smaller mass of cellular droplets, Wharton Jones to the disappear- 
ance of the germinal vesicle. Bischoff emphasized the increase in size, 
the looser structure of ripe follicles, and the increase of liquor folliculi, 
while Waldeyer called attention to the richer vascularity of ripe follicles, 
the differentiation of layers in the granulosa, and the radiate striation 
of the zona pellucida. His noted the increase of lymph spaces on the 
wall of the follicle, Hensen emphasized the larger size, the oval form, 
and the changes of the follicular cells. Von Baer had noted the peri- 
pheral position of the nucleus. 

Carini has been impressed by the occurrence of eosinophilous elements 
in the follicies of mature ova. In younger ova, both in nuclei and 
protoplasm, the follicular cells have most attraction for hematoxylin, 
while eosin staining only sparsely occurs in the protoplasm. He believes 
that the susceptibility of eosin characteristic of the cells of ripe follicles 
points to the progress of a degenerative process in these cells. 


Axis of Frog Ovum.t—Dr. O. Schultze responds at considerable 
length to some strictures made by Roux upon his work on frog ova. 
He reaffirms his old positions, and gives his reasons for doubting the 
satisfactoriness of some of Roux’s experiments. The axis of the ovum 
corresponds in its course from dark to clear pole to the dorsoventral axis 
of the embryo. The relation of this axis to the unfertilized egg is the 
same as in all telolecithal vertebrate ova. From the moment of the 
oblique posing of the egg after fertilization onwards, since the point 
lying uppermost in the clear portion represents the position of the 
blastopore and that of the future tail, the longitudinal axis is fixed; it 
passes from the point just mentioned at right angles to the transverse axis. 


Relation of Medullary Canal and Primitive Streak.{—Dr. J. 
Kaezander has investigated the somewhat obscure point of the relations 
between the primitive streak and the medullary canal. Chick embryos 
were examined, beginning at the stage when the primitive streak is 
visible to the naked eye, surrounded anteriorly by the dorsal folds. It 
was seen that the residue of the streak—unused in the differentiation of 
the body—includes the solid rudiment of the medullary canal. So far the 
latter conforms to the rule in passing through a groove-like stage before 
it is closed into a tube. Similar processes are seen in the bony fishes, 
where, according to Schapringer, the central canal of the spinal cord 
arises by a process of splitting within the solid rudiment, or, according 
to Oellacher, by the divergence and partial dissolution of the innermost 
cell-layer of the solid rudiment. There is this difference, however, that 
in the Teleostei the groove-form never occurs, but the tube is formed 
directly from the solid rod. 

* MT. Embryol. Inst. Wien, 1887, pp. 69-77. 


+ Biol. Centralbl., vii. (1887) pp. 577-88. 
J MT. Embryol. Inst. Wien, 1887, pp. 26-32. 


16 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Spermatogenesis.*—Herr O. S. Jensen studied the ontogeny of 
spermatozoa in the rat, horse, sheep, and to some extent in man. His 
research bears especially on the much debated point of the structure of 
the tail, but some observations on the head-portion were also made. 
The fibrillar composition of the axial filament, the apposition and not 
twisting of the thread-like halves, the lumen passing up the entire axial 
filament, the spiral thread round the axis-filament in the connecting 
portion, are all minutely described and figured, but hardly call for 
detailed summary. 


Two Young Human Embryos.t — Prof. J. Janosik has studied a 
young normal and satisfactorily preserved human embryo. A second 
less favourable specimen also came into his hands. The first was 
probably the youngest human embryo as yet satisfactorily described. 
It measured 3 mm. in length, the ovum itself 8 mm.; the whole surface 
was covered with villi 1 mm. in length. The relations of the skin, 
body-wall, skeleton, nervous system, sense organs, alimentary tract, 
urinogenital organs, heart and vascular system, are described in detail. 
The embryo described corresponds to the embryo of M. His, which was 
probably slightly younger, but less well preserved. The relations to 
other young embryos are also noted. 


Experimental Embryology.t—Prof. L. Gerlach gives an interesting 
account of a new method applicable to research in the comparatively 
new field known as experimental embryology. 

There can be no doubt that a young form is more in the grasp of 
environmental influences, and is more plastic towards them than an 
adult can well be; an influence borne in persistently on a series of 
generations during embryonic life must be of the most potent character, 
That experimental embryology has not been earlier attacked has been 
due on the one hand to the necessity for preliminary study of the normal 
development, and on the other hand to the absence of a proper method. 
To attack such a problem as that of testing mutability during embryonic 
life, it is necessary that accessible embryos be obtained, that some know- 
ledge be forthcoming as to the influence and application of definite, not 
mortal external agents, and that it be possible to rear the subjects of 
experiment. As regards accessibility, the ova of birds, amphibia, and 
fishes are among Vertebrata the forms best adapted for experiment. The 
external influences, the operation of which may be studied, are manifold, 
from pressure to electric currents. Under increased pressure, Rauber 
produced short compressed forms. With over-abundant oxygen, the 
gills of tadpoles remained rudimentary. The influence of gravity on 
segmentation has been abundantly studied. Roux has investigated the 
results of pressure and mechanical injuries. 

In spite of these and other important researches, there are many 
obvious desiderata. It is necessary to have a more exact method of ex- 
periment, the varying plasticity of the embryos must be appreciated, a 
graduated series of influences must be established, and successive 
generations must be reared. Experiments on the mutability of embryos 
are still relatively premature, but birds afford the most convenient 
subjects for experiment as to the operation of external influences and 


* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxx. (1887) pp. 379-425 (3 pls.). 
+ Ibid., pp. 559-95 (2 pls.). 
t Biol. Centralbl., vii. (1887) pp. 588-605. Anatom, Anzeig., 1887, pp. 18-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. jy 


their transmission under persisting conditions to subsequent genera- 
tions. 

Following the ancient attempts of Beguelin (1749), and numerous 
more elaborate expedients since proposed, Gerlach introduced an air- 
tight glass window in an aperture formed by breaking a portion of the 
egg-shell at the pointed pole. A permanent window was, however, in- 
convenient for experiment, though most useful for demonstration. After 
trying half-a-dozen different instruments, Gerlach at length devised the 
apparatus which he has used for about a year, and which he calls the 
Embryoscope. Generally, the contrivance consists of a metal ring 
fastened on the egg-shell, and of an air-tight glass plate covering the 
space where the shell had been removed within the metal ring. The 
operation is accomplished with antiseptic precautions. The window can 
be easily opened and reclosed so that the embryo may be subjected to 
experimental influences. For demonstration purposes, for watching the 
differences of growth in various regions, for studying heart-beat and 
other functions, and above all for investigating the operation of external 
influences, the device promises to be indispensable. Embryos with such 
windows have lived as long as thirteen days, over half the period of 
hatching. On till the fifth day the embryo could be readily brought 
under the window. When the embryo itself could no longer be directly 
observed from the window, the circulation of the blood could be caught 
sight of, and the life of the embryo proved. 

Gerlach watched the effect of localized heat and cold, of mechanical 
pressure, and of chemicals. He watched the appearance of bifurcation or 
anterior doubling of the heart, and the diminution or entire disappearance 
of the amnion. By hindering the development of the primitive streak, 
he tried to find out whether the blood-elements came from mesoderm 
plates or from parablast. His results were, however, too few and 
negative to admit of certain conclusion. He was able to show that the 
heart may go on beating two or three days after the death of the 
embryo. The amnion may survive still longer. The retarding influence 
of chloral hydrate on segmentation, and other facts were noted by the 
aid of this useful contrivance. 


8B. Histology.* 


Morphology of the Cell.t—Dr. 8S. M. Lukjanow has studied the 
intimate structure of the glandular and epithelial cells in the mucous 
membrane of the stomach of Salamandra maculata. His research is 
accompanied by a prodigal wealth of illustration, forming seven 
coloured plates. 

(1) The cylindrical epithelial cells and the glandular elements 
inclose a large number of paraplasmic structures which are very similar 
in the two sorts of cell. One and the same cylindrical epithelial cell 
may include different kinds of accessory nuclear body, and also mucus 
spheroids of various kinds. The deep glandular cells show a distinct 
tendency to produce accessory nuclear bodies and zymogen granules ; 
the more superficial tend to mucinoid metamorphosis, only the cells of 
the limiting zone can be placed almost without limitation on the same 
morphological level as epithelial cells. 

(2) The extra-nuclear paraplasmic inclosures consist of the same 


* This section is limited to papers relating to Cells and Fibres. 
+ Arch. f. Anat, u. Physiol. (Physiol-Abth.), Suppl. Bd., 1887, pp. 66-90 (7 pls.). 


1888. C 


18 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


structures as the intra-nuclear, and stand in direct connection with 
them. They may be stained with eosin and safranin, or with hama- 
toxylin. Like the intra-nuclear structures, they may be isolated, or 
united in complex systems. The following main types may be dis- 
tinguished:—(a) plasmosomata (stained with eosin and safranin) ; 
(b) karyosomata (stained with hematoxylin); (c) achromatic granules 
(forming all sorts of chains, circlets, and aggregates) ; (d) combinations 
of (a) and (c); (e) combinations of (b) and (c); (f) combinations of 
(a) and (b), combinations of (a), (b), and (c); (4) combinations of sickles 
and spheres, rich in eosino- and safranophilous substances, but also 
plus colourless elements; (7) similar combinations, staining dirty violet 
or deep blue; (7) combinations of sickles and spheres with finely 
granular protoplasmic masses; (/) nucleus-like structures containing 
various forms of the above; (J) zymogen granules (stained with eosin 
and safranin); (m) combinations of (1) with (a); (n) combinations of (7) 
with (c); (0) mucinoid spheroids ; (p) combinations of (0) with (a), &e. ; 
(q) combinations of (0) with (1). Surely enough of permutations and 
combinations! Several may occur both as intra- and extra-nuclear, viz. 
a, b, c, d, e, f, and g. The others are wholly extra-nuclear, though they 
may be in special indentations of the nucleus. 

(3) The above types occur constantly, and must express definite 
structural relations. The variations are always quantitative, the 
fundamental structure is constant. 


Nuclei of Muscle-cells.* — Dr. S. M. Lukjanow, continuing his 
contributions to cellular morphology, has investigated the nuclei of 
unstriped muscle-cells in Salamandra maculata, 

As regards form, the following types of muscle-nuclei have to be 
distinguished :—(a) Regular cylindrical rods rounded at the ends and 
curved when elongated; (b) S-shaped, doubly or trebly curved ; (c) 
spirally coiled, with 2, 3, 4, or more twists; (d) spindle-shaped ; (e) like 
those of cylindrical epithelium, round or oval in optical section. The 
size varies greatly, and is exposed in a series of tables. The staining 
properties are also very diverse even in the same section, and there was 
no relation between these variations and those of size. 

Internal Structure.— The presence of hyaline vesicles or achro- 
matic portions is noted. They form chains within the nuclei. Fine 
chromatin granules are seen at the poles of contact, and also at times 
peripherally. The author distinguishes with combined staining the 
following kinds of nuclear corpuscles :—(a) The so-called plasmosomata ; 
(b) the so-called karyosomata; (¢) elements of a mixed character. The 
various forms and sizes are noted. 

Disposition—The nuclei may (1) lie parallel to one another, or 
(2) in rows one behind the other. In the chain arrangement, the rows 
may consist (a) of two members of similar appearance ; (b) of more than 
two members which are not uniform; and (c) of one large rod or 
spindle-shaped nucleus which bears a much smaller but similar nucleus 
at one of its poles. 

Cell-division.j—Herr F. Tang] has studied the exact connection 
between the nucleus and the body of the cell during mitosis, and comes 
to the two following main conclusions :— 

(1) With the dissolution of the achromatic nuclear membrane the 


* Arch, f. Mikr. Anat., xxx. (1887) pp. 545-58 (2 pls.). ¢ Ibid., pp. 529-45 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 19 


sharp boundary between nucleus and cell-body disappears, until the 
formation of a new membrane round the danghter-figures. 

(2) During the mitosis the connection between cell-body and nucleus 
is much more intimate than obtains with the resting nucleus. This is 
probably due to the mixture of “nuclear sap” and the “ interfilar mass.” 


y. General.* 


Aquatic Locomotion.t—M. Amans has made a mechanical study of 
the modes of aquatic locomotion effected by solid jointed levers. All 
animals with such apparatus are bilaterally symmetrical ovoids. The 
mechanical relations of various ovyoids are described. He draws a 
parallel between forms of ovoid and fin, distinguishing on the one 
hand (a) spheres (lower organisms), (b) circular ovoids (ciliated 
echinoderm larve), (c) elliptical ovoids (vermiform organisms), (d) 
unisymmetrical ovoids (most Vertebrates and Arthropods), and (e) 
asymmetrical ovoids (Pleuronectids, certain Crustacean and Arthropod 
larve). As parallel to these he notes the following forms of fin :— 
(a) embryonic bud, (b) circular cone (vibratile cilia), (c) bisymmetrical 
cone, the basilar section of which forms an elongated ellipse (ap- 
proached by dorsal fin of Hippocampus), (d) unisymmetrical cone 
(dorsal, anal, caudal fins), and (e) asymmetrical cone (pectorals and 
abdominals), the base of which forms an oval analogous to the contour 
of the profile. He distinguishes the various forms of torsion in the 
appendages, and emphasizes the enormous influence of the resistance of 
the water on the form both of the body and of its appendages. 


B. INVERTEBRATA. 
Mollusca. 
B. Gastropoda. 


Larval Anal Eye in Opisthobranch Gastropods.t{—Prof. H. de 
Lacaze-Duthiers and M. G. Pruvot report the presence of a remarkable 
sensory organ in all the embryos of Opisthobranchs which they have 
examined—Aplysia, Bulla, Pleurobranchus, Doris, and others. It is an 
eye of a size relatively colossal, for it is one-fifth of the total height of 
the embryo. It has been particularly studied in Philine aperta, where a 
small lobe, destined to form the intestine, is detached on the right side 
of the endodermal sac, at about the fiftieth hour. At the same time, and 
just above it, four ectodermal cells, belonging to the ventral surface of 
the embryo, become slightly raised and begin to be charged with fine 
pigment-granulations of the brightest carmine colour. They are so 
arranged as to form a cross with the angle turned upwards; in this 
cavity a fifth ectodermal cell appears, which will give rise to the crys- 
talline element; it gradually becomes a rich yellow colour, but does not 
lose its transparency ; it is spherical, with a diameter of 15 yp. The 
four peripheral cells soon encircle it in such a way as to leave at the 
tip a small pupil, which is elongated transversely. Just by the upper 
extremity of the eye a small tuft of vibratile cilia make their appear- 
ance, and indicate the proximity of the future anus. 

Just before the larva escapes, that is, about the sixth day, the anal 


* This section is limited to papers which, while relating to Vertebrata, have a 
direct or indirect bearing on Invertebrata also. 
+ Comptes Rendus, cv. (1887) pp. 1035-7. ¢ Ibid., pp. es 
Cc . 


20 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


eye is completely formed; it is placed in the concavity of the last 
intestinal loop, and its upper extremity, which carries the pupil, is 
placed at the level of the anus. The base is less strongly pigmented 
than the rest, and has on its inner surface a small mass of cells, which 
are found in section to be insensibly continuous with the ectodermal 
integument, and which must be considered as the rudiment of the 
asymmetrical nerve-centre. Longitudinal sections of the organ show 
that the upper half of the pigmented sac is entirely occupied by the 
crystalline portion, while its inferior half is lined by a relatively thick 
layer, which is finely dotted, and evidently represents a retina. 

It is clear that this organ presents all the essential parts of a highly 
specialized eye, and there is no doubt that its duty is to make up for 
the absence of the cephalic eyes, which are always wanting in the long 
free larval life which is led by Philine. 

In Bulla hydatis there are two well-developed cephalic eyes, but, 
nevertheless, the anal eye has the same structure and relations as in 
Philine ; but it is interesting to remark that it has no function to per- 
form, for the larva does not become free till the twenty-fifth day, and 
the eye commences to atrophy before the embryo leaves the egg. 

As to the morphological significance of this organ, we are reminded 
that Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers long since described, at the entrance of the 
mantle-cavity of aquatic Pulmonates, a “special organ” in the form of a 
vibratile pit set in a small ganglion; this has always been since regarded 
as having an olfactory function. As it is always proportionately larger 
during embryonic life it has been regarded as a larval organ. With this 
M. Fol has compared the ciliated pads, which have the same innervation 
and appear to have the same function in Pteropods and Heteropods. It 
seems to the authors that the anal eye of Opisthobranchs is in them the 
representative of this structure, the physiological differences in no way 
implying differences in morphological value. 

The otocysts of Philine are formed in exactly the same way as the 
eye, the otolith appearing before the neighbouring cells surround it to 
form the wall of the auditory vesicle, which only later becomes sunk 
into the substance of the foot; the pedal ganglion, as is the rule for 
sense-organs of Gastropods, appears last. 


Nervous System of Aplysia.*—Prof. H. de Lacaze-Duthiers con- 
tinues his morphological study of molluscs, and describes the anatomical 
nervous relations found in Aplysia. 

The esophageal commissure, at the level of the large tentacles and eyes, 
has this first peculiarity, that the commissure of the pedal ganglia being 
very long, these two centres become lateral. The two first ganglia of the 
asymmetrical centre are oblong and small, and situated behind the former. 

The brain owes its apparent quadrilateral form to connective tissue, 
but consists of two rounded ganglia. The external and superior angles 
give off all the nerves to head and cephalic sense-organs. The inferior 
external angles give origin to the connectives uniting the brain with 
the pedals and with the first ganglia of the asymmetrical group. Where 
the cerebro-pedal connective plunges into the pedal ganglion there arises 
the very short connective uniting the latter to the asymmetrical ganglion. 
The cerebral nerves are very closely apposed, the optic is almost always 
distinct from the tentacular. The latter forms five ganglionic thicken- 


* Comptes Rendus, cy. (1887) pp. 978-82. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 21 


ings in its organ. The rich innervation of the two buccal lobes is 
described. Other nerves supply the lips proper. 

The pedal centre has really a double commissure. Each ganglion 
gives off three large nerves below and three above. The largest and 
most internal of the latter innervates the sensitive region of the foot 
below the labial palps, the other two go to the portion of the foot in 
front of the head. Of the inferior pedal nerves, the two medians supply 
the middle region of the foot, the two outer pass outwards to the two 
large lateral lobes which ascend dorsally, and are sometimes erroneously 
called the mantle. The intermediate pair innervate the most external 
portion cf these same lobes. 

The asymmetric centre——From the two little ganglia which lie on the 
pedal centres, and belong to the cesophageal collar, there rises on each 
side a cord which passes to the neighbourhood of the heart and the base 
of the gill. There the couple unite in two closely adjacent ganglia, A 
‘ long closed loop forms with the two superior ganglia the transversal 
chain of the asymmetric centre. 

From the first ganglion on the left, near the pedal of the same side, 
a nerve descends to where the mantle properly begins, and there divides, 
The two precardial ganglia give off two large nerves, which are dis- 
tributed on mantle and viscera. The details of their distribution and 
the nature of the branchial ganglion are noted. The nerves of the neck 
arise from the dorsal surface of the pedals. 

It is important to notice that mantle, viscera, and gill are supplied 
as usual by the asymmetric centre, the median ganglia of which are far 
separated from the collar, and in the cardiac region. They are united 
by a long connective-like commissure. The mantle-like lobes of the 
foot are innervated from the pedal ganglia. 


Nervous System of Prosobranchs.*—The following are some of the 
more important general conclusions reached by M. E. L. Bouvier. 
The nervous system of Prosobranch Mollusca is characterized by a 
crossed visceral commissure, which is only wanting in the orthoneuroid 
Azygobranchs. Except, perhaps, in the Docoglossata, there are also two 
pallial anastomoses; the right anastomosis is related to the right 
pallial nerve which arises from the pallial ganglion of the same side, 
and with another right pallial nerve which arises from the subintestinal 
ganglion, or (when that ganglion is absent) from the subintestinal branch 
of the visceral commissure. The left anastomosis is established between 
the left pallial nerve, which arises from the left pallial ganglion, and a 
branchio-pallial nerve which is given off from the subintestinal com- 
missural branch. 

If the right pallial nerve passes by the subintestinal ganglion before 
passing to its area of distribution, the nervous system is zygoneurous to 
the right, or there may be zygoneury to the left; in all other cases the 
nervous system is dialyneurous. Right is much more frequent and 
important than left zygoneury. We may classify the Prosobranchiata 
thus :— 

(A) Dialyneurous Nervous System: Chiastoneurous Diotocardata ; 
Holostomatous Proboscidifera ; the majority of the Rostrifera. 

(B) Right Zygoneurous Nervous System: Siphonostomatous Pro- 
boscidifera; Stenoglossata ; some Rostrifera. 


* Ann. Sci. Nat.—Zool., ili. (1887) pp. 1-510 (19 pls.). 


22 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(C) Left* Zygoneurous Nervous System: Ampullariide, some 
Crepidulide, Naticide, Lamellariide, Cypreide. 

(D) False Orthoneurous Nervous System: Helicinide and Neritide. 

Right zygoneury becomes more marked as one ascends the scale of 
Prosobranchs ; the right pallial anastomosis of the Aspidobranchs is at 
some distance from the right ganglion. In Paludina, Littorina, and 
Cyclostoma, the two pallial nerves fuse in the walls of the body. Among 
the Cerithiide, Melaniidew, and Cypreeide, there are some genera more 
or less dialyneurous, and others which are more or less distinctly 
zygoneurous. 

Once right zygoneury is realized, the right anterior pallial nerve 
becomes a connective; this is generally pretty long, but in most of the 
Stenoglossata it is so short that the subintestinal ganglion becomes 
intimately connected with the right pallial ganglion. 

The nervous system of Diotocardata is essentially characterized by 
the diffusion of the nervous centres. From the point of view of the 
nervous system there is no solution of continuity among the different 
groups which compose the order of Prosobranchs. Thus, in the Tznio- 
glossata the Ianthinide and the Ampullariide have a very long cerebroid 
commissure; the Ampullariide, Paludinide, Cyclophoride, &ec., have a 
labial process and a labial commissure, and the Ampullariide and the 
Tanthinide very long lateral connectives. 

The successive transitions between the Diotocardata and the Monoto- 
cardata are more sharply indicated by the ganglionic cords of the foot; 
the buccal ganglia also undergo progressive modifications as one ascends 
in the order, for in Halia and the Purpuride they are closely ap- 
proximated and almost concentrated into a single mass. 

Other modifications are presented by the cerebral commissure, and the 
maximum of concentration is exhibited by the Stenoglossate Monoto- 
cardata, where the buccal ganglia are very close to the cerebral ganglia, 
and very far from the buccal mass. With these variations there cor- 
respond changes in the relations of the buccal connectives. 

In the most primitive types the anterior part of the mantle is almost 
symmetrically and solely innervated by the pallial ganglia. If the 
right gill and false gill are absent, there is no subintestinal ganglion, 
and its position in the commissure or in its vicinity is simply indicated 
by one or two right pallial filaments. As one ascends the Tznioglossata 
the asymmetrical innervation of the mantle increases in importance, 
especially on the right side. The Diotocardata are the least asymmetrical 
of all the Prosobranchs. 

After describing the innervation of the gills, and the characters of 
the visceral ganglia, the author proceeds to consider the otocysts; these 
may be divided into three groups; (1) Otocysts with numerous otoliths 
as in Diotocardata and some Rostrifera; (2) Otocysts with numerous 
otoliths inclosing a large round otolith, as in Turritella rosea ; and (8) 
Otocysts inclosing a single otolith, as in remaining Prosobranchs. 
Although it would be an error to deny all systematic value to the oto- 
cysts, the author thinks that their importance, from this point of view, 
has been over-estimated. 

The penis is not always, as has been stated, a cephalic formation 
innervated from the cerebral ganglion, for four kinds may be distinguished. 


* In the text B and O are both “Systeme nerveux zygoneure a droite.” 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 23 


A pedal penis, as in most Tenioglossata and Stenoglossata; a cephalic 
penis, as in Neritide, Paludinide, and Calyptreide; a dorsal penis, 
innervated from the subintestinal ganglia as in the Cyclostomide and 
Bythinia; and a pallial penis, as in the Ampullariide. With the ex- 
ception of the Neritide all the Diotocardata hitherto examined have 
been found to be without a penis. 

Among the Pulmonates the torsion of the body displaces the organs 
or modifies the asymmetry of the nervous system; but among the 
Prosobranchs it is not so; for the dextral Ampullariidz have the anus, 
the penis, the gill, and the rectum to the right, and the siphon and the 
false gill to the left; it is exactly the same in the sinistral forms, and 
they have the nervous system twisted in just the same way as that of 
the dextral forms. In the Prosobranchs, then, the torsion of the body 
does not displace the organs or modify the asymmetry of the nervous 
system. We must, therefore, reject all the hypotheses which explain 

‘the torsion of the nervous system by that of the body. 

In Prosobranchs the presence of a lung is no indication of a relation- 
ship between pulmonate forms; the Cyclophori, which are always placed 
near the Cyclostomata, are much closer to Turbo or Delphinula. 

After indicating the various modifications undergone by different 
parts of the digestive system, M. Bouvier points out that the Proso- 
branchs, which have become adapted to a special mode of life, have, as a 
rule, undergone profound and apparently abnormal changes in their 
organization ; in their progressive evolution the members of the group 
have gone through three chief stages. The nervous system was at first 
dialyneurous, diffused, and provided in the foot with ganglionated 
scalariform nerve-cords ; the gill was bipectinate; the heart, with two 
auricles and a ventricle, was traversed by the rectum; the very well deve- 
loped buccal mass was situated behind the nerve-collars; the salivary 
glands were applied to the buccal mass, and their ducts did not traverse 
the nerve-collars; there was no siphon, or penis, and the renal organ 
opened by a tube into the pallial cavity. In the second stage the nervous 
system was dialyneurous or zygoneurous, and more or less concentrated ; 
there were no scalariform cords in the foot; the gill was monopectinate, 
and a false gill more or less developed; the heart had but one auricle, 
and the ventricle was not traversed by the rectum; the buccal mass 
moderately developed, and situated in front of the nerve-collars; the 
salivary glands were separated from the buccal mass, and the ducts 
traversed the nerve-collars; a penis was generally present, the renal 
organ opened by a cleft at the base of the pallial cavity; the otocyst had 
one or more otoliths, and the buccal ganglia were applied against the 
buccal mass. The characters of the third stage are a zygoneurous, 
highly concentrated nervous system, no scalariform pedal cords; gill 
monopectinate, well developed, bipectinate false gill; heart with one 
auricle and untraversed ventricle; poorly developed buccal mass, from 
which the salivary glands—whose ducts traverse the nerve-cords—are 
separated ; buccal connective very short, but deep; siphon, penis, pro- 
boscis, unpaired special gland; renal organ opening by a cleft at the 
base of the pallial cavity ; a single otolith in the otocysts. 

These characters appear to be sufficient to justify the establishment 
of three great divisions of the Prosobranchiate Gastropods, the Dioto- 
cardata, teenioglossate Monotocardata, and stenoglossate Monotocardata ; 
and this mode of classification is supported by the facts of paleontology, 


24 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


for the first division had a number of representatives in paleozoic times, 
the second was abundant in secondary epochs, and the Stenoglossata are 
common in tertiary strata. The author appends a somewhat detailed 
table of affinities and classification. 


Development of Helix Waltoni.*—Drs. P. and F. Sarasin found 
that Helix Waltoni is very abundant in Ceylon. The young are re- 
markable for the long time that they remain in the egg, where two 
larval organs—caudal vesicle and primitive kidney—develope to a con- 
siderable size. The former is finally as much as 14 cm. long; it is, 
doubtless, as Gegenbaur has suggested, the embryonic respiratory organ. 
The primitive kidney is large enough to be seen, on dissection, with the 
naked eye, and has the function of an embryonic renal organ. 

On some parts of the body-epithelium small bud-like structures, 
which are found to be sensory, may be seen; they consist of a small 
number of large pyriform sensory cells with stiff processes, and are 
inclosed by long supporting cells. The whole structure calls to mind 
the lateral organs of Amphibia. The lateral organs found by Haller in 
rhipidoglossate molluscs appear to be more diffuse; the lateral organs 
of Helix are regarded as larval organs. 

The rudiments of the central nervous system are laid down very 
early; before the tentacles are visible the cerebral ganglia appear as 
rounded masses of cells, still connected with a well-marked thickening 
of the epithelium of the sensory plates. When the cerebral mass is well 
developed there appear on either side of the sensory plates two invagina- 
tions, which grow out into long tubes with cecal widened ends; these 
the authors call the cerebral tubes. Later on a large lobe may be seen 
on either side of the cerebral mass ; these, which have a different struc- 
ture from the brain, may be called the accessory lobes; the spaces in 
them are nothing else than the cavities of the two cecal sacs of the 
cerebral tubes; later on the two spaces and the efferent duct disappear. 
These observations will doubtless explain the discrepancies in different 
accounts of the development of the brain of Mollusca; the authors who 
state that the brain is formed from an epithelial thickening have 
probably examined early stages, while those who have described it as 
arising by invagination have seen the later. 

The authors believe that these cerebral tubes are the homologues of 
the olfactory organs of Annelids, described by Kleinenberg in Lopado- 
rhynchus ; in Molluses they do not permanently retain the character of 
open tubes, but pass into the brain, of which they form the lobes. 


Morphology of the Heteropod Foot.{—Prof. C. Grobben gives a 
critical account of the views of Huxley, Gegenbaur, Leuckart, Ray 
Lankester, and others on this subject; but brings forward nothing 
which can be called new. The investigation shows that in connection 
with the pelagic life, and the associated development of a swimming- 
lobe upon the foot, the primitive Gasteropod sole has degenerated into a 
sucker-like structure, which in the Pterotracheide forms a secondary sex 
character through its absence in the female. With the shortening of the 
foot-sole is connected the specialization of the portion bearing the oper- 
culum, which forms the tail-like posterior part of the body, and whose 
fin-like development is in relation to the pelagic life of the Heteropoda, 


* Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 599-602. 
{ Arbeit. Zvol, Inst. Univ. Wien, vii. (1887) pp. 221-82 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 20 


y. Pteropoda. 


Nervous System of Pteropods.*—Dr. P. Pelseneer has studied the 
nervous system of Pteropods, in regard to which a certain degree of 
vagueness has hitherto existed, 

(1) In Gymnosomatous Pteropods, the central nervous system, com- 
pared with that of thecosomatous types, is characterized by the position 
of the cerebral ganglia, which are apposed one upon the other, and 
situated on the superior surface of the cesophagus. (2) In all genera 
except Halopsyche the pleural ganglia are paired, and not unpaired as 
Von Ihering has maintained. Each pleural ganglion gives origin to a 
nerve which anastomoses with a pedal (lateral cervical) nerve. All the 
Gymnosomata exhibit a double pedal commissure. (3) The buccal 
appendages of Clione and Pneumodermon are innervated by the cerebral 
ganglia, and not by the pedals as Gegenbaur stated. These appendages 
are therefore not pedal in their nature. (4) The visceral commissure 
of typical Gymnosomata exhibits two superposed ganglionic masses, 
which give origin to the asymmetrical nerves, three from the left, and 
one from the right, and not to symmetrical branches as most authorities 
describe them. 

As to Thecosomatous Pteropods, the central nervous system has been 
often described. Pelseneer contents himself for the most part with 
emphasizing that the system is characterized (1) by the separation of the 
cerebral ganglia, which are situated on the sides of the cesophagus, and 
united by a long supra-cesophageal commissure, (2) by the absence of 
pleural ganglia, the pedals and viscerals being directly apposed to the 
cerebrals from which they are separated only by a constriction, and 
(8) by the coalescence of all the ganglionic elements of the visceral 
commissure in a single elongated mass. The nerves which spring from 
the visceral ganglion are in origin asymmetrical. The left portion of the 
ganglion gives origin to three principal nerves, the left pallial and two 
viscerals, while the right portion only gives rise to the right pallial. 
Souleyet alone has given a correct representation of this fact. The 
nervous system of Cymbulia is discussed in detail. Halopsyche among 
Gymnosomata agrees with Cymbulia. Three types may be distinguished : 
one represented by the two genera just named, a typical Gymnosomatous, 
and a typical Thecosomatous arrangement. 

The author then discusses the homologies between the various 
Pteropod types, and between these and molluscs generally. (1) The 
two lateral ganglia—right and left—of Halopsyche and Cymbulia are 
homologous with the anterior or pallial visceral ganglia of other 
molluses, for they give origin to nerves which supply similar regions. 
The unpaired median ganglion of the same genera corresponds to the 
united posterior visceral ganglia of other molluscs, for they give rise to 
nerves which supply the circulatory, respiratory, and reproductive 
apparatus. (2) The left ganglion of typical Gymnosomatous Pteropods 
is homologous with the left anterior visceral, and posterior visceral 
together, while the right ganglion of the former corresponds to the right 
anterior visceral. (8) The left portion of the visceral ganglion of 
typical hecosomata is homologous with the left anterior visceral 
and posterior visceral together, while the right half corresponds to 
the anterior right visceral. The visceral ganglionic mass of typical 


* Arch. de Biol. vii. (1887) pp. 93-129 (1 pl). 


26 SUMMARY OF OUIRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Thecosomata thus corresponds to the sum of the four ganglia of the 
visceral commissure. 

In general, (a) the pleural ganglia are paired in Gymnosomata as in 
all molluscs where they are present; (b) the buccal appendages of 
Gymnosomata are innervated by cerebral ganglia, and cannot therefore 
be compared with Cephalopod arms ; (c) the Pteropods are thus separated 
from Cephalopods. The asymmetry of their visceral commissure 
separates them from all molluscs with symmetrical visceral commissure. 
They approach the Gasteropods, and especially, as Spengel noted, the 
EKuthyneura. 


‘Challenger’ Pteropoda (Gymnosomata).*—Dr. P. Pelseneer has 
published the first part of his report on the Pteropoda collected by 
H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ which has become a critical account of all known 
genera and species. The adult Gymnosomata are characterized by the 
absence of a mantle-skirt, pallial cavity, and shell; by the presence of a 
well-developed head, bearing two pairs of tentacles, of which the two 
posterior bear rudimentary eyes; by two fins of which the anterior 
edges are not joined together backwards, above the mouth; and by the 
anus being situated at the right side of the body. They are carnivorous, 
and often feed on their thecosomatous allies. Eleven species were 
collected by the ‘Challenger, four of which are new; all the known 
twenty-one forms are discussed in the systematic portion of this memoir. 


6. Lamellibranchiata. 


Photogenic Property of Pholas dactylus.;—M. R. Dubois has made 
a series of experiments which show that the photogenic property of 
Pholas dactylus is independent of any organ, and is a chemical 
phenomenon. From the luminous parts of the animal the author has 
succeeded in extracting two substances, the contact of which, in the 
presence of water, determines the appearance of the light. One of them 
was obtained in the crystalline state, and possesses the special optic 
properties which give to photogenic tissues their opalescence. It is 
soluble in water, and hardly soluble in alcohol; it may be called luci- 
ferine. ‘The other body is an active albuminoid of the class of soluble 
ferments, and may be called luciferase. These two substances are 
necessary to, and sufficient for the production in vitro of the phenomena 
of animal luminosity, improperly called phosphorescence. The results 
here obtained confirm and generalize those attained to by the author 
after his study of the luminous Elateride. 


. Molluscoida. 
a, Tunicata. 


Central Nervous System.{—M. F. Lahille has studied the develop- 
ment of the central nervous system in a large number of Tunicate 
embryos, and comes to the following conclusions. The typical central 
system consists of a median tube of epiblastic origin, with bilateral 
symmetry, and with numerous ganglionic masses. If the principal 
masses are considered as forming so many ganglia, the following may be 
distinguished: (1) the anterior (tactile); (2) the sensory (ocular and 


* Reports of the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘ Challenger,’ lviii. (1887) 72 pp. and 3 pls. 
t+ Comptes Rendus, ev. (1887) pp. 690-2. { Ibid., pp. 957-60. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 27 


auditory); (3) the cerebral; (4) the posterior (branchial); (5) the 
visceral; and (6) the caudal. The brain of the adult Tunicate arises 
from the union of the first ganglia. As to the segmentation of the 
nervous system in Tunicates, it is a matter of appreciation. 


B. Polyzoa. 


Spermatogenesis.*—M. A. de Korotneff finds in Aleyonella fongosa 
a very fit object in which to study the process of spermatogenesis. ‘The 
succession may be summed up in La Valette St. George’s familiar 
formula, spermatogonia give rise to spermatocytes, these become 
spermatides and mature into spermatozoa. 

The young endodermic cells of the funiculus of a bud have spherical 
transparent nuclei. ‘These contain nucleoli and these alveoli. The 
nuclei of these spermatogonia multiply without trace of karyokinesis. 
Multinuclear cells result, the nuclei being situated just below the 
‘cellular membrane. The individual spermatocytes bud off spermatides, 
and the whole mass comes to have the appearance of a transparent 
vesicle covered superficially by a thick layer of maturing sperms. 

The external surface of the peripheral (outer) end of each nucleus is 
surrounded by a homogeneous sheath, which gives off a process forming 
the central filament of the tail. The internal surface of the nucleus has 
a gradually thickening cap of protoplasm, The first-mentioned sheath 
acquires a swollen vase-like form, and after certain modifications becomes 
the neck of the spermatozoon. The internal cap separates from the 
nucleus, and becomes gradually conical. The nucleolus, a small well- 
defined spherule, becomes finally lodged in this cap, where it is pro- 
tected, and forms the essential part of the head. The details are 
minutely described. 

M. Korotneff suggests, in regard to the peculiar sperm of Ascaris 
megalocephala, that the caudal portion is the head-cap, and its nucleus 
really the nucleolus. The other portion contains a number of filaments 
plunged in a protoplasmic mass; these structures may be identified with 
the tails of other spermatozoa, and compared, for instance, with the 
processes seen in the crayfish sperm. 


Fresh-water Bryozoa.t—Herr M. Verworn has investigated the 
structure and development of Cristatella. He finds that the chief 
anatomical peculiarities are the presence of a movable pedal disc on 
which the individuals are arranged in parallel rows, the complete 
absence of an ectocyst and of a fold of the endocyst; as a consequence 
the anterior and posterior parieto-vaginal muscles have disappeared ; 
there are a comparatively large number of tentacles. 

The author adopts provisionally the view of Kripelin that the 
whole outer cell-layer of the integument is formed by ectoderm, the 
inner lining of the body-cavities by mesoderm, and the inner epithelium 
of the enteric tract by endoderm; embryological investigations are, how- 
ever, needed on these points. The pedal disc consists of an outer ecto- 
dermal layer, a median muscular layer, and a mesodermal pavement 
epithelium. The first of these has, in addition to large vesicular cells 
and others containing a clear slimy mass, long cylindrical glandular 
cells with a broad base on the lower surface and at the sides; between 


* Comptes Rendus, ev. (1887) pp. 953-5. 
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvi. (1887) pp. 99-130 (2 pls.). 


28 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


these there are pores by which the mucous secretion passes to the 
exterior. The cylindrical cells have an important function in the move- 
ment of the colony, as they secrete a thin transparent and chitinous 
membrane, which affords a smooth surface which lessens friction and 
affords a strong fulcrum. The musculature of the foot consists of a 
longitudinal and a transverse layer, the fibres of which are set at right 
angles to one another. The cells of the mesodermal epithelial layer are 
provided with very short cilia which can be easily missed, and which the 
author only saw with certainty in living specimens. The septa which 
traverse the cavity of the pedal disc are completely formed of mesoderm ; 
they are made up of a hyaline supporting membrane on either side of 
which are longitudinal fibres and pavement epithelium; their layer of 
transverse fibres is feebly developed or completely wanting. 

The integument of the separate individuals is the direct continuation 
of the upper covering of the disc, and consequently consists of the same 
three layers as compose it; although there are, of course, certain differ- 
ences in the details. The walls of the lophophore and of the tentacular 
crown are formed of the same layers as the cystid. The tentacles are to 
be regarded as evaginations of the cavity of the lophophore, which, again, 
communicates with the body-cavity. 

The enteric tract is made up of the endodermal enteric epithelium, a 
median muscular layer, and an outer mesodermal coelomic epithelium. 
The epistome carries externally a layer of ciliated cells, which are 
highest near its base. The foregut is divisible into two parts, which are 
histologically quite distinct. The lining epithelium of the pharynx is 
the direct continuation of the ciliated investment of the epistome, and 
presents very long, delicate, ciliated cells, separated from one another, 
like those of the epistome, by clefts. About the middle of the foregut 
the ciliated cells suddenly cease, and the epithelium of the cesophagus 
commences. Its cells are long, delicate, and cylindrical, but they have 
no cilia, and do not stain like those of the pharynx; nor are they sepa- 
rated from one another by clefts. Inferiorly, the foregut is bounded 
by a circular valve, which at its margin takes on the characters of the 
epithelium of the stomach. As in Alcyonella, the stellate form of a trans- 
verse section of the lumen of the stomach is due to the fact that the cells 
which form the longitudinal ridges of its wall are knobbed at their free 
ends and greatly elongated, while the intermediate cells have sharper 
tips and are comparatively short. It will be observed that there is no 
formation of true folds, but it is of greater interest to note that the cells 
and the ridges are histologically and physiologically different from those 
which are found in the intermediate grooves. The former have generally 
one or two thin transverse walls which appear to be formed by hardened 
secreted surfaces ; the grey finely granular contents at the knobbed end 
are much darker than those of the rest of the cell, and often, indeed, 
the upper cell-boundary is quite broken through by the finely granular 
secretion which passes freely into the stomach. The secretion of the 
ridge-cells does not stain, while those of the groove-cells always take a 
dark colour throughout their whole extent; that of the former is a slimy 
mass which envelopes the particles of the food and connects them with 
one another. 

The rectum is sharply distinguished from the stomach ; the contour 
of its lumen is round, and its lining cells low and broad. 

The mechanism of digestion has been observed in living specimens 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 29 


by the aid of the horizontal Microscope. Diatoms and desmids are 
caught by the currents set up by the cilia of the tentacular crown, and 
passed into the foregut, at the base of which they lie until a quantity of 
them have been collected. By a wave-like constriction of the foregut 
they are then passed through the circular valve into the stomach. By 
the peristaltic action of the stomach the food is driven backwards and 
forwards; the food is next impregnated with the enteric secretions, 
and then begins to be absorbed. A fresh quantity of food again enters 
from the cesophagus, and the indigestible portions of the first mass are 
driven into the rectum. With regard to the reproductive apparatus, the 
author is confident that the funiculus is formed solely by the mesoderm. 

Little can be added to Nitsche’s account of the nervous system ; 
osmic acid preparations showed that the cells composing the ganglion 
have rather large nuclei, and especially those that are central. The 
ganglion is invested by a thin mesodermal layer, by means of which 
it is attached to the upper part of the pharynx; as there is no meso- 
dermal layer between the pharynx and ganglion, the latter appears to be 
constricted off from the pharyngeal wall. With regard to a colonial 
nervous system, the author remarks that it may be thought that if ever 
it be present in a fresh-water Bryozoon it must be found in Cristatella, 
but he has convinced himself that the creeping movements are effected in 
a way which makes such a system superfluous. They are the resultants 
of the pressures exerted by the separate animals on the pedal disc, and 
their direction is caused by the direction of the separate animals. 

Herr Verworn has investigated the development of the statoblasts, 
and finds that at a definite point of the funiculus the epithelial cells 
increase, and form a small swelling, which presses on the lumen; one 
cell now passes into the lumen and becomes an egg-cell, while the others 
form a follicle; the egg goes through a regular process of cleavage, 
the final result of which is a solid morula; it is clear from this that 
the statoblasts have not the nature of buds, and it may be said that the 
statoblasts are parthenogenetic winter ova which, unlike the fertilized 
ova, are developed on the funiculus. 


Arthropoda. 


Primitive Insects.*—Prof. B. Grassi continues his researches on the 
ancestors of Myriopods and Insects. He calls attention at the outset to 
an overlooked memoir by Meinert, which describes the genital organs 
of Machilis, Grassi’s present memoir begins with a classification of 
Thysanura, which includes the four families Campodeade, Japygide, 
Machilide, Lepismide. The latter comprise three genera, Nicoletia, 
Lepismina, Lepisma. The characters of the family and of the three 
genera are given in detail. He then proceeds to give a useful summary 
statement of the characteristics of the species. 

The next chapter is devoted to an account of the anatomy of Lepisma 
and Lepismina, which he compares with his previous results, gained from 
the investigation of Machilis and other forms. 

Prof. Grassi next discusses the musculature of Thysanura, seeking to 
discover whether the Thysanura once had wings or not, and whether 
there are any traces of the previous existence of abdominal appendages. 
He finds in the musculature no evidence whatever to warrant the first of 


* Bull. Soc. Entomol. Ital., xix. (1887) pp. 52-74. 


30 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


these suppositions. In the musculature of the pseudo-appendages some 
traces of the musculature of lost true abdominal appendages may probably 
be detected. It is not possible to make any direct comparison between 
the musculature of Thysanura and that of Annelids or of Peripatus. 


a. Insecta. 


Love-lights of Luciola.*—Prof. C. Emery has given a most enter- 
taining account of his observations on the love-lights of Luciola, which 
he studies in the meadows round Bologna. By catching females and 
imprisoning them in glass tubes in the meadows he satisfied himself that 
sight, not smell, was all important. When the females caught sight of 
the flashes of an approaching male then they allowed their splendour to 
shine. The dance of the male round the female, the gathering crowd of 
rivals, the insatiable desires of the female attracting one lover after 
another, the accomplishment of fertilization, are all most beautifully 
and graphically described. In the two sexes the colour of the light is 
identical; the intensity appears much the same, but that of the female 
is more restricted. The most noteworthy difference lies in the fact that 
the rhythm of the male is more rapid and the flashes briefer, while that 
of the female is longer, more distant, and more tremulous. Besides 
undoubtedly serving for purposes of attraction, the light appears to be 
utilized for illuminating the path, especially if there be obstacles in 
the way. 


Mimicry and Parasitism of Camponotus lateralis.} — Prof. C. 
Emery has made some observations on the mode of life of one of the 
more common ants of the Mediterranean fauna—Camponotus lateralis. 
Two forms occur in Italy, one red, the other quite black (C. foveolatus 
Mayr, ebeninus Em.) The black variety, with only the prothorax red 
(0. dalmaticus Nyl.), is very rare, and seems to be represented only by 
isolated forms. The red and black worker ants of C. lateralis are so 
like Cremastogaster that an inexpert eye would not distinguish them. 
The two forms seem to live on friendly terms. In the same way the 
black variety is related to other black ants, such as Formica gagates. 
Prof. Emery was inclined to suppose that C. lateralis might utilize its 
colour-likeness to other ants by associating itself with them so as to 
have the benefit of their guidance to food-supphes. But he thinks that 
the imperfect vision of ants makes such a supposition improbable. He 
is of opinion that the red and black form of C. lateralis finds an advan- 
tage in being like its companion Cremastogaster for the usual reason, 
that it thereby escapes from some enemy which mistakes it for Cremas- 
togaster, whose taste the myrmecophagous enemy is supposed to dislike. 
More observations are obviously necessary. 

In regard to the habit of C. lateralis, Prof. Emery records an 
interesting case where he found a society living parasitically on a bee- 
hive. They appeared to him to feed on spoils of honey from the combs. 


Sand-wasps.t—Herr A. Handlirsch publishes a monograph on the 
forms of Sphegide related to Nysson and Bembex. The memoir is of 
purely systematic interest. It includes a bibliography of 15 pages, and 
is accompanied by 5 plates. Sixty-four species of Nysson, a few of them 
new, are described. 


* Bull. Soc. Entomol. Ital., xviii. (1887) pp. 406-11. + Ibid. (1886-7) pp. 412-3. 
t+ SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xev. (1887) pp. 246-420 (5 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 31 


Thermic Experiments on Periplaneta orientalis.*-—Prof. V. Graber 
describes a long series of experiments conducted with a view to deter- 
mining the sensibility of the cockroach to heat. A tin chamber whose 
ends were kept at different temperatures by water-baths was the appa- 
ratus, and the results obtained are briefly as follows:—The animals 
lost power of locomotion at 11-12° C., and death resulted at 5-6° C. 
(vital minimum). Life, again, was barely sustained with the air at 37° 
and the floor of the chamber at 39°, a temperature of 41-42° producing 
death. Other experiments proved the creatures to have a decided liking 
for situations where the floor temperature nearly resembled the air 
temperature, and a bad conductor of heat was much preferred as a 
resting-place to a good one. The optimum temperature seemed to be 
between 25° and 29° C., though some experiments contradicted this ; and 
a series of observations in which the animals were allowed a choice 
between extreme temperatures seemed to show only that they preferred 
_ heat to cold, unless the heat was too excessive. 


Diminution in Weight of Chrysalis.;—Herr F. Urech has studied 
the quantitative relations of metabolism in the chrysalis of Pontia 
brassicee. He finds that the weight of the chrysalis continually decreases. 
At a constant temperature, the weight steadily decreases, but the 
decrease becomes finally more rapid, especially some days before libera- 
tion. If the temperature be slightly raised the period of chrysalis 
diminishes. Dry air also shortens it. 


Eyes of Diptera.t{—Professor G. V. Ciaccio has published a series 
of twelve double plates illustrating the histology of the eyes of Diptera. 
This iconographic work includes one hundred and seventy-three figures, 
each family is figured by itself, with a representation first of the entire 
organ, and then of the component parts. It is to be regretted that the 
health and engagements of the author did not permit of the addition of 
a descriptive text. Full explanations, however, accompany each plate. 


Bacteria-like Bodies in Tissues and Ova. §—Herr J. Blochmann has 
studied the occurrence of bacteria-like bodies in the tissues and eggs of 
various insects, e.g. in Periplaneta orientalis and Blatta germanica. 
In the central cells of the fatty body, in the ova, and in the embryos 
these curious elements were abundantly found. They occur in other 
animals besides insects, and closely resemble the bacteroids noted in the 
roots of Leguminose. Leuckart observed similar bodies, which he was 
inclined to regard as parasitic, under the cuticle of Distomum cercarizx. 
Schneider observed similar structures in Mesostomum. F. E. Schulze 
suggested that similar structures in Pelomyxa were symbiotic Bacteria, 
or perhaps reserve accumulations. Korschelt noted the appearance of 
small strongly refractive granules in the yolk-grains of bug ova. 
Zacharias and Van Beneden have observed similar elements in the ova of 
Ascaris megalocephala. They grow and divide, and are to be regarded 
as primitive granules. Altmann has also described their physio-chemical 
import. 


* Arch. f. d. Gesammt. Physiol. (Pfliiger), xli. (1887) pp. 240-56. 
+ Arch. Sci. Phys. ct Nat., xviii. (1887) pp. 433-6. 
t~ Mem. Acad. Sci. Bologna, vi. (1885) pp. 45-72 (12 pls.). 


§ Biol. Centralbl., vii. (1887) pp. 606-8. Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, 
Wiesbaden, 1887. 


32 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Fauna of the Tombs.*—M. P. Mégnin has shown that the popular 
notions that corpses formed the food of worms, and the less vulgar one 
that they crumbled to dust under chemical and physical agencies, are 
both erroneous. He has studied the fauna of the tombs, having had 
opportunity for this gruesome task in connection with sanitary inquiry. 
Corpses are devoured by insects which attack them at various and 
definite periods of decomposition, so definite indeed that from the 
insects on the corpse the date of burial could be proved to a medico- 
legal investigation. Some of the insects were larval, others chrysalids, 
others adult. 

The list is as follows :—Four species of Diptera: Calliphora vomitoria, 
Curtonevra stabulans, Phoras aterrima, and an undetermined Anthomyia ; 
one species of Coleoptera, Rhizophagus parallelocollis ; two Thysanura, 
Achorutes armatus and Templetonia nitida ; and lastly a young undeter- 
mined Julus. These occur in definite succession on the body. 

How do these insects get down to a depth of two metres, and through 
well-jointed boards? Dampness and pressure cause the latter to give 
way, and paths of penetration are readily formed. The larve of 
Calliphora and Curtonevra were found only on bodies which had been 
buried in summer, and must have been deposited on the dead before 
inhumation. The larve of Phoras and Rhizophagus must be supposed 
to penetrate the whole stratum of earth. Phoras is specially found on 
thin bodies, Rhizophagus on the reverse. 

Rhizophagus parallelocollis is a rare insect, its larva has not before 
been known. No wonder. “Besides revealing these facts extremely 
interesting from a biological point of view, this research had contributed 
some entomological material of use in legal medicine.” 


8. Myriopoda. 


Powers of Vision.{—M. F. Plateau contributes an historical summary 
of past researches on the structure and function of simple eyes, and gives 
an account of his observations as to the vision of Myriopods. 

A very simple and lucid account is given of the general structure of 
asimple eye. This is accompanied by a few diagrammatic figures. The 
second portion of the memoir is devoted to a summary of the various 
opinions held in regard to the function of simple eyes, and especially of 
those of Dujardin, Exner, Grenacher, and Patten. 

The author then gives a detailed account of his experiments on 
numerous Myriopods, and summarizes his results. (1) Myriopods 
distinguish light from darkness; (2) as this power is exhibited by 
normally blind forms, the perception of light in forms with eyes may 
be partially due to dermatoptic sensations; (8) Myriopods see very 
badly, and supplement their insufficient sight by touch, which is princi- 
pally localized in the antenne; (4) species with eyes are not much 
better situated than those which are blind; (5) forms with eyes perceive 
at a distance an object placed in their path only when it reflects much 
white light, or light belonging to the most refrangible region of the 
spectrum; this perception is probably in part dermatoptic; (6) Myrio- 
pods do not distinguish the forms of objects ; (7) but some of them can 


* Comptes Rendus, ev. (1887) pp. 948-51. 
+ Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belg., xiv. (1887) pp. 407~48 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 33 


perceive big movements. Theoretical conclusions must be carefully 
corrected by experiment. The imperfection of visual sensation in some, 
and the total absence of eyes in others, must be considered in association 
with their mode of life. 


y. Prototracheata. 


Development of Peripatus Nove-Zealandie.*—Miss L. Sheldon 
commences by explaining that the want of completeness in her account 
of the development of the New Zealand species of Peripatus is due to 
the necessity of killing the gravid parents as soon as they reach England. 
The ripe ovum of this species is large as compared with that of P. 
capensis or P. edwardsii, the length of 1:5 mm. being due to the amount 
of food-yolk with which the egg is charged. There is a thick tough 
shell, and a thin and membranous vitelline membrane. The nucleus of 
the egg before segmentation varies somewhat in position ; it may have a 
‘peculiar lobed form, and consist of three masses of deeply staining 
material, between which is a portion of nuclear substance which stains 
less deeply. The segmentation is like that of some other Arthropods, 
and agrees with the mode lately described by Henking in certain 
Phalangide in the irregular arrangement, in young stages, of the nuclei 
of the blastoderm; but Miss Sheldon does not consider each yolk-seg- 
ment as a single cell, for she found no relation between the yolk and 
the nuclei. What differences obtained between eggs of the New Zealand 
and Cape species are probably due to the presence of yolk in the former; 
in neither are there any cell-outlines, the protoplasm of both forming a 
perfectly continuous reticulum in which the nuclei are imbedded. As 
to the mode of development it might be said that the embryo is “formed 
by a process of crystallizing out in situ from a mass of yolk, among 
which is a protoplasmic reticulum containing nuclei.” 

The embryo obtains its nutrition from the yolk contained within its 
body, and from a peripheral layer of yolk in which are imbedded 
numerous small, round, highly refractive bodies. This latter is a very 
remarkable and unusual mode of embryonic nutrition, but its object is 
evidently to supply the ectoderm with a constant source of nourishment. 
A somewhat comparable arrangement has been described by Ganin in 
Platygaster, and a somewhat similar result is brought about, though by 
different means, in those insects which undergo an internal development, 
and in which the embryo is completely imbedded in the yolk ; the pro- 
cess in P, Nove-Zealandiz is simpler, for nothing corresponding to the 
amnion is present. It is, at any rate, clear that there are in Arthropods 
various modes for the protection of the embryo and the nutrition of the 
ectoderm, and that, though these differ very largely in their mode of 
origin and structure, they resemble one another in their physiological 
functions. 

The segmentation is on the centro-lecithal type; the protoplasm is 
mainly at one pole of the egg, and in it nuclei arise, probably by the 
division of the original segmentation nucleus. In the latest stage 
observed the loose protoplasmic reticulum covered above half the 
periphery of the egg. In the course of development the protoplasmic 
area becomes more compact and flattens out, forming a plate-like mass 
densely packed with nuclei; at this time the embryo is a closed sac, the 


* Quart. Journ, Mier. Sci., xxviii. (1887) pp. 205-38 (4 pls.). 
1888. D 


34 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


walls of which are separated from the vitelline membrane by a thick 
layer of yolk; it is inclosed in a thin layer of protoplasm with nuclei 
which represents the ectoderm. Along one live there is a prominent 
ridge on the outer side of the ectoderm, composed of proliferating 
nuclei ; anteriorly this ridge divides into two, which remain attaehed to 
one another above and below, and so inclose a cavity between them. 
The preoral lobes next appear; not far from the anterior end of the 
embryo the yolk is divided by a protoplasmic septum, which divides the 
body of the embryo into two sacs, one lying above the other ; posteriorly 
these two sacs communicate. By the ingrowth of the surrounding tissue 
the septum becomes divided into two layers, and the embryo now con- 
sists of a sac doubled on itself in such a way that the ventral face of the 
anterior part of the body is opposed to that of the posterior part. The 
embryo next begins to straighten itself out; in the anterior region the 
somites are represented by a series of definite cavities at the side of the 
body, and, later on, they appear throughout the whole length of the 
embryo. When the peripheral food-material has been completely 
absorbed the embryo lies just within the vitelline membrane and egg- 
shell. Along a lateral ridge the appendages begin to appear as blunt 
rounded protuberances ; the antenne arise as buds on the przoral lobes. 
The nerve-cords first arise as special rounded elements at the internal 
ventral angles of thickenings of the ectoderm over the leg-ridges. 


6. Arachnida. 


Acarida on Trees.*—Herr C. W. S. Aurivillius was prompted by the 
researches of Dr. Lundstrém on “domatia” (see infra, p. 87) to in- 
vestigate the nature and behaviour of some of the Acarid guests which 
abound on the leaves of trees. He describes in detail the structure and 
mode of life of three forms—Tydeus foliorum, Gamasus vepallidus, and a 
third, found as nymph and larva, and apparently an Oribatid, very like 
Cepheus tegeocranus. All the three were found on leaves of Tilia. From 
observation, and from a study of their mouth-parts, the author was con- 
vinced that these guests could not derive their food from sucking wounds 
which they might not unnaturally be supposed to make on the leaves, 
nor did Tydeus appear to attack the Aphides. They more probably 
live on small solid particles, not due to their own exertions, but such for 
instance as fungoid spores. 


e. Crustacea. 


Development of the Compound Eye of Crangon.j—Dr. J. S. 
Kingsley, who has already published a preliminary notice on this sub- 
ject,f now gives full details as to his observations on the development 
of the compound eye of Crangon. 

The compound eyes begin to make their appearance soon after the 
closure of the blastopore: there is a shallow pit, which rapidly grows 
deeper, and, extending outwards, downwards, and forwards, soon comes 
to occupy a position beneath the anterior and outer part of the optic 
disc before any striking changes are visible in the external appearance 
of the embryo. The separation of the pit from the epiblast is completed 
at about the time of budding of the first pair of appendages, and the 

* Nova Acta Soe. Sci. Upsala, xiii. (1887) pp. 1-16. 


t Journ. of Morphology, i. (1887) pp. 49-64 (1 pl.). 
t See this Journal, 1887, p. 84. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 35 


appearance of the stomodeum. There are now three layers, all of which 
are concerned in the development of the optic apparatus; the outermost 
is the epiblast, and the two others are derived from the invaginated 
portion of the same layer. The innermost may be called the gangliogen, 
as it will give rise to the chain of ganglia and nerves which lies within 
the stalk of the adult eye, and connects the optic apparatus with the 
brain. The middle layer—which may be called the retinogen—will 
give rise to all the retinal parts of the eye. 

Some complex changes in the appearance of the cells are brought 
about by the mode of division of their nuclei; after a time it will be 
found that the ectodermal nuclei has come to correspond with those of 
the underlying layer, and that the nuclei of the retinogen and gangliogen 
have each given rise to five nuclei arranged in a row, while the rows are 
arranged in sets. In section two will be seen closely appressed to each 
other, and separated from the adjacent parts by a rod of apparently 
structureless material; this last is the rudiment of the crystalline cone, 
and the adjacent rows of nuclei belong to different ommatidia, or optic 
elements. In the ganglionic layer the rows of nuclei have broken, and 
formed the rudiments of two ganglia. 

In a later stage the epidermis-cells will be seen to be distinct from 
those of the retinogen and to have become the cuticle, which is modified 
into lenses over each crystalline cone. Development and differentiation 
have gone on in the rows of retinal nuclei, each of the cells having become 
greatly elongated, the protoplasm extending out toa considerable distance 
from the nucleus in a thread-like prolongation; the nuclei are placed 
at different heights in those cells, and the tail-like prolongations are 
arranged in layers around the crystalline cone; the distal cell of the 
retinal row is clearly the crystalline cone-cell or retinophora. Four of 
these surround the cone, and their wails so touch that they form a cup 
in which the cone is situated, and from which it is secreted. Below the 
calyx the ends of the retinophoral cells unite to form a slender pedicle, 
which is clearly the rhabdom of Grenacher, and which is, as clearly, 
formed by the retinophore, and is not a secretion from the surrounding 
pigment-cells, 

As to the phylogeny of the Arthropod eye, we may suppose that the 
invagirated pit had sensory functions, and either wall must, for a time, 
have been like its fellow, as is shown by its having similar nuclei, and 
by the similar development of rows of nuclei. The position of the eye 
at the extreme ends of the nervous cords would indicate that it was 
differentiated as part of the primitive nervous system; but it is not yet 
to be said that the invagination was confined to the eye alone, and did 
not extend through the whole length of the cords; on this question the 
fact that the supra-cesophageal commissure developes much later than 
the optic cords may be of significance. 

‘Challenger’ Cumacea.*—Prof. G. O. Sars commences his account 
of the Cumacea collected by H.MS. ‘Challenger,’ by considering their 
morphology. He cannot agree with Boas in regarding them as very 
nearly related to the Mysidz, but thinks they represent an isolated branch, 
which cannot strictly be derived from any of the recent groups; it is 
possible that some of the paleozoic Phyllocarids formed a direct trans- 
ition to the Cumacean type. 


* Reports of the Voyage of H.MLS. ‘ Challenger,’ ly. (1887) 78 pp., 11 pls. 
D 2 


30 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Short diagnoses of the families are given, and the several genera 
eontained in each enumerated, so that the work becomes a handbook to 
the group; thirteen new species, and one new genus—Paralamprops— 
are described. 


‘Challenger’ Phyllocarida.*—Prof. G. O. Sars has a report on the 
interesting forms allied to Nebalia, the zoologieal position of which has 
been so much discussed. For the group we must adopt Packard’s name 
of Phyllocarida, as it has some slight priority over Claus’s term of 
Leptostraca, Prof. Sars is inclined to agree with Dr. Packard in believing 
that the Nebaliide may have descended from some Copepod-like ancestors, 
whereas they do not show any relation whatever to the Podophthalmata, 
which probably developed independently by a separate line from some 
Nauplius- or Zoéa-like form. Prof. Sars thinks that the other Branchio- 
pods may be derived from the same line as the Nebaliide, the former 
having apparently become rather considerably modified in various ways 
to adapt themselves to the somewhat exceptional conditions under which 
they live, whereas the Nebaliidz have still preserved much of the ex- 
ternal appearance which may have distinguished the progenitors of the 
order, while their internal organization has become much more modified. 
A new genus—Nebaliopsis—is instituted for forms in which the branchial 
legs are imperfectly developed, the exopodites and endopodites being 
only slightly indicated as small triangular lobes, while the epipodite is 
well detined. 


Structure of Cyprinide.j—Dr. A. Garbini has investigated the 
anatomy and histology of Cypridina mediterranea. 

(1) Antennules.—The eight little cupping-glass structures (“ventose ”) 
situated on the branches of the antennules are described. They serve 
the male as external sexual organs for grasping the female. Quite 
distinct from these are the two large stalked discoid expansions at the 
base of the antennules, which appear to be olfactory or tactile organs. 

(2) Alimentary System. (a) The buccal portion.—(1) The upper lip 
bears a variable number of glandules, with granular content, opening on 
the inferior free margin, and functional during eating. There are two 
others on the upper portion of the labrum, differently disposed, two in 
number, and apparently comparable to salivary glands. (2) Csophagus. 
The walls exhibit four layers, (1) chitinous, (2) epithelial, (3) longi- 
tudinal muscles, (4) circular muscles. An epithelial circular partition 
lies at the union of fore- and mid-gut. Special muscles serve to 
elongate the cesophagus. (b) The mid-gut. Its walls consist of three 
tunics, (a) epithelial, (b) muscular, (c) pigmented. The first is most 
important. No hepatic ceca were to be seen. The cells of the internal 
tunic discharge digestive functions. The passage from mid- to hind-gut 
is guarded by a kind of sphincter. (c) The hind-gut. There are again 
three layers, (a) epithelial, (b) longitudinal muscles, (c) circular muscles. 
The histology of the different regions is noted. 

(3) Central Nervous System—The cerebral ganglion is very well 
developed. The peripheral nerve-cells are all of moderate size. Four 
divisions may be distinguished. These spaces contain a granular 
substance. The connection between the latter and the ganglionic cells 


* Report of the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘ Challenger,’ lvi. (1887) 32 pp. and 3 pls. 
+ Bull. Entomol. Soc. Ital,, xix. (1887) pp. 35-47 (5 pls.). 


EOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. oe 


was not determined. His description of the rest of the nervous system 
does not reveal any fact of special importance. 

(4) Sense-organs—The median eye and the frontal organ are strictly 
inseparable structures. The structure and movements of the former 
are briefly described. The structure and nervous relations of the latter 
clearly point to a sensery function. Its connection with the eye is 
described. 

(5) Reproductive Organs. (a) The Male.—The testes are spherical 
and lateral in position, slightly in front of the rectum. The epithelial 
ceils giving origin to spermatozoa, and the rigid form of the latter are 
described. The vasa deferentia with delicate elastic walls, with an 
anterior epithelium like that of the testes, with a posterior epithelium 
near their union, apparently glandular, are then described. They unite 
to form the penis, which has a funnel-like form, and a strong sheath of 
circular muscles. The “urethra” has a superior section like an X, but 
further down becomes triangular. A small sac-like reservoir is formed 
superiorly, and lined with cylindrical epithelium. The walls of the 
penis are in part glandular. A pair of thoracic appendages are intimately 
associated with the penis, which opens at their free extremity. They 
end in two chelate structures, which have an accessory glandular 
apparatus, and are intimately described. 

(6) The Female—The internal arrangements have been already 
described by Claus. The external sexual appendages end in two large 
ovoid glands, which contain small refractive spheres, mixed with 
numerous needle-like crystals. Bichloride of mercury in aqueous solu- 
tion, in which the organisms were left for 5-7 minutes, followed by 75 
per cent. alcohol, and Mayer’s fluid (Kleinenberg’s plus nitric acid) 
yielded the best results. 


Vermes. 
a, Annelida. 


Germ-layers of Clepsine.*— Prof. C. O. Whitman deals very 
thoroughly with the history of the germ-layers in Clepsine and its allies. 
He commences with an account of the process of cleavage, in which 
bilateral symmetry early becomes established. In dealing with the 
history of the mesenteron he points out that the earlier endoderm cells 
arise beneath the cephalic lobe, and are probably budded off from the 
endoblasts as distinct cells; to these, others are soon added, which first 
arise as endoplasts, so that no line of distinction based on the mode of 
origin can be drawn. The larger portion of the mesenteron, or all but a 
small cesophageal portion, passes through several stages of development ; 
the first is represented by three large macromeres or endoblasts, the 
second by endoplasts (each a nucleated mass of protoplasm without cell- 
boundary); the third by an exceedingly thin layer of flattened epithelium, 
and the fourth by a columnar epithelium. 

Fresh arguments and evidence are brought to prove that the entire 
ventral nerve-chain arises as two simple longitudinal rows of cells, and 
that each row is produced by the continued proliferation of a single cell 
—the neuroblast. Connected with the neural cell-row is another which 
the author calls the nephric, and evidence is afforded that the nephridia 
are derived from the ectoderm, that they make their earliest appearance 


* Journ. of Morphology, i. (1887) pp. 105-82 (3 pls.). 


38 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


in the form of simple, longitudinal cell-strings, and that each nephridial 
cell-string is a product of a single terminal cell—the nephroblast. It 
is suggested as an explanation of the divergent accounts which have 
been given as to the origin of the nephridia that both mesoblasts and 
nephroblasts arose primarily from a common ectodermic basis; the 
genetic relations of the two cells have remained essentially the same, 
but the time of their differentiation as distinct cells varies. If the 
division takes place within the ectoderm, then each makes its exit from 
the original seat separately and independently of the other; if, on the 
other hand, division is delayed until after the separation from the 
ectoderm is accomplished, then the nephroblast appears to arise from 
the same source as the mesoblastic bands, and thus to form a part of 
them. 

There is a special note on the significance of the teloblasts or blasto- 
meres derived from the posterior macromere of the dividing ovum; they 
are one of the most remarkable features of annelid development, and 
represent specialized centres of proliferation, with most marvellous 
powers of assimilation and reproduction. The author regards them as 
constituting the trunk-bud, and as thus being the primary seat of all the 
truly metameric elements of the animal. Primarily they represented 
the basis of non-metameric organs, in which the regenerative power was, 
or became, pre-eminent. He refuses to recognize the tenability of the 
theories which regard the somites of segmented animals as derivatives 
of gut-pouches, and declares that metamerism does not first exhibit itself 
either in the archenteron or the mesenteron. 


Salivary Glands of Leech.*—Sig. D. Bertelli has investigated the 
structure of the salivary glands in Hirudo medicinalis. These glands 
are situated at the so-called roots of the jaws. They are unicellular, 
nucleated, pyriform, and very numerous. Tach has an efferent duct, 
and contains a granular substance which is also observed to occur in 
the ducts. These proceed upwards, penetrate the jaw beside the elements 
forming the root, and open on the free margin. By setting the animal 
to work, and then rapidly examining the jaws in a 1/2 per cent. salt 
solution, the author was able to observe the granular substance flowing 
from the free margin. 


Germ-bands of Lumbricus.}—Prof. E. B. Wilson has a preliminary 
notice of his study of the development of Lumbricus olidus (= L. fotidus). 
As in the species examined by Kowalevsky and Kleinenberg, the germ- 
bands end behind in a pair of large “mesoblasts” at the expense of 
which the bands increase in length throughout the whole course of 
development. As development proceeds six other large cells are added, 
and these eight may, in the language of Whitman, be spoken of as telo- 
blasts. Each of the eight gives rise to a row of cells, at first single, 
which extends forwards between the ectoblast and endoblast; the rows 
proceeding from the “mesoblasts” soon widen into a pair of broad 
plates which ultimately give rise to the septa, muscles, vessels, and 
possibly setigerous glands. The six remaining rows are intimately 
related to the mesoblast. ‘The two inner rows give rise to the halves of 
the nerve-cord, and their large cells are, therefore, neuroblasts precisely 
as in Clepsine ; the adjoining rows will give rise to the nephridia, and 


* Proc. Verb. Soc. Toscana Sci. Nat., v. (1887) pp. 284-5. 
+ Journ. of Morphology, i. (1887) pp. 183-92 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 39 


are therefore nephroblasts; the ultimate fate of the remaining pair of 
rows has not yet been made out. 

The neuroblasts fit closely into the ectoblast, and in some cases 
unquestionably extend to the outer surface. The ventral nerve-cord is 
formed by the gradual concrescence of the neural rows in the median 
line; there is no invagination from the exterior, and the continuity of 
the ectoblast across the median line is never broken. Unless there is 
a great difference between L. rubellus and LZ. olidus, Dr. Hatschek must 
have mistaken the narrow angular interval between the converging 
halves of the cord as evidence of invagination. 

The nephridia and their nephroblasts have a very similar history to 
the nerve-cord and neuroblasts; the nephridia arise as paired metameric 
outgrowths from the nephridial rows, and there is in each somite a 
single pair. 

The meseblastic bands arise as single rows of cells at the latero- 
_ posterior angle of the mesoblasts, curve round their outer sides so as 
nearly to meet in the middle line, then bend rather abruptly outwards 
and run forwards; they soon become broad bands that pass between the 
endoblast and the remaining six cell-rows. They give rise to all the 
muscles and vessels of the body, as well as to the ciliated funnels and 
outer investments of the nephridia. Not only the neuroblasts, but also 
the nephroblasts and “ lateral teloblasts” appear to be modified ecto- 
blastic cells. Prof. Wilson cannot doubt but that the nephroblasts are 
derivates of the outer germ-layer, and thinks, consequently, that the 
likeness between the development of the nephridial row and that of the 
segmental duct of vertebrates (as recently described by Spee and 
others) is very significant, for in the rabbit, the guinea-pig, and Raja, 
the segmental duct has been found to arise as a solid cord of cells that 
is split off from the outer layer, and grows at its hinder end by the 
proliferation of a limited area of the ectoblast. The conclusion is 
arrived at that the “nephridial row” of Lumbricus must be regarded as 
homologous with the segmental duct, and the series of nephridia as 
homologous with the vertebrate pronephros. 

The likeness between the germ-bands of Lumbricus and Clepsine seems 
to indicate a very close relationship between the Oligochzta and the 
Hirudinea ; the development of the six anterior teloblasts in Lumbricus 
may be explained as due to the greater and greater concentration of 
developments at the posterior ends of the germ-bands ; they are at first 
ordinary ectoblast cells which afterwards sink below the surface. In 
Clepsine they are covered by the ectoblast at a very early stage owing 
to acceleration of development. 


- Photodrilus phosphoreus, Type of a New Genus of Phosphorescent 
Lumbricids.*—M. A. Giard establishes a new genus for the Lumbricus 
phosphoreus of Dugés. It was observed by him at Wimereux, and the 
light was seen in points of a fine opalescent green. The luminous points 
were of unequal size, the largest giving a light as bright as those of the 
Lampyride, and being visible even in a well-lit room, If one of the 
points was rubbed between the hands, the two palmar surfaces were for 
a short time luminous, and near each point a small earthworm was 
found. Photodrilus phosphoreus is 45 to 50 mm. long and about 1:5 mm. 
wide; it has about 110 segments; the skin is very transparent and 


* Comptes Rendus, ey. (1887) pp. 872-4. 


40 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


richly vascular; the sete are not bigeminate but separated as in 
Pontodrilus. There is no distinct buccal segment, and only one pair of 
copulatory pouches. The clitellum extends from the thirteenth to the 
seventeenth ring, the female orifices are on the fourteenth, and the male 
on the eighteenth. The digestive tract has a protrusible proboscis, and as 
it comes and goes one may see on the lower surface of the buccal segment 
a tuft of long clear filaments which are very delicate, and are sometimes 
transversely striated. It is possible that they are the homologues of the 
cylindrical rods described by Prof. Perrier in the interior of Pontodrilus, 
or they may be broken muscular fibres. The gizzard is replaced by 
four swellings; the cesophagus is invested dorsally and laterally by 
large glands which decrease in size from before backwards; these are 
regarded as being homologous with the septal glands described by 
Dr. Vejdovsky in the Enchytreide. Notwithstanding their position, 
these are not enteric glands, and they open on the dorsal surface; the 
author thinks that the photogenic property of Photodrilus is due to the 
secretion of these glands. The circulatory apparatus differs little from 
that of Pontodrilus; there are two pairs of testes, and one pair of 
ovaries. As Dugés’ worm was found in hot-beds in the Jardin des 
Plantes at Montpellier, and the Wimereux specimens in a cultivated 
garden to which earth had been brought by a horticulturist, it is 
probable that the species is not French but exotic, 


Enchytreide.*—Dr. W. Michaelsen has made a_ preliminary 
systematic study of the interesting family of Enchytreide. His system 
is as follows :— 

Setae S-shaped. 

Head-pore large, at or near point of head-lobe. No salivary glands. 
Colourless blood. Dorsal vessel with heart. Vas deferens 
short; at most, eight times longer than the seminal funnel. 

Mesenchytrzus Hisen. 

Head-pore small between head-ring and lobe. Long vas deferens. 
No salivary glands. Blood yellow to red. Dorsal vessel without 
heart. Pachydrilus Claparéde. 

Short salivary glands opening into cesophagus. Blood colourless. 
Dorsal vessel rises from a diverticulum in VII. segment. 

Buchholzia Michaelsen. 
Sete straight, with only a slight internal curvature. 

Head-pore small between head-ring and head-lobe. Blood colour- 
less. Dorsal vessel without heart. Salivary glands usually well 
developed. Vas deferens long. Enchytreus Henle. 

Setze aborted. 

Head-pore large at apex of head-lobe. Blood colourless. Dorsal 
vessel with heart. An unpaired salivary gland on the intestine. 
Vas deferens long, more or less regularly spiral. Seminal sac 
large, intruding freely into the body-cavity, not coalescent with 
the gut. Anachexta Vejdovsky. 


Parasite of Telphusa.t—Signor W. Drago has described a parasite 
which Prof. B. Grassi found some time ago on the gills of Telphusa 
fluviatilis in considerable abundance. It was at first suspected to bea 
Branchiobdella, but was soon recognized as an oligochete. It is in fact 


* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxx. (1887) pp. 366-78 (1 pl.). 
+ Bull. Soc. Entomol. Ital., xix. (1887) pp. 81-3. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 41 


a new genus and species of Enchytreide, and from its host and habitat 
(Catania) has been called Epitelphusa catanensis. 

Signor Drago describes the main features in the structure of this 
worm which attained a maximum size of 15 mm. If it is to be admitted 
among the Enchytreidew, some of Vejdovsky’s characters of the group 
must be somewhat modified, especially as regards the pair of protractile 
gustatory lobes, the hard and resisting integument, the presence of a pair 
of salivary glands, the nature of the lateral vessels and of the clitellum. 
The genus Epitelphusa may be distinguished from Pachydrilus, Enchy- 
treus and Anacheta by the following characters. ‘lhe epidermis 
without cuticle. The sete straight and short. The blood coloured. 
The dorsal vessel with four lateral vessels. The absence of the so-called 
gustatory lobes. The septal organs between IV. and V., V. and VL., VI. 
and VII., segments. The receptacula seminis open between segments 
TV. and V. The clitellum extends from XI. to the anterior portion of 
XII. The testes in “ bouquet” form as in Pachydrilus. 


Anatomy of Polycheta.*—Mr. J. T. Cunningham takes occasion to 
point out the general inaccuracy of Cosmovici’s essay on the “ Glandes 
génitale et organes segmentaires des Annélides Polychétes ” published in 
1880. His account of the nephridia and gonads is, however, very correct, 
but he separates in “an absurd manner” the nephrostomata from the 
nephridia ; a few corrections are made in his observations. In Cirratulus 
cirratus both the large anterior pair of nephridia described by Keferstein 
and Claparéde, and the series of pairs in the middle and posterior region 
mentioned by Cosmovici are present; the simple nephridia act as 
efferent ducts for the reproductive elements ; the position of the gonads 
of this species is still doubtful. Nerine cirratulus, which has not hitherto 
been recorded as British, is common between tide-marks at Granton ; in 
it the relations of the nephridia are in some small points exceptional ; 
the nephridial aperture is extremely dorsal in position, and the 
efferent duct is long; in it and N. coniocephala the nephridia serve as 
the ducts for the gonads. Cosmovici’s account of the nephridia of Lanice 
conchilega is erroneous ; we have already } noticed Mr. Cunningham’s 
discovery of the remarkable coalescence of nephridia seen in this species. 
The identity of Pectinaria belgica and Amphitrite auricoma, urged by 
Mr. Harvey Gibson, is disputed; P. belgica has three pairs of nephridia, 
of which the first are the largest; all the organs are of the usual type, 
but a peculiar glandular organ, of unknown function, lies between the 
nephridial opening and the root of the branchia. The gonads are, as 
usual, masses of undifferentiated cells. In Nereis virens the generative 
products appear to escape by dehiscence. 

The curious organ called the “cardiac body ” has been examined in 
some Chloremide, Terebellide, and Cirratulide. 

Mr. Cunningham has examined the neural canals of various Poly- 
cheta, and comes to the conclusion that they are supporting struc- 
tures which serve to prevent the nerve-cords being bent at a sharp 
angle, and so being injured during the wriggling and burrowing of the 
worm ; it is noticeable that the canals always reach their highest develop- 
ment in worms which are extremely long in proportion to their thickness ; 
their maximum development is seen where the nerve-cord is not separated 


* Quart. Journ, Micr. Sci., xxviii. (1887) pp. 239-78 (3 pls.). 
+ See this Journal, 1887, p. 591. 


42 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


from the epidermis, or, in other words, where it is more exposed to the 
danger of being injured than when more internal in position. 


Annelid Genus Spinther.*—Prof. L. v. Graff gives an account of 
the polychxtous genus Spinther. After an historical introduction and 
some general remarks the author gives a full definition of the genus; 
the body is elliptical, all the segments except the cephalic and anal have, 
in addition to a pair of short marginal parapodia, paired dorsal dermal 
folds, which arise above the parapodia and extend as far as the middle 
line of the strongly curved back. Both the lamelle and the parapodia 
radiate from the foci of the ellipse. At the base of the dorsal tentacle 
are four small eyes covered by integument. The upper free surface of 
the dorsal lamelle is supported by chitinous spines which are ordinarily 
arranged in two rows, but the tips only of these spines project. The 
two ventral nerve-cords are widely separated, and have but feeble 
segmental swellings. The pharynx is tongue-like, muscular, and pro- 
trusible, with a ventral groove; there is no maxillary apparatus ; the 
mideut has paired diverticula, and the hindgut gives off a forwardly 
directed dorsal caecum. There are no special gills or segmental organs, 
and the sexes are separate. The worms live on marine sponges to 
which they attach themselves by their sete. Definitions of the species 
follow; of these there are three—Spinther oniscoides, S. miniaceus, and 
S. arcticus. The second of these is the most widely distributed, and its 
varieties show relationship sometimes to S. oniscoides, and sometimes to 
S. arcticus. S. miniaceus must be regarded as the primitive species. Full 
anatomical details are given. 

The peculiar elliptical form of the body of Spinther (and Euphrosyne), 
with the radial arrangement of the segments anteriorly and posteriorly, 
as well as the gradual shortening of the segments and their appendages 
towards the anal end of the body, are certainly not primary structures ; 
here, asin the very similar Myzostomida, the radial configuration of the 
body must be regarded as the consequence of an adaptation to the 
parasitic fixed mode of life. In both groups the ancestor must be sought 
for in elongated forms with equally developed somites, but we cannot 
yet say where this ancestor of Spinther is to be looked for. 


Structure of Serpula.t—Sigr. V. Simonelli has investigated the 
microscopic structure of Serpula spirulza Lam., and finds that his results 
furnish new evidence in favour of that separation of this species which 
Defrance (1847) long since suggested. He describes the complex struc- 
ture of the limy tube, which he succeeded in satisfactorily sectioning, 
and shows how it differs from other Annelids. Nor can the species be 
ranked beside Vermetus. S. vertebralis and S. heliciformis were also 
studied, which closely resemble S. spirulza. It seems at least necessary 
to drop the title Serpula as applied to these forms, and to revive the 
generic titles Rotularia or Spirulza. 


B. Nemathelminthes. 


Maturation and Division of Ascaris Ova.{—Prof. J. B. Carnoy laid 
the results of his observations before a conference of microscopists at 
Brussels. 

* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvi. (1887) pp. 1-66 (9 pls.). 


+ Proc. Verb. Soc. Toscana Sci, Nat., v. (1887) pp. 298-5. 
t La Cellule, iii, (1887) pp. 225-45, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 43 


I. First of all, in regard to the kinetic phenomena of maturation, 
he maintains that the primitive nucleus of the ovum is an ordinary 
nucleus; that it divides into eight batons (“ trongons”) in two groups of 
four; that there are always two polar bodies in A. megalocephala; that 
there are no globules, nor chromatic discs, nor prothyalosoma ; that the 
typical kinetic figures are dimidial; that the ypsiliform figure does not 
exist as such. A new spindle of separation is formed, again a dimidial 
figure, again no globules, discus, nor prothyalosoma. Each semi-spindle 
bears at its equator two of the primitive batons. One of the groups is 
isolated with the second polar body. The other remains in the ovum. 
The two last batons form the final nucleus. The polar bodies owe their 
formation to a true plasmodieresis, by the aid of a cellular plate. They 
are true cells, and not nuclei. IJ. Variations of polar kinesis. The 
author distinguishes three different types within the same genus Ascaris, 
and maintains the great variability of the polar kinesis. III. The cellular 
plate. In animals cell-division (plasmodieresis) is accomplished by 
constriction, by aid of a cellular plate, or by both processes at once. 
The cellular plate occurs in all kinds of cells. It occurs distinctly in 
the formation of the polar bodies of Nematode ova. 


Polar Bodies in Ascaris.*—Prof. J. B. Carnoy adds several appendices 
to his well-known, much-criticized, investigations on the phenomena of 
maturation, fertilization, and division of Ascaris ova. He describes the 
formation of polar bodies in A. clavata and A. lumbricoides, noting the 
transversal equatorial division, the incomplete longitudinal division, its 
possible retardation, the occasional absence of the polar ascent, the 
normality of the polar kinesis, the diverse modes of separation to be 
seen in one preparation. A- second appendix is devoted to a discussion 
of the normality of the figures. He emphasizes the fact of individual 
variations. Some observations are made anent the critique of the 
Hertwigs, and the method pursued by Boveri. A third appendix is for 
the most part an answer to Flemming, and discusses the facts of varia- 
tion in kinesis, maintaining the impossibility of any general formula. 
In reply to Flemming’s strictures on the new terminology, Carnoy 
criticizes the old, and justifies his own. 


Fertilization of Ascaris megalocephala.t—Prof. O. Zacharias has 
made a fresh study of the process of fertilization in the case of Ascaris 
megalocephala, which has been honoured with the attention of so many 
naturalists. He gives at the outset a short sketch of the well-known 
series of researches on this subject, he notes the various points of con- 
trast, for instance, between Nussbaum and Van Beneden, between Carnoy’s 
and Hertwig’s theory, and so on, and expresses at the outset his con- 
viction that what all observers from Auerbach onwards have regarded as 
pronuclei are structures of entirely different import. 

I. Ova and Spermatozoa.—The author proceeds to describe the 
reproductive elements themselves, noting the changes in the maturing 
ova, the early hyaline spherules and cavities, the appearance of a mem- 
brane, the peripheral position of the nucleolus and its various parts, the 
subsequent division into two portions, the further division of each of 
these into four, the differentiation of each of these into connected rows 


* La Cellule, iii. (1887) pp. 247-324. 


+ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxx. (1887) pp. 111-82 (3 pls.). For the author’s method 
see infra, Microscopy B. 


td SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of spherules, and the appearance of two separate spindle figures. At 
the very first there is dualism, each half contains an equal number of 
chromatin rods; the dualism is still preserved in the formation of the 
two polar bodies ; a double fertilization also occurs; each of the chro- 
matin portions unites with half of the sperm chromatin; two segmenta- 
tion nuclei are formed, which have, however, a single functional import, 
since each furnishes at the beginning of segmentation two chromatin coils 
for the single mother-star of the first segmentation. The two segmentation 
nuclei have been wholly misunderstood, and erroneously interpreted as 
pronuclet. 

The germinal spot or so-called nucleolus includes all the formed 
chromatin substance of the ovum, it is rather comparable to a nucleus, 
it is a structure sui generis, and to it, as to the similar body in the sperm, 
the designation mitoblast may be applied. 

Prof. Zacharias then describes the male elements, noting the 
successive changes, the amceboid and the passive portion, the important 
naked mitoblast which does not deserve the name of nucleus, denying 
that the sperm and ovum are, as Nussbaum says, homologous, while 
acknowledging that they are complementary cells. He takes a brief 
survey of incipient dimorphism of sexual elements, and maintains the 
fundamental physiological and histological differences between ovum and 
sperm. 

II. The Conjugation of the Sex-cells—While in the main corro- 
borating the classic results of Van Beneden, the author differs from him 
in sundry details, especially as regards the mode in which the sperm 
penetrates the ovum. He finds, for instance, no micropyle. The egg 
substance never forms a naked protrusion to serve as the attaching point 
for the spermatozoon. The penetration of the sperm begins with the 
emission of pseudopodia, but the rest of its progress appears to be passive. 
By some local regeneration, the membrane closes upon the entrant sperm. 
The sperm has in itself power to penetrate the membrane. In regard to 
the point where the sperm may enter, Zacharias observed that in the 
elliptical ova of A. suilla, the male elements were seen fixed both at the 
pole, and on the sides. Polyspermy occasionally occurs, but is to all 
appearance pathological. It may be that the ovum, being amceboid and 
exhibiting contractions, may form a small cone of attraction into which 
one sperm normally finds its way. The membrane thickens after the 
entrance of one sperm. Some notes on the genital ducts are then 
made. 

III. Formation and expulsion of Polar Bodies.—The double structure 
which results from the originally single germinal vesicle, has been already 
noticed. The two half-spindles occupy various relative positions. The 
ypsiliform figure so familiar in Van Beneden’s researches is only a 
special, and not a typical form of spindle. The division forming the 
polar bodies takes place radially, and not tangentially to the surface of 
the yolk, the difference on which Van Beneden lays so much stress does 
not occur in properly killed and fixed ova. The extrusion of the second 
body is also normal in its karyokinesis. In the first extrusion the 
original number of chromatic elements is halved and thus reduced to 
four, in the second process half is again given off, so that three-fourths 
of the female chromatin is excluded from share in the embryonic 
development. At the time of the second polar body formation, the 
dualism of the male element is well marked. This chapter closes with 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 45 


a discussion of the biological import of polar bodies, in which Zacharias 
seems more inclined to side with Biitschli and with Weismann, than 
with Minot or with Strasburger. 

IV. The act of Fertilization.—There are two pairs of conjugating 
elements, male and female semi-mitoblasts. The result is two nuclear 
structures mistaken for pronuclei, each consisting of a male and a female 
semi-mitoblast. Hertwig’s theory is entirely confirmed, though stated in 
anew form. The whole point is that the union of sexual elements is 
double, not single. 

V. The Segmentation—A single segmentation nucleus is formed 
eventually. The details of division are described. Zacharias confirms 
Flemming’s formula of repetition, according to which the daughter- 
nuclei pass into rest by the star and coil stages, through which the 
mother-nucleus passed out of it. The memoir, which is (unlike some 
others of the kind) lucid and unambiguous throughout, closes with some 
general notes on the relative importance of nucleus and protoplasm. 


Larval Stage of Species of Ascaris.*—M. A. Laboulbéne, in oppo- 
sition to the recently expressed views of Dr. Linstow, affirms that 
Ascaris lumbricoides developes directly, or without the intermediation of 
a second host. The ellipsoidal ova are evacuated before they have 
undergone any segmentation ; the formation of the embryo takes about 
thirty or forty days with a favourably high temperature, but may, as 
Davaine has shown, be retarded for as long as five years with a low 
temperature and a damp atmosphere. The embryo, as seen in the egg, 
has an obtuse head, no lips, valves, or cephalic nodules; its tail is 
merely acute, and not filamentar. This embryo quits its egg-shell in the 
stomach, or more often in the small intestine of the animal which it has 
reached ; the shell is softened merely, and not dissolved by the gastro- 
intestinal juice. The embryos now rapidly pass through a larval stage ; 
twice only has the author seen it; the first example was filiform, 
20°4 mm. and 0°5 mm. wide, and its head had three valvular and 
nodulose projections; the caudal extremity was truncated below, and no 
genital organs were apparent. On the second occasion M. Laboulbéne 
found four examples, the exact dimensions of which were 2 mm., 
3°25 mm., 1 cm., and 2:3 em. He concludes that the development of 
Ascaris lumbricoides is direct, the segmenting ovum giving rise in the 
body of its definite host to the embryo, which rapidly reaches and soon 
passes through the larval to reach its sexual condition. The experi- 
ments of Grassi have shown that ripe ova may furnish sexual Ascarids 
at the end of a month after swallowing. 

The ova of Ascarids, after passing with the faces, are washed away 
by rains, when they make their way into streams and ponds; by watering 
they are deposited on food-plants, and the evaporation of water allows 
of their preservation in damp places. In the case of the dog the eggs 
remain entangled in the hair, and the young, which lick their parents, 
easily come into contact with them. The comparative rarity of this 
human parasite in towns, and its frequency in rural places, is to be 
explained by the fact that in the former the water generally is, and in 
the latter is not filtered. 


* Comptes Rendus, civ. (1887) pp. 1593-5. 


46 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


y. Platyhelminthes. 


Cestoid Embryos.*—Mr. E. Linton describes and figures two forms 
of cestoid embryo which he frequently met with in studying the entozoa 
of marine fishes. 

The first eyst described was taken from the peritoneum of the blue- 
fish (Pomatomus saltatria), and similar forms are common in Teleostei, 
oceasional in Selachians. It contained an embryo Rhynchobothrium. 
The thin, transparent, delicate outer cyst inclosed an endocyst (blastocyst 
of Diesing). The latter was usually a club-shaped, thick-walled sac, 
and remained active for hours with alternate contractions and expansions. 
The embryo lay in a coil at the large end. The water vascular canal 
could be seen through the cyst. The wall of the cyst had two coats, 
the outer of three layers, granular, muscular and refractile. The 
endocyst may be regarded as an intermediate or transition form, a nurse 
to the embryo. The freed embryo was quite active and measured about 
24mm. The bothria were two, marginal, oblong, divergent posteriorly, 
notched on the posterior border, obscurely two-lobed, with free mobile 
edges. There were four long slender proboscides armed with recurved 
hooks. These are described in detail. The proboscis-sheaths are long 
and spiral and exhibit a contractile ligament. The contractile bulbs 
were thick-walled, acting like syringes, forcing a column of fluid into the 
proboscides. The bothria are then described. The water vascular 
system consists of a network of vessels on the borders of the bothria, 
connected with large sinuous vessels in the centre of the head, and 
together with these with the reticulated subcuticular vessels of the neck. 
Behind the contractile bulbs the system is represented by two pairs of 
lateral sinuous vessels. Behind the bulbs the body is an elongated sac 
filled with granular parenchyma, with refractive masses smaller than 
those of the cyst. The posterior end is terminated by a papillary 
button-like process, retractile, and covered with dense minute bristles. 

The second cyst described was that of an embryo Tetrarhyncho- 
bothrium, taken from the surface of the liver of the cero (Cybium regale). 
It was long, slender, yellowish and opaque. The freed blastocyst was 
also long and slender with a neck-like constriction at one end. The 
head-part thus formed was extraordinarily variable. The whole body 
exhibited irregular contractions and expansions. The embryo lay in a 
coil in the head-part. The blastocyst remained attached to the body of 
the liberated scolex. It would not be readily separated. The posterior 
tapering end of the scolex was again clothed with bristles. The bothria 
are four, in opposite lateral pairs, are quite mobile, each with a retractile 
hooked proboscis. The proboscides were as fully developed as in the 
Rhynchobothrium embryo. The sheaths were spirals, the contractile 
bulbs slender. A reticulated system of vessels was made out. The 
connection of blastocyst and scolex is a marked difference at the period 
in question between this embryo and that above described. 


Tenia nana.j—Prof. B. Grassi (with the assistance of Signor S. 
Calandruccio) has a second preliminary note on this small human 
Cestode. The rostellum may project, like a proboscis, very far from 
the head, and it may be drawn very far in. In the latter state it has the 
form of an hourglass; it lies in a sac with a thick wall which has an 


* Amer. Naturalist, xxi. (1887) pp. 195-200 (1 pl.). 
+ Centralbl. f. Bacteriol. u. Parasitenk., i. (1887) pp. 282-5, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 47 


anterior orifice. When protruded, part of the wall of the sac is pro- 
truded with it. The rostellum is provided with longitudinal and circular 
muscles, and in the sac there is a circular musculature from which 
numerous bundles of oblique or longitudinal fibres are given off. There _ 
are from twenty-four to twenty-eight hooks on the rostellum. The 
suckers can elongate like arms, and each is capable of independent 
movement. They and the rostellum may break off mechanically from 
the scolex, without the latter suffering any apparent injury. The neck 
may vary in length. The proglottids differ remarkably in form and 
number; one very important characteristic is that their hinder angles 
project in the form of more or less regular triangular points. The 
separate joints have a certain power of shutting in upon one another. 

By the examination of well-preserved eggs the authors have been 
able to see that the substance in the space between the two egg-membranes 
is often homogeneous near the inner membrane, and that the latter has 
two scarcely evident swellings, one of which corresponds to the pole of 
the egg, while the other is just by the other pole. In certain cases it is 
easy to see that the coiled filaments in the substance correspond to the 
two swellings. The longest axis of the egg is from 43-53 p» long, the 
shortest from 35-40 p. 

Tenia murina from the mouse is probably a mere variety of T. nana, 
differing chiefly in its greater length, and in the ordinarily greater size 
of the just mentioned sweilings. 

Fourteen new cases of T. nana have been observed, chiefly in children ; 
and it may be said that 7’. nana is much more common than other human 
cestodes in Sicily. To discover it, it is not sufficient to examine feces 
once only. The number present varies from forty or fifty to four or 
five thousand; the hosts frequently suffer little or no pain, but this, of 
course, is not always the case. ilix mas is an appropriate remedy. 


Sphyranura osleri.*—Prof. R. Ramsay Wright and Mr. A. B. 
Macallum give a detailed account of this ectoparasitic Trematode, 
which is intermediate between Gyrodactylus and Polystomum, and may, if 
some slight alteration be made in the diagnosis, be placed in the sub- 
family Polystomide, as defined by T'aschenberg. Sphyranura is found 
on the skin of Menobranchs, where it is very obvious on account of its 
want of colour. 

The investing membrane is very elastic and is provided with a very 
large number of conical bodies, which the authors regard as tactile 
organs; the deep surface of the membrane does not lie on the circular 
muscles, but is separated from them by a narrow space containing fluid ; 
the presence of tactile organs may be correlated with the comparatively 
active life led by this parasite, and as compensatory for the absence of 
eyes. The worm holds on to its host with great pertinacity, owing to 
the possession of hooks and suckers on the ventral surface of the character- 
istic caudal lamina. The most striking point about the musculature is 
the fact that the diagonal fibres, which are so abundantly present in the 
larger Distomes, are hardly represented. With regard to the minute 
structure of the muscles, as to which various students of Trematodes 
have given different accounts, the authors tell us that the longi- 
tudinal caudal bands, which are generally over 2 mm. in length, offer 
favourable material for the study of individual fibres. They find that 


* Journ. of Morphology, i. (1887) pp. 1-48 (1 pl.). 


48 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


many of the cells of the sub-cuticular layer are in reality the central 
protoplasmic elements of the muscular fibres, the contractile elements 
of which form the musculature on which the investing membrane rests. 
The fibres consist of a hyaline membrane covering a finely granular 
and apparently fluid medulla. 

The connective tissue of Sphyranura is composed of branching cells 
which form a meshwork; their processes, which are evidently elastic, 
are homogeneous, the cells are oval, spherical, or irregular in shape, and 
the greater part is occupied by the nucleus, with little or no protoplasm 
surrounding it. 

The excretory system is provided with two anterior contractile 
bladders which open by dorsal pores ; applied to their walls are large 
ganglion-cells which, presumably, control their pulsations; these are 
effected by the muscular fibres which line the bladders. Hach bladder 
has connected with it a strong lateral stem which gives off numerous 
twigs to the caudal lamina; the walls of the trunks are highly elastic, 
and are, in parts at any rate, provided with muscular fibres. The walls 
of the finer excretory capillaries rarely exceed 1 p in thickness, and seem 
to be formed by a single coat of a homogeneous refracting substance ; at 
certain points these capillaries present a funnel-shaped expansion, where 
the membrane terminates; beyond the mouth of the funnel there isa 
network of fine intercellular canaliculi; the mouth lies in the interior 
of a connective-tissue cell, and the fine canal which leads to it passes 
through the cell-substance. The funnel, as well as the capillary into 
which it empties, always has a distinct wall up to the rim of its broad 
mouth. Cilia hang over this rim into the funnel. 

In connection with the excretory system of Sphyranura the authors 
describe some remarkable structures which have not, apparently, been 
observed in other Trematodes. Cells of a polyhedral shape, sometimes 
with short processes at the angles, and measuring from 37-50 p, are 
found scattered throughout the body. The cytoplasma forms coarse 
trabecule, which usually radiate from the centre of the cell to the 
periphery, and contains a system of communicating spaces which are 
empty in the fixed, but often unobservable in the fresh condition; each 
cell has at one pole a process, with an axial wavy channel connected with 
one of the neighbouring excretory capillaries, the wall of which passes 
insensibly into the membrane of the cell. This connection suggests 
that the cells in question are truly renal. With them somewhat similar 
structures in other Trematodes are compared. 

The authors have never seen the nervous system so well during life 
as in Sphyranura, the fibrillation of the plasma of the ganglion-cells 
being distinctly seen. The ganglion-cells form two masses which are 
not grouped round the pharynx, but lie at its sides; these ganglia 
are connected by two commissures, the stouter of which is supra- 
pharyngeal, and the more slender infra-pharyngeal; on either side are 
two nerve-stems, which are lateral and ventro-lateral in position, the 
dorsal stems of Distomum isostomum being, apparently, absent from this 
form. The system of connecting commissures is described. 

The digestive tract is without an cesophagus; the intracellular mode 
of digestion plays only a subordinate part ; the soluble digestive ferment 
seem to be derived from the cells of the intestinal epithelium. Though 
this new form is hermaphrodite, the male and female organs are quite 
independent of each other; the author’s observations on spermatogenesis 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 49 


agree generally with the account given by Schwarze of Distomum endo- 
bolum, but they are confident that the spermatozoa arise wholly from 
the nuclei of the sphere or spermatogemma. They have been able to 
observe the passage, under pressure, of the female sexual products to the 
intestine through the overflow-tube, and regard this as a confirmation of 
Tjima’s discovery of the true nature of the so-called internal vas deferens 
of Polystomum. Some detaiis are given as to the minute structure of the 
female organs; in the ovary there are parietal cells, varying considerably 
in size, and from them arise, by increase in size and division, the cells 
which fill the cavity of the ovary; the ripe ova measure about 55-60 p, 
and their nuclei about 85-40 ». The uterus never contains more than 
one egg, and the extent of development of this seems to stand midway 
between the advanced condition found in Polystomum oblongum and P. 
ocellatum, and the early oviposition which occurs in P. integerrimum. 


New Human Distomum.*—M. J. Poirier describes, under the name 
of Distomum rathouisi, a new species of fluke obtained through Pere 
Rathouis, and taken from a Chinaman thirty-five years of age. As the 
patient suffered for a long time from hepatic derangements, which were 
refractory to all remedies, it is probable that this new endoparasite 
inhabits the biliary canals. In a number of characters it resembles 
D. hepaticum, but is distinguished from it by the large size—2 mm. in 
diameter—of the ventral sucker, by the absence of spinous processes 
from the integument, and by the absence of ramified caeca connected 
with the two branches of the intestine, as well as by the smaller size of 
the elements of its parenchyma, and by the structure of its uterus. 


Natural History of Leucochloridium paradoxum.t—Herr G. Heckert 
has found that Leucochloridium paradoxum is not rare near Leipzig. It 
is, as is well known, the sporocyst stage of Distomum macrostomum, and 
is found in the liver of the snail, where it forms a network of multi- 
ramified tubes which are filled with a serous fluid, germ-spheres, and 
the larve developed from them. Parts extend into the tentacles, and 
thither the ripe forms make their way. Both the sporocysts and tubes 
are subject to a very high pressure, and if they are injured their contents 
are rapidly expelled. Even the young tubes exhibit contractions, which 
are probably of importance in metastasis ; the large tubes not only effect 
this, but with their colour attract birds, who regard them as living 
larve; their musculature is very well developed, consisting of longi- 
tudinal, circular, and diagonal muscles. Below the dermo-muscular 
layer bright green pigment is found in cells, which are arranged 
circularly. The brown tubes sometimes seen probably belong to different 
sporocysts. The sporocyst and tubes are of the same histological 
structure; there is an external cuticle, a dermo-muscular tube, then a 
layer of cells which varies in size with the stage of growth, and finally 
a membrane with distinct cellular elements. In this last the germ- 
spheres arise as local thickenings, which, when they fall off, pass into the 
nutrient fluid which fills the sporocyst; they are chiefly made up of 
small cells with proportionately large nuclei, and only in the centre are 
there some larger cells. The spheres have at first the form of a lens 
which gradually becomes oval; the genital apparatus is developed from 


* Arch. Zool. Expér. et Gén., v. (1887) pp. 203-12 (1 pl.). 
+ Zool, Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 456-61. 


1888. E 


50 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the central cells first; then the sucker begins to appear, and is followed 
by the pharynx and enteron, excretory organ, and nervous system. The 
larva now undergoes a double ecdysis, but the cuticle is not lost but 
forms a protective covering until the Distomuwm has passed into the 
intestine of the bird. Between it and the cuticle a serous fluid collects, 
and it is to this that the animal owes its elasticity and its freedom from 
injury in its host’s gizzard. 

By feeding experiments, the author found that the Sylviide are the 
true hosts of Distomum macrostomum. One or two days after feeding the 
parasites were found in the cloaca, which is their permanent seat. About 
the eighth day egg-production began, and after fourteen days the 
Distomum was full of eggs. 

With regard to the early stages of ege-development, Herr Heckert 
confirms the results of Schauinsland ; the final result of segmentation is 
the formation of an embryo with avery thick shell; it is about 1/30 mm. 
long, and consists of only a few cells; at the hinder end of a ciliated 
comb there is a powerful cone which acts as a steering organ. 

Owing to failures in further breeding, the author came to the conclu- 
sion that the eggs must be eaten by the snail, and the embryos set 
free in their stomach by mechanical or chemical influences. After 
feeding Succineze with the eggs, he found that the embryos became free 
in about a quarter of an hour after eating; they swim about in the 
stomach and attempt to bore with their head-cone. After eight days, 
the first stages of the sporocysts were found in the liver, where they 
were in the form of small rounded spheres with more or less well- 
marked elevations, which are the first signs of the commencing 
branches. 


Temnocephala.*—Mr. W. A. Haswell gives an account of an aberrant 
monogenetic Trematode found on the large fresh-water crayfish of the 
northern waters of Tasmania. It is a leech-like animal about half- 
an-inch long; at the narrower anterior end there are on either side two 
very long and slender tentacles, which, when fully extended, are one-half 
or two-thirds the length of the body. In the species from New South 
Wales or New Zealand there are five equal slender tentacles. The 
rapidity of the movements, and the extreme sensitiveness of the animals 
are surprising ; in turning aside from a touch they show a very definite 
sense of direction. The author distinguishes four species which he calls 
Temnocephala fasciata (on Astacopsis serrata, streams of New South 
Wales) ; 7. quadricornis (on A. Franklinii, northern rivers of Tasmania) ; 
T. minor (on A. bicarinatus, streams of New South Wales); and T. nove- 
zealandiz (on Paranephrops setosus, rivers of New Zealand). 

Temnocephala is regarded by Mr. Haswell as most nearly related to 
the Tristomide, but the numerous peculiarities which it presents require 
the formation of a new family for its reception. 'These characters are the 
possession by the cephalic end of the body of slender filiform tentacles 
with prehensile and tactile functions ; as the tentacles are adhesive they 
take the place of the anterior suckers; their adhesive powers are 
increased by the secretion of certain special unicellular glands. There is 
a single large radiated posterior sucker without hooks. A rudimentary 
segmentation is indicated by the incomplete transverse dissepiments 
which are formed by specialized portions of the parenchyma muscle, 


* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxviii. (1887) pp. 279-302 (3 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 51 


and the intestine is constricted at regular intervals by these septa. 
There are three pairs of longitudinal nerve-trunks, dorsal, dorso-lateral, 
and ventral, which are connected by numerous commissures. The two 
apertures of the excretory system are placed far forward on the dorsal 
surface. The reproductive apparatus has a single orifice from the 
cloaca, into which the ejaculatory duct and vagina open ; there are two 
pairs of lobed testes, vitelline glands which are imperfectly segmented, 
a single ovary, receptaculum seminis, oviduct, and uterus. As in other 
ectoparasitic Trematodes there is no metamorphosis of the young. 


Trematode in white of newly-laid Hen’s Egg.* — Dr. E. Linton 
records the presence of Distomum ovatum Rudolphi in the white of a 
freshly-laid hen’s egg. The presence of this common avian parasite in 
this position is not hard to explain; its favourite place is the bursa 
fabricii, and an individual may well penetrate occasionally one of the 
passages which communicate with the cloaca. The creature is known to 
sometimes make its way into the oviduct, and if it should pass beyond 
the shell-forming glands when an ovum is in transitu, it might easily be 
enveloped in the glairy albumen which exudes from the glands; the 
subsequent deposition of the shell would not be interfered with. 


Lateral organs of Nemerteans.t—Herr R. Devoletzky gives the 
complete statement of his investigations begun in 1879. 

After some remarks on the methods used, and a review of former work 
on the subject, he describes shortly the characteristic head-furrows of 
Nemerteans, and then treats at length the side organs of Terebratulus 
fasciolatus in particular, and the other Schizonemerteans in general. 
Drepanophorus is the type of the Hoplonemerteans and these are also 
described in general. Carinella is next treated in detail, and the results 
of the investigation are correlated in conclusion. The occurrence of side 
organs in all three groups of Nemerteans leads to the conclusion that 
these are organs of special sense, and their considerable importance is 
shown by their complex structure and their very general occurrence. 
In forms before thought to be without them, careful search has revealed 
their existence, and it is probable that if not always persistent, they are 
present during some part of the life of every species. 

In the simplest form (Carinella annulata) a simple inpushing of the 
outer skin is connected with the central ganglia by fibres which break 
through the inner skin. In C. polymorpha a large opening in this inner 
skin forms a passage from the more developed canal to the “ brain” 
into which, in C. ineaspectata, the canal itself extends directly. In all 
the higher forms a part of the central nervous system breaks through 
the body-wall to meet a specialized and inpushed portion of the epithe- 
lium. These side organs are compared with similar sense organs in 
other groups of the animal kingdom, especially water-inhabiting ones. 
Some Annelida and Mollusca are referred to in particular. Side organs 
cannot be considered to have sight, hearing, or touch as function. Smell 
and taste are possible since the media in which they work, water and 
moist air, could convey chemical stimuli to the richly ciliated canals, 
and to the grooves and furrows of the head. The author does not 
presume to advance any further hypothesis. 


* Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1887, pp. 367-9. 
+ Arbeit. Zool. Instit. Uniy. Wien, vii. (1887) pp. 233-80 (2 eS 
E 


ae SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


‘Challenger’ Nemertea.*—The more interesting general points in 
the results of Prof. A. A. W. Hubrecht have already been noted in this 
Journal.t Many of the specimens obtained during the voyage were 
fragmentary, but they were excellently well preserved for histological 
purposes ; 19,560 sections were made, all of which were stained with 
Ranvier’s picrocarmine. Carinina isa new genus allied to Carinella ; the 
name of Hupolia is proposed for the genus of which delle Chiaje’s Polia 
delineata is the type. The anatomy is considered in detail, and the 
memoir concludes with some general considerations. 


5. Incertze Sedis. 


Parasitic Rotifer—Discopus Synapte.t — The Rotifer noticed 
twenty years since by Prof. E. Ray Lankester as living parasitically 
in Synaptze at Guernsey has been found on the same Holothurian by 
Dr. C. Zelinka. The worm is not, however, endoparasitic, but lives as 
a “free space-parasite”” in small pits on the skin. This form, which the 
author calls Discopus Synapte g. et sp. n., is one of the Philodinide ; 
it is distinguished from all known genera by the following characters. 
The foot ends in a sucker with a broad round disc and two short pincers ; 
there is no contractile vesicle; the cement-glands are formed of cells 
attached to the ventral walls in two semicircular rows, and their efferent 
ducts, after various loopings, divide repeatedly and finally open on the 
last joint of the foot by means of pores arranged in a circle. The 
animals exhibit four kinds of movements, they either progress like a 
leech, or they make tactile movements by extending their bodies, or by 
moving from right to left, or they swim with the foot retracted and the 
wheel-organ extended. The skin, which is not at all thick, except in the 
wheel-organ, proboscis, and foot, consists of a cuticle or syncytial hypo- 
dermis. The dermo-muscular tube consists of eleven delicate circular 
muscles, and a dorsal pair of longitudinal muscles, which have the same 
structure as in Callidina. The muscles of its body-cavity are highly 
developed, for there are more than twenty pairs with quite definite 
functions. In the limbs there are two pairs of dorsoventral fibres; the 
muscles of the foot are so disposed as to serve for the attachment and 
fixation of the suctorial apparatus. 

The nervous system consists of a brain lying in front of, and partly 
on the pharynx, of connected periencephalic ganglia and ganglionic cells, 
as well as peripheral nerves which are connected with ganglionic cells, 
muscles, and sensory cells. At the hinder end of the brain is a multi- 
cellular ganglion, provided with lateral nerve-fibres; there are ganglia 
connected with one another, and connecting the brain with a large 
subcesophageal ganglion. From the two dorsal periencephalic ganglia 
there arise two dorsal fine nerves which pass to the ganglionic cells on 
the mid- and hindgut. At the anterior end of the cesophagus there is a 
unicellular ganglion which sends off fibres anteriorly to the proboscis, 
laterally to a muscle, and posteriorly to the subceesophageal ganglion. The 
tactile organ has but one joint, at the end of which are a few stiff sete ; 
at its base there is a multicellular ganglion, which is connected with the 
ganglion of the proboscis, and gives off nerves to the cells between the 
cesophagus and the wheel-organ. The proboscis is also an active organ 


* Reports on the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ liv. (1887) 150 pp., 16 pls. 
+ See this Journal, 1887, p. 754. t Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 465-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. ays) 


of touch, and is well provided with nerves. The tip of the wheel-organ 
is not a syncytium, but is composed of several parts. The pharynx is 
spherical, and surrounded by five large ventral, and several smaller 
lateral salivary glands. These salivary glands are connected with the 
cesophagus. 

The two excretory tubes open into the rectum without any contractile 
vesicle ; no ciliatcd infundibula were observed. The eggs develope in the 
ccelom. 

The author believes that the bilobed wheel-organ of the Philodinid 
may be referred to the ciliary circlet of the trochosphere, that the 
proboscis is the homologue of the anterior end and a part of the frontal 
plate of the trochophore, and that the brain of Rotifers is partly formed 
by the frontal plate, and partly by the connection with it of primitively 
peripheral ganglion cells. 


Echinodermata. 


Histology of Echinoderms.*—Dr. O. Hamann deals in this essay 
with the regular Echinoidea and Spatangida. He accepts Valentin’s 
fourfold classification of the pedicellariz, which he calls gemmiformes, 
tridactyli, ophiocephali, and trifoliate. The first of these are described 
in Spherechinus granularis and Echinus acutus. A careful description is 
given of their musculature and nerve-supply. The glands which are 
found on the stalks agree in structure with the globifer, and, as in 
them, stimulation produces a flow of finely granular mucus, which coagu- 
lates at once in either water or alcohol. The gland-cells are irregular, 
and their oval nuclei are surrounded by only a small quantity of cell- 
substance. Below the basal membrane there is a layer of concentrically 
disposed smooth muscular fibres, by the contraction of which the secre- 
tion is evacuated. The connective substance in which the glands are 
imbedded is very poorly developed. The orifice of the gland is dorsal 
to the calcareous tip of the pedicellaria. 

The tridactyle pedicellariz, which were found in all the Echinids 
examined, are described in Centrostephanus longispinus and Dorocidaris 
papillata. In the latter, one form is remarkable for the possession of 
glandular tubes on the branches. These tubes are quite different in 
form from those of the gemmeform pedicellarie. A few short tubes 
hang together in a racemose fashion, and open into a long efferent duct ; 
they are set in the connective tissue, and their epithelium consists of 
finely granular flattened cells, which pour their secretion into the narrow 
lumen of each tube. These peculiar pedicellarie are principally to be 
found on the oral membrane. The buccal pedicellariz are the simplest 
of the trifoliate type, having neither glands nor special sensory organs. 

In discussing the mechanism of the movements of the mobile termina- 
tions of the pedicellaria, investigators appear to have confined their 
attention to the three adductor muscles, and have been content to explain 
the separation of the arms by the elasticity of the parts. Dr. Hamann 
has discovered extensor muscles which are inserted into the same 
calcareous pieces as the adductors, but on the outer surface, and nearer 
the base of the calcareous plates. As to the functions of these organs, 
which have been so much discussed, it appears to be necessary to distin- 
guish between the various kinds. Their numerous nerve-endings seem 


* Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxi. (1887) pp. 87-266 (13 pls.). 


o4+ SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


to show that they are tactile organs. The smallest, such as the trifoliate 
pedicellariw, have certainly the action of scavengers and cleaners; the 
larger, such as the tridactyles, serve principally to ward off larger living 
bodies, and also to hold on to fixed foreign objects during locomotion. 
The gemmeform pedicellariz also have this function, and their seizing 
power is aided by the secretion of the glandular sacs. 

The author next deals with the globiferi of Centrostephanus longi- 
spinus, of which two kinds are described. Some are compressed, and have 
un exceedingly short stalk, while others are more delicate, and have a 
longer stalk. Each consists of three spheres, which are closely appressed 
and fused at their points of contact. The glandular contents are of a 
yellowish colour. In the centre of the stalk there is a calcareous rod, 
which has generally a spherical termination, and above it the integument 
forms a sort of hood. 

As to the minute structure of the globiferi, the author states that the 
investing epithelium consists of cubical cells, among which are a large 
number of yellow pigment cells. The interior of each oviform gland is 
occupied by long cylindrical palisade-like cells, which have but a narrow 
central space. Ifa living globifer be compressed, the cells may be seen 
to suddenly pass out by the orifice of the glands. The cell may be shown 
to have been broken off above the nucleus. The examination of sections 
demonstrates that the glandular contents consist of a mucous mass, with 
an investment of cells along the wall. The latter are surrounded by a 
small quantity of protoplasm, and do not appear to have definite boun- 
daries. Their nuclei are of some size, and nearly always contain some 
distinct nucleoli. Among them there are scattered smaller cell-nuclei. 

The globiferi can be best made out in Sphereechinus granularis, where 
they were first observed by the author.* The fact that these organs 
have hitherto escaped detection is doubtless explicable by their super- 
ficial resemblance to pedicellarie, from which, indeed, they appear to 
have been derived. 

The spines are next discussed, those of Dorocidaris papillata being 
first descriked. All but the large thick spines present an arrangement 
which has not yet been detected in any Urchin. At the base there is a 
mass of large glandular cells. The thickening at the base is due to the 
thickening of the connective substance and the superjacent epithelium. 
The latter is made up of ordinary epithelial cells and of glandular cells. 
The latter are tubular, and are surrounded by a membrane. The cell 
itself consists of a granular, highly refractive mass, and a large number 
of cilia project from its free ends. The epithelial cells are fine and fila- 
mentar, and the base is connected with nerve-fibres. Nerve-trunks can 
be made out in each spine, and these can be traced to the nearest ambu- 
lacral nerve. In Spheerechinus granularis there is a basal nerve-ring, 
whence nerve-fibres pass to the longitudinal muscular fibres, and the 
capsule of connective substance. Above the ring the superficial epithe- 
lium is much thickened, and the cylindrical cells, which are long and 
hair-like, carry long cilia at their free ends. Below the epithelium is 
the muscular layer, formed of longitudinal smooth fibres, which have 
their origin in the upper calcareous piece of the spine, and are inserted 
into the calcareous pieces of the body-wall at the base. 

The last kind described are the rotating dorsal spines of Centrostephanus 


* See this Journal, 1886, p. 452. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 55 


longispinus, which are placed round the arms, and which during life may 
be seen to be continually moving, their tips describing a circle. These 
spines are from 1-3 mm. in length, according to the size of the animal. 
On the surface there are a number of sensory prominences. Like the 
other spines, these are attached to a hemispherical tubercle. Around 
their base is a nerve-ring, whence fibres pass to the subjacent musculature 
and to the tip of the spine. There is a rich muscular supply, which is 
cylindrical in form, and is made up of transversely striated fibres. This 
transverse striation is very rarely to be detected in specimens which have 
been preserved in alcohol. 

The nervous system of a few Echinids was examined, and an elaborate 
account is given. Nerve-fibres are to be found throughout the epidermis, 
whence they pass into the cutis. At the middle of the paired ambulacral 
plates are longitudinal canals. These begin at the apical pole beneath 
- the fine intergenital plates, and extend to the masticatory apparatus. 
They are formed from the schizoccel, and lie in the layer of connective 
tissue. Here, too, are the five radial nerve-trunks which, in the 
Asteroidea, lie in the ectoderm. The trunks consist of very fine nerve- 
fibres and ganglionic cells, together with a cellular investment, which is 
partly formed of supporting cells, This epithelium may be regarded as 
the homologue of the epithelium of the ambulacral grooves of star-fishes, 
for it is not only the nervous mass, but also the whole epithelium that 
has come to lie in the mesoderm, as in Holothurians. From the nerve- 
ring branches are given off to the cesophagus, which extend over the 
whole of the enteric tract. 

The blood-carrying spaces consist of fine longitudinal canals and a 
circular space surrounding the nerve-ring. These structures in Echinids 
have nothing to do with the true blood-lacunez, which arise from the 
blood-lacuna-ring, which lies on the surface of the “lantern,” as a 
ventral and dorsal enteric lacuna. From the dorsal lacuna branches are 
given off, which surround the glandular organ (or “heart” of earlier 
authors). In its terminal portion the lacune of the anal blood-lacuna- 
ring are brought into connection with this organ. The anal lacuna 
passes into a circular schizoccel-sinus, which surrounds the anus ; from 
it blood-lacune are given to the generative organs. 

Dr. Hamann describes a canal from the water-vascular ring as 
passing into the “ Polian vesicles”; the canal opens into their cavity 
while blood-fluid circulates in lacune in the wall of connective tissue, 
and these lacune are in direct connection with the blood-lacuna-ring. 

In the Spatangida the five longitudinal canals and an cesophageal 
sinus communicating with them are present ; the true blood-lacuna- 
ring has, however, disappeared with the lantern, and the dorsal and 
ventral enteric lacune open into the sinus. The dorsal lacuna runs 
beside an enteric vessel, which arises from the circular canal that 
surrounds the mouth. Later on, this water-vessel and the enteric lacuna 
communicate with one another, and extend as far as the true stone- 
canal. In this way a comnection is effected between the water-vascular 
and blood-lacuna-systems—or, in other words, between spaces of endo- 
dermal and schizoccelic origin—such as has not been observed in any 
other group of Echinoderms. We may well suppose that this arrange- 
ment is secondary, since the Spatangida are paleontologically the 
youngest form. 

The ovoid gland or so-called heart is a remarkable organ; so far as 


56 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


we can judge at present it may be regarded as an organ in which the 
materials which are of no further use to the body are stored up. 
Blood-lacunze open into it at its ends and surround it as in regular 
Kchinids, but an efferent duct from it has not yet been detected in any 
form. 

The mode of origin of the genital products is particularly interesting. 
The primordial germ-cells lie in a circular genital tube from which arise 
five saccular outgrowths, into which the germ-ceils wander; these out- 
growths form the first rudiments of the generative tubes, and the cells 
not only form the male or female elements, but the general epithelium 
which, later on, invests the cavities of the generative organs. In the 
adult these tubes atrophy. 

Dr. Hamann believes that those naturalists take the most correct 
view of the phylogeny of the Echinodermata, who regard the Asterida 
as being the most ancient members of the phylum. He discusses in 
detail the evidence as to the origin of Echinids from Asterids. 

Asterids have five or more radial (ambulacral) longitudinal canals in 
the ventral walls of the arm, and an oral circular canal; in regular 
Echinids these are present, as the neural canals ; in Spatangids the oral 
ring becomes connected with the enteric lacune, as it does also in 
Crinoids and Holothurians. Asterids have blood-lacune and an oral 
blood-lacuna-ring in the septa of the longitudinal canals, but these are 
wanting in the other groups. Asterids have blood-lacune in the septa 
of the dorsal schizoccel spaces at the apical pole, which are present in 
all Echinoids, placed partly in the arms of Crinoids, and wanting in 
Holothurians. 


Wandering Primordial Germ-cells in Echinoderms.*—Dr. O. 
Hamann here deals with a question which he did not fully treat of in 
his essay on the Histology of Echinoderms (see above). He finds that 
the primordial germ-cells appear very soon after the larval stages are 
passed ; they are present in star-fishes and Urchins 0-5 cm. in diameter. 
The egg-cell and sperm-cell of all Echinoderms arise from one and the 
same element of the primordial germ-cell. The canals or genital tubes 
are placed in Crinoids in the arms, in Ophiurids partly in the dorsal 
wall and partly in the walls of the burse, and in Asterids and Echinids 
in the dorsal walls of the disc. They lie in a septum of connective 
tissue, in the meshes of which are blood-lacune ; the septum is always 
found in schizoceelic spaces. The contents of the tubes are, in all cases, 
cells about 0°008 to 0:01 mm. in size, which exhibit amoeboid move- 
ments, and have but a small quantity of cell-substance which can be 
stained. The nucleus is from 0:005 to 0:007 mm. in size, and forms 
a clear vesicle, in which a well-developed plexus, which ordinarily stains 
very deeply with carmine, can be made out. In Crinoids the primordial 
germ-cells come to maturity in the pinnules, which are lateral out- 
growths of the genital tubes; in the Ophiurids they pass into the walls 
of the burse which are invaginations of the ventral body-wall. In 
Asterids and Echinids the outgrowths form racemose organs; the 
Holothurians probably resemble the Echinids, and in both the adult has 
no remnants of the tubes. 

The author calls attention to the resemblance between Echinoderms 
and Hydroid Meduse ; in both there is a migration of primordial germ- 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvi. (1887) pp. 80-98 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. D7 


cells to definite maturation-centres ; but the resemblance is not complete, 
inasmuch as the cells in the polyp are already differentiated into 
generative cells when they begin to wander, while in Echinoderms the 
differentiation is effected after the migration. 


True Nature of the Madreporic System of Echinodermata.*— 
Prof. M. M. Hartog comes to the conclusion that the madreporic system of 
Echinoderms is morphologically and ontogenetically a (left) nephridium. 
He has found by experiments that its ciliary current is directed outwards 
through the madreporite, and that in Comatula an outward current takes 
place through the pores of the disc. As against the theory that the 
system serves for taking in water, the author urges that there is no need 
for this since osmosis is amply sufficient for the turgescence of dilatable 
organs. The rapid contraction or erection of the tube-foot is due to the 
transference of liquid from one part to another. The change of position 
of the madreporite in most Holothurians is, it is suggested, probably 
due to the usurpation of nephridial functions by the respiratory tubes 
which are connected with the cloaca. 

The author takes the opportunity of remarking that it is very 
probable that, when an Actinian is at rest, the oral slit is ecmpletely 
closed ; turgescence of the body is effected by osmosis, and the apical 
pores of the tentacles would appear to have the double function of the 
periodical or perhaps constant discharge in small quantities of the excess 
of liquid, and of its rapid discharge when, in defence, the animal wishes 
rapidly to reduce its bulk. 


Nervous System and Vascular Apparatus of Ophiurids.t—M. S. 
Cuénot has examined the nerve-trunks of Ophiurids after treatment with 
osmic acid and distilled water, and finds that they are formed of an 
epithelium of elongated cells, among the bases of which very fine nerve- 
fibrils run. The epithelial nuclei are all placed above the fibrils, and 
it is they which were taken by MM. Teuscher and Koehler for nerve- 
cells. The histological characters of the nerve-trunks of Ophiurids 
are, then, exactly the same as those of Asterids. The nervous ring, in 
addition to the ambulacral nerves, gives off two branches in each inter- 
radius; the more external of these goes directly to the large external 
interradial muscle, and the other, which is larger, gives branches to the 
dental papille. In the Ophiurids which were examined the cesophagus 
was found to be directly continuous with the nerve-ring by a delicate 
membrane in which nuclei are scattered; in Asterids the two are in 
more obvious connection. In the EHuryalide the cesophagus receives 
numerous nerves, united into a plexus, which becomes united with the 
nerye-ring. 

Branches from the radial nerves penetrate the ossicles of the arm 
and terminate in the intervertebral muscles, which are the active agents 
in locomotion. The branches distributed to each spine have each a small 
swelling formed by nerve-cells or fibres; they extend some way along 
the axis of the spine, and then become lost in its substance. 

The circular and radial vessels which MM. Ludwig and Koehler 
have called the vascular system are only connective-cells and fibres, and 
have no morphological value. There is a supraneural sinus (the peri- 
hemal of Ludwig and Koehler), within this a nerve-trunk, then a vascular 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xx. (1887) pp. 321-6. 
+ Comptes Rendus, cy. (1887) pp. 818-20. 


58 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


sinus (perihemal of Ludwig and Koehler, to which alone the term is 
applicable), and then the ambulacral canal. The vascular ring is con- 
nected to the aboral by a sinus which incloses the ovoid gland and the 
sand-canal; the aboral ring gives off the genital vessels which form a 
blood-sinus around the genital ceca; in the interior of the aboral ring 
and its appendages there is, as in Asterids, a genital cord, at the expense 
of which the genital organs are formed; this, in the adult, becomes 
fused with the base of each genital organ. It incloses a certain number 
of nuclei and of cells which are similar to those of the ovoid gland; in 
addition there are cells of large size, with a large nucleolated nucleus, 
which are identical with young ova and the mother-cells of spermatozoa ; 
where the genital cord is in contact with the genital ceca the cord is 
composed solely of these cells. 

The lymphatic glands are, partly, the Polian vesicles for the ambu- 
lacral apparatus, as in Asterids and Holothurians, partly the ovoid gland 
for the vascular apparatus and general cavity, and, partly, the small 
glands which are placed at the outer extremity of the respiratory cleft ; 
the products of these last are probably destined for the genital vascular 
apparatus, 


Development of Apical Plates in Amphiura squamata.*—Dr. P. H. 
Carpenter takes as his text Mr. J. W. Fewkes’s recent observations on 
the development of the calcareous plates of Amphiura squamata. He 
urges that the radial plates are mutually homologous in Ophiurids and 
Urchins, Asterids and Crinoids, and that the relative time of their 
appearance is of no general morphological importance. As against 
Fewkes’s view that the radial shields of Amphiura are the homologues 
of the first brachials of a Crinoid, three objections are raised. Many 
Crinoids have no paired first brachials, for they have only five arms; 
the only genera in which the paired first brachials rest directly on the 
primary radials are the aberrant Allagecrinus and Tribachiocrinus, but 
this is not the case all round the cup; the radial shields are often 
separated from the primaries by a series of intermediate plates, which 
exhibit no general constancy of arrangement. Dr. Carpenter would 
prefer to regard the radial shields of Ophiurids as being, like the 
terminals of both Ophiurids and Asterids, without representatives in 
the Crinoidea. 

In defence of his homologization of certain intraradial plates in 
Amphiura with the basals of Crinoids the author points out that the 
plates in question have an interradial position within the ring of 
radials, and are at one stage of development the only adaxial interradial 
plates; so that they correspond exactly to the basals of monocyclic 
Crinoids and to the so-called genitals of Urchins and Asterids. 

Attention is particularly directed to the considerable difference in 
the order of formation of the principal apical plates in the American 
and European varieties of the same species; though this does not seem 
to have attracted the special notice of Mr. Fewkes, it bears very strongly 
on any argument as to homology which can be extracted from differences 
in the time of appearance of plates. 

Calcareous Corpuscles of Holothurians.;—M. E. Hérouard has 
examined the calcareous deposits of a number of dendrochirotous Holo- 


* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxviii. (1887) pp. 303-17. 
+ Comptes Rendus, cy. (1887) pp. 875-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 59 


thurians. He finds that the basis of each is a group of hexagonal 
prismatic cells, arranged in a single layer. Four adjacent cells serve as 
the centre of attraction for the calcareous molecules, and give rise to an 
X-shaped corpuscle. The calcareous deposit next attacks the other 
lateral walls of the four cells, but the bases of these always remain free 
from any deposit ; the centre of each cell is occupied by the nucleus, 
the presence of which explains the holes in these bodies. As the deposit 
is most abundant along the crests of the hexagonal cells, the surface of 
the corpuscle becomes ridged. These four cells the author proposes to 
call the four fundamental cells of the corpuscle, and he applies the term 
of fundamental calcareous corpuscle to the body which arises by the 
calcification of the lateral walls of these four cells. This fundamental 
form is common to all the species; the differences seen in various forms 
are due to the mode of calcification of the surrounding cells. 


Ceelenterata. 


Morphology of Siphonophora.*—In continuation t of his studies on 
this subject, Prof. ©. Chun describes the post-embryonic development of 
Physalia. He has been able to undertake this investigation thanks to 
the collections made on board the ‘ Vittore Pisani,’ and he has been 
fortunate enough to find specimens which connect the larve described 
in 1858 by Huxley with adult forms. Ina larva of 5 mm. it was seen 
that the lower third of the air-sac is converted by a circular constriction 
into an air-funnel; the polymorphous appendages of the trunk are 
distinctly differentiated into two groups, one larger than the other. 
There was no indication of the crest. In the later stages the air-sac 
was more extensive, the crest developed, and the appendages increased 
in number. The air-sac traverses the cavity of the enlarged trunk in 
an oblique direction, and in such a way that the funnel approaches, near 
the anterior larger group of appendages, the wall of the body, where it 
flattens out into a sharply circumscribed plate. This “air-plate” 
consists of a single layer of ectodermal cylindrical epithelium, which 
passes at the margin into the flattened epithelium of the inner wall of 
the air-sac. This, though it has escaped the notice of all observers, 
grows to a considerable size, and is homologous with the secondary 
ectoderm in the pneumatophore of the Physophoride ; like it, it is the 
organ for the secretion of the gas contained in the air-sac; the great 
development of the secondary ectoderm explains the rapid renewal of 
the air in the bladder. 

The recognition of a structure homologous to the air-funnel makes it 
possible to understand the pneumatophore of Physalia in all stages of 
development. A line drawn from the centre of the air-plate through the 
pore corresponds to the primary axis of the pneumatophore of the 
Physophoride; the asymmetry of the bladder of Physalia becomes 
marked very early. 

The structure of the crest is more complicated than has been hitherto 
supposed; there is a longitudinal septum which divides it into two 
halves; with this tile-like septa become connected, which arise from 
its free edge and overlie the transverse septa of the first and second 
order, and extend as far as the air-umbrella. Notwithstanding the 
great development of its musculature, by means of which the living 


* Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 557-61, 574-7. ¢ See this Journal, 1887, p. 970. 


60 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


animal is capable of making the most various changes in the form of its 
body, it may be referred to the arrangement general among Pneuma- 
tophora. 

The supporting lamella of the air-umbrella gradually widens out and 
forms a considerable layer, which in section is seen to be concentrically 
striated ; it is clearly secreted by ectcderm cells. The pneumatophore 
early takes on its characteristic triangular form, which is especially 
distinct throughout life in P. utriculus. Various parts of the author’s 
description will be more easily comprehended when they appear in the 
promised illustrated memoir. 


Influence of Salinity.*—Herr C. F. W. Krukenberg has made an 
elaborate series of experiments on the relation of the salt content of 
Meduse to the salinity of the surrounding water. (1) The fluid in the 
disc always closely corresponds in salinity to the surrounding water; in 
waters with less salt, however, the salinity of the disc bears a much greater 
proportion to that of the water than occurs in the Meduse of salter seas. 
(2) From the examination of seven different forms of Medusa, it was 
seen that in regard to the salinity of the water leaving the disc no 
noteworthy differences obtained. (3) There is no evidence to suggest 
that the salinity of the disc in salt seas can sink below that of the 
surrounding water without danger to life. The study of Red Sea forms 
showed on the contrary that as long as the external salinity does not 
exercise any injurious influence on the life of the organism the internal 
salinity is always greater than that of the water. 

Krukenberg has made a very extensive series of experiments, of 
which the tabulated results are given, on the loss of water when the 
Meduse are removed from their medium, and on the influence of 
numerous reagents. (1) The loss of water, which takes place by a 
special process, occurs much more rapidly in air than in sea or distilled 
water. (2) It is much more rapid in the first hours of exposure to dry 
air. (3) The loss, especially at first, is greater in distilled than in sea- 
water. ‘The influence of numerous reagents on the loss of water is then 
chronicled. 

Finally, the author sums up all the various ways in which water 
may pass into or out of an organism, and inquires how it passes out in 
Meduse. He regards it as quite certain that diffusion has nothing 
to do with the process. The water passes in by absorption, but 
Krukenberg is unable to decide whether it passes out by exudation or 
in a purely mechanical fashion, or by both combined. 


Colours of Corals.t—Dr. C. F. W. Krukenberg has made a study of 
the colours of the living corals in the Red Sea. It is well known that 
the coral banks afford a feast of colour hardly to be surpassed by any 
other of nature’s displays. The species which he investigated were 
Stylophora subseriata Ehrbg., Pocillopora hemprichi Ehrbg., Seriatopora 
spinosa M. KE. and H., Madrepora haimet M. E. and H., Favia ehrenbergi 
Klz., Galaxea irregularis M. HE. and H., Montipora tuberosa K1z., 
Turbinaria conica K1z., and Tubipora hemprichi Ehrbg. 

In these species Krukenberg found the following pigments :—(1) the 
yellowish-brown colouring matter of the so called “yellow cells” of 
the Actinidz, which exhibits a deceptive resemblance to the hepatochrome 


* Vergl. Physiol. Studien, II. Reihe, 4 Abth. (1887) pp. 1-58. 
+ Ibid., pp. 172-87 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 61 


(MacMunn’s enterochlorophyll) of higher Invertebrates; (2) Anthea- 
green; (3) rose and purple-red Floridine; (4) a (yellow) Uranidine ; 
(4) chlorophane- and rhodophane-like lipochromes, but in small 
quantity as in Anemonia; (6) a red lipochromoid which is not readily 
dissolved out. 

The extraction and examination of the different pigments are 
described, and a spectrum table is appended. The colouring matter of 
the yellow ceils of Anemonia is constantly to be found in stone corals. 
The most abundant associated pigment is a yellow uranidine which 
entirely resembles aplysinofulvine. Floridine, which is common in 
sponges, is also very frequent among corals. The persistent red of the 
noble coral (Corallum rubrum), and of the organ-pipe coral (Tubipora 
musica) resembles that of many mollusc shells, and consists of a rhodo- 
phane pigment combined with the lime. 


Nervous Tracts in Alcyonids.*—Dr. C. F. W. Krukenberg has 
investigated the nervous physiology of Xenia in order to elucidate the 
relations of dependence between the individual polyps and the colony. 
Something has already been done in this direction with Polyzoan 
colonies, but hardly anything has yet been achieved with Alcyonids. 

By a series of experiments the following fucts were established in 
regard to individual polyps :—(1) conducting nervous strands penetrate 
the entire body of the polyp, on the sides of the wall as on the basal 
plate, both in the oral disc and in the tentacles; (2) stimuli from 
one half of the body to the other pass more readily vid the oral disc 
than by means of the strands in the basal plate; (3) stimuli pass 
more readily from the base to the mouth-disc than in the opposite 
direction. 

In regard to the more difficult problem of the relation of the indi- 
viduals to the general colony, Krukenberg draws the following con- 
clusions from his experiments:—(1) All portions of the Xenia colony 
are provided with contractile tissue. The contractions are directly 
under the influence of a ganglionic network, which is somewhat super- 
ficially spread out in the branches, the stem, and the foot-plate. (2) The 
ganglionic network is much more sparsely developed in that portion of 
the colony which simply supports (the branches, the stem, and the foot- 
plate) than in the oral disc and tentacles of the polyps. Its influence is 
especially marked in the stem on such portions as underlie the branches, 
where there must be larger aggregates of ganglia. This fact seems to 
explain why influences take effect almost exclusively above the point of 
irritation, and not backwards from it. (3) Stimulation of a point on 
the stem is much more readily propagated in the transveise than in the 
basal direction. Hence may be inferred the existence of cross anasto- 
moses in the ganglionic network. The relations are very lucidly dis- 
played in a diagrammatic figure. 

Finally, the author devotes some space to a criticism of certain re- 
searches of Keller on the contractions of Xenia. The gist of these 
observations lay in the conclusion that on the peristome, probably 
on the margin and near the base of the tentacles, motor centres were 
present which occasioned rhythmic contractions. With the same species 
(Xenia fuscescens), and at the same locality (Suakim), Krukenberg was 
quite unable to observe the rhythmic contractions which Keller even 


* Vergl. Physiol. Studien, II. Reihe, 4 Abth. (1887) pp. 59-76 (1 pl.). 


62 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


counted. He suggests that the abundant suspended particles in the 
canal-water of Suakim caused the contractions which Keller regarded 
as rhythmic. On experimental and histological grounds Krukenberg 
regards their existence as very improbable. 


Porifera. 


Sponges.*—Prof. W. J. Sollas has a well-illustrated general article 
on Sponges. In the account of structure and form he commences with 
a description of Ascetta primordialis, as a simple sponge; the various 
modifications undergone by the canal-system are next described, in 
connection with which the term of prosopyle is applied to the pores 
which lead directly into the radial tubes or paragastric cavity. In the 
skeleton, megascleres or skeletal, and microscleres or flesh, spicules are 
distinguished; the modifications of these are described, considerable 
additions being made to the terminology of the skeletal constituents. 

In the account of the histology of the mesoderm various kinds of 
cells are distinguished; the stellate connective-tissue corpuscles are 
called collencytes, and the tissue collenchyme. Cystenchyme consists 
of closely adjacent large oval cells, and is particularly found in certain 
Tetractinellids. Long fusiform connective-tissue cells are called desma- 
cytes; they often form the greater part of the cortex of a sponge. In all 
higher forms contractile fibre-cells or myocytes are to be found, and 
there appears to be more than one kind of them. The supposed sense- 
cells are called esthacytes. 

With regard to protoplasmic continuity, Prof. Sollas says, “ In most 
sponges a direct connection can be traced by means of their branching 
processes between the collencytes of the mesoderm and the cells of the 
ectodermal and endodermal epithelium and the choanocytes of the flagel- 
lated chambers. As the collencytes are also united among themselves, 
they place the various constituents of the sponge in true protoplasmic 
continuity. Hence we may with considerable probability regard the 
collencytes as furnishing a means for the transmission of impulses; in 
other words, we may attribute to them a rudimentary nervous function.” 

The extraordinary profusion of sponge-spicules in some modern 
marine deposits and in the ancient stratified rocks is accounted for by 
the fact that the sponge is constantly producing and disengaging spicules. 
Each spicule originates in a single cell or scleroblast. 

The phylum Parazoa or Spongie is thus divided :— 


Branch A. Megamastictora. Branch B. Micromastictora. 
Class. Calcarea. Class I. Myxospongie. 
» LI. Silicispongie. 
Sub-class i. Hexactinellida. 
a ii. Demospongie. 
Tribe a. Monaxonida. 
» 0. Tetractinellida. 


A sufficiently detailed systematic classification is given. 

The asexual and sexual medes of reproduction are described, and a 
notice is given of the two chief types of development ; one, which is 
common among the calcareous sponges, is characterized by the “ amphi- 
blastula,” and the other by the “ planula” stage. 

A short account is given of the little that is known as to the physiology 


* Encycl. Brit., xxii. (1887) pp. 412-29. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 63 


of sponges, and of their distribution, as to which our information is very 
fragmentary. After a selected list of works treating on sponges, Prof. 
Sollas gives an account of the mode of taking, cultivation, and prepara- 
tion for market of officinal sponges. 


Skeleton of Calcareous Sponges.*—-Prof. V. vy. Ebner has submitted 
the spicular skeleton of calcareous sponges to a searching analysis, and 
comes to the conclusion that the spicules are always “ bio-crystals.” 
“The spicules are mixed crystals, mainly composed of cale-spar, 
containing no organic material; the outer form is without the true 
crystalline contour, but is determined by the specific activity of the 
organism ; the internal structure, though perfectly crystalline, stands in 
relation to the external form by a peculiar distribution of the mixed 
ingredients.” The mixture of salts is due to contemporaneous excretion 
of more than one. More briefly he reviews the skeleton of calcareous 
Algewe, Foraminifera, Coelenterates, and Echinoderms, in which marked 
differences, and at the same time, striking resemblances occur. “In the 
formation of bio-crystals the crystallographic orientation of the substance 
first excreted is alone determinative, and all the rest of the substance is 
formed on the above foundation according to the laws of crysiallization, 
without special activity of the protoplasm, which has only a moulding 
influence on the external form and on the mixture of material. When, 
however, organic material is excreted along with the calc-spar, as in the 
calcareous membranes of corallines and spicules of corals, there is no 
longer a uniform crystallization.” It is still a crystalline excretion, but 
the molecules of carbonate of lime arrange themselves in a fashion “ in 
general like that found in non-calcified, doubly-refractive tissues.” 


New System of Chalinine.t—Mr. A. Dendy has some criticisms on 
a recent publication by Dr. R. yon Lendenfeld dealing with the Chalinine 
of the Australian region. He points out that the generalization that 
there are no incrusting Chalinids is contradicted by Dr. Lendenfeld’s 
definition of his new species Hoplochalina incrustans. ‘There are some 
important divergences between the letterpress describing, and the 
figures illustrating the canal-system, the latter giving representations of 
certain remarkable funnel-shaped canaliculi, such as neither Mr. Dendy 
nor any other author has yet found in a Chalinid sponge. 

The systematic classification of the Chalinine is severely dealt with, 
and evidence is afforded of Dr. von Lendenfeld having adopted in the 
main the classification of Messrs. Ridley and Dendy, “ but instead of 
giving it in the way we gave it, and with the significance which we 
attached to the different groups, he has modified it to suit his present pur- 
poses, thereby, in my opinion, almost entirely destroying its value.” 
Spicules, it is urged, not spongin, must be taken as guides to classification. 


Fresh-water Sponges.{—Mr. E. Potts has published a synopsis of 
the known American forms of fresh-water sponges, with descriptions of 
those named by other authors, &c., from all parts of the world. After a 
general account of their structure, and of the means of collecting, 
observing, and mounting them, the author justifies his method of nomen- 
clature. 

From imperfect memoranda Mr. Potts finds that he has examined 

* SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xcy. (1887) pp. 55-148 (4 pls.). 


¢ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xx. (1887) pp. 326-37. 
t Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1887, pp. 158-279 (8 pls.). 


64 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Spongilla fragilis from at least thirty-two localities in eighteen North 
American States, S. /acustris from twenty-six localities in sixteen States, 
and Meyenia fluviatilis from twenty-five localities in fourteen States. 
Hardly any two specimens are exactly alike in their so-called typical 
features, but all may be grouped, and common definitions or descriptions 
will, without undue elasticity, cover them all. 

A diagnosis of the European Spongillide, translated from the 
Bohemian text of Prof. Vejdovsky, follows, and this is succeeded by a 
synopsis of Mr. Carter’s classification. Then comes a key to the species 
of Spongilla, and descriptions of the species, those that are American 
being treated with more detail than the rest. The genera Meyenia, 
Heteromeyenia, Tubella, Parmula, Carterius, Uruguaya, Potamolepis, and 
LIubomirskia (?) are treated in the same way, so that a valuable com- 
pendium is produced. 

In conclusion the author says, “Some points. ... worthy of the 
thought and study of future students have already been suggested, such 
as the necessity of gemmules in fresh water as distinguished from marine 
sponges; the process of their formation; their functions, and the means 
by which that end is attained; the law of variation in the quantity and 
character of the enveloping crust; and the time and mode of formation 
of the imbedded armature—all have yet to be conclusively studied, 
Other questions of a more limited character occur in the search for the 
line of derivation that must be supposed to run through all the genera 
and species; and in the association, apparently indicated amongst other- 
wise dissimilar species, by the presence in them of correspondent forms, 
such as the birotulate dermals found in certain Spongille and Meyeniz, 
and the more frequent recurrence in several genera of acerate dermals 
with characteristic, centrally located, perpendicular spines, &c.” 


Development of Generative Products in Spongilla.t*—Herr K. 
Fiedler argues, against Prof. Goette, the unicellularity of the ovum of 
Spongilla. He has always found distinct cell-boundaries in the egg-cell, 
and only one nucleus. Double coloration with picrocarmine and “ bleu 
de Lyon,” with quick washing of the sections with slightly ammoniacal 
alcohol, gives a bright red colour to the nucleus, and colours blue even 
the smallest parts of the yolk. The author finds that the large round 
vitelline spheres do not, as Goette imagines, appear first, but that they 
are preceded by all possible stages of smaller yolk elements. The folli- 
cular cells are regarded as parenchymatous cells which have been 
flattened out by the pressure of the growing egg. Some of them appear 
to be special nutrient cells, and often their amceboid processes may be 
seen pushing themselves between the ordinary follicular cells towards the 
egg, without, however, fusing with it. They prepare in their interior 
material which is to be regarded as preparatory to yolk-stuff, and which 
is given up to the egg by diffusion. 

In addition to these, there are certain amceboid wandering cells of 
another kind, the bedy of which is quite regularly filled by rather large 
particles. They correspond to those described in the Calcarea by 
Polejaeff. They are scattered through the whole body of the sponge, but 
are especially numerous below and among the cells of the cortex, and 
more particularly near the afferent orifices. They have probably a 
nutrient function. 


* Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 631-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 65 


The growing egg becomes more and more filled by yolk-granules, but 
the nucleus never disappears completely, though it often approaches the 
surface. This position is, no doubt, to be correlated with the extrusion 
of the polar globules. 

Spermatogenesis is on the second type of Polejaeff. There is no 
special covering-cell or primitive sperm-cell. In division, karyokinesis 
was frequently observed. 


Protozoa. 


Conjugation of Paramecium.*—M. E. Maupas finds that the con- 
jugation of male and female pronucleus as previously described by him 
was admirably figured by Balbiani in 1858. Maupas had known the 
compressed summary in the Comptes Rendus, but not the full research 
with plates. Balbiani figured the process beautifully, but regarded 
what he figured as the longitudinal division of the micro-nuclear 
(nucleolar) element. At this time only Warneck, in another overlooked 
‘research (1850), had observed the conjugation of pronuclei in the ova of 
Lymnezus. This was reobserved in 1874 by Biitschli in a nematode. 

The phenomena described by Maupas have now been observed in 
nine ciliated Infusorians: Paramecium caudatum, P. aurelia, Stylonichia 
pustulata, Onychodromus grandis, Spirostomum teres, Leucophrys patula, 
Huplotes charon, Loxophyllum fasciola, and Paramecium bursaria 
(Balbiani). 

M. Maupas reaffirms his certitude as to the seven first stages in the 
complex process. The micro-nucleus increases, divides, eliminates ele- 
ments, differentiates, elements are exchanged, and two portions (male and 
female) conjugate. A single nucleus results, and this divides twice. 
The further reconstitutive changes are less certain. He is, for instance, 
in doubt as to the persistence of the original nucleus. 


New Fresh-Water Infusoria.t—Dr. A. C. Stokes describes a number 
of new fresh-water Infusoria. Hexamita spiralis, from the intestinal 
canal of the tadpole of the common toad, differs from previously observed 
species by the presence of two contractile vacuoles and the spiral dis- 
position of two of the anterior flagella; Petalomonas dorsalis which has 
a conspicuously developed centro-dorsal upright plane, and P. sulcata 
are both from pond water. A new genus, Urceolopsis, is established for 
Urceolus sabulosus Stokes; in it the entire cuticular surface is more or 
less covered by adherent, irregular, and angular sand-grains. T'rachelo- 
monas urceolata, T. verrucosa, and T. acanthostoma ; Anisonema solenota, 
Protopteridinium limbatum, and Holophrya ornata follow. Saprophilus is 
a new genus for S. agitatus sp.n.; these animalcules are essentially 
scavengers which, rapidly undergoing fission, swarm in crowds round and 
within the dead bodies of various small aquatic animals. Bothriostoma 
undulans g. et sp.n.,is a heterotrichous form, in which the left-hand 
border of the peristome carries a series of large cilia, while the posterior 
portion of the right-hand margin supports an undulating membrane. A 
second species of Hymenostoma, H. magna [um], is described ; it may be 
easily distinguished from H. hymenophora by its larger body ; conjugation 
has been observed, union taking place between the ventral surfaces of 
the right-hand body margins. There are four new species of Vorticella, 


* Comptes Rendus, ey. (1887) pp. 955-7. See this Journal, 1887, p. 973. 
+ Ibid., xlvi. (1858) p. 628, and Journ. de Physiol., i. (1858) p. 347, pl. iv. 
¢ Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xxiv. (1887) pp. 244-55 (1 pl.). 

1888. z 


66 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 

V. pusilla, V. mollis, V. aqua [e] dulcis, and V. platysoma. Opercularia 
allensi is about twice as large as O. nutans, while the height of its colony 
is much less; O. vestita is also described. Thuricolopsis differs from 
Thuricola in that the lorice have an internal, narrow, flexible, valve- 
rest, and the zooid is attached posteriorly to the lorica by a distinctly 
developed pedicle. In this genus are placed Thuricola inniaa Stokes, 
and T’ kellicottiana sp.n. Platycola celochila and Lagenophrys patina 
are next described. Histrio erethisticus is very difficult to study owing 
to the animalcule having “a most annoying habit of suddenly darting 
backward for a distance seldom exceeding its own length.” Descrip- 
tions of Solenophrya odontophora, Acineta bifaria, A. macrocaulis, and 
A. acuminata complete the paper. 


Relationships of Foraminifera.*— Herr M. Neumayr divides 
shelled Foraminifera into three phylogenetic grades; (a) the quite 
irregular and primitive Astrorhizide; (b) the series with merely 
agelutinated shells ; (c) the compactly shelled forms which he believes 
to have arisen from the former. His classification is thus summarized 
(in compressed form). 


Spirillinids. Oraueiapens 
nae Chilostomelle. | Rotalia. Pose t 
Calcareous Miliolini ; Globigerina. Fusulinell Es 
grade. Gorin Perforate. Polystomella. I Ke ae ce t 
jinperforate, * | Textillarids. Nodosaria. Fusuiinid. er 
: ApS Perforate. : 
| Cornuspirids. Lituolid: 
oo se pind Lituolid type, | Fusulinid, e.g. 
Regular eer aa Textillarid e.g. Lituola Fusulinella 
agglutinated Siena’ Game type. Endothyra. p- p. (ef. En- 
grade. Ket eer a Trochammina. dothyra). 
Trregular 
agglutinated Astrorhizide. 
grade. 


Karyokinesis of Euglypha.j;—Herr W. Schewiakoff has made a 


careful study of the phenomena of division in Huglypha alveolata. 
Division is prefaced by the protrusion of cell-protoplasm and of shell 
plates from the mouth of the shell. The protrusion as it grows is clad 
with a new shell, over which for a time the alveolar and granular proto- 
plasm flows. The internal changes begin in the protoplasm of the 
hyaline zone, which increases in volume, and differentiates into two 
layers—an outer, denser and reticulate stratum, and an inner clear 
region round the nucleus. 

1) The nucleus is homogeneous, and not rich in chromatin. 
(2) The “cyto-chylema” of the clear region penetrates the persistent 
nuclear membrane, and conditions the increase of the nucleus, which 
acquires a reticulate structure and more chromatin. The nucleo- 
hyaloplasm and the fine granules accumulate at the nodes of the net- 


* SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xcy. (1887) pp. 156-86. 
+ Morph. Jahrb., xiii. (1887) pp. 193-258 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 67 


work and form coarser meshes. (3) From the meshwork single 
filaments arise, with irregularly coiled course. The filaments give off 
small processes, so that their margins appear zigzagged. ‘The granules 
fuse to form Pfitzner’s chromatin spheres, and the filaments finally 
consist of alternate dark and clear discs. 

(4) The filaments become smooth, and are disposed parallel to one 
another in the peripheral portion of the nucleus. Only a few processes 
remain connecting the chromatin filaments in the so-called “ close coil” 
(dichte Kniéiuel). (5) The filaments shorten and thicken to form the 
“loose coil,” and are at the same time bent into sickle shape. The 
nucleolus now disappears. 

(6) The cytoplasm disposes itself radially to the surface of the 
nucleus. The loops retire inwards, and have their apices directed 
centrewards. The swn-form arises. (7) The cytoplasm of the clear 
region begins to concentrate at the poles, the nucleus exhibits amceboid 
‘movements, the increase in size ceases, the nucleus becomes again 
spherical. The accumulation of cytoplasm at the poles acquires a rayed 
structure (the polar rays). The rays converge towards the poles of the 
nucleus, and meet in a depression. Here arises the polar body, and at 
the same time appear the spindle nuclear fibres. (8) The nucleus 
becomes ellipsoid, the loops have their angles on the equatorial plane, 
the stellate form begins. 

(9) The spindle-fibres grow from the poles into the nucleus, and 
unite in the equatorial plane with those from the opposite side. A 
continuous nuclear spindle is formed, which has a directive influence on 
the chromatin loops. The nuclear spindle elongates in the direction of 
the axis of division. The loops become disposed in two ways—the outer 
remain parallel to the equatorial plane, the inner stand perpendicularly 
to the same. The star-form is at its climax. 

(10) The loops become ribbon-like, and begin to divide longitu- 
dinally. The inner loops are bent round to the polar end. The 
longitudinal division occurs. (11) With re-arrangement the barrel 
form arises, all the loops lie at right angles to the equatorial plane, 
their apices are turned to the poles. (12) The loops separate, move 
polewards, and arrange themselves radially round the somewhat flattened 
polar body. Thus arise daughter-stars, and immediately after (13) the 
daughter-sun-forms. (14) The nucleus is constricted into two, the 
protoplasm of the clear zone is also divided, circulation begins in the 
bodies of the daughter individuals, the plasma of the alveolar and 
granular zones is divided between the two in approximately equal 
portions. 

(15) Meanwhile the daughter nuclei undergo metamorphosis. The 
polar body is drawn in, the loops are drawn out into filaments to form 
the daughter-cells. (16) From the filaments connective threads proceed ; 
a coarse and then a fine network is thus formed, the nucleolus reappears, 
the nucleus acquires its normal structure. The plasmic circulation 
ceases, pseudopodia issue from the opening of the cell, the daughter 
individuals separate. 

Changes in nucleus and protoplasm appear contemporaneous. Only 
the clear zone is active, the rest of the protoplasm passive. Whether 
the penetration of the cyto-chylema into the nucleus is the very first 
step or not the author does not venture to decide. The process is 

‘clearly one of genuine division, and not, as Gruber maintained, half-way 
F 2 


68 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


between division and budding. An interesting phenomenon was some- 
times observed, that after the usual protrusion of protoplasm, and after 
the nucleus had begun to go ahead in its changes, a stoppage occasionally 
occurred, the nucleus retraced its steps, and everything returned in 
statu quo. 

The author concludes by comparing his results with those obtained 
in other Protozoa, and shows that a considerable manifoldness in the 
details of indirect division must be allowed to occur. 


Diplocystis Schneideri.*—Prof. J. Kiinstler gives an account of an 
aberrant Sporozoon which has been found in the body-cavity of Peri- 
planeta americana, and which appears to be the representative of a new 
genus. It is milky white and opaque, and may therefore be easily seen ; 
the adult individuals may be as much as 2 mm. long. The body is 
spheroidal and monaxial, and has at first sight the appearance of two 
monocystid Gregarines united by their corresponding extremities ; each 
half has its own membrane, and the whole is surrounded by a general 
envelope, which extends from one to the other without penetrating into 
the plane of separation. This membrane is double, but it is probable 
that the outer of the two has been formed by the host, while the inner 
corresponds to the cuticle (or epicyte of Schneider's terminology); the 
inner membrane is fine and transparent. The author is inclined to 
disagree with Schneider and Biitschli as to the superficial nature of the 
cuticular strie of Gregarines, and thinks them to be due to the minute 
structure of the cuticle. In the new genus the markings are certainly 
not regular. 

Under the cuticle there is a delicate layer of dense protoplasm, 
which is doubtfully compared with ectoplasm; it is transparent, finely 
dotted, and scarcely thicker than the cuticle. It entirely surrounds 
each of the two vesicles of which the body is made up, and forms 
the septum between them; but, as it is single, and as delicate here 
as elsewhere, it is clearly not due to fusion, but is the continuation 
pure and simple of the peripheral layer of the body. ‘The internal 
protoplasmic mass, which must be regarded as the endoplasm, if the 
other homologies are correct, is more or less, but never completely, 
fluid, and is filled with special granulations. When the animal is 
treated with potash or other reagents which dissolve the granulations, 
the endoplasm is seen to have a reticular structure. The granules 
present some of the reactions of amyloid bodies. The structure of the 
nucleus recalls that of true Gregarines, but a difference from polycystid 
Gregarines is to be found in the fact that each vesicle has a nucleus or 
body analogous thereto. 

The author gives an account of the formation of the nuclei, and of 
the development of Diplocystis ; as to its systematic position, he believes 
it to be an aberrant type, showing affinities both to the Gregarinida and 
the Coccidia. 


* Tablettes Zoolog., ii. (1887) pp. 25-66 (1 pl.). 


tt 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 69 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 


a. Anatomy.* 
(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. 


Part taken by the Nucleus in Cell-division.j—Herr E. Zacharias 
states, as the result of fresh observations, that the celi-protoplasm does 
not penetrate into the nucleus during its division. The nucleus appears 
to be always sharply differentiated from the cell-protoplasm when it 
passes over into the “spindle” condition. Within the mother-nucleus 
‘the groups of filament-segments of the daughter-nuclei separate until 
they reach the poles of the mother-nucleus, and the daughter-nuclei 
become differentiated from a central part of the mother-nucleus which 
remains behind between them. Only the framework of the mother- 
nucleus which contains the nuclein is completely taken up into the 
daughter-nuclei; a considerable portion of its matrix passes over into 
the cell-protoplasm. Within the remains of the mother-nucleus the 
cell-plate is formed out of the cell-protoplasm which penetrates into 
it; the remains of the mother-nucleus are thus increased in size, and 
may be separated from the daughter-nuclei on both sides by cell- 
protoplasm. 


Albumen in the Cell-wall.{—Herr G. Klebs commenting on Krasser’s 
paper on this subject and on Wiesner’s previous communications, 
contests the assertion of the former that alloxan is an unfailing test for 
substances belonging to the group CH,CH(NH,)CO,H. The utmost 
that can be said is that certain nitrogenous substances are characterized 
by the alloxan reaction ; it is displayed, for example, with glycocoll, and 
to a less extent with urea and keratinin, as well as with leucin, tyrosin, 
and other albuminoids. It is also manifested with various inorganic 
substances, not only with ammonia, bnt with potassium monophosphate, 
sodium diphosphate, and, the bicarbonates of the alkalies. This test, 
therefore, in no way proves the presence of albumen in the cell-wall. 
Herr Klebs further states that if Millon’s reagent is to be relied on, it 
shows the presence of albumen in the walls of wood- and bast-cells, 
which is incredible. 

The author also brings forward arguments in opposition to Krasser’s 
view that the cell-wall is a living organ, comparable to the nucleus or 
the chlorophyll-bodies. The incorrectness of this view is sufficiently 
shown by the fact that cells can be parted from their celi-walls, and 
then have the power to form new ones. 


* This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm; (2) Other Cell- 
contents (including Secretions); (8) Structure of Tissues; and (4) Structure of 
Organs. 

“+ Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, Wiesbaden, Sept. 21, 1887. Ber. 
Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. lv.—vi. 

t Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 697-708. Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 981. 


70 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Thickening of the Cell-walls in the Leaf-stalk of Aralia.*—Sig. 
P. Pichi describes the mode of thickening of the walls of the liber-cells 
in the phloem of the fibrovascular bundles in the leaf-stalk of Aralia 
trifoliata. In the early stages the thickening takes place chiefly in the 
angles, producing a very strong resemblance to collenchymatous tissue. 
Later, very delicate layers of cellulose are formed within each cell, 
which become rapidly lignified. Sig. Pichi considers it probable that 
during the early stages, the thickening takes place chiefly by intussus- 
ception, during the later stages by apposition. 


(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions). 


Starch- and Chlorophyll-grains.—M. E. Belzungt has made a series 
of observations on the morphological and physiological relationship 
between starch and chlorophyll, which has led him to conclusions 
differing in several respects from those generally accepted. 

In investigating the origin of starch-grains, especially in the ovules 
of Leguminose, M. Belzung finds that, during the formation of the 
ovule, the embryo, the transitory endosperm, and the integuments, in fact, 
the entire seed, is the seat of a new-formation of starch unconnected with 
the previous existence of any leucite or starch-generator ; the grains of 
starch are formed free in the protoplasm by simple crystallization of the 
amylaceous matter dissolved in the cell. This is true both of accumula- 
tions of reserve-starch and of such as is at once used up in the growth 
of the plant. The theory of Schimper that the leucites are the sole 
generators of starch is further in opposition to the fact that even when 
a starch-grain is apparently formed within a leucite, it will continue to 
grow long after the latter has disappeared. During the development of 
the transitory starch-grains they undergo a curious metamorphosis. A 
portion of their substance is consumed, and is used for the production of 
albuminoids, while the other portion is partially hydrated, and takes 
the form of a granular skeleton of the same shape, which is coloured 
yellow or reddish-yellow by iodine reagents. These skeletons are 
analogous to those obtained by the action of saliva or of dilute acids on 
the starch-grains in the living plant. They are composed of amylo- 
dextrin, and the author proposes for them the term amylites. They 
were found in ripe seeds and in the axis and cotyledons of the lupin. 
The transitory starch which appears during the germination of seeds 
is deposited in these amylites, and is formed at their expense. This 
transitory formation of starch has no connection with the actual assimila- 
tion of carbon. 

The normal function of transitory starch-grains is to form grains of 
chlorophyll. The chloramylite is the substratum of the future chloro- 
phyll-grain, and the cell-protoplasm takes no part in its formation. 
Chlorophyll-grains with an amylaceous origin must be carefully distin- 
guished from those with a protoplasmic origin. During the early period 
of germination chloramylites only are to be found in the stem, to the 
exclusion of chloroleucites. Reserve-starch-grains exhibit the same 
phenomena; and they occur in all plants except Fungi, which contain 
transitory, but no reserve-starch. 


* Atti Soc. Tose. Sci. Nat., viii. (1887) pp. 455-8 (1 pl.). 
ft: Sci. Nat.—Bot., vy. (1887) pp. 179-310 (4 ee Cf. this Tecra 1887, 
p- 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. fal 


In the Floridexw (Polysiphonia, Sphzrococcus,) M. Belzung states 
that the starch-grains are formed directly in the protoplasm, without the 
intervention of leucites, and have no definite morphological connection 
either with the chromatophores or with the nucleus. 

The general result cf the examination of the embryo of ripe seeds 
(Leguminose) is that they contain no leucites of any kind. A large 
number of chlorcleucites and all chloramylites are formed directly ; the 
former by differeutiation of the cell-protoplasm, the latter by meta- 
morphosis of starch-grains. Instead of chlorophyll-grains (chlora 
mylites) producing starch-grains, by the assimilation of carbon, they are 
themselves formed from starch-grains produced free in the protoplasm. 
During germination in the dark the transitory starch-grains, after 
partial absorption, are transformed into amylites. It is these sub- 
stances, and not the protoplasm, which form the granular substance of 
the chloramylites. 

The formation of transitory starch in fungi in the course of germi- 
nation was demonstrated in the case of the sclerotia of ergot of rye. 

To this M. F. W. Schimper * replies, denying the accuracy of every 
one of M. Belzung’s statements, where they conflict with his own, viz. the 
statement that it is not proved that starch is formed by leucites, that 
starch-grains can be transformed, without the assistance of protoplasm, 
into green granules resembling chloroleucites, but composed of a 
skeleton of starch impregnated with pigment; and that leucites can be 
formed free in the protoplasm. The existence of “chloramylites” he 
considers to be entirely a delusion. The objects recommended for 
studying the true structure of leucites are the pseudo-bulbs of Phajus 
grandifolius, the rhizomes of Iris florentina and germanica, and the tubers 
of the potato. 


Quantitative estimation of Chlorophyll.{—By the use of his method 
already described, Herr A. Tschirch found the usual proportion of 
chlorophyll in the dry substance of leaves free from ash, determined as 
phyllocyanie acid, to be from 1:8 to 4:0 per cent.; in a square metre of 
surface from 0°35 to 1:23 gr. of chlorophyll. The proportion, of course, 
varied considerably ; the most common percentage was 0°8 gr. per 
square metre. 


Formation of Starch in the Chlorophyll-granules.{—Dr. G. Belluci, 
in order to determine whether the production of starch under the 
influence of sunlight, and the subsequent reconversion during night- 
time, is to be regarded as a physiological or as a chemical change, tried 
the effect of the presence of various substances. Chloroform, and to a 
slighter extent ether vapour, destroy chlorophyll, and also prevent the 
transformation of starch formed during sunlight; carbonic anhydride 
also diminishes the function of the chlorophyll, but does not destroy it 
if the action is not allowed to continue unintermittently for twenty-four 
hours. The saccharification of starch proceeds in the dark, even in cut- 
off leaves, but more rapidly with free access of air. From these experi- 
ments, the author concludes that the phenomenon is a physiological and 
not a chemical change. 


* Ibid., vi. (1887) pp. 77-89. 

+ Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, Wiesbaden, Sept. 21, 1887. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxxii. (1887) p. 57. Cf. this Journal, 1886, p. 346. 

t Chem. Centr., 1887, p. 572. See Journ. Chem. Soc. Lond., 1887, Abstr., p. 1136, 


72 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Inosite.*—Herr R. Fick finds inosite very widely distributed in the 
vegetable kingdom, in a large number of plants belonging to a great 
variety of natural orders,—in the seed, sced-vessel, stem, leaves, and 
roots, though by no means universally. It is present in larger 
quantities in climbing than in erect plants. The mode of its separation 
from the living plant in clusters of needles is described in detail. 


Tannin in Acanthus spinosus.t—M. J. B. Schnetzler finds tannin 
present in the leaves of this plant, along the vascular bundles, in the 
parenchyma of the stem, the peduncles, the walls of the ovary, the 
ovules, the style, the stigma, and the filaments. He believes it not to be 
a mere product of excretion, but to play an important part in the life of 
the plant. 


Chemical substances contained in the Box.t — Besides the threo 
well-known alkaloids of the box, buxine, parabuxine, and buxinidine, 
Sig. G. A. Barbaglia finds in the leaves two others, to which he gives 
the names parabuxinidine and buxinamine. The chemical properties of 
these five alkaloids are given in detail. He finds also, besides Walz’s 
buxoflavina, three distinct pigments, a green, a yellow, and a red, 
buxoviridinum, buxorubinum, and buxocrocinum. The wax on the upper 
surface of the leaves he finds to differ from the vegetable waxes 
previously known, and establishes for it by experiment the composition 
C,,H,.0. 


Aleurone-grains in the Seed of Myristica surinamensis.§—Herr A. 
Tschirch finds that these seeds are peculiar in the extraordinary deve- 
lopment of the albumen crystalloids of the aleurone-grains. Each cell 
is almost filled with a large crystalloid of the hexagonal system, either 
a rhombohedron (R) or a combination of the same with the basal plane 
(R:OR). Twin forms are rare. These crystalloids form the matrix of 
very large aleurone-grains. As a rule, to each crystalloid is attached 
a greater or less number of globoids, each including a needle-shaped 
erystal of calcium oxalate. Besides the globoids, the oxalate crystals, 
and the protein-crystalloids, the aleurone-grains also contain a residue 
of amorphous substance. 'T'o separate these constituents, a section is 
freed from oil by means of ether, then very dilute aqueous potash dis- 
solves the albumen crystalloids after washing, acetic acid dissolves the 
eloboids, and then the calcium oxalate is dissolved in dilute hydrochloric 
acid, 


(3) Structure of Tissues. 


Laticiferous System of Manihot and Hevea.||—In addition to the 
two systems of laticiferous vessels in Manihot Glaziovii already described 
by Dr. D. H. Scott, Miss Agnes Calvert and Mr. L. A. Boodle find a 
third, in the peripheral portion of the pith, usually in the neighbour- 
hood of a primary xylem-bundle. These laticiferous tubes have reticu- 
late anastomoses similar to those described by Dr. Scott in the cortex. 


* Fick, R., ‘ Unters. ib. d. Darstellung u. d. Eigenschaften des Inosit,’ 38 pp, 
St. Petersburg, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxii. (1887) p. 133. 

+ Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xviii. (1887) pp. 300-2. 

t Atti Soc. Tose. Sci. Nat., viii. (1887) pp. 255-70. 

§ Arch. Pharm., xxv. (1887) pp. 619-23. See Journ. Chem. Soc. Lond.—Abstr., 
1887, p. 1061. 

|| Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 55-62, 75-7 (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, 1884, p. 409. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 13 


In the secondary phloem new laticiferous elements are continually 
being formed by the cambium. 'The members of one group branch and 
anastomose freely among themselves, but do not anastomose with the 
members of other groups. The cortical tubes form a continuous reticu- 
late cylinder all round the stem. It is probable that at the nodes all 
the laticiferous systems stand in radial connection with one another. 
By treating sections of the stem with ether, and staining with hama- 
toxylin, numerous nuclei were seen in the laticiferous vessels, both of 
the phloem and pith; and a protoplasmic layer could also be detected 
lining the vessels, showing that they retain their living contents after 
maturity. 

In Hevea brasiliensis, Miss Agnes Calvert also succeeded in detecting 
ail three systems of laticiferous tissues in older seedlings. In this 
plant, although the laticiferous tubes consist mainly of vessels formed 
by the fusion of rows of cells, yet, like the laticiferous cells of other 
euphorbiaceous plants, they retain the power of independent growth, and 
may put out branches which grow by their apices. The nuclei are 
particularly distinct in the laticiferous tubes of all three systems, and 
may be seen even without staining. They frequently contain very 
distinct nucleoli. 


Tubular Cells of the Fumariacee.*—Herr E. Heinricher objects 
to Zopf’s description ¢ of the idioblasts in the tissue of Fumariacee as 
* tannin-receptacles.” The contents of these cells consist of a mixture 
of various substances, and the author prefers for them the designation 
“tubular cells” (Schlauchzellen), which gives no indication of their 
contents. ‘The characteristic and universal constituent of their contents 
is a fatty oil, with which may be associated protoplasm, a pigment or 
its chromogen, various salts, and tannin. Usually tannin is altogether 
wanting, and, if present, is only in minute traces. Anthocyan may 
occur, but is not generally present. The cells which contain anthocyan 
are generally independent idioblasts, similar to those found in other 
forms, and quite distinct from the characteristic tubular cells of the 
Fumariacee. 

For the demonstration of these cells the author uses potassium 
biniodide, or an alcoholic or aqueous solution of iodine, by which their 
contents are coloured yellow-brown or dark-brown, the oil and proto- 
plasm as well as the tannin. If an alcoholic solution is used, the 
brown colour soon disappears, owing to the great solubility of the oil 
in alcohol. The author considers the best reagent for tannin to be 
the neutral salts of iron; potassium bichromate may also be used. 


Super-endodermal Network in the Root of the Caprifoliacee.{— 
M. P. van Tieghem continues to give the result of his researches on 
the super-endodermal network, as found in the root of various plants. 
In the present paper this structure is described as it occurs in the 
various genera of Caprifoliacee. In Viburnum Tinus and V. Opulus, for 
example, all the super-endodermal cells of the young root are strongly 
thickened and lignified on their radial and transverse faces. These 
thickenings are coloured bright red by fuchsin. Here and there a cell 
of the antepenultimate layer also bears thickening bands. Several 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vy. (1887) pp. 283-8, 
+ See this Journal, 1887, p. 427. 


t Bull, Soe. Bot France, Xxxiy. (1887) pp. 251-3. Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 986. 


74 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


modifications occurring in other members of the same genus are also 
described. In Lonicera tatarica the network is complete, but in L. aylo- 
steum and L. nigra it is interrupted here and there, especially opposite 
the woody bundles. In Symphoricarpus the network is remarkable on 
account of the doubling back of the bands on the external face of the 
cells. 

In conclusion, the author states that of the nine genera of Capri- 
foliaceew he has examined, six are provided with a super-endodermal 
network, and three are destitute of that structure. The structure in 
Caprifoliacee agrees with that found in Conifer and Rosacez, but it 
differs from the Crucifere in that, in the latter case, the meshes are 
reticulated, 

Arrangement of the Fibro-vascular Bundles in Pinguicula.*— 
MM. P. A. Dangeard and Barbé describe the structure of the fibro- 
vascular bundles found in Pinguicula vulgaris. According to MM. van 
Tieghem and Douliot,+ the conducting bundles may be arranged in three 
different ways. hey may be grouped in a circle, or in several con- 
centric circles, round the axis forming a central cylinder surrounded by 
endoderm and cortex; or they may be grouped in several circles, round 
several different axes, forming as many distinct central cylinders; or 
lastly, they may be isolated, and not united into a central cylinder. In 
the stem of Pinguicula the authors state that the second of these arrange- 
ments is found, and that this has only been observed in two other genera 
of Phanerogams, namely, in Auricula and Gunnera. 


Distribution of Fibro-vascular Bundles in the Petiole.{—M. L. 
Petit states that, if a transverse section be made at the caulinary end of 
the petiole of Juglans regia, the fibro-vascular bundles will be found 
arranged in three circles. These fuse together, and form a single 
triangular bundle. The arrangement in the other Juglandex is some- 
what similar, with the exception of the distribution of the accessory 
bundles situated above this bundle. In Liquidambar imberbe the fibro- 
vascular system is arranged in three arcs of a circle, which form three 
bundles. These subsequently fuse together, forming a single bundle. 
In Bauhinia racemosa the lateral bundles have their xylem inter- 
nally, their phloem externally ; in the median bundles the phloem 
faces the median plane, and the xylem is opposite to that of the external 
bundles. 


Vascular Bundles in the Rhizome of Monocotyledons.s—Herr W. 
Laux describes what he terms the “ perixylematic ” concentric bundles 
in the rhizome of Acorus, the Juncacez, and Cyperacez, as contrasted 
with the “ periphloematic” concentric bundles of Ferns, the phloem 
being, in the former, completely surrounded bya layer of xylem. There 
is no other difference between these concentric bundles of the rhizome 
and the collateral bundles of the aerial stem and leaves, except in the 
relative position of the xylem and phloem. Transitions are exhibited 
from one form to the other in the gradual collection of the xylem round 
the phloem ; and perixylematic bundles are to be found in the nodes of 


* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxiv. (1887) pp. 307-9. 

+ See this Journal, 1887, p. 260. 

+ Bull, Soc. Bot. France, xxxiv. (1887) pp. 301-3. 

§ Laux, W., ‘Ein Beitr. z. Kenntn. d: Leitbiindel im Rhizom monocotyler 
Pflanzen,’ 49 pp. and 2 pls., Berlin, 1887. See Bot. Ztg., xly. (1887) p. 611. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Lo 


the aerial stem of certain species of Juncus. Transitional forms between 
the perixylematic and the collateral structure occur on the same 
transverse section. The structure of the rhizome of different species of 
Cyperacee shows an almost endless variety in the construction of the 
bundles, 


Comparative Anatomy of Geraniacee.*—From an examination of 
14 species of Geranium, 3 of Erodium, and 3 of Pelargonium, Herr W. 
Jiinnicke gives characters by which these three genera can be distin- 
guished from one another, derived from the structure and distribution 
of the vascular bundles in the leaf-stalk and flower-stalk. 


Anomalous Thickening in the Roots of Cycas.;—Mr. W. H. Gregg 
finds in Cycas Seemanni, in addition to the abnormal thickenings of the 
stem well-known in several genera of Cycadez, similar thickenings in 
the root. These abnormal thickenings of the root always proceed 
from the pericambium, which consists of several layers of cells. The 
‘ primary thickening presents the peculiarity that the normal relative 
positions of the xylem and phloem are reversed, the former lying out- 
side, the latter inside. This is followed by an outer secondary abnormal 
thickening, in which the xylem and phloem occupy their normal relative 
position. 


Formation of Annual Rings in Wood. t{—Herr G. Krabbe dissents 
from the explanation of the formation of annual rings offered by Wieler, 
that it is due to a difference in the supply of nutriment at different 
periods of the year, less in the latter part of the summer than in the 
spring. He asserts that this difference rests on no experimental basis— 
Hartig maintaining exactly the opposite—and considers that the cause 
of the formation of these rings is still an unsolved problem in vegetable 
physiology. 

Mechanical system of Pendent Organs.§S—Herr A. Y. Grevillius has 
investigated the peculiarities of structure of the mechanical tissues in a 
number of plants, both shrubby and herbaceous, whether pendent varieties 
or organs normally pendent. He finds their general characteristic to be 
that the organs in question are narrower and more slender, and have 
their mechanical system less strongly developed, and with a stronger 
tendency to assume a central position. 


Comparative Anatomy of Roots.||—Dr. O. Lohrer has examined the 
histological structure of the roots of representatives of a large number of 
natural orders, to determine to what extent characters of this kind are 
common to all the members of groups or families. He finds it to differ 
in different cases. 

Members of fifteen families of Papilionacez examined all agreed in 
these points:—The bast is chiefly prosenchymatous ; the bast-fibres lie 
scattered or in small groups in and above the soft bast; their cell-cavity 
is extremely small; the very thick refringent cell-wall is clearly dif- 


* Abh. Senckenberg. Naturf. Gesell., xiv. (1886) 24 pp. and 1 pl. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxxi. (1887) p. 36. 

+ Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 63-70 (1 pl.). 

+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vy. (1887) pp. 222-32. 

§ Natury. Studentsallsk. Upsala, March 10, 1887, See Bot. Centralbl., xxxi. 
(1887) p. 398. 

|| Wigand’s Bot, Hefte, ii. (1887) pp. 1-48 (2 pls.). 


76 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ferentiated from the primary membrane; their diameter in transverse 
section is small. 

The Caryophyllacez are also characterized, with some exceptions, by 
distinguishing peculiarities in the structure of the root. The extra- 
cambial tissue is usually strongly collenchymatous. The walls of the 
short cells of the prosenchyma are thin or collenchymatous, but never 
lignified in the entire xylem. 

The root of the Chenopodiaces is distinguished by its regular con- 
centric arrangement. The Cruciferz include several different types ; and 
the author appends a clavis by which it can be determined to which of the 
species examined any given crucifer-root belongs. In other orders the 
characters of the root are by no means so uniform; while in other cases 
those of particular species are very sharply marked off from all others 
nearly allied to them. This is the case with Urtica dioica and Rheum 
rhaponticum. 

With regard to the rhizome, the author finds that it generally differs 
from the root in essential anatomical characters, as in the position and 
form of the vascular bundles ; and from the stem in the strongly developed 
cortical parenchyma. A true endoderm in the root was observed in only 
one instance, that of Helleborus niger. 


(4) Structure of Organs. 


Respiratory Organs.—Herr L. Jost * proposes the term “ pneuma- 
thode”’ for those parts of plants which are especially adapted by their 
structure for respiration, such as aerial roots. These are of specially 
frequent occurrence in many species of palm belonging to the genera 
Livistona, Phenix, and others. In L. australis they may rise erect to a 
considerable height (the result of negative geotropism), and are furnished 
with an evident root-cap. The “ pneumathodes” here are certain white 
spaces where the ordinary brown epidermis is replaced by cells of peculiar 
form, containing air, and very loosely connected with one another. In 
other palms the pneumathodes do not occur on roots rising erect in the 
air, but on those with a normal horizontal position, or they are found on 
ordinary lateral roots. It was shown by experiment that the tendency of 
an abundant supply of water is to promote the production of aerial roots; 
while, when the supply of water is limited, the pneumathodes are formed 
beneath the soil. ‘The influence of water on the direction of the growth 
of roots is, however, indirect rather than direct ; hydrotropism could not 
cause the roots to rise erect out of the water ; the author considers that it 
may in great measure be attributed to the properly-named “ aérotropism ” 
by Molisch.t+ 

The structure of the vascular-bundle in the pneumathode differs in 
no respect from that in the other parts of the root; in the cortical 
parenchyma the elongated intercellular spaces have almost entirely dis- 
appeared, as also the epidermis and the hypodermal sclerenchymatous 
ring, the latter being replaced by a sclerenchymatous layer beneath the 
peripheral spongy layer of thin-walled cells. 

Further illustrations of pneumathodes are afforded by Pandanus 
furcatus and pygmexus, Saccharum officinarum, Cyperus textilis, Luffa 
amara, Taxodium distichum, and other perennial plants. 


* Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 601-6, 617-28, 633-42 (1 pl.). 
+ Cf. this Journal, 1885, p. 96. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. q(T) 


In commenting on this paper Herr K. Goebel * points out that he 
has already ascribed { to the aerial roots of Sonneratia and Avicennia the 
property of serving as organs of respiration, their production being 
incited by the peculiar habitat. 


Organs of Secretion.t—Herr A. Tschirch has continued his in- 
vestigations on the secretions and secreting structures of plants. (1) The 
epidermal glands of Labiate and Composite, which contain ethereal oil, 
are formed on two different types. In Labiates, wherever the glands 
occur, they consist of a ring of secreting cells which lie beside one 
another in fours or a multiple of four. The head-cell is divided by 
radial partitions at right angles to the surface of the organ. In Com- 
positee, on the other hand, the cells are arranged in layers one above 
the other, often only the two upper layers secrete; all the secreting 
cells are divided by a median radial partition, usually at right angles 
to the longitudinal axis of the organ. In the head-cell tangential walls 
parallel to the surface are first formed, then a radial partition in each of 
these divisions. From the surface the glands of Labiate exhibit a 
central cell with a surrounding ring usually of eight, while those of 
Composit form an elongated oval divided through the centre. 

(2) The origin of copaiva balsam is unique. The balsam is ex- 
clusively formed in the wood, and there in the older portions. It arises 
by retrogressive metamorphosis first of the walls of the vessels, 
but implicating also the adjacent cells. Even in one-year twigs the 
metamorphosis of some vessels was observed. Except in the case of 
the very different “resin-gallen’’ of Conifers, this is the first certain 
illustration of the possible modification of cellulose into resin or resin- 
like substances. 

(3) In @ second paper Herr Tschirch notes that the seat of the 
cinchona-alkaloids is almost exclusively the cortical parenchyma, and 
the contents of the cells. This cortical parenchyma is greatly increased 
in the secondary cortex, while all the other elements of the bark dis- 
appear. The increase in the alkaloid content depends chiefly on an in- 
creased development of the thin-walled alkaloid-bearing tissue elements, 
not on an increase of the absolute content of the individual cells. The 
alkaloids pass only secondarily in the dry bark into the cell-walls. 


Anatomy of Water-plants.s—Dr. H. Schenck sums up the anatomical 
characters of plants which grow entirely submerged in water. 

The leaf is almost always divided into capillary teeth, or is a narrow 
grass-like ribbon; exceptions are afforded by some species of Potamo- 
geton. The parenchyma does not assume the spongy form with large 
intercellular lacunz, the cells being prismatic in form and fitting closely 
together without intercellular spaces, or else inclosing very large lacune 
in the interior; stomata are very rare, and the greater part of the 
chlorophyll is contained in the epidermis. The vascular bundles are of 
very simple structure, and are inclosed in a parenchymatous sheath, 
which does not differ essentially in structure from the surrounding 


* Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 717-8. + See this Journal, 1887, p. 111. 

} Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, Wiesbaden, Sept. 21, 1887. See Biol. 
Centralbl., vii. (1887) p. 133. 

§ Uhlworm und Haenlein’s Biblioth. Bot., i. (1886) pp. 1-67 (10 pis.). Of. this 
Journal, 1886, p. 272, 


78 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


parenchyma. The special development of the leaf is described in a 
number of individual cases. The large air-cavities may be either 
schizogenous or lysigenous. 

The mechanical system of the whole plant is reduced to a very feeble 
development. Organs for secretion and excretion are, as a rule, entirely 
wanting, though calcium oxalate is sometimes excreted abundantly. 
The root-system of submerged plants seldom attains any great develop- 
ment. The central vascular cylinder is probably formed from the 
union of a number of bundles. 


Lateralness in Conifere.*—The term “lateralness” of an organ is 
defined by Herr E. Henning as expressing the distribution of the 
phenomena of organization on the transverse section, or especially 
around the axis of growth. Strictly speaking, all the leaves of conifers 
are dorsiventral, since the vascular bundles are collateral. He describes 
the lateralness of a leaf as radiar when the tissues are uniformly 
developed around the vascular bundle, and if the leaf has, in addition, a 
circular or polygonal transverse section; bilateral when they are flat 
while the structure of the tissue is the same. A table is given of the 
variations, within the order of Conifer, of the combinations of these 
and some other differences of structure connected with the lateralness of 
the leaves and branches. 


Dichotypy.t—Herr W. O. Focke adduces the following instances of 
dichotypy, i.e. of the occurrence of two different forms of the same 
organ on the same stock :—A number of specimens of a hybrid between 
Anagallis phenica and A. cerulea, in which most of the flowers were 
scarlet, a single one having half one of the corolla-lobes dark blue; a 
specimen of Mirabilis Jalapa, in which most of the shoots had white 
flowers sprinkled with red, a few pure red flowers; and a hybrid 
between Trollius europeus and T. asiaticus, in which most of the flowers 
were yellow, those on a single branch red. 


Flowers and Fruit of Sparganium and Typha.{—This treatise by 
Dr. 8. Dietz is now published in detail, with illustrations. The two 
genera should, he considers, be placed under distinct families, or at 
least sub-families, Sparganinm having a nearer affinity to the Panda- 
nacex, Typha to the Aroidee. The fruit of Typha is a caryopsis, that 
of Sparganium a drupe. 


Fruits and Seeds of Rhamnus.$—Prof. H. Marshall Ward (assisted 
by Mr. J. Dunlop) has conducted a series of experiments for the purpose 
of explaining the phenomena connected with the colouring matter of 
species of Khamnus, especially R. infectorius. A beautiful golden 
yellow solution can be obtained by macerating the fruit in water ; but, 
although the seat of the pigment is evidently the pericarp, the whole 
berry, including the seed, must be crushed in order to obtain it. The 
explanation of this phenomenon offered by Prof. Ward is that the 
xanthorhamnin present in the pericarp is a glucoside, and that it breaks 
up, under the influence of a ferment present in the seed, into the 


* Naturv. Studentsallsk. Upsala,’ Feb. 24, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxi. 
(1887) p. 393. 

+ Abhandl. Naturwiss. Ver. Bremen, ix. (1887). See Bot. Centralbl., xxxii. 
(1887) p. 43. 

+ Uhlworm und Haenlein’s Biblioth. Bot., v. (1887) pp. 1-59 (8 pls.). Cf. this 
Journal, 1887, p. 114. § Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 1-26 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 19 


colouring substance rhamnin, and glucose. Further experiment showed 
that the seat of this ferment in the seed is nearly or quite exclusively 
the raphe. If toa fresh solution of the boiled pericarp a very small 
portion of the raphe is added, a copious precipitate is almost immediately 
obiained of semi-crystalline yellow masses of rhamnetin. The cells of 
the raphe are found to contain a brilliant oily-looking colourless sub- 
stance. No trace of this ferment was found in four other species of 
Rhamnus examined, viz. R. tinctorius, carolinianus, Wicklius, and 
catharticus. As to the nature of the ferment, nothing definite was 
determined. 

Prof. Ward suggests that the purpose of this arrangement is the 
production of glucose as soon as the seed begins to germinate, for the 
nutrition of the young seedling. 


Masked Fruits.*—Herr A. N. Lundstrom describes the heterocarpic 
condition exhibited by Calendula and Dimorphotheca. In the former 
(1) wind-transportable, (2) hook-bearing, (8) larva-like fruits occur. 
He gives reasons for regarding the resemblance between the last- 
mentioned fruits and the caterpillars of certain butterflies as indeed a 
case of mimicry. 


Development of the Fruit of Umbelliferze.;—Messrs. J. M. Coulter 
and J. N. Rose describe the development of the fruit in Umbellifere, 
Cherophyllum procumbens being selected as a type. 

In very young buds groups of three or four parenchyma-cells of the 
pericarp, next the inner epidermis, begin to be set apart for the forma- 
tion of oil-ducts. The first indication of this is that they become 
secreting cells, and are discoloured by the characteristic oily contents, 
and also become larger than the surrounding parenchyma-cells. Upon 
approaching the period of flowering, the parenchyma-cells surrounding 
each fibrovascular bundle subdivide, and when the flower opens, quite a 
distinct group of small parenchyma-cells is discovered beneath each 
rib; these subsequently develope into strengthening cells. The exten- 
sion of undifferentiated parenchyma is effected by radial cell-division, 
the amount of tangential division being comparatively small. 


Axis of the Inflorescence.t—Herr O. Klein describes in detail the 
comparative anatomy of the axis of the inflorescence. The epidermis is 
not strongly thickened, except in those cases where the inflorescence 
persists through the winter, as in that of the male catkins of the birch 
and hazel; here it is strongly suberized. The cortex consists either of 
chlorophyllous or of non-chlorophyllous cells. The cortical parenchyma 
increases with the ascending order of the branches, at the expense of the 
mechanical tissue, especially where the inflorescence is destitute of 
leaves, as in the Juncacee. The vascular bundles retain nearly ‘the 
same diameter throughout, but their constitution alters; the hadrome 
continually diminishing towards the apex, while the leptome increases 
to a corresponding extent. The number of bundles decreases with the 
constant decrease in the diameter of the axis. The axis of the in- 
florescence of Umbellifere is treated in detail, especially in regard of 
its power of bending. 


* Nov. Act. Reg. Soc. Scient. Upsala, xiii. (1887) pp. 72-7. 

+ Bot. Gazette, xii. (1887) pp. 237-43 (1 pl.). 

¢ Jahrb. K. Bot. Gart. Berlin, iv. (1886) pp. 333-63. See Bot, Centralbl., xxxii. 
(1887) p. 107. Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 989. 


80 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Development and Structure of Orobanche in a young stage, and 
of its suckers.*—-M. M. Hovelacque describes the development and 
structure of Orobanche, taking as his type O. eruenta. 

In a very early stage the Orobanche appears on the host as a circular 
or curved spot. ‘The parasite has penetrated the fibrovascular bundles 
of its host, and consists of a single unramified sucker which now begins 
to enlarge rapidly. When more developed, the young Orobanche appears 
as a hemispherical swelling; it is, however, impossible to distinguish 
growing point, axis, or appendages. At a later stage the vegetative point 
is found to consist of dermatogen, which layer covers a meristematic 
mass undifferentiated into periblem and plerome. At the base of the 
growing point the first leaves appear in their order. Certain procambial 
threads reach from the fibrovascular bundle of the sucker to the more 
developed leaves. The points of growth of the roots may be seen in the 
middle of a mass of cortical tissue, the elements of which are large. 

Young plants of O. minor differ from C. cruenta in that they are 
provided with more numerous roots. In O. Heder, on the contrary, 
the roots are less numerous, and develope more slowly, but the adventitious 
buds are more numerous. 

M. Hovelacque classifies the suckers of Orobanche under four types, 
viz.:—(1) Small unicellular suckers. When the root of an Orobanche 
touches the nourishing root of a host by a very small point, this contact 
is often limited to a single cell of the superficial layer. The morpho- 
logical value of these suckers is that of root-hairs. (2) Small multi- 
cellular suckers. When the contact with the host affects more than one 
cell, these cells elongate and penetrate the host in a single mass. (3) 
Large unramified suckers. When the surface of contact of the parasitic 
root with the nourishing root is very large, many of the superficial cells 
take part in the formation of a sucker. In this case the sucker partakes 
of the character of a very imperfect root. (4) Large ramified suckers. 
Ramified suckers differ from the preceding only in the fact that, when 
penetrating the root of the host, they branch. In this last case the 
suckers of Orobanche are homologous to a bundle of imperfect roots. 


Origin of the Suckers in Phanerogamous Parasites.;—M.. Granel 
states that in Melampyrum pratense the suckers arise in the cortex. The 
cells of the piliferous layer, after elongation, divide into a filament of 
cells; one, two, or three cells from the middle of each filament elongate 
rapidly towards the exterior, and imbed themselves in the host. 

Among plants with temporary suckers, some develope their organs of 
absorption on their roots; these are, for example: Osyris alba, Thesium, 
Melampyrum, Orobanche minor. In others the suckers arise in the 
stem; for example: the Cuscutex, Cassytha, &c. Osyris alba possesses a 
large number of normal roots, and also has suckers. It presents then a 
coexistence of free and parasitic life. In conclusion the author states 
that in Osyris alba, Orobanche minor, and Thesium divaricatum, the origin 
of the suckers is to a great extent identical; they arise in the cortical 
parenchyma, and are joined slowly by some cells formed by the pericycle. 


Arrangement of Secondary Roots and Buds on Roots.{—M. P. van 
Tieghem discusses the laws which govern the arrangement of the lateral 


* Comptes Rendus, cy. (1887) pp. 470-1, 530-3. 


+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxiy. (1887) pp. 313-20. 
t} Ann. Sci. Nat.—Bot., vy. (1887) pp. 130-51. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 81 


roots and buds on the root and lower part of the hypocotyl of Phan- 
erogams in those cases where the structure of these organs is binary. 
Tn all these cases, which are very common, the root, whether terminal or 
lateral, primary, secondary, or of any other order, forms its subsidiary 
roots in the pericycle in front of the intervals which separate its two 
xylem-bundles from its two liber-bundles, and places them in consequence 
in four longitudinal rows. The author terms those rootlets “ isostique ” 
when the mother-root has more than two, “diplostique”’ when it has 
only two xylem-bundles. Whenever a root, whether primary, terminal, 
or lateral, is binary, its branching is governed by the second of these 
laws. The same law governs the arrangement of the normal buds which 
frequently make their appearance on the hypocotyl. 

The local production of double roots and double buds is not un- 
common, especially in Umbelliferee. The normal hypocotyledonary buds 
above alluded to almost always spring from the pericycle of the root or 
of the stem; the only known exception is in the case of the Linariacee, 
where they are of exogenous origin. 


Epidermal Glands.*—M. P. Vuillemin has examined the structure 
of the epidermal glands in the natural orders Plumbaginacex, Frankeni- 
acew, and Tamarisciner. In those of the two latter orders he finds a very 
strong similarity to one another. Those of the Plumbaginacex, while 
resembling the glands of the other two orders in their structure, origin, 
and functions, yet present some well-marked morphological differences. 
They are, in all three orders, hairs transformed into organs of excretion, 
and intended to complement the action of the stomata. They detain the 
waste products arrested by the thick walls which bound the intercellular 
spaces, but which are able to pass through the walls of these secreting 
cells, which are always punctated, the gland opening outwards through a 
very narrow orifice, and being always lined at its base with a layer of 
protoplasm. 

In the Plumbaginacexw each gland always consists of eight secreting 
cells. The substance secreted may be entirely volatilizable, or may be 
mucilaginous, or may contain a large quantity of salts of lime in solution, 
which is deposited, on evaporation, over the whole surface of the leaf. 
In the Frankeniaceew and Tamariscinee each gland consists of only two 
secreting and two subsidiary glands. The secretion is, in the Frankeni- 
ace, generally calcareous, solidifying on evaporation; while in the 
Tamariscinee it is resinous, not yielding a calcareous concretion on 
evaporation. 


Prickle-pores of Victoria regia.t—Mr. J. H. Blake, having examined 
the large prickles on the leaf-veins and petioles of Victoria regia, finds 
that only the larger ones are penetrated by a fibrovascular bundle, and 
that the opening or ostiole described as existing at the apex of the spine 
is not invariably present, and is probably the result of injury. 


Morphological Peculiarity of Cordyline australis.t—Prof. F. O. 
Bower records a peculiarity in this plant growing in Ceylon, that, when 
the stem assumes an oblique or horizontal position, lateral shoots are 
put out from the lower side of the main axis, which direct themselves 
vertically downwards. They are of exogenous origin, with exceedingly 


* Ann. Sci. Nat.—Bot., v. (1887) pp. 152-77 (1 pl.). 
+ Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 74-5. 
¢{ Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, xviii. (1887) pp. 317-9 (1 pl.). 


1888. G 


82 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


slow growth, and produce roots of endogenous origin. In their function 
of root-bearing organs they bear a resemblance to the rhizophores of 
Selaginella. 


Nyctaginez.*—From the special examination of three species, Mira- 
bilis Jalapa, M. longiflora, and Oxybaphus nyctagineus, Herr A. Heimer] 
gives the following as the most characteristic peculiarities of the order :— 

The ovule presents an intermediate form between the campylotropous 
and anatropous. The conducting apparatus for the pollen-tubes is re- 
markably well developed. The three antipodal cells are already invested 
with cell-walls before impregnation, and continue for a time after this. 
The endosperm is inconsiderable in quantity, and transitory; the peri- 
sperm, on the other hand, very fully developed. The wall of the ripe 
pericarp is of complicated structure, with a central sclerenchymatous 
layer, and an outer layer containing tannin. Cells containing raphides 
are very abundant in the short prolongation of the floral axis on which 
the ovary is seated, and in the lower part of the pericarp; in smaller 
quantity also in the wall of the ovary; they are altogether wanting in 
the ovules. The ripe fruit is inclosed in a very thin brown skin, formed 
by the fusion of two layers, the outer of which is developed from the 
outer epidermis of the ovary, the inner and stronger one from the testa 
of the seed. 


Root-tubers and Bacteria.t—Herr P. Sorauer sums up succinctly 
the results of the observations of T'schirch, Woronin, Kny, Brunchorst, 
Hellriegel, Eriksson, Frank, Benecke, and Moller, on the true nature of 
the root-tubers in Leguminose, as well as in Hleagnacee and in Alnus. 


B. Physiology.f{ 
(1) Reproduction and Germination. 


Insect relations of Asclepiadexe.§ — Mr. C. Robertson describes 
the insect relations of certain Asclepiads. He states that while in 
ordinary flowers an insect may be a useful visitor if it can reach the 
nectar, in Asclepias many other conditions influence the insect relations. 
Of visitors whose tongues are suited to the nectaries, many are useless, 
because they do not light upon the flowers (Sphyngide, Aigeriade, and 
Trochilus) ; others because their legs are not long enough to extract 
pollinia (Megachile). Others, again, rest their feet so lightly as seldom 
to effect pollination; e.g. Diptera and small butterflies; while others 
are not strong enough to free their claws from the slits and break the 
retinacula. In all seventeen species were found to be kilied on this 
account. 

The author describes in detail several species of the genus Asclepias, 
and also two species of Acerates. 


Fertilization of Flowers.||—Dr. J. MacLeod has added a sort of 
appendix to the classic work of Hermann Miiller on the fertilization 
of flowers. He has extended and corroborated the work of the great 


* Denkschr. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, liii. (1887) 3 pls. 

+ Bot. Centralbl., xxxi. (1887) pp. 3808-14, 343-5. 

¢ This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction and Germination; (2) Nutrition 
and Growth (including Movements of Fluids); (8) Lrritability; and (4) Chemical 
Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 

§ Bot. Gazette, xii. (1887) pp. 207-16, 244-50. 

|| Arch. de Biol., vii. (1887) pp. 131-66 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 835 


master observer in this department. The flowers studied were Silene 
Armeria, Stellaria graminea, 8. uliginosa, Sagina procumbens var. apetala, 
Hibiscus syriacus, Viola, Potentilla Fragaria, Ribes nigrum, Lysimachia 
vulgaris, Ajuga reptans, and Teucrium Scorodonium. 

He notes, in regard to varieties of Lysimachia vulgaris, that in some 
direct fertilization is certain, in others all but impossible. He calis 
attention to the different forms of sexual arrangements observed in Stel- 
laria graminea. In Teucrium a peculiarity results in cross-fertilization, 
not only between different flowers, but between different inflorescences. 

The Caryophyllacee are disposed in two classes:—(1) Where self- 
fertilization is entirely or almost entirely impossible ; (2) where cross- 
fertilization is less perfectly insured, and where self-fertilization may, in 
case of need, occur. 


Flowering of Euryale ferox.*—It has been a matter of controversy 
whether this plant, belonging to the Nympheacex, opens its flowers 
above or below the surface of the water. From observations made in the 
botanic gardens at Rome, Prof. G. Arcangeli concludes that the flower 
is perfected under water, and is cleistogamous, self-fertilization taking 
place in a kind of chamber formed by the perianth, the stigmatic disc, 
which is curved into the form of a cup, and the stamens. 


(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Movements of Fluids). 


Growth and Origin of Multicellular Plants.;—Mr. G. Massee 
describes the structure and mode of formation of the gelatinous mem- 
brane exterior to the true cellulose-wall, and extending continuously over 
the whole plant, which isnot uncommon in Algze, and universal in the 
Florideze. It can be clearly shown that the formation of the cellulose- 
wall never precedes that of the mucilaginous sheath, and its function is 
rather a supporting than a protecting one. The composition of the 
mucilaginous sheath closely resembles, or is identical with, that of pro- 
toplasm. 'The sheath is usually homogeneous, even after the appearance 
of the cell-wall; but in Pandorina the innermost portion consists of 
parallel rods placed end to end on the cell-wall ; while in Cladophora 
crispata the rods run parallel to the surface of the wall. The portion 
consisting of rods stains readily with methyl-violet and other anilin 
dyes, while the homogeneous portion does not stain. 

In some cases, as in Polysiphonia, the surface of the sheath is more or 
less papillose, and not unfrequently a papilla may be seen to extend 
itself into an exceedingly fine cilium, varying in length from 5 to 100 p, 
and less than 1 » thick. These cilia are plastic and flexible, but have 
no spontaneous vibratile motion. They appear not to be unlike those 
described by the author as occurring on the surface of some of the large 
stipitate glands on the underground leaves of Lathraa squamaria.t 

The outermost layers of this mucilaginous sheath often become 
strongly cuticularized, while the inner portions do not change in their 
chemical reactions. Internally, as in the stipes of many Alga, it is 
secreted in such quantities as to force the cells apart, and destroy the 
connecting strands of protoplasm ; and within this mucilaginous matrix 
strings of new cells appear as outgrowths from older cells. 


* Atti Soc. Tose. Sci. Nat., viii. (1887) pp. 281-300. 
+ Journ. of Bot., xxv. (1887) pp. 257-67. { See this Journal, 1887, p. 111. 
a 2 


84 SUMMARY OF GURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The change from a unicellular to a multicellular condition appears to 
be due to the influence of this external sheath. In Alge the cellulose 
cell-wall is formed in the middle of this sheath. In unicellular Alga 
the tendency to form colonies is due to the copious secretion of mucilage, 
which is external to, and quite distinct from the sheath ; and the primary 
function of which appears to be to prevent desiccation. This, again, has 
its analogue in the higher plants in the copious secretion of mucilage 
from the stipules of Anomoclada among Hepatic, and from the mucilage- 
cells of Blechnum and Osmunda. Plants remain unicellular so long as 
the tendency of the protoplasm to resolve itself into a sphere, after cell- 
division, predominates over external forces; and the same occurs where 
cells are free from the pressure of the surrounding tissues, as in pollen- 
grains. 

The cap-like structure which covers the growing point in Oscillaria 
is simply the relatively thick undifferentiated portion of the sheath, which 
contracts as it becomes cuticularized. 

The ring-like structure at the distal end of the cells of Gidogonium 
is described in detail, and is regarded by the author as only a special 
form of apical growth, combined with an unusual rigidity of the investing 
sheath. 


Influence of Light on the Form and Structure of Leaves.*—A 
series of experiments on the influence of various degrees of illumination 
on the size and internal structure of leaves has led M. L. Dufour to the 
following conclusions :— 

The development of the plant increases in proportion to the degree 
of illumination. It increases in size, it branches more copiously ; its 
stem and branches exceed in diameter the corresponding parts of the same 
plant exposed to a less degree of illumination; its leaves attain the 
largest dimensions both in surface and in thickness; and the flowering 
is earlier and more abundant. 

The same law applies also to the internal structure of the leaf. The 
stomata are more abundant. The elements of the epidermis are more 
fully developed in the sun; the cells are larger, with thicker lateral 
and outer walls; the cuticle, in particular, is more strongly developed. 
The walls of the epidermal cells are more sinuous in the sun than in the 
shade. The palisade-parenchyma also displays a stronger development ; 
its cells are longer in the transverse direction than when the plant grows 
in the shade; they contain more chlorophyll and more starch. The 
same also is true of the conducting tissue; the vessels are more numerous 
and larger. The strengthening tissue presents the same characters as 
those displayed in the sclerenchymatous and collenchymatous elements. 
The secreting canals are larger, and contain larger quantities of eli- 
minated substances, and the same is true of the deposition of calcium 
oxalate. 

As a general law, M. Dufour comes to the conclusion that the state- 
ment of some previous observers that there is an optimum degree of 
illumination for the plant considerably below that derived from the 
direct rays of the sun, is incorrect ; and that, other things being equal, 
the plant, and every part of the plant, is more fully developed in pro- 
portion as it is exposed to a more intense illumination. 


5 Ann. Sci. Nat.—Bot., v. (1887) pp. 311-413 (6 pls.). Cf. this Journal, 1887, 
p. 824. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 85 


(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 


Exhalation of Oxygen by fleshy-leaved Plants in absence of 
Carbonic Anhydride.*—Herr A. Mayer, by former researches, has shown 
that under certain conditions oxygen is exhaled by the leaves of some 
plants in absence of carbonic anhydride. This is more especially the 
case with the Crassulacee ; and it was found that leaves of Bryophyllum 
calycinum, which contain malates, after a period of darkness (during 
night) have an acid reaction, but during the daytime this reaction 
becomes much less. The author’s experiments, made since 1883, show 
that “acid leaves,’ during insolation in an atmosphere free from 
carbonic anhydride, yield more oxygen the richer they are in free acid. 
The acid present is malic acid; and this acid and the calcium salt 
diminish during insolation, just as if the whole consisted of free acid, 
the products resulting from the change being starch, sugar, &c., and the 
amount of oxygen which should be separated by the produced carbo- 
hydrates agrees well with the quantity of oxygen found to be set free by 
insolation. 


Respiration of the Potato.j—Herr J. Boehm gives the results of a 
large number of experiments on the exhalation of carbonic acid by 
potatoes, whether ordinary or sweet, injured or uninjured. As in the 
case of seedlings of Phaseolus multiflorus, the intensity of the respiration is, 
in most cases, independent of the partial pressure of oxygen, though 
there are conditions under which this is not the case. Herr Boehm finds 
that when cut into pieces, potatoes respire much more energetically than 
when uninjured. The internal respiration is independent of external 
injury, and is much more intense with sweet than with ordinary potatoes ; 
but in both cases the internal respiration is greatly increased, with cut 
potatoes, when they are previously placed for a day in moist air at a 
temperature favourable for normal respiration. 


Action of Formose on Cells destitute of Starch—By experiments 
on Frazinus Ornus, Rubia tinctorum, Syringa vulgaris, and Cacalia 
suaveolens, Dr. C. Wehmer{ has determined that formose (C;H,,0,, 
obtained by the condensation of formic aldehyde) belongs to the class of 
carbohydrates which living leaves have not the power of converting into 
starch; agreeing in this respect with milk-sugar, raffinose, inosite, 
dextrin, erythrite, trioxymethylen, and some organic acids; and differing 
from dextrose, levulose, galactose, maltose, cane-sugar, mannite, dulcite, 
and glycerin. j 1 

Commenting on this paper, Herr O. Loew § disputes the accuracy of 
some of Dr. Wehmer’s results, and especially dissents from a conclusion 
drawn by that gentleman from the fact that he was unable to obtain 
starch from formose. This induces Wehmer to oppose the recent view 
that formic aldehyde is the first product of assimilation in plants, but, 
as Loew thinks, on insufficient grounds. 


y- General. 


Biology of Orobanche.||—Herr L. Koch describes in detail the life- 
history of several species of Orobanche. 'The seeds, which are produced 


* Landw. Versuchs-Stat., xxxiv. pp. 127-43. See Journ. Chem. Soc., 1887, 
Abstr., p. 988. + Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 671-5, 681-92. 

t Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 713-7. § Ibid., pp. 813-4, 

| Koch, L., ‘ Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Orobancheen,’ 389 pp. and 17 pls, 
Heidelberg, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxi, (1887) p. 361. 


86 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


in enormous numbers, 100,000 to 150,000 on an individual, can germi- 
nate only when in contact with the root of the host; they may retain 
their power of germination for two years. 'The embryo developes into a 
filiform structure; and the penetration is effected, as with parasitic 
fungi, by a secretion from the parasite which dissolves the tissues of 
the host. The young plant penetrates to the vascular bundle of the 
host, but does not appear to inflict any serious injury upon it. In the 
endogenous formation of the growing point Orobanche shows a resem- 
blance to Rafjlesia. The structure described by some writers as an 
“intermediate organ” between host and parasite, results simply from 
the common growth of the parasite and of the root of the host. From 
the true haustorium, the portion of the parasite which first penetrates the 
tissue of the host, secondary haustoria spring, which serve for its non- 
sexual reproduction. 

With regard to the plants from which the various species of Oro- 
banche derive their nourishment, this is not altogether indifferent; each 
species of parasite has only certain hosts on which it will grow, though 
these may be numerous and not necessarily nearly related to one 
another; thus O. ramosa is parasitic on the hemp and on tobacco. 
O. minor was found to grow on forty-four different species, O. ramosa 
on twenty-nine, O. speciosa on thirteen, and O. Hederz on three species 
of host-plant. 


Biology of the Mistletoe.*—Dr. M. Kronfeld describes at length 
the mode of life and germination of the mistletoe. He states that 
the popular idea that the seeds can germinate only after passing 
through the intestinal eanal of a bird, is correct only with considerable 
limitation. No doubt seeds are occasionally passed with the excreta, 
and are then in a favourable condition to germinate. But the 
majority of the seeds are rejected by birds when feeding on the white 
pulp of the fruit. The seeds can easily be made to germinate in 
the ordinary way, but require a long period of rest after ripening. The 
mistletoe is also propagated non-sexually by buds. Polyembryony 
occurs normally, a very large proportion of the seeds containing two or 
three embryos. 

The development of the plant varies greatly, according to the tree 
on which it is parasitic; and this has been the source of the manufacture 
of a large number of false species. It will grow on almost any tree 
except certain conifers. It is least luxuriant on other species of 
Conifers ; most so on Robinia Pseudacacia. 


Root-symbiosis in the Ericacee.j—Herr B. Frank finds this to be 
an almost universal phenomenon in the Ericacez. The roots afflicted in 
this way are distinguished by their extraordinary tenuity (0:07-0:05 or 
even 0:03 mm.), greater length, and sparsity of branching. They usually 
consist of nothing but a single slender fibrovascular bundle and epi- 
dermis, the root-hairs being altogether suppressed. The epidermis is 
well developed; the cell-cavities are large, and completely filled by an 
irregularly interwoven mass of fungus-hyphe. They are also enveloped 
in a weft of hyphez, which do not, however, form a closed envelope, but 
are connected in a variety of ways with the intercellular hyphe. The 


* Biol. Centralbl., vii. (1887) pp. 449-64 (8 figs.). 
+ SB. Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, Wiesbaden, Sept. 21, 1887. See 
Bot. Centralbl., xxxii. (1887) p. 57. Cf. this Journal, 1886, p. 113. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 87 


mycorhiza was found in all the localities examined, whether moory or 
heathy ; and on the following species :— Vaccinium uliginosum, Oxycoccus, 
Myrtillus, and Vitis-Idea, Andromeda polifolia, Ledum palustre, and 
Calluna vulgaris, as well as on cultivated specimens of Vaccinium macro- 
carpum, Azalea indica, and Rhododendron ponticum, and on Empetrum 
nigrum. 


Domatia.*—Dr. A. N. Lundstrém defines as “domatia” those 
formations or transformations on plants adapted to the habitation of 
guests, whether animal or vegetable, which are of service to the host, in 
contrast to cecidia, where such habitation is injurious to the plant. He 
describes these domatia in detail on the lime, alder, hazel, and other 
trees and shrubs, and gives a very long list of species, belonging to a 
great variety of natural orders, on which they are found. 

The principal types of shelter are as follows :—(1) Hair-tufts, e. g. 
in Tilia europea; (2) recurvatures or foldings in various parts, e. g. in 
“Quercus robur, Ilex, Schinus, Ceanothus africanus; (3) grooves without 
hairs, as in Coffea arabica, Coprosma baueriana ; with marginal hairs, 
e.g. in Psychotria daphnoides, Rudgea lanceolata, Faramea, Rhamnus 
glandulosa, Coprosma Billiardieri ; with basal hairs, as in Anacardium 
occidentale ; (4) pockets, as in Elxocarpus oblongus, E. dentatus, Psy- 
chotria, Lonicera alpigena ; (5) pouches, e. g. Eugenia australis. These 
different types of domatia are connected by transition forms. The habit 
of producing domatia in a species may become hereditary without the 
actual presence of the predisposing cause. Certain orders, e. g. Rubiacex 
(famous also for ant-domatia), show a marked predisposition to acaro- 
domatia, Many groups seem entirely without them, e. g. Monocotyledons 
and Gymnosperms, and all herbs. They are most abundant and_ best 
developed in tropical (and temperate) zones. 

In the second chapter the author discusses in detail the various 
interpretations which may be put upon domatia. (1) They may be 
pathological, like galls; (2) they may be for catching insects; (3) they 
may have only an indirect connection with their tenants; (4) they may 
be of use to the plant as the dwellings of commensals. He adopts the 
last interpretation. He draws an interesting parallel, however, between 
galls and domatia, and is inclined to suppose that the domatia were first 
directly caused by the insects, but have gradually become inherent 
transmitted characteristics. The author gives a clear table, distinguish- 
ing the cecidia or galls due to “antagonistic symbiosis,” either plant or 
animal (phyto- and zoo-cecidia), and domatia due to “ mutual symbiosis,” 
either plant or animal (phyto- and zoo-domatia). Those due to plants 
are again subdivided into myco- and phyco-cecidia or -domatia. 


Myrmecophilous Plants.|—Herr A. N. Lundstrém observes that 
several species of Melampyrum are provided with dot-like nectariferous 
trichomes on their leaves and bracts. These attract large numbers 
of ants, which he believes are of service to the plant in the following 
way. ‘The seeds of these species bear an extraordinary resemblance to 
the larve of ants, even to the excrement-sac; and being mistaken for 
larve by the ants, are carried by them to their nests, where they 
germinate. 

Herr Lundstrém names also a number of myrmecophilous plants 


* Nov. Act. R. Soc. Scient. Upsala, xiii. (1887) pp. 1-72 (4 pls). See this 
Journal, 1887, p. 273. + Noy. Act. R. Soc. Scient. Upsala, xiii, (1887) pp. 77-88. 


88 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


belonging to the Scandinavian flora, and describes the contrivance, not 
hitherto noticed, in the aspen. 


Humboldtia laurifolia as a Myrmecophilous Plant.*—Prof. F. O. 
Bower's description of this plant, a native of Ceylon, is now published 
in full. He ascribes the formation of the hollow channels in the stem 
and branches which the ants inhabit in the first place to rupture from 
tension; and believes that the ants only then fortuitously take posses- 
sion of them. He sees no evidence that the presence of the ants is of 
any advantage to the plant. A somewhat similar structure occurs in 
Clerodendron fistulosum n. sp. and Myristica myrmecophila n. sp., and in 
Nepenthes bicalcarata from North Borneo. 


Oxidation-process in Plants after death.—Herr J. Reinke + brings 
forward experimental evidence, furnished by Herr G. Brenstein, that 
after parts of plants have been completely killed by exposure for a 
considerable time to an atmosphere saturated with vapour of ether, the 
processes of oxidation and formation of carbonic acid still go on in 
them ; and that this is dependent on temperature even more in the dead 
than in the living plant. 

Herr W. Johannsen { objects to the validity of these experiments, 
that they were made to extend over too long a period. These processes 
cease on the death of the plant or part of the plant, but recommence 
after a time under the influence of bacteria. True intramolecular respira- 
tion will go on in an atmosphere destitute of oxygen, from the presence 
of a fermentative substance, while “ post-mortal” oxidation ceases at 
once in such an atmosphere. 


Retrogression in Oaks.s—Herr F. Kragan has followed up his 
previous “phyto-phylogenetic” studies by a study on the frequent 
occurrence of abnormal leaves on eaks. The species studied was Quercus 
sessiliflora Sm. His conclusions are as follows :—(1) The phenomena are 
in origin pathological; (2) the pathological state induces certain modes 
of growth dormant in normal states; (3) but those structures which 
develope symmetrically on affected branches and twigs, and unfold them- 
selves uniformly, can no longer be called pathological. It seems very 
probable (a) that the modes of growth evoked by the pathological state 
are retrogressive. In previous generations the plant had followed 
similar paths; and indeed, in geological periods with warmer tempe- 
rature, when the impulse which now evokes these “abnormal” leaves 
in summer, was constant. (b) Q. aquatica Walt., in N. America, is 
approximately in the state of the present Q. sessiliflora in the Miocene 
age, when it was still Q. tephrodes Ung. (c) By the study of such 
abnormal conditions much may be learned of phylogeny and relationship. 


Phenomenon analogous to Leaf-fall.|—Mr. F. W. Oliver points out 
that in Rubus australis, a plant in which the lamina is suppressed, the 
leaves being reduced to simple mid-ribs of the leaflets, a layer of phellogen 
is formed in the stem in the later part of the summer, out of the inner- 
most of the cortical layers, all of which are assimilative. By this means 
the rest of the assimilating cortex is cut off from the other tissues, and 


* Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, xviii. (1887) pp. 320-6 (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, 
1887, p. 785. + Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. 216-20. 

{ Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 762-3. 

§ SB. K. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xev. (1887) pp. 31-42. 

|| Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 71-2. 


+ 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 89 


is cast off in scales during the second year. Fresh assimilating cortex is 
formed in the shoots of the current year. A somewhat similar process 
takes place in Casuarina. 


“Curl” of Peach-leaves.*—Miss Etta L. Knowles sums up briefly 
the action of Hxoascus deformans on peach-leaves in the following 
manner :— 

(1) A marked increase in width and thickness, accompanied by 
great distortion. 

(2) Great multiplication of cells, particularly of the palisade-cells 
and immediately adjacent parenchyma, by cell-division. 

(3) Thickening of the cell-walls and disappearauce of the inter- 
cellular spaces. 

(4) Diminution of cell-contents, which often are almost or wholly 
wanting. 


Plant Analysis as an Applied Science.j—In a useful lecture on this 
subject, Miss H. C. de 8. Abbott gives a résumé of the more important 
chemical tests used in discriminating the various substances found in 
vegetable tissues, and of the practical value of the results thus obtained. 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 


Arthur’s Report on Minnesota.t—The following is an enumeration 
of the number of species and varieties in each of the families of Crypto- 
gams mentioned in Arthur’s Report of Minnesota for 1886 :—Pterido- 
phyta 26. Bryophyta 42. Carpophyta 242. Oophyta 11. Zygo- 
phyta 45. Protophyta 28. 

The following new species are mentioned :—Among the Carpophyta, 
Puccinia halenie, P. ornata, Anthostoma flavo-viride, Nectria perforata, 
Ramularia variegata, Zygodesmus sublilacinus, Ciboria tabacina, Peziza 
(Dasys) borealis, and P. (Humaria) olivatra ; and among the Protophyta, 
Synchytrium Asari. 


Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


Germination of Ferns.s—Herr K. Goebel describes the germination 
of the spores of several little-known ferns. In Vittaria the first product 
is a filament which very soon divides into a plate of cells. Club-shaped 
bulbils are produced in large numbers on the prothallium, consisting 
of from six to nine cells, and placed upon peculiar semicylindrical 
sterigmata. Antheridia may be produced on the bulbils. 

The germination of the spores of Trichomanes was observed in 
T. maximum and diffusum. The prothallium is here filamentous; arche- 
gonia being produced at the ends, and antheridia at the middle of the 
filaments. Bulbils were also observed consisting of a single cell placed 
ona conical sterigma. Hymenophyllum has also a filamentous prothallium 
which produces gemmz borne on less distinct sterigmata; and the 
archegonia and antheridia are also described. 

Herr Goebel points out the parallelism between the development of 


* Bot. Gazette, xii. (1887) pp. 216-8. 

¢ Journ. Franklin Inst., exxiy. (1887) pp. 1-33. 

$ Arthur, J. C., ‘Report of Botanical Work in Minnesota for the year 1886,’ 
56 pp., St. Paul, 1887. 

§ Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, vii. (1887) pp. 74-119 (4 pls.). See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxxii. (1887) p. 170. 


90 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the Hymenophyllaceze and that of Mosses. He regards the primitive 
form of both to be a filiform protonema bearing directly sexual organs 
of both kinds; the original function of the leaves being simply to serve 
as a protecting envelope. The Hymenophyllacee would therefore be 
the archaic type of Ferns. 

Dehiscence of the Sporangium of Ferns.*— Miss F. M. Lyon 
describes the dehiscence of the sporangium of Adiantum pedatum as 
always taking place along a definite line across the side of the sporangium. 
This line is always determined by the presence of two narrow and 
elongated cells with lignified walls opposite the annulus and about mid- 
way between its end and the stalk, between which the fissure commences. 
These “ lip-cells,” the occurrence of which appears hitherto to have been 
overlooked, were observed also in a number of other species. The 
authoress suggests that their presence may have an important bearing 
on the causes which produce the dehiscence. 


Heterophyllous Ferns.;—Herr K. Goebel points out that the usual 
statement that in the heterophyllous species of Polypodium (P. Willde- 
nowii, rigidulum, and quercifolium), one form of frond is sterile and the 
other fertile, is incorrect ; both forms being fertile. The so-called fertile 
fronds are pinnatifid, long-stalked, and deep-green, and very soon die 
down to the rachis; the “sterile” fronds, on the other hand, are sessile, 
cordate, and convex below, so as to form an open “niche” above; they 
very soon lose their green colour, and wither away with the exception of 
a framework formed of the veins. The purpose of these leaves appears 
to be the collection of humus into which the roots of the fern penetrate, 
thus enabling them to obtain nutriment where otherwise it would be 
impossible. In Polypodium Heracleum, both functions, assimilation and 
the accumulation of humus, are performed by the same fronds, all having 
the same form with strongly dorsiventral structure; the base of the leaf 
forms the “niche,” the ribs of the frond the framework for the collection 
of humus. Leaves of the same kind occur in some epiphytic orchids, as 
Bolbophyllum Beccarii. 

The same explanation is offered of the heterophylly of the “ elk’s- 
horn fern,” Platycerium grande and alcicorne. The branched fronds 
serve for the purpose of assimilation, while the intermediate, sessile, 
unbranched, reniform fronds serve both to retain moisture, and to 
accumulate humus. At the base of these leaves is a strongly developed 
aquiferous tissue. Many epiphytic ferns, such as Drymoglossum, have 
similar receptacles for water. In Polypodium sinuosum and patelliferam, 
the hollow stem serves as an abode for ants; and the same is the case 
with the hollow pseudobulbs of some orchids. Organs of secretion occur 
in both kinds of fronds of P. quercifolium. 


Characeee. 


New Species of Characee.{—Dr. T. F. Allen describes and figures 
the following new species :—Nitella Muthnate from Muthnata Island in 
the Feejee group; Tolypella Macounti from Niagara river, and Nitelia 
Morongii from Nantucket. The Tolypella is especially noteworthy from 


* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xiv. (1887) pp. 180-3 (4 figs.). 

+ Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, vii. (1887) pp. 1-21 (1 pl.). See Bot. Centralbl., 
Xxxli. (1887) p. 165. 

{ Bull. Torrey Bot, Club, xiv. (1887) pp. 211-5 (5 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 9] 


the fact that the terminal joints of the fruiting rays are one-celled. No 
other species has such simple terminals; no species has so little fruit 
and such imperfectly formed “nests.” It is Nitella-like in its habit of 
growth, and slightly incrusted. 


Muscinee. 


Transpiration of the Sporophore of Mosses.*—Mr. J. R. Vaizey 
has confirmed by actual experiment his theory, previously enunciated on 
anatomical grounds, that the thin-walled strand of tissue in the sporo- 
gonium of mosses, to which he apples the term leptoxylon, is that which 
conducts the transpiration current up the seta to the apophysis, the organ 
of absorption and of assimilation and transpiration. The method adopted 
was to place the cut ends of the sporogonium in a drop of eosin, which 
was found to pass up the whole of the seta and enter the apophysis. 
The species experimented on were Polytrichum formosum and Splachnum 
sphezricum. 


Vegetative reproduction of a Moss.t—Herr H. Schulze describes 
a peculiar mode of vegetative reproduction in a variety of Hypnum 
(Harpidium) aduncum ; in the production of terminal buds at the ends 
of the stem and branches. They were usually surrounded by a few 
filiform paraphyses, and resembled in structure Schimper’s bulbils or 
gemmules. ; 


Sporogonium of Andreza and Sphagnum.{—Herr M. Waldner 
gives a complete account of the development of these two genera of 
mosses from the embryo to the mature sporogonium. 


New Sphagna.§—Dr. ©. Miller proposes the classification of the 
species of Sphagnum, which he reckons at about 120, under the following 
seven sub-genera, viz.:—(1) Platysphagnum (S. cymbifolia). Folia 
squamato-imbricata majuscula, apice rotundato-obtusata, apice plus minus 
eucullata. (2) Comatosphagnum (S. subsecunda). Folia dense conferta, 
ramulos plus minus julaceos sistentia, apice truncata exesa. (3) Aci- 
sphagnum (S. cuspidata). Folia plus minus squamoso-imbricata, laxe 
disposita, plus minus elongata, apice truncata exesa. (4) Malaco- 
sphagnum (S. rigida). Folia imbricata rigido-patula, apice truncata 
exesa. (5) Pycnosphagnum (8. acutifolia). Folia imbricata parva, 
ramulos tenuissimos sistentia, apice truncata exesa. (6) Acrosphagnum 
(S. mucronata). Folia imbricata ovato-mucronata pseudo-mucronata, 
apice vix bifida. (7) Acoccosphagnum (S. sericea). Folia parva imbricata 
sericea mucronata, fibris annularibus carentia. 

Of these subdivisions (6) belongs entirely to South Africa and 
Madagascar; (7) to the Sunda Isles. Dr. Miiller then describes as 
many as thirty new species of Sphagnum, nearly all from the southern 
hemisphere. 


Rabenhorst’s ‘Cryptogamic Flora of Germany’ (Musci).—The last 
two parts of this work (7 and 8), by Herr K. G. Limpricht, are still 
occupied by the Acrocarpe. The genus Campylopus is completed, and 


* Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 73-4. See this Journal, 1887, p. 122. 

+ Bot. Centralbl., xxxi. (1887) pp. 382-4. 

t~ Waldner, M., ‘ Die Entwick. d. Sporogone v. Andrea u. Sphagnum,’ 25 pp. 
and 4 pls., Leipzig, 1887. See Bot. Ztg., xly. (1887) p. 725. 

§ Flora, 1xx. (1887) pp. 403-22. 


92 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


is followed by Dicranodontium, Metzleria, and Trematodon. The family 
Leucobryacere comprises the single species Leucobryum glaucum. The 
Fissidentacese comprise Fissidens with eighteen species, and the monotypic 
Pachyfissidens and Octodiceras; the Seligeriacee, Seligeria with five 
species, and Blindia, Trochobryum, and Stylostegium, with one each ; and 
the Campylosteliacezxe two species only, viz. one each of Brachydontium 
and Campylostelium. Then follow the Ditrichacez, including the genera 
Ceratodon, Trichodon, Ditrichum, and Distichium. 

Epiphytic Jungermanniex.*—Herr K. Goebel describes the con- 
trivances for storing up water in the epiphytic Jungermanniex of Java, 
which are numerous, growing especially on the leaves of ferns and 
flowering plants along with alge. 

The receptacles for water connected with the auricles are of three 
kinds :—(1) The two lobes of the same leaf are closely approximate, 
and form an organ the shape of a pouch or pitcher, as in Radula, 
Phragmicoma, and Lejeunia. In some species of Radula it is but feebly 
developed, most completely in Lejeunia. (2) The lower lobe of the leaf 
is concave on its morphologically upper side, and forms by itself the 
receptacle, as in Frullania and Polyotus. These receptacles are not 
formed if the supply of water is abundant, clearly showing their purpose. 
(8) The water-receptacle is formed out of a leaf and the lamella which 
springs from it, as in Gottschea and Physiotium. The chamber thus 
formed is often large and tubular, as in P. giganteum. They often 
form domiciles for insects; but there is no ground for regarding these 
Hepatice as insectivorous. The so-called “ tubular organs” of species 
of Physiotium are also receptacles for water. 

The epiphytic Jungermanniee are sometimes provided with special 
organs of attachment. Disc-like gemme were also found on species of 
Radula, Lejeunia, and other genera. Those of L. Goebeli spring from a 
single cell of the leaf. The circular gemme of Radula stand on a uni- 
cellular pedicel. 

Metzgeriopsis pusilla, epiphytic on the leaves of Ophioglossum pendulum, 
forms an interesting link between the thallose and foliose Hepatice. It 
consists of a small thallus branching monopodially, and composed of 
only a single layer of cells. It is propagated non-sexually by gemmez 
resembling those of Lejeunia, as well as by sexual organs, each female 
fertile shoot bearing only a single archegonium. There are no amphi- 
gastria. 

Production of Gemme by Fegatella.j— Herr G. Karsten describes 
the formation of gemmz on Fegatella conica, they not having been pre- 
viously observed in this genus of Hepatic. ‘They were obtained both 
in natural growth and on cultures in pots, under suitable conditions of 
moisture and temperature. The gemme originate from the midrib of 
the thallus, and either from the lowest layer of cells or the lowest but 
one when the lowest itself has died away. The cells rapidly become 
filled with starch and chlorophyll, and the gemma acquires a round form 
and dark-green colour. A great number of rhizoids are produced from 
its superficial cells. With or without a period of rest, the gemma 
developes into a new individual, the first cell-divisions being in the 


* Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, vii. (1887) pp. 21-66 (8 pls.). See Bot. Centralbl., 
xxxii. (1887) p. 167. 
t Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 649-55 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 93 


merismatic portions of the growing point at right angles to the longer 
axis of the gemma. 

Attempts to produce similar gemme in Preissia commutata and 
Reboulia hemispheerica were without result. 


Algee. 


Plasmolysis of Algze.*—Dr. J. M. Janse records the interesting fact 
that the protoplasm of the living vegetable cell is permeable to dilute 
solutions of mineral salts (potassium nitrate and sodium chloride) and 
of cane-sugar. The experiments were made both on a salt-water alga, 
Chetomorpha xrea, with which also Lomentaria, Ulva, and Dictyota agree 
in this respect, and on a fresh-water alga, Spirogyra nitida. In all these 
instances the plasmolysis, which had at first set up with the solutions 
named, completely disappeared after two hours. After four days the 
filaments had regained their previous turgidity ; the terminal cells being 
swollen to double their original size by the bulging of the transverse 
cell-walls, without any cell-division taking place. 


Choristocarpus tenellus.t—Herr F'. Hauck describes this very rare 
alga, gathered on Dasya elegans, on the island of St. Catherine, off the 
coast of Istria. The so-called sporangia with transverse septation he 
has determined to be gemme corresponding to those of Sphacelaria. One 
kind only of zoosporangium was found, the multilocular, on separate 
individuals. 


New Fresh-water Floridea.;j—Herr M. Mobius describes a hitherto 
undescribed fresh-water alga found growing on the leaves of Aneura 
pinnatifida. It consists of dichotomously branched filaments of a red, 
violet, or greenish colour, springing from cushion-like masses. Although 
presenting analogies to Chantransia, its systematic position cannot at 
present be ascertained. Cystocarp-like structures were observed, but 
their exact nature could not be determined. 


Lemanea.§—Herr F. Ketel corrects one or two points in Sirodot’s 
description of the anatomical structure of this genus of alge. The 
thallus grows by means of an apical cell, from which segments are cut 
off by walls placed at right angles to its direction of growth. Within 
each segment two walls, curved in the form of a watchglass, which lie 
in the direction of the growth in length, first of all separate two opposite 
lenticular cells. By two further transverse septa a ‘“ central cell” is 
formed, surrounded by peripheral cells. The central cell becomes a 
member of the central axis, the four peripheral cells develope into the 
“supporting cells” (“ramification cruciforme”); the hollow cylinder 
resulting from their further divisions. The thallus may therefore be 
regarded as composed of a central axis with whorls of four branches 
which coalesce into the cylinder; while in Batrachospermum we have 
free verticillate branching, and only the accessory lateral branches form 
a cortical layer applied to the central axis. ‘he ooblastema-filaments 
proceed directly from the impregnated oosphere ; Sirodot does not clearly 


* Bot. Centralbl., xxxii. (1887) pp. 21-6. 

+ Hedwigia, xxvi. (1887) pp. 122-4 (1 pl.). 

t{ Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, Wiesbaden, Sept. 21, 1887. Ber. 
Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. lvi—lxiv. (1 pl.). 

§ Ketel, F.. ‘Anatom. Unters. iib. d. Gattung Lemanea,’ Greifswald, 1887. See 
Bot. Ztg , xlv. (1887) p. 779. 


94 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


distinguish between these fertile branches and the branches which occur 
in large numbers on the carpogonium-branch before impregnation, and 
which resemble paraphyses. 


Microspora.*—M. E. De Wildeman contends that this genus, formed 
by Thuret, should be again sunk in Conferva. The character on which 
the author relied for establishing the genus, the peculiar way in which 
the cell-wall behaves previous to the emission of zoospores, resembling 
the process called by Gay “encysting,”’ t is not a good generic character, 
but is rather a peculiar condition which occurs in a number of different 
genera of alge. 


Some points in Diatom-structure.{—From observations made with 
a 1/12 in. oil-immersion lens, Mr. 'T. F. Smith has come to different 
conclusions in some respects from those of Messrs. Nelson and Karop,§ 
as to the structure of the valve of Coscinodiscus asteromphalos. He objects 
to the term “ double structure,” if it implies that the two areolations are 
nearly on the same plane. As a matter of fact, each single dise of this 
diatom has three thicknesses of structure, each differing from the other. 
There is first the outer membrane, next a layer of hexagonal cells, and 
then an inner plate of so-called eye-spots. In C. centralis, what 
Nelson and Karop have figured as fine perforations are, according 
to Mr. Smith, little bosses standing out from the outer membrane. A 
similar structure is attributed by the author to Aulacodiscus Kittonii and 
Triceratium favus. He does not commit himself to an opinion whether 
the eye-spots have, in all cases, a closing membrane, but he thinks it 
clear that they have in some. 

In a later paper,|| Mr. Smith admits that the diatom described by 
him as Coscinodiscus centralis is not the same species as that referred to 
under this name by Nelson and Karop. 


Deep-sea Diatoms.f—Abbé Count F. Castracane adduces new evi- 
dence of the depth of the ocean at which diatoms can live, from an 
examination of the contents of the stomach of Echini and Holothuriz, 
dredged up from a depth of 2511 to 5274 metres. These contain the 
remains of diatoms belonging to the genera Synedra, Rhizosolenia, &c., 
in such a condition that the author contends they could only have been 
consumed in the living state. 


Fossil Marine Diatoms from New Zealand. **—Messrs. E. Grove 
and G. Sturt publish the results of their examination of a fossil marine 
diatomaceous deposit from Oamaru, Otago, New Zealand. A very large 
number of new species are described. 


Wolle’s ‘Fresh-water Alge of the United States.’ +{—This work is 
supplementary to the Rev. F. Wolle’s well-known ‘ Desmidiex of the 
United States, and comprises all the remaining families of fresh-water 
alge, except the diatoms. It includes also nine new plates of desmids. 
The Algex treated are arranged under three classes: Rhodophycee, 


* CR. Soc. R. Bot. Belgique, 1887, pp. 92-6. + See this Journal, 1887, p. 277. 

+ Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, iii. (1887) pp. 125-30. 

§ See this Journal, 1886, p. 661. || Tom. cit., pp. 163-6 (1 pl.). 

@ Atti Accad. Pontif. Nuovi Lincei, xxxviii. (1886) pp. 46-7. Cf. this Journal, 
1885, p. 498. ** Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, iii. (1887) pp. 131-48 (5 pls.). 

++ Wolle, Rev. F., ‘ Fresh-water Alge of the United States, exclusive of Dia- 
tomacee,’ 2 yols., 364 pp., and 151 pls., Bethlehem, Pa., 1887. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 95 


Chlorophyces, and Cyanophycex ; the first and third including each only 
one order, viz. Floridee and Schizosporez, while the Chlorophycez are 
again divided into four orders, Confervoide, Siphone, Protococcoider, 
and Zygospores. The author adopts Hansgirg’s view with regard to 
the polymorphism of algz, and regards all our present systems of classi- 
fication as only temporary. 


Lichenes. 


Gleeolichenes.*—Herr K. B. J. Forssell’s monograph of this new 
family of lichens is now published in detail. He defines the class as 
Ascolichenes with gonidia belonging to the Chroococcacer. The 
symbiosis between the two constituents of the lichen may be indifferent, 
antagonistic, or mutual. The algal constituent belongs to the genera 
Chroococcus, Gleocapsa, and Xanthocapsa, possibly also to Aphanocapsa, 
Gleothece, and Microcystis. The only kind of spore produced by the 
fungal element is endogenous (ascospores); stylospores have not been 
observed. The apothecia are either closed or open. The following 
twelve genera are described in detail, with their species :— Cryptothele, 
Pyrenopsis, Synalissa, Phylliscidium, Pyrenopsidium, Phylliscum, Col- 
lemopsidium, Enchylium, Psorotichia, Peccania, Anema, and Omphalaria. 

Gasterolichenes.t—Mr. G. Massee describes under this name a new 
section of lichens formed by the commensalism of a fungus belonging to 
the order Trichogastres of Gasterolichenes, with a unicellular alga. 

The first example is the fungus known as Hmericella variecolor Berk., 
in which the algal constituent is Palmella botryoides. The cells of this 
alga he describes as subglobose or broadly elliptical, varying from 
20 to 39 » in longest diameter, and furnished with a very thick lamel- 
lose hyaline cell-wall. From the chlorophyllous portion of the cell a 
green unseptated filament passes through the cell-wall, and is joined at 
some distance to a similar filament from another cell, the two forming a 
common stem, on which several pairs of cells are supported on similar 
lateral bifurecating filaments. These pairs of cells originate from the 
fission of a single cell. The alga occupies interspaces in the loose peri- 
pheral portion of the base of the fungus, and also passes up into the loose 
texture of the peridium. ‘The tips of lateral branches of hyphe are 
frequently seen closely investing and even penetrating the algal cells. 

A second type of Gasterolichenes is furnished by the fungus described 
as Trichocoma paradoxa Jungh. Here the algal constituent belongs to 
the genus Botryococcus, and forms a stratum at the base of the capillitium. 
The colonies are generally invested with the hyphe of the fungus. To 
these Mr. Massee now adds a third hitherto undescribed species, 
T., leevispora. 

Action of Lichens on Rocks.{—Dr. J. Miiller makes an interesting 
note on the weathering action of lichens upon rocks. Little excavations 
containing the fructifications of lichens are often found on the surface 
of rocks, especially limestones. Several species of Polyblastia have the 
fructifications deeply buried, and it has been supposed that the lichen 
gradually ate its way in by the aid of acid secretion. If this were true, 


* Nov. Act. R. Soc. Scient. Upsala, xiii. (1887) pp. 1-118. See this Journal, 1886, 
p- 485. ¢ Phil. Trans., clxxviii. (1887) pp. 305-9 (1 pl.). 

+ Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xviii. (1887) pp. 490-1. Bull. Soc, Murithienne du 
Valais, 1887. 


96 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the comparatively large apothecia sometimes found beneath the surface 
ought to be connected with the exterior by some chimney-like tube. 
This is not the case. They appear to grow from the inside outwards, not 
from the outside inwards. The fact is that a large number of excessively 
fine gonidia-bearing hyphe insinuate themselves in the rock, and ramify 
under the outer pellicle of rock as the roots of grass in a meadow. The 
system can be demonstrated by dissolving away the rock in hydrochloric 
acid, which leaves the spreading hyphe and their gonidia intact. This 
internal thallus is of great importance as a silent factor in dynamical 
geology, aiding very powerfully the weathering of rock surface. 


Lichens on unusual substrata.*— Herren Hegetschweiler and 
Stizenberger give a list of fifteen species of Lichen gathered on serpen- 
tine, nine on the stem of the grape-vine (besides two mosses Orthotrichum 
affine and Amblystigium riparium), and eighteen on the deciduous bark of 
young plane trees. 


Fungi. 


Accumulation and Consumption of Glycogen by Fungi.t—Dr. L. 
Errera adduces further evidence of the fact that glycogen plays the 
same part in fungi that starch does in other plants. In young Ascomy- 
cetes (Peziza vesiculosa) the glycogen is distributed through the whole 
tissue, the hyphe and pseudoparenchyma being completely filled by it. 
As soon as the hymenium is developed the glycogen pours into it, and 
later is found at work entirely in the asci. When the fructification is 
ripe, the glycogen has again completely disappeared, reserve-substances, 
especially of an oily nature, being stored up in the ascospores. The 
same phenomenon of the disappearance of the glycogen takes place 
during the very rapid growth of the stalk of Phallus impudicus. 

The glycogen of fungi is not formed, like the starch of other plants, 
from the free carbon dioxide of the atmosphere, but out of previously 
existing organic carbon compounds, especially the products of decomposi- 
tion of other food materials. 


Function of Cystids.t—Dr. R. v. Wettstein has investigated the 
structure and function of those organs of Hymenomycetes known as 
cystids. Various functions, such as those of artheridia, have been ascribed 
to them. Brefeld showed that they develope (in Ooprinus stercorarius ) 
from rudimentary basidia, and have an external protective function in the 
development of spores. They are props to keep the lamelle apart. 

Wettstein has been led to corroborate and extend Brefeld’s conclu- 
sions. The cystids are homologous with basidia. Their systematic 
importance has been exaggerated. They are always closed. ‘There are 
two kinds: (a) with free, (b) with fixed extremities. The latter may be 
fixed to another cystid, or may have penetrated into the tissue of adjacent 
lamelle, or may have united with the palisades of other lamellx. As to 
function : (1) they force the lamelle apart, making room for spore-develop- 
ment; (2) they prevent the delicate membranous moist lamelle from 
adhering together; (8) they may also bind lamelle together. They 
seem definable as very passive overgrown non-reproductive basidia. 


* Flora, Ixx. (1887) pp. 430-1. 

+ Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, Wiesbaden, Sept. 21, 1887. Ber. 
Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. Ixxiv.-viii. Cf. this Journal, 1886, p. 833. 

t+ SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xcvy. (1887) pp. 10-21 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 97 


Rhizomorpha subcorticalis of Armillaria mellea.*—M. J. de Seynes 
states that, in the initial stage of its development, the Rhizomorpha sub- 
corticalis appears as a white fibrous membrane more or less flabelliform, 
and agrees with Leveille’s definition of the hymenoid mycelium of 
Armillaria mellea. The author further states that he has observed in 
certain cases a tendency of the extremity of the rhizomorph to divide 
into lobes, and these are easily detached from the wood on which the 
fungus is growing. 

In conclusion, the subject of these observations is described as a 
mixed organ representing not only a condensed membranous mycelium, 
but sterile, deformed, and flattened receptacles. A few lines are also 
added on its mode of phosphorescence, which is stated to be exclusively 
nocturnal. 


Uredinex.}—Herr P. Dietel enters into several points of comparative 
anatomy in the Uredinee. One of the more important features of varia- 
dion within the family is in the teleutospores, while very little variety is 
exhibited by the uredospores or xcidiospores. The ecidia of Gymno- 
sporangium differ from those of the other genera in not being saucer- or 
cup-shaped, but comparatively long flask-shaped structures. 

The greatest point of variability in the teleutospores is their size, 
and the number of cells of which they are composed, this varying even 
within the same genus. In addition to the normal bicellular teleutospores, 
unicellular spores often occur, which have been termed “ mesospores,” 
from an idea that they are intermediate structures between teleutospores 
and uredospores. Tulasne, on the other hand, regards them as having 
arisen by the abortion of the lower cell of the teleutospore, thus exhibiting 
the affinity of Puccinia with Uromyces, the latter being degraded repre- 
sentatives of the former. Herr Dietel, while agreeing with this view 
on the whole, thinks it more probable that Puccinia has sprung from 
Uromyces by progressive development. 

The teleutospores also vary greatly in their form; and this is some- 
times the case even in the same species, especially where it occurs on 
several different hosts. The occurrence, in certain species of Puccinia, 
of teleutospores consisting of three or more cells has been thought to 
indicate a transition to the genera Phragmidium and Triphragmium ; 
but the author considers that this is rendered improbable by the very 
different phenomena of germination exhibited by the spores of these two 
genera. In Puccinia germination takes place by a single pore at the 
upper end of each cell; in Phragmidium by several pores in the equa- 
torial zone of each cell. The nature of the surface of the outer mem- 
brane of the teleutospore is also variable, especially in Uromyces and 
Puccinia ; the two constituent spores may differ from one another in this 
respect, or may be alike. Great difference is also exhibited in the colour 
of the spores. 

The Uredinee are generally regarded as most nearly allied to the 
Ascomycetes; but the homology of the different kinds of spore is 
attended with difficulties. Schréter regarded the teleutospores as homo- 
logous to the asci. The frequent appearance of spermogonia without 
ecidia before the uredo-generation can only be explained by the abortion 


* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxiv. (1887) pp. 286-7. 
+ Bot. Centralbl., xxxii. (1887) pp. 54-6, 84-91, 118-21, 152-6, 182-6, 217-20, 
246-50 (1 pl.). 
1888. H 


98 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of a previously existing mcidio-generation; and from this it would 
appear to follow that the scidio-form, and not the teleuto-form, is the 
original one. The author thinks it must be assumed that originally one 
and the same mycelium had the power of producing both teleutospores 
and ecidiospores; and that the distinction of the two generations ori- 
ginated in the alternations of climate; and the occurrence or absence 
in any species of the uredo-generation depends, in the same way, on its 
adaptation to the climatal conditions in which it is found. The most 
essential difference between the Uredinew and the Ascomycetes lies in 
the capacity of the former to produce sporidia, which do not fail in any 
known species, and must therefore be regarded as the most essential 
member in the cycle of development. 

All three generations may occur on the same host in the course of a 
year, or they may be confined to different hosts. In the hetercecious 
species the particular host on which the teleuto-form or eecidio-form 
will develope depends in no way on its systematic position, but on the 
facilities presented for the spread of the spores. Autcecious Uredinee 
can hibernate in the uredo-form. In all probability it is the teleuto- 
spore-generation that has migrated from its original host to a different 
one. 

Grape-disease—Comothyrium diplodiella.*—M. E. Prillieux has 
come definitely to the conclusion that Comothyrium diplodiella is a true 
parasite, and not merely saprophytic. Professor Pirotta, of Rome, allowed 
ripe spores to germinate in spring-water, and infected perfectly healthy 
grapes with them. The disease showed itself in four to six days. M. 
Fréchon corroborated this, and M. Prillieux has also satisfied himself 
by experimental inoculation that the fungus is truly parasitic. 


New Disease of Lemons.}—Sig. G. Gasperini describes a new disease 
exceedingly destructive to the lemon-crop in Italy, spreading with very 
great rapidity, and entirely destroying the fruit, which it causes to fall, 
and to which it gives a nauseous smell. He finds it to be caused by the 
mycelium of several Hyphomycetous fun gi, of which the following species 
are described as new, and their diagnoses given, viz.:—Aspergillus 
violaceo-fuscus, A. elegans, and A. variabilis. On the surface of the 
lemons was also found a species of Saccharomyces, which he calls S. Citri, 
consisting of oval, elliptical, or cylindrical cells 8-6°5 p long by 1-2 p 
broad, united into colonies which branch in a variety of ways. They 
contained from one to three very minute spores, and were readily culti- 
vated on dilute sterilized lemon-juice. 


New Pythium.t—Herr W. Wabrlich proposes the name Pythiwm 
fecundum for a new saprophytic species found in a stream springing 
from the Rhone Glacier. It presents in some respects a transitional form 
between the Peronosporee and the Saprolegnieex. The zoosporangia 
are 2 p broad, 120-160 » long, and scarcely distinguishable from the 
ordinary hyphe ; the zoospores are reniform, 4 ~ wide by 6 p long, and 
with two cilia on their concave side. The oogonia are of two kinds; in 
those first formed each oogonium is impregnated by one or two antheridia 
formed in close proximity to the oogonium. The second kind are some- 
times produced on the same branch as the first, but later. These are 


* Comptes Rendus, ev. (1887) pp. 1037-8. 
+ Atti Soc. Tose. Sci. Nat., viii. (1887) pp. 315-41. 
{ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. 242-6 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 99 


double the size, and break up into two or three daughter-cells, each of 
which is an oogonium capable of impregnation. When not impregnated, 
the oogonium puts out prolifications which develope into ordinary 
vegetative hyphe. 


Chytridiacea parasitic on Diatoms.*—Under the name LKctrogella 
Bacillariacearum Herr W. Zopf describes a parasite which attacks species 
of Synedra and Pinnularia. Its effect is first manifested by an alteration 
in the shape and position of the chlorophyll-bands. They recede from 
the walls, contract in direction of their length, and become closely applied 
to the parasites. At the same time the nucleus is dissolved and the 
protoplasm contracts. Later on, in consequence of the pressure exercised 
by the parasites, the valves fall asunder. The sporangial fructification 
of Ectrogeila determines its place among the Ancylistex; it bears the 
same relation to Ancylistes as Olpidiopsis to Myzocytium. 


__ Cohn’s ‘Cryptogamic Flora of Silesia.|—The last contribution to 
Herr J. Schroeter’s monograph of Silesian fungi in Cohn’s ‘ Cryptogamic 
Flora of Silesia’ is devoted to the orders Protomycetes, Ustilagine», 
Uredinei, and Auricularici. A full account is given of the life-history of 
fungi belonging to these orders. Protomycetes include the two genera 
Protomyces and Endogone. The Ustilaginew are divided into three 
families, viz.:—Ustilaginacei (Ustilago, Sphacelotheca, Schizonella, and 
Tolyposporium) ; Tilletiacei (Tilletia, Urocystis, Entyloma, Melanoteenium, 
Tuburcinia, Doassansia); and Thecaphorei (Schrevterta, Thecaphora, 
Sorosporium), with several doubtful genera. The Uredinei comprise five 
families, viz. :—Pucciniei (Uromyces, Puccinia); Phragmidiei (Trachy- 
spora, Triphragmium, Phragmidium) ; Endophylei (Endophyllum) ; Gym- 
nosporangiei (Gymnosporangium); and Melampsorei (Melampsora, Me- 
lampsorella, Calyptospora, Coleosporium, Chrysomyxa, and Cronartium. 
The Auriculariei comprise the single family Auriculariacei (Stypinella 
n. gen. and Platyglea n. gen.). The following new species are described :— 
Ustilago major, Uromyces alpinus, U. minor, Puccinia Cirsit lanceolati, 
P. Crepidis, P. tenuistipes, Platyglea fimicola, and P. effusa. 


Protophyta. 


Microchete.{—Under the name WM. striatula ? Abbé Hy describes a 
new species of this genus, found among Sphagnum in turf-bogs. It 
forms an interesting link of connection between the older species on 
which M. Thuret founded the genus, and the more recently discovered 
M. diplosiphon Gom. M. Hy agrees with Bornet in regarding Micro- 
chzete as belonging to the Scytonemacecex, of which it constitutes the most 
simple type without any appearance of branching. 


Vibrio from Nasal Mucus.§—Dr. E. Weibel finds that there occurs in 
the mucosa of the posterior nares a vibrio, the presence of which is not 
apparently associated with a pathological condition. The bacillus is 
curved, and about as thick as that of anthrax, the length varying from 
2-5 times the thickness. The degree of curvature is very variable, there 


* Zopf, W., ‘Zur Kenntniss der Phycomyceten. See Mr. G. Karop in Journ. 
Quek. Micr. Club, iii. (1887) p. 115 (1 pl.). 

+ Schroeter, J.. in Cohn’s Kryptogamen Flora v. Schlesien, Bd. iii. Lief. 3, 
Breslau, 1887. See Hedwigia, xxvi. (1887) p. 173. 

¢ Morot’s Journ. de Bot. i. (1887) pp. 193-8 (3 figs.). 

§ Centralbl. f. Bacteriol. u. Parasitenk., ii. (1887) pp. 465-9 (4 figs. of a pl.). 


H 2 


100 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


being gradations from a semicircle down to a straight line. The bacilli 
are aggregated into groups, and do not form continuous threads. About 
individual rods an unstained periphery is evident, but the possession of 
a capsule is not conclusively demonstrable. Pure cultivations were 
obtained by breeding, first in bouillon, then in gelatin, and afterwards 
isolating on gelatin-plates. On the plates the colonies became visible 
on the third day, and by the fifth attained a diameter of 0°3 mm.; by 
the next day their size was nearly doubled. In tube cultivations the 
colonies spread along the inoculation track, there being no surface 
development and no liquefaction of the medium. In agar the develop- 
ment was similar but more luxuriant. On potato no growth occurred. 
The morphological variations are manifold and complicated, although 
the fundamental form is a bent rod. In bouillon it almost always occurs 
as single rods, the ends of which stain deeply, the central part remaining 
uncoloured. Such forms therefore simulate diplococci, and raise a 
suspicion of spore-formation. Cultivated in agar or gelatin, single 
rods occur, but most frequently the individual elements are united to 
form chains, which are most perfect in the agar. Staining is easily 
effected with gentian violet and decoloration by Gram’s iodine. Weak 
spirit (1:3) dissolves out the dye from the stained medium, and leaves 
the bacilli still coloured. The formation of spores could not be proved. 
In hanging drops only Brownian movements were perceived. The 
author has repeatedly made pure cultivations of the vibrio from his own 
nasal mucus, but declines to give a definite opinion as to its general 
frequency. Subcutaneous inoculations produced no effect on mice. 


Two kinds of Vibrios found in decomposing Hay Infusion.*—Dr. 
KE. Weibel obtained from rotting hay infusion two kinds of vibrio by 
means of the attenuation method. A needleful of the fluid was diluted 
with so much sterilized water that in each drop only a very few germs 
were included ; from this a series of test-tubes filled with sterilized hay 
infusion were inoculated. In two tubes vibrios predominated. From 
these gelatin-plate cultivations were made, and two kinds of vibrio 
successfully developed. These differed in size, and are distinguished as 
hay vibrio a and hay vibrio 8. The larger kind, vibrio a, is a bent 
rodlet about 3 ~ long; the thickness is about one-fifth of the length. 
Owing to the ends diminishing in thickness, a crescent-shaped form 
results, and in the ecntre of this is a bright spot. Two individuals fre- 
quently unite to produce an S-like form, more numerous combinations 
being less common; but such may appear after eight days’ cultivation 
in bouillon or agar. 

Vibrio B is about 2 pw long, and about as thick as the tubercle 
bacillus. _Double-comma forms are very frequent, and in some prepara- 
tions the rule. On gelatin plates the two kinds grow slowly, but a 
quicker than B. Colonies of a attain in three days a diameter of 
0:2-0°3 mm., and in six days about 0°6 mm. Under a low power 
( x 80) and with reflected light, they appear as circular yellowish-brown 
discs, and on the third or fourth day as dark rings round about a central 
point. The colonies of vibrio B never exceed 0°3 mm. in diameter. In 
neither case is the gelatin liquefied. In gelatin both kinds grow along 
the inoculation track, and also show a slight growth on the surface, but 
the whole of the surface is never overgrown. In agar the inoculation 


* Centralbl. f. Bacteriol. u. Parasitenk., ii, (1887) pp. 469-72 (2 figs. of a pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 101 


track is little affected, but over the surface development takes place 
copiously, vibrio a spreading in a dirty whitish-yellow layer, beneath 
which the agar mass for a depth of 1-2 mm. is clouded. Vibrio B 
produces a similar crust, but the underlay is dry, and it is impossible 
to remove a specimen without taking up also the agar substance. On 
potato both kinds thrive well. Vibrio a forms in two days a luxuriant 
slimy layer of a yellow-red colour, which gradually darkens to chocolate. 
Vibrio £ produces a thin dirty brownish-green overlay, which is removed 
for examination with difficulty. The potatoes breeding vibrio a develope 
a strong ammoniacal odour, but with vibrio 6 this occurs but slightly 
or not at all. Both stain well with anilin dyes, especially with gentian- 
violet. In hanging drops both varieties show lively movements. 

Phosphorescent Bacteria from Sea-water.*—Dr. O. Katz has 
isolated three groups of micro-organisms, which are capable of cultiva- 
tion in various nutrient media, and which by transference to marine 
animals (fish, crustaceans) and to sca-water produce phosphorescence. 

(1) Bacillus smaragdino-phosphorescens, obtained from dead marine 
fish, 1s a short thick rod about 1 » wide and about double as long 
as wide. The ends are rounded off. It is not motile or flagellated. 
When stained with anilins the peripheral parts only are dyed, a central 
spot or “ vacuole” remaining uncoloured. It grows in small colonies 
on gelatin without liquefying the medium. It developes best at a tem- 
perature of 20° C. or a little higher, and then emits a ‘“ wonderful 
emerald-green” light. Grown at 13-15° C. development is slower and 
the light is less intense. 

(2) Bacillus argenteo-phosphorescens was obtained from sea-water at 
Elizabeth Bay, Sydney. On gelatin, after having been mixed with ten 
drops of sea-water, there would appear, among a considerable number of 
other colonies, not more than two of these luminous colonies. It is a 
slender rod, tapering at the extremities and commonly slightly curved. 
It is about 2°5 » long, and about three times as long as broad. It is 
motile, but forms no filament. The best stains were anilin-fuchsin and 
anilin-gentian-violet. The colonies do not liquefy gelatin, but spread 
over it more than those of number 1. It grows best between 14° and 
23° C., and within this range shows the greatest luminosity. The 
emitted light is of a mild silvery appearance. 

3) Bacillus cyano-phosphorescens was obtained from sea-water at 
Little Bay, Sydney. It is a straight rod about 2°6 w long, and about 
2% times as long as broad. The ends are rounded off. It is motile, and 
is often found as diplo-bacillus, but not often in chains. These are 
commonly bent, attaining here and there a considerable length. It 
stains well with alkaline methylin-blue, but a small central portion 
remains uncoloured. It grows rather slowly in and upon gelatin, which 
is gradually liquefied by it. It developes better on agar, where after a 
comparatively short time it forms a substantial greyish-white sticky 
layer. The optimum of growth and luminosity lies between 20° and 
30° C., but a lower temperature is not unfavourable. The colour of the 
light emitted has a decidedly bluish tint. The intensity lies between 
those of I. and II. The author proposes to publish further details later. 

In some further remarks on the phosphorescent bacteria,t Dr. Katz 
describes three additional kinds. 


* Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, ii. (1887) pp. 331-6. 
+ Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1887, p. v. 


102 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(1) Bacillus argenteo-phosphorescens liquefaciens, obtained from sea- 
water at Bondi; its cultures, liquefying gelatin, emit in the dark a 
silvery light, which, however, is the weakest of the six kinds hitherto 
found ; (2) Bacillus argenteo-phosphorescens I1., derived from a luminous 
piece of a small squid (Loligo), and, at the same time, from luminous 
pieces of the Sydney gar-fish (Hemirhamphus intermedius Cant., H. 
melanochir Cuy. and Val.) ; (3) Bacillus argenteo-phosphorescens IL1., from 
the squid already mentioned. Neither of the latter micro-organisms 
causes liquefaction of the gelatin. They give off in the dark a handsome 
silver light, much more intense than that of the first-mentioned, but 
resembling that of the previously exhibited Bacillus argenteo-phospho- 
rescens (now to be designated I.). From this latter Nos. II. and Ii. 
distinctly differ. 


Lectures on Bacteria.*—The second improved edition of Prof. A. 
De Bary’s Lectures on Bacteria has been translated into English by 
Mr. H. E. F. Garnsey, and revised by Prof. I. B. Balfour; it will be 
very useful as a general view of the subject to all who are interested in 
these organisms. 


* «Lectures on Bacteria. By A. De Bary. Authorised translation by Henry E. 
F. Garnsey. Revised by I. B. Balfour” Oxford, 1887. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETO. 103 


MICROSCOPY. 


a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.* 


(1) Stands. 


Collins’s Aquarium Microscope.—Mr. ©. Collins’s Aquarium Micro- 
scope (fig. 1) differs from all other forms in that it is applied to the 
side of the aquarium itself. This is accomplished by making use of 
a sucker apparatus. The head of the sucker is shown on the left of 


the drawing, with an indiarubber ring surrounding a central piston. 
The ring is applied to the glass surface of the aquarium, and the air is 
exhausted by screwing round the head of the piston seen on the right. 
Two turns are sufficient to fasten the sucker securely. The rod to 
which the support of the body-tube is attached passes through the 
sucker-arm, and can be clamped at any height desired. 


Golfarelli’s Micrometric Microscope for Horologists—This Micro- 
scope (fig. 2), made by the “ Officina Galileo” of Florence, after the 
design of Prof. I. Golfarelli, is intended for the use of clock- and watch- 
makers, enabling them to ascertain, for instance, that the teeth of chrono- 
meter and duplex escapement wheels are regularly cut. 

The upper part of the Microscope is screwed to a metal stage 
5 in. X 4 in., supported on four feet, and having a graduated scale on 
its front side. In a wide groove in the stage slides a metal plate, with 
four spring clips to hold the object examined. The clips can be 
variously applied in fourteen different holes. The plate is moved by a 

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Illu- 


minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics 
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. 


104 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


fine screw, which extends beneath the stage for its whole length, and is 
actuated by the milled head on the right. To this is attached a 
graduated disc, which reads against a fixed index, the movable plate 
having also an index. Over the front of the objective is a plane mirror 
of polished silver, with a central aperture through which the object is 


Fic. 2. 


viewed. The mirror being inclined at 45°, reflects the light upon the 
object on the stage, which is always viewed as an opaque object. The 
mirror rotates in a collar socket to vary the illumination. ‘There is a 
fine-adjustment screw (usual Continental form) at the top of the pillar, 
and a screw eye-piece micrometer forms part of the body-tube. For 
levelling the instrument one of the feet has a screw by which it can be 
lengthened or shortened. 


Lenhossék’s Polymicroscope.—Dr. J. v. Lenhossék has applied the 
principle of the revolving stereoscope to the Microscope in a very 
ingenious manner. The instrument is shown in perspective in fig. 3, in 
profile in fig. 4, and in section in fig.5. The essential feature consists in 
an endless band M M (fig. 5) turning on the upper and lower axles K L, 
and carrying 60 ordinary 3 x 1 in. slides, N. The slides lie horizontally, 
but as each slide comes to the top it stands vertically, and the object is 
observed through the opening H, in the side of the box A, by the Micro- 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 105 


scope I, which is necessarily of somewhat low power, and has a focal 
distance of 53 mm. The endless band is moved by two handles at the 
sides of the outer box, which turn the upper axle. The slides can be 
illuminated by direct light through the opening F, in the opposite side 
of the box, or by the mirror R, shown in figs. 8 and 4. The Microscope 
is focused by the milled head at g. The slides can be placed in position 


by raising the top of the box B (fig. 5), or if a more extensive inspection 
of the interior of the box is required both front E and back G (hinged 
at the bottom at e and g) can be turned away as shown in fig. 5. 

The manner of fixing the slides is shown in fig. 6, A from in front, 
B from above. aa in the one fig. and bb in the other are the two spring 
jaws which hold the slides firmly in position. A dise with four notches 
is attached to one end of the upper axle, and a spring falling into a 
notch, indicates when a slide is exactly vertical. 

An are-piece with rack and pinion (B ¢, fig. 4), enables the whole 
instrument to be inclined to suit the convenience of the observer. 

The lenses can be attached to a special stand, and used as an ordinary 
Microscope. 

With the Microscope Prof. Lenhossék sent a portfolio of manuscript 


106 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


EU 


CH 
ty 
LNG CH 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 107 


and drawings, giving the most elaborate and complete account that 
perhaps has ever been given of any Microscope.* 

Prof. Lenhossék recommends the Polymicroscope especially for a 
continuous series of objects. 


Dufet’s Polarizing Microscope.t—This instrument (figs. 7-9) was 
designed by M. H. Dufet to show the interference figures of crystalline 


fragments, and to allow of the accurate measurement of the axial angle 
for different colours of the spectrum. G, fig. 7, is the plate of crystal 


Fia. 8. Fic. 9. 


* Cf. also ‘Ein Polymikroskop von Dr. Joseph von Lenhoss¢k,’ 25 pp., 1 phot., 
and 2 pls., 8vo, Berlin, 1877 (from Virchow’s Arch. f. Pathol. Anat. u. Physiol., Ixx.). 

+ Journ. de Physique, v. (1886) pp. 564-84. Bull. Soc. Franc. de Minéral., ix. 
(1886) pp. 275-81 (2 figs.), 


108 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the eye-piece r with cross wires; the analyser is at A. The image is 
much improved by the use of microscopic objectives (of which the 
principal focal surfaces are practically plane), instead of simple lenses. 
The instrument is focused by moving the objective I and then shifting 
the eye-piece. The apparatus for concentrating the light consists of a 
microscopic objective E placed behind a nicol. To use rays of any 
required refrangibility, a direct-vision spectroscope is employed. The 
collimator B is moved by a micrometer screw V with divided drum T. 
The rays, after traversing the prism C and the lens J, form a real spectrum 
at the principal focus of the objective E. The isochromatic curves 
are then projected upon the spectrum, and a movement of V brings the 
different colours in succession into the field; the graduation on the drum 
will, by previous experiment, give the exact wave-length of the light 
corresponding to any position of 
the collimator. 

Fig. 8 represents in 1/5 the 
natural size the apparatus used 
for the measurement of axial 
angles; it is practically that of 
von Lang. The crystal fragment 
is held in a spring clip with 
spherical and rectilinear adjust- 
ments, aud moves under a 
divided circle reading with 
verniers to 20", Measurements 
in oil can as usual be made by 
the help of the small stage ¢ 
below the crystal. This appa- 
ratus may also be used to mea- 
sure indices of refraction by the 
method of total reflection; for 
this purpose the spectroscope is 
removed, and the clip is replaced 
by the two prisms represented 
half-size in fig. 9, which inclose 
the section surrounded by a layer 
of some liquid having a higher 
refractive index than the section 
itself. Finally, this part of the 
apparatus may be used, like the 
similar Universal Apparatus of 


Groth, asa Wollaston goniometer. 


Duboscq’s Projection Micro- 
scope.*—M. Duboscq’s projection 
Microscope (fig. 10) is arranged 
to carry three objectives, two shown in the fig., the third being at the 
opposite side of the lantern. This enables different magnifying powers 
to be used by simply turning the lantern round and without having 
to screw and unscrew the objectives. Electric light is used for the 
illumination. 

* Stein, S. T., ‘Das Licht im Dienste wiss. Forschung,’ vy. (1887) pp. 303-5 


(3 figs.). Also ‘Die Optische Projektions-Kunst im Dienste der exakten Wissen- 
schaften,’ 1887, pp. 94-6 (3 figs.). 


yl 


Via, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 109 


Campani’s Compound Microscopes.— With reference to the note on 
pp. 643-4,* we have since found that a figure of a nearly similar 
Microscope was published in the ‘ Acta Eruditorum, Lipse, 1686, 
Tab. x. (pp. 371-2), where it was designated “ Novum Microscopium 


Dn: losephi Campani, ejusque usus,’ the figure also showing the 
employment of the instrument for viewing transparent and opaque 
objects. This figure was reproduced in the ‘Opuscula omnia Actis 
Eruditorum Lipsiensibus inserta, &c.,’ tom. ii., Venetiis, 1740, p. 439. 


* See this Journal, 1887, p. 643. 


ie | 


4 


rofcopum Dn: Fosephs SEAR Ete 


=f 


“Novum Mic 


110 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Our fig. 11 is copied from the original. It will thus be seen that 
our conjecture as to the early date (ante 1665) of the construction, based 
upon the absence of a field-lens, may possibly need qualification in the 
face of the publication (apparently the first of 
this form of Microscope) in 1686. 

From various references we have met with, 
and notably from the paper ‘ Nvove inventioni 
di tubi ottici’ (a contribution to the ‘ Accademia 
Fisico-matematica, of Rome, in 1686, by—we 
believe—Ciampini, the then editor of the 
‘Giornale de’ Letterati,’ of Rome) Campani’s 
Microscopes appear to have been well known 
at that date, so well known, indeed, that any 
resemblances to them in more recent models 
were at once noted. 

Attention may be called to the curious 
mixture of scales in the drawing. The large 
Microscope on the left is the same instrument 
as is represented by the two small ones in the 
centre and on the right. The artist, it will be 
seen, has introduced a diagram of an eye above 
the large Microscope, a proceeding which, 
although it looks very odd in such a picture, 
had the useful effect of checking the scale and 
preventing the instrument from being taken to 
be of the same proportions as the men who 
accompany it in the drawing. It will be re- 
membered that it was the blunder of an artist 
in substituting a man for an eye, that led to 
the ludicrous misinterpretations of Schott’s 
Microscopes on which we commented in this 
Journal, 1887, p.148. 

In a more recent visit to Italy than that 
referred to in our previous note on this subject, 
we met with the very early form of Microscope shown in our fig. 12. 
The body-tube is of cardboard covered with marbled paper, and slides 
in the split ring-socket on the top of the tripod for focusing. A draw- 
tube of cardboard carries an eye-piece with a field-lens—the lenses 
mounted in wood cells. The instrument is in the “ Museo di Fisica,” 
Florence, where apparently nothing definite is known of its origin. We 
are, however, able to assign the construction with considerable proba- 
bility to Campani from the fact that at the “ Conservatoire des Arts 
et Métiers,” Paris, there is a practically identical Microscope bearing 
the inscription, “ Giuseppe Campani in Roma 1673.” It is thus evident 
that Campani constructed eye-pieces with, and also without field- 
lenses. 


L., A. S.—Differential Screw Slow Motion—To Mr. Crisp. 
[Claim to have anticipated by sixteen or seventeen years Campbell’s differential 
screw fine-adjustment. Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 324. | 
Engl. Mech., XLVI. (1887) p. 416. 
RovussELEeT, C.—On a small Portable Binocular Microscope and a Live-box. 
[Microscope not figured, Live-box, infra, p. 112.] 
Journ, Quek. Mier. Club, IIL, (1887) pp. 175-7 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ad 


(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. 
NeEuson, E. M.—On a new Eye-piece. 
(Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 928.] 
Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, III. (1887) pp. 173-4 (1 fig.). 
PELLETAN, J.—Les Objectifs. (Objectives.) Contd. 
Journ. de Microgr., XI. (4887) pp. 546-9. 


(3) Illuminating and other Apparatus. 

Zeiss’ Iris Diaphragm.—Dr. C. Zeiss has designed an Iris 
diaphragm in which the aperture is approximately circular for all 
diameters. 

Fig. 15 shows the apparatus in its natural size with the six crescent- 
shaped metal plates, which form the aperture. These slide over one 
another by the handle on the right. The internal mechanism is shown in 
fig. 14; one end of the plates is pivoted on the upper plate of the 
diaphragm case, and at the free end is a straight prolongation which is 


Fre: 13. Fia. 14. 


Fia. 15. 


inserted between the raised pieces placed round the circumference of the 
second disc shown in fig. 15; when this disc is rotated by its handle 
the six plates turn on their pivots. With a turn of the handle to the 
left the aperture is reduced, and enlarged with one to the right. 

By means of the screw (fig. 13) the diaphragm may be fixed to the 
Abbe condenser and substituted for the ordinary diaphragms. It can be 
worked with the little finger of the left hand, so that the other fingers 
can move the slide while the right hand is available for focusing. 

We gather that Dr. A. Zimmermann, who describes the apparatus,* is 
not very familiar with the English and American forms of Beck, Wale, 
and others. He points out that Iris diaphragms are of advantage in 
drawing with the camera lucida. 


Edmonds’s Automatic Mica Stage. — The purpose of Mr. J. 
Edmonds’s apparatus is to rotate a mounted film of mica between the prisms 
of the polariscope and beneath the object exhibited in the Microscope, 
producing by the rotation of the mica alone all the colour effects usually 
obtained by revolving the polariscope by hand. As pointed out by 


* Zeitschr, f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. (1887) pp. 543-5 (3 figs.). 


1 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Dr. Carpenter, “The variety of tints given by a selenite film under 
polarized light is so greatly increased by the interposition of a rotating 
film of mica, that two selenites—red and blue—with a mica film, are 
found to give the entire series of colours obtainable from any number of 
selenite films, either separately or in combination with each other.” * 
The apparatus is contained in a flat box or case forming a loose stage 
intended to be laid upon the permanent stage of the Microscope, and the 
object under examination being 
placed upon it may be observed 
and adjusted, or changed from 
time to time, without disturbing 
the Microscope or its accessories. 
The automatic rotation is effected 
by a specially constructed train 
of wheelwork which, on being 
wound up, continues in action for 
an hour, and when set in motion 
requires no further attention, 
enabling the observer to watch the 
varying effects without touching 
the instrument. It can be used 
with any Microscope having 
polariscopic attachments, is self- 
contained, and removable at 
pleasure, and does not interfere 
with the substage appliances. 
The designer claims that “the beautiful and interesting phenomena 
observable in polarizing objects under various aspects, may, with the aid 
of this self-acting arrangement, be exhibited to a number of persons in suc- 
cession, with an ease and a readiness not attainable by any other means.” 


Rousselet’s Life-box.t—Mr. C. Rousselet describes a life-box which 
for pond-life he considers works better than any other contrivance of the 
kind he has seen. The old life-box, which has done duty for so long, 
has, in his opinion, the very great defect that the object placed thereon 
is totally out of reach of the substage condenser, and, therefore, 
incapable of being properly illuminated. 

Some years ago Mr. Swift made an improvement by fixing the glass 
plate, on which the object is placed, nearly flush with the plate of the 
life-box, as is shown in fig. 17. But this, however, introduced another 
defect, “that any objects placed in the box could be examined, over the 


Fic. 17. 


whole field, only with low powers, whilst with high powers only those 
objects placed near the centre could be reached. Now, it is very 
frequently desirable to examine an object with a high power after it has 
been found with a low ‘one, and we all know how very fond living 


* Carpenter on the Microscope, 6th ed., 1881, pp. 132-3. 
t Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, iii. (1887) pp. 176-7 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. aS 


creatures are of getting to the edge of the drop of water in which they 
are placed, and to shift them to the centre is frequently a very tedious 
work, and is often fatal to the animal.” 

To remedy this defect, Mr. Rousselet “had a life-box constructed in 
which the glass tablet is somewhat reduced in diameter, but the outer 
ring is enlarged sufficiently to allow any high power to focus to the very 
edge of the glass tablet, and the result is very satisfactory. An object 
lying anywhere in the life-box can be reached by the condenser from 
below, and by both low and high powers from above; besides which, it 
acts as a very good compressor, capable of fixing, without hurting, the 
smallest rotifers, and, when you know how to do it, it is also possible to 
get a rotifer in so small a drop of water that it is unable to swim out of 
the field of view of a 1/4 in. objective.” He has had it in constant use 
for animals of all sizes, from the smallest infusoria to tadpoles. 

Mr. Rousselet has also had a small screw compresser, made on the 
same principle; “it is very simple and effective, and allows of regulating 
the pressure to a nicety.” 


Large form of Abbe Camera Lucida.*—-Dr. Zeiss makes a form of 
this camera lucida with a larger mirror and a longer arm than the one 
first issued.t The larger form (only made to order) is recommended by 
Dr. P. Mayer. The advantage of it he considers to be that it enables 
the whole field of vision to be utilized without any perceptible distortion 
of the image, and it is thus especially useful in drawing comparatively 
large objects with low powers. With the smaller camera the whole field 
can be projected on the drawing-paper only by giving the mirror an 
inclination differing so much from the angle (45°) required for accurate 
drawing that the image is'more or less disproportioned. Dr. Mayer 
further says that “the Abbe camera is superior to that of Oberhiuser in 
two important particulars: it gives a much larger field of vision and 
better ight. Its construction does not admit of use with the Microscope- 
tube in a horizontal position. This is a defect which ought to be at 
once corrected. The Abbe cameras, especially the larger one, can be 
used to great advantage with the embryograph of His. It is only 
necessary to add to the stand a horizontal arm, to which the camera can 
be fastened.” 


May’s Apparatus for Marking Objects.t—Mr. R. Hitchcock, in 
reference to Schiefferdecker’s apparatus,§ calls to mind a “ much simpler, 
but no doubt quite as efficient device for the same purpose,” that he has 
used for years, made by Mr. May, of Philadelphia. It consists of a 
simple rod of brass about 1/4 in. in diameter, with a screw at the top 
that fits into the nose-piece in place of an objective. A tube fits loosely 
over this rod, bearing a diamond point below, slightly eccentric. This 
is turned by a milled collar, so as to scratch minute circles on the cover- 
glass. 


Simple Method of Warming and Cooling under the Microscope.||— 
Herr H. Dewitz describes a very simple apparatus for warming and 
cooling objects under the Microscope. It only cost 2s., and for many 
purposes proved entirely satisfactory. 

Take a round leaden box, 0:08 m. in diameter, 0:03 m. in height at 


* Amer. Natural., xxi. (1887) pp. 1040-3 (1 fig.). 

+ Cf. this Journal, 1883, p. 278. 

t¢ Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., viii. (1887) p. 207. § See this Journal, 1887, p. 468. 
|| Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxx. (1887) pp. 666-8 (1 fig.). 


1888. I 


114 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the middle ; suppose the lid cut away so as to leave an opening 6:08 m. 
in length and 0-023 m. in height. This opening is closed by soldering a 
piece of lead b in such a way that the box is divided into two com- 
municating portions, one c lower than the other d (fig. 18). 

On the floor and roof of the flatter half two opposite circular openings 
eare made. These are covered with a cemented glass. The whole is 


Fig. 18- 


arranged on a. metallic circle beneath so that the lower glass is not 
rubbed or injured by moving the apparatus on the stage. 

On the roof of the deeper half a large hole is made for pouring in 
water and inserting ice fragments. A smaller hole receives a thermo- 
meter. Finally, just above the floor of the higher portion, the end of a 
tube hk is inserted. The free end 7 of this tube, which is about the 
size of a goose-quill, is curved so that water cannot flow out. 

Before use, the apparatus is half-filled with water poured in by the 
large hole, air-bubbles under the glass are got rid of, and a drop of fluid 
medium containing the object to be observed is placed on the upper glass, 
and carefully covered in familiar fashion. 

The projecting tube is then warmed by a spirit-flame till the 
thermometer in & indicates the desired temperature. A glass should 
be placed below the free end to receive expelled drops. 

For cooling purposes the apparatus is filled a third full with water 
at the temperature of the room or higher, and ice particles are inserted 
at the opening g. An overflow can be emptied out, via the long tube, 
by inclining the Microscope and without disturbing the arrangements. 
The layer of water between the two glass plates is quite thin, so that 
the strength of the light is but slightly altered. 


Apparatus for determining Sensibility to Heat.*—An apparatus for 
the investigation of the heat sensibilities of the cockroach is described 
by Prof. V. Graber. A trough of tin is divided into two end chambers 
and a middle chamber whose floor is of wood, and which can be separated 
from the end chambers by sliding doors. All three are covered by 
sliding lids of glass or of tin at pleasure, and the whole is surrounded 
by water-baths, two lamps placed underneath these enabling the end 
chambers to be kept at temperatures differing by any wished amount. 
The lamps are prevented from interfering with each other’s action by a 
wooden block under the middle chamber, which serves also as a stand 


* Arch. f, d. Gesammt. Physiol. (Pfliiger), xli. (1887) pp. 241-3. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ls 


for the whole apparatus. In each chamber one thermometer takes the 
temperature of the air, while the bulb of another is imbedded in felting 
so as to give the temperature of the walls. 


(4) Photomicrography. 


Israel and Stenglein’s Photomicrographic Microscope.*— Dr. O. 
Israel’s photomicrographic apparatus (fig. 19) may be used either in a 


Fig. 19. Fia. 20. 


* Stenglein, M., and Schultz-Hencke, ‘ Anleitung zur Ausfiihrung mikrophoto- 
graphischer Arbeiten,’ 8vo, Berlin, 1887, pp. 4-12 (2 figs.), 14-6 (1 fig.). 
I 2 


116 SUMMARY OF CURKENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


horizontal or a vertical position ; in the former, the iron frame to which 
it is attached is fixed upon a table, using an inclining Microscope; in 
the latter the instrument is supported as shown in the figure upon an 
iron stand, which runs upon wheels, but can be fixed in any position by 
means of the three screws F. The apparatus consists of two parts, the 
Microscope and the camera; V is the focusing screen, upon which the 
image is focused by means of the rod 6b b,, terminating in a toothed 
wheel b,, which works into a similar but larger toothed wheel R, 
occupying the place of the usual micrometer-screw. B is the light- 
proof connection between the camera and Microscope, and consists of 
a leather bag fixed to the Microscope by the ring r. The camera 
consists of the three mahogany frames K, K, Ks, united by the leather 
bellows B, B., which can be extended to the length of a metre; the 
focusing screen can be rotated about an axis A, perpendicular to the axis 
of the instrument. a is a screw spindle, placed close to b, by means of 
which the camera may be clamped in any desired position to its iron 
standard. When the apparatus is used in the vertical position the 
Microscope simply stands upon its iron base, and is fixed below the 
camera by means of a screw-clamp Sch, which grips its horseshoe stand. 
The size of the plates used with this apparatus is 15 x 15 cm. 

Fig. 20 represents the similar instrument of Herr M. Stenglein, 
which carries its own illuminating apparatus. For this purpose the 
height of the instrument is considerably increased ; a space of 66 em. at 
the lower end of the standard serves to carry the movable parts which 
constitute the illuminating apparatus, namely a plane mirror 20 cm. 
square Sp, a condenser of 10 cm. radius and 21 em. focal length L, a 
light-filter C, to secure monochromatic light, consisting of a vessel filled 
with ammoniacal solution of copper oxide, and Abbe’s illuminator; to 
these may also be added, if necessary, a diaphragm B, which is to be 
employed when electric light is used, and in this case the mirror is 
replaced by the electric lamp. To preserve the centering, the illumi- 
nator and the Microscope not only slide along the upright, but are 
provided with a slight lateral adjustment, and the apparatus is cen- 
tered by using the smallest diaphragm of the Abbe illuminator and 
a diaphragm of equal size, which is made to be attached to the con- 
denser. - 


Stegemann’s Photomicrographic Camera. — The instrument repre- 
sented in fig. 21, and devised by Herr A. Stegemann, corrects, it is 
claimed, a defect of the ordinary apparatus by supplying the means of 
adjusting the distance between the objective and the focusing screen, 
upon which depends the relative size of the photographic image, and by 
measuring this distance upon a fixed scale. A square pillar rising from 
an iron foot carries the camera, with the objective-frame and the focusing 
screen which slide upon it; the pillar is graduated, and by means of a 
vernier attached to the adjustment-screw of the camera gives the exact 
distance between objective and focusing screen. The apparatus can be 
used either to photograph objects in their natural size, in which case the 
object is placed on a glass plate fixed to the foot; or with the Microscope, 
which is then placed in the forked support which serves to carry the 
glass plate. 

In this instrument the stratum of liquid which is used as a light- 
filter for monochromatic light is contained in a vessel which slides into 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. ERG 


the case of the objective-frame close to the objective, so that all rays 
which reach the sensitive plate must of necessity have passed through 


the solution. 


Fig. 21. 


—— 


TET | | = 
5 = YY \ SS D& 


Marktanner’s Photomicrographic Cameras.*—Herr T. Marktanner 
describes two photomicrographic cameras which he has devised. 

The first is made on the Gerlach system, and consists of a wooden 
chamber, not made to draw out, which is placed upon the body-tube. It 
is distinguished from the camera of Gerlach by tbe basal table, which is 


* Bull. Soc, Belg. Micr., xiii. (1887) pp. 188-91 (2 figs.). 


118 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


made of two equal-sized plates united by a hinge. The upper plate 
forms the base of the camera, which is pyramidal in shape; the lower 
is provided with a brass tube, accurately centered, by which the camera 
is adapted to the tube. If the preliminary adjustment is made by 
means of rackwork, the brass tube may be an elastic cap which is fixed 
to the upper part of the Microscope by a screw clamp. To secure 
greater stability, it is better to apply this camera to a stand, with which 
the preliminary focusing is made by a sliding movement. In this case 
the use is recommended of a strong brass tube of the same size as the 
body-tube, ending in a screw-thread similar to that of the objectives. If 
it is desired to use objectives of 
Fic. 22, different screw-threads, it will be 
better to employ several brass 
bli tubes of 8 cm. length, which can 
vA slide into the tube fixed at the 
centre of the lower plate. This 
camera will be especially useful 
in obtaining plates which give 
the full views so useful as aids 
towards drawing. As the ampli- 
fication will never be more than 
200 times, cardboard holders will 
be quite sufficient. The size of 
the plates is 6 em. by 6°5 cm., and 
they are made by cutting a plate 
of 13 cm. by 18 cm. into six parts. 
The slide for the transparent 
glass is made of cardboard ; the 
glass is covered with a fine net- 
work of lines. The hinge which 
unites the two basal plates enables 
the camera to be lowered beside 
the Microscope. This arrange- 
ment is very useful when the 
apochromatic objectives of Zeiss 
are used, and also with the pro- 
jection eye-pieces constructed for 
photomicrography. The eye- 
pieces can then be easily changed. 
This arrangement was formerly 
less necessary than now, for with 
the objectives then used, photo- 
graphs were almost always taken 
without the eye-piece. 

The second camera (fig. 22) 
is sufficient for all the purposes of 
photomicrography. It is similar 
to that of Nachet, from which it is only distinguished by the bellows, by 
a slide in the basal plate, and by a levelling apparatus formed of a plate 
of zine upon three screws. 

This camera can be used in the horizontal (fig. 23) as well as in the 
vertical position. In the former it draws out to 90 cm.; in the latter 
tv 50 cm. ‘he transparent glass is made as in the preceding camera. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 119 


If the projected image is exactly focused, it ought to be seen with the 
lens at the same time with the fine lines traced upon the glass. In this 


apparatus the size of the plates is 12 cm. by 16 cm., a size which is 
recognized as sufficient by all who have had experience in photo- 
micrography. 

Nelson’s Photomicrographic Focusing Screen.*—Mr. G. Smith, in 
reference to Mr. Nelson’s suggestion + for ruling the focusing screen 
with metrical and English scales, considers that if diamond lines are 
used they should be ruled horizontally and vertically about 5), in. apart ; 
but better still, every third line should be missed. The cross ruling 
thus forms a kind of plaid pattern, and any decided pattern materially 
assists the eye in keeping to the proper plane instead of seeking a focus 
on either side. The eye-piece must of course be first adjusted exactly 
to these lines for the operator’s eye. 

Another very simple and effective plan (applicable to other cameras 
too) is to rule diagonals in blacklead pencil across the ground glass, and 
over the centre cement a thin cover-glass, taking care to put there a few 
grains of dust, or say, cotton fibre. Both these plans he has used for 
many years, and can recommend both; with either it is easy to focus the 
darkest interior. 


NevuHautuss, R.—Anleitung zur Mikrophotographie fiir Aerzte, Botaniker, &c. 
(Guide to Photomicrography for Physicians, Botanists, &c.) 
32 pp., 8vo, Berlin, 1887. 
STterRNBERG, G. M.—Photo-micrography in Medecine. 
Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences (U.S.A.) 1887, pp. 647-58 (7 figs.). 


(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. 


Histological Structures and the Diffraction Theory.—Hitherto the 
examples of the action of diffraction in microscopical vision have been 
almost entirely confined to diatoms, objects which more than any others 
are suited to illustrate the principles on which the theory is founded, 


* Eng. Mech., xlvi. (1887) p. 394. ¢ See this Journal, 1887, p. 1028. 


120 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


viz. that in the case of minute objects which are less than a few wave- 
lengths in diameter the laws of geometrical optics no longer apply, that 
is, the structures are no longer imaged according to the laws which 
govern the delineation of objects observed with the naked eye, but that 
the delineation is dependent upon the rays which are diffracted by the 
object. The matter is, however, obviously of more importance to histo- 
logists than to the observers of diatoms. In the case of histological 
structures the conditions are, of course, much more complicated than with 
diatoms, but the principles remain the same, and if they are not taken 
into account very false deductions may be made. A notable instance of 
this was the case on which we commented in 1881,* where Mr. J. B. 
Hayeroft ¢ put forward an explanation of the appearances presented by 
muscle-fibre which, while an eminently simple one, was unfortunately 
entirely founded on the supposition that the fibres acted in the same 
manner as cylindrical threads of larger size. 

Prof, 8. Exner, who has recently investigated the question of muscle- 
fibre, has published an article on the subject, in the course of which he 
deals fully with the operation of diffraction on such structures. This 
article from the point of view we are now considering is a very interest- 
ing one, and we have translated his remarks without abridgment. 

In order that the subject may be fully understood, we have prefaced 
the translation by notes on (1) the appearances presented by air-bubbles 
and oil-globules, by solid and hollow fibres, and by depressions and 
elevations where the objects are larger than a few multiples of a wave- 
length, and (2) the appearances presented by Pleurosigma angulatum 
under different optical conditions. 

(1) Appearances presented by Air-bubbles and Oil-globules, by solid 
and hollow Fibres, and by Depressions and Elevations of relatively large 
size.{—The accompanying figs. 24 and 25 supplement those given at 


Air-bubbles under the Microscope. Focus, a below the centre (at the focal plane), 
6 to the centre, c the same with oblique light stopped off. 


p. 743 of Vol. II. (1882), a in fig. 24 representing an air-bubble when 
the Microscope is focused below its centre (a being the image of a 
window bar), 6 when focused to the centre, and c the same with oblique 


* See this Journal, 1881, p. 964. 

t Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., xxxi. (1881) pp. 360-79 (1 pl.). 

¢ Cf. Dippel, L., ‘Das Mikroskop und seine Anwendung,’ 1867, pp. 313-4 (4 figs.), 
pp. 355-60 (9 figs.), and 2nd ed. 1882, pp. 822-4 (4 figs.), pp. 852-6 (6 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 13 


light stopped off. Fig. 25 represents an oil-globule, a with the focus 
on the margin, b somewhat higher, and ¢ at the focal plane of the bubble. 


Fie. 25. 


Oil-globules under the Microscope. Focus, a on the margin, > somewhat higher, 
c higher (at the focal plane). 


Solid fibres, fig. 26, in a medium of lower refractive index (as a 
glass thread in air or water) show a diffused moderately bright appearance 
A at medium focus; a bright 
central line B when the tube is Fic. 26. 
raised; and a dull appearance C A B 
when the tube is focused below 
the centre. The reverse of course 
takes place if the surrounding 
medium is of higher refractive 
index, as glass threads in mono- 
bromide of naphthalin or binio- 
dide of mercury and potassium. 
If, again, the fibre is surrounded 
by a fluid of about the same re- 
fractive power, as in the case of a 
glass thread in Canada balsam, it 
-will then have the appearance of 
a flat band. : z : ier 

Hollow fibres charged with oes ee ee wet 
air, fig. 27 (or a fine capillary 
tube of glass), present with medium focus nearly the same appearance as 
the solid fibres, from which they are only to be distinguished by the fact 
that at both edges the double outline of the section of their solid walls 
will be seen as in A. In other respects the appearances are reversed ; 
the raising of the objective giving a dull image C, whilst on sinking it 
we have the central bright lime B. Fine tubes in a denser substance 
produce the same effect as hollow fibres. Semi-cylindrical channels or 
furrows act as concave lenses, whether the hollow side is turned from or 
to the observer. The only distinction between the two positions is, that 
in the former case the tube must be focused lower than in the latter, in 
order to obtain the greatest degree of brilliancy in the central line. 

If instead of the hollow fibre, or capillary tube charged with air, one 
filled with a fluid is substituted, this produces the same effect as a solid 
fibre, provided the contained and the surrounding fluid are nearly the 
same, or if the former has a greater refractive power. Solid and hollow 
fibres can then only be distinguished from each other in the medium 
focus, showing the optical section of the solid walls. On filling with a 


122 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


fluid similar to that surrounding the fibre, an effect is produced more 

or less similar to that of the air-charged fibre, for if the refractive power 

of the contained and the surrounding fluid is greater than that of the 

solid walls, the latter will appear 

Fig, 27. as hollow spaces in the stronger 

refracting medium, as would be 

the case with glass capillary 

tubes filled and surrounded with 
monobromide of naphthalin. 

If oblique illumination is 
employed instead of central, the 
appearances just described are 
not essentially altered; a dis- 
placement of the illuminated 
line to the one side or the other 
is simply produced, according as 
the mirror is moved out of the 
axis to the right or left. With 
objects which act as convex 
lenses it is generally displaced 
to the side of the object which 
is turned away from the source of light, and with objects acting as 
concave lenses to the side nearest to the light; and therefore, as the 
compound Microscope inverts, it will appear in the first case on that 
side of the image which is turned towards the mirror, and in the latter 
case away from it. The glass thread or the solid fibre will therefore 
show the line of light on the side turned towards the mirror, when the 
illumination falls obliquely and the tube is raised; hollow cylinders 
and furrows will show it, when the tube is lowered, on the side of the 
image which is turned away from the mirror. The division of light and 


Glass capillary tubes. Focus, A medium, 
B lower, C higher. 


Hig. 28: Fig. 29. 
A B A B 


| 


Glass threads with oblique light Glass capillary tubes with oblique 


incident from the right. Focus, light incident from the right. Focus, 
A high, B somewhat lower. A low, B a little lower. 


shadow will appear as in A, figs. 28 and 29. Ifamore medium focus 
is taken, the conditions are so far altered, that now half of the object is 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 123 


in shadow, while the other half is illuminated as strongly or even 
stronger than the field B, figs. 28 and 29. 

If depressions either with spherical surfaces or furrowed or bowl- 
shaped (fig. 30) are found on the surface of a membrane, they produce 
the same effect as concave lenses, and show their greatest brightness 
when the tube is lowered. If, however, there are spherical, hemi- 
spherical, or semi-cylindrical elevations, they act as convex lenses and 


Bigs 30: iGesole 


Semi-cylindrical elevations or depressions. | Cylindrical elevations and depressions. 


show their greatest brilliancy when the tube is raised from a medium 
focus. If furrow-like depressions alternate with semi-cylindrical eleva- 
tions, the surface presenting a wavy appearance, the former appear bright 
when the tube is lowered, the latter when it is raised, and when the 
former show the highest degree of brilliancy the latter has a dull 
appearance (fig. 31). 

With wave-like membranes the result is somewhat different, since 
here both of the undulations, as well those which have their convex side 
towards the observer, as those with the concave side so turned, act as 
concave lenses. They therefore show their greatest brightness on 
lowering the objective, and the same differences in the extent of the 
lowering as in the case before mentioned of the semi-cylindrical tubes. 

From what has been said of glass threads and hollow cylinders filled 
with fluid, it follows that more and less strongly refracting (i.e. dense 
and less dense) parts of one and the same object, will act similarly to 
the cylindrical elevations or depressions of a membrane. In observing, 
therefore, in water the differences thus presented in the microscopical 
image, it is necessary, in order to decide whether these depressions or 
elevations are caused by variations in structure or in density, to change 
the fluids, and particularly to use such substances as possess a greater 
refractive power than the object under examination, whereby the image is 
either (in the first case) changed according to the altered conditions, or 
(in the latter case) is substantially unchanged. If the greatest brilliancy 
appears when the tube is lowered, we have to do with an elevation, but if 
when the tube is raised, it must be a depression. In order to facilitate 
the determination of the position of the tube, we can either start with 
a medium fucus, or the tube may be lowered from a point at which no 
distinct image of the object is obtained. Depressions are then first 
bright on a dark ground, elevations, on the contrary, dark on a bright 
ground, till after further lowering of the tube the image is exactly 


124 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


reversed. For accuracy in the determination, the object must be in its 
natural condition, and must not have been disturbed by any changes in 
density, or by any previous preparation, drying, Xe. 

(2) Appearances presented by Pleurosigma angulatum under different 
optical conditions.—Hugo v. Mohl and Schacht regarded the markings as 
formed by three intersecting sets of lines; to Max Schultze and others 
they seemed to be six-sided depressions ; to some English microscopists 
they appeared to be six-sided elevations, while Schiff and Dippel 
recognized a chess-board pattern. Stein, Pelletan, and Kaiser have 
recently referred to round protuberances, while Dr. Flégel has proved, 
by means of transverse sections, that at any rate the upper surface of 
the valve (with the exception of the central rib and the edge) is to be 
regarded as flat, but that it is full of cavities between its upper and 
under surfaces. 

If we look more closely into Plewrosigma angulatum by the light of 
the diffraction theory, we obtain the following result :—Using purely 
central illumination, i.e. a very narrow illuminating pencil, if the 
numerical aperture of the objective is sufficiently large, and is at least 
0:90 to 0°95, we have six spectra a,—a, (circle A, plate ILI. fig. 1), which 
are arranged regularly round the direct image of the source of light, 
while the six spectra of the second series o,—a, fall outside the aperture 
even with very large numerical aperture. If the aperture is so small that 
with purely central illumination no one of the six least deflected pencils 
is admitted, the valve appears to be without markings, while with a 
larger aperture of above 1°00 N.A. the three systems of striz I-III. 
(plate III. fig. 2) make their appearance at the same time, and according 
to the excess of the aperture above unity give rise to a fainter or more 
sharply defined pattern. Each one of these systems of striz can also be 
made visible with a numerical aperture of 0°50 when oblique light is used ; 
in that case two spectra a and a, or a and a, (circle B, plate {It figs) 
always fall within the aperture. They may also be obtained in the same 
way with objectives of greater numerical aperture when all the other 
spectra, with the exception of one of those mentioned, are excluded by 
suitable diaphragms. With an objective of 0:7 to 0:8 N.A. as soon 
as the light is oblique enough, three pencils are included, the direct and 
two diffracted pencils (circle C, plate III. fig. 1), and then the two sets 
of strie I. and II. intersecting at 60° are obtained. 

If the direct pencil is excluded and only two opposite spectra 
A; Ay—Ay As, My, Ug, allowed to operate, there appear in succession three 
new sets of strie IV—VI. which owing to the exclusion of a are bright 
upon a dark field ; and the strie are brought nearer to one another in 
the ratio of 2:1, so that they appear twice as fine as I.—III. though 
they coincide with the latter in direction. 

The systems of striz vii—ix. which are at right angles to the 
ordinary sets I-III., and of which the lines are closer together in the 
proportion 3: 1, are obtained in a bright field when with objectives 
of very large aperture, the spectra of the first series a,-a, are inter- 
cepted by suitable diaphragms, and the objective receives the direct 
pencil a together with one of the spectra of the second series such as 
ad,,aa,...aa; The striation 1X. can be obtained by aa, and aa, 
when oblique light is allowed to fall upon the central rib. 

The same sets of striae can be produced upon a dark field when, 
using central light and an objective of large numerical aperture, a and 


Journ. R. Micr. Soc., 1888, PL. ill. 


nt 
AMA 


eo iy 
HL nM (ih 


Wile 


- | {| 
! Hi 
HH | } 
Hl | 


Hh 
Mh | 
| 


Pleurosigma angulatum. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 125 


all the other spectra are shut off with the exception of two belonging to 
the series a, a3, @,a,...4,a,. The striation IX. is then repeated twice 
by a, a, and a; a;. 

Since the distance of the spectra aa,,aa,... OF @, a3, A, d,...18 
greater in the ratio 1: ¥ 3 than that of aa,,aa,... the lines of the 
strie VII.-IX. must be closer to one another than those of I-III. in the 
ratio 43:1. The new striations IV—IX. called into existence by the 
above arrangements possess the same sharpness of outline as those which 
have been long known, namely I.—III. 

The above appearances serve to explain the different views which 
have been held with regard to the structure of diatoms, when they are 
observed with different modes of illumination. Dry and water-immersion 
objectives of no great numerical aperture show the well-known hexagons 
(plate III. fig. 3) when the illumination is central and with a not very 
minute diaphragm, or when the illumination is oblique if e.g. a a, dz a3 

-Or @ @, a; a, are operative. Large numerical aperture with central 
illumination gives bright circles arranged in lines which intersect at 60°, 
and between which with very sharply defining objectives (homogeneous- 
immersion for instance) dark spots are also visible (plate III. fig. 4). 
Oblique illumination and the action of a, a, a3, a, a; a;, with a numerical 
aperture up to 1-10 shows a chess-board pattern as described by Schiff 
and Dippel (plate III. fig.5). Very oblique illumination and the action 
of @ a, G3 a, OY 4a; 4, a; With objectives of very large numerical aperture 
give the peculiar figure first observed by Stephenson and Abbe, in 
which the bright rectangular spaces are traversed by a small dark line 
and are accompanied by dark markings equal to the first in size and 
lying above and below them (plate III. fig. 6). Other forms may be 
obtained on a bright or dark field by the use of various modes of 
illumination and of diaphragms which intercept certain spectra of the 
first and second series and only allow the remainder to operate. 

That the ordinary markings which are seen with an objective of large 
numerical aperture and with central illumination are more nearly related 
to the true structure than the other images, can only be concluded from 
conditions of their production, and not from the images themselves. 
These markings appear when the largest possible part of the total 
spectrum of the Pleurosigma valve is in operation, and as little as 
possible (i.e. only the furthest fainter pencils of the second and third 
series) is lost; while each of the other images is produced by a much 
smaller part of the total diffraction spectrum. For this reason it may be 
concluded that the former image is less dissimilar than the others from 
the image which corresponds to the complete diffraction action of the 
valve, and which is unattainable by any Microscope.* 

(3) Prof. Exner’s remarks on the Optical character of living Musele- 
jibres.;—Prof. 8. Exner employed his micro-refractometer { to determine 
the refraction and double refraction of living muscle-fibres, and to 
answer the question whether transversally-striated fibres have their 
refractive index increased or diminished during contraction. The paper, 
as we have above stated, is more particularly interesting to microscopists 
from the observations which the author makes on the application of the 


* Dippel’s Das Mikroskop, 1882, pp. 158-61 (6 figs.). 
+ Arch. f. d. gesammt. Physiol. (Pfliiger), xl. (1887) pp. 360-98 (2 pls.). 
~ Sce this Journal, 1886, p. 328. 


126 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


diffraction theory of microscopical vision to the examination of such 
minute objects as muscle-fibre. 

In the first place, the examination by the instrument of muscle from 
the femur of Hydrophilus piceus showed, beyond a doubt, that the con- 
tracted portions of a fibre have a higher refractive index than the 
remainder ; but, on the other hand, Prof. Exner claims to have proved 
that this is only the case with abnormal contraction, whereas when the 
contraction is normal, no change is produced in the refractive power. 
The immersion fluid used to determine the index was either white of egg 
concentrated over sulphuric acid in the receiver of an air-pump, and 
treated with acetic acid, or the liquid obtained by pressure from the eye 
of an ox or sheep. The refractive index of the former can be raised to 
1:4053, and that of the latter to 1:42-1:43. A number of trials with 
these fluids led to the result that the stationary living muscle of Hydro- 
philus has an index of refraction which varies slightly on either side of 
the value 1:°363, while the same muscle may have slightly different 
values in different parts. As regards what may be called the ordinary 
and extraordinary rays for light traversing the fibres in a direction 
perpendicular to their length, measurements of the indices in the 
sartorius muscle of a frog led to the approximate values n, = 1°368 for 
the ordinary ray, and n¢ = 1-370 for the extraordinary ray. 

When the screen of the micro-refractometer is placed with its edge 
at right angles to the length of the fibres, a peculiar striped appearance 
is produced, which the author explains as due to the obliquity of the 
layers constituting the fibre, so that a ray of light is deflected or not 
according as it does or does not pass through layers of varying refractive 
index. Now when the waves of contraction which traverse the living 
muscle of an insect isolated in an inactive fluid of equal or greater 
refractive index are examined with the micro-refractometer, the screen 
having its edge parallel to the Jength of the fibres, it is found that the 
contracted portions become dark on the side of the screen and light on 
the opposite side, in other words, the index of refraction in these parts 
is diminished ; if the index were increased, the first effect would be an 
illumination of the fibre as far as the sarcolemma, and this is never 
observed, 

On the other hand, the permanently contracted and transversally 
striated parts found in fibres which are still living, especially near the 
torn ends, do exhibit a marked increase of refractive power; these, 
however, are regarded by the author not as normal contractions but as a 
change which accompanies the death of such parts of the fibre ; they do 
not recover their previous character, because the muscular substance has 
been partially destroyed, and this is proved by three facts—(1) the 
permanently contracted parts are smaller than those of which the con- 
traction is normal. (2) the death of a fibre is accompanied by the 
emission of a certain amount of liquid, as may be proved by examining 
the fibre in liquid paraffin (refractive index = 1°4712), when the micro- 
refractometer indicates that the contracted portion is surrounded by a 
liquid of less refractive index than the paraffin ; (3) it is only necessary 
to examine a free fibre under the Microscope, when it will be found 
after a few hours to have contracted and to be surrounded by liquid, 
and a contracting portion may be occasionally seen during a few minutes 
to surround itself with a ring of liquid as it contracts. 

It may be concluded therefore that there is an absolute distinction to 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1pyi 


be made between the normal living contractions and the permanent con- 
tractions which are accompanied by a partial destruction of the muscle- 
fibre, and that the latter only are marked by an increase of refractive 
power. 

So far we have given an abstract only of the author’s paper. His 
“Remarks on our Knowledge of the Structure of the Transversally 
Striated Muscle-fibres ” which follow, we translate in extenso. 

“It seems to me therefore that the very contradictory data con- 
cerning the anatomical relations of a muscle-fibre during contraction 
require revision. It will be asked why I do not undertake this revision. 
The answer is, that such a revision is not possible without an accurate 
knowledge of the relaxed muscle-fibre, and that I feel myself unable to 
form an opinion as to whether certain results of late investigations on 
this subject are reliable or not. I regard not only myself but others 
also provisionally as unable to form this opinion for reasons which will 
be explained in the following remarks. 

Where twenty years ago a distinction was only drawn between 
singly and doubly refracting substance in the muscle, there is now 
recognized a sequence of the parallel layers (using Rollett’s nomencla- 
ture) Z, E, N, J, Q, h, J, N, E; nine layers in place of two; these 
layers are conveniently described as of a thinness which approaches ‘ the 
limits of the perceptible.’ 

If we consider that the whole of geometrical optics, i. e. the recognized 
laws of the formation of images, only holds good so long as the relation 
between the magnitude of the object and the wave-length of light does 
not fall below a certain limit;* and if we consider, further, that the 
wave-length of light in air (e.g. for the line Cf) is 0°000589 mm., 
and in muscle-fibre (n = 1°363) is 0°000432 mm., and that these 
numbers are greater than the thickness of the single layers, we must 
ask ourselves whether these anatomical results have any value at all. 

To this it must be added that Abbe, the first living authority on 
the theory of the Microscope, says with regard to the diffraction-images 
produced by the transverse striation of the muscle-fibres, ‘The 
manifold changes in the character of the image’ (produced by the trans- 
verse striation) ‘explain to some extent the well-known difference between 
the observations of various investigators with regard to these appear- 
ances, but prove also the impossibility of acquiring any definite knowledge 
about their actual physical structure’ (i.e. of the fibres) ‘in the sense of 
the attempts which have hitherto been made.’ } 

Thanks to the investigations of the same physicist, we now know 
that the formation of a true microscopic image depends upon whether all 
those rays contribute to the formation of the image on the retina which 
are diffracted by the boundaries (whether sharply defined or gradual) 
between parts of the object of different refractive powers, or by inequali- 
ties of the object, &c. If this is not the case we may receive illusory 
images; the finer the structure which we attempt to resolve by the 
Microscope, the greater is the probability that a portion of the diffracted 
rays will not reach the eye. Beyond a certain limit of fineness this 
probability becomes a certainty, and Abbe concludes ‘ that no Microscope 
has ever shown, or ,will ever show, anything actually existing in the 

* Cf. Helmholtz, ‘‘ Ueber die Grenzen der Leistungsfahigkeit des Mikrokopes,” 
SB. Berliner Akad., 1873, p. 625. 

+ According to Ditscheiner. ¢ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., ix. (1873) p. 454. 


128 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


object which cannot be clearly distinguished by a normal. eye with a 
sharp immersion amplification of 800, 

‘lo many microscopists the physical deductions will perhaps be less 
accessible than the experiments which show that the lines of a microscopic 
grating are doubled when a portion of the diffracted rays are prevented 
from reaching the eye; that by screening off another part lines can be seen 
running in a direction different to those of the lines of the grating, &e. 

Even the microscopist who has no desire to work at the theory of 
theso phenomena must at least be made anxious by them, and his anxiety 
is the more justified by the fact that there is no criterion by which we 
can know whether some of the rays have been lost to the retina or not. 

It is this feeling of anxiety with which I am concerned. How many 
pages have been written upon the structure and the linear markings of 
Pleurosigma angulatum! We now know that various authors have seen 
the markings differently, and we know why this is so, and that we may 
perhaps learn the true structure in some other way, but never by simple 
microscopic observation as has been attempted. Are we not upon similar 
ground in the case of the muscle-fibres? In any case it seems to me 
that we must tread it with caution. 

Now it is this caution and this feeling of anxiety which I miss in 
the later investigations on muscle-fibres; although our knowledge of 
the relation between the diffraction phenomena and the microscopic 
image is old enough, I do not remember to have ever found in the 
literature of the subject a clear and definite expression which would 
indicate any fear of falling into the error which I have pointed out. 
Yet facts so glaring as those which I have adduced, and such authors 
as Helmholtz and Abbe, cannot be overlooked. 

There is a special group of diffraction phenomena to which I will 
draw attention. The rays which, traverse the object naturally interfere 

in the wide space between the retina, the 
Fig. 52, object, and (according to the usual optical 
mode of expression) beyond the latter. 

Let a b (fig. 32) be a plane wave-surface, 
eda small opaque particle. Ine will meet 
rays without difference of phase, which have 
passed c and d and have been diffracted at 
those points. If then the Microscope is focused 
upon e a bright spot is seen, As the ob- 
jective is moved towards cd, i.e. as it is ad- 
justed for successive points in the line ef 
which lie between e and c d, the conditions are 
the same for all these points until the rays 
de and ce have so great an inclination, that 
with the particular aperture in use they no 
longer contribute to the formation of the 
image. If the Microscope-tube is depressed until it is adjusted for a 
point below cd, the bright spot returns and is now due to the rays 
rf and q f which have no difference of phase. With regard to points 
lying on either side of the median line ef the case is different. If m is 
a point at which the diffracted rays cm and dm meet, with a difference 
of path equal to a half wave-length ch, they destroy one another ; e will 


* See infra as to the fear of similar dangers entertained by Heppner and 
Donitz. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 129 


therefore be surrounded by a dark ring; all points which satisfy the 
same conditions as m and which lie in the plane of the figure belong to 
a hyperbola whose apex lies in ab; as the tube is raised the dark ring 
will therefore increase. 

According to the conditions e will be surrounded by a certain number 
of dark rings corresponding to differences of path, which are an unequal 
number of half wave-lengths, and between them will lie bright rings. 
These diffraction ) henomena may be well seen with particles of Indian 
ink in water when a round opening of 1 cm. in a screen before a gas- 
flame is used as illuminator; the same thing may also be seen with 
ordinary illumination. 

Certain interference-bands lie in the immediate neighbourhood of 
the object, and are seen when the Microscope is focused close to the 
object ; and when the latter has, as is the case with the muscle-fibres, a 
considerable thickness, the diffraction images may even lie inside the 
object, aud thereby considerably increase the danger of error. Now, as 
‘has been said above, the image is no longer reliable when the object 
attains a certain minuteness, so that in such cases it may be uncertain 
whether the Microscope is focused on the object or on the diffraction 
appearances. As is well known, the different interpretations put by 
Engelmann and Meyer upon the process of contraction in muscle-fibres 
depend on the different modes of judging what is meant by the ‘true’ 
focal adjustment of the object.* 

In working with the Microscope we see every day examples of these 
diffraction images; a sufficiently minute drop of mastic emulsion has 
naturally a definite outline and a transparent interior, like a larger drop, 
but this cannot be seen; in general, what is seen is a dark point, or with 
a different focus a bright point surrounded by a dark circle. Whether 
the object consists of a transparent liquid or a black pigment we cannot 
say, since the diffraction phenomena are the same in the twocases. With 
a sufficiently fine thread a similar figure is produced. 

The practised microscopist, although he only sees the diffraction 
phenomena, and even in consequence of them, will realize the existence 


* Cf. Merkel in Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., ix. (1873) p. 299. Merkel here attempts 
to settle the question by examining the primitive fibrille in polarized light, and 
since the ordinary illumination gives no result he employs direct sunlight. I cannot 
regard this as satisfactory, for in this case the small angular size of the source of 
light introduces conditions peculiarly suitable for diffraction phenomena, In fact it 
is impossible to ignore the fact that if the double-refraction has not been essentially 
altered in the balsam preparations, and there is no reason to believe this to be the 
case, Merkel’s results cannot be attributed to this cause; a single fibrilla is too thin. 

If the fibrilla is only visible in blue light upon a dark field the difference of path 


of the two rays must amount to : of this light. According to Ketteler, for the line 


G in vacuum 
Av = 0:000430409 mm. 


So that with the above values of n for the ordinary and extraordinary rays in a 
living muscle-fibre 

Ao = 0:00031463 mm. 

Ae = 0°00031417 mm, 


Assuming for the fibrilla the considerable thickness 0°002 mm. it contains 6°356 
waves of the ordinary and 6°366 waves of the extraordinary ray; that is, the differ- 
ence of path is only 1/100 of a wave-length ; and this is not in harmony with the 
effect described, 


1888. K 


130 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of a small particle. But how is he to gain the practice to explain 
diffraction phenomena in objects of complicated structure, and which he 
cannot, like a drop of mastic, reproduce artificially? It is scarcely 
possible either as the result of practice, or on the basis of theoretical 
treatment, to arrive at a clear explanation of all the images produced 
by different focusing, thickness of fibre, illumination, &c. The conditions 
are too complicated, but I will endeavour to make the essential points 
more clear. 

Let ab (fig. 33) be the boundary of a muscle-fibre, and mg fn the 
visible portion of a disc of the same which has a different refractive 
index from that of the next disc. If A is a point outside the fibre, the 
intensity of vibration at A of a plane wave of light which traverses ab 
is, aceording to Huyghens’s principle of the elementary zones of spherical 


waves, the result of the interference of gh with qf, of fg with ef, of 
ef with de, of de with cd, and of similar portions on the other side 
which reach A. If the path from gh to A is a half wave-length smaller 
than that from hi to A, and similarly in the remaining parts, the result 
of the interference is the extinction of the portion of the wave which 
is the more remote from A g, and the rectilinear propagation of the ray 
g A. The shaded portions may represent those parts where wave-troughs 
reach A at the same moment at which wave-crests arrive from the 
unshaded parts. If the pencils whose inclination is that of 1 A, or of 
the rays beyond / A which are not represented in the figure, do not 
enter the Microscope, then the above-mentioned case of an incomplete 
image is realized, which is of course in the present example without 
signification, since no part of the structure is included. 

If the cylindrical form of the fibre is negleeted this method of treat- 
ment may be applied to any point g of a line which is perpendicular to 
the axis of the fibre, and Huyghens’s elementary zones become elementary 
stripes parallel to this line. 

Consider next the case (marked B in fig. 33) in which the point g falls 
on the boundary between two dises of different index. Let the shaded 
parts represent as before the wave-troughs which reach B, and the 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ast 


unshaded parts the wave-crests; then the figure indicates the altered 
conditions as compared with the first figure for the case in which, 
corresponding to the different refractive indices of the two discs, the 
portion of the light-wave which has traversed one of them is retarded by 
an uneven number of half wave-lengths behind the other. It will be 
seen at once that gf and gh in their action on B cancel each other, as do 
also the other elementary strips, just as in the first case. Further, it 
will be seen that this extinction takes place for every point of the line 
independently of the distance g B, and that with an alteration in the 
thickness of the fibre a periodic alternation between light and partial 
darkness must take place. The case is different when we consider a 
point which is not at right angles to the bounding surface, e.g. C, 
fig. 383. The vis viva to be transferred from fh to C is neither 
cancelled as in the second case, nor weakened in the same degree as in 
the first case by the neighbouring elementary stripes, whose phase is 
_ shifted through a half wave-length, but it reaches C, so far as concerns 
the portion fg, in its full extent, the action of ef and gh being added 
with positive sign to that of fg, though each of the first is weakened to a 
certain extent, it is irue, by the slight action of de and ht While there- 
fore, the point B remains undisturbed, C receives an intensity of vibra- 
tion, and a ray travels in the direction »C. This corresponds to the 
first diffraction pencil, 

Supposing that the muscle disc mg fx were much smaller, and 
extended from f only to a point, e (not shown in the figure), between e 
and f, if this thin layer is to have any effect upon the microscopic image 
it must, at least, contribute a diffracted pencil to the production of the 
image. The smaller fo, the farther must C travel from C,, that the 
difference of path between the portions of the wave fe and fg may attaiu 
a half wave-length, and the larger, therefore, must be the angle made 
by the diffraction pencil with the perpendicular nf. When fo is nearly 
a half wave-length, then this angle is nearly a right angle, and we get 
the law discovered by Helmholtz, that microscopic delineation ceases 
when the detail to be observed diminishes to the size of a half wave- 
length, presupposing an aperture of the Microscope of 180°. In this 
case one, at least, of the pencils of light diffracted by the structural 
element still enters into the microscopic image. 

If we consider the boundary of the dise more closely, it is clear 
that there will be a similar interference upon the other side of f n. 
Here also there will be a ray in the direction p, C,. Now, the two 


r, : 
rays p C and p, C, have a difference of phase equal to Z Focusing, 


therefore, upon the point of intersection of these two rays, we shall see a 
dark line under the upper surface of the fibre. If we focus the inter- 
section of p C with the corresponding line r q from the other surface 
of the disc, a bright band must be visible, as will also be the case 
when the Microscope is focused on the point above the fibre in which 
Ane intersects the corresponding line (not shown) upon the other 
side. 

The phenomena here described bear some relation, on the one hand, 
to the interference phenomena of the so-called ‘ mixed scales’ discovered 
by Young, which are explained by the retardation of a part of the light- 
waves which traverse a medium of different refractive index from the 
rest; and, on the other hand, with the ‘lamellar diffraction phenomena’ 


K 2 


132 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


more recently investigated experimentally by Quincke and theoretically 
by Jochmann.* 

The phenomena are, beyond comparison, more complicated in the 
muscle-fibres, as must be at once apparent if it is remembered that 
the conditions described do not depend upon a b being the surface of the 
fibre, so that the above treatment holds good for any plane within the 
fibre for which the portions of the wave that traverse the different discs 


have a difference of phase equal to ; and when it is remembered also 


that the phenomena must change with the thickness of the layer, that 
the source of light is not a point, but a bright surface (a portion of the 
sky or its image), that the light used is mixed light, &e. 

The case may also be made clear in the following way:—When a 
plane wave traverses discs of unequal refractive index, it acquires 
parallel ridges corresponding to the layers of smaller index, The 
problem then consists in the determination of the resultant of the inter- 
ference of the elementary waves proceeding from a surface of this form. 

Some years ago Heppner} suspected that a certain layer of the 
muscle-fibre, identical with Rollett’s N, does not in reality exist, but is 
confused through a reflex. Sachs{ and others opposed this idea. 
Dénitz § seems to have been the first who thought of diffraction 
phenomena as the explanation of certain striations. He was followed 
by Schafer, and Ranvier made experiments upon the diffraction spectra 
obtained from stationary and contracted fibres in which the transverse 
striations acted as a diffraction grating. 

I have, in the above remarks, raised the question whether, in the 
light of this optical treatment, the results of recent investigations have 
any value as regards the distinguishing of several layers in the musele- 
fibres where previously two alone were recognized, or whether we must, 
with Abbe, for ever despair of recognizing such minute details. 

My answer amounts to this, that without doubt the greater part of 
the recent results deserve complete trust. All those layers which have 
been distinguished, not only in the optical image, but also by maceration 
and staining experiments, are free from the suspicion of being only the 
impression of incomplete delineation. Rollett, who seems to have been 
thoroughly aware how slippery is the ground of simple microscopic 
examination, has recently, as I think, trodden the path here indicated 
with the best results. The same has been attempted, it is true, by 
many inquirers before him, but no one has worked in this direction with 
such a variety of methods or obtained such promising results. 

When for example the layer N under the action of acid behaves in 
an essentially different way from the layer Q, there can be no doubt 
that a distinction is here established. But the case is different with 
certain details, where one meets with the above-mentioned want of care 
against incomplete delineation, in consequence of which one can see even 
more than is really present. I may be here allowed to give examples; 
but I may first state that in the absence of a true criterion for a correct 
and complete representation of the object, the following may serve as a 
criterion. A detail of the microscopic image is to be regarded as 


* Cf. Verdet, ‘ Vorlesungen iiber die Wellentheorie des Lichtes,’ German transla- 
tion, by K. Exner, i. (1881). + Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., v. (1869). 
} Du Bois Reymond and Reichert’s Arch., 1872. § Ibid., 1871. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 133 


existing in the object when its character is not altered by an inclination 
of the incident pencil of light (oblique illumination). If the character 
is altered in passing from central to oblique illumination, we may con- 
clude that in the latter, diffracted rays enter the Microscope which were 
unable to do so in the first case. When this happens, it indicates that 
a complete representation is not obtained by central illumination, and 
it must be doubtful whether it is so by oblique illumination. 

We may obtain a good idea of the optical processes which form the 
basis of this rule by means of the Abbe diffraction plate. If any line- 
system of the plate be so focused that the central image of the whole 
diffraction spectrum visible in the focal plane of the objective lies in the 
axis of the Microscope (direct illumination), and one entire half of the dif- 
fraction spectra be then screened off by a suitable diaphragm (with the 
exception of the central image for which the semicircular diaphragm 
must have a piece cut away), the microscopic image will not suffer any 
essential change. It is also possible, as may be easily seen, to set the 
‘mirror so obliquely (or to obtain oblique illumination by Abbe’s con- 
denser), that the rays which have not been diffracted still contribute to 
the microscopic image, the image of the source of light then falling at 
the margin of the diffraction phenomena visible through the tube. In 
this case still further diffracted rays may become visible in the diffraction 
image, and may contribute to the delineation if such rays are present to 
a considerable extent. 

I cannot help calling attention to two other possible sources of 
error. It is not impossible that the discs of unequal index of which the 
muscle-fibre is constructed, are not separated from one another by sharp 
boundaries, but the optical density may change gradually from one to 
another. Such layers have in fact been described. 

Now a dise in which the refractive index is a maximum or a minimum 
at the cenire, acts like a cylindrical lens upon light which enters it 
parallel to its plane ends (independently of the cylindrical surface). 
The parts of a wave surface which traverse layers of smaller index, 
travel more rapidly than those which have to traverse layers of greater 
index, so that there results a cylindrical curvature of the wave surface.* 
In this way focal lines may be produced which are parallel to the layers 
in the muscle; they need not be outside the fibres, but may lie within 
them; in the first case they alter their position as the thickness of the 
fibre increases, 

It is evident that stripes which are produced in this way, as well 
as those which result from diffraction, must undergo various changes 
if an alteration takes place in the refractive indices, owing to the separa- 
tion of a liquid from the muscle-fibre. Since such changes do take place 
during the life of the muscle, it is not a matter for surprise if the fibres 
which are still contracting change their appearance. LRollett has in 
fact described and figured a series of such changes, but whether they 
are due to the causes here indicated, I must, in the presence of such a 
number of possibilities, leave undecided. 

Mention has repeatedly been made of darker and lighter layers 
in the fibre, and Rollett, in treating of the transverse striations of the 
fibres, likes to give two figures beside one another, one taken with high, 


* Cf. S. Exner, ‘Ueb. Cylinder welche optische Bilder entwerfen.’ This Journal, 
1886, p. 1062. 


134 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the other with deep focusing, which bear the same relation to one another 
as the positive and negative of a photograph. They show that we have 
here a case of an optical effect. There are, however, frequently to be 
found figures in which the dark appearance of the striations is to be 
regarded as a true darkness of the anatomical structure; not the ex- 
pression of diffraction, but an absorption of the light-rays. Sachs * says, 
‘The dark colour of the contractile substance rather depends principally 
upon the opposition offered by the very dense gelatinous mass to the 
passage of light; the greater part of the incident light between o, and o; 
is absorbed.’ 

Sachs is here speaking of the fresh living muscle-fibre,t in which 
the doubly refracting substance, at least under ordinary conditions and 
with the ordinary adjustment, does in fact appear dark. I must, however, 
deny this and similar statements to the effect that there is anywhere in 
the living muscle-fibre a substance which ‘absorbs the greater part of the 
incident light.’ Al parts of the fibre which are not granular are rather 
to be regarded as absolutely transparent in layers of the thickness 
with which the Microscope is concerned, i.e. if there is an absorption it 
is not appreciable. The ‘dark layers’ which are not granular, and also, 
of course, the ‘bright layers, are always optical effects. If there were 
an appreciable absorption it would also be observed when the light 
travels parallel to the axis of the fibres. Since « reflection of the rays 
must take place where there are granules in the fibre, it is an open 
question whether light is absorbed by the granules. 

The second source of error, which seems to me to be too much over- 
looked, takes effect when the fibres are examined in polarized light; not 
every bright line which is seen between crossed nicols is necessarily to 
be regarded as the expression of a doubly refracting layer. 

The plane of polarization is also turned by diffraction, and it is 
impossible to say whether in this case the rotation of the plane of 
polarization does not also take place by refraction and reflection. In 
some fibres examined for this purpose I have found the maximum bright- 
ness from Q and Z between crossed nicols to be always in the same 
azimuth, which contradicts such an explanation of the layer Z which is 
generally regarded as doubly refracting. 

Finally, there is one remark which I cannot refrain from making. 
It is fully established, in my judgment, as I have said, that there are 
living muscle-fibres for which the old idea of composition by alternate 
layers of singly and doubly refracting substance does not hold good; 
several layers can be distinguished. On the other hand, however, we 
must not ignore the fact that living fibres are observed in which only 
two old layers can be seen with certainty, and that this is the more 
certain in proportion as the fibres (assumed to be living) are more fresh. 

It may well be asked what then is essential and typical in muscle- 
fibres. One may well hold the view that it is more natural to assume 
that in certain cases we fail to distinguish a part of the layers than 
to imagine an irregularity in the structure of the fibres. We must 
remember, however, that Rollett’s investigations did not in general 
establish a type of numerous layers, but that the image varies from one 


* Reichert and Du Bois Reymond’s Arch., 1872, p. 633. 

+ This is not expressly stated, but follows from the fact that in the passage quoted 
he is opposing Heppner, who speaks expressly of the living fibre. Arch. f. Mikr. 
Anat., v. (1869) p. 139. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. a 


species to another, and what is not to be overlooked, that it varices con- 
siderably during the survival and decay, and during the process of 
hardening. In one preparation of living muscle-fibre from Hydrophilus 
I saw fibres in which the dises Z and E were well developed, by the side 
of others in which the distinction could not be seen. 

With this want of constancy it seems to me to be dangerous to regard 
the fibre with nine layers as the type,* without granting that there also 
exist fibres with two layers. Iam rather inclined to see the type in the 
fibres with two layers, and to regard the appearance of more layers as 
something secondary.” 


Method of Representing and Calculating the Magnification of 
Microscopic Objects in the projected images.|—Dr. P. de Vescovi has 
published a paper under this title, which seems to us to contain a great 
many elementary facts and statements. Divested of these, the following 
extracts appear to contain the pith of the paper. 

The statement of the amplification rarely corresponds to the truth, 
and generally deviates widely from it, since the methods ordinarily 
used to calculate and to indicate the enlargement are defective, or at 
least fail in something. The amplifications given in the tables which 
are supplied with Microscopes are mostly obtained by multiplying the 
magnifying power of the eye-picce by that of the objective—an inexact 
method. 

More exact are those who give the system of lenses used, and the 
names of the makers of the Microscope; but in this case if one considers 
the factors (such as length of tube), which contribute to the variations 
in size of the image, the indication is still inexact; as it may easily 
happen that with a given’ eye-piece and objective, and upon the same 
instrument, different amplifications may be obtained either of the real or 
of the projected image. 

“'Po remove all uncertainty and possible difficulties, it is necessary 
that the explanation of every figure should give the following data :— 

(1) The eye-piece and objective used. 

(2) The maker of the Microscope. 

(3) The length of the tube. 

4) The true dimensions of the object. 

(5) The ratio of the dimensions of the object to those of its projected 
image, or the amplification of the drawing. 

Example : 


Hye-piece 3. Objective AA Zeiss. 
Length of tube = 17 cm. 

Greater diameter of the object = 0°026 mm. 
Amplification of the drawing = 95.” 


Measurement of Magnifying-power of Objectives. 
[Replies to query by J. S. Hewitt, T. F. 8S, “ Practical,” E. M. Nelson, 
E. Holmes, “ Gamma Sigma,” J. D. M., and “ Decem.’”’] 
Engl. Mech., XLVI. (1887) pp. 325, 341-2 (2 figs.), 365 (1 fig.), and 417. 


* So far as I know, no one has done this. Different authors have rather founded 
different types which always, however, have a considerable number of layers. 
t Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 197-200. 


136 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(6) Miscellaneous. 


Development of the Compound Microscope.*—In the course of Mr, 
KE. M. Nelson’s paper on this subject he makes the following remarks :— 
“Let me preface the few remarks I have to make on the Development 
of the Microscope, by pointing out to you the important place the Micro- 
scope holds in our social economy. Up to a very few years ago the 
education of the nation was confined merely to a knowledge of Greek 
and Roman mythology. This was the key-note given by our two Uni- 
versities, which as a natural consequence was followed up by the public 
schools, whose masters are all graduates of one of these Universities. 
The knowledge of a dead language depends more on an effort of 
memory than on a use of the reasoning faculty. As a development of 
the reasoning faculty is of vastly greater importance than the memory 
power, so dead languages are most unsuited for the training of the 
young. To educate according to its derivation, means to lead out; to 
educate a boy therefore, is to lead out his mind; in other words, to draw 
out something which is there. According to the popular notion it is to 
put in something which is not. 

The only way to procure growth in an organism is to supply it with 
food it can readily digest, so the only way to develope the brain is to 
supply it with digestible food. Further, as one man’s meat is another’s 
poison for the body, so also is it for the mind. But what have the great 
educators of our nation done but force every one through the same 
classical diet, to the exclusion of everything else? In doing so they have 
ruined thousands of minds by arresting the development of the reasoning 
faculty, and by filling them with what is, in most cases, indigestible 
matter. There is necessarily a certain percentage of minds to whom 
classical lore is a food capable of ready assimilation ; they consequently 
may be benefited by it, but we may assume the percentage is small. 

You will be asking what all this has to do with the Microscope. To 
which I reply, that I wish to see Liddell and Scott’s Lexicon dethroned, 
and the Microscope put in its place as a national educator. Of late a 
change has taken place. Since my schooldays, science has been in- 
troduced. This is the thin end of the wedge; let it by all means have 
full scope, and I have little doubt but that that science which was ridi- 
culed by the schoolmasters of my day, will eventually supplant the 
Olympian mythoiogy as a pabulum on which to feed the young mind. 
The Microscope and the telescope hold the same relation to science as a 
knife and fork do to beef. If science isa food for the mind, a little time 
devoted to the knife which makes it capable of assimilation will, I hope, 
not be in vain. Therefore, without further digression, I will at once 
pass to the instrument. The telescope, dealing as it does with extra- 
mundane things, cannot have the same interest for us as the Microscope. 
The one fact, that the Microscope has revealed the pestilence which has 
walked in darkness all these ages, is sufficient to place it above all other 
scientific instruments in importance. An unseen foe is a bad one to 
fight, but now that his lurking-place has been unmasked by the Micro- 
scope, we may look for some victories over our enemy. Have not some 
indeed been already gained ?” 

“* We have now come to a period when the Microscope object-glass 
was achromatized, and from this date spring the great improvements 


* Trans. Middlesex Nat. Hist. and Sci. Soc., 1886-7, pp. 103-11. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 137 


which have brought the instrument to its present state of perfection. It 
would, indeed, take several evenings to systematically examine the 
great number of forms which have been introduced since that time. It 
is my intentien, however, only to notice three, as most of the others, not 
being of any practical value, have speedily become obsolete. We need 
no diagrams of the three forms which have survived, as I have actual 
examples in the room. First there is this, which is known as the 
“ Hartnack,” or “Continental Model,” it is a lineal descendent of the 
** Oberhauser.” I have little hesitation in saying that nine-tenths of all 
original microscopical work has been done by these Microscopes, but at 
the same time I maintain that that statement does not prove it to be the 
best model. It is a model which is incapable of doing critical work 
with low powers, and of working any high power at all. The reason 
why so many discoveries have been made with it is due to the fact that 
nine-tenths of the things discovered lie among low-power objects. 
Another point must be borne in mind, viz. that a quarter-inch 
lens uncritically used will as readily discover an object as a half-inch 
critically used. 

The interpretation of images with low powers is easy, and requires 
very little training; critical images, therefore, are not so essential. 
Most of the fine high-power work which has been carried on with these 
instruments has been erroneous, and has had to be corrected with other 
instruments. As time goes on, discoveries with the low powers become 
less and less possible, and instruments of greater precision will become 
necessary.” 

“The importance of a condenser cannot be over-estimated. I have 
always held that Microscopy begins with a condenser. An instrument 
however well designed and well constructed, if it has not a condenser, 
is nothing more than a magnifying glass, while on the other hand, a 
simple stand like this iron one of Powell’s, with a condenser, forms 
a very efficient Microscope.” 


‘Student’s Handbook to the Microscope.’ *—This little book ful- 
fils its purpose in a very creditable manner, and will be a useful guide 
for a large number of Microscope owners. It is a decided advance on 
the author’s previous venture, ‘My Microscope, the publication of 
which was, we thought, to be regretted. 

Even in these days it is, we suppose, hopeless to expect the question 
of aperture to be dealt with without a mistake, and therefore we find on 
p. 37, the statement that among the drawbacks to an excess of aperture 
is “a loss of defining power, that is distinctness of the image.” This 
arises from an entire misunderstanding of the principles of aperture. 
The larger the aperture, the less the penetrating power, or the power of 
seeing a given depth of the object with the same focus. But the definition 
of the particular plane, whatever its depth, which is seen by the large 
aperture is not in any way impaired; in fact the definition of what is 
seen is more complete and perfect with the “high angle” objective than 
with one of smaller aperture. 


‘Microscopical Advances.” t—‘“ T. F. §.,” writing on one of a 
series of articles under this heading by Dr. G. W. Royston-Pigott, 


* A Quekett Club-man, ‘The Student’s Handbook to the Microscope. A 
Practical Guide to its Selection and Management,’ vii. and 72 pp. (80 figs.) 8vo, 
London, 1887. + Engl. Mech., xlvi. (1888) p. 435. 


1388 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


points out that he has mixed up the “ villi” on butterfly seales—which 
point to real structure—with the old vexed question of the beading of 
the Lepisma and Podura scale, “ discrediting the whole thing with those 
who have knowledge of the subject, and giving utterly false impressions 
to those who have not.” 

Having carefully examined many scales of Lepisma with a fine 1/12 
oil-immersion by Swift and Son, “'T. F. 8.” is prepared positively to 
state that there is not the slightest existence of beads in any of them, 
although it is easy to see what caused the appearance of beads to 
Dr. Pigott with the dry 1/16 in. which he used. “ Please remember,” 
T. F. 8. writes, “that it is a dry glass against an oil-immersion, and [ 
need not tell any expert microscopist that if certain appearances which 
present themselves with a narrow aperture of the objective vanish when 
another of larger aperture is screwed on, that of itself is sufficient to 
disprove the existence of the apparent structure. 

“ Now for the real structure. The scale itself is composed of two 
membranes, in one of which is imbedded the longitudinal ribs; the 
other is corrugated, and the corrugations cross the longitudinal ribs at 
an oblique angle, giving under a low power the appearance of spines. 
Between the two membranes, and over the whole scale, is a net-like 
looking structure, perforated in all directions, and where this also 
crosses the oblique corrugations there is the appearance of beads. This 
appearance of beading, however, is confined to the sides, and not even 
Dr. Pigott himself could conjure any appearance of beading out of the 
centre, and in the drawing he has confined himself to the side only. 
Some of the small scales have only small straight hairs between the 
long ribs, and here it is easy to produce beautiful beads by using the 
smallest hole in the diaphragm of the condenser ; but they all disappear 
on producing more light. On the Podura scale I have not been able to 
produce the slightest appearance of beading, although I have tried very 
hard todo so. The “villi” in the butterfly and moth scales stand on 
quite a different footing, and answer the purpose of keeping the two 
membranes more or less apart; but even here I can see no evidence of 
isolated beading. I can see them (the villi) on any scale with a dry 
1/6 in. and 1/8 in.; but here the evidence is confirmed tenfold by 
substituting an oil-immersion 1/12 in.” 


‘“‘The Microscope and Kidney Disease.”—-Most readers of news- 
papers are by this time sufficiently on their guard against the insidious 
paragraphs to be found at the bottoms of columns, the titles of which 
appear to promise a very interesting piece of news, but which ultimately 
end in an advertisement of some nostrum sold by the advertiser; such, 
for instance, as the “ False Swain and Deluded Spinster,” which in the 
last few lines is discovered to be an advertisement of a hair restorer. 

A particularly flagrant example of this trap for the unwary was 
presented by the ‘ Norfolk News’ of the 24th December last. The 
paragraph was not at the bottom but at the top of the column, and it 
was not printed in the usual smaller type, but in similar type to that 
used elsewhere in the paper. Being headed in capitals ‘Tue Micro- 
scopr,” and “THE MANY Puzziine Secrets REVEALED BY THIS WONDER- 
FuL Instrument,” we naturally proceeded to read it with much interest, 
and that our readers may be able to participate in the feelings with 
which we followed the development of the atrocious nonsense thus 


+ 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 159 


heralded we print it here, with the exception of the advertiscr’s name, 
for which we have substituted “Smith.” 

“No medical man of skill and ability considers his study at the 
present time complete unless it contains a first-class Microscope. This 
wonderful instrument by its marvellous power makes clear to our eyes a 
world of which, prior to its invention, we knew nothing. Its introduc- 
tion into medicine is only of late years, and has been mainly brought 
about by the competition of practitioners in their endeavour to find some 
aid that would enable them to detect the presence of disease when 
hidden or masked; to diagnose with greater accuracy, and so secure 
that prominence in their profession upon which their fame and emolu- 
ments rest. But its use has been more particularly applied to the 
examining of the fluids of the body to determine the state of the 
kidneys, and to decide if the latter are in a state of disease, and, if so, 
its stage. It has already been the means of saving many a life in fore- 
shadowing the advent of that stealthy and fatal disease to which Dr. 
Richard Bright gave his name, and which prior to the introduction of 
‘Smith’s Cure’ was always regarded as incurable. In all the history of 
the Microscope its use was never so prevalent, its study never prosecuted 
with so much vigour, as it is to-day ; and science through its means is 
ever revealing something fresh and new in relation to its powers. For 
instance, a noted physician and German scholar has recently discovered 
that by its aid the presence of a tumour forming in the system can be 
detected, and if certain appearances are visible it is proof positive that 
the tumour or growth is of a malignant character. Uric acid, which is 
a rank poison, is one of the substances which arise from destructive 
waste of our body, and must be thrown off daily or we die. Now before 
we understood the Microscope it was impossible by any means at our 
command to know what was being passed out of our body, or from 
whence it came; and one great benefit which this instrument has con- 
ferred upon humanity is in the relief of headaches, malaise, indisposi- 
tion, and other diseases, which are now known to be caused by the 
retention of uric acid in the body. When an analysis of the fluid is 
made by a micro-chemical examination this substance can be traced in 
its proper quantity, and when the proper remedy is applied relief is soon 
secured, the cure being effected almost immediately. .. . 

As we said before, medical science has been unable to cope with this 
disease, and neither homeeopathics nor allopathics are prepared with a 
cure for deranged kidneys; and all the world has long since recognized, 
and many medical men who are without bias and without prejudice. 
liberal minded, and anxious to cure, admit and prescribe ‘Smith’s Cure’ 
as a specific for all diseases of the kidneys. .. . 

‘Smith’s Cure,’ like the Microscope, was found out by a layman 
outside the medical code. The universal testimony of our friends and 
neighbours shows it to be alone the remedy for all diseases of the 
kidneys, their prevention and cure. Their statements are sufficient 
explanation and endorsement of its extraordinary growth, and conclusive 
proof that it is perhaps the most munificent remedy known to the 
medical world since the Microscope revealed to us the all-important 
nature of the organs which this medicine is specifically designed to 
benefit.” 

Although from one point of view it may not be very complimentary, 
yet we must express a hope that the editor of the ‘ Norfolk News’ when 


140 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


he inserted this advertisement really believed that he was imparting to 
his fellow countrymen a sound and valuable piece of microscopical 
information. 


“‘Quriosities of Microscopical Literature.’—In the last volume of 
the Journal, p. 830, we had occasion to comment upon a paper by Mr. 
H. Morland, in which a fundamental point of microscopical optics was 
the subject of an extraordinary misapprehension. 

In the last number of the publication in which the original paper 
appeared, we find the following entry : *— 

“ Mr. Morland read a reply to a criticism in the Royal Microscopical 
« Society’s Journal for the current month on his paper on ‘ Mounting 
“* Media so far as they relate to Diatoms.’ ” 

Neither the reply nor even an abstract of it is, however, printed, and 
no communication has reached us as to the nature of it. This is the 
funniest way of dealing with a “reply ” that we can recall; it is framed 
somewhat on the principle of Lecch’s celebrated cartoon of Lord John 
Russell chalking “ No Popery ” on Cardinal Wiseman’s door, and- then 
running away ! 


Bary, A. de, Hon. F.R.M.S. Obituary Notice. 
Atheneum, 1888, Jan. 28th, pp. 118-9. Nature, XX XVII. pp. 297-9. 
Dancer, J. B., Death of. 

[“‘ The death is announced of Mr. John Benjamin Dancer, a Manchester optician, 
to whom many important inventions are due. Mr. Dancer was born in 
London in the year 1812. He settled in Manchester in 1835, and soon made 
his mark in scientific circles. He was elected a member of the Literary and 
Philosophical Society, and a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. He 
was the first to suggest the application of photography in connection with the 
magic lantern, and he followed it up by other improvements. He also con- 
structed the optical chromatic fountain, an idea which has since been further 
developed at South Kensington, and Old Trafford, Manchester. Mr. Dancer’s 
services in connection with electricity and photography were of a valuable 
and important nature. Further, Dr. Joule states that the first thermometer 
made in England with any pretensions to accuracy was constructed ky the 
deceased. He was also successful in producing Microscopes which, while 
fully equal to the requirements of original research, were within reach of 
working-men naturalists. During the later years of his life Mr. Dancer's 
pecuniary circumstances were of a straitened character, and he also suffered 
from the terrible affliction of total blindness.’’] 

Times, 7th December, 1887. 
EpmuNDs, J.—Theory of the Microscope—Nageli and Schwendener. 
Engl. Mech., XLVI. (1887) p. 365. 
Errera, L.—La Micrographie a l’Exposition de Wiesbade. (Microscopy at the 
Wiesbaden Exhibition.) Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., X1V. (1887) pp. 22-35. 
Ewett, M. D.—A Manual of Medical Jurisprudence for the use of Students at Law 
and of Medicine. 

[Contains chapters on the part which the Microscope may play in determining 

medico-legal questions. ] 
414 pp., 12mo, Boston, 1887. 
Feu, G. E.—Exhibition of “Letter 0 occupying space of 1/1,000,000 in. magnified 
3200 times.” Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VIII. (1887) p. 209. 
Hitrcucock, R.—Reminiscences and notes on recent progress. 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VIII. (1887) pp. 205-7. 
Mayall, J., Jun.—Conferences sur le Microscope. (Lectures on the Microscope.) 
Contd. 

{ Zransl. of the Cantor Lectures. ] 

Journ. de Microgr., XI. (1887) pp. 544-6 (6 figs.). 


* Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, iii. (1887) p. 197. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 141 


MocInvrirg, S. J.—Another Eveniny at the Royal Microscopical Society. 

[Deseription of the first Conversazione of this Session. } 

Sci.-Gossip, 1888, pp. 19-20. 
Netson, E. M.—The Microscope—Nageli and Schwendener—English Translation, 
1887. Engl. Mech., XLVI. (1887) pp. 325, 364-5 (2 figs.), 393-4. 

Also comments by “ Practical,” who finds it “ far too abstruse to be of practical 
value to the general body of microscopists” (Jbid., p. 341), and reply by 
Dr. J. Edmunds (Jbid., p. 365)—‘ A Fellow of the Royal Astronomical 
Society,” who prefers Heath’s ‘Geometrical Optics’ (Zbid., p. 390).—Review 
by Dr. W. H. Dallinger (Nature, XXX VIL. pp. 171-3). 

Reichert, C.—Directions for using the Microscope. Transl. by A. Frazer. 

[In the Translator’s Preface acknowledgments are made to “Mr. A. Schulze 
(Fellow of the Royal Micro-copical Society).” No such name appears, 
however, in the Society’s List of Fellows. ] 

12 pp. and 2 figs., 8vo, Edinburgh, 1887, 
Royston-Picort, G. W.—Microscopical Advances. XXIX., XXX. 
(Butterfly dust; bars, villi, and bacilli; latticed and beaded ribs. ] 
Engl. Mech., XLVI. (1887) pp. 357, 379-80 (4 figs.). 
Vorcer, C. M—The Meeting of the American Society of Microscopists. 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VIII. (1887) pp. 207-9. 
Waterhouse, G. R., Hon. F.R.M.S8. Obituary Notice. 
Atheneum, 1888, January 28th, p. 119. 


B. Technique.* 


(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes. 


Cultivation of Saccharomycetes.t—Some fermentation experiments 
with which Mr. W. E. Stone has been engaged required the application 
of pure yeast, free from other organisms capable of producing fermenta- 
tion, and the following was the method of separation and cultivation 
employed :— 

A few drops of fresh beer-yeast were shaken in a test-tube with 
sterilized gelatin, which had been melted and cooled again until it was 
barely fluid. This flowed upon sterilized plates gave in twenty-four 
hours, at ordinary room temperature, a great number of colonies of 
Schizomycetes and Saccharomycetes, from which, with the aid of an 
ordinary dissecting Microscope, it was easy to inoculate new cultures. 
The gelatin was of ordinary composition in daily use in the laboratory, 
viz. 10 per cent. gelatin, 10 per cent. grape sugar, Liebig’s “ Fleisch 
Extract” added to give a yellowish-brown colour, and neutralized with 
sodium carbonate. Such a mixture is solid at 25° C. 

For further culture the isolated gelatin-plate colonies were inocu- 
lated into sterilized solutions consisting of an extract made by boiling 
200 grams of yeast in a litre of water, filtering, and adding 10 per cent. 
of grape-sugar. In such a solution an inoculation of a few yeast-cells 
usually increased in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours sufficiently 
to cover the sides and bottom of an ordinary 200 c.cm. flask with a thick 
white sediment. The cultures were most strong and active at the end 
of forty-eight hours. The supernatant fluid was then poured off, leaving 
the yeast deposit comparatively dry, 20 c.cm. of sterilized water added, 
and in this condition transfer to the sugar solution undergoing observa- 
tion was easy by means of a pipette. By this method, and the use of 
the extract of yeast as a nutritive solution, pure cultures were repeatedly 


* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- 
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ; 
(4) Staining and Injecting; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ; 
(6) Miscellaneous. + Bot. Gazette, xii. (1887) pp. 270-1. 


142 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


obtained which excited as active a fermentation as the fresh yeast from 
the breweries, a result not always obtained by the use of artificial 
nutritive solutions. The original gelatin plate-cultures, on account of 
their rapid growth, were useless after thirty-six hours, and to avoid a 
constant renewal of the proccss, as well as the introduction of different 
species of Saccharomycetes, inoculations were made into gelatin tubes. 
The cultures thus obtained produced characteristic, elegant, ivory- 
white colonies of 3-6 mm. in diameter, and then further development 
ceased. In this state they retained their vitality, and were constantly 
referred to as a source of inoculating material for two months. Probably 
they remained vigorous much longer, as Saccharomycetes are well known 
to do, but at this time the author’s need of them came to an end. 


Improvement in the method of preparing Blood-serum for use in 
Bacteriology.*—Dr. A. C. Abbot fills a large vessel, which can be her- 
metically sealed, with blood taken directly from the neck of an animal, 
with the usual antiseptic precautions. It is then quickly closed and 
allowed to stand for 15-20 minutes until coagulation takes place; a 
sterilized glass rod is then introduced in order to break up any adhesion 
of the surface to the glass vessel. The vessel is then placed in a cooler 
temperature which should not be too low lest coagulation be interrupted. 
In 24-36 hours the serum is withdrawn with a pipette, and placed in a 
vessel closed with cotton wool. The latter is then packed in ice for at 
least three days in order to allow the coloured particles to subside. The 
clear part of the serum is then transferred in quantities of 60-75 c.cm. to 
sterilized flasks of 100 ¢.cm. contents. Discontinuous sterilization is 
then begun and continued for an hour a day for six consecutive days. 
For this, the temperature should never be higher than 64° C., nor lower 
than 58° C.; for at higher temperatures the serum loses its transparency, 
and at a lower one the microbes are not destroyed. Thus prepared, 
serum has been kept for a whole year in the laboratory of the Johns- 
Hopkins University. 

Improved method for cultivating Micro-organisms on Potatoes.|— 
Dr. O. Katz recommends the following procedure for cultivating micro- 
organisms on potato, which he has found to give satisfactory results, 
especially in cultivations from dejecta of typhoid patients. 

Test-tubes, 10-5 cm. high and 2°5 cm. in diameter, are plugged 
with cotton-wool and then sterilized in the usual manner. Potato slices 
cut out of medium-sized, oval-shaped, perfectly healthy potatoes, and 
about 1 em. thick, are placed with forceps in the test-tubes, to the width 
of which they are made to fit. The tubes are then sterilized again at 
212° F. 

There is no fear of desiccation of the potato surfaces, as after boiling 
in the steam sterilizer, there is sufficient fluid at the bottom of the tube 
tc keep the contents moist for a considerable time at a temperature from 
20°-25° C. (68°-77° F.). At higher temperatures the development of 
micro-organisms is so much accelerated that there is no danger of desic- 
cation, but if there should be any fear of its occurrence, the cotton-wool 
plug may be covered with an indiarubber cap. 

In practice both sides of the potato are inoculated either from the 
same or from different colonies. 


* Medical News, 1887, i. p. 207. 
+ Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, ii. (1887) pp. 187-90 (2 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 143 


Method of preparing Potatoes for Bacterial Cultures.*—In order 
to meet the objections raised by E. Esmarch to the ordinary method of 
potato cultivation, Mr. M. Bolton, as he could not procure the Esmarch 
ceils in America, adopted the following method in place of that proposed 
by Esmarch. 

In test-tubes 43 in. to 5 in. long, of 1 in. or more in diameter, were 
accurately adapted pieces of potato 2-3 in. long. The skins having 
been removed, the potatoes were cut up in an ordinary apple-corer. It 
was found advisable that one end of the potato-pieces should be cut 
obliquely, so as to offer as large a surface as possible, as in agar or serum 
tubes. At the bottom of the tube a drop of water is placed in order to 
prevent the potato from drying up. The tube is then carefully sterilized 
by steam. 


Cultivation-bottle.;—Dr. H. Wilfarth uses, instead of the ordinary 
plate, for separating different kinds of bacteria, a flat flask of thin glass, 
, much like an ordinary brandy bottle. The sides are round, parallel 
to one another, about 2-24 cm. apart, and run pyriformly to a neck 
about 16-18 mm. wide, and sloping obliquely upwards. The neck is 
closed with a cotton-wool plug. The sterilized medium having been 
introduced and the inoculation made, the flask is laid on the flat side, 
and for microscopical examination under moderate powers it is turned 
over so that the gelatin layer is uppermost. 

For liquefying colonies and for agar cultivations the bent neck of 
the flask renders it inconvenient for removing colonies for inoculation. 
The flask is filled by means of a separating-funnel, which only allows a 
certain quantity to flow in at a time. 


Collecting and Cleaning Diatoms.{—Mr. K. M. Cunningham, who 
states that he has been able to demonstrate 300 distinct species of 
diatoms from the immediate neighbourhood of Mobile, says that the first 
requisite in the preparation of marine diatoms is to secure a quantity 
of mud, and the subsequent treatment as pursued by the writer is as 
follows : 

Take at least half a pound of hard or soft mud to begin on, and 
soften it into a uniform liquid paste, and to hasten and assist its 
liquidity, add about a teaspoonful of aqua ammonia, which liquid will 
be useful in the initial steps of cleaning, as it cuts and dissolves slimy 
and gelatinous impurities, and cleans the sand-grains, and enables the 
bulk of the material to be cleaned to settle quickly and compactly, as 
well as having distinct lubricating properties. Next transfer the liquid 
mud to a suitable vessel of tin or china of at least six or more inches in 
diameter, and not over 5 or 6 in. deep; put therein as much liquid 
mud as will fill 1 in. in depth, and fill up the vessel with clean water, 
and stir rapidly the contents to liberate the flocculent matter from 
the heavier contents. After allowing the contents to settle for ten 
minutes, with a piece of rubber tubing, at least 18 in. in length, 
siphon off the water to within 1/2 or 3/4 in. of the bottom of the 
vessel, renew the water, and then stir quickly, and after five minutes 
again siphon off the water to within 1/2 in. of the bottom. The 
sediment left is transferred to any shallow tin or other vessel for con- 
venience. 


* Medical News, 1887, i. p. 318. + Deutsch. Med. Wochenschr., 1887, No. 28. 
t Microscope, vii. (1887) pp. 331-6. 


144 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The next step is to place in a shallow concave glass used by photo- 
eraphers for crystal photographs, size about 4 by 6 in., a shallow 
layer of the diatomaceous mud, and, adding water, gently gig the glass 
to and fro, making the waves run from end to end, and tilting the off or 
front end. This manipulation forces the large and small sand-grains to 
densely cake and pack together, and at the same time forces to the sur- 
face a large percentage of the diatoms, and most of the vegetable débris. 
After a few moments of gigging, the surface fluid is gently poured off, 
and caught in a separate settling vessel, and the heavier sand dropped 
into a waste receptacle. It may here be observed that a very small 
percentage of matter would be the outcome of the first manipulation, and 
that the bulk of the material was removed from the crystal glass as 
rejected sand. It can generally be relied upon that what is left on the 
sigeine-glass would not do to manipulate again, and the diatoms must be 
looked for in the light, coherent, flocculent, vegetable débris that floated 
over in the first removal of the surface fluid. Repeat substantially the 
same manipulation until the whole of the mud has been gone through, 
and in the little that is left of the original half-pound the coveted gems 
will be found, or do not exist. The next step is to deal with what has 
been saved in the various partial concentrations, transferring all of it to 
the crystal glass, adding clean water, and gigging it again several times in 
succession to remove additional sand, and to get a further concentration 
of the desirable material. An occasional wet test under the Microscope 
will show whether the indications of diatoms are good. If so, the 
material is then transferred to a small holder with a spherical bottom, 
so that it may quickly settle, and with a rubber bulb pipette all water 
is carefully removed. Should there appear to be about 1/2 in. deep 
of material as the result of all previous manipulation, add to it an equal 
bulk of sulphuric acid, intimately mix, and by the aid of the pipette 
transfer it to a 1/2 or 3/4 in. diameter glass test-tube of about 
six inches length; boil for fifteen minutes over a candle or spirit- 
lamp: in that time it is probable that all organic matter will be reduced 
or carbonized. At this juncture add carefully, a drop at a time, several 
drops of nitric acid, and boil continuously for ten minutes longer, when 
it will soon be noted that the blackness is discharged, transparency 
restored to the boiling fluid, a partial or complete bleaching of the 
material having occurred, together with a remarkable reduction in volume. 
If there have not been a complete reduction of all vegetable or other 
organic matter, it may be necessary to add a few drops more of sulphuric 
acid and boil it a while longer. Should the preparation at any time not 
yield satisfactorily to the bleaching process, pour out the contents in a 
spherical-bottom vessel, and allow time to settle; pipette off the acid, 
and add a fresh quantity of sulphuric acid, and boil a few moments, and 
finally add a few more drops of nitric acid to oxidize the remainder of 
the carbonized substances. 

All acid-boiling processes should be conducted in an open fireplace 
if practicable, so that the irritating gases may pass up the chimney. 
The above apparently long or double boiling process is rarely required, 
but must be resorted to if the organic material to be reduced is refractory. 
Where boiling first in sulphuric acid, and later adding nitric acid, is 
applied to the cleaning of all diatom gatherings not badly mixed with 
sand or vegetable débris, or is applied to pure gatherings, it acts very 
rapidly, giving promptly a snowy-white cleaning of the diatoms. In 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 145 


case of the marine or fresh-water diatoms, a final bleaching may be 
accomplished by pouring the diatoms, while still in acid, into a shallow 
and contracted glass or china saucer, and adding thereto a few drops of 
Darby’s prophylactic fluid, which actively effervesces and liberates the 
bleaching gas. While the boiling alone, first in sulphuric acid and 
later adding some nitric acid will be sufficient, yet a greater whiteness 
is produced by the addition of the prophylactic fluid as a bleaching 
substance. 

The boiling process above described dispenses with the addition 
during the cleaning of any powdered crystalline salts, and is also 
operated with a minimum of acid fluids, and to purify the diatoms from 
acids, it is merely necessary to allow the preparation to settle a few 
minutes and carefully draw off the bulk of the acid and allow the 
diatoms to settle in shallow china saucers, 1/2 in. preferably; draw 
off and change the water after one minute intervals, and repeat for four 
changes. A trial test made on a slide, dried over a flame, will show that 
‘all acid has been removed from the diatoms. At this stage there is a rich 
concentration of the diatoms, but included therein some sand-grains and 
flocculent soil; the flocculent matter is removed by repeated shakings 
and settlings through a few inches in depth of clean water at three 
minutes intervals, until when tested under the Microscope a satisfactory 
appearance is reached. The acid-cleaned diatoms are again transferred 


to the crystal gigging-glass and water added, and then very gently 
gigged for a final concentration of the diatomaceous forms and a further 
portion of fine sand removed. The finishing touch to the cleaning for 
concentration of the forms is done by placing a small quantity of the 
acid-cleaned and concentrated diatoms into a concave black or dark glass, 
such as is used in tourists’ eye-glasses, and the contents gently oscillated 
from side to side and to and fro, when the diatoms will be found richly 
aggregated on the centre of the containing glass. The glass is then 
tilted and the diatoms removed by the gentle suction of a pipette, the 
dark glass enabling the mass of diatoms to be distinguished from the 
fine grains of sand adherent to the bottom of the glass. In lieu of the 
dark concave eye-glass, a deep bull’s-eye watch-crystal makes a good 
substitute for the final act of concentration. 

Diatoms are also richly concentrated from sand by simply spreading 
the containing fluid over either a six-inch square of smooth or ground 
glass, and gently gigging it while tilting it in the direction of one of 
the corners and allowing the fluid to run off into a proper receptacle. 
A large percentage of the sand-grains remain in situ, or adherent to the 
glass surface. 

The author refrains from alluding to boiling in alkaline solutions to 
neutralize traces of acids as he has not found it desirable or necessary 
to do so; nor does he refer to flannel or silk strainers for the final 
cleaning and separation of diatoms. 


Bircu, H.—UVeber Ziichtung von Spaltpilzen in gefarbten Nahrmedien. (On the 
cultivation of Schizomycetes in coloured media.) 
Tagebl. 60. Versamml. Deutsch. Naturforscher u, Aerzte, 1887, pp. 275-7. 
Raskin, M.—Zur Ziichtung der pathogenen Mikroorganismen auf aus Milch 
bereiteten festen und durchsichtigen Nahrboden. (On the cultivation of patho- 
genic micro-organisms on solid and transparent media prepared from milk.) 
St. Petersb, Med. Wochenschr,., 1887, pp. 357-60. 


1888. L 


146 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(2) Preparing Objects. 


Preparing Ova of Amphibia.*—Dr. O. Schulze places the ova of 
amphibia (the investment derived from the oviduct having been removed) 
for twenty-four hours ii chrom-osmium-acetic acid, or in chrom-acetie 
acid, and then washes them well with distilled water. At this point 
they are available for surface study. They are next immersed every 
twenty-four hours in spirit of 50, 70, 85, and 95 per cent., the latter 
being changed several times. Next in turpentine for one to two hours, 
according to the size of the ova. ‘They are then transferred to paraffin 
(50°), whereof they have sufficiently imbibed in a half to one hour. It 
is noted that the time given must be carefully observed. The sections 
were fixed to the slide with some thin adhesive, and then after evapora- 
tion of the water treated in the ordinary way. Borax-carmine was used 
as the stain, and decoloration effected with acidulated 70 per cent. spirit 
(5 drops HCI to 100 ¢.cm.). By frequent change of this the yolk-granules 
were decolorized, and only the chromatic substance remained red, 

Chrom-osmium-acetic acid cannot be used for fixing substances lying 
centrally in the egg. 

Preparing Testicle for observing Nuclear Fission.t—Dr. W. Flem- 
ming’s recent examination of cells was made on the testicle. The organ 
was very rapidly teased out on a slide, and the fixative dropped over it. 
Chrom-acetic-csmic acid five times diluted or Brass’s mixture for Protozoa, 
used rather strong, were the media employed for fixing. The prepara- 
tion haying been repeatedly wetted with this fixative was transferred to 
a moist chamber for several hours; the preparation was thereby hardened 
on the slide, and bore washing with a gentle stream of water for half an 
hour. Staining was performed by dropping on a safranin or gentian solu- 
tion, and then allowing the slide to stand in the moist chamber for some 
hours. The preparation was then washed, and dehydrated with absolute 
alcohol, to which a trace of hydrochloric acid was added if the osmium 
mixture had been used for hardening. 

The advantages of this method are that the cells lie pretty close 
together, and are often very beautifully stained. On the other hand, 
the nuclear figures may be destroyed by the teasing, and the contents of 
various cysts are so commingled that the various stages of fission cannot 
be compared. For making sections the testicles were placed in strong 
osmic acid. Then prolonged and careful saturation with celloidin, for 
the capsule after hardening in osmic acid is penetrable with difficulty. 
Sections were stained with gentian or safranin. Hematoxylin was fairly 
successful, but the nuclear staining was rather dull. Removal of the 
celloidin improved the clearness of the pictures. For this purpose the 
section was first treated with bergamot, and this having been removed 
by drainage and bibulous paper, was replaced by oil of cloves, which 
gradually dissolved the celloidin. Then dammar. Before cutting, the 
lobule of the testicle was examined for evidence of nuclear fission; if 
found it would be present in the other lobules. 


Demonstrating Cell-granules.t—Dr. R. Altmann demonstrates cell- 
granules in the following manner :—The parafiin sections, stuck on mica- 
scales with alcohol in which a little gun-cotton is dissolved, are freed 

* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., vi. (1887) pp. 177-226 (3 pls.). 


+ Arch. f. Mikr, Anat., xxix. (1887) pp. 389-463 (4 pls.). 
{ ‘Studien tiber die Zelle,’ 1886, Heft 1, 53 pp., 1 pl. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 147 


from the paraffin by means of xylol and alcohol, and then stained for 
about three minutes in a solution of acid-fuchsin (10 grm. of the dry 
stain dissolved in 66 grm. of water and 33 c.cm. of absolute alcohol added), 
and afterwards differentiated in a solution of picric acid (10 grm. picric 
acid, 150 e.em. absolute alcohol, 300 c.cm. water). Over-action of the 
picric acid is prevented by the absolute alcohol. From the spirit the 
sections are transferred to bergamot oil and xylol. The mica-scale is 
not detrimental beneath the cover-glass, provided the preparation lies 
above it. Thus stained, the cell-granules are to be examined with oil- 
immersion lenses, weak ocular, and a powerful illumination, For 
demonstrating the granules by means of this staining process, fixation 
methods which the author is to describe in future are necessary. 


Methods of Preparing Muscle for investigation.*—Mr. C. F. 
Marshall, in his investigations into the distribution of striped and un- 
striped muscle (see this Journal, 1887, p. 935), chiefly made use of 
Melland’s method of gold-staining. The gold stains and renders evident 
the intracellular network of most cells, and especially the network of the 
striped muscle-cells. Melland’s method consists in placing the muscle 
in 1 per cent. acetic acid for a few seconds; then in 1 per cent. gold 
chloride for thirty minutes, and then in formic acid (25 per cent.) for 
twenty-four or forty-eight hours in the dark. For more delicate organ- 
isms, such as Hydra or Daphnia, and the heart muscle of invertebrates, 
one hour’s immersion in formic acid, exposed to strong sunlight, is the 
best treatment, as longer immersion in formic acid may lead to disintegra- 
tion of the tissues. Control preparations were made with osmic acid. In 
many cases the examination of fresh tissues was useless ; the special 
action of the gold-staining is to soften the fibre and so swell it out, 
while at the same time staining the network. With regard to this 
reagent, it is to be noted that the results obtained are somewhat un- 
certain ; care must be taken with the time of action of the acetic acid. 


Permanent Preparations of Tissues treated with Potassium 
Hydrate.t—Mr. B. L. Oviatt uses a solution of potassium hydrate of 
from 36-40 per cent. (potassium hydrate 40 grams, water 60°00); then 
this is replaced by a saturated aqueous solution of potassium acetate. 
Then add the staining agent, and then glycerin as a permanent medium. 
Heart muscle treated in this way five months ago is as perfect as ever. 


Preparing Sections of Bone.{—Dr. G. Chiaragi decalcified a strip 
of quite fresh bone (bird) in picro-nitric acid diluted with two volumes 
of distilled water and then placed it in spirit of increasing strength. 
The sections were then immersed for some minutes in a 1 per cent. 
solution of eosin and afterwards washed in a 3 per cent. hydrate of 
potash solution. The eosin stained the bone-cells and their processes, 
the rest of the bone being uncoloured. In order to fix the eosin, the 
sections were washed in a 1 per cent. alum solution. The sections were 
mounted in the alum solution. 


Method of investigating Cristatella.s —Herr M. Verworn gives an 
account of his methods of working with Cristatella. The colonies were 
treated with 10 per cent. chloral hydrate solution for the purpose of 


* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1887) pp. 81-2. 

+ St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., liii. (1887) p. 289. 

t Bull. Soc. Cult. Sci. Med. Siena, iv. (1886) Nos. 8 and 9. 
§ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlvi. (1887) pp. 100-1. 


ee 


148 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


obtaining the polyps in an extended condition ; they were put directly 
from the water into the solution, when the separate individuals 
generally contracted. But in a short time they gradually extended 
themselves again, and soon became insensible. In some cases chloral 
hydrate was added by drops. They were then put into a saturated 
solution of sublimate; after being for ten minutes in this, they were 
washed in water for half an-hour and then preserved in alcohol. The 
best preparations were thus obtained, and this method was distinctly 
preferable to killing them directly by alcohol or with osmic acid. 
Borax-carmine (with a small quantity of acetic acid) gave the best 
staining results, the preparations being subsequently treated with 
70 per cent. alcohol and a few drops of hydrochloric acid. In the in- 
vestigation of the living animals, F. E. Schulze’s horizontal Microscope 
was found to be of great service. 


Methods of studying Development of Eye of Crangon.* — Dr. 
J. S. Kingsley, in his investigations, hardened his eggs by Perenyi’s 
fluid, followed by alcohol of increasing strengths; this is a process which 
works well with almost all arthropod tissues. In most cases they were 
stained entire with Grenacher’s alum-carmine, but sometimes Grenacher’s 
borax-carmine or Kleinenberg’s hematoxylin was used. In later stages, 
when the deposition of pigment in the eye interfered with clear vision, 
the eggs were cut into sections, which were fixed to the slide with 
Mayer’s albumen fixative. After melting the paraffin and allowing the 
sections to drop into the adhesive mixture, the imbedding material was 
dissolved in turpentine, and this was washed away with 95 per cent. 
alcohol. The sections were then covered with a mixture of equal parts 
of 95 per cent. alcohol and nitric acid, and after ten to fifteen minutes. 
the pigment was removed. The slide was next washed with strong 
alcohol, and the sections stained deeply with Kleinenberg’s hematoxylin, 
the excess being removed with acid alcohol in the usual manner. The 
sections were then mounted in balsam. 


Preparation of Ascaris megalocephala.t — Prof. O. Zacharias, 
believing that the conjugation of male and female chromatin elements 
must be a very rapid process, was naturally led to distrust the slow 
fixing methods hitherto practised, and sought for a better. Fresh 
females were laid ona piece of wadding damped with 3 per cent. salt 
solution, covered with another of the same, put under a bell-glass, and 
incubated at 20° R, for two or three hours. Polar body formation and 
segmentation are thus stimulated. The separated organs are then placed 
in a fixing medium, the period being varied according to the age of the 
different regions of ova, and according to the character of the host. The 
youngest ova were only exposed for 5—7 minutes, the oldest for at least 
25. After fixing in a mixture of acids (not yet disclosed), the ova were 
removed for 2-3 hours to absolute alcohol, and then placed in weaker 
spirit. Schneider’s acetic carmine, and acidified aqueous solution of 
methyl-green, were also used. The ova were cleared in two volumes 
of glycerin to one of water. 


Preparing Tape-worms for the Museum and the Microscope,t— 
Mr. J. M. Stedman fills a hypodermic, or other syringe possessing a fine 


* Journ. of Morphology, i. (1887) p. 49. 
+ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxx. (1887) pp. 111-82 (3 pls.). Cf. supra, p. 43. 
} St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journal, liii. (1887) p. 291. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 149 


sharp canula, with fine injecting mass, then the canula is inserted in 
the generative cloaca or opening of the vagina, thus cutting the excretory 
canal. If the canula is inserted the proper distance, the entire caudal 
portion of the water-vascular or excretory system can be injected. The 
injecting mass does not flow towards the head on account of the opposing 
valves. For the museum nothing further is done, except to wash the 
worm with water and suspend it in a bottle of 75 per cent. glycerin, to 
which has been added a tew drops of acetic acid. The worm will soon 
clear up and show all the structures with the greatest clearness. 

For microscopical preparations, one and a half or two segments, 
after treatment as above, are mounted on a slide in a cell of glycerin 
jelly. For the most satisfactory microscopical preparations, the ovaries 
and uteri, as well as the excretory system, should be injected. This is 
accomplished by first injecting the excretory system with one colour as 
described above, and then by employing another colour and forcing the 
canula further into the worm than when injecting the excretory system. 
Segments so injected may be preserved in glycerin jelly, or after gradual 
dehydration, in Canada balsam. Uninjected segments may be hardened 
in Miiller’s or Ehrlich’s fluid, and then in alcohol, and made into serial 
sections to show the finer structural details. 


Methods of studying Sphyranura.*—Prof. R. Ramsay Wright and 
Mr. A. B. Macallum found that specimens of Sphyranura were rarely 
too large to prevent complete study in the fresh condition. The 
most completely satisfactory reagent was Flemming’s chrom-osmic- 
acetic mixture: an example being placed in water sufficient to cover 
it, a drop of the reagent was placed beside that in which the worm lies 
and the two were allowed to mingle, with the result that in five or ten 
seconds death, but not complete fixation, occurs. The greater part of 
the fluid being drained away the worm was gently straightened out 
with a needle, and a second drop of the reagent added for two or three 
minutes. The specimen must now be transferred to a larger quantity 
of the reagent, in which it must remain for thitty minutes, and it must 
then be passed through various strengths of aleohol from 30 to 90 per 
cent. Lang’s Planarian fluid, and solutions containing picric acid cause 
shrinkage, Delage’s osmic carmine has no advantage over Flemming’s 
fluid. The process of imbedding used was the chloroform-paraffin 
method, the substitution of chloroform for turpentine having been found 
to obviate shrinkage of some of the delicate cells. Alum-cochineal was 
most satisfactory for staining specimens én toto. 


Histology of Echinoderms.j—In making his observations on the 
minute anatomy of Echinoderms (see supra, p. 53), Dr. O. Hamann 
found that Flemming’s chrom-osmic-acetic acid mixture was useful with 
the organs attached to the body-wall. With young and small animals 
chromic acid was used. Urchins preserved in strong alcohol were 
decalcified by placing small pieces in a 0°3 per cent. solution for a day, 
and washing them for twelve hours; these preparations took well the 
hematoxylin-stain. The pedicellaria were either decalcified and cut, 
or were cut after treatment with Flemming’s solution. The staining 
reagents used were, generally, carmine solutions; in the examination of 
glandular organs the anilin colours were useful. After treatment with 


* Journ. of Morphology, i. (1887) pp. 4-6. 
t Jenaische Zcitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxi. (1887) pp. 88-9. 


150 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


absolute alcohol the preparations were clearcd with bergamot oil or 
xylol, imbedded in paraffin, which was removed by xylol, and put up in 
Canada balsam to which xylol had been added. Xylol is to be preferred 
to such fluids as turpentine or chloroform. 


Preparing Moulds.*—Mr. E. B. Wilson considers that although it 
is well known that the study of moulds may be greatly facilitated by 
following their development in gelatin films, or other solid substrata, 
spread on glass slides, yet that the value of the method for classes in 
elementary biology has not been sufliciently recognized. He therefore 
calls attention to the following application of the method, as simple and 
practical, and especially as affording a ready means of making very clear 
and beautiful permanent preparations. 

The spores are sown with a needle-point in films, consisting of a 
modification of Pasteur’s or Mayer’s fluid (with pepsin) thickened with 
Iceland moss. In this medium moulds grow freely in the moist-chamber. 
They may be examined either fresh or after treatment with iodine, 
which scarcely colours the substratum. For the purpose of making 
permanent preparations the culture-slides are transferred directly from 
the moist-chamber to a saturated solution of eosin in 95 per cent. 
alcohol, a fluid by which the moulds are at once fixed and stained. 
After twenty-four hours (or, preferably, three or four days), the pre- 
parations are washed in 95 per cent. alcohol until the colour nearly dis- 
appears from the substratum, cleared with oil of cloves, and mounted in 
balsam. All stages may thus be prepared. The mycelia, conidia, &c., 
appear of an intense red colour, while the substratum is scarcely stained. 
Alcoholic fuchsin may be used instead of eosin, though inferior to it; 
but other dyes (of which a considerable number have been tested) colour 
the substratum uniformly with the moulds, and are therefore useless. 
Eosin preparations made more than a year ago do not yet show the 
slightest alteration of colour. The best results have thus far been 
obtained with Penicillium, Eurotium, and certain parasitic forms. Mucor 
gives less satisfactory preparations, since it is always more or less 
shrunken by the alcohol. Fair preparations of yeast may be made by 
mixing it with the liquefied medium and spreading the medium on glass 
slides, which, after solidification of the films, are placed in the eosin 
solution, as in the case of mould-cultures. 

For preparing the cultures, Pasteur’s or Mayer’s fluid, with pepsin 
(see Huxley and Martin’s ‘ Practical Biology ’), but not containing more 
than 5 per cent. of sugar, is heated with Iceland moss until the mixture 
attains such a consistency that it will just solidify when cold (fifteen to 
thirty minutes). It is then filtered by means of a hot filter into small 
glass flasks, which are afterwards plugged with cotton-wool, and steri- 
lized at 65° to 70° C. by the ordinary method. When required for use 
the mass is liquefied by gentle heat, poured on the slides, and allowed 
to solidify. ‘The spores are sown by a needle-point, touched once to a 
mass of spores, and thereupon drawn across several films in succession, 
the spores being thus scattered along the track of the needle, and more 
or less completely isolated. Care must be taken that the quantity of 
sugar be not too great. The films should be tolerably thick, and the 


atmosphere of the moist-chamber such that the films neither dry nor 
liquefy. 


* Amer, Natural., xxi. (1887) pp. 207-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 151 


Technique of Bacteria.*—M. Kunstler reports that either the 
vapour of osmic acid or the concentrated acid is a good fixing reagent for 
Bacteria. To show the flagella of Spirillum tenue it is necessary to mix a 
drop of osmic acid with a drop of the water containing the microbe, and 
to allow of a quarter of an hour’s evaporation. Having covered it witha 
slip, a very small drop of a saturated solution of “noir Collin” is added 
near the middle of the four sides. The preparation is then carefully 
closed with wax, so as to prevent any evaporation. After some eight to 
fifteen hours the Spirilla become intensely coloured, and the flagella may 
be seen with moderate powers. At the extremity of the microbes there 
are four to six flagella. If, in addition to the “noir Collin,” we add a 
little chromic acid, the body of Spirillum tenue presents a vacuolated, 
reticular, or areolated structure; the areole often contain granules. 
These appearances are best seen in specimens which are about to divide. 
In the other process of reproduction, M. Kunstler thinks the term of 
monosporous cysts to be preferable to that of spores. Good results are 

“got by the use of a concentrated solution of hematoxylin, to which a 
little glycerin and chromic acid have been added. In some cases traces 
of potash are preferable to chromic acid. 


(3) Cutting, including Imbedding. 


Myrtle-wax Imbedding Process.;—Prof. W. H. Seaman says that 
Mr. J. H. Blackburn, in attempting to carry out the Reeves process of 
mounting,t{ failed entirely to get satisfactory results with what was sold 
to him by the local druggists as myrtle-wax, which he desired to try 
on the suggestion of Dr. Miller. On returning the wax, and stating that 
there must be some other substance called myrtle-wax, he received an 
article that gave perfect satisfaction, so much so, indeed, that he found it 
better than paraffin, and substituted it for that. Having been furnished 
with specimens, a short examination of its fusing point, &c., showed that 
it was the Japan wax obtained from the Rhus succedanea, now an exten- 
sive article of commerce. This substance is very peculiar in its great 
latent heat, giving it a wide range between the fusing and solidifying 
points. It solidifies without wrinkles, and sticks close to an imbedded 
object, qualities that render it especially valuable to the section-cutter. 
It is not strictly a wax at all, but a fat, since it consists chiefly of 
palmitic acid, and is capable of saponification. Mr. Blackburn showed 
whole brains saturated with it so perfectly, and preserved so naturally, 
except colour, that there seemed no reason why they could not be 
employed as models for class demonstration. To all appearances at the 
present time they are permanent. The substance may easily be obtained 
from the wholesale druggists. 

Homogeneous Paraffin.s—Dr. G. A. Piersol says that much has 
been written regarding the necessity of having paraffin of the right con- 
sistence to insure success in cutting ribbon sections, but the desirability 
of having it homogeneous has been but little emphasized. The selection 
of a pure paraffin, freedom from turpentine or chloroform used in im- 
bedding, and a very rapid cooling after the tissue is arranged, appear to 
be the essential conditions for securing this desirable character to the 


* Comptes Rendus, cv. (1886) pp. 684-5. 

t+ Queen’s Mier. Bulletin, iv. (1887) pp. 33-4. 
¢ See this Journal, 1887, p. 1048. 

§ Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., viii. (1887) p. 159. 


152 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


imbedding mass. With a homogencous paraffin it is surprising to see 
with what wide latitudes as to melting-point the chains of sections will 
come off. 


Schiefferdecker’s Microtome for cutting under alcohol.*—Dr. P. 
Schiefferdecker’s improved microtome (fig. 54) is now provided with an 
arrangement for cutting under spirit, as well as for raising the knife- 
carrier and automatically raising the preparation. There are, besides, 
numerous practical improvements, but the principle of the instrument 
is unchanged. 

The angle of the slideway and the weight of the slide itself are more 
favourable. Any slipping of the band from the wheel is now prevented, 
and the handle can be placed in any desired position. On drawing out 
the slide, the band can be so fastened that it always remains in the proper 
position. 

Bending of the metal parts owing to refractory preparations is 
obviated, and the knife-guard is now so arranged that the pressure on 
the knife is as small as possible. In the illustration the arrangement 
for raising the knife is not seen, as it is covered by the pan. In a very 
simple way the knife-carrier is raised any required height merely by the 
crank action when the slide is drawn backwards. As the knife requires 
to be raised a shorter distance for paraffin preparations than for unim- 
bedded ones, the arrangement for raising it is so effected that this action 
can be made at any desired position of the slideway. The position of 
the preparation is automatically altered, also, in a very simple manner. 

A bar, which in its turn is moved by the crank, is set in motion bya 
toothed wheel acting upon a micrometer screw. Upon this bar is fixed a 
plate for regulating the amount or distance of raising. Expressed in 
fractions these amounts are 0:°005, 0°01, &., to 0°05 mm. For most 
cases these are sufficient, but if any other size be required the automatic 
arrangement may be dispensed with, and the preparation raised by turn- 
ing the milled head of the micrometer screw with the hand. Of course 
any other denominator than 200 can be used for the fraction. For the 
automatic motion of the micrometer screw a new striking mechanism has 
been constructed, and this is found to be more effective than the catch 
arrangement. 

The immersion apparatus is a flat quadrangular pan, in the bottom of 
which, and just above the preparation-clamp, is a circular hole for the 
preparation to pass through. The clamp, with the screws necessary for 
the two turns, is placed within a cylinder, the upper edge of which, by 
means of a short and wide caoutchouc tube, is united with a projecting 
rim running round the hole in the bottom of the pan, so that, when the 
spirit fills the pan and cylinder, the preparation always lies in the alcohol, 
and yet can be pushed up and down with the cylinder without difficulty. 
The screws which alter the clamp are turned with keys. The knife, 
which has a straight handle, is fastened by means of two screws to a 
thick metal-piece (the connecting-piece), and this in its turn is united by 
screws with the plate of the knife-carrier. The connecting-piece, to the 
under surface of which the knife is fastened, passes over the pan in such 
a way that it projects into the spirit. 

Unpernuiut, H. M. J.—Section-cutting applied to Insects. 
Sci.-Gossip, 1888, pp. 1-4. 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. (1887) pp. 340-3 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 


“TOHOOTY 


UAINO YNILLAO WOT AMKOLOWOIP, § VAMWOACUAAAALHOS 


FE “OL 


154 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(4) Staining and Injecting. 


Methods for Pathological Investigations.*—Dr. V. Babes uses a 
strong watery solution of safranin by dissolving the dye in distilled 
water to which 2 per cent. anilin oil is added. The mixture is then 
heated to about 60° C. and filtered while warm. The solution stains in 
about one minute; the sections are then passed through alcohol and oil 
of cloves and mounted in balsam. Hardening with Flemming’s fluid is 
suitable for this method. According to the author this stain colours 
calcareous infiltration a red-violet, and is especially suitable for tissues 
containing bacteria. 

The use of this safranin is also adapted for demonstrating certain 
pathological changes. For this purpose the tissues are thoroughly 
stained with safranin and are then placed for a minute in Gram’s iodine 
solution. After passing through spirit and being mounted in balsam 
the colour is withdrawn, except from certain elements. For example, 
parts infiltrated with chalk and such as have undergone a colloid change 
remained stained. The iodo-safranin treatment is especially valuable 
for staining the club-shaped elements of the Actinomyces. 'The pus or 
the crushed Actinomyces is dried rapidly on a cover-glass and treated 
with anilin safranin for twenty-four hours, decolorized with the iodine 
solution, and mounted after dehydration and clearing up in clove oil. 

The author also recommends a neutral anilin stain made up of a mix- 
ture of basic and acid anilins. This neutral stain consists of equal parts 
of acid fuchsin, methyl-green and orange, and is made by mixing 125 c.cm. 
of a saturated watery orange solution with 125 c.cm. of a saturated solu- 
tion of acid fuchsin dissolved in 20 per cent. alcohol; to this 75 e.cm. 
of absolute alcohol and 125 c.cm. of a saturated watery solution of 
methyl-green are then added gradually. The sections are left in this 
staining fluid for half an hour, then washed and treated with alcohol 
and bergamot oil. 

In sections thus treated the blood-corpuscles are orange-yellow, the 
nuclei of the polynucleated leucocytes green, and their cell-substance 
deep violet, the cell-substance of the eosinophilous cells blackish-brown. 


Staining of Ossification Preparations.;—Dr. H. Klaatsch remarks 
that it is advantageous to possess a simple and reliable method for 
demonstrating the process of ossification to classes, for showing students 
the remains of cartilage in the newly-formed osseous tissue, and for 
distinguishing the difference between periosteal and cartilaginous ossi- 
fication. ; 

These objects may be attained by staining with logwood and decoloriz- 
ing with picric acid. Grenacher’s or Bohmer’s hematoxylin may be 
used. Overstaining is of no advantage, but if it occur the section must 
be left for a longer time than usual in the picric acid. Students leave 
their sections overnight in a watchglass ina mixture of a little aq. destil. 
plus 6 drops of Bohmer’s hematoxylin and 3 drops of glycerin. After 
being washed in distilled water the sections are transferred to a saturated 
solution of picric acid until they assume a yellowish-brown colour. 
They are next placed in glacial acetic acid for about half a minute, and 
are then washed in distilled water until the yellow colour is no longer 


* Virchow’s Arch. f. Pathol. Anat. u. Hist., ev. (1886) pp. 511-26 (1 pl.). 
} Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. (1887) pp. 214-5. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 155 


given off. They are then dehydrated, cleared up, and mounted in Canada 
balsam. 

The preparations show the epiphysial cartilage to be of a dull pale 
blue, while the remains of the cartilage between the lines of ossification 
is of a deep blue colour. The newly-formed bone stains yellow, and the 
blood-vessels have a brownish hue. The permanence of the stain seems 
fairly good, as the author possesses specimens made six months ago which 
haye undergone no perceptible change. 

A modification of the foregoing method is also given. Instead of with 
hematoxylin the sections are deeply stained with methyl-violet and de- 
colorized with picric acid until the blue colour is no longer given off. 
After being mounted in Canada balsam the sections look green to the 
naked eye. The cartilage remains, even to their least ramifications, are 
stained deeply blue and surrounded by yellow layers of bone. In the 
periosteal region the young bone-cells are of a greenish colour. The 
epiphysial cartilage is pale yellow. In this modification the histological 
details are wanting, and it is chiefly useful for demonstrating the difference 
between periosteum and cartilage ossification under low powers. 


Staining the Elastic Fibres of the Skin.*—Dr. K. Herxheimer 
hardens his preparations in Miiller’s fluid; his method will, however, 
give good pictures after spirit, picric acid, and the chrom-osmic-acetic 
acid mixture. The sections should not be more than 0:2 mm. thick. 
They are stuck on with celloidin, and then stained for three to five 
minutes with hematoxylin (1 ¢.cm. hematoxylin, 20 ¢c.em. alcohol ab- 
solute, 20 c.cm. H°O, 1 e.cm. lithium carbonate), but other watery solu- 
tions may be used. The sections are then treated for five to twenty 
seconds with chloride of iron solution. This last step requires some 
care. Mount in balsam. ‘The elastic fibres stain a bluish-black or 
black, while the surrounding tissue is grey or bluish. By longer action 
of the iron, so that the connective tissue is quite decolorized and a part 
of the elastic fibres slightly pale, a contrast stain with carmine or Bruns- 
wick brown may be used with advantage. The method can be em- 
ployed for staining the nervous system; for this two hours are required. 
Instead of hematoxylin the author also uses anilin water gentian-violet. 


Staining Nerve-terminations with Chloride of Gold.j—Dr. G. 
Boecardi recommends the reduction of objects impregnated by Ranvier’s 
or Loéwit’s gold chloride method to be done with oxalic acid of 0:10 per 
cent., or of 0:°25-0°30 per cent. Another favourable reduction fluid 
consists of 5 c.cm. pure formic acid, 1 c.cm. oxalic acid of 1 per cent. 
and 25 c.cm. aq. destil. Pieces impregnated with gold chloride are to 
remain in this fluid in the dark not longer than 2 to 4 hours. 


Demonstrating the Membrane of the Bordered Pits in Coniferee.{— 
Dr. A. Zimmerman states that this membrane only requires staining for 
its demonstration, and that hematoxylin is the best dye for the purpose ; 
Bismarck-brown and gentian-violet are also capable of staining this 
tissue, but are inferior to logwood. 

Material which has been preserved in alcohol is to be preferred. 
The sections are placed in Béhmer’s hematoxylin for 2-5 minutes only, 
as a longer time stains the rest of the membrane, and it is advisable to 

* Fortschr. d. Med., iv. (1886) pp. 785-9. 


+ Alboni Lavori eseg. nell’ Istit. Fisiol. Napoli, 1886, Fase. 1, pp. 27-9. 
+ Zeitsch, f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. (1887) pp. 216-7. 


156 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


stain the cell-nuclei and the investing membrane of the bordered pit only. 
The preparation is then washed in water, dehydrated in alcohol, and 
cleared up in oil of cloves. Clearing up acts very beneficially, because 
the optical effect produced by the curvature of the pit is diminished. 

The reaction of the bordered pit membrane to dyes undoubtedly 
shows that it differs in its chemical and physical relation from the rest of 
the membrane substance. The circumstance that membranes of the 
cambium cells and the membranes consisting chiefly of pure cellulose 
stain deeply with hematoxylin might lead to the conclusion that in the 
pit membrane we have to deal with a pure cellulose. This, however, is 
contradicted by the fact that it stains deep red with phloroglucin and 
hydrochloric acid. 


Staining Diatoms.*—Prof. O. Drude discusses the method of staining 
diatoms as a suitable means for obtaining proper microscopical prep.ra- 
tions. The methods which merely preserve the siliceous valves, and 
which at one time was the only object aimed at, have since Ptitzer’s 
systematic classification (cf. Hanstein’s ‘ Beitriige’ and Schenk’s ‘ Hand- 
buch der Botanik,’ ii. p. 403) have been recognized and adopted, no 
longer suffice, and must give way to a method which clearly shows and 
permanently retains in the microscopical preparation, the cell-nucleus 
and the endochrome-plates. 

Such a method was communicated by Pfitzer four years ago,t and has 
been employed by the author with great advantage. It consists in 
staining the fresh material with picronigrosin: to a saturated watery 
solution of picric acid is added as much of a saturated watery solution 
of nigrosin as causes the mixture to assume a deep olive-green hue. 
This solution is poured over the fresh Bacillariz, or the rotting leaves, 
stems, &c., of water plants on which they are found are placed in test- 
tubes filled with the picronigrosin solution. The first kills and fixes, 
the latter stains, the nucleus most strongly, less so the endochrome- 
plates, and very faintly the thin layer of protoplasm. 

The stained valves are best mounted in balsam, after having been 
thoroughly washed with spirit, then dehydrated with absolute alcohol, 
and cleared up in oil of cloves. Thus are obtained very useful prepara- 
tions which show beautifully the nucleus and nuclear fission, and also 
the endochrome plates which formerly soon lost colour or altered in 
form and position. Glycerin may be also used for mounting. 


Stained Yeast-preparations.j—Dr. P. Lindner states that the 
behaviour of yeast-cells to dyes is the same as occurs in Bacteria. If 
yeast-cells dried on cover-glasses be placed in solutions of methylen- 
blue, gentian-violet, fuchsin, Bismarck-brown, &c., they greedily pick 
up the dye. If the preparation be over-stained the mistake is easily 
obviated either by prolonged washing with distilled water, or by the 
application of spirituous or slightly acidulated water. The spores too 
behave in a manner similar to the resting spores of Bacteria. They are 
stained with difficulty ; if this, however, take place, it is extremely per- 
manent. For example, if they be stained with fuchsin, they may be 
washed for a long time, without being decolorized, while everything 
except the spores quickly loses its colour. In order to stain the mother 
and the sporeless cells e.g. blue, it is merely needful to immerse the 


* SB. u. Abh. Naturwiss. Gesell. Isis, 1887, pp. 8-9. 
+ See this Journal, 1883, p. 445. t Wochenschr. f. Brauerei, 1887, p. 775. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 157 


preparation in a solution of some blue dye. The red spores do not take 
up the blue pigment at all, while everything else is stained deeply blue. 


Staining Lepra and Tubercle Bacilli.*—Dr. F. Wesener makes 
another reply to Prof. Baumgartner’s criticisms on the methods for dis- 
tinguishing between leprosy and tubercle bacilli. Throughout the con- 
troversy, no new facts have been adduced, and the gist of the whole 
seems to be that the one learned stainer prefers his own method to that 
of the other. They both seem to agree that tubercle, like leprosy 
bacilli, can be stained with simple solutions of fuchsin and methyl- 
violet; that there are, however, certain gradual differences between 
them, the leprosy bacilli taking up the stain somewhat more easily than 
the tubercle bacilli. Dr. Wesener distinguishes his position from that 
of Baumgartner by insisting that these gradual differences are very 
fluctuating, and not always constant, and on this ground that they are 
insufficient for a reliable diagnosis: the two methods given by Baum- 
gartner for sections are specially unreliable. 

As both these learned dyers have admitted that other data besides 
those of various stains (in so many words, it must be known beforehand 
which is tubercle and which leprosy tissue) are necessary for a certain 
diagnosis, it must be acknowleged that the main point in the con- 
troversy is one which requires special mental acuteness for its compre- 
hension. 


Specificness of the Tubercle Bacillus Stain.j—It is well known 
that Bienstock and Gottstein demonstrated the fact that certain non- 
pathogenic bacilli which stain in the ordinary way with anilin dyes could 
be so altered that they were able to be stained in the same way as tubercle 
bacillus. To effect this they were bred in agar-gelatin medium, to which 
about 20 per cent. of fat was added. Dr. A. W. Grigorjew has now 
tested Bienstock’s conclusion, according to which tubercle bacilli owe 
their peculiar staining property to an investment of fatty matter, which 
prevents the decolorizing action of acids. The author cultivated in fatty 
media (1-20 per cent.) Bacillus anthracis, B. subtilis, Clostridium buty- 
ricum, Bacterium termo, Staphylococcus aureus, and S. albus. All these 
cultivations gave similar results. Bacteria lying in the fat stained as 
tubercle bacilli; those above or in islets free from fat stained in the 
usual way. Again, if the former class were acted on by potash, alcohol, 
or ether, their power of assuming the specific stain vanished, and they 
coloured in the usual way. The author further points to the significance 
which the mixing of a little fat with the bacteria on the cover-glass has, 
In this case the specific nature of the stain is lost. In this way it is even 
possible to impart the specific tubercle stain to a streak of albumen, and 
the author concludes that his experiments justify him in disbelieving 
Bienstock’s explanation, and in supporting the existing theory as to the 
staining of tubercle bacilli. 


New Staining Fluid.{—Mr. J. W. Roosevelt recommends an iron 
stain, consisting of 20 drops of a saturated solution of iron sulphate, 


* Centralbl. f. Bacteriol. u. Parasitenk., ii. (1887) pp. 131-5. 

+ Ruskaja Medizina, 1886, Nos. 42 and 43. Cf. Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. (1887) 
pp. 251-2. 

{ New York Patholog. Soc., 9th March, 1887. Cf. Medical Record, ii. (1887) 
p. 84. 


158 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


30 grams water, and 15-20 drops pyrogallic acid. The preparation 
assumes a brownish-grey colour. It is specially suitable for photo- 
micrographic purposes, because, when united with albuminous tissues, it 
undergoes no further change. 


Benda’s Modified Copper-hematoxylin.*—Dr. G. A. Piersol calls 
attention to the excellence of this reagent; though the method is 
troublesome the results amply repay where a careful study of cells under 
high powers is proposed. 

Tissues treated with chromic acid or Flemming’s solution stain 
readily, as well as do those hardened in alcohol or any other of the usual 
fluids. For careful examination, staining after cutting is advised; the 
sections on the slide or cover are placed for 8-12 hours in an almost 
saturated solution of cupric acetate (to which a few drops of acetic acid 
may be added) in the oven at 50° C., washed a few minutes in two 
changes of distilled water, and stained with 10 per cent. alcoholic 
solution of hematoxylin until very dark blue; transferred directly to 
hydrochloric acid solution (1:350), where they remain until bleached to 
a straw tint; after being rinsed in water they are placed in fresh copper 
solution until again blue. Should the sections be too dark they may be 
again bleached in the acid and passed through the copper solution as 
before ; if too pale they are placed again in the hematoxylin and carried 
through the solution as at first. 

The advantages of the method are certainty of good results after 
chromic acid, control of the intensity and ease of correcting faults of the 
stain, and above all, the excellent results. While the colour is less 
brilliant than the usual alum-hematoxylin stainings, the crisp, sharply- 
defined pictures furnished leave little to be desired, and to those seeking 
a precise and reliable stain after Flemming’s solution this method is 
confidently recommended. Since the hematoxylin with care and 
occasional filtering may be repeatedly used, and as the copper solution is 
readily prepared and inexpensive, the method will be found economical 
and by no means as complicated in practice as on paper. 


Action of Staining.t|—Dr. M. C. Dekhuyzen holds, in opposition to 
Griesbach,t that staining is rather a physical process, as in the majority 
of cases only molecular combinations take place. He classifies the 
tissues (material hardened in 96° alcohol) as follows :—Mucin, primitive 
cartilage capsules (Ranvier), gland cells of fundus, cells of pyloric glands, 
Neumann’s pericellular substance in cartilage, an imperfectly known 
constituent of nerve, and Henle’s layer of the internal sheath of the 
hair-root are basophile, that is, possess an inclination for basic and a 
disinclination for acid dyes. The “acidophilous” constituents of tissues 
show the opposite behaviour, protoplasm especially, in covering cells 
(“ Belegzellen”) and in the lunules of Gianuzzi, connective-tissue 
bundles, elastin, decalcified bone, muscle, axis-cylinder, the peripheral 
layer of cartilage where the cells are flattened, and the secondary capsules 
of Ranvier which lie immediately upon the cartilage cells. Chromo- 
philia is the property which both classes may have in common, although 
it is more marked in one of them. Chromatin and eleidin are chromo- 
philous, and both have a preference for basic dyes. 


* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., viii. (1887) pp. 153-5. 
+ Med. Centralbl., 1886, No. 51, pp. 931-2, and No. 52, pp. 945-7. 
t See this Journal, 1887, p. 1058. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. 159 


Modification of Schiefferdecker’s Celloidin Corrosion Mass.*—Dr. 
F’. Hochstetter has devised a modification of Schiefferdecker’s celloidin 
corrosion mass, whereby crumbling of the mass and any brittleness after 
the addition of a large quantity of dye are prevented. 

It is recommended to mix washed porcelain earth (kaolin) with 
celloidin. The porcelain earth is rubbed up with ether, to which cobalt 
blue, chrome yellow, or cinnabar is added. To this celloidin of the 
consistence of honey is added. The quantity of the kaolin to be used 
depends on the size of the vessel to be filled. If the whole distribution 
area of a vessel is to be injected, the syringe should at first be filled with 
a thin injection mass containing less porcelain; afterwards a thicker 
mass should be used. Teichmann’s screw-syringe is the most suitable 
instrument for the purpose. A small quantity of pure ether is first 
injected ; this done the mass is squirted in, at first pretty quickly, but 
afterwards more slowly, and the pressure of the piston-rod is kept up 
until the mass begins to set in the large vessels. This method may be 
‘advantageously employed for demonstrating the vessels in bone or those 
lying immediately upon it, but for “ parenchymatous” organs this mass 
is not to be recommended. ‘The preparations are macerated in the cold, 
bleached, &c. 


HamittTon, D. J.—Method of combining Weigert’s Hematoxylin-Copper Stain 
for Nerve-fibre with the use of the Freezing Microtome. 
Journ. of Anat., XXI. (1887) p. 444. 
LigutTon, W. R.—Notes on Staining Vegetable Tissues. 

[Cut a fresh green stem and place the newly cut end in one of the usual 
staining solutions. The colouring matter will gradually be absorbed and 
distributed through the tissues. ] 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VIII. (4887) pp. 194-5. 
WaAssERzUG, E.—Principaux procédes de Coloration des Bacteries. (Principal 
processes of staining Bacteria.) Journ, de Bot., I. (1887) pp. 299-803, 321-4. 


(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c. 


Fixing Sections.;—Of the three fixatives now in general use— 
shellac, collodion, and albumen—shellac is considered the best for 
objects coloured in toto. The carbolic-acid shellac introduced by Dr. P. 
Mayer has been found to be unreliable in some respects. Carbolic acid 
warm is injurious to some tissues, e.g. the dermis of vertebrates. The 
alcoholic solution is a perfectly harmless fixative. The method of using, 
now described by Dr. Mayer, and which differs in important points from 
the one prescribed by Giesbrecht, is as follows :— 

(a) The object-slide, heated to about 50° C., is coated with shellac in 
the usual manner, by drawing a glass rod wet with the solution once or 
twice over its surface. As soon as the slide is cool and the film of 
shellac hard and no longer sticky, the sections are arranged dry, and 
then gently pressed down by means of an elastic spatula (horn or metal) 
until they lie flat and smooth on the slide. 

(b) Expose the slide thus prepared to the vapour of ether. For this 
purpose the slide may be placed in a glass cylinder of suitable size, and 
closely stoppered. The cylinder is placed in a horizontal position, or, at 


* Anat. Anzeig., 1886, pp. 51-2. 

t Internat. Monatsschr. f. Anat. u. Physiol., iv. (1887) Heft 2. Cf. Amer. 
Natural., xxi. (1887) pp. 1040-1, and this Journal, 1887, p. 853, where the author’s 
name was omitted through the note being separated from others in printing. 


160 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


least, so inclined that the slide lies wholly above the ether. The saturation 
of the sections will be sufficiently complete in about half a minute. 

(c) The slide is next to be warmed in the water-bath in order to 
evaporate the ether. The paraffin is then removed, and the mounting 
completed in the usual manner. 

It is best to use balsam dissolved in turpentine or benzole rather 
than in chloroform, as the latter softens the shellac, and thus often 
loosens the sections. 

One great advantage of this method of using shellac is that it permits 
of arranging and flattening the sections on the slide. Ordinarily 
sections are placed while the adhesive coating is soft, and must then lie 
as they fall. 

With reference to collodion, Dr. Mayer remarks that it depends 
entirely upon the quality of the gun-cotton employed whether the 
sections bear well treatment with alcohol and aqueous fluids. When 
sections are to be stained on the slide, the albumen-fixative is preferred 
to collodion. The mixture is prepared as follows:—White of egg, 
50 grm.; glycerin, 50 grm.; sodium salicylate, 1 grm. These in- 
gredients are mixed and thoroughly shaken together, then filtered and 
kept in a well-cleaned bottle. Dr. Mayer has kept this mixture three 
years in a good condition. Other antiseptics have proved far less 
efficient than salicylate of sodium. 


Substitute for Clearing.*—Dr. G. A. Piersol says that clearing 
with oil of cloves or other oil can be omitted where the sections are thin, 
especially when numerous and fixed to the slide or cover. If the sections 
be thoroughly dehydrated in strong or absolute alcohol, they may be 
mounted directly in balsam. The slide with the dehydrated section is 
removed from the absolute alcohol, hastily drained, a drop of balsam 
added, and the clean cover which is for a moment held over the flame is 
applied, when the slide is gently warmed over the lamp. 'There may be 
cloudiness at first towards the edges of the cover, but in a few minutes 
(with large sections somewhat longer) this all disappears. After a night 
in the oven at 40° C. these slides come out with covers so firmly fixed, 
that oil-immersions may be used and the covers cleaned with little fear 
of shifting. 


Mounting in Canada Balsam by the Exposure Method.j—It has 
been a matter of surprise to Mr. G. H. Bryan that amongst the various 
methods of preparing microscopical slides, the so-called “ exposure” 
method (due to Mr. A. C. Cole) of mounting in Canada balsam or other 
gum-resins, in which the balsam is partially dried before the cover is 
finally placed on the slide, has received so little notice, and he therefure 
desires to call attention to the advantages of this process for mounting 
almost all classes of objects, and also to describe a slight modification of 
it, by which means such arranged objects as sections in series, the various 
parts of an insect or other groups of objects may be mounted in balsam 
without difficulty. 

The following is a brief outline of the exposure method :—Breathe 
thoroughly on a glass slip, and on it drop three clean covers, which will 
thus adhere temporarily to the slip, or, if preferable, each may be let fall 


* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., viii. (1887) p. 155. 
{ Scientif. Enquirer, ii. (1887) pp. 184-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 161 


on the tiniest drop of water. On each cover let an object be arranged 
in a moderately convex drop of balsam, extending to but not over the 
edge of the cover. Then put the specimens away for the balsam to dry 
for at least twelve hours in a dust-proof box. 

When the covers have been exposed long enough, they may be turned 
over on to warmed slides, but must not themselves be warmed first. 
The danger of large air-bubbles is diminished by placing or smearing 
a little fresh balsam on the slide, and this must be done if there is not 
enough balsam on the cover. If possible, the cover should be held in 
a pair of forceps and lowered horizontally over the slip, not on one 
side first. It is then less liable to tilt, and the fresh balsam is squeezed 
out symmetrically round the edge on pressing the cover down, and can 
mostly be at once taken off with a knife, and the slide then cleaned 
with spirit, the part under the middle of the cover being filled with the 
exposed balsam, which is generally firm enough to keep from slipping. 
An any case, the small amount of soft balsam around the edge will soon 
dry after the rough scraping, thus avoiding the long waiting required 
before cleaning slides mounted in the usual way. 

For mounting arranged objects, we may proceed as follows :—-The 
cover being stuck by breathing to a slip as before, the objects are all 
neatly arranged on it in the layer of balsam, which should not be too 
thick. The cover must now be exposed till the balsam is nearly or 
quite hard—a weck’s exposure or longer may be requisite. The covers 
must be turned over on to a cold slip into a drop of soft balsam and 
pressed down, the objects being fixed in their places on the cover by 
the hardened balsam, which is undisturbed. Scrape off the superfluous 
soft balsam, and put away to dry. The streaky appearance due to the 
two densities of balsam will soon disappear. 

The author has tried the above methods with great success for 
mounting whole insects, and parts of insects, under pressure. For 
preparing whole insects for mounting, it is best to soak in potash, wash 
in water with a few drops of acetic acid, flatten out with two pieces of 
glass, which are tied together while the specimen is soaked for a further 
period in acidulated water, then in alcohol. Untie the glasses, float 
the insect on to a cover-glass and take it out, drain off superfluous 
alcohol, lay the cover on a slip, add a drop of clove-oil, which will 
permeate the object, and the alcohol will mostly evaporate in half an 
hour or more. Most of the superfluous clove-oil may then be drawn off 
with a pointed tube and the balsam applied. Parts of insects may be 
lifted from the alcohol into a vessel containing clove-oil, and afterwards 
taken out and laid out in the balsam on the cover. In this way he has 
mounted twelve parts of a honey-bee neatly grouped on one cover, and 
several other “type” slides, and he thinks it will be found that these 
methods remove the chief difficulties of mounting in balsam, and 
especially of mounting arranged slides. 


Burruam, T. H.—{Arranging Slides.] Engl. Mech., XLYI. (1887) pp. 396-7. 
(6) Miscellaneous. 


Dissecting Dish.*—The following is taken from one of a series of 
articles on “the Naturalist’s Laboratory” in course of publication in 
the journal noted at foot. 


* Kuowledge, xi. (1887) pp. 278-9 (1 fig.). 
1888. M 


162 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The dissecting dish, as its name implies, is useful for animals of small 
size only, such as earthworms, snails, frogs, &e. Although an ordinary 
pie-dish can be, and has largely been, used for this purpose, it is 
unquestionably a very imperfect article. Let us take, for example, a 
frog: to learn its anatomy thoroughly, several days of work should 
be spent upon its dissection. The dish should be filled to the depth 


Kia. 35. 


ce, cover; d, body of dish; p, bed of paraffin. 


of about 15 in. with a suitable mixture of paraffin wax and hog’s lard, 
melted together at a low temperature, and poured, whilst still fluid, but 
on the verge of becoming solid, into the dish; this will prevent any 
marked after shrinkage. The animal should next be fastened upon the 
paraffin when solid, with pins, and covered, or partially covered, with 
dilute spirit. After a day or two, when some critical portion is about 
to be examined, the student often finds, to his chagrin, that the liquid 
around his dissection has insinuated itself between the sides of the dish 
and the edges of the paraffin bed, by an almost imperceptible shrinkage 
of the latter, sufficient, however, to render it so unsteady as to preclude 
the possibility of work except with the utmost difficulty. To obviate 
any such mishaps, the (anonymous) author has devised a dish, shown 
in section at fig. 35. It may be oval or oblong (preferably the latter) in 
shape; its sides slope upwards and inwards, and thus effectually prevent 
the bed of paraffin from shifting or floating during the dissection. The 
upper rim of the dish should be indented, so as to admit of a cover 
which will not easily slip off. Both dish and cover may be made of 
earthenware, of indurated wood, or the new paper bottle material invented 


by Mr. H. L. Thomas. 


Artificial Serum for Computation of Blood-corpuscles.*—M. Mayet 
finds that the disadvantages of deformation, &c., which attend the use of 
all the liquids employed in the computation of the number of blood- 
corpuscles, may be avoided by using an artificial serum of the following 
composition :—distilled water, 100 gr.; pure anhydrous neutral phos- 
phate of sodium 2 gr.; and cane-sugar to raise the density to 1085. 
The form of the elements is preserved ; the density, slight viscosity, and 
the presence of a neutral alkaline salt secure uniform distribution of the 
elements ; the differences of level avoided in a less dense medium are of 
little importance; by altering the focus the leucocytes appear quite 
distinct as brilliant bodies. 


* Comptes Rendus, cy. (1887) pp. 943-4. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1638 


Reeves’s Water-bath and Oven.—The arrangement of Dr. Reeves’s 
apparatus sufficiently appears from fig. 36. It is heated by a gas- 
burner, or placed over a coal-oil flame. 


Fic. 36. 


Doty’s Balsam Bottle.—Most of the methods for the manipulation of 
Canada balsam are open, it is said, to the objections of inconvenience, 
wastefulness and slowness which Mr. Doty’s bottle, 
fig. 37, is intended to obviate. Fie. 37. 

The reservoir B is a turnip-shaped bulb, 
through the stopper C of which passes a wire R. 
One end of the wire is then bent into a ring for 
the finger, and the other is tapered and ground 
into the lower end of the stem of the bulb, thus 
forming a valve V. 

In preparing for use, first put a small quantity 
of the solvent S, which is used to dilute the 
balsam, into the bottle D, being careful that not 
enough is used to touch the valve; remove the 
wire and stopper from the bulb and close the 
valve end; fill the bulb with balsam diluted so as 
to flow or drop freely, and replace the wire and 
stopper. 

The advantages of the bottle are:—The bulb 
can be taken from the bottle and operated with 
one hand; the balsam is always ready to flow 
and will not harden at the exit of the bulb; the 
flow can be perfectly controlled; it may be 
operated continuously ; it is cleanly and durable ; 
the balsam being delivered from the lower end of the tube is free trom 
bubbles, and being always protected is free from dust. 


Eternod’s Apparatus for stretching Membranes.* — Professor A. 
Eternod’s apparatus for stretching membranes consists of a nest of rings 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. (1887) pp. 89-41 (2 figs. ). 


164 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(fig. 388), each of which is slightly conical (fig. 39), so that the one 
fits into its neighbour very easily. The upper side has a bevelled edge 
c, Which prevents too extended a contact of the 
membrane with the inner ring when the membrane 
is stretched. The rings are made of vulcanite, a 
substance which is not attacked by the ordinary 
reagents, such as spirit, Miiller’s fluid, acids, &c. 
When stretched on these rings, the object M— 
mesentery, epiplasm, &ce.—may be placed beneath 
the Microscope and subjected to stains or fixative 
or other reagents, such as nitrate of silver. 


Determination of the Number of Trichine or 
other Animal Parasites in Meat.*—This is thus 
effected by Prof. H. Gage:—After meat has been 
found to be infested with parasites, if it is desired 
to determine the number in a kilogram, pound, or any other weight, a 
section of the meat is made with some sharp instrument, and the thick- 
ness of the section is measured by placing it between two cover-glasses 
whose thickness is known, and then, after pressing the cover-glasses quite 
firmly together, measuring the entire thickness. The thickness of the 
section of meat is then easily determined by subtracting the thickness 
of the cover-glasses from the number representing the thickness of the 
cover-glasses and the meat. ‘The sections may be from 0-1 to 0:3 mm. 
in thickness. Remove the upper or eye-lens of the ocular of the 
Microscope, and place on the diaphragm a piece of paper in which a 
small square opening has been made, thus converting the diaphragmatic 
opening from a round to a square one. Replace the lens, and by the aid 
of a stage micrometer determine the value of one side of the square field 
thus made. The opening need not, of course, be square, but it is much 
easier for most persons to determine the area of a square than a cirele— 
hence a square is recommended. Put the section of meat under the 
Microscope and count the number of parasites in the field, moving the 
specimen and making twenty or more counts, in order to get an average 
which shall fairly represent the number of parasites in one field. Find 
the cubic contents of one field by multiplying the thickness of the 
section by the number representing the value of the sides of the square 
field. From this compute the number of parasites in an entire cubic 
centimetre. Divide this number by the specific gravity of muscle 
(1-058), and the result will give the number of parasites in one gram 
of the meat. From this the number in one kilogram may be obtained 
by simply adding three cyphers (multiplying by 1000), or in one pound 
avoirdupois by multiplying by 453,593, which is the number of grains 
in one pound. ‘The following is an example : — 

The thickness of the section was 0°27 mm., and the value of the 
square field as seen in the ocular was 1°5 mm. The average number of 
Trichine seen in this field in twenty observations of different portions of 
the meat was three. The cubic contents of the field was 0°27 x 2°5 
x 1:5 = 0°6075 cub. mm. If 0:6075 cub. mm. contains three Trichine, 
one cub. mm. will contain 4°038 of them, and a cubic centimetre or 
gram would contain 1000 times as much, or 4938 Trichinz, providing it 
weighed only as much as distilled water at 60° F. But as muscle weighs 


* St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journal, liii. (1887) pp. 289-91. 


. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 165 


for) 
ler) 
“I 


-3 in one gram, or 4667-300 in a kilogram, or 4667°3 x 453-593 


1-058 as compared to water, the true number would be 4987 x 1-058 
= 2,117,054 in one pound avoirdupois. 


Models in Metal of Microscopical Preparations.*—Prof. E. Selenka 
prepares metal models from microscopical preparations in the following 
way :—To obtain a plaster representation of the brain of a vertebrate 
embryo, the outlines of the head, the external and internal boundary 
lines of the brain are drawn on paper from the specimen with a camera 
lucida. According to the size of the separate sections, every second, 
third, or fourth section is selected, the drawings are numbered, and then 
carefully stuck on cardboard of the necessary thickness; the reverse 
side of the cardboard is covered with glue. The separate figures are 
then carefully cut out. Small strips for joining must of course be left 
in the brain. The different layers of cardboard are then glued together in 
their proper order, and thus a case model of the head is obtained. Any 
gaps or seams on the surface are filled in with plaster of Paris, and 
then the hollow model, which is open behind, is filled with Wood’s metal 
heated to about 75° C. When cool the cardboard is softened in lukewarm 
water and then stripped off. The model is next cut in two with a fret- 
saw and the internal surface of the brain freed from the cardboard. 
Unevenness of the surface and holes are easily got rid of with a heated 
needle or knife, or by touching up with a stick of Wood’s metal which 
has been softened at a gas jet. It is necessary to leave vent-holes in the 
cardboard model. 


New Reagent for Albuminoids.,—Dr. M. Kronfeld proposes a new 
test for the presence of albuminous substances, viz. allowan (= mesoxa- 
lylurea). This substance forms crystals which are readily soluble either 
in water or alcohol. From a hoé solution there are deposited small 
permanent crystals with 1 equivalent of water; the larger crystals which 
are obtained from a warm solution deliquesce in the air. Solutions of 
alloxan produce, with albuminoids, and with some of the products of its 
decomposition, a red colour, which passes into purple, with an unpleasant 
odour. The reaction is obtained with tyrosin, very intense with aspara~ 
ginic acid and with asparagin; apparently with all those compounds 
which contain in their molecules the group CH,.CH(NH.).CO,H. 

Solutions of albuminoids give the reaction more slowly than when in 
the solid form. In order to be certain of success it is necessary to 
operate in the cold, and to exclude as much as possible the presence of 
ammonia; solutions in alcohol, water, or in caustic soda may be used. 
Free acids prevent the reaction. The endosperm of seeds, which contains 


aleurone and spherocrystals, is very convenient for experimenting with 
the alloxan-reaction. 


White's Elementary Microscopical  Manipulation.t — Whilst it 
might be thought that the ground was already fully occupied for works 
on microscopical manipulation, Mr. T. Charters White’s excellent little 
book will be found to meet a distinct want. More extensive treatises of 
course exist, but this, in the words of the author, “is designed with the 
aim of affording the youngest beginner such directions for preparing 


* SB. Physiol. Med. Soc. Erlangen, 1886, Heft 18. 

+ SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xciv. (1887) p. 135. 

{ White, T. C., ‘A Manual of Elementary Microscopical Manipulation for the 
use of Amateurs,’ iii. and 104 pp., 1 pl. and 6 figs. S8vo, London, 1887. 


166 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES, ETO. 


objects of interest and instruction in an elementary but at the same time 
such a complete manner that, be he the merest tyro, he may grasp their 
details and work out his studies with the most satisfactory results.” 


Brun, J.—Notes sur la Microscopie technique appliquee a l’histoire naturelle. 
(Notes on microscopicai technique applied to natural history.) 
Arch, Sci. Phys. et Nat., XVII. (1887) p. 146. 
Journ. de Microgr., XI. (1887) p. 178. 
Harris and Powpnr.—Manual for the Physiological Laboratory. 
4th ed., 266 pp. and figs., 8vo, Paris, 1887. 
HWircucock, R.—The Biological Examination of Water. III. 
Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., VIII. (1887) pp. 203-5. 
Mruuer, M. N.—Practical Microscopy. 
217 pp. and 126 figs., 8vo, New York, 1887. 
fOsporn, H. L.J]—Microscope in Medecine. 
Amer, Mon. Micr. Journ., VIL. (1887) p. 217. 
Prerson, G. A.—Laboratory Jottings. 
[Fixing reagents (chromic acid the best). Benda’s modified copper-heema- 
toxylin (supra, p. 158), Celloidin v. Paraffin. Homogeneous paraffin (supra, 
p. 151). Dispensing with clearing (supra, p. 160).] 
Aimer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VIII. (1887) pp. 153-5, 
Strasburger, E.—Mieroscopic Botany. A Manual of the Microscope in Vegetable 
Histology. TZransl. by A. B. Hervey. 
[Translation of ‘Das Kleine Botanische Practicum.’ } 
382 pp., 8vo, Boston, 1887. 
Tayutor, T.—The Crystallography of Butter and other Fats. IV. 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VIL. (1887) p. 226 (2 pls.). 
ZinGueER, E.—Die Technik der histologischen Untersuchung pathologisch-anato- 
mischer Praparate. (The technique of the histological investigation of patho- 
logico-anatomical preparations.) 8vo, Jena, 1857. 
ZuN«", A.—Cours de microscopie médicale et pharmaceutique. (Course of medical 
and pharmaceutical microscopy.) 
Moniteur du Praticien, 11. (1887) pp. 125 and 158. 


@ 167 ) 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Meetine or 147TH December, 1887, ar Kine’s Cottrcr, Stranp, W.C., 
THE PresIDENT (THE Rev. Dr, Dauiincer, F.R.S.) ix roe Cuarr. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 9th November last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received 
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given 
to the donors. 


From 
Dallinger, Rev. W. H., LLD., F.R.S., The Creator, and what we 
may know of the method of Creation. 388 pp. (Svo, London, 
LISI) “ao “eee = a. oo Be S30 ot) og eo, GG 4 oc The Author. 


Mr. Crisp read to the meeting the preface to Dr, Dallinger’s book. 


The President said, that although it would not be imparting any- 
thing new to the Fellows to remark upon the fact of the removal by 
death of Mr. Bolton since their last meeting, he thought it was fitting to 
make public allusion to the fact in that room. Microscopists generally 
were greatly indebted to him for the measures which he had adopted to 
enable them to study a great variety of living objects. His friends 
moved the Government to grant him a small pension for the services he 
had rendered to science, but unfortunately he only lived to enjoy it for 
a very short period. Both as individuals and as a Society they would 
record his death with sorrow. 


Mr. J. Mayall, jun., described two Microscopes by Jaubert, one of 
which had been described in the Journal for 1887, p. 632, and the other 
had not yet been described. 


Mr. Michael said that, a short time since, his relative, Mr. W. H. 
Michael, who was an excellent chemist, drew his attention to the Olewm 
Rhodit as being a substance very likely to prove advantageous as a 
substitute for oil of cloves in cases where this was usually employed in 
the preparation of objects for mounting. He had tried it for a few 
months, and it had given results sufiiciently satisfactory to induce him 
to bring it to the notice of the Society. “Rhodium oil,’ as it was 
commonly called, was supplied by chemists who sometimes thought it 
had to do in some way with the metal Rhodium. It was, however, 
obtained from Rhodium Radix—Rhodium being a thorny shrub growing 
in the Canary Isles. The oil was prepared by distillation, and was used 
for two widely distinct purposes. Firstly, the refined quality was 
largely used in this country by perfumers, as diluted attar of roses; and 
secondly, the commoner kind was used by rat-catchers on the Continent 
for the purpose of attracting rats, which were said to have a great 
partiality for it. Its value for mounting purposes was suggested to him 
on account of its being an oil of high penetrating power, and at the same 
time not being volatile. He had used it for about two months on Acari, 


168 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


and found that it had three great advantages. First, when a delicate 
object had been prepared in spirit and was afterwards transferred to oil 
of cloves it usually shrank back in a degree that was often detrimental : 
Rhodium oil did not cause it to do this. Second, when a very delicate 
object with small passages had been in oil of cloves it was often found 
that the oil of cloves ran out quicker than the balsam ran in, resulting 
in an appearance as if air had got into the tissues: this was avoided by 
the use of Rhodium oi]. Third, an object could be transferred direct 
to this oil from water or dilute acetic acid without the necessity of 
passing it through spirit. It gave as good results as oil of cloves, and 
rendered mounting in the last named respect a somewhat less trouble- 
some process. 

Mr. Karop inquired if Mr. Michael had tried it upon anything else 
than insect preparations? It seemed to him somewhat strange that an 
essential oil should be miscible with water. 

Mr. Michael said he had tried it upon a few other objects, but had 
not much histological work to try it upon at present. He found that it 
did not produce any milkiness in objects transferred to it from water. 

Mr. Suffolk asked if it was easily procurable ? 

Mr. Michael said he thought it could be got at almost any chemist’s, 
especially such as supplied materials to perfumers; but the finer 
quality should be asked for. 


The President said he was not yet able to give any practical 
account of the piece of apparatus which he held in his hand, but he 
thought the Fellows present would be interested to know that it was the 
first condenser made with the new German glass. It had a numerical 
aperture of 1:4, working at the same distance as the achromatic conden- 
ser also made by Messrs. Powell & Lealand, but this was also practically 
apochromatic. He had not yet had the pleasure of trying it, but he 
hoped to be able to do so in a very short time. 


Mr. T. B. Rosseter’s paper “On the Generative Organs of Ostra- 
coda” was read by Prof. Bell. 

Prof. Bell said, with regard to the question of motion in the sperma- 
tozoa, he did not think that the observations were really out of agree- 
ment with Prof. Huxley, who probably meant that there was no active 
movement. Of course, if there were absolutely no movement, it was 
tolerably certain that at no distant period the race would become extinct, 
so that by the expression, “ totally deprived of mobility,” he supposed 
was meant that they had not the same activity as that of the flagellate 
forms. 

Mr. Michael thought it was a fact that no motion could be made out 
in the case of several of the Arthropods. Mr. Campbell said in his 
paper that he could not detect any motion in the spermatozoa of some of 
the spiders, and he had himself found the same thing in the case of some 
of the Acari. 

Prof. Bell thought that the only cases in which flagellate spermato- 
zoa occurred were in the Scorpions and in Limulus. 

Prof. Stewart supposed it was rather a lapsus linguze on the part of 
Prof. Bell when he said the flagellate spermatozoa were rare amongst 
these classes, because amongst the insects they found them to be all—or 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 169 


nearly all—flagellate. Again also, as to the remark about the inactivity 
of the spermatozooids being comparative, he thought the difficulty was 
hardly so great as imagined. Supposing the fertilizing spermatozoa to 
be absolutely motionless, he did not see why the race should on that 
account become extinct, because in this case they had an instance of true 
copulation, in which these bodies were introduced completely within the 
passage of the female organ, and it was quite conceivable that by the 
contraction of its walls they might be eventually brought into contact 
with the ovum. In the other case mentioned it might be that an ame- 
biform action was subsequently taken on, because it seemed that a ray or 
burr-like form was in itself practically unfit to be carried up the duct 
of the female. 

Mr. A. W. Bennett said that in the case of one very large class of 
plants—the Floridee—the spermatozoa were entirely devoid of the 
power of motion. 

Prof. Bell pointed out that the amceboid motions in the case of the 
higher Crustacea had been noticed by a Russian observer. 


Mr. W. M. Maskell’s paper, “ Note on Micrasterias americana Ralts 
and its varieties,’ was read by Mr. Crisp (supra, p. 7). 

Mr. A. W. Bennett said that this paper struck him as being one of 
very great interest ; but to those who had given up the idea of fixity of 
species it was a matter of arrangement whether they regarded them as 
different, or as varieties of the same species. The genus Micrasterias 
was one of the most interesting of the Desmidiez, because of the com- 
paratively large size and great beauty of many of the forms. The 
author spoke of the great advantage which would accrue from a mono- 
graph of the Desmidiex, but he thought if they had a complete mono- 
graph of only Micrasterias it would be of inestimable value. One of the 
whole group would be a matter of such enormous labour that it could 
hardly be hoped for. He could completely corroborate what the author 
said as to the very great variety of forms which existed in individuals of 
the same species. He thought this paper was a contribution to science, 
for which the Society ought to be grateful. 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 

Mr. Bolton :—Canthocamptus minutus. 

Mr. Burgess :—Carterina spiculotesta Carter, Raine Island, Torres 
Strait. 

Mr. Crisp :—Jaubert’s Microscopes (2). 

Mr. Guimaraens :—Diatoms from Sysran, Government of Simbirsk, 
Russia (a new deposit). 

Mr. Michael :—Specimen of Mounting Medium in which Ol. Rhodii 
had been used. 


New Fellows:—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 


Messrs. C. Spence Bate, F.R.S., W. Laurence Gadd, F.C.S., and Rev. 
Thomas 8. King. 


1888. N 


170 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 
Meeting or llrn January, 1888, ar Krine’s Cottece, Stranp, W.C., 
THE Presipent (tHE Rey. Dr. Daxuinerr, ¥.R.S.) In THE CHAIR 


The Minutes of the meeting of 14th December last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received 
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given 
to the donors. 

From 
M‘Coy, F., Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria. Decades 1-14. The Government 
8vo, Melbourne, 1878-87 5 A ea Fie of Victoria. 


The President said that since their last meeting the death had oc- 
eurred of Dr. Arthur Farre, F.R.S., who was formerly Professor of 
Obstetrics in King’s College and a Physician Extraordinary to the 
Queen, and who was also one of the first supporters of the Society 
(elected in 1840) at a time when it held a position very different from 
that which it occupied at the present day. He was one of those who 
had actively assisted in bringing microscopy to its present condition of 
prominence, and his death would be recorded with sorrow. 


Mr. Crisp also referred to the death of Mr. Lettsom, formerly a 
Fellow of the Society, and who was specially interested in the optical 
questions connected with the Microscope. The death of Mr. Dancer 
had also taken place, who, although not known to them as an attendant 
at the meetings, had in former years done much useful work in con- 
nection with microscopy. 


Mr. Crisp read the list of nominations for Officers and Council for 
the ensuing year, to be elected at the Annual Meeting in February. 


Mr. J. J. Vezey and Mr. W. W. Reeves were elected Auditors of the 
Treasurer’s accounts. 


Mr. Crisp gave notice, on behalf of the Council, of the alterations in 
the Bye Laws which it was intended to present to the Annual Meeting 
for adoption. In consequence of alterations made from time to time 
in certain of the Bye Laws, the wording of others required revision 
in order to make them consistent, and some additions had also appeared 
to be advisable. The nature of the proposed alterations was then 
explained to the meeting, and the proof of the Bye Laws as amended 
was laid on the table. 


Prof. Stewart exhibited a specimen of a Lamellibranchiate shell 
which he said possessed some peculiar features of a very interesting 
character, and which, although often figured, were not generally known 
to biologists at large. In some of the Mollusca the individuals were 
moncecious, but in those where the sexes were separate the female shell 
was usually larger than the male and also differed considerably in shape, 
» as shown by the drawings of each, which he made upon the board. In 
the genus T’hecalia the female shell exhibited a peculiarity which was 
quite unique; this genus contained only two species, of which con- 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. nL7Al 


camerata was the one to which the specimen shown belonged. As age 
advanced the mantle became folded back upon itself in a very curious 
manner, and simultaneously with this there occurred a similar infolding 
of the contiguous portions of the shell, by which two depressions were 
produced, forming a fusiform chamber when the two valves came 
together. In this cavity the embryonic shells were to be found. In 
the specimens exhibited this chamber was well seen, although with few 
exceptions the embryos had been removed. 


Edmonds’s Automatic Mica Stage, rotating by clockwork, was exhi- 
bited and described. It had been devised by Mr. John Edmonds, of 
Hockley, formerly President of the Birmingham Microscopical Society 


(supra, p. 111). 


Mr. Crisp said that, though having by experience become wary as to 
‘small-type paragraphs appearing at the bottom of newspaper columns 
having marvellous headings, but found at the end to be advertisements 
(such as “ A False Swain and a Deluded Spinster,” which advocated a hair 
nostrum ), he was taken in by an article which was placed at the head of a 
column and had attracted his attention by the reference to ‘“‘ The Micro- 
scope” and “The many puzzling secrets revealed by this wonderful 
instrument.” On reading it the article was found to be an ingeniously 
worded advertisement of a wonderful “cure.” It was the first time that 
he had seen the Microscope thus made use of by advertisers as a victim 
(supra, p. 188). 


Mr. A. W. Bennett gave a résumé of his paper on “ Fresh-water 
Algz of the English Lake District. II. With descriptions of a new genus 
and five new species,’ in continuation of his previous communication 
on the same subject (supra, p. 1). 

The President said Mr. Bennett’s paper was a most important contri- 
bution to their knowledge of a subject which he had made so specially 
his own. Only one who was a master of this branch of science could 
recognize the new species in this manner, not only amongst British 
organisms, but also in the case of foreign forms. 


Dr. G. Gulliver read a paper on Pelomyxa palustris (supra, p. 11). 

Prof. Stewart thought that the Fellows were much to be congratu- 
lated upon the information which they had received in this paper. The 
practice of staining in the course of the examination of these lowly 
organisms had long been employed in rendering the nucleus of the cell 
more distinct ; but, so far as he was aware, this was the first occasion 
in which, in addition to staining, sections had een made. There were 
of course many instances in which this could not be done with advan- 
tage ; but in the case before them, in consequence of the large size of 
the organism, section-cutting had been possible, and the results had 
been so encouraging, that he hoped it would be applied in other cases 
also. If they took a Pelomyxa they would see on a front view a large 
creature very much like an Ameba, and also like it, containing masses 
of granules, which moved forward along those portions of the creature 
which were extended in the direction in which it intended to move. If 
they looked at it edgeways, they would see no difference between the 
endoplasm and the exoplasm, so long as they looked at it in the ordinary 
way, but if it was stained the granulated structure was at once revealed. 


172 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


The appearance of the nucleus of the cell would lead to the notion that 
such cells might perhaps be swarm-spores; careful observation would, 
however, be necessary to establish this as a fact. As regarded classifica- 
tion, he should not be surprised if it ultimately turned out that these 
organisms had a nearer relation to the true Heliozoa than to the more 
lowly Amebe. 

The President expressed the thanks of the meeting to Dr. Gulliver 
for his paper, and also to Prof. Stewart for his remarks upon the subject. 
He thought that if one of the tendencies of fifteen or twenty years ago had 
been to conclude that there was no structure in low organisms of the 
type of that before them, it was equally certain that the tendency of the 
present day was to show that there was structure throughout. This was 
not yet established ; but even yet, if it should appear that the endosare 
was without structure, it was still certain that the ectosare was shown to 
be full of structure. 


Mr. E, M. Nelson handed round for inspection two photographic 
positives, one of Amphipleura pellucida and the other of a kind of fungus 
growth which attacked calcareous sand as described by Mr. J. G. Waller 
in the ‘ Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club’ (vol. i. p. 345). This 
object presented some photographic difficulty because of its non-actinic 
colour. With regard to the other, he might remark that, in resolving 
diatoms with oblique light, it was essential to decide whether they in- 
tended to focus upon the real surface or upon the optical image produced 
in a higher plane, in consequence of the double nature of the structure 
of the valve. In the latter case, they would obtain a result such as he 
exhibited, which was a photograph of the optical image, and not of the 
real diatom. He also exhibited the focusing screen for use in the micro- 
camera which he described at the previous meeting of the Society. 

Mr. Nelson also called attention to a curious optical effect, for which 
at present he was unable to account. In a flat box he had placed a 
glass positive of Amphipleura pellucida, which was viewed as a trans- 
parency through a piece of tube fitted at right angles to the surface. If 
this was looked at when held towards a surface of light, such as an opal 
lamp-shade or a “ sun-light ” gas-burner, the black lines appeared to be 
slightly smaller than the white lines; but if it was turned towards a 
small light at a distance, then the black lines appeared very large, and 
the white ones were reduced to mere threads. The scale of the photo- 
graph showed that the effect was not due to the operation of the first 
diffraction spectrum; and it was still more curious to note that in the 
case of another positive taken from the same negative, and upon the same 
scale, this optical illusion was not observed. 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 

Mr. Crisp :—Edmonds’s Mica Stage. 

Dr. G. Gulliver :—Pelomyzxa palustris. 

Mr. Nelson :—Photomicrographs. Diffraction effect of Amphipleura 
pellucida. 

Prof. Stewart :—Thecalia concamerata. 


New Fellows:—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. H. Williams Case, Hahnemann Epps, Thomas W. Kirk, and F. 
Raymond. 


The Journal is issued on the second Wednesday of 
February, April, June, August, October, and December. 


. ay 
ice 


al 
1888. Part 2. APRIL. i pee Bee 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL 
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY: 


- CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS, 


AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ZOO LOGS AINE DD: BOT AN 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 
MICROSCOPY, 8c. 


Edited by 


FRANK CRISP, LL.B., B.A, 
One of the Secretaries of the Society 
and a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Society of London ; 
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND 
A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc., F.LS., F. JEFFREY BELL, M.A., F.Z.S., 
Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in Ki ing’s College, 
JOHN MAYALL, Joy. F.ZS., R. G. HEBB, M.A,, M.D. (Cantad.), 
AND 
J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., 
Lecturer on Zoology in the School of Medicine, Edinburgh, 
FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY, 


WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 
\ De - LONDON AND EDINBURGH. 


PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,] [STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. 


CONTENTS. 


—_—_—_—- 


TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SooInTY— 


IV.—On tur Tyrer or A New onper or Foner. By George Massee, 


PR MS (Plate TV) 2 G82 ve see 


V.—Tux Presipent’s Appress. By the Rev. W. H. Dallinger, 


UE Da Bias Lie QUO.) 56 3s ee, Siva ted Clhae 


SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEAROHES. 


ZOOLOGY. 


A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 


a. Embryology. 


Betionor, G.—Polar Globule of Mammalian Ovum ., 

Ryver, J. A.—Vestiges of Zonary Decidua in Mouse oi 
Usxow, N.—Development of Blood-vascular System of the Chick 
HaAswetyi, W. A.—Development of Hmu seve ce newt 
Scuanz, F.—Fate of the Blastopore in Amphibiang .. ss «s 
Fieumine, W.—Spermatogenesis of Salamander so vs on es 
Brooz, G.—Germinal Layers in Teleostet .. so ss ee ee 
Fusaril, R.—Segmentation of Teleostean Ova DEA Soe neue eens fe 
Cunnincuam, J. T.—Eggs and Larve of Teleosteans.. 1. +» 
ZircLer, H. 0.—Origin of Blood in Teleostet .. ee se ae 


lees J. T.—Ova of Bdellostoma .. is 
Manrcacct, rar hei of Movement on Developing “Eggs. - 
Hatscuex, B.—Significance of Sexual Reproduction .. .. + 


Dermer, W.—Inheritance of Acquired Characters .. 2. ae 
WiepersHeimm, R.—Ancestry of Man 4. se ce tte 
Weismann, A.—Degeneration.. .. «esa a we 


B. Histology. 


NANsEN, F'.—Histological Elements ef the Central Nervous System 
Bampesz, C. Van—Artificial Deformations of the Nucleus  .. 
ees P.—Structure of Nerve-fibre .. .. < 
Foi, F.—Structure of Red Blood-corpuscles .. 

Hauuipurton, W. D.—Hemoglobin Crystals of Rodents’ Blood 


B. INVERTEBRATA. 


Duranp, W. F.—Parasites of Teredo navalis 14 see we 
Innor, O. E.—Fauna of Mosses «. os on ne oe oa 


Mollusca. 
Fou, H. ee ake Structure of Muscles of Molluscs .. 


oe 


ScHIEMENZ, P.—Ingestion of Water in Lamellibranche, Gastropods, ‘and Peeropods 


a. Cephalopoda. 
Barner, F. A.—Growth of Cephalopod Shells .. + «ses 
y. Gastropoda. 


Korner, R.—Form and Development of Spermatozoa in Murex 
SaLensky, M.—Development of Vermetus .. .. Seesee 
Bouvier, E. L.—Anatomy and Affinities of Ampullaria ae 


Scuimgewitsou, W.—Development of Heart of Pulmonate Mollusca 


Frwxes, J. W.—Sucker on Fin of Pterotrachea ..- 1. «5. 


ee 


oe 


PAGE 
173 
177 


186 
186 
187 
187 
189 
189 
189 
191 
191 
192 
192 
193 
193 
193 
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194 


194 
196 
197 
198 
198 


199. 
199 


199 


199 


200 


200 


208 ei 


204 
204 


205 


(3) 
§. Lamellibranchiata. 
Apirny, I.—Histology of Najadz .. 


Molluscoida. 
a. Tunicata. 


BENEDEN, E. a ee Tanvena es aes 


Douixy, C. S.— Histology of Salpa 
B: Polyzoa. 


Herpman, W. A.—Reproductive Organs of ee gale 


Forrrinerr, A .—Anatomy of Pedicellina 


Arthropoda. 
Parren, W.—Eyes.of Arthropods .. «+ 


a, Insecta. 
Ravi, O. v yaa ae Sensory Organs of Insects.. —.. 
Kytrret, A.—Salivary glands of Insects Pees 
M‘Coox, H. C.—Sense of Direction in Formica rufa 
FRICKEN, V.—Respiration of Hydrophilus..  .. 


SzLvatico, S.—Aorta of Bombyx mort .. 
Rascurgn, E. W.—Larva of Culex . : 
CuoLoprovsky, N,.—Some Species of Chermes 

8. Myriopoda. 
Hearucors, F, G.—Post-embryonic Development of Julus 


6. Arachnida. 


PuaTEAv, F.—Vision in Arachnids ey 
a Respiration of Arachnida 
WacnER, V.—fegeneration of Lost Parts 


M'‘Coox, H. C.—Age and Habits of American Tarantula .. 


ZACHARIAS, O.— Distribution of Arachnida .. 


e. Crustacea. 


pena P.— Excretion in Brachyurous Crustacea 
Rawitz, B.—Green Gland of Crayfish .. .. 1 — « 
Garp, A., & J. Bonnrer—The Bopyridz a5 


Two New Genera of “Epicarida 


Cuavs, C. Se oricinaks and the Philichthydz 


Nusspaum, M.—First Changes in Fecundated Ovwm o of Lepas a 
Vermes, 
a, Annelida. 
Scam M.—Development of Annelids .6 6s an we 
Bourne, A. G.—Vascular System of Hirudinea.. ..  »- 


BrvUNoTTE, C. —Structure of the Eye of Branchiomma .. 


Vespovsky, F.—Larval and Definite Excretory Systems in Lumbricide .. 


Bepparp, F, E.—Reproductive Organs of Moniligaster ., 
2 ” So-called Prone Glands of Oligochzta 

Roux, L.—-Histology of Pachydrilus enchytrzoides +. 

Benuam, W. B-—New Earthworm ieee 

Mryer, E.—Organization of Annelids .. 


Joveux-Larruie, J.—Nervous System Me Chatopterus Valencinit 


agen J.—Polygordius .. .. 


8. Nemathelminthes, 


Lrg, A. DOLEBS Soperierogatiees in Chetognatha ., °°. 
a aie .—Life-history of Gordius 


Vitor, A.—Development and Specific Determination ¢ ee Gordié 


Bos, J. Rirzema—Natural History of Tylenchus 


PAGE 


205 


206 
207 


208 
208 


209 


210 
211 
212 
212 
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212 
213 


213 


214 
214 
215 
215 
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216 
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217 
218 


218 
219 
219 
220 
227 
221 
222 


», 222 


222 
225 


225 — 


227 
228 
228 
229 


eee) 


y: Platyhelminthes. PAGR 

Montez, R.—Tenia nana Ss Bee ae or foal pyr cea Re Bdlcrkk to rea a 

Tuma, I.—Some European Triclades See Gee Sg ie Re RSM tig Osetia A area 
5. Incertee Sedis, 

Hoop, reptiles clei annulata .. Be RES Ut ani en rae eee 
Nansen, F'.—Nervous System of Myzostoma.. APP Mauch eRe R ALE Memo 
Echinodermata. 

Bury, H.— Development of Antedon rosacea é aft Sib a Po ep aoc ara ea ca ar 
Groom, T. T.—New Features in Pelanechinus corallanus wok Cock wR ee SR 
Sarasin, Pi & F.—Budding im Star-fishes 1. 66 ee be eee ce nee RBS 
Semon, R.—Mediterranean Synaptide@ .. 6. ose we eee eee ne ue | 288 
Celenterata. 
page C.—Cladonemidx mer ay Ce hae Tey eet Ante ew Ne 
Lewy, J—Hydra .. READE eas Sama ten Pas tet Ne Cone Ye PP 


Frwxkes, J. W.—Are there Deep- Sea Medusee 2 dn, PE agg teas Sara ge, wel 
Hickson, 8. J.—Sea-cells and Development of Millepora .. 1 4s ae ewe 286 


Nicnotson, H. A.—Structure and Affinities of Parkeria .. 4. 1 te oe ae 287 
MARENZELLER, E. voN—Growth of Flabellum =... 02 ee wees ee DBT 
Sruper, T.—Classification of Aleyonaria ..  .. ee ee ete tne we DBT 


Grima, J: A.—Norse Alcyonaria 4. see oe ne oe te ne ee we ae 239 


Porifera. 


TorsENntT, E.—So-called Peripheral Prolongations of ne SEC A ae aa 
THomson, J. ARTHUR—Structure of Suberites 1. 6. su te te we ae we 289. 


Protozoa. 


GreENwoop, M.—Digestion in Rhizopods .. «+ ne ee ty te ee ane 240 
Grassi, B.—Protozoa Parasitic in Man Wee SUMO ke USI ob oak FL Ee hae ee 
ZACHARIAS, O.—Psorospermiuwm Haeckeli —.. Be ap ae Muti) bak ek aoa 
Daweon, J; W:—Hoxoon: Canadense® aii eo ad ee og ges ae. pb oda ton eee 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 


a. Anatomy. 
(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. 


Moorr, 8S. Le M.—Influence of Light upon Protoplasmic eee ge ae: Gh come 
Went, F. A. F. C.—Nuclear and Cell. Division Anse Re de 7 3) 
Wicanp, A.—Crystal-plastids Seep m ad wigs ete ekece ee 
Boxorny, T.—Separation of silver by active Anan Pa ETT eee Cie et 


(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions). 


Moors, 8S. Le M.—Epidermal Chlorophyll .. 4. 24 eu ee we oa DED es 
Cugin1, G.—Fluorescence of Chlorophyll... icch paw ae Saat oe we 245” 
Maccniati, L.—Preparation of Pure Chlorophyll tee sec aa wig awa ee 
Lorw, O., & T. Boxorny—Presence be active Albumin tn the Cell-sap eae eee 
Zorr, W. _Fibrosin, anew cell-content ..  .. 2. on aww dae nk veoh eae 
Mouiscn, H H.—Secretion from the Roots .. .. dy Cope aaa! 
PaLLADIN, W.—Formation of organic acids in the growing parts of “plants RC nites 4-9) 
JOHANNSEN—Localization of Emulsin in Almonds... a piprer eee Hitec ta Fra) a 
(8) Structure of aeons ! 

InuicH, E.—Development of Stomata .. ss se ne te te te te wwe D4 
Pratt, E Papen a a ote nd DIUM 29 Ga ee be oe a ata ee Gee ee 
Krasser, F.—Split Xylem in Clematis .. «. ahi uae Nes eee 


Scoudntanp, 8.—Apical meristem of the roots of Pontederiaccee .. ret aber rie or ho re 


9 


(4) Structure of Organs. PAGE 
_ Prrorra, R. Asana Alaa of Gelsominer (Jasminer) ..  .» +e ee owe 249 
Mastort, R .—Salt-excreting glands of Tamariscinez 249 

Koen, L.—Organs for the absorption of vegetable food-material by plants containing 
chlorophyll ..  -s. Gorissen: ek 249 
Sapion, LECLERC pu—-Haustoria of the Rhinanthece and Santalacee .. 250 

Trecuen, P. Van—Structure of the root and arrangement of the rootlets in Centro- 
lepidex, Eriocaulex, Juncex, Mayacex, and Xyridew.. +» ss ee an we DBL 
Geminate Root-hairs .. we iawe toe. Sine Snes eet Ook 
Marriroto, 0, & L. Buscattont—Root-tubercles of Leguininose = Peay 11) F 
Wanp, H. Mansuatt—Tubercular Swellings on the Roots of Vicia Faba.. os ol 
BAuprnt, T. A.—Emergences on the Roots of Seaiicabied Re ee Spi lee lem: we ee 
Coroms, G.—Stipules .. Sa GEE ig. tak ee AR AOR OT os, oso mA ea areutes LOM 
Dirz, R.-—Vernation of Leaves Rhee ment eee WE aS Nes SES awe A Va SG Ot naa Toe 
KRONFELD, M.—Double Leaves .. ROI ece SAN teres WPS eee es EAT 
ee enile leaflets of Staphylea pinata Tia et neey re See eer 
Hurn, B.—Clinging-Planis .. .. .. BG toas etree denied Flee OS. 
Krasser, F.—Heterophylly ..  .. saree tint a0) Svaees ar Wiepatreeies. TOO 
Wicanp, A.—Colours of Leaves and Porte ee eae ng OR 
ReEicuHe,- K.—Anatomy of the Floral Axis... 40) ee oe ee te swe we 204 
Hunstow, G.— Comparative Anatomy of Flowers Saher Wel oo an nse he cD 
De.pino, F.—Floral Nectary of Symphoricarpus.. 2. 6» 00 ee wn oe ne 288 
Opens, A.—Fruit of Borraginez .. eee a Peek RAS Conte Pike Ne RES Pie 
Srapr, O.— Explosive Fruits of Alstreemeria daarvel SPUR eH ees. a ea LOO 

B. Physiology. 
(1) Reproduction and Germination. 
Nrcoorra, L.—Pollination of Serapias .. . eS. HST SI OR oe eT 256 
Rozn, E.— Pollination in Zannichellia palustris Uae ee Bee cee eon ea seee S815 
Nosse, F'.—Production of Sex und phenomena of Crossing Serge lesen omens ee 
JorDAN, K. F.—Physiological Organography of Flowers .. .. sso» we” 256 
Rorre, R. A.—Bigeneric Orchid Hybrids... .. wat eee nba ree Sealy eae Cae. 
HERE, O—— Germenanton of 2 UNS 320k aes Ona tse oe bho OF as ee he ep LEO. 
(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Movements of Fluids), 

DancGearp, P. A.—Importance of the Mode of Nutrition as a means of Distinction 
between Animals and Vegetables .. EPA TSR ea etd ee rere WAY | 
Unuitzscu, P. G.—-Growth af the Leaf- “stalk See pres, ete atest OOS 
Bower, F. O.—Modes of Climbing in the genus Calamus... ae sleet psees eet “ROO 
Krevster, U.— Assimilation and Respiration of Plants .. .s .. 2. se +» 258 
WInrsneEr, s. Pep ei of Atmospheric Movement on Transpiration.. .. .. .. 259 
Burcerstern, A —— Literature.of- Pranspiration® 1.28.5 ise ane ew 8 ee Se OD. 

(3) Irritability. 

Pasnew J.—Movements of Irritation  .. UG esd nat sex ba SeeDe 
Mernan, T.—Irritability of the Stamens of Echinocactue . Bo Oates sean anoles kena er OE 
(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation), 
Lawes, J. B.—Sources of the Nitrogen of Vegetation .. .. +s «os 0 «« 261 
B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 

Cryptogamia Vascularia. 
GorsBeL, K.—Conversion of Fertile into Sterile Fronds... se 22 «0 se o» 261 
Bower, F. O.—Formation of Gemmez in Trichomanes sss sews ae we 262 
BAKER, G. —Enterosora ee ee ae oe oe oe oe oe oe oe 262 
Trevs, M.—Life-history of Lycopodium was Sree ener ee pie aid aa aM roe ane ae 
_ Bucutien, O.—Prothallium of Equisetum .. nos) Cae ke SON NR and gee DO 
“Reyavir, B.—Leaves of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron RE Pe Ma tee Tite teay «| 


C68) 


Muscinesx. 
Vaizey, J, R.—Absorption of ee and its igen to the apse sites of the Celt- 
wall in Mosses ~.. . Sco RPRE CORN BOT DERE SgEE 
Purizert—Peristome of Mosses rl piaia eet ed Ph Motes halal dahl ame 
Santo, C.—Hybrid Mosses nh EN WS REE asiee pak One oe ened 
MassALoNnao, ‘G.—Distribution of Hepation wo hia 8? te Saye ial Nn Gas gee a a 
Alges. ; 
Scuirr, F.—Phycophein.. La NOs eG 


DEBRAY, F.— Development of the Thallus of certain Age AP Mair pce Sa ae. as | 
Outver, F, W.—Sieve-tubes in the Laminaries Sab Dat ee Ma en Tso 
Lacernem, G.— Development of Confervacess 4. 4 ne 4 we ine ee 
Hanserme,. Ai—Algological Studies 0 ode ee Sn lea toen flaebee) wey ce Sood pee 
RAUWENHOF®, No. Wo P-Spheropled 6 0g ope Sei en be tee dn we ae 
WiILpEMAN, BH. DE—Ulothriacrenulata:.. 26> ee ot ae eh ee ey ee ab 


Porrmr, M. C.—Alga epiphytic on a Tortoise ayes a 
Sontrr, F.—ormation of Auxospores in Diatoma  .. ve ee wee 
Fungi. 

Frank, B.—New Forms of Mycorhiza .. fake telat aay 
ee R. von—Abnormal Fructi ification of Agaricus procerus Spaie A 
Morini, F.—Sexuality of Ustilaginex .. Se earecesyy 

», Germination of the Spores in Ustilago ay Su a 
TieGHEM, P. Van—New Genera of Ascomycetes, Oleina and Podocapsa sea 
ZvuKAL, H.—Asci.of Penicillium erustaceum ., pecan 
Rotugrt, W.—Formation of Sporangia and Spores i in the Saprolegniez .. ve 


ScuNerzLER, J. B—Infection of a Frog-tadpole a a Ma seree 


Iiness, M., & C. Fiscu—Hlaphomyces .. .. ee RI 
BRUNCHORS?, J == Cabbage Herne ee cite Ie ok eee Uo eRe See ae Steal eas OD 

5 Ee OLNO UU OUB YS go isin. se. Pe OBI we We ee ke Rome 
RogrNson, B. L.—Taphrina .. RPGS gs: NM TT PE 
VuILuemin, P.—Disease affecting Cherry and Phum-trees lata 6 alae i eae 
Harz, C. eee PPO ONE Nae aera ewe a eel reg KCtenaa) nokeae 
ROSPRUD,: He —Bunge Of Penance ake sa ewes ieee eS ea te res 

Protophyta. 


Scorn, ie H.—Nucleus in Oscillaria and Tolypothrix PCT eee rng tiipax titect Fae 
Borzi, A.—Microchete  .. 

Binier, A.— Life-history and Morphological Variations of Bacterium Laminaria 
Tomascuer, A., & A. Hansairc—Bacillus muralis s,s. ++ ve one 2 
Buswip, O-= Bacteria in Hailstones SEN veg Sed aa 
Fiscuer, B.—Phosphorescent Bacillus «. 

Kirasato, 8.—Spirillum concentricum, a new species from decomposing blood 


MICROSCOPY. 


a Instruments, Accessories, &c. 
(1) Stands. 


Wiuurams, G. H.—Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.’s Petr he ag Eee 


(Fig. 40)... me Spies 
CZAPSEI, S.—Bamberg’s Spherometer Microscope (Fig. “AD ee ee Sagat CN Nea 


GaALuaAnpD-Mason’s (R.) Microphotoscope (Figs. 42-44) © 2. 50 nee eee 


(2) Bye-pieces and Objectives. 
GunpLach, 8.—Apochromatie Objectives «se ve we ten 


CueEaP Objectives Ske eT S ape panier be vey sy hen sen ee ae he 


(3) INuminating and other Apparatus. 
BREFELD, O.—Geissler’s Culture Tubes (Fig. sai 


Gas and Moist Chambers (Figs. 46-55)... Eger eins oe a 6 “i «i 


MAuuarp, E.—Bertrand’s Refractometer vis ee PETS 
LEHMANN, O sat dae pie for Microphysical Investigations teeo ks 


PAGE 


263 

263 
264 
264 


be) 


(4) Photomicrography. 
Leumany, O.—Photomicrography of Chemical Preparations... + 


- NeunHaus’s (R.) Photomicrographic Camera (Fig. 56) «1 es ek tee 


STELN’S ss T.) “ Large Photomicroscope” (Fig. 57) 2.0 2. ee ee thee 
Troan, A., & O. Wirr—Photomicrographs of STIS Ces Mente toe <sale ees 


(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. 


Dawuineer, W. H. es of a eae of the Theory of the Hernan * 
Fasoupt’s Test-plates .. Seas 
Datiincer, W. H. —Daylight or Lamplight for Microscopical Observation 
Netson, E. M.— Curious sacl ax Phenomena with pec aes ‘pellucida 

(Figs. 58 and 59) . . oe ae ae ae .? . - 
Speorra of Pleurosigma angulatum Sa Te Baa oA sa ee Ee 


B. Technique. 
(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes. 


Ports, E.— Collecting, Growing, and Examining Fresh-water Sponges bie preteen gs 
EISENBERG, J.— Potato Cultivations % Pieter 
Piaut—Sterilization of Potato, Apples, and Water for cultivation purposes 


(2) Preparing Objects. 


LOweENTHAL, N.—Demonstrating the Reticulated Protoplasm in the Interstitial Cells 
of the Ovary Sipe toe RT 

Nansen, F.—Methods of investigating Structure of Nerve-tissues 

Bronpi, D.-—New Method for Investigation of Blood... 

Wray, R. S.—Methuds of studying typical Bird’s Feather .. 

JACKMAN, W. §8.—Mounting Tape-worms 5 

Reynonps, R. N.—Reeves’s Method ® 

ZIMMERMANN, A.—Mode ef drei id visible the é closing Membrane eof Bordered 
NF Ts eae ae abRuaNe's 

PANTANELLI, B= 


(8) Cutting, including Imbedding. 
Mott, J. W.—Application of Paraffin Imbedding in Botany .. 1. 1. an se 
Prirzer, E.—New Inbedding Matexial gina eit ale Moen ee eae has tages 
Daue’s (H. F.) Microtome (Figs, 60 and 61) Voie ev beh Semen er aie 
(4) Staining and Injecting, 
IY Asunno, G.—Staining Cultivation Media and tts results on micro-organisms .. 


“Maerinortt, C.— Nitrate of Silver Method’ .. 6. ue ee ee ee te ae 


(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c. 
Warp, R. H.—Indexing Microscopical Slides =... 5, ce ee et 


(6) Miscellaneous. 


 Encermany, T. W.—Colouring matter of blood as a means for distinguishing 


between the gas exchange of plants in light and darkness... «2 4. cs + 


! Ourver, F.. W.—Microchemical Tests for Callus .. 0.6 eee ve we ee 


PRoonEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY eer Bacar AES a pt Sea, OR AT 


I.—APERTURE TABLE, 


Corresponding Angle (2 u) for Limit of Resolving Power, in Lines to an Inch, 
Numerical Hn Monochromatic 
Aperture. Air Water Taeentbean White Light. | (Blue) Light. | Photography. 
(nsinu=a)|] (n= 1°00). | (m= 1-39), | (m= 1°52). [OT NER | OT ty | Gee Tine ay 
1-52 vs a 180° 0’ 146,543 158, 845 193,037 
1:51 is a 166° 51’ 145,579 157,800 191,767 
1°50 re: a 161° 23’ 144,615 156,755 190,497 
1:49 “a es 157°41 2! 143,651 155,710 189 , 227 
1:48 re es 158° 39’ 142,687 154,665 187,957 
1:47 ve a 150° 32’ 141,723 153,620 186,687 
1:46 ee te 147° 42’ 140,759 152,575 185,417 
1:45 wi x 145° 6’ 139,795 151,530 184, 147 
1°44 as 6 142° 39’ 138,830 150,485 182,877 
1:43 ne $s 140° 22’ 137,866 149,440 181,607 
1:42 AS an 138° 12’ 136,902 148,395 180,337 
1-41 “ ¥ 136°. .8’ 135,938 147,350 179, 067 
1‘40 vs be 134° 10’ 134,974 146,305 177,797 
1:39 or es 132° 16’ 134,010 145,260 176,527 
1°38 ae we 130° 26’ 133, 046 144,215 175, 257 
1°37 ve Vid 128° 40’ 132,082 143,170 173,987 
1:36 6 a 126° 58’ 131,118 142,125 172,717 
1°35 ee om 125° 18’ 130,154 141,080 171,447 
1°34 ak ry 123° 40’ 129,189 140,035 170,177 
1°33 2s 180° -0'.; 122° .6’ 128 ,225 138,989 168,907 
1-32 ae 165° 56’ | 120° 33’ 127,261 137,944 167,637 
1°31 ea 160°. 6’ | 119° 3! 126, 297 136,899 166,367 
1:30 ae 155° 38" |-117° 35’ 125,333 135,854 165,097 
1:29 Ss 151° 50’ | 116° 8’ 124,369 134,809 163,827 
1:28 as 148° 42’ | 114° 44’ 123,405 133,764 162,557 
1°27 sx 145e D7 tA SOC DE. 122,441 132,719 161,287 
1:26 is 1420739" | UTE 59! 121,477 131,674 160,017 
1°25 te 140° » 8’ | 110° 39° 120,513 130,629 158, 747 
1:24 acd 137° 36/ | 109° 20’ 119,548 129,584 157,477 
1°23 a B51 74 10822" 118,584 128,539 156,207 
1-22 ¥s 138° 4’ | 106° 45’ 117,620 127,494 154,937 
1°21 a 130° 57’ | 105° 30! 116,656 126,449 153,668 
1-20 # 128° 55’} 104> 15! 115,692 125,404 152,397 
1:19 = 126° 58!|°103°--2' 114,728 124,359 151,128 
1:18 ie 125°: 73" | 1019:50! 113, 764 123,314 149, 857 
ite beg es 123° 13’ | 100° 38’ 112,799 122,269 148,588 
1°16 as L219 96"4<. 992-29! 111,835 121,224 147,317 
1°15 es 119° 41’ | 98°20’ 110,872 120,179 146,048 
1:14 re TASS Oh OTS LY 109,907 119,134 144,777 
1:13 vs 4IGS 20") 296°. 72! 108,943 118,089 143,508 
1:12 - 114° 44’| 94° 55’ 107,979 117,044 142,237 
1:11 os 113° -.9"|-* 93° 47’ 107,015 115,999 140,968 
1:10 a 111° 36") — 92°.48’ 106,051 114,954 139,698 
1:09 & 110°. -5! | -.91° 88? 105,087 113,909 138 ,428 
1-08 A 108° 36’| 90° 34’ 104,123 112, 864 137,158 
1:07 ‘ 107° 8’ | 89° 30’ 103,159 111,819 135,888 
1:06 és 105° 42’ 88° 27’ 102,195 110,774 134,618 
1°05 ws 104° 16’ | 87° 24’ 101,231 109,729 183,348 
1-04 et 102° 53’ | 86° 21’ 100,266 108,684 132,078 
1:03 as 101° 30’ | 85° 19’ 99,302 107,639 130,808 
1:02 Se 100° 10’ | 84° 18’ 98,338 106,593 129,538 
1:01 98° 50’ | 83° 17' 97,374 105,548 128,268 


1:00 180° 0’ 97223 | 82° TP 96,410 104,503 126,998 
0:99 163° 48’ 96° 12’ | 81° 17’ 95,446 103,458 125,728 
0:98 157°: -2’ =| . 94°. 5677 = 80°17’ 94,482 102,413 124,458 
0-97 151° 52’ 93° 40’| 79° 18’ 93,518 101,368 123,188 
‘0-96 147° 29' 92° 24'| 78° 20’ 92,554 100,323 121,918 
0°95 148° 36’ 919 10% |. 779-22! 91,590 99,278 120,648 
0:94 140° 6’ 89° 56’| 76° 24’ 90,625 98, 233 119,378 
0°93 136° 52’ 88° 44’| (75° 27° 89,661 97,188 118,108 


0:92 133° 51’ 87° 32'| ‘74° 30’ 88,697 96,143 116,838 
0:‘91 131° 0’ 86° 20’| 73°. 33’ 87,733 95,098 115,568 
0:SO 128° 19° 85° 10’| 72° 36’ 86,769 94,053 114,298 
0:89 125° 45’ 8490! 1 7 19-A0! 85,805 93,008 113,028 _ 


0°88 || 123° 17’ 82°. 51’} 70° -44’ $4,841 91,963 111,758 


ED sty age be a> 


. Numerical 
Aperture. 
(m sin w= a.) 


APERTURE TABLE—continued. 


Corresponding Angle (2 w) for 


Air 


(n = 1°00). 


120° 
118° 
116° 
114° 
112° 
110° 
108° 
106° 
104° 
102° 
100° 

98° 

97° 


95° 2 


93° 
92° 
90° 
88° 
87° 
85° 
84° 
82° 
81° 
79° 
78° 
76° 
75° 
73° 
72° 
70° 
69° 
68° 
66° 


65° € 


64° 
62° 
61° 
60° 
57° 

Ao 
53° 
52° 
492, 
he 
44° 
42° 
40° 
39° 
37° 
34° 
32° 
30° 
28° 
27° 
25° 
23° 


55’ 
38’ 
25’ 
17’ 
12’ 
10’ 
10’ 
16’ 
22’ 


26’ 


| 


Water 


(m = 1°33). 


81° 42’ 


80°. 34’ 


Homogeneous 


immersion 
(m = 1°52). 


69° 49° 


White Light. 


Line E.) Line F.) 
83,877 90,918 
82,913 89,873 
81,949 88,828 
80,984 87,783 
80,020 86,738 
79,056 85,693 
78,092 84,648 
77,128 83,603 
76,164 82,558 
75,200 81,513 
74,236 80,468 
73,272 79,423 
72,308 78,378 
71,343 717 333 
70,379 76,288 
69,415 75,242 
68,451 74,197 
67,487 73,152 
66,523 72,107 
65,559 71,062 
64,595 70,017 
63,631 68,972 
62,667 67,927 
61,702 66,882 
60,738 65,837 
59,774 64,792 
98,810 63,747 
57,846 62,702 
56,881 61,657 
55,918 60,612 
54,954 59,567 
53,990 98,522 
53,026 57,477 
52,061 56,432 
51,097 55,387 
50,133 54,342 
49,169 53, 297 
48,205 52, 252 
46,277 00, 162 
44 349 48,072 
43,385 47,026 
42,420 45,981 
40 , 492 43,891 
38,564 41,801 
36,636 39,711 
34,708 37,621 
33,744 36,576 
32,779 35, 531 
30,851 33,441 
28,923 81,351 
26,995 29,261 
25,067 27,171 
24,103 26,126 
23,138 25,081 
21,210 22,991 
19,282 20,901 
17,354 18,811 
15,426 16,721 
14,462 15,676 
13,498 14,630 
11,570 12,540 

9,641 10,450 

7,713 8,360 

5,785 6,270 

4,821 5,225 


Monochromatic 


(Blue) Light. 
(A = 0°5269 p, | (A = 0°4861 pu, 


| 


Photography. 
(A= 074000 p, 
near Line h.) 


110,488 
109,218 
107,948 
106,678 
105,408 
104,138 
102 , 868 
101,598 
100,328 
99,058 
97,788 
96,518 
95,248 
93,979 
92,709 
91,439 
90,169 
88,899 
87, 629 
86,359 
85,089 
83,819 
82,549 
81,279 
80,009 
78,739 
17,469 
76,199 
74,929 
73,659 
72,389 
71,119 
69,849 
68,579 
67,309 
66,039 
64,769 
63,499 
60,959 
58,419 
57,149 
55,879 
53,339 
50,799 
48 259 
45,719 
44449 
43,179 
40,639 
38,099 
35,559 
33,019 
31,749 
30,479 
27,940 
25,400 
22,860 
20,320 
19,050 
17,780 
15,240 
12,700 
10,160 
7,620 
6,350 


Limit of Resolving Power, in Lines to an Inch.f 


Pene- 


Piiluminating} trating 


Power, 


(a®.) 


‘757 


*740 
*723 
*706 
“689 
*672 
*656 


DAWA PRO WWD NNNNNNNNPNW NH HE HEE Ee Eee eee EP ee ee ee ee et ee ee ee St ee ee eee 
fea 3 “ 
D 
a] 


Power. 


(-) 


68, CORNHILL, LONDON, E.C. 


( 10 ) 
GREATLY REDUCED PRICES 


OBJECT-GLASSES MANUFACTURED BY 


R. & J. BECK, 


PRICES OF BEST ACHROMATIC OBJECT-GLASSES. 


No. Focal length. 


100 | 4 inches 
101 | 8 inches 
102 | 3 inches 
108 | 2 inches 


106 | 2 inch . 
107 | 2 inch 

108 | 3 inch 

109 | +4, inch 

110 | +, ine “ 
111 | } inch 

LES) Laneh-3 

113 | tinch . 

114 | 3, imm. 


APPLICABLE TO ALL INSTRUMENTS MADE WITH THE UNIVERSAL SorEw. 


Linear magnifying-power, with ro-inch 


body-tube and eye-pieces. 


Angle 

of 

aper- Price. 

ture, 
about No. 1,| No. 2. 

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180 5 5 O|} 500) 800 | 1500 
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JOURN R.MICR S0C.1888. Pl IV. 


West, Newman %&Cohith 


Matula poroni zforme, Mass. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


APRIL 1888. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. 


IV.—On the Type of a new order of Fungi. 
By Grorce Massez, F.R.M.S. 


(Read 14th March, 1888.) 
PLATE IV. 


Toe Rey. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome, in describing a 
collection of fungi from Ceylon, established the genus Artocreas, 
characterized as follows:— Receptaculum commune distinctum ; 
hymenium planum e sporis magnis pulveraceum.” * ‘Two species are 
described—A. poroniewforme B. and Br., from Ceylon, which the 
authors state, in a note following the specific diagnosis, as “ looking 
just like an imperfect Crucibulum.” The second species, A. Micheneri 
Berk. and Curt., from Cuba and the United States, resembles in 
general appearance a Corticiwm with a determinate, thickened, raised 
margin, and agrees with the authors’ conceptions as to the affinities of 
the genus in the order Thelephoree, and must henceforth be considered 
as the type. A. poronixforme, although agreeing with the generic 
character given above in having a distinct receptacle and plane surface 
(not hymenium) powdered with large spores, proves on microscopic 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. 


Fig. 1.—WMatula poronixforme ; nat. size. 

» 2.—Vertical section of same, showing peridium and septa of gleba, spores 
removed ; nat. size. 

,, 3.—Vertical section of young plant, showing peridium, a; epiphragm, } ; 
and thick septa springing from inner surface of peridium,.c, x 15 
diam. 

» 4.—Vertical section of old plant, showing the thin remains of the septa and 
mass of spores (the latter drawn larger than their proportion to 
magnification of section) x 15 diam. 

5.—Transverse section of old plant at some distance below the apex, x 15 
diam. 
», 6.—Section showing structure of the peridium, x 400 diam. 
» 7.—Section through a septum of a young plant; aa, monosporous ; 
bb, bisporous basidia, x 400 diam. 
», 8.—Spores, x 400 diam. 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xiv. p. 73. 


1888. a) 


174 Transactions of the Society. 


examination to haye no affinity whatever with the Thelephorex, nor 
even the Hymenomycetes, but with the Gastromycetes, and even 
here not agreeing with any established order, but combining the 
salient morphological features of the Hymenogastrez and Nidulariez 
respectively. 

The plant grows on dead branches, originating beneath the bark, 
through which it bursts in the form of a minute ball, that soon expands 
at the apex, and assumes a cup-like form, more or less cylindrical, 
or slightly expanded upwards, measuring when full-grown from 
4—6 mm. across, and about the same in height. Before bursting 
through the bark, a vertical section is circular in outline, about 2 mm. 
diameter, with an irregular base, owing to unequal penetration of the 
mycelium into the substratum, and consists externally of thick-walled, 
colourless, aseptate, closely interwoven hyphe, averaging about 5 pw 
diameter. At the base of the plant this tissue is more abundant and 
convex towards the centre, resembling in form the so-called columella 
in some species of Lycoperdon. If the section is exactly median, a 
minute vertical slit in the outer thick-walled tissue is seen at the apex, 
which at first suggests the idea of a pore or ostiolum, as in the 
perithecium of a Spheria, but careful examination shows the slit to 
be the result of local arrest of the peripheral thick-walled hypha, the 
innermost portion being alone present, forming the base of what 
appears at this stage of development as a minute cylindrical depression 
about 10 ~ deep. The central portion consists of compactly inter- 
woven, thin-walled, septate hyphx, about 3 pw thick, which change 
towards the periphery into the thick-walled type already described. A 
few of the latter are also to be seen in the central portion, which at 
this period exhibits no further differentiation. After breaking through 
the bark, the plant measures about 4 mm. across, and is yet subglobose 
and flattened above. The apical slit now appears as a circular depres- 
sion about 3 mm. across, its floor forming an epiphragm closing the 
flattened apex, and continuous with the inner portion of the slightly 
incurved external thick-walled tissue, now differentiated as a peridium. 

At this stage of development a vertical section shows a highly differ- 
entiated internal structure (fig. 3), which appears to be completed during 
the period occupied by the plant in bursting through the bark. The 
external thick-walled tissue now appears as a homogeneous layer about 
1 mm. thick, sharply defined internally from the central portion except 
at certain points, and constitutes the peridium. The central portion or 
gleba is broken up into numerous irregular loculi by dense septa that 
are continuous with the inner surface of the peridium at numerous points. 
‘The septa contain a few thick-walled hyphz, but consist mostly of the 
thin-walled septate type, which run more or less parallel in the central 
portion, the free ends and numerous lateral branches bending outwards 
to form the lateral walls, which at first meet in the centre of the loculi, 
only recognizable at this period by the parallel arrangement of the 
central components of the septa. In some instances the hypha along 
the central line of a septum become more or less disorganized at an 


On the Type of a new order of Fungi. By George Massee. 175 


early period, but there is no approach to a definite separation into 
isolated peridiola. All the free tips that clothe the sides of septa appear 
‘to become converted into basidia, which are very primitive in structure, 
being slightly or not at all thickened at the apex, and producing usually 
a single spore, which at first appears as an obovate terminal cell, 
attached by a broad base. In rare instances two spores spring from 
the apex of a clavate basidium. ‘This type of hymenial structure agrees 
with that of Hymenogaster decorus, as figured by Tulasne.* While 
the spores are still young and obovate, they are set free by the total 
disappearance of the basidia, afterwards becoming spherical, and increas- 
ing considerably in size, measuring when fully developed from 24-28 yu 
in diameter, including the smooth colourless epispore, from 3-4 yu thick. 
Succeeding basidia produce spores further and further from the centre 
of the loculi, which become filled with spores, the septa consequently 
becoming thinner, until at last nothing remains but the central portion 
composed of parallel hyphe, separating loculi densely crowded with 
spores, which, owing to partial gelification of the thick epispore, become 
so agglutinated together as to remain attached for some time when a 
section is placed in water. Contemporaneous with the above changes 
in the gleba, the upper incurved portion of the peridium becomes erect 
or very slightly reflexed, and the epiphragm disappears, the mature 
plant resembling a fully developed A¥czdium full of spores, but I have 
not been able to discover in any specimen the notched margin to the 
peridium as represented in Berkeley’s figure. 

From the above description it will be seen that the leading features 
of the plant under consideration are (1) a peridium closed above by 
an epiphragm until all differentiation is completed ; (2) a gleba broken 
up into numerous cavities or loculi by dissepiments or septa bearing 
basidia on their free surfaces. The first character conclusively proves 
the plant to belong to the Gastromycetes; the two combined as 
conclusively prove that, although not without affinities, it cannot be 
placed in any hitherto defined order. The presence of a peridium 
closed by an epiphragm indicates relationship with the Nidulariexw 
but the gleba possesses a structure unknown in this order, whereas it 
agrees perfectly with that of the Hymenogastrex, but in the latter 
the peridium is indehiscent, and although of minor importance, the 
species are subterranean. It has been suggested that the indehiscent 
peridium in the Hymenogastrez is connected with the subterranean 
habit, and that a species developing above ground might be expected 
to have a dehiscent peridium. ‘l'his idea may be theoretically correct. 
It is true that subterranean species belonging to all groups are inde- 
hiscent, but it is not equally true that allied forms growing above 
ground are always dehiscent, as should be the case according to the 
idea given above. Scleroderma, Polysaccum, &c., are allied, grow 
above ground, and are indehiscent. Under the circumstances it has 
been considered advisable to propose the genus Artocreas as the type 


* Fungi Hypogei, tab. x. fig. ix. 2, 


One 


176 Transactions of the Society. 


of a new order, occupying a position exactly intermediate between 
the Nidulariacew and the Hymenogastree. I may state that Dr. 
Cooke concurs with this view. 


Matulex, nov. ord. 


Peridium primum clausum, dein apertum. Gleba multilocularis, 
dissepimentis crassis, non scissilibus peridioque continuis. Cellule vel 
loculi ad parietes hymeniferee, basidiis cylindricis vel subclavatis, 
1-2 sporis. 

Matula Mass. n. gen. Peridium sessile, prima etate globosum 
mox cylindricum, regulariter apice dehiscens. Gleba multilocularis, 
loculis rotundato-irregularibus. Spore globose. 

M. poronixforme Mass. Erumpens; peridium subcylindricum, 
ochraceum. Spore globose, hyaline, 24-28 w diam. Artocreas 
poronieforme B. & Br. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xiv. p. 73, pl. 2, 
fig. 5. 
z Erumpent. Originating below the bark, which is at first raised in 
a wart-like manner, and eventually ruptured, the plant emerging as 
a smooth ochraceous ball, which afterwards expands into a cup-like 
peridium, open at the apex, and crowded with spores at first aggluti- 
nated together. The colour of the peridium varies from pale rufous 
to ochraceous. 


On dead branches. Ceylon. 


Gul) 


V.—-The President's Address. 
By the Rey. W. H. Dauuineer, LL.D., F.B.S., F.LS., &e. 
(Annual Meeting, 8th February, 1888.) 


Retrospect may involve regret but can scarcely involve anxiety. 
To one who fully appreciates the actual, and above all, the potential 
importance of this Society, in its bearing upon the general progress 
of scientific research in every field of physical inquiry, the responsi- 
bilities of President will not be lightly, whilst they may certainly be 
proudly undertaken. 

I think it may be now fairly taken for granted that, as this 
Society has from the outset promoted and pointed to the higher 
scientific perfection of the Microscope, so now, more than ever, it is 
its special function to place this in the forefront as its raison @étre. 
The Microscope has been long enough in the hands of amateur and 
expert alike, to establish itself as an instrument having an application 
to every actual and conceivable department of human research ; and 
whilst in the earlier days of this Society it was possible for a zealous 
Fellow to have seen, and been more or less familiar with, all the appli- 
cations to which it then had been put, it is different to-day. Special- 
ists in the most diverse areas of research are assiduously applying 
the instrument to their various subjects, and with results that, if we 
would estimate aright, we must survey with instructed vision the 
whole ground which advancing science covers. 

From this it is manifest that this Society cannot hope to enfold, 
or at least to organically bind, to itself, men whose objects of research 
are so diverse. 

But these are all nevertheless linked by one inseverable bond: 
it is the Microscope ; and whilst, amidst the inconceivable diversity 
of its applications, it remains manifest that this Society has for its 
primary object the constant progress of the instrument, whether in 
its mechanical construction or its optical appliances; whether the 
improvements shall bear upon the use of high powers or low powers ; 
whether it shall be improvement that shall apply to its commercial 
employment, its easier professional application, or its most exalted 
scientific use ;—so long as this shall be the undoubted aim of the 
Royal Microscopical Society, its existence may well be the pride of 
Englishmen, and will commend itself more and more to men of all 
countries. 

This, and this only, can lift a Society of this sort out of what I 
believe has ceased to be our danger, that of forgetting that in propor- 
tion as the optical principles of the Microscope are understood, and 
the theory of microscopical vision is made plain, the value of the 
instrument over every region to which it can be applied, and in all 
the varied hands that use it, is increased without definable limit. 


178 Transactions of the Society. 


It is therefore by such means that the true interests of science are 
promoted. 

It is one of the most admirable features of this Society that it 
has become cosmopolitan in its character, in relation to the instru- 
ment, and all the ever-improving methods of research employed with 
it. From meeting to meeting it is not one country or one continent 
even that is represented on our tables. Nay more; not only are we 
made familiar with improvements brought from every civilized part 
of the world, referrimg alike to the Microscope itself and every 
instrument devised by specialists for its employment in every depart- 
ment of research, but also, by the admirable persistence of Mr. Crisp 
and Mr. John Mayall, jun., we are familiarized with every discovery 
of the old forms of the instrument wherever found or originally 
employed. 

The value of all this cannot be over-estimated, for it will, even 
where prejudices as to our judgment may exist, gradually make 
more and more clear that this Society exists to promote and acknow- 
ledge improvements in every constituent of the Microscope, come 
from whatever source they may; and in connection with this, to 
promote by demonstrations, exhibitions, and monographs the finest 
applications of the finest instruments for their respective purposes. 

To give all this its highest value, of course the theoretical side of 
our instrument must occupy the attention of the most accomplished 
experts. We may not des} air that our somewhat too practical past 
in this respect may right itself in our own country; but meantime 
tke splendid work of German students and experts is placed by the 
wise editors of our Journal within the reach of all. 

I know of no higher hope for this important Society than that it 
may continue in ever increasing strength to promote criticism, and 
welcome from every quarter of the world whatever will improve the 
Microscope in itself and in any of its applications, from the most 
simple to the most complex and important in which its employment 
is possible. 


There are two points of some practical interest to which I desire 
for a few moments to call your attention. The former has reference 
to the group of organisms to which I have for so many years directed 
your attention, viz. the “ Monads,” which throughout I have called 
“ putrefactive organisms.” 

There can be no longer any doubt that the destructive process of 
putrefaction is essentially a process of fermentation. 

‘he fermentative saprophyte is as absolutely essential to the 
setting up of destructive rotting or putrescence in a putrescible fluid as 
the torula is to the setting up of alcoholic fermentation in a saccharine 
fluid. Make the presence of torulee impossible and you exclude with 
certainty fermentative action. 

In precisely the same way provide a proteinaceous solution, 
capable of the highest putrescence, but absolutely sterilized, and placed 


The President's Address. By Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 179 


in an optically pure or absolutely calcined air; while these con- 
ditions are maintained, no matter what length of time may be suffered 
to elapse, the putrescible fluid will remain absolutely without trace of 
decay; but suffer the slightest infection of the protected and pure 
air to take place, or, from some putrescent source, inoculate your 
sterilized fluid with the minutest atom, and shortly turbidity, offen- 
sive scent, and destructive putrescence ensue. 

As in the alcoholic, lactic, or butyric ferments, the process set up 
is shown to he dependent upon and concurrent with the vegetative 
processes of the demonstrated organisms characterizing these fer- 
ments, so it can be shown with equal clearness and certainty that 
the entire process of what is known as putrescence is equally and 
as absolutely dependent on the vital processes of a given and dis- 
coverable series of organisms. 

Now it is quite customary to treat the fermentative agency in 
putrefaction as if it were wholly bacterial; and indeed the putrefac- 
tive group of bacteria are now known as saprophytes, or saprophytic 
bacteria, as distinct from morphologically similar, but physiologically 
dissimilar forms known as parasitic or pathogenic bacteria. 

It is indeed usually, and justly admitted, that B. termo is the 
exciting cause of fermentative putrefaction. Cohn has, in fact, con- 
tended that this is the distinctive ferment of all putrefactions, and 
that it is to decomposing proteinaceous solutions what Torula cerevisiez 
is to the fermenting fluids containing sugar. 

In a sense this is no doubt strictly true. It is impossible to find 
a decomposing proteinaceous solution at any stage without finding this 
form in vast abundance. 

But it is well to remember that in nature putrefactive ferments 
must go on to an extent rarely imitated or followed in the laboratory. 
As a rule the pabulum in which the saprophytic organisms are pro- 
vided and “cultured” is infusions, or extracts of meat carefully 
filtered; and if vegetable matter is used, extracts of fruit, treated 
with equal care, and if needful neutralized, are used in a similar way. 
To these may be added all the forms of gelatin, employed in films, 
masses, and so forth. 

But in following the process of destructive fermentation, as it 
takes place in large masses of tissue, animal or vegetable, but far 
preferably the former, as they lie in water at a constant temperature 
of from 60° to 65° F., it will be seen that the fermentative process 
is the work, not of one organism, nor, judging by the standard of 
our present knowledge, of one specified class of vegetative forms, but 
by organisms which, though related to each other, are in many 
respects greatly dissimilar, not only morphologically, but also embryo- 
logically and even physiologically. 

Moreover, although this is a matter that will want most thorough 
and efficient inquiry and research to understand properly its condi- 
tions, yet it is sufficiently manifest that these organisms succeed each 
other in a curious and even remarkable manner. Each does.a part 


180 Transactions of the Society. 


in the work of fermentative destruction, each aids in splitting up into 
lower and lower compounds the elements of which the masses of 
degrading tissue are composed; while apparently, each set in turn 
does, by vital action coupled with excretion, (1) take up the sub- 
stances necessary for its own growth and multiplication; (2) carry 
on the fermentative process ; and (3) so change the immediate pabulum 
as to give rise to conditions suitable for its immediate successor. 
Now the point of special interest is that there is an apparent adapta- 
tion in the form, functions, mode of multiplication, and order of 
succession in these fermentative organisms which is deserving of study 
and fraught with instruction. 

Let it be remembered that the aim of nature in this fermentative 
action is not the partial splitting of certain organic compounds and 
their reconstruction in simpler conditions; but the ultimate setting 
free by saprophytic action of the elements locked up in great masses 
of organic tissue—the sending back into nature of the only material 
of which future organic structures are to be composed. 

I have said that there can be no question whatever that Bacteriwm 
termo is the pioneer of saprophytes: exclude B. termo (and therefore 
with it all its congeners), and you can obtain no putrefaction. But, 
wherever in ordinary circumstances a decomposable organic mass, say 
the body of a fish, or a considerable mass of the flesh of a terrestrial 
animal, is exposed in water at a temperature of 60° to 65° F. 
B. termo rapidly appears, and increases with a simply astounding 
rapidity. It clothes the tissues like a skin, and diffuses itself 
throughout the fluid. 

The exact chemical changes it thus effects are not at present clearly 
known, but the fermentative action is manifestly concurrent with its 
multiplication. It finds its pabulum in the mass it ferments by its 
vegetative processes. But it also produces a visible change in the 
enveloping fluid, and noxious gases continuously are thrown off. 

In the course of a week or more, dependent on the period of the 
year, there is—not inevitably, but as a rule—a rapid accession of 
spiral forms, such as Spirillwm volutans, 8S. Undula, and similar 
forms, often accompanied by Bacteriwm lineola, and the whole inter- 
spersed still with inconceivable multitudes of B.termo. 

These invest the rotting tissues like an elastic garment, but are 
always in a state of movement. ‘These again manifestly further the 
destructive ferment, and bring about a softness and flaccidity in the 
decomposing tissues, while they without doubt, at the same time 
have, by their vital activity and possible secretions, affected the 
condition of the changing organic mass. There can be, so far as my 
observations go, no certainty as to when, after this, another form of 
organism will present itself; nor when it does, which of a limited 
series it will be. But in a majority of observed cases, a loosening of 
the living investment of bacterial forms takes place, and simul- 
taneously with this, the access of one of two forms of my putrefactive 
monads. They were amongst the first we worked at; and have 


The President's Address. By Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 181 - 


been, by means of recent lenses, amongst the last revised. Mr. S. 
Kent named them Cercomonas typica, and Monas Dallingeri respec- 
tively. They are both simple oval forms; but the former has a 
flagellum at both ends of the longer axis of the body, while the 
latter has a single flagellum in front. 

Their principal difference is in their mode of multiplication by 
fission and in the genetic method of germ production. The former is 
in every way like a Bacterium in its mode of self-division. It divides, 
acquiring for each half a flagellum in division, and then, in its highest 
vigour, in about four minutes, each half divides again. 

‘he second form does not divide into two, but into many ; and 
thus, although the whole process is slower, it developes with greater 
rapidity. But both ultimately multiply, that is, commence new 
generations by the equivalent of a sexual process. 

These would average about four times the size of Bacterium 
termo; and when once they gain a place on and about the putrefy- 
ing tissues, their relatively powerful and incessant action, their 
enormous multitude, and the manner in which they glide over, under, 
and beside each other as they invest the fermenting mass, is worthy 
of close study. It has been the life-history of these organisms, and 
not their relations as ferments, that has specially occupied my fullest 
attention; but it would be in a high degree interesting if we could 
discover or determine what, besides the vegetative or organic processes 
of nutrition, is being effected by one or both of these organisms on 
the fast-yielding mass. . Still more would it be of interest to discover 
what, if any, changes were wrought in the pabulum or fluid gener- 
ally ; for after some extended observations I have found that it is 
only after one or other, or both of these organisms have performed 
their part in the destructive ferment that subsequent and extremely 
interesting changes arise. 

It is true that in some three or four instances of this saprophytic 
destruction of organic tissues, I have observed that, after the strong 
bacterial investment, there has arisen, not the two forms just named, 
nor either of them, but one or other of the striking forms now called 
Tetramitus rostratus and Polytoma wvella,; but this has been in 
relatively few instances. The rule is, that Cercomonas typica or its 
congener precede other forms that not only succeed them in pro- 
moting and carrying to a still further point the putrescence of the 
fermenting substratum, but appear to be aided in the accomplishment 
of this by mechanical means. 

By this time the mass of tissue has ceased to cohere. The mass 
has largely disintegrated, and there appears amongst the countless 
bacterial and monad forms some one, and sometimes even three 
forms, that, whilst they at first swim and gyrate, and glide about the 
decomposing matter, which is now much less closely invested by 
Cercomonas typica, or those organisms that may have acted in its 
place, they also resort to an entirely new mode of movement. 

One of these forms is Heteromita rostrata, which, it will be 


182 Transactions of the Society. 


remembered, in addition to a front flagellum, has also a long fibre or 
flagellum-like appendage that gracefully trails as it swims. At certain 
periods of their life these forms anchor themselves in countless billions 
all over the fermenting tissues, and, as | have described in the life- 
history of this form,* they coil their anchored fibre as does a vorti- 
cellan, bringing the body to the level of the point of anchorage, then 
shoot out the body with lightning-like rapidity, and bring it down 
like a hammer on some point of the decomposition. It rests here 
for a second or two and repeats the process; and this is taking 
place by what seems almost like rhythmic movement all over the 
rotting tissue. The results are scarcely visible in the mass; but if 
a group of these organisms be watched, attached to a small particle 
of the fermenting tissue, it will be seen to gradually diminish, and at 
length to disappear. 

Now there are at least two other similar forms, one of which, 
Heteromita uncinata, is similar in action, and the other of which, 
Dallingeria Drysdali, is much more powerful, being possessed of a 
double anchor, and springing down upon the decadent mass with 
relatively far greater power. 

Now it is under the action of these last forms, that in a period, 
varying from one month to two or three, the entire substance of the 
organic tissues disappears, and the decomposition has been designated 
by me “exhausted”; nothing being left in the vessel but shghtly 
noxious and pale grey water, charged with carbonic acid, and a@ fine 
buff-coloured impalpable sediment at the bottom. 

My purpose is not, by this brief notice, to give an exhaustive, or 
even a sufficient account of the progress of fermentative action, by 
means of saprophytic organisms, on great masses of tissue; my obser- 
vations have been incidental, but they lead me to the conclusion that 
the fermentative process is not only not carried through by what are 
called Saprophytic Bacteria, but that a serzes of fermentative organisms 
arise, which succeed each other, the earlier one preparing the pabulum 
or altering the surrounding medium, so as to render it highly favour- 
able to a succeeding form. On the other hand, the succeeding form 
has a special adaptation for carrying on the fermentative destruction 
more efficiently, from the period at which it arises, and thus ultimately 
of setting free the chemical elements locked up in dead organic com- 

ounds. 

That these later organisms are saprophytic, although not bacterial, 
there can be no doubt. A set of experiments recorded by me in the 
‘ Proceedings’ of this Society some years since, would go far to establish 
this.t But it may be readily shown, by extremely simple experiments, 
that these forms will set up fermentative decomposition rapidly, if in- 
troduced in either a desiccated or living condition, or in the spore 
state, into suitable but sterilized pabulum. 

Thus, while we have specific ferments which bring about definite 


* Mon. Micr. Journ., xi. (1874) pp. 7 et seq. 
+ Ibid., xvi. (1876) p. 288. 


The President's Address. By Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 183 


and specific results ; and while even infusions of proteid substances 
may be exhaustively fermented by saprophytic Bacteria, the most 
important of all ferments— that by which nature’s dead organic 
masses are removed—is one which is brought about by the successive 
vital activities of a series of adapted organisms, which are for ever at 
work in every region of the earth. 

There is one other matter of some interest and moment on which 
I would say a few words. To thoroughly instructed biologists such 
words will be quite needless: but in a Society of this kind, the possi- 
bilities that le in the use of the instrument are associated with the 
contingency of large erzor, especially in the biology of the minuter 
forms of life, unlezs a well-grounded biological knowledge form the 
basis of all specific inference, to say nothing of deduction. 

I am the more encouraged to speak of the difficulty to which I 
refer, because I haye reason to know that it presents itself again and 
again in the provincial Societies of the country, and is often adhered 
to with a tenacity worthy of a better cause. I refer to the danger 
that always exists, that young or occasional observers are exposed to, 
amidst the complexities of minute animal and vegetable life, of con- 
cluding that they have come upon absolute evidences of the transforma- 
tion of one minute form into another; that, in fact, they have 
demonstrated cases of Heterogenesis. 

This difficulty is not diminished by the fact that, on the shelves of 
most Microscopical Societies there is to be found some sort of litera- 
ture written in support of this strange doctrine. 

You will pardon me for allusion to the field of inquiry in which I 
have spent so many happy hours. It is, as you know, a region of 
life in which we touch, as it were, the very margin of living things. 
If nature were capricious anywhere, we mght expect to find her so 
here ; if her methods were in a slovenly or only half-determined con- 
dition, we might expect to find it here. But it is not so. Know 
accurately what you are doing; use the precautions absolutely essen- 
tial, and through years of the closest observation it will be seen that 
the vegetative and vital processes generally, of the very simplest and 
lowliest life-forms, are as much directed and controlled by immutable 
laws as the most complex and elevated. 

The life-eycles, accurately known, of monads, repeat themselves as 
accurately as those of Rotifers or Planarians. 

And, of course, on the yery surface of the matter the question pre- 
sents itself to the biologist why it should not beso. The irrefragable 
philosophy of modern biology is that the most complex forms of 
living creatures have derived their splendid complexity and adapta- 
tions from the slow and majestically progressive variation and survival 
from the simpler and the simplest forms. If, then, the simplest forms 
of the present and the past were not governed by accurate and un- 
changing laws of life, how did the rigid certainties that manifestly 
and admittedly govern the more complex and the most complex come 
into play ? 


184 Transactions of the Society. 


If our modern philosophy of biology be, as we know it is, true, 
then it must be very strong evidence indeed that would lead us to 
conclude that the laws seen to be universal break down and cease 
accurately to operate, where the objects become microscopic, and our 
knowledge of them is by no means full, exhaustive, and clear. 

Moreover, looked at in the abstract, it is a little difficult to con- 
ceive why there should be more uncertainty about the life-processes 
of a group of lowly living things, than there should be about the 
behaviour, in reaction, of a given group of molecules. 

The triumph of modern knowledge is a knowledge—which nothing 
can shake—that nature’s processes are immutable. The stability of 
her processes, the precision of her action, and the universality of her 
laws, are the basis of all science, to which biology forms no exception. 
Once establish, by clear and unmistakable demonstration, the life- 
history of an organism, and truly some change must have come over 
nature as a whole, if that life-history be not the same to-morrow as 
to-day ; and the same to one observer, in the same conditions, as to 
another. 

No amount of paradox would induce us to believe that the com- 
bining proportions of hydrogen and oxygen had altered in a specified 
experimenter’s hands in synthetically producing water. 

We believe that the melting-point of platinum and the freezing 
point of mercury are the same as they were a hundred years ago, 
and as they will be a hundred years hence. 

Now carefully remember that, so far as we can see at all, it must 
be so with life. Life inheres in protoplasm ; but just as you cannot 
get abstract matter—that is, matter with no properties or modes of 
motion—so you cannot get abstract protoplasm. Every piece of 
living protoplasm we see has a history: it is the inheritor of countless 
millions of years. Its properties have been determined by its history. 
It is the protoplasm of some definite form of life which has inherited 
its specific history. It can be no more false to that inheritance than 
an atom of oxygen can be false to its properties. 

All this, of course, within the lines of the great secular processes 
of the Darwinian laws, which, by the way, could not operate at all if 
caprice formed any part of the activities of nature. 

But let me give a practical instance of how what appears like fact 
may override philosophy, if an incident, or even a group of incidents, 
per se, are to control our judgment. 

Eighteen years ago | was paying much attention to Vorticelle. 
I was observing with some pertinacity Voréecella convallaria—tor one 
of the calices was in a strange and semi-encysted state, while the re- 
mainder were in full normal activity. I watched with great interest 
and care, and have in my folio still the drawings made at the time. 
The stalk carrying this individual calyx fell upon the branch of vege- 
table matter to which the Vorticellan was attached, and the calyx 
became perfectly globular, and at length there emerged from it 4 
small form, with which in this condition I was quite unfamiliar. It 


The President's Address. By Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 185 


was small, tortoise-like in form, and crept over the branch on sete or 
hair-like pedicles ; but carefully followed, I found it soon swam, and 
at length got the long neck-like appendage of Amphileptus anser ! 

Here, then, was the cup or calyx of a definite Vorticellan form 
changing into (?) an absolutely different Infusorian, viz. Amphileptus 
anser ! 

Now, I simply reported the fact to the Liverpool Microscopical 
Society, with no attempt at inference ; but two years after I was able 
to explain the mystery, for, finding in the same pond both V. conval- 
larvia and A. anser, I carefully watched their movements, and saw the 
Amphileptus seize and struggle with a calyx of Convallaria, and 
absolutely become encysted upon it, with the results that I had re- 
ported two years before. 

And there can be no doubt but this is the key to the cases that 
- come to us again and again, of minute forms suddenly changing into 
forms wholly unlike. It is happily amongst the virtues of the 
man of science to “rejoice in the truth,” even though it be found 
at his expense ; and true workers, earnest seekers for nature’s methods, 
in the obscurest fields of her action, will not murmur that this source 
of danger to younger microscopists has been pointed out, or recalled 
to them. 

And now I bid you, as your President, farewell. It has been all — 
pleasure to me to serve you. It has enlarged my friendships and my 
interests ; and, although my work has linked me with the Society for 
many years, I have derived much profit from this more organic union 
with it ; and it is a source of encouragement to me, and will, I am 
sure, be to you, that, after having done with simple pleasure what I 
could, I am to be succeeded in this place of honour by so distinguished 
a student of the phenomena of minute life as Dr. Hudson. I can 
but wish him as happy a tenure of office as mine has been. 


186 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


SUMMARY 


OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 
7. OrOunGeGer «A N:.D: BOT AY 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 
MICROSCOPY, &c., 


INCLUDING ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.*® 


ZOOLOGY. 
A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 
a. Embryology.t 


Polar Globule of Mammalian Ovum.{—Prof. G. Bellonci describes 
the formation of a polar globule in the ovarian ova of several mammals 
—mole, guinea-pig, and rabbit. His best results were obtained from 
the two former. What he observed in the rabbit ovum was less satis- 
factory. He notes and figures the pos'tion of the germinal vesicle at 
the animal pole, the transformation of the nucleus, the spindle, the 
equatorial aggregation, in one good instance the formation of two well- 
formed “corone,’ and the actual separation. In the formed polar 
globule he was never able to demonstrate a morphologically complete 
nucleus. He discusses the question of the really cellular nature of 
these extruded elements, and compares what he has observed in 
mammals with other cases of karyokinesis. In an appended paper he 
discusses certain curious phenomena of segmentation in the ovarian ova 
of mole and rabbit, which suggest the beginning of parthenogenesis, but 
are more probably interpreted as phenomena of degeneration. 


Vestiges of Zonary Decidua in Mouse.S—Mr. J. A. Ryder, with 
the assistance of Mr. G. Fetterolf, has investigated the decidua of the 
mouse. The mucosa thickens very much around the embryo, forming a 
ring of tissue around the blastodermic vesicle. Of this, only that por- 
tion persists which lies near where the discoidal placenta is subsequently 
formed. On the side opposite the placenta, and at the sides of the 
blastodermie vesicle, the ring is absorbed. “The hoop-like thickening 
which is continued from opposite sides of the placental region, and 
which encircles the foetus and its membranes, is nothing more or less 
than the transitory representative of a zonary or girdle-like decidua.’ 
The hypertrophied portion or annular band of the mucosa is absorbed 


* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do 
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, 
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of 
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, and to 
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have 
not been previously described in this country. 

+ This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called 
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Reproduction, and allied 
subjects. t+ Mem. Accad. Sci. Bologna, vi. (1886) pp. 363-5, 367-9 (1 pl.). 

§ Amer. Natural., xxi. (1887) pp. 1037-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 187 


by huge cytoclasts or phag: cytes. They are unusually large, and have 
very large nuclei. The presence of abortive villi on the surface of the 
chorion in the vicinity of the hint of a girdle is a further proof of its 
suggested presence. The data seem to show that the primitive type of 
placentation was more diffuse than in existing myomorph rodents, and 
throw light on the derivation of discoidal from zonary placentation. 


Development of Blood-vascular System of the Chick.*—Dr. N. 
Uskow is of opiuion that the hen’s egg 1s, in the true sense of the word, 
a giant-cell. Its protoplasm is ordinarily so thickly impregnated with 
the fine elements of the white yolk that its presence is only detectable 
on the appearance of nuclei; the elements of the yellow yolk are at first 
apparently much more closely connected with the protoplasm ; in later 
stages of development the protoplasm may be secn even though there 
are no nuclei; but the presence of the latter may serve as a proof of 
the protoplasmic nature of the visible network. All the changes in 
_ the egg during the development of the embryo may be regarded as the 
eradual agglomeration of the protoplasm towards the periphery, and 
as its segmentation with formation of numerous nuclei, and later, cells. 
These two processes succeed one another, and begin at the upper end of 
the vertical axis of the egg. The process of segmentation does not go 
on uninterruptedly, for there are some breaks after the appearance of 
cells in the peripheral portions. 

The hypoblast is differently formed in different regions, and may be 
conveniently divided into three parts:—(1) Marginal portion of the 
hypoblast, where the protoplasm contains nuclei, and has no signs of 
cell-formation, save a fveble indication of this process in the upper 
layers; (2) Intermediate- portion, with cylindrical, not fully developed 
cells ; and (3) Central part, with distinct epithelial cells. It is to the 
first two of these portions that the blood-vascular system owes its origin, 
while the marginal portion also gives rise to the peripheral part of the 
mesoblast. To explain their origin it is not necessary to make use of 
the hypothesis of the emigration of cells through the yolk; all the 
observed phenomena may be explained by supposing the elements to 
arise at the place where they are found. 

Remak’s cord is only one of the stages of a common form of develop- 
ment of the vascular system, and is not the only one or the most 
primitive ; the vessels and blood are developed below the mesoblast, 
and are only later surrounded by it. The blood is not formed before 
the vessels, or the vessels before the blood ; “as one process conditions 
the appearance of the other, the two are simultaneous.” The vascular 
lumen is neither an intracellular nor an intercellular space. There is 
no ground for regarding the first vessels which appear in the central 
part of the zona pellucida and in the embryo as secondary. Some of 
the vessels appear 1m the course of development as ve-icles. 

The author concludes that the formation of the blood and the vessels 
of a chick may be taken as a distinct support of the view that the living 
protoplasm of a fertilized ovum contains in different parts various 
definite tissues of the organism from which it is derived. 


Development of Emu.j—Mr. W. A. Haswell gives an account of 
his observations on the early stages in the development of the emu, 


* Mem. Acad. Imp. St.-Pétersbourg, xxxy. (1887) 48 pp. (2 pls.). 
+ Proc. Linn. Soe. N. 8. Wales, i. (1887) pp. 577-600 (8 pls.). 


188 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


which are of interest not only in themselves, but as the first recorded 
researches on the embryology of any member of the Ratite. The 
period of incubation in the emu is three months, and the time between 
the developmental events is therefore great when compared with the 
development, for instance, of the chick. An average egg weighs 
21 ounces; and measures 4 inches by 35 inches. About forty are laid 
in a summer; the male incubates the first set and is then succeeded by 
the female who has by that time finished her laying. 

The first blastoderm studied was one of 51 hours, and measured a 
centimetre in breadth. The area pellucida, which measured 3 mm, in 
maximum diameter, presented two regions—an anterior, rounded and 
rather broader than long, and a posterior bay, the commencement of the 
primitive streak region. There was no trace of a primitive groove. 
Sections showed two completed layers, separate in the anterior region, 
confluent in the primitive streak. In front of the anterior end of the 
primitive streak, the lower layer presents a slight thickening, the 
rudiment of the “head-process.” Flattened cells in the lower layer of 
the head-process are the first hints of the final hypoblast. There was 
no appearance of the “ sickle” seen in the chick and other forms. 

In a blastoderm of 70 hours, the area pellucida has a shape very 
unlike the corresponding stage in the fowl. The anterior part is 
circular, the posterior a long narrow prolongation, bearing the primitive 
streak which runs towards the centre of the rounded part, and exhibits 
a well-developed primitive groove. In the anterior part the hypoblast 
is not yet definite, the epiblast many-layered in the middle, the 
mesoblast has not yet reached this region. The head-process is larger ; 
the primitive streak has the usual axial plate continuous with the 
surface epiblast; its lateral wings extend outwards between the epiblast 
and here continuous hypoblast of flattened cells; the mesoblast extends ' 
outwards far beyond the termination cf the hypoblast in the germinal 
wall, In the hinder part of the streak, below the groove, there seems 
to be an imperfectly united suture in the axial plate. The hypoblast 
below this is continuous, but in the centre below the suture the ordinary 
cells are replaced by a large coarsely granular cell. Here there is 
indication of the lips of the anterior part of the blastopore. Below the 
blastoderm are large, round, granular, formative cells of Balfour, 
probably nutritive in function. 

In a specimen incubated for 66 hours, the posterior prolongation 
was broader and less marked, the head-process more definite, a semi- 
circular groove marked the position of the anterior boundary of the 
future medullary plate, the suture in the streak has disappeared. 

From these stages it was evident that the primitive streak cannot 
grow forwards from the posterior border of the area pellucida, as 
generally described ; but is formed from before backwards, simultancously 
with an extension backwards in the form of a narrow bay of the area 
pellucida. 

The head-process is merely the continuation forwards for a short 
distance of the axial thickening of the lower layer which accompanies 
the formation cf the primitive streak. 

The history of the mesoblast in the emu is summarized ; its founda- 
tion is laid by the eclls of the lower layer, and no part up to the stage 
reached above is formed directly from epiblast, 

Subsequent stages are more briefly described; the appearance of 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 189 


medullary groove, ‘of notochord apparently from mesoblast, of proto- 
vertebra, &e., are described. In regard to the notochord and the 
destiny of the primitive streak, Haswell substantially agrees with 
Kélliker. In describing later stages, the appearance of the neurenteric 
canal is specially noticed. 


Fate of the Blastopore in Amphibians.*—Dr. F. Schanz finds that 
in Triton teniatus and Rana temporaria the blastopore becomes narrowed 
by the approximation of the lateral lips of the orifice. In Triton two 
orifices appear, one of which becomes the neurenteric canal and the 
other the anus. In the frog there is only one orifice, the place of the 
other being taken by a pit, which, later on, opens into the rectum; the 
cause of this is the rapid growth of the medullary folds, and the anus 
is not a neomorph. The oblique direction seen in the frog is due to the 
growth of the tail; the neurenteric canal really exists even if it has no 
distinct lumen, such as is later seen in the frog. These results are by 
no means in agreement with those lately arrived at by Prof. Kupffer. 


Spermatogenesis of Salamander.t} — Prof. W. Flemming has re- 
directed his attention to the spermatogenesis of Salamandra maculata, 
which he first investigated in 1880. His chief results are as follows :— 
(1) The head of the sperm of Urodela is formed from the entire 
chromatin of the spermatide nucleus. (2) The formation of the stain- 
able head-process is associated with gradual thickening and elongation 
of the nuclear -network. (3) Young forms freed from their natural 
surroundings contract in a curious fashion. (4) One end of the sper- 
matide nucleus is from the first thicker in its elongation, and forms 
the posterior (tail) end of the head. (5) The rudiment of the achro. 
matic middle portion is at first to some extent chromatic, and therefore 
nuclear. (6) The tail filament can at first be traced through the centre 
of the middle portion to the base of the head. It is also probably from 
the nucleus. (7) In their stage of elongation the spermatides include 
nucleoli, but these appear to have no morphological role. (8) The 
spermatogenesis progresses in a testicular lobe from one end to the 
other. (9) Before the beginning of spermatogenesis, the spermatocyst 
is seen to include a cavity which moves to the foot of the cyst. Round 
this the spermatide nuclei or cells become regularly disposed. (10) 
The space includes chromatophilous granules, which persist between the 
heads of the spermatides. (11) The heads of the perfectly mature 
sperms are distinguishable by the peculiar brown colour assumed on 
staining with safranin. (12) Wiedersperg’s conclusions rest on misinter- 
pretation. 


Germinal Layers in Teleostei.t—Mr. G. Brook gives an account of 
the structure of the ripe unfertilized ovum of the herring, of the early 
stages in development, and particularly of the relation of the parablast 
(subgerminal free nucleated layer) to the yolk and to the embryo. In 
describing the structure of the ripe ovum not much that is new is 
recorded ; the author unites the descriptions of Kupffer and Hoffmann, 
and corroborates both in reconciling them, The ovum is an ideal meso- 
blastic type. Before the first furrow appears the egg is made up as 
follows :—(1) Of a large collection of protoplasm in the germinal area 


* Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxi. (1887) pp. 411-21 (1 pl.). 
+ Arch. f. Miky. Anat., xxxi. (1887) pp- 71-97 (1 pl.). 
{ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin, Xxxiii. (1887) pp. 199-239 (3 pls.). 


1888. P 


190 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


in which segmentation generally commences; (2) of a thin film of cor- 
tical protoplasm entirely surrounding the yolk, and frequently presenting 
a considerable dilatation at the yolk-pole; (8) of a number of filamentous 
protoplasmic processes, mainly confined to the base of the germinal area, 
which serve to keep up a communication between the latter and the more 
purely nutritive yolk; (4) of the nutritive yolk itself, which constitutes 
the greater portion of the ovum. 

Yegmentation.—No nucleus was observed until after the third furrow 
was formed. The first furrow which takes an equatorial direction is 
the third of the series. There is a period of quiescence between the 
completion of one furrow and the commencement of the next. On the 
formation of the third furrow there are two distinct layers, of archiblast 
which goes on segmenting, and of parablast which remains as a con- 
necting area between the latter and the yolk. The mesoblastic seg- 
mentation is compared with the holoblastic division of the frog ovum, 
and the nutritive physiology of the embryo at this stage is discussed. 

Parablast—Mr. Brook gives an historical résumé of the various 
opinions held in regard to the origin and relations of the parablast. He 
then communicates his own observation. At the end of the primary 
seementation-stage in the herring, the parablast, which has increased 
considerably at the expense of the yolk, leaves the periphery, and collects 
mainly under the archiblast. The archiblast becomes differentiated into 
two layers. The outer and somewhat flattened cells form the epidermal 
layer of epiblast. The cells more centrally situated are larger, more 
rounded, less deeply stainable, loosely aggregated, and represent the 
nervous layer of the epiblast. Beneath the archiblast, the parablast 
appears as a thick layer of protoplasm undergoing division into cells. No 
karyokinesis was seen. Brook regards the cells thus formed as secondary 
segmentation products in the sense of Waldeyer. They join those 
derived from primary segmentation in the archiblast, and soon become 
undistinguishable from them. In eggs forty-five hours after fertilization 
the subgerminal parablast is only a very thin film. The peripheral 
parablast, however, is a thick wedge-shaped mass, stretching from the 
base of the morula to the equator of the egg, and containing a consider- 
able number of rows of nuclei. All this is before the extension of the 
morula over the yolk, before the formation of the segmentation-cavity, 
and before the differentiation of the germinal layers. In most Teleostean 
ova the morula is solely archiblastic, and it is only later that parablastic 
elements are utilized; but here, at least, two distinct batches of para- 
blast-cells are budded off and unite with those of the archiblast before 
any trace of differentiation of the morula. The final morula is parablastic 
as well as archiblastic. The difference is important, and probably con- 
nected with the early elaboration of the parablast, and probably also 
with the absence of a vitelline circulation. When the segmentation- 
cavity appears, the parablast forms its floor, the cells of the morula its 
roof and sides. The thickening which forms the commencement of the 
blastodermic rim may be in part due to the addition or segregation of 
cells from the parablast. The parablast certainly extends under the 
thickened peripheral portion of the blastoderm, and around its margin 
forms a thickened welt. At a later stage it is distinctly evident that 
the primitive hypoblast is mainly, if not entirely, formed from the para- 
blast. Mr. Brook defends this conclusion against objections. Some 
later embryonic stages are briefly alluded to. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 191 


“In the Teleostean ovum the protoplasm in the vegetative pole 
increases rapidly in bulk by an assimilation of its inclosed food-material, 
and is thus enabled to bud off cells, which, had the distribution of yolk 
and protoplasm been otherwise, would have been produced by normal 
segmentation. Thus arises the distinction between primary and secondary 
segmentation. The separation of animal from vegetative pole in the 
herring comes with the formation of the third furrow. The archiblast 
in the herring, together with the cells derived from the parablast, prior 
to the formation of the segmentation-cavity, give rise to the epiblast. 
The vegetative pole then gives rise to the primitive hypoblast, which is 
in turn differentiated into the mesoblast and permanent hypoblast. The 
primitive hypoblast, as observed in the herring, is precisely homologous 
with that of Amphioxus. In both it becomes differentiated into two 
lateral plates of mesoblast separated by the notochord, and what remains 
constitutes the permanent hypoblast.” 


Segmentation of Teleostean Ova.*—Sig. R. Fusari has studied the 
segmentation of the ova of Cristiceps argentatus. (1) The first line of 
division is across the smaller diameter of the germinal area, and slightly 
eccentric. It is probably transverse to the future embryo. (2) The 
second is meridional, at right angles to the first; and the third and 
fourth lines of segmentation, though irregular, are meridional. (3) Two 
meridional segmentations are often seen interposed between the first two. 
The blastoderm from above exhibits eight triangular cells with convex 
peripheral bases. (4) In the next stage twelve blastomeres are seen 
like petals round a central region including four. All the elements are 
united solely by their bases. (5) The blastoderm appears as an ellip- 
soidal disc of sixteen péripheral blastomeres, covering other sixteen 
interior elements. Comparing the phenomena with those of sturgeon 
ova, Fusari collates (1) the internal blastomeres and the micromeres ; 
(2) the external blastomeres and the macromeres; (3) the free central 
covered-in space and the segmentation-cavity. (6) The blastoderm 
becomes a double layer. (7) The peripheral cells share in this less 
rapidly than the central elements. In successive stages it is seen that 
certain blastomeres detach themselves from the peripheral zone and join 
the central disc. Ata certain stage the blastoderm consists of an ellip- 
soidal disc of cells, and of a delicate nucleated plasmodial zone of proto- 
plasm. As the segmentation goes on, the nuclei of the plasmodium 
multiply, first by karyokinesis, afterwards by simple constriction. Thus 
is formed the perivitelline membrane, periblast, or parablast. The 
blastoderm at the end of segmentation is equivalent to all the epiblast 
and a portion of the hypoblast in the sturgeon. The perivitelline mem- 
brane corresponds to the persisting portion of the primitive hypoblast, 
is a temporary nutritive organ for the blastoderm, and supplies new ele- 
ments (for blood, &c.) to the embryo. 


Eggs and Larve of Teleosteans.t{—Mr. J. T. Cunningham having 
previously described and figured the eggs, embryo, and larve of a large 
number of Teleosteans, with diagnoses and drawings referring to fifteen 
species, now gives, in the second portion of his memoir, an account of 
what is at present known in regard to the eggs and larve of the several 
orders, and furnishes a useful summary of scattered data. The third 


* Arch. Ital. Biol., ix. (1887) pp. 22-4. 
¢+ Trans. Roy. Soe, Edin xxxiii. (1887) pp. 97-136 (7 pls.). 
P 2 


192 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


portion of the memoir raises two questions in regard to the maturation 
and fertilization of the ovum, viz. (1) Is it possible to trace the trans- 
formations of the nucleus which accompany the expulsion of the polar 
bodies ? and (2) Is there any foundation for Hoffmann’s statement that the 
first segmentation spindle is directed radially, and divides into a super- 
ficial nucleus which belongs to the archiblast, and a deeper one which 
belongs to the periblast. In regard to the first question, Mr. Cunning- 
ham observed in the ova of Pleuronectes cynoglossus the expulsion of a 
polar body, and what might be hints of a second, but no nuclear spindle. 
In regard to the second question, the author suggests that Hoffmann has 
been misled by the relative positions in which the two segmentation 
nuclei are seen when the ovum is in a certain position (illustrated in a 
diagram) with respect to the axis of the Microscope. 


Origin of Blood in Teleostei.*— Dr. H. E. Ziegler adds another 
research to the number which have been lately devoted to the origin of 
the blood-corpuscles in bony fishes. It has been shown by various 
observers that the blood-corpuscles arise not from the yolk, but from 
mesodermic elements. Herr Ziegler has reinvestigated the subject at 
Naples. 

I. The periblast and the germinal layers. In the Teleostei at the 
time when the blood-corpuscles arise, there are in the yolk no defined 
cells, but only “free” nuclei. Morphologically, these nuclei correspond 
to the nuclei of the yolk-cells in Amphibia, Physiologically, they 
undergo peculiar modifications associated with the absorption of the yolk. 

II. The origin of the heart. 'The embryonic heart is a bag with two 
layers—the pericardial epithelium and the endothelium. The latter, 
along with a number of wandering cells, arises from a group of meso- 
dermic cells. The latter are continuous with the mesoderm of the head 
before the closure of the fore-gut, and are to be seen on each side between 
endoderm and pericardium (side-plates). When the fore-gut is complete 
they lie medianly in the interspace between the median portions of the 
pericardial plates, and laterally under the inferior pericardial plate. 
They give origin partly to the endothelium of the heart, and partly to 
the wandering cells. 

Ill. The embryonic circulation, and IV. The origin of the vessels on the 
yolk-sac, are then discussed. None of Ziegler’s results lend countenance 
to the origin of blood-corpuscles from the yolk. 

V. The origin of the blood-corpuscles. It cannot be satisfactorily 
maintained that blood-corpuscles arise from the periblast elements. The 
wandering cells and the blood-corpuscles are of mesodermic origin. In 
many Teleostei the principal veins (median united cardinals) arise as 
solid cellular masses as in the chick. The cells within the vessels form 
the first blood-corpuscles. In some Teleostei the same process may 
be seen also in a portion of the aorta. 


Ova of Bdellostoma.j—Mr. J. T. Cunningham briefly describes 
(a) the ovarian eggs of Bdellostoma, and notes the polar projections 
which, as in Myzine, are due to thread-like processes of the vitelline 
membrane ; (b) the sexual organs, with the anterior part containing minute 
ova, while the posterior part was evidently testicular tissue. In one or 
two other specimens the whole organ seemed to be testicular. As in 


* Arch. f. Miky. Anat., xxx. (1887) pp. 596-665 (3 pls.). 
} Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., xxxiii. (1887) pp. 247-50. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETO. 193 


Myzxine, the breeding season is within the coldest season of the year. 
(c) In Bdellostoma the micropylar end of the vitelline membrane forms 
an operculum, which separates readily from the rest of the capsule, and 
would thus allow the escape of the embryo. (d) Mr. Cunningham then 
describes Teleostean ova of undetermined species, brought from the 
Gulf of Guinea by Mr. J. Rattray, and having filaments and vitelline 
membrane closely resembling those of Myzxine. 


Influence of Movement on Developing Eggs.*—Signor A. Marcacci 
has experimented on the effect of movement on the developing eggs of 
the fowl. During the period from 48-72 hours, at a temperature of 
38° C., he moved them in various directions without any change 
resulting. But during the first two days such movement produced 
various abnormalities of thoracic wall, beak, claws, eyes, &e. 


Significance of Sexual Reproduction.{—Dr. B. Hatschek, in regard- 
ing the significance of sexual reproduction, commences with assimilation, 
which he looks upon as the most important and probably original of 
vital phenomena. He affirms assimilation to be the sole known mode of 
producing fresh living substance. He supports his belief that in sexual 
reproduction we must recognize a remedy against the action of injurious 
variability by the experience of breeders that a certain degree of differ- 
ence between the parent individualities is most favourable to the result 
of a crossing. Such differences as are caused in the organism by the 
external conditions of life would evidently be of no service in a sexual 
reproduction. A disease which made its appearance in an individual 
which propagated solely by gemmation would be inherited from genera- 
tion to generation, and endanger the existence of the entire species. 
Mingling of sexual products would give not merely the possibility, but 
even the highest probability of a rectification such as can be obtained in 
no other way, and in this power of rectification Dr. Hatschek finds the 
chief use for the existence of sexually differentiated individuals. 


Inheritance of Acquired Characters.j—Prof. W. Detmer contri- 
butes some botanical facts to this now familiar discussion. As against 
Weismann’s position he emphasizes (1) the intimate influence of external 
conditions upon the histology of the organism; (2) the importance of 
correlation whereby an influence saturates through the organism from 
one part to another; (3) the suggestiveness of the persistence of 
phenomena (like geotropism, photo-epinasty, periodicity of sap-flow) 
after the inciting conditions have ceased. 

Ancestry of Man.§—Prof. R. Wiedersheim gives a most interesting 
and exhaustive account of the structures in the human body, which 
afford testimony of ancestral features. He devotes a hundred pages to a 
detailed discussion of the different systems, noting the points of interest 
which have been demonstrated in regard to each. He then distinguishes 
(1) progressive changes, towards further differentiation (9 cases) ; 
(2) retrogressive changes, in which the organs in question still retain 
functionality (12 cases); (8) retrogressive changes, in which the organs 
in question, either in fcetal or adult life, either constantly or occasion- 


* Arch. Ital. Biol., ix. (1887) p. 58. 

+ Aon. and Mag. Nat. Hist., i. (1888) pp. 163-4. See Prager Mediz. 
Wochenschr., No. 46 (1887). 

} Arch. f. d. Gesammt. Physiol. (Pfliiger), xli. (1887) pp. 203-15. 

§ Ber. Naturf. Gesell. Freiburg i. B., 11. (1887) pp. 1-114. 


194 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ally, persist, but have more or less lost their original function (78 
cases !); (4) changes in which there has been change of function (6 cases) ; 
(5) changes associated with alterations in position (18 cases). 

The author then sums up the theoretical conclusions of his survey, 
and occupying a position similar to that of his colleague Weismann, 
emphasizes the importance of natural selection in maintaining structures 
once established. As he says, natural selection has two sides—a positive 
side establishing adaptations, a negative side allowing the latter to de- 
generate when no longer essential. “ As soon as changes in external 
conditions exclude an organ from importance in the struggle, that organ 
retrogrades. Panmixia, or general crossing, occurs between individuals, 
some with the organ in question well developed, and others with it less 
perfect ; the result is, a slow but constant degeneration of the organ.” 
The author’s general conclusions as to the past and future of man are 
very vivid, and backed as they are by such an array of anatomical facts, 
most valuable and suggestive to the general naturalist, as well as to the 
anatomical expert. 


Degeneration.*—Prof. A. Weismann gives a vivid account of degene- 
rative or retrogressive changes in animal organisms. He discusses the 
wings of running birds, the blindness of cave animals, the rudimentary 
olfactory organs of cetacea, the retrogression of parasites, the loss of 
hair in some mammals, the sexual condition of worker ants, and many 
other familiar illustrations. The point of the whole discussion is to 
show that degenerations are not to be explained on Buffonian lines as 
due to direct influence or absence of influence from environmental con- 
ditions, nor on Lamarckian lines as due to the effect of disuse; but on 
Darwinian lines, by the action of natural selection, which is as necessary 
to sustain as it is to establish adaptations. The process by which a 
superfluous organ degenerates may be described as “ panmixia,” or 
“general crossing,” in which not those individuals alone reproduce 
which possess the organ perfectly, but all, whether they have it developed 
in greater or less perfection. ‘ Nature endures no luxury, no impulse 
or organ of the body has permanence, if it be not thoroughly necessary 
for the preservation of the species. Panmixia, or, if you will, the (non-) 
operation of natural selection, will secure that all the superfluous be 
gradually reduced to the absolutely necessary.” 


8. Histology.t 


Histological Elements of the Central Nervous System.t — Mr. F. 
Nansen commences this important essay by a very full historical account 
of the work of his predecessors. For the study of the structure of the 
nerve-tubes in invertebrates he has made use of the lobster, Nephrops 
norvegicus, various species of Nereis and other Polychetes, Lumbricus 
agricola, Patella vulgata, Phallusia venosa, and other Ascidians; he 
thinks that the general conclusions to which they have led him may be 
applied to all bilaterally symmetrical invertebrates. In these the nerve- 
tubes consist of an external consistent sheath with viscous contents; the 
sheaths are formed by, or belong to the connective substance extending 
through the whole nervous system, which the author calls neuroglia, 


* Ber. Naturf. Gesell. Freiburg i. B., ii. (1886) p. 30. 
+ This section is limited to papers relating to Cells and Fibres. 
{t Bergens Museum Aarsberetning for 1886 (1887) pp. 29-215 (11 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 195 


and in them neuroglia-nuclei are more or less sparingly developed. 
The contents of the tubes consist of primitive tubes which are extremely 
slender or cylindrical, separated from each other by membranes of a 
firm supporting spongioplasm, which very much resembles the neuroglia 
substance; these slender tubes contain a hyaline, viscous substance— 
hyaloplasm, which is the real nervous substance, and is very often 
exuded from fresh isolated nerve-tubes in the form of small hyaline 
pearls. The fibrille and fibres described by most writers, do not, in 
Mr. Nansen’s opinion, exist. 

In many of the largish nerve-tubes of Nephrops and Homarus there 
is a concentration towards a kind of axis; this axis may be more or less 
narrow, and consists of a bundle of central primitive tubes which have 
stouter spongioplasmic sheaths and smaller diameters than the other 
primitive tubes. In the other animals examined this concentration 
cannot, as a rule, be cbserved ; but there is a slight indication of it in 
some nerve-tubes of Nereis. 

The ganglion-cells of all bilateral invertebrates consist of a nucleus 
with distinct membrane and a varying internal structure, and also of a 
protoplasm with various constituents; the cells are inclosed in a mem- 
brane of neuroglia substance. The principal constituents of the proto- 
plasm are primitive tubes of the same structure as those in the nerve- 
tubes ; some of them very frequently circulate concentrically round the 
nucleus, and so give a concentrically striated appearance to the ganglion- 
cells. In some, especially those of Homarus and Nephrops, the primi- 
tive tubes are partly united in bundles or in smaller or larger masses, 
which stain much more lightly than the rest of the protoplasm, not- 
withstanding the presence in it of a number of primitive tubes. 

In very many, possibly in all, ganglion-cells, there is a spongio- 
plasmic reticulation, extending from the inclosing neuroglia membrane 
into the protoplasm, between the primitive tubes and intimately con- 
nected with their spongioplasmic sheaths. In addition to this reticula- 
tion there is, probably, a special fatty (? myeloid) substance; it is not 
improbable that it is the same substance as that which in a number of 
animals is connected with a pigment (? hemoglobin). The cells give off 
nervous processes and protoplasmic processes ; of the former there is 
always one and never more; it is generally directed centrally, towards 
the dotted substance. The unipolar cell is the most common in 
bilateral invertebrates, but, when the cells are multipolar, the other 
processes are protoplasmic; these are generally short, and directed 
peripherally, and seem to have a nutritive function, being connected 
with the neuroglia. In structure and appearance they are quite similar 
to the protoplasm of ganglion-cells. Their contents are primitive tubes 
which spring from the protoplasm of the cells, and generally in such a 
manner as to converge uniformly from the whole protoplasm towards 
the pole where the nervous process issues ; here they unite and form its 
contents. 

The dotted substance is found to consist chiefly of nerve-tubes and 
primitive tubes (and nerve-fibrille, which are only small primitive 
tubes); these tubes consist of a neuroglia sheath, and semi-fluid con- 
tents (hyaloplasm), their structure only differimg from that of the 
primitive tubes in the greater strength of their sheaths; these tubes 
and fibrils do not anastomose, but only form a more or less intricate 
web; the reticu ation seen in sections is not a true reticulation, but is 


196 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


produced by the trans-section of the tubes, and the meshes of the reticu- 
lation are merely the trans-sected sheaths ; the interfibrillar substance 
of authors is the hyaline hyaloplasm, which is the real nervous sub- 
stance. The tubes and fibrils, of which the dotted substance is made 
up, consist of (1) the branches of the nervous processes that lose their 
individuality and are entirely broken up into slender branches; (2) 
the side branches of those nervous processes, which do not lose their 
individuality but directly become nerve-tubes, while giving off side 
branches on their course through the dotted substance; (3) the longi- 
tudinal nerve-cords which run through the dotted substance; (4) the 
side branches given off from those nerve-tubes ; (5) the branches of 
such longitudinal nerve-tubes as are entirely broken up into slender 
branches and lose themselves in the dotted substance; (6) the slender 
tubes or fibrils which unite to form the peripheral nerve-tubes which 
exclusively arise from the substance; (7) the side branches joining 
those peripheral nerve-tubes which spring directly from ganglion-cells. 
Tn addition to tubes and fibrils, neuroglia cells and fibres are to be found 
in dotted substance; the nuclei generally have an oblong shape and a 
granular appearance. 

The author next proceeds to discuss the combination of the ganglion- 
cells with one another, and the function of the protoplasmic processes ; 
in spite of all his trouble Mr. Nansen has been unable to find any direct 
anastomosis between the processes of the ganglion-cells, and he does not 
think that, as a rule, such exists. With Prof. Golgi, he believes that 
the protoplasmic processes of the cells have a nutritive function, and 
that when the cells cannot get suflicient nutrition in their neighbourhood, 
they have to send out processes towards the periphery of the nervous 
system, or into the loose neuroglia reticulation, where there is sufficient 
nutritive fluid for the processes to absorb. If there is any combination 
between the ganglion-cells it must be due to the nervous processes. 
There are, it is to be remembered, two types of ganglion processes: some 
become directly nerve-tubes, and do not lose their individuality, while 
others are subdivided into a number of slender branches which are lost 
in the dotted substance; Mr. Nansen thinks it possible that these 
communicate with one another. 

A brief preliminary notice is given of the nervous elements of 
Amphioxus and Myxine: it seems that they agree essentially with those 
of bilateral invertebrates. 

In conclusion, the combination of the nerve-tubes is discussed, and 
the author suggests that in a reflex-curve the centripetal nerve-tube, the 
central web or interlacing of nervous fibrils, and the centrifugal nerve- 
tube are the sole elements ; in other words, he believes that the ganglion- 
cells take no part in the matter; these last he looks upon as having 
nutritive functions, while the more the intelligence of an animal is 
developed, the more intricate becomes the web of nerve-tubes and fibrils 
in its dotted substance. 


Artificial Deformations of the Nucleus.*—Prof. C. Van Bambeke 
finds that the nuclei of vegetable cells, of Arthropoda, and probably 
nuclei in general, show under certain conditions artificial deformations 
which throw light on the structure of these elements. These either 
affect the nuclear filament or several constituent parts of the nucleus. 


* Arch. de Biol., vii. (1887) pp. 348-87 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 197 


The study of nuclei which have been stretched, leads us to conclude that 
there is a viscous substance in the constituent parts of the nucleus, and 
notably in the nuclear filaments and the intermediate substance; the 
nucleoli are more consistent, and offer greater resistance to the causes of 
deformation. It is probable that the filaments of an intact nucleus 
are coiled and not arranged in a reticulum. In parts that have been 
stretched, filaments disposed in a parallel or radial manner are varicose, 
and their appearance often recalls primitive nerve-fibrils. There is often 
a partial fusion between the filaments and the intermediate substance ; 
in certain cases the coalescence may be complete, and the appearance of 
parts, or even of the whole of the nucleus, may be homogeneous. Putting 
aside the nuclear membrane and the nucleoli, we may distinguish, in 
deformed nuclei, filaments and a homogeneous intermediate substance ; 
the former appear to be formed of nuclein or chromatin and an achro- 
matic substance; nothing but the latter gives any evidence of the 
existence of a reticulum of plastin. 


Structure of Nerve-fibre.* — Dr. P. Schiefferdecker has rein- 
vestigated the often attacked problem of the minute structure of nervous 
tissue. His main conclusions are as follows:—(1) The distinction of 
medullary and non-medullary nerves is a real one. (2) When there is a 
medullary sheath, both on peripheral and central fibres, this is doubly 
interrupted, by Lantermann’s indentations which separate the various seg- 
ments, and by the more widely separated constrictions of Ranvier. Both 
affect the whole thickness of the medullary sheath, and are seen on living 
fibres. (8) At both interruptions an intermediate substance lies between 
the medullary portions. This is readily dissolved away, but with silver 
solution and the like may be hardened. 'These annular plates (‘‘ Zwischen- 
scheiben”) are seen at Ranvier’s constrictions, and funnels (“ Zwischen- 
trichter”’) at Lantermann’s indentations. (4) Substances find their way 
into the axial cylinder most rapidly at the intermediate dises. They 
must be of especial nutritive importance. 

(5) The medullary sheath possesses no peculiar nuclei. (6) While 
all central fibres lie naked in the supporting substance, all the peripherals 
have a connective tissue sheath, the sheath of Schwann. This begins at 
the origin of the roots from the central organ. (7) In the non-medullary 
this sheath lies close to the axial cylinder, in the medullary close to the 
medullary sheath, so close indeed to the latter that its contour is not 
usually visible. (8) Characteristic nuclei, surrounded by more or less 

rotoplasm occur at intervals, and project markedly on the inner surface 
of the fibre. (9) The sheath forms a tube corresponding in form and 
size to the nerve-fibre. It is homogeneous, closed, and of uniform thick- 
ness. (10) It is constricted with the fibre at the intermediate discs, but 
this is hardly noticeable in young fibres. The more the medulla in- 
creases, the more Schwann’s sheath grows, except at the intermediate 
discs where there is no medulla. Ranvier’s constrictions have no 
influence on the sheath. 

(11) The axial cylinder has the form of a more or less regular and 
continuous cylinder. (12) It exhibits an outer, firmer and thinner, an 
internal softer portion. (13) The outer “cortex” is very pliable, some- 
what elastic, very fine. It swells in water, becomes for a short time 
more visible in dilute acetic acid. (14) The content is probably a 


* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxx. (1887) pp. 435-94 (1 pl.). 


198 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


mobile, somewhat fluid, watery albuminoid substance. The inclosure of 
fibrils is possible, but not probable. (15) In contact with coagulating 
fluids, the axial cylinder shrinks up into very diverse forms. (16) Be- 
tween the shrunken axis cylinder and the medullary sheath, or between 
the former and Schwann’s sheath, a space is left. This contains 
coagulated material in small quantity, is the enlargement of a normal 
minimal space, probably containing a lymph-like nutritive fluid. (17) 
Osmium and other reagents produce a “ coagulation-sheath ” (Gerinnsel- 
scheide) on the surface of the axis. On this lie the silver precipitate 
and Frommann’s lines. (18) Beyond the “cortex” there are no genuine 
sheaths—only artificial pseudo-sheaths. (19) Schiefferdecker here differs 
from Ranvier and from Boveri. (20) Weigert’s hematoxylin blood- 
alkaline method stains the medullary fibres differently according to the 
chromic salt used in hardening. No special substance appears to be 
stained, the colouring varies considerably. After hardening in chromic 
acid, the medulla is little or not at all stained, but the cortex of the axis 
cylinder is, though not quite regularly. The irregularity in both 
methods depends apparently on the varying influence of the differentiating 
fluid. 

Structure of Red Blood-corpuscles.*—Sig. F. Foa has made a minute 
study of the structure of red blood-corpuscles. These were stained after 
Ehrlich’s method with. methyl-blue, and decolourized by chromic acid 
0:20 per cent. His results go to show that the red corpuscle is consti- 
tuted as follows:—(1) A very delicate amorphous membrane; (2) a 
layer of hemoglobin; (3) a reticulum of granular strands converging 
towards a central corpuscle which represents the residue of the nucleus ; 
(4) the homogeneous protoplasm, probably in two physically different 
layers. 

Hemoglobin Crystals of Rodents’ Blood.t—Prof. W. D. Halliburton 
has endeavoured to ascertain whether the six-sided crystals of the heemo- 
globin from the blood of certain rodents really belong to the hexagonal 
system of crystallographers, and he finds that the presumption in favour 
of the hemoglobin crystals of the squirrel and hamster being true 
hexagons is exceedingly great; those of the mouse do not, however, 
appear to be so. Another question which naturally arises is as to the 
difference of crystalline form that hemoglobin presents in different 
animals, while its other chief properties are universally the same. 
It is clear that we have either to do with a case of polymorphism, or 
the crystalline forms are due to the combination of varying proportions 
of water of crystallization. As to the former suggestion, it is to be 
remembered that we have not yet a rational formula for hemoglobin, 
while the conditions which are known to produce dimorphism in minerals 
—differences of temperature and of solvent—have no influence in the 
case of hemoglobin. What is stated in the text-books as to the per- 
centage of water of crystallization, would support the view that there is 
considerable difference as to its quantity; but Prof. Halliburton thinks 
that the variations may be due to the great difficulty in obtaining heemo- 
globin in a pure state, and to the mode of investigation. Even if the 
difference in crystalline form is dependent on variation in the amount 
of the water of crystallization, no explanation is given as to the nature 


* Arch. Ital. Biol., ix. (1887) pp. 28-9. 
+ Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xxviii. (1887) pp. 181-99. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 199 


of the agency that causes the hemoglobin of some animals to unite with 
a certain amount of water of crystallization, and that of other animals 
with a different amount. But the author’s recrystallization experiments 
seem to make it certain that some such substance or agency does exist. 


B. INVERTEBRATA. 


Parasites of Teredo navalis.*—Mr. W. F. Durand gives a brief and 
not technical account of the four parasites found by him in [region not 
stated} Teredo navalis ; one appears to be allied to Trichonympha agilis, 
two others are probably Protozoa, and the last mentioned “has much 
the appearance of a nematoid worm.” These “imperfect results of the 
first observations are given as a hint where a comparatively little worked 
field of examination may be found.” 


Fauna of Mosses.t—Dr. O. E. Imhof, excited by the work of 
Zelinka on the Callidinide, which live symbiotically with Hepatice, 
‘ has examined various mosses. He has found a rich fauna made up of 
Rhizopods, Flagellates, Ciliate Infusoria, Rotifers, Anguillulide, Acarina, 
Arctiscoidea, and insect-larve. 


Mollusca. 


Microscopic Structure of Muscles of Molluses.t—Prof. H. Fol has 
directed his attention to the minute structure of the muscles of the 
Mollusca, as to which so little is certainly known. Notwithstanding 
the statements of various histologists, he has convinced himself that there 
is no true transverse striation in any mollusc. All the phenomena 
which haye been explained as due to such striation are really caused by 
the spiral fibrils which surround the smooth fibres. The spiral turn 
varies in length with the number of fibrils, and with the state of con- 
traction or relaxation of the fibre; in the mixture of glycerin and nitric 
acid used by Paneth the contraction is so great that the parts of the 
spire become almost transverse ; and this fact explains the error of this 
writer. 


Ingestion of Water in Lamellibranchs, Gastropods, and Pteropods.§ 
—Dr. P. Schiemenz comes to the conclusion that those authors who, like 
Kollmann, Griesbach, and others, have asserted that there are Mollusca 
which can take in water by means of pores or clefts are correct; but, on 
the other hand, the animals in which they believe that they have demon- 
strated these orifices have not got them, and the water-pores they have 
described have no existence. He also brings forward evidence to show 
the existence of intercellular spaces; these are connected with the sur- 
rounding medium, but terminate in closed tips; they have nothing to 
do with the epithelial cells, as they are only evaginations of the basilar 
membrane. Delle Chiaje and his school were right in supposing the 
existence of a water-vascular system distinct from the blood-vascular, 
although such is not to be found in a number of molluscs in which they 
believed it to be present. Molluscs which have no closed blood-vascular 
system in the foot—such as Pteropods, Heteropods, Pulmonates, and, 


* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., viii. (1887) pp. 224-6. 

+ Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 39-40. 

t~ Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 306-8. 

§ MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vii. (1887) pp. 423-72 (2 pls.). 


200 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


probably, all Opisthobranchs—do not take in water; there remain, there- 
fore, only the Prosobranchs, and among them the sand-dwellers appear 
to be especially endowed with this property. 


a. Cephalopoda. 


Growth of Cephalopod Shells.*—Mr. F. A. Bather discusses the 
two views as to the mode of formation of the shells of Cephalopods. 
The investigation of Nautilus led to the secretion-hypothesis, according 
to which the anterior portion of the mantle secretes calcareous matter, 
which it deposits In successive layers on the margin of the aperture. 
Dr. E. Riefstahl has been led to propose what may be called the intus- 
susception-hypothesis. Microscopical investigation of the shell of Sepia 
seems to show that each septum is absolutely developed from the pre- 
ceding, and is removed therefrom by growth of the intervening zone of 
the outer shell-wall; the growth being effected not by apposition, but 
by intussusception. Mr. Bather summarizes the evidence of Riefstahl, 
and urges certain objections; he thinks that facts do not confirm the 
intussusception-hypothesis, and that some of them do favour the old 
view of formation of the shell by secretion. 


y. Gastropoda. 


Form and Development of Spermatozoa in Murex.j—M. R. 
Koehler has investigated the development of the spermatozoa in Murex 
brandaris and M. biunculus, where, as in various other Prosobranch 
Mollusca, these bodies are of two forms. A layer of parietal proto- 
plasm contains numerous nuclei, whence originate all the seminal 
elements ; but these nuclei, when they leave the protoplasmic layer, and 
become organized into cells, are of two very distinct kinds; some are 
large, and contain a large nucleus, have granular protoplasm and an 
enveloping membrane; these are the mother-cells of the vermiform 
spermatozoa. Others are much smaller cells, without any membrane, 
and connected by protoplasmic processes with neighbouring cells; these 
are the mother-cells of the filiform spermatozoa. 

The large cells present a series of modifications, which first affect the 
nucleus ; it becomes homogeneous, contracts a little, and loses somewhat 
the regularity of its contour; these changes are accompanied by a frag- 
mentation of the nucleus, and an increase in the size of the cells; one 
of the nuclei produces a bundle of fibrils, one of the extremities of which 
will become the tuft of characteristic cilia, while the other will develope 
into a central filament. As the latter elongates, it meets the wall of the 
cell, and then enlarges to form the head of the vermiform spermatozoa. 
The author promises further details and a full justification of his belief 
that these spermatozoa are formed in the place of ova. He has 
observed that the mother-cells arise directly from the primordial sexual 
cells, like the ova in an ovary. If we admit that Prosobranchs are 
more ancient than Pulmonates, it seems justifiable to believe that this 
existence of two kinds of spermatozoa indicates a tendency towards 
hermaphroditism ; the abnormally formed spermatozoa are very variable 
in form, and have no function; they get that of ova only when herma- 
phroditism is complete. 


* Geol. Mag., iv. (1887) pp. 446-9. 
+ Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 299-301. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 201 


Development of Vermetus.*—Prof. M. Salensky’s studies on the 
development of Vermetus commenced with the segmentation of the ovum, 
which follows the plan common to molluscs. The small macromeres 
that become formed have a mass of chromatic granules in the place of 
ordinary nuclei; this peculiarity seems to be due to the fact that these 
nuclei multiply indirectly. The cells of the secondary endoderm are 
the product of this division, and they likewise have masses of chromatic 
granules in the place of nuclei. Later on, the form of the secondary 
endoderm reproduces that of the embryo itself, and represents a mass of 
cells swollen at its anterior extremity and flattened posteriorly. The 
cells of the primitive endoderm—or, in other words, the macromeres 
—are so arranged that their protoplasmic portion faces the secondary 
endoderm ; and in sections it may be seen that the protoplasmic portion 
of each macromere adheres to the cells of the secondary endoderm. The 
ectoderm which invests the dorsal surface of the embryo is formed of 
flattened cells; in some ova the anterior marginal cell is divided into 
two parts, one of which is at the edge of the blastopore, while the other 
takes part in the invagination ; the latter represents the cesophageal cell. 
The marginal cells, which form the hinder edge of the blastopore, extend, 
primitively, in such a way that the blastopore represents a tube opening 
into the primitive invagination, which is filled by cells of secondary 
endoderm. ‘The shell-gland appears early on the dorsal surface of the 
embryo, at a time when there are no evidences of the mesoderm ; its 
history offers no peculiarity. 

After sketching the early stages in the development of the organs of 
the body, the author proceeds to describe the mesoderm, the first 
appearance of which is late. This first appearance is very difficult to 
recognize, since the mesoblast first consists of a few scattered cells ; 
these, which are placed between the cells of the ectoderm and those of 
the secondary endoderm, are difficult to detect, since the two primitive 
layers are applied to one another, and their cells only differ in the 
size of their nuclei. The mesoderm appears to be formed from the 
ectoderm, the cells which give rise to it multiplying directly. The 
rudiment of the mesoderm is arranged bilaterally, being formed, from 
the first, of two plates, which may be compared to the mesodermal 
stripes of Annelids. Independently of these there is, in Vermetus, a 
third, unpaired, rudiment, which the author calls the pericardiac meso- 
derm, but it does not appear till a later stage. The development of 
the eyes is somewhat remarkable; at the outer edges of the cephalic 
plates there appear two hemispherical thickenings of the ectoderm, 
and the eye is formed by a thickening of the cephalic plates with 
delamination. Behind them the cephalic plates become invaginated 
to form the cephalic ganglia; as the cells of the cups multiply, they 
form several layers of cells, and exchange their cylindrical for poly- 
hedral forms. The formation of the fibrillar substance is due to the 
modification of the protoplasm of the cells of the invaginations; as they 
increase in size the cells become fibrillar. The eyes very early take 
on the form of spherical vesicles, owing to the extension of their cavity ; 
but they still remain intimately connected with the rudiments of the 
cephalic ganglia, from which they do not become completely independent 
till a comparatively late stage. There is no doubt that the wall of the 
vesicle is converted into the retina. 


* Arch. de Biol., vi. (1887) pp. 655-759 (8 pls.). 


202 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The pedal ganglia and otocysts arise independently, and the forme 
are rather late in appearing; the first signs of them are well-marked 
thickenings of the ectoderm, which may be called pedal plates. 

After describing the formation of the pharyngeal commissure and the 
peripheral nervous system, the author deals with the glands of the foot. 
Of these there are, as in other molluscs, two, quite distinct from one 
another, 

The differentiation of the mesoderm is dealt with in some detail. As 
in other Ctenobranchs, there is a provisional and a permanent heart. 
From the morphological point of view, the spaces which are in relation 
with the former correspond to the cavities of the circulatory organs of 
the adult, and are, like them, the remains of the blastoccel. The author 
is inclined to think that the embryonic heart has a purely ectodermal 
origin, and that it is derived from a vesicular invagination of that layer. 
Its external wall is formed by ectoderm, the cells of which are remark- 
ably modified, becoming fusiform and elongated in the direction of the 
long axis of the embryo. Although there is not yet full direct evidence, 
we may suppose that the cavity of the heart is in communication with 
those of the velum. The permanent heart is formed from the dorsal 
unpaired rudiment of the mesoderm. 

The temporary renal organs which are often found in molluses 
seem to be absent from Vermetus. The permanent kidney appears very 
late; the mass of mesodermal cells from which it arises is at first placed 
in the anterior ventral angle of the pericardiac cavity. 

The ectoderm gives rise to the cesophagus, and the endoderm to 
the intestine and rectum. From the first there arise three outgrowths, 
the median of which forms the radula-sac, and the two lateral the salivary 
glands. In the formation of the intestine the greater part of the central 
mass of the endoderm is converted into a nutritive mass ; the boundaries 
of the cells disappear, the nuclei become swollen, lose their contour, and 
are resolved into a finely granular substance, which soon fuses with 
the protoplasm of the cells. 

At the conclusion of this description of the facts which he has 
observed, Prof. Salensky proceeds to consider the formation of the 
embryonic layers of Vermetus in connection with the ancestral form 
of the Metazoa. He is not satisfied with the Gastrula of Haeckel, the 
Planula of Ray Lankester, the Parenchymula of Mecznikow, or the 
Plakula of Biitschli. He believes that the first differentiation which 
characterizes the passage of the colonial Protozoa to the prototype of 
the Metazoa consisted in the division of cells into motonutritive and 
genital ; this idea was simultaneously conceived by Gétte and the author ; 
it has a close relation to the question of the origin of the blastopore. 
The difficulty of the disappearance of this orifice, and the appearance 
of secondary ones, cannot be explained by physiology, but the facts 
become readily comprehensible if we admit that the ancestral form of 
the Metazoa must be sought for in vesicular colonies of Flagellates, 
developing on the type of the Volvox of the present day ; the blastopore 
would correspond to the orifice seen in young colonies of Volvox, and it, 
we know, disappears in the course of development. The hypothetical 
organism for which we are searching would differ from the actual 
Volvox, in that the cellular individuals of the colony would be capable 
of animal nutrition, such as is probably the case in Protuspongia. Like 
Volvox, the hypothetical ancestor of the Metazoa would be capable of 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 203 


forming genital cells; these were probably amceboid, like those of Proto- 
spongia, and, after separation from the wall of the colony, would fall 
into the genitoccel, as the cavity of the colony may be called. 

We know that, in Volvox, daughter-colonies may give rise to partheno- 
gonids before leaving the mother-colony, and that they sometimes do so 
before their orifice closes; the same may justly be supposed to have 
happened with the ancestral forms of the Metazoa, and, as it would be 
an advantage, we should have forms passing the greater part of their 
existence as open vesicles, strongly charged with parthenogonids ; this 
open stage is regarded as the prototype of the Metazoa, and is called the 
Genitogastrula. In the limited space at their disposal, only some of the 
parthenogonids would arrive at maturity, while others would retain their 
amoeboid form; in this way we get genital cells and nutrient cells; for 
the inner layer composed of them Prof. Salensky proposes the term 
Phagogenitoblast, while he retains for the outer layer, formed of ame- 
boid cells, the name of Kynoblast proposed by Mecznikow. The 
- internal nutrient cells could only function if their colonial orifice 
remained open, and it would be advantageous, therefore, for it to be so 
till the moment of the maturation of the sexual products, and the forma- 
tion of daughter-colonies ; the expulsion of the embryos would necessi- 
tate the formation of one or more orifices of exit, and it would be a 
matter of indifference whether or no these corresponded to the primitive 
opening. 

In the development of the Metazoa the same modifications are seen, 
and the blastopore is to be regarded as the remnant of the colonial 
orifice, while the new openings (mouth and anus) are connected phylo- 
genetically with the appearance of a secondary orifice in the colonies of 
Flagellates. ; 

Prof. Salensky thinks that two types have been confounded under 
the term blastula ; whether it is formed by delamination (schizoblastula) 
or immigration (poreioblastula), the blastula is palingenetic, and corre- 
sponds to a closed colony of Flagellates ; but in the Gastroblastula, 
Amphiblastula, Archiblastula, Periblastula, and Discoblastula, there 
have been cenogenetic alterations; the cavity has appeared precociously. 

The author next discusses the formation of the mesoderm, which is, 
as he justly says, one of the most obscure problems of comparative 
embryology ; the more observations have multiplied, the clearer has it 
become that the mesoderm arises in different ways. To him it appears 
to be a complication of the primordial diploblastic form of the Metazoa ; 
this is shown by the existence of Metazoa in which there is no mesoderm, 
and the development of this layer subsequently to that of the ecto- and 
endoderm. If we can imagine that, for some reason—-the growth of the 
genitogastrula, for example—the vibratile cells, which served for the 
locomotion of the organism, were not sufficient for its movement, and 
that this want brought about a gradual adaptation of the deep amceboid 
cells to the needs of locomotion, we should get a contractile layer formed 
between the ectoderm and the genito-endoderm. It would be indifferent 
to the organism whether these mesodermic cells arose by immigration of 
new cells or from cells that had previously immigrated ; in either case 
there would be a triploblastic gastrula, but in one the mesoderm would 
appear to have its origin from the endoderm, and in the other case from 
the ectoderm. 


In conclusion, Prof. Salensky discusses the phylogenetic relations of 


204 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the Mollusca to the bilateral animals; after discussing the develop- 
mental history of the nervous system, the differentiation of the mesoderm, 
the formation of the ccelom, and the development of the heart and 
pericardium, he thinks sufficient evidence is afforded of the relationship 
of the Mollusca to Annelids; but this raises the question of segmenta- 
tion, and we know that the postoral part of molluscs is not segmented. 
To explain this, it is necessary to suppose that the deviations from the 
ancestral form common to the two groups began at a larval stage, and 
have since been gradually impressed on the organization of the animal. 


Anatomy and Affinities of Ampullaria.*—M. E. L. Bouvier adds 
to our knowledge of this amphibious mollusc, the nervous system of 
which he has already described. It has both a monopectinate gill like 
all the Monotocardia, and a false bipectinate gill like the most highly 
organized of that group. The false gill lies to the left of the lung and 
the true gill to the right; both are innervated by the left supra- 
intestinal branch of the visceral commissure, and so correspond to the 
same organs on the left side of other Monotocardia. The left kidney is 
a large chamber with the floor alone glandular; the spiral portion of the 
intestine, the ovary and albumen-gland of the female, and the seminal 
reservoirs of the male project on to this floor, and appear to be situated in 
the cavity of the chamber. The cavity of the left kidney communicates 
anteriorly and on the right with that of the right kidney ; the latter is 
lined by lamelle arranged around a dorsal and a ventral vein. The 
renal products make their way to the exterior by a cleft in the walls of 
the right kidney ; they pass into a conical canal which ends at a groove 
placed between the recto-genital mass and a dorsal lamellar pad. As in 
Haliotis, the venous blood from the left kidney goes directly to the 
heart, while that from the right kidney first passes to the gills. 

The anterior part of the digestive tracts recalls by its relations to 
the nervous system and the salivary gland the diotocardate Proso- 
branchs ; there is a gastric cecum, and the intestine is coiled spirally 
in the cavity of the left kidney. As has long been known, the circula- 
tory system is remarkable for the presence of an arterial ampulla which 
is lodged in the pericardium and situated at the base of the anterior 
aorta. The posterior aorta is replaced by five arteries, one of which 
branches on the wall of the intestinal spire. 

Notwithstanding certain anatomical resemblances to the Naticide 
and the diotocardate Prosobranchs, the Ampullarie appear to be closely 
allied to the Paludinide, and especially to the Cyclophoride; but a 
little more than either of these they tend to approach the higher 
Prosobranchs. 


Development of Heart of Pulmonate Mollusca.j—Mr. W. Schim- 
kewitsch has a note on the investigations into the development of the 
heart of pulmonate molluscs lately made by M. Schaalfeew. The 
latter gentleman has studied Limax agrestis, and he finds that the 
pericardium first appears as a compact accumulation of mesodermic 
cells in which the pericardiac cavity is, later on, formed by delamination, 
The heart arises as a thickening of the inferior wall of the pericardiac 
vesicle. The dorsal wall gives rise to a fold which divides the peri- 
cardiac cavity into two parts; of these the right forms the glandular 
part of the organ of Bojanus, while the excretory duct is formed from 


* Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 370-2.  f Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 64-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 205 


an ectodermic thickening. We may therefore conclude that the organ 
of Bojanus, like the nephridia of Annelids, is formed partly by ecto- 
dermic and partly by mesodermic cells. The resemblance is the more 
complete, if, with Grobben, we regard the pericardiac cavity of molluscs 
as the homologue of the celom of Annelids. The disappearance of one 
pericardiac vesicle and one organ of Bojanus is evidently correlated 
with the general asymmetry of the body in these molluscs. If the 
pericardiac cavities are ccelomic in nature, then the inner walls of the 
pericardiac vessels correspond to the dorsal mesentery of Annelids. 


Sucker on Fin of Pterotrachea.*—Mr. J. W. Fewkes points out, 
not with a view of claiming priority, but to corroborate succeeding 
writers, that in 1883 he observed—as Paneth and Grobben have since— 
that the sucker on Pterotrachea is not confined to the male of this 
Heteropod. 


§. Lamellibranchiata. 


Histology of Najade.t|—Herr I. Apathy publishes a summary of his 
Hungarian monograph on the histology of Najade. 

1. Blood. The corpuscles (e.g. of Unio) have manifold forms, and 
are not characterized by few and short processes as Flemming described. 
A special form is distinguished by large nucleus, almost absent pro- 
cesses, and absence of tendency to unite with others. The nuclei of 
the corpuscles were observed in indirect division. The pericardial fluid 
is not blood, though corpuscles may wander into it, 

II. Connective tissue. 'The hyaline intercellular substance with its 
clefts is characteristic. Physiologically, the elements may be distin- 
guished as (a) proper connective tissue cells, producing the intercellular 
substance ; (b) mucous cells without share in the latter. A nucleus is 
present in all these. A portion of the fine fibres on the walls of the 
blood-vessels belongs to the connective tissue system. Fine fibrils are 
also demonstrable in the hyaline matrix, especially if celloidin be used 
for imbedding. The cells without processes, which Kollmann describes 

s “ Hantchenzellen,”’ are more or less altered and shrivelled cells, which 
no longer fill their original space in the matrix. The mucous cells 
may retain their mucus within their membrane (Langer’s Blischen), or 
empty it by a distinct canal (mucus-cells proper). There could be no 
doubt as to the intactness of the vesicular cells, which are certainly not 
“Jacune.” There is a continuous transition between the latter and the 
glandular mucous cells with distinct openings. The mucus secretion, 
and in part the shell secretion, pertain to the connective tissue system. 

II]. Epithelium. This is always in one layer. There is no proper 
endothelium. Every epithelial layer has a cuticle, even that which 
bears cilia. The cuticle is a cementing substance. The superficial 
pigment differs from that of connective tissue, glands, or nerves, in being 
more finely granular and much less soluble in alcohol or ether. The 
basal portions of the cilia are connected with the cellular protoplasm by 
narrow processes penetrating the cuticle. ngelmann’s conclusions as 
to the histology of the cilia are considerably modified. Flemming’s 
tactile brush cells occur over the whole surface of the body. They are 
really double ; the spindle-shaped, darkly pigmented, superficial portion 


* Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 64-5. 
t+ Naturh. Abh. Ung. Akad., xiv. Cf. Biol. Centralbl., vii. (1887) pp. 621-30. 
1888. Q 


206 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


is epithelial, the subjacent elub-shaped, yellow coloured portion is a 
peripheral ganglion-cell. The epithelium of the rectum is peculiar. 
The auditory sac includes two different types of epithelial cell, one 
wineglass-shaped, the other retort-lke. 

IV. Muscular tissue. The muscle-fibres are surrounded by connec- 
tive tissue. There is no sarcolemma. The cardiac muscles have an 
unusually large protoplasmic region round the nucleus, greater in mass 
than the contractile substance. ‘The contractile substance is a product 
of the muscle-cell. The primitive fibrils of the contractile substance are 
histogenctic homologues of the connective tissue fibrils. Unstriped 
muscles are found in adductors and in mantle. No true transverse 
striation was found. ‘The fibres multiply only from muscle-germ-cells, 
which persist even in the adult organism. ‘he division of the nucleus 
of a fibre is a subordinate, persistent embryonic process. 

V. Nervous tissue. In the nervous system ganglionic and nerve-cells 
have to be distinguished. The former are starting-points for the nerve- 
fibres. The latter lie imbedded between the primitive fibrils of the 
nerve-fibres ; they produce the fibres. The fibres show no membrane or 
myelin sheath ; they correspond to axial cylinders, or rather to Remak’s 
fibres in vertebrates. The branching of the fibres is then described. 
The long nuclei of the nerve-fibres or nerve-cells are, like those of the 
muscle-fibres, surrounded by a protoplasmic mass, continued in a long 
process at the poles. H. Schultze confused these cells with connective- 
tissue cells, which lie not in, but between the nerve-fibres. Between the 
several ganglion-cells, fine processes of the connective tissue were 
demonstrable. Dogiel’s apolar ganglion-cells occur both in connection 
with the cardiac muscles and elsewhere. The nerve-terminations inner- 
vating the epithelial cells of the mantle-margin, end in minute round 
plates. In the adductors, the nerve-terminations penetrate the fibres in 
the nuclear regions. They consist of an axial thread or primitive fibril, 
surrounded by a pale sheath, probably of interfibrillar substance. Only 
the axial thread enters the muscle-fibre, the latter loses itself on the 
surface. The axial thread may be traced into the protoplasmic mass of 
the muscle-fibres, and never seem to end in the contractile substance. 


Molluscoida. 
a, Tunicata. 


Classification of Tunicata.*—Prof. E. van Beneden thinks that the 
discoveries of the last few years necessitate a revision of the classification 
of Tunicates. He here confines himself to some critical notes, and the 
formation of anew genus. The genus Hcteinascidia of Herdman shows 
that the modes of reproduction cannot be taken as a basis of classification. 
The author has lately been able to investigate Philippi’s little-known 
genus Rhopalza, and with it he places EH. crassa and EH. fusca of Herdman. 
For E. turbinata, in which there is no division of the body into thorax 
and abdomen as in the preceding, a thin and not cartilaginous test, as well 
as other differential characters justify the generic separation of this 
species, with which H. diaphanis of Sluitcr may be associated. For the 
species E. rubricollis Prof. van Beneden proposes the new generic term 
of Sluiteria ; the distinction may be justified on the ground that its test 
is provided with conoid papille, and traversed by stolonial tubes (vessels 


* Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belg, lvi. (1887) pp. 19-47. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 207 


of the tunic) as in most Ascidians ; there are well-developed siphons, 
and the orifices are widely separated, the dorsal plate is formed by a 
well-developed continuous membrane, the alimentary canal has a different 
course to that of Ecteinascidia. 'The generic characters of the three 
genera are systematically stated. 


Histology of Salpa.*—Dr. C. 8. Dolley has made an investigation 
into the histology of Salpa. He thinks that the cuticle is, like the outer 
mantle of Doliolum and the “house” of Appendicularia, shed from time 
to time, and renewed. The inner mantle is said to consist of an 
ectodermal and an endodermal cellular layer, which are separated by a 
hyaline connecting substance in which lie buried the viscera and the 
muscular bands, and through which a network of blood-sinuses burrows 
in all directions. The ectoderm consists of a single layer of pavement 
epithelium, in which the cells have the protoplasm occupying the central 
portion, while the rest of the cell appears to be empty and transparent ; 
the author has been unable to find large pavement-cells containing a 
protoplasmic reticulum extending out from a central plasma-mass, as 
described in the larve of Doliolum by Uljanin and Grobben; but in 
several young specimens he has found a layer of epithelial cells lining 
the cavity containing the eleoblast, and these present an appearance 
which corresponds in almost every particular to that deseribed by Uljanin. 

The muscles are composed of from six to twelve broad, flat, striated 
fibres arranged in bundles, with their broad surfaces in contact, and their 
edges looking outwards and inwards. The fibres are made up of several 
muscle-cells which have become fused together; each fibre has a large 
number of oval nuclei, which are clear and bladder-like and have 
relatively large nucleoli. - 

The gill is found to be perforated by an irregular series of blood- 
sinuses, and not by a “single grand sinus” as described by Prof. Huxley. 
The endostyle of Salpa runcinata-fusiformis differs considerably from 
that described by Fol in so many Salpx; there is no “ middle inter- 
mediary band”; the “outer intermediary band” does not consist of 
simple pavement cells, but of three layers of spindle-shaped cells with 
rod-like nuclei. 

The number of cxcal appendages would appear to vary in different 
species; the observation of Seeliger that no food is ever found in them 
is confirmed. Dr. Dolley believes with H. Miiller that they have an 
hepatic function. The author’s objections to the presence of intercellular 
digestion in Salpa have been confirmed by Seeliger. The existence of 
cilia for moving on the contents of the intestine is necessitated by the 
absence of any musculature in connection with the visceral nucleus. The 
delicate tubes which spread over the visceral network consist of an 
extremely thin basement membrane, bearing cuboid cells, in which ne 
nucleus was visible. The testes consist of a number of delicate tubes, in 
which a basement membrane is scarcely apparent; the walls are formed 
by a layer of clear round cells containing pear-shaped bodies. 

The nerve-ganglion presents a nearly spherical mass covered with a 
delicate membrane, which seems to be continuous with the outer sheath 
of the nerve-trunks. The visual (or as Huxley called it auditory) organ 
is a continuation both of the central fibrillar core, and the external layer 
of ganglion-cells ; outside its nervous central portion is a layer of rather 


* Proc, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1887, pp. 298-308 (1 pl.). 
(ays 


208 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


large cylindrical cells, which contain in their inner halves a round 
nucleus, and a quantity of dark pigment; the pigment-cells are in their 
turn covered by a layer of columnar cells ; the latter layer appears to be 
a modified portion of the ectodermal layer of the inner mantle. Dr. 
Dolley supposes that the eye of Salpa is compound. The ciliated sac 
consists of a simple tube closed at the end nearest the ganglion, against 
which it rests, and opening at the other end into the branchial sac ; its 
walls are made up of short, thick, columnar cells carrying heavy cilia. 


B. Polyzoa. 


Reproductive Organs of Alcyonidium gelatinosum.*—Prof. W. A. 
Herdman has had his attention directed to a colony of Alcyonidiwm 
gelatinosum, which was not, as is usual, homogeneous in colour and semi- 
translucent, but had a blotched appearance, due to the presence of a 
number of small rounded spots of an opaque greyish-white or pale 
yellow colour. These spots were found to be cavities which were filled 
with fully developed active spermatozoa; on further examination, some 
of the polypides of the colony were found to contain a few young ova. 
Prof. Herdman thinks that A. gelatinosum, like many of the compound 
Ascidians, is an hermaphrodite in which the reproductive systems arrive 
at maturity at different times in the life-history, but, whereas these are 
proterogynous, Alcyonidium appears to be proterandrous. Ifthe polypides 
are unisexual, then this proterandry applies only to the colony, but it is 
possible that each polypide may be a proterandrous hermaphrodite. 
Both ova and spermatozoa occur in ordinary polypides, and not, as in 
A. mytili, in goneecia, or cells which contain no polypides. 


Anatomy of Pedicellina.t—Dr. A. Foettinger has detected on the 
coasts of Belgium a third species of Pedicellina, which he calls P. benedeni ; 
it is characterized externally by a pedicle formed of numerous seg- 
ments, recalling that of Urnatella gracilis Leidy, and by the rosy colour 
of its tentacles. In its anatomical characters it agrees closely with 
P. echinata and P. belgica; simple or multiple bands may appear on 
the joints of the pedicle. In all three species the segmental organs are 
formed of two tubes which terminate at their central extremities in a 
cell provided with a long vibratile filament; the two tubes unite to open 
by a single orifice which is placed at the level of the intertentacular 
space; they are formed of a small number of cells, and their cavities are 
intracellular. All the forms examined were found not only to have the 
sexes separate, but individuals of one sex formed distinct colonies. The 
male organs consist of two testicles, which pour their secretion into a 
seminal vesicle, from which arises a long excretory duct which opens 
near the external orifice of the segmental canals. The female apparatus 
consists of two ovaries, in the interior of which short oviducts arise ; 
these unite into a common canal which ends on the floor of the incu- 
batory chamber, not far from the anterior wall of the intestine. Glandular 
cells are connected with the common canal and oviducts, and their con- 
tents are probably used to form the egg-shell. The oviducal apparatus 
not only serves for the extrusion of ripe ova, but also for the introdue- 
tion of spermatozoa; these elements are, indeed, found in the ovaries 
themselves. 

The central nervous system is represented by a brain more or less 


* Nature, xxxvii. (1887) p. 213. Arch. de Biol., vii. (1887) pp. 299-329 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 209 


distinctly divided into two lateral lobes; it is formed of a granulo- 
fibrillar mass enveloped in a nucleated cortex. Several pairs of nerves 
are given off symmetrically from its surface. In P. benedeni the brain 
is always in front of the ovaries, in P. echinata it is partly between 
them, and in P. belgica it is completely surrounded by them. 


Arthropoda. 


Eyes of Arthropods.*—Dr. W. Patten, finding that his observations 
on the structure of the adult eyes of insects differed widely from those 
of other recent writers, has endeavoured to confirm, by embryological 
data, the continuity of the so-called rhabdom with the crystalline-cone 
cells, and also his observations on the nature of the corneal hypodermis, 
or, as he now prefers to call it, the corneagen. As the compound eye and 
optic ganglion of Vespa develope slowly, and the successive stages are 
clearly defined, it is an admirable subject for investigation. 

Among the more important points which this investigation has 
brought out are— 

(1) The erystalline-cone cells, or any of the eventually pigmented 
cells surrounding them, do not form a layer of cells distinct from and 
superimposed on the retinule ; for the crystalline-cone cells, the retinule, 
and the other pigmented cells are derived from, and remain a single 
layer of cells. 

(2) The rhabdom is not a product of the retinule, but is merely the 
inward prolongation, or stalk, of the crystalline-cone cells. 

(3) The layer of cells from which the ommateum arises is the inner 
wall of an optic vesicle formed by an invagination of the ectoderm, and 
the ommateal cells are consequently upright. 

(4) The retinophorz which, in the adult, are grouped in fours, are in 
the youngest stages arranged in twos, or repeat the permanent con- 
dition of the retinophore in the ocelli of most insects, and in the simpler 
compound eyes of Crustacea. 

(5) The pigment first appears in the form of paired patches around 
the paired retinophore, and is retained until after the retinophore have 
increased to four. This transitory condition of the ommatidial cells in 
the compound eye probably corresponds with the permanently paired 
arrangement of the pigment patches and retinophore of the ocelli. At 
the commencement of the pupul stage the eye consists of three layers, the 
innermost being the ommateum, the middle layer being composed of 
cells containing large round nuclei, arranged at regular intervals over 
the retinophore, and the third of flattened cells with quite small nuclei; 
the last is but slightly modified in the adult, where it forms the corneagen. 
The cells of the middle layer become sickle-shaped and arrange them- 
selves in pairs, a single cell on either side of a calyx. They grow 
inwards as far as the neck of the calyx, where they terminate in a 
rounded swelling containing a large nucleus; their inner ends soon 
become deeply pigmented, and appear to form a part of each ommatidium. 
Surrounding the sickle-shaped cells are the ends of a circle of eighteen 
more cells, so that each ommatidium, including the four retinophora, 
but not the two middle-layer cells, is composed of twenty-two cells. 

The author is of opinion that the difference between his results 
and those recently obtained by Reichenbach on Astacus is more one of 
interpretation than of observation. His own observations and those of 


* Journ. of Morphology, i. (1887) pp. 193-226 (1 pl.). 


210 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Kingsley appear to make it certain that the ommateum is a single layer 
of cells, and consequently Reichenbach’s crystalline-cone layer represents 
the whole ommateum, and corresponds in its early stages to the optic 
thickening of Vespa. If this be so, it is clear that the outer wall of 
Reichenbach’s “ Augenfalte ” cannot develope into the layer of retinule 
and rhabdoms. It is probable that the “ optic invagination ” of Kingsley, 
the “ Augenfalte” of Reichenbach, and the ganglionic fold of Patten are 
one and the same thing. 

To show that his view as to the three-layered nature of the ancestral 
Arthropod eye is correct, it was important for the author to demonstrate 
that the eyes of Dytiscus and related forms, which have been described 
by Grenacher as open cups, and as the simplest type of Arthropod eye, 
are really closed vesicles primarily composed of three layers of cells. 
The author has examined the ocelli in the larve of Hydrophilus, Dytiscus, 
and Acilius; in the last of these there are six pairs of cells, of which 
the two dorsal pairs are very deep, and resemble the two-layered ocelli 
of certain spiders; the space between the lens and retina is completely 
filled by a layer of very long cells—corneagen—whose deep nucleated 
ends are somewhat swollen and bent away from the centre of the eye; 
they are so arranged that there aro no nuclei of the corneagen just 
above the centre of the retina, while there is a distinct layer of them 
over its periphery, as well as on the walls of the inner half of the eye. 
The periphery of the corneagen contains a thin layer of very large dark 
globules, many of which contain a still darker corpuscle; this layer of 
pigment-like bodies extends from the edge of the lens to the retina. 
The floor of the eye is formed by a layer of upright retinal cells, each 
provided with a double rod, and there is a median furrow. 

In Hydrophilus, the ocelli are formed by invaginations of the 
ectoderm directed diagonally inwards, and the ocellus is composed of 
three distinct layers of cells, of which the thick inner layer, the retina, 
is directly continuous on the dorsal side with the hypodermis. The eye 
is not really but only practically a closed vesicle, as is shown by the 
absence of nuclei at one point and the continuity of the three layers. 
Dr. Patten comes to the conclusion that there are ocelli in the larve of 
insects very similar to what, in a former paper, he regarded as the 
ancestral eye of Arthropods. 

Taking a more extended survey, the author finds himself led to the 
supposition that the dorsal and ventral eyes of Phronima and Gyrinnus, 
and those of the males of Bibio and Cloé, as well as the dorsal and 
ventral parts of the eyes in Libellulide and Euphausia, are homologous 
with the dorsal and ventral halves of the larval compound eyes of Vespa. 
The parts of the compound eyes of Vespa, and in all probability of most 
other insects, are in turn homologous with the posterior upper ocelli of 
Acilius and their dorsal extensions. In such cases as those seen in the 
larvee of Corethra and Phryganids, the ocellus has already become a 
compound eye, whilst its dorsal extension does not attain that perfection 
until the imaginal stage is reached. 


a. Insecta. 


_ Dermal Sensory Organs of Insects.*—Herr O. v. Rath has a pre- 
liminary notice of his investigations into the structure of the dermal 


* Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 627-31, 645-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 21] 


sensory organs of Insects. He finds that, with the exception of the optic 
and auditory organs, they are all modifications of a single type, which 
is thus described. With the stout chitinous covering of Arthropods, 
sensory perceptions are obtained by the intermediation of more or less 
modified hairs. Some of these are, externally, so little different from 
ordinary hairs, that it is only by the sensory cells at their base that we 
are able to distinguish them; others have definite forms, and sometimes 
a membrane-like plate of chitin is formed by the flattening out of the 
basal portion and the reduction of the proper hair; in this case the plate 
closes superiorly the canal which traverses the chitinous layer. This is 
the case with the so-called closed pits of the Hymenoptera and with 
similar organs found by the autkor on the antenne of Beetles 
(e. g. Cetonia); these he proposes to speak of as membranous canals. 

Hair-like structures may be found on the surface of the cuticle, or 
rise up from the base of a more or less deep pit in the chitin (so-called 
sensory cones); one pit may contain two or more sensory cones, as in 
the antenne of various Diptera; the cases in which a whole area beset 
with a number of sensory hairs has been invaginated to form a large 
vesicular pit, are especially interesting; such are the large pits of the 
antennz of the Muscide, and the large flesh-like pits which the author 
has found at the tip of the labial palp of Lepidoptera. By a similar 
process many simple chitinous pits may be united into a single large 
pit; such are to be seen in the antenne of the cockchafer. 

At the base of each sensory hair there is occasionally a single 
sensory cell, but in most cases there isa group of cells; the former may 
be seen in the labial palp of the Lepidoptera, where a distinct process 
of a single large sensory cell enters each sensory hair. The sensory 
cells are supplied by a nerve entering from behind, and the cells them- 
selves give off long fine processes into the hair-like structures. The 
group of sensory cells is invested in an envelope of connective tissue, 
which consists of flat cells with flattened nuclei. When a number of 
sensory hairs are united on one area, the groups of sensory cells which 
belong to them may likewise be formed into a compact mass. In this 
apparently single ganglion the arrangement of the cells can be made out, 
and their connective-tissue investments detected; such aggregations of 
sensory cells may be well seen in the palps of Melolontha or Coccinella. 

In the antennz of some insects, the palps of Coccinella, Chrysomela, 
and Cetonia, or the gustatory organs of Hymenoptera, groups of special 
large cells may be seen beneath the groups of sensory cells, in the 
neighbourhood of the nerves; notwithstanding their position, it seems to 
be certain that these are not special sense-cells, 

The author proceeds to state what sensory organs he has observed 
in different groups of Insects, into the details of which it is impossible 
for us to follow him. 


Salivary glands of Insects.*—Herr A. Kniippel has examined the 
structure of the salivary glands of insects, especially Blatta orientalis, 
and has come to conclusions which are not in accord with those of Prof. 
Kupffer. He finds, in fact, that the enlarged origins of the efferent duct 
are not intracellular, but extracellular in B. orientalis; on the other 
hand, in the cells of proboscis-glands of the Diptera, there are secretion- 
spaces, which are connected with the efferent ducts of the gland-cells ; 


* Arch. f. Naturgesch., lii. (1886) pp. 269-304 (2 pls.). 


212 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


these spaces have proper walls. A certain change may be observed in 
the morphological appearance of the secreting organs of one and the 
same species, and this is dependent on the active or passive condition of 
the cell. The hemipterous species Pyrrhocoris apterus, the dipterous 
Musca domestica, Homalomyia canicularis, Calliphora erythrocephala, 
Lucilia sp., Eristalis arbustorum, E. tenax, &e., were also examined. 


Sense of Direction in Formica rufa.*—Dr. H. C. M‘Cook gives an 
account of his observations on the structure of the ant-hills, and the 
character of their roads and engineering skill in Formica rufa, as seen 
in the Trossachs of Scotland. He finds that the ants showed an accurate 
sense of direction in marking out and following their approaches to the 
trees. It would be scarcely possible to attribute such mathematical 
accuracy as they exhibit to mere accident. The roads were as accurately 
laid down as ordinary roads made by the enginecring skill of man. 

This skill in the ants was all the more apparent from the fact that 
their paths were carried through a jungle of bracken and other plants. 
No facts were observed which justify speculation on the manner in which 
this feat of engineering was accomplished. Sentinels stationed near the 
ant-hills exhibited great alertness; the finger of Dr. M‘Cook was ob- 
served at about an inch or an inch and a half’s distance; the sentinels 
thrust out their antennee, extended their heads, then their front legs, and 
finally the middle legs, while the abdomen was slightly turned under- 
neath the body, as though prepared to eject formic acid on any adversary. 


Respiration of Hydrophilus.j—Herr v. Fricken describes the mode 
of aquatic respiration in Hydrophilus aterrima, Hydrocharis caraboides, 
and Piceus. He saw that they store up the air, not under the wing- 
covers, but in the hairy covering of the under surface. The air is caught 
and renewed, not as in Dytiscus by raising the posterior end of the 
body above the surface of the water, but, as Nitsch recorded, by forming 
a small whirlpool by means of the antenne, the first joint of which pro- 
jected above the surface of the water. 


Aorta of Bombyx mori.{—Signor 8. Selvatico finds in Bombyx mori, 
as Burgess has observed in other Lepidoptera, that the aorta is bent 
anteriorly and widened out into a kind of chamber, which has about the 
form of an equilateral triangle, with the apex directed downwards; from 
the basal angles two vessels are given off, one of which goes to the optic 
ganglion and eyes before opening into the lacunar passages; the other 
extends all along the interior of the antenne. At the base of the 
antennee the vessel widens, and contains a peculiar spherical structure, 
which is attached to its wall by special fibres; this is apparently an 
apparatus for closing the lumen of the vessel. The author draws 
attention to the fact that in Bombyx mori the supra-intestinal nerve passes 
into the interior of the aorta and extends some distance along its lumen. 


Larva of Culex.s—Herr E. W. Raschke gives a careful and detailed 
account of the anatomy of the familiar larva of Culex nemorosus. While 
useful as a sufficiently exhaustive account of a form which has not been 


* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1887, pp. 335-8. 

+ Biol. Centralbl., vii. (1887) pp. 633-4. (60 Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. 
Aerzte.) 

{ Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 562-3; also in Pubblicazioni R. Statione Bacologica 
Sperimentale (Padova) 1887, 19 pp., 2 pls. 

§ Arch. f. Naturgesch., lili. (1887) pp. 133-63 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Hed Ne 


carefully studied since the time of the older naturalists, tlhe memoir 
contains little of moment that can in any way be called new or of general 
interest. The mouth-organs, the directive hairs, the manifold respiration, 
the nervous system, are well described, and the accompanying figures are 
very good. 


Some Species of Chermes.*—M. N. Cholodkovsky finds on young 
Siberian cedars (Pinus cembra), on warm days in spring and summer, 
woolly masses, which can even be detected in winter if the snow be 
shaken off the branches. In winter and carly spring these consist of 
wingless females of Chermes which have outlived the winter; in the 
second half of April they lay amber-yellow stalked eggs; in the second 
half of May winged examples may be seen laying their eggs. This 
species is allied to Chermes strobi. Soon there appear a number of small 
yellowish-brown wingless individuals, which push their long proboscis- 
sete deeply into the tissue of the needles of the cedar; these the author 
regards as the sexual generation of this species of Chermes. Another 
species has eggs which outlive the winter, and from which in spring 
wingless forms are developed; for this latter form the author proposes 
the name of C. pectinata, and for the one which has some resemblance to 
C. strobi that of C. cembre. If the eggs which have survived the winter 
are fertilized eggs, the resemblance of the life-history of Chermes to 
Phylloxera would be more complete than Dr. Blochmann has imagined 
it to be. 


8B. Myriopoda. 


Post-embryonic Development of Julus.;—Mr. F'. G. Heathcote has 
followed up the post-embryonic development of Julus terrestris. 

(1) Calome. The somites divide into two parts, one in the body, the 
other projecting into the legs; the cavities together form the ceelom. That 
within the legs breaks up, and the cells form muscles. The body-part 
unites dorsalwards along the thin sheet of mesoblast which unites it to 
its fellow ; the two vesicle-like parts meet medianly above the nerve-cord 
so as to form a single generative tube. The body-parts of antenne and 
mandibles disappear; those of the third pair form salivary glands; there 
are two pairs of somites to each double segment. (2) Generative organs. 
The ova and follicle cells are proliferated from the walls of the above- 
mentioned generative tube. (3) Nerve-system, There are two cerebral 
grooves as in Peripatus, disappearing early; the double ventral cords 
concentrate in one; the cavities of the ganglia vanish early; there are 
two ganglia to each double segment. (4) Trachex arise as epiblastic 
invaginations behind the legs; swell into two vesicles, each with two 
diverticula, which break up to form the tracheal tubes; there are two 
pairs of invaginations to each double segment. The stink-glands are 
epiblastic invaginations, with a muscular coat superadded later, one pair 
to each segment. (5) Heart arises from mesoblast cells in body-cavity. 
These cells were derived from hypoblast, form a network, and the heart 
by a joining of the meshes of this network. The heart has two pairs of 
arteries into spaces of fat-body, two pairs of ostia, an imperfect peri- 
cardial membrane continuous with fat-bodies, and three coats—two 
muscular and an outer connective. ‘The fat-bodies arise from above 
mesoblast network. (6) Body-cavity is a pseudoccele, distinct from the 


* Zool. Anzcig., xi. (1888) pp. 40-8. + Proc. Roy. Soe., xliii. (1887) pp, 243-5. 


214 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ccelomic cavities of the somites. (7) Hye-spots arise from thickening of 
hypodermis, and formation of pigment-lined vesicle. The front wall 
thins into lens, the cells of most internal wall and sides become retinal ; 
the pigment-cells of Grenacher are probably mesodermic ; a connection 
with the ganglion-cells of nervous system is early established. 

The most striking feature is the reduction of the ventral, and the 
increase of the dorsal part of the young animal. The relations are the 
same as those in carboniferous Luphoberia. Hach double segment 
represents two complete segments, the dorsal plates of which have fused 
into one. 


56. Arachnida. 


Vision in Arachnids.*—Prof. F. Plateau, in continuation of his pre- 
vious memoirs, gives an account of the observations which have been made 
by himself and by others on the power of vision exhibited by Arachnids. 
After describing his separate experiments with about a dozen species 
of spiders, he sums up the general results as follows:—(1) The 
Araneide in general perceive at some distance the displacements of large 
objects; (2) the hunting spiders (Attide, Lycoside) are probably the 
only forms that see the movements of small bodies; (3) they perceive 
these movements at a distance which varies in different species from 
2-12 centimetres; (4) the distance at which the prey is seen distinctly 
enough to induce an attempt to capture it, is only 1-2 em.; (5) even at 
this slight distance the vision is not exact, for the hunting spiders make 
numerous errors; (6) the non-hunting web-making spiders have very 
poor vision, they only perceive the presence and the direction of their 
prey by the vibrations of the filaments, and will seek to capture little 
bodies quite other than insects if the vibrations produced on the web be 
somewhat similar. 

The author then discusses the vision of scorpions. His experiments 
with Buthus europeus, taken along with Ray Lankester’s observations on 
other species, show that the vision is very poor; that the distance of 
distinct sight is not more than 1 cm. for the median eyes, and 25 cm. for 
the laterals; that the animals do not really hunt, but rather wait on luck ; 
that feeling is, both in locomotion and in dealing with their prey, vastly 
more important than sight. 

Lastly, Prof. Plateau discusses the Phalangide. His experiments 
show that they stand at about the same sensory level as the web-making 
spiders. The vision is very poor, distinct sight hardly at all developed 
for any distance. The Phalangide make up for this, however, by the 
exquisite development of their appendages, and especially of their 
pedipalps. 

Respiration of Arachnida.t—Prof. F. Plateau has made some 
experiments by the graphic method which demonstrate the absence of 
perceptible respiratory movements in these animals. There is some doubt 
as to whether there are any transverse muscular fibrils in the pulmonary 
plates of Arachnids; none such are figured by Prof. Ray Lankester, 
and Mr. Locy says expressly that he has failed to demonstrate the 
muscular differentiation described by M. MacLeod. Prof. Plateau, 
having performed his part as experimenter, looks to the histologist to 
resolve the disputed point in minute anatomy. 


* Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belg., xiv. (1887) pp. 545-95 (1 pl.). 
+ Arch. de Biol., vii. (1887) pp. 333-48. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 215 


Regeneration of Lost Parts.*—Herr V. Wagner discusses the 
intimate nature of the processes which take place when a spider regene- 
rates a lost appendage. He describes in order the formation of the 
chitinous knob, the atrophy of old tissues, the growth of the new part. 
His general results are the following :—(1) The blood-corpuscles meta- 
morphose to give rise to a tissue resembling chitin. (2) The fatty 
degeneration of the old tissues benefits the organism in three ways— 
(a) by supplying material to be digested and utilized by amceboid cells ; 
(b) by supplying matter to be absorbed by the coloured blood-corpuscles ; 
(c) by the direct benefit of the diffusing fatty globules. (8) Without 
the blood-corpuscles the process of regeneration probably could not 
occur. (4) The process of degeneration in the muscular tissue of 
spiders is, in general terms, like that which occurs in vertebrates. 
(5) The integument, matrix, and subcutaneous layer of connective tissue 
do not arise from new elements, but the old non-atrophied tissues grow 
with peculiar power in good nutritive conditions. The spider must be 
‘ tolerably young—that is, have some few moults before it—if the appen- 
dage is to be wholly renewed. The lost organ is replaced in the period 
of time between two successive moults at the stage of development at 
which it was lost. The palp cannot be completely regenerated if it 
is lost late—that is, when the copulatory apparatus has arisen. 


Age and Habits of American Tarantulaj—Dr. H. C. M‘Cook 
commences with a tragic account of the death of Sir J. Lubbock’s aged 
ant-queen, which, in the course of last year, attained the age of thirteen 
years ; but he concludes with the publication of a note from Sir John, 
saying that in January 1888 the “venerable sovereign of the emmet 
world,” as Dr. M‘Cook calis it, was still alive. Passing to his proper 
subject, Dr. M‘Cook records the death of a specimen of Tarantula which 
had been in his possession for more than five years, and which was 
certainly seven and may have been eight years old. He ascribes its 
great longevity partly to human protection. With regard to its habits 
the author observes that the act of moulting is frequently attended with 
danger of some kind or another to spiders. To keep spiders alive, it is 
better to underfeed than overfeed them, but they must always have a 
supply of fresh water, and should be kept at a moderate temperature. 
In spinning, the animal slowly moved its whole body round as upon a 
pivot, and so dispersed the silk over a circular patch. The only nest 
of the Tarantula is a burrow in the ground, and it does not, as is often 
supposed, make any trap-door. There are interesting notes on toilet- 
habits and on the character of the egg-cocoon. 


Distribution of Arachnida.{—Two years ago, Prof. O. Zacharias 
discovered in the little Iser a new species of Hydrachnida, which Herr 
F. Kérnke named Sperchon glandulosum. He writes now to note the 
fact that at a similar elevation (800 metres above the sea), and in similar 
conditions in the Azores, the same species is, according to Barrois, quite 
abundant. As it is very rare in Germany—never found, in fact, except 
in the first locality—this further discovery is interesting. 


* Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, i. (1887) pp. 871-99 (1 pl.). 
t Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1887, pp. 369-86. 
t Biol. Centralbl,, vii. (1887) pp. 631-2. 


216 SUMMARY OF OCURRENY RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


«. Crustacea. 


Excretion in Brachyurous Crustacea.*—M. P. Marchal, noting that 
the excretory system of the Decapoda has hardly been investigated, 
except in the crayfish, has made an investigation into that of Maia 
squinado. He finds that the apparatus consists of gland, reservoir, and 
excretory duct; the two reservoirs are of enormous size, and occupy the 
whole of the sternal part of the cephalic region in front of the mouth. 
Each consists of a vestibule, a proper bladder, and a hind-bladder ; where 
the two latter unite, the orifice of the gland is hidden under a bridge 
of tendon; the excretory duct opens at the antero-external part of the 
bladder, in a funnel-shaped depression formed by the vestibule. 

The excretory orifice is, during repose of the apparatus, hidden by a 
calcarcous plate; but when the elevator muscle, which is connected with 
it, contracts, the plate is raised, and the chitinous membranes which are 
inserted into it are exposed ; the excretory orifice is thus able to evacuate 
the excreted liquid. A crab under examination was seen to put its 
tubercles into movement twice in an hour and a half; the tubercle is 
kept raised for some moments, is then lowered, and moved backwards 
and forwards several times so as to get rid of the last drops of the fluid. 
At the same time the palps of the second and third gnathites emerge 
and set up a very rapid undulating movement, the object of which is, 
evidently, to drive away the excreted fluid from the mouth and branchial 
cavity. 

The bladders of either sidé are not, necessarily, emptied at the same 
time, and appear to be independent of one another; the emptying of the 
bladder is brought about by the action of muscular bundles, and the 
organ has, possibly, some contractility of its own, while the action of 
the tubercle appears to have a favourable influence on the emission of 
the liquid. On the other hand, the oblique course taken by the canal 
causes the two lips to be applied against one another, and so to close 
the entrance when the pressure is from the exterior; the opposite happens 
when the pressure is from the interior. 

The quantity of fluid excreted is considerable, a single crab of 
780 grammes weight giving in a few seconds 13 ¢.cm. and one as much 
as 17 c.cm.; the liquid is perfectly limpid, with a strong saltish taste, 
and of a density (with the urinometer) of 10380. 


Green Gland of Crayfish.{—Herr B. Rawitz answers Prof. Grobben’s 
strictures on his conclusions as to the structure of the green gland of 
Astacus. He remains of his own opinion, and his response has little 
more than personal interest. 


The Bopyride.{—Prof. A. Giard and M. J. Bonnier have published 
a monograph on the Bopyride, various preliminary notices of which 
have been given in this Journal. In the present memoir the Ioninz 
and Entoniscidee only have been considered ; for each a type has been 
selected, for the former Cepon elegans, which is parasitic on Pilumnus 
hirtellus, and for the latter Entoniscus (or, as the authors call it, Portunion 
g.n.) menadis, which is parasitic on the common shore-crab, being taken. 
The history of each of these forms is considered in detail. In addition, 
systematic summaries are given. 


* Comptes Rendus, ev. (1887) pp. 1130-2. 
+ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxxi. (1888) pp. 98-9. 
$ ‘Contributions a ?Etude des Bopyriens,’ 4to, Lille, 1887. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Zn 


Two New Genera of Epicarida.*—MM. A. Giard and J. Bonnier 
have found new forms of these Bopyride, parasitic on specimens 
of Palzmon brought from the fresh waters of Dutch Malaysia, and pro- 
bably from the island of Amboyna. That which Semper named Bopyrus 
ascendens they call Probopyrus ascendens, and the other Palegyge Borret. 
The former is distinguished from Bopyrus by the characters of the pleon 
in both sexes; that of the female has appendages which appear to have 
escaped the notice of Semper, and that of the male has traces of the 
lateral appendages which are completely wanting in Bopyrus. 

Palegyge bears to Gyge the same relation that Probopyrus has to 
Bopyrus, for they represent a less degraded form which has retained the 
typical Ionid structure of the pleon. 

An interesting parallelism may be drawn between the phylogenetically 
archaic nature of the parasites and their hosts, for Palzemon dispar and 
P. ornatus are older than P. serratus, P. squilla, and others on which 
Bopyrus is parasitic; the older forms have survived, owing to their 
inhabiting fresh or brackish water. 


Lerneascus and the Philichthyde.{—Prof. C. Claus has been able 
to make a more complete study of the little parasitic Crustacean which 
is found on the skin of Solea monochir, which he named Lernzxascus 
nematoxys. He gives a detailed account of the male, of the young stage, 
and of the mature female. He also describes the female forms of the 
allied Philichthys and Spherifer. On Lernzascus he notes the presence 
of 50-60 pairs of dorsal and ventral scale-like structures or cuticular 
thickenings which appear to serve as delicate locomotor organs. 

Without attempting to summarize the exact results of Claus’s anato- 
mical investigations, we shall quote his diagnosis of the family to which 
he refers Lernzascus and its allies. The Philichthyde are completely or 
almost completely segmented parasitic Crustaceans, with only two pairs 
of copepod appendages modified as organs of attachment, and with a 
rudimentary third pair. The male, like that of the Lernez, is small, 
with normal, distinct, segmentation, with an eye divided into three, with 
two pairs of antenne and maxille on the head, and with dorsal integu- 
mentary appendages on the second thoracic segment. The fourth and 
fifth segments of the thorax are without appendages. The two testes 
are shifted to the terminal portion of the abdomen. The female, like 
that of a Lernea, is large out of proportion, usually with indistinct 
segmentation, with an eye in three portions (if it be always present), 
with an enlarged second and third thoracic segment, which, by them- 
selves, or plus the next segment, are fused in a distended portion. On 
this, and on the head, as also on the genital and terminal segments, 
there often arise, as in many Chondracanthe, paired outgrowths. The 
feeling antenne always remain separate. The attaching antenne 
may be degenerate. The mouth-area with the maxille is very definitely 
circumscribed, and surrounded by a wide short tube. The two double- 
branched and the third simple pair of appendages are minute and 
rudimentary. The receptaculum and genital apertures are dorsal. 
Both sexes live in mucous canals of the fish skin. Prof. Claus then 
diagnoses the separate genera Philichthys, Spherifer, Leposphilus, 
Lernzascus. In Spherifer, only the females are known. 


* Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 304-6. 
t Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Wien, vii. (1887) pp. 281-315 (4 pls.). 


218 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


First Changes in Fecundated Ovum of Lepas.*—Prof. M. Nussbaum 
finds that the processes of maturation and fecundation of the ovum of 
Lepas arrange the living parts in such a way that on the extrusion of 
the directive corpuscles all the axes of the future animal are already 
defined. The position of the corpuscles indicates the future position of 
the cephalic end of the embryo ; the first and second segmentations take 
place along a plane which will be the future long axis of the animal. 
If the relative position of the axis continued as at first, it might be 
thought that the contents of the ovum alone possessed the power of 
orientation. But, as the first plane of division passes from a longitudinal 
to an equatorial plane, the envelope and its form must also possess 
directive powers ; these may be best explained by the principle of least 
resistance. By this principle we may also explain the fact that the first 
division, though it takes place in the longitudinal direction, does not 
divide the ovum into the materials for the right and left halves of the 
body. The rigidity of the egg-capsule causes it to be the essential 
regulator of the position of the developing embryo of Lepas. 


Vermes. 
a. Annelida. 


Development of Annelids.j—Prof. M. Salensky finds that three 
stages of development play an important part in the evolution of worms. 
They succeed one another in a definite order in the development of the 
embryo, and consequently did so in the evolution of the phylum. They 
may be called the Trochogastrula, the Trochophora, and the Trocho- 
neurula. 

The Trochogastrula represents a stage which is common to all worms, 
and which serves as the genetic bond between the different classes of 
this group; it is in the form of a bilateral gastrula, the body of which 
is divided into a preoral and a postoral portion, the former of which 
contains the occipital plate. There is no anus; the ciliated velum of 
the gastrula is sometimes retained. 

The Trochophora represents a further stage, which is characterized 
by the appearance of an anus and of a postoral ring, as well as by an 
increase in the size of the postoral region of the body. 

The Trochoneurula is characterized by the development of medullary 
plates. Comparative embryology shows that the different classes of 
worms pass through one, two, or all three of these stages, and the 
classification of worms may, in consequence, be thus formulated :— 

(A) The Platodes only pass through the Trochogastrula stage. 

(B) The Nemerteans and the Rotifers pass through the Trocho- 
gastrula and the Trochophora stages. 

(C) The Annelida and Gephyrea pass, in addition, through the 
Trochoneurula stage. 

The development of Nematohelminths presents enormous difficulties 
to a comparison of their development with that of other classes of 
worms, while they have no metabolic (larval) forms. Future researches 
may throw further light on this problem. 

The author proposes to divide the worms into two groups, one of 
which he calls Cephaloneura, and the other Neuraxonia. The former, 

* SB. K. Preuss Akad. Berlin, 1887, pp. 1052-5. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 
i. (1888) pp. 161-2. 

+ Arch. de Biol., vi. (1887) pp. 589-653 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 219 


which contains the Platodes, Nemerteans, and Rotifers, are only pro- 
vided with cephalic ganglia and cerebral commissures; the latter, 
which contains Annelids, Gephyrea, and Nematohelminths, are pro- 
vided with cephalic ganglia and a ventral ganglionic chain. The 
nervous system of the last of these is stated by Gétte and Ganin to 
consist of four rudiments, two dorsal and two ventral; these very early 
unite into a single ring. If this be so, the dorsal rudiments are 
probably the homologues of the occipital plate, and the ventral rudiments 
those of the ventral ganglionic chain. But the author acknowledges 
that further researches are needed to demonstrate the legitimacy of the 
systematic arrangement which he proposes to base on these embryo- 
logical data. Sagitta has a still closer resemblance to Annelids and 
Gephyrea, for the nervous system is formed of two rudiments, and there 
is a true celom; in Nematodes the mesoderm does not become delami- 
nated into splanchnic and somatic layers, and only gives rise to the 
longitudinal muscles. 

The unarmed Gephyrea diverge from the Annelid type of develop- 
ment much more than do the armed Gephyrea; in Sipunculus there is 
only a rudiment of the pre-oral ciliated circlet, while in Phascolosoma 
this is quite absent and the postoral circlet developes very early. 


Vascular System of Hirudinea.*—Dr. A. G. Bourne refers to M. 
Jaquet’s paper on the vascular system of Annelids. He regrets that 
the author’s interpretations tend to take us back to a condition of things 
which existed forty years ago, and he ascribes this defect to M. Jaquet’s 
want of appreciation of comparatively recent work on the subject.. Dr. 
Bourne makes some critical remarks on various genera of leeches which 
have been incompletely described by M. Jaquet. 


Structure of the Eye of Branchiomma.t—M. ©. Brunotte has 
examined the structure of the eyes in Branchiomma, where, as is well 
known, there is an eye at the tip of each of the branchial filaments. 
The ocular mass does not completely surround the cartilaginous 
axis of the branchia, there being towards the internal side a non- 
pigmented zone covered by epithelial cells which are identical with 
those on other parts of the gill. Examination in sea-water, aided by 
pressure, reveals the presence of facets; there is no difference in the 
characters of the cuticle; in sections each elementary eye is seen to 
have the form of an elongated triangle, with its base turned towards the 
periphery. Directly below the cuticle there is a small spherical lens, and 
underneath it there is a nucleus of some size situated in a sort of rounded 
cavity. ‘The author compares the lens and cellular body with its large 
nucleus to the crystalline formations of Arthropods; the cell is inclosed 
in a granular protoplasmic mass, in which an anterior, granular and 
protoplasmic portion, in which there is another nucleus, may be distin- 
guished from a hinder part which contains an elongated refractive body. 
This last is regarded by M. Brunotte as the optic rod of the visual cell; 
its narrow internal end is continuous with nerve-filaments. There is no 
trace of pigment in this region, but special pigment-cells surround each 
of the elementary eyes. 

The author is of opinion that in Branchiomma we have to do with a 
true compound eye, which differs from any which has yet been described 
in Annelids. Grenacher and Carriére have always given the name of 


* Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 16-8. + Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 301-3. 


220 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


visual cells to those that are pigmented, but Patten, on the other hand, 
states that in Annelids, Arthropods, and Molluscs, the visual cell never 
contains pigment; the axial nervous filament which the last-named writer 
always finds in visual cells has not been detected in Branchiomma. The 
eye of the Annelid may be regarded as being formed of two layers, 
the more superficial of which furnishes the dioptric apparatus, while the 
lower gives rise to the sensory elements. 


Larval and Definite Excretory Systems in Lumbricide.*—Prof. 
F. Vejdovsky has examined the larval stage of seven Hungarian species 
of Lumbricide, and finds in all these common characteristics : looked at 
from above or below the larve are more or less ovoid, ellipsoidal, or 
spherical ; the unilaminate epiblast is ciliated on the ventral surface, 
and the larve are thereby enabled to execute more or less lively rotatory 
movements in the albuminous fluid; the anterior end is distinguished 
by three (more rarely four or five) larval cells; these have been hitherto 
incorrectly called “Schluckzcllen,” but they must be regarded as con- 
tractile epiblast-cells belonging to the larval excretory system; they 
arise very early, and some species may be recognized during segmenta- 
tion by their intracellular network of canaliculi; later on they are over- 
grown by smaller epiblast-cells, and come to lie between the epi- and 
hypoblast. Fine ciliated canaliculi are connected with these gland- 
cells; in Lumbricus rubellus there is generally only one pair of these 
excretory canaliculi; the excretory fluid is gradually collected in the 
intracellular ducts, which loop in various, but no doubt definite fashion, 
and the clear fluid is, by a sudden contraction, expelled to the exterior 
through a dorsal orifice. The larval canaliculi have begun to function 
at the time when the two large mesoblasts begin to divide, and they are 
consequently undoubted derivates of the epiblast. 

The remnant of the blastopore goes to form the stomodeum; below 
it the anterior ends of the germinal stripes are united; these now grow 
on either side of the stomodeum, and so give rise to the first segment. 
The multiplying elements of this segment gradually press the glandular 
cells of the larval excretory apparatus a little backwards into the median 
dorsal line. ‘The larval excretory canaliculi and the contractile gland- 
cells do not disappear until the second and third segments are completely 
developed. 

Independently of these larval excretory organs, a pair of straight 
non-ciliated excretory canals become developed in the dorsal ccelom of 
the first segment; these are what the author has called the embryonic 
or provisional excretory organs. ‘They degenerate without leaving any- 
vestiges, while in the succeeding segments the excretory organs become 
developed. These arise by the increase in size and division of a pair of 
mesoblast-cells on the posterior side of the dissepiment of each segment, 
which grow into a short solid cord; this very rapidly grows out into 
a large group of cells, which make the exact study of the process of 
nephridium-formation of Lumbricide very difficult to follow. 

In young forms of Rhynchelmis, however, it is possible to follow out 
the process step by step, for after the digestion of the yolk-elements the 
worm is quite transparent. Hach nephridium passes through a remark- 
able cord-like stage which may be called the pronephridium ; after the 
formation of the solid cord of cells a large cell arises anteriorly which 


* Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 681-5. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 221: 


projects into the segment in front; this soon gets a lumen in which 
a very long active cilium may be seen; this closed ciliated cell appears 
to be wanting to the pronephridia of the Lumbricide ; the orifice of 
the cell may be called the pronephrostom. Just behind the dissepiment 
the cells of the cord increase and gradually form a lobe which grows 
dorsally and forms loops; this lobe corresponds to the dorsal cell group 
in the solid cords of Lumbricide. The ciliated cell of the pronephro- 
stom has meanwhile divided several times until at last it becomes con- 
verted into a plate-like structure, at the margin of which fine and short 
cilia begin to beat. In this way the pronephrostom is converted into 
the funnel of the definite excretory organ, and it becomes continuous 
with the duct which, later on, appears in the dorsal lobe. Finally, the 
remainder of the primitively straight cord acquires a lumen, and as soon 
as the contractile bladder is formed by the invagination of the hypoder- 
mis the definite nephridium is in fuli activity. 

It follows from this description that we have in the Annulata to 
distinguish three kinds of excretory organs :— 

(1) Larval excretory organs which have nothing in common with the 
definite organs. 

(2) Pronephridia of developing segments which only function for a 
short time. 

(3) Nephridia, developed from the pronephridia; these degenerate 
in the second to sixth segments of most Oligochetes, but are found in 
those that succeed them. 


Reproductive Organs of Moniligaster.*—Mr. F. E. Beddard thinks 
that the account given by M. Perrier of the reproductive organs of Moni- 
ligaster deshayesi is incorrect, but that his description may be brought 
more into accord with those of Dr. Horst and himself. He points out 
that in numerous characters the reproductive organs of this worm re- 
semble certain limicolous forms ; such are the identity of the ‘“ prostate ” 
with the atrium of Stylaria lacustris; the funnel of the vas deferens is 
a simple disc-shaped expansion, and not plicated; the vasa deferentia 
themselves resemble those of the Naidomorpha in being single, and in 
being contained in two segments; and the male pores are placed on the 
boundary line between two segments, as is commonly the case among 
limicolous, but never the case in terricolous Oligochetes. These facts 
may be urged against the division of Oligocheta suggested by Claparéde 
and endorsed by many systematic writers. 


So-called Prostate Glands of Oligocheta.|— Mr. F. EH. Beddard 
points out that the vasa deferentia of some earthwor.ns are not furnished 
with any special glands (e.g. Lumbricus, Microcheeta), Where such are 
present they belong to one or other of two types; in Acanthodrilus, 
Trigaster, and others, they have the form of an elongated, often contorted, 
tube, of an opaque white colour; in Pericheta, Megascolex, and others, 
they are composed of numerous lobules, more or less loosely connected 
together, and opening by a number of ductules into a common duct. 
When we investigate the two questions—Do these various structures 
correspond to each other? and, Are they homologous with any organs 
found among the lower Oligocheta ?—we are led to the conclusion that 
the so-called prostate of Perichxta is the homologue of the atrium in 
other earthworms and in the Limicole ; it is, then, clear that under the 


* Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 678-81. + Ibid., pp. 675-8. 
1888. R 


222 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


term prostate two organs have been confounded—the atrium of Perichieta, 
Acanthodrilus, &c., and the atrium and prostate of Moniligaster. 


Histology of Pachydrilus enchytreoides.*—For this marine Oligo- 
chete, M. L. Roule finds it necessary to form a new genus, and he 
proposes to call it Enchytraoides Mariont. The ventral nerve-chain 
exhibits a simplicity of histological structure which calls to mind the 
arrangements in Archiannelids. There are nerve-cells along its whole 
length, and these are placed in the lower part of the band ; there are no 
aggregations or thickenings which could be called ganglia; the band is, 
further, intimately connected with the ectoderm, not, indeed, along the 
whole of its length, but at a number of points which appear to regularly 
succeed one another. The nephridia are thick oval bodies, with a wide 
vibratile opening ; their interior is hollowed by a flexuous canal which 
opens by a very small ventral pore; this canal is hollowed out of the 
cellular substance itself. 


New Earthworm.t—Dr. W. B. Benham has a preliminary note on 
a new earthworm, which is very interesting from the fact that it 
possesses two pairs of nephridia in each somite. As it is very short in 
proportion to its length it is provisionally called Brachydrilus. The 
sete are exceedingly minute. The spermathece differ in structure and 
position from those of any other earthworm except Microcheta; they 
are small and oblong. This new worm has—like Lumbricus, but so 
far as is known no other Oligocheete—capsulogenous, or, as Dr. Benham, 
with Vejdovsky, prefers to call them, albumen-glands; their lumen is 
lined with short columnar cells which are surrounded by a layer of 
muscles, and outside these are the large glandular cells with very 
granular contents. Each nephridium corresponds in position to one of 
the couples of sete, and those of each side are quite separate from one 
another; the organ somewhat resembles that of Lumbricus, but the tube 
is much less coiled. Dr. Benham inclines to the view that the nephri- 
dia of Oligocheetes were primitively, as they are still in many species of 
Pericheta, numerous scattered tufts of tubules; with suppression of 
some there has been increase in size of others, and some in certain 
somites have taken on the function of genital ducts. 


Organization of Annelids.{|—Herr KE. Meyer has an elaborate 
memoir on the organization of Annelids. He commences with an 
account of the nephridial system of the Terebelloidea—a name formed 
for a group containing the Terebellacea, Ampharetea, and Amphiectenea. 
This group is remarkable for the internal division of the anterior body 
region, which is ordinarily known as the thorax, into two unequal 
chambers, each of which consists of a number of segments. These two 
divisions are separated from one another by a strong muscular dia- 
phragm. The anterior is the smaller, and contains, as a rule, only the 
head and the gill-bearing segments; the hinder one is always much 
larger and is often continued into the abdomen. In both, the ordinary 
dissepiments are completely wanting. In most cases the septa in the 
abdominal region are broken through at definite points, so that all the 
segmented chambers of the abdomen communicate not only with one 
another, but also with the post-diaphragmal space of the forebody. The 


* Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 308-10. + Zool. Anzeig. xi. (1888) pp. 72-5. 
t+ MT. Zool, Stat. Neapel, vii. (1887) pp. 592-741 (6 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSOOPY, ETO. 223 


gonads are placed in the hinder thoracic chamber. With these ana- 
tomical and physiological differences are correlated certain local 
differentiations of the nephridia. 

The whole number of the nephridia is proportionally small in the 
Terebelloidea ; the anterior pairs which communicate by their internal 
orifices with the cavity of the prediaphragmal segments have, ordinarily, 
small infundibula, while their tubular excretory portion may attain con- 
siderable dimensicns; their function is exclusively excretory. In the 
nephridia of the hinder thoracic segment the funnel is generally the 
most prominent part, being often of enormous size; the ducts, on the 
other hand, are poorly developed. These organs appear, therefore, to 
be especially adapted for taking up finer bodies swimming in the ccelom, 
and have the function of efferent ducts for the genital products; with 
this, they seem to lose their excretory function. All the nephridia of 
the Terebelloidea open within the area of the somite to which they 
belong, and they open to the exterior separately and independently of 
one another; their ciliated infundibula are always intersegmental in 
pesition, and always open into the next preceding segment. In all these 
worms the nephridia are confined to the thorax. 

After an account of his macroscopical and microscopical investigations 
of Amphitrite rubra, Lanice conchilega, and Melinna palmata, the author 
points out how greatly they differ from one another in the details; we 
may take it that, typically, the nephridia are developed in a moderate 
number of pairs (about six) in continuous series, beginning from the 
third segment; but they may begin further back, or the series may be 
broken by the loss of a pair; the presence of more than one pair of 
nephridia in a segment is-a rare occurrence. There are never more than 
three pairs in the anterior chamber, the diaphragm being typically placed 
between the fourth and fifth segment; this position of the diaphragm is 
characteristic of group A or of the Amphitritea, Polycirridea, Corepho- 
ridea, and Trichobranchidea; in group B, which consists of the Ampha- 
retea and Amphictenea, there is only one pair of nephridia, the diaphragm 
being placed between the third and fourth segments. In Pista cristata 
alone has the complete absence of the anterior nephridia been noticed, 
A relatively large number of hinder nephridia is rare, but there are 
never less than two pairs. A tabular statement is given of the number 
and arrangement of the nephridia found in the species which were 
examined. 

As a rule the nephridia of either side are distinct from each other in 
all Annelids, but in Lanice conchilega and Loimia medusa there are 
nephridial ducts, by means of which the organs of opposite sides are 
brought into connection. 

The peritoneal glands and their products are next described; these 
are the gonads, the lymph-glands, and the pigmented lymph-glands. 

In discussing the functions of the nephridial system, Herr Meyer 
states that in Amphitrite rubra he has found that the protoplasm of the 
cells gives rise to two kinds of excretory products; these are pigmented 
crystalline concretions, and clear excretory fluid in vacuoles; and the 
cells that produce them are found to be localized separately. As the 
nephridial tubes are often surrounded by a close vascular network 
belonging to their peritoneal investment, it is more than probable that 
some of the excretory materials are obtained directly from the blood. 

From what has already been said it is clear that there is a division 

R 2 


224 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of labour between the anterior and posterior nephridia, In the former 
the epithelium of the extraordinarily well-developed tubular portion has 
a very large excretory surface, and the pigmented lymph-glands are in 
their neighbourhood. In the seasons when the sexual organs are in- 
active it is probable that the chief function of the hinder nephridia is to 
destroy and remove the used up lymph-corpuscles from the body. When 
the gonads are active they take up their products from the ccelom and 
conduct them to the exterior. 

The development of the permanent nephridia of Polymnia nebulosa 
is next described ; and this is succeeded by an account of the larval 
organs, 

Passing to morphological conclusions, the author discusses the rela- 
tions between the cihated funnel, the nephridial tube, and efferent canal, 
and the morphological relation of the nephridial passages to the tubes. 
The funnels are shown by the history of development in Polymnia to be 
peritoneal funnels in the true sense of the word; the nephridial tubes 
arise from a retro-peritoneal tissue, and are therefore morphologically 
distinct from the peritoneal funnels. With regard to the efferent canals, 
the continuity of their epithelium with the hypodermis, the histological 
resemblances between them and certain parts of the skin, and their sharp 
limitation from the inner cell-layer of the nephridial tube speak to their 
ectodermic origin. The passages appear to have arisen from one and 
the same embryonic tissue as the nephridial ducts. The typical condi- 
tion of the funnels, and the influence exerted on them by the change of 
the branchiz and branchial vessels are next considered ; and this is fol- 
lowed by a consideration of the significance of the renal septa in Amphi- 
trite rubra. The ancestors of the existing Terebelloidea must have had 
nephridia in the whole of the thorax, and the ciliated infundibula of 
these were all provided with the upper lips which are typical for this 
group. 

The author believes that the information he has acquired justifies a 
reconstruction of the nephridial system of the nearest ancestors of Lanice 
and Loimia ; they had, he thinks, two long nephridial ducts, which began 
anteriorly in the third somite and extended uninterruptedly through, 
at least, the whole thorax ; in each segment there was a pair of nephri- 
dial tubes with typical infundibula, and there were as many efferent 
ducts in the external pores. He does not now attempt to homologize 
this arrangement with that of the archinephric system of Vertebrates, 
and contents himself with comparing the two from a purely anatomical 
standpoint. It will be remembered tiat Mr. J. T. Cunningham pub- 
lished a short time ago* an account of his observations on the nephridia 
of Lanice conchilega. Herr Meyer points out the few points in which 
his observations diverge from those of the English anatomist. 

With the remaining portions of Herr Meyer’s paper we must deal 
much more briefly. The excretory and genital organs of the Cirratulide 
are next considered, a detailed account being given of the nephridia of 
Chzetozone setosa ; the vascular system and the peritoneal glands are also 
described. The concluding section deals with the nephridial system of 
the Serpulaces and Hermellide; the hinder organs or genital tubes 
of these groups agree generally with the typical annelidan nephridium, 
but the thoracic nephridia offer some very remarkable differences. ‘The 


* See this Journal, 1837, p. 591. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 225 


union of the nephridial tubes of one pair on the back, and the presence 
of a common unpaired efferent duct are, so fur as the author knows, pecu- 
liarities which are confined to these two families. For the complete 
understanding of the significance of these: points, a number of other 
organs will have to be taken into consideration; this the author promises 
to do. 


Nervous System of Chetopterus Valencinii.*—M. J. Joyeux- 
Laffuie finds that it is not, as many writers have stated, difficult to 
dissect out the nervous system of Chztopterus; it is only necessary to 
keep specimens for some time in preserving fluids. In the median and 
lower regions the nervous centres are represented by a double ganglionic 
chain placed in the integument at the bottom of a groove formed by the two 
large ventral muscles. In each segment there are two symmetrical and 
fusiform ganglia, separated from one another in space, and connected 
by several very short commissures, the number of which is ordinarily 
seven or eight, but varies in different segments. Hach ganglion gives 
off several nerves, three generally going to the neuropodium, and three, 
larger, to the notopodium. 

In the superior region of the body the arrangements are very different. 
The connectives from the first pair of ganglia of the median region 
separate to form the two large nerve-cords; these cords are formed of 
two apposed bands, of which that which is ventrally placed is solely 
formed of nerve-cells, and the other of fibres with a few nerve-cells; the 
former represents the ganglia which appear to be wanting, and the 
latter the connectives ; there are no isolated ganglia. 

Contrary to what is usually stated, the author asserts that these cords 
give off on each side a number of nerves, and indeed, the superior region 
of the body of Cheetopterus is that which is best supplied with nerves. 
The two cords are connected together by commissures. In addition 
to the optic and tentacular nerves already described as being given off 
from the dorsal part of the nerve-cords there are several others ; of these 
the most important are the three pairs of buccal nerves which give the 
buccal infundibulum its great sensibility, and a pair of nerves distributed 
on the dorsal surface of either side of the vibratile groove. 

The constitution of the apparently anomalous nervous system of the 
upper part of Chetopterus may be thus summed up; a dorsal and cerebroid 
part with nerves for the organs of sense, a ventral part formed of nerve- 
cells representing the ganglia, nerve-fibres which form connectives, and 
numerous commissures connecting the ganglionic parts. 


Polygordius.|—Prof. J. Fraipont deals with the genus Polygordius 
in the 14th monograph of the Naples Station. 

I. Structure— After describing observations on the living worm, and 
the general external characters, he gives a detailed account of the 
anatomical and histological structure. The thick elastic cuticle, delicate 
near mouth, anus, tentacles, &ec.; the subjacent hypodermis, thick and 
glandular in the cephalic lobe of the first segment and in the last, and 
with brick-red pigment in P. neapolitanus ; the yellowish clear layer of 
longitudinal muscles; the subjacent irr seu y thickened granular layer 


* Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 148-516. 
+ Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel, xiv. Monogr., 1887, pp. 1-127 
(16 pls.). 


226 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


with sparse orange or brick-red pigment, are all discussed at length. 
The yellowish or greenish moniliform digestive tube, its openings, and 
its ciliated interior; the body-cavity between the musculo-cutaneous 
wall and the gut; the vertical septa dividing the cavity and other 
oblique septa; the contained colourless fluid with pigment corpuscles 
and reproductive elements, then receive full attention. The lateral walls 
of each segment include a pair of ciliated horizontal canals, com- 
municating with the body-cavity by a funnel on the anterior face of each 
septum. The vascular system consists of a dorsal, and of a ventral 
vessel, usually connected at each septum by across branch. The ventral 
vessel bifurcates in the cephalic segment, and unites with the dorsal. 
Caudally the two vessels end in culs-de-sac. In P. neapolitanus 
the lateral branches have vascular appendages. The blood is red in 
P. lacteus, green in P. erythrophthalmus, yellow in P. neapolitanus, 
uncoloured in one of Rajewski’s species. The cephalic lobe of the first 
segment contains a central brain, which seems simple dorsally, but 
laterally is bilobed, and ventrally trilobed. The ventral median line 
bears a clear nerve-strand, The eyes are inconstant in the adults, and 
at best, rudimentary. Possible auditory organs, present in larve, do not 
persist. The oblique septa of each segment bear paired sexual organs. 
At maturity the contents fill the body-cavity. The sexes are separate. 
All these facts are deseribed at length. 

II. Development.—In the case of the female, at least (in P. neapoli- 
tanus, and P. appendiculatus, not in P. villoti), sexual maturity appears 
to be an end of the individual life; the ova are liberated by 
dehiscence. The appearance of the ripe ova is described. Artificial 
fertilization was effected, but the intimate processes were not observed. 
The segmentation is total, but unequal. From the stage with four 
cells, macro- and micromeres can be distinguished. It seems that the 
two primitive layers, epiblast and hypoblast, do not result respectively 
from the two first blastomeres. One of them, probably the epiblast, is 
formed at the expense of one of the two first spheres of segmentation, 
plus a certain number of elements successively arising from the other. 
The micromeres result in epiblast, the macromeres in hypoblast. The 
mesoblast arises from the hypoblast. ‘The blastula phase is apparently 
succeeded by epibolic gastrulation, and the gastrula developes into a 
trochosphere larva. Some of the last conclusions are more or less 
hypothetical, but are confirmed by what is known of the development of 
Protodrilus. 

After describing the external features of the larva of P. neapolitanus 
at successive stages, Fraipont proceeds to a detailed analysis of the 
various phases of larval metamorphosis. Starting from the trocho- 
sphere, he describes six distinct stages, and collates them with those 
described by previous investigators, and especially by Hatschek. The 
organogeny is resumed separately, that of the nervous system starting 
from (1) a central organ, the syncipital plate and the two lateral trunks 
from it; (2) the peripheral system, consisting of numerous nerves 
whose multiple terminations are associated with superficial epidermic 
cells; that of the alimentary system from stomodeum, mesenteron, and 
proctodeum ; that of the body-cavity from the blastoccele; that of the 
mesoblast from two primordial mesoblast-cells arising from the hypo- 
blast in front of the anus ; and so on. 

III. Classification—After giving a brief history of our systematic 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 


227 


knowledge of Polygordivs, Fraipont defines the genus as follows, in 


contrast to Protodrilus. 


Archiannelids, relatively large. 
Mouth non-protrusible. 
Ring of pre-anal papille. 


Cilia in aduit only in vibratile pits, and 
round the mouth. 


Exceptionally scattered tufts of cilia. 
Unpaired, median ventral nerve-cord. 


Tentacles with one axial nerve-bundle. 


Vermiform movements. 
Separate sexes. 
Development with metamorphosis. 


Polygordius lacteus Schneider ; P. apogon 
M‘Intosh; P. villoti Perrier; P. ery- 
throphthalmus Giard; P. neapolitanus 


Small size. 

Muscular protractile pharynx. 

Two lateral posterior fixing lobes. 

Ventral longitudinal furrow. 

Cilia in furrow, in the vibratile pits on 
the tentacles, and as rings on each 
segment. 


Two parallel and separate fibrillar nerve- 
cords. 

Very mobile tentacles with vascular 
branches. 

Movements Turbellarian-like. 

Generally hermaphrodite, 

No metamorphosis. 


Protodrilus purprreus Schneider; P. 
flavocapitatus Uljanin; P. schneider 
Langerhans; P. leuckartii Hatschek. 


Fraipont ; P. appendiculatus Fraipont. 


IV. Habitat.—Prof. Fraipont then describes the habitat and mode 
of life of Polygordius, their sandy or fine gravel haunts, their contractile 
movements, their habit of fixing themselves by their posterior end, their 
great brittleness, their nutrition, sometimes apparently worm-like, in other 
cases discriminative. The females are usually larger than the males, 
they are (in some species) destroyed by their reproduction. The free 
surface life of the larvee, their love for light when it is essential to their 
life, their nutrition of small pelagic animals, are then described. 

Y. Geographical distribution.—Polygordius has only been found as 
yet in European seas, at least in its adult state. Their occurrence in 
the North Sea, the Mediterranean, &c., is noted. 

VI. General conclusions. — Professor Fraipont gives a welcome 
résumé of the various opinions held in regard to the position of Poly- 
gordius, and the morphological import of its larva. Believing it to be 
in the strict sense an Archiannelid, he discusses its relations with 
Ophelide, with Protodrilus, with Histriodrilus, and with Dinophilus. 
After a thorough discussion of the views held in regard to the larva, 
and an appreciation of the merits of each and all; after opposing 
especially the theory of Hatschek, Balfour, and Kleinenberg, who regard 
the larval characters as ancestral, to that of Lang and Sedgwick, who 
regard them as adaptive, Fraipont is forced to conclude in the cautious 
statement, that in the actual state of our knowledge, it is not yet 
possible to determine the morphological import of the larva of Poly- 
gordius or the trochosphere of Annelids, nor to draw from it any certain 
conclusions as to the phylogeny of the Annelida. 


fg. Nemathelminthes. 


Spermatogenesis in Chetognatha.*—M. A. Bolles Leo has inyesti- 
gated the spermatogenesis of Sagitta. After some preliminary historical 
matter he proceeds to describe his results, which are thus (in abbreviated 
form) summarized. 

As Hertwig has shown, the testes arise from the same primordial 


* La Cellule, iv., n.d., pp. 107-33 (2 pls.). 


228 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


cell which furnished the ovary for the same side. The solid mass 
includes “ polyplasts,” as in Lumbricus, with non-nucleated blastophore. 
These become free in the celom, and undergo complete segmentation. 
Their nuclei form distinct cells (spermatocytes) grouped round the 
blastophore. They multiply by karyokinesis, after the fashion described 
by Carnoy as “scission en anses paralléles,’ which is very different 
from Flemming’s “heterotypical form.” The spermatides, and the 
spermatocytes of certain generations, possess an accessory nuclear body 
(“Nebenkern”), with filamentous structure, and apparently arising in 
the nucleus. 

Contrary to Grassi’s statement, the sperms have a distinct head, 
formed from the nucleus of the spermatide. After the formation of the 
head, the nuclear caryoplasma seems to be restored to the cytoplasm, the 
nuclear membrane ceases to be distinct. The sperms have, (1) a pro- 
cephalic filament, formed by a prolongation of the cytoplasm of the 
spermatide, (2) a tail consisting of an axial filament formed in the cyto- 
plasm of the spermatide, (3) an undulatory membrane, forming a spiral 
round head and tail, and formed in the cytoplasm. The transverse 
striation, which has been described, is an optical illusion due to the spiral 
membrane. 

The spermatozoa occupy in the polyplast a position opposite to that 
hitherto described in all polyplasts; the head is turned outwards, and 
the accessory nuclear body inwards, that is, towards the blastophore. 
The blastophore, or blastophores—for the primitive blastophore may 
become multiple by simple segmentation—may be absorbed during the 
development of the spermatides, or may persist, and be rejected from the 
polyplast at the end of spermatogenesis. 


Life-history of Gordius.*—Sig. L. Camerano discusses the various 
species of Gordius found in Italy, and raises several questions in regard 
to their life-history. (1) Are different species found in distinct hosts ? 
No, not necessarily. The filiform state is found exclusively in insects. 
The same species may occur in Arthropods and in fishes. (2) Is man 
one of the hosts of Gordius? Probably, in the larval stage. (3) Is the 
development direct, or is more than one host requisite? The life-cycle of 
Gordius is as follows:—(1) Egg, laid freely in water; (2) embryo, in 
water, within egg; (3) larva, (a) free in water for a time, (b) active or 
passive entrance into a host, (c) encystation; (4) metamorphosis, 
probably in the same host, the young stage with a filiform body, buccal 
aperture, segments and reproductive organs not yet developed ; (5) adult, 
sexual, free life in water, where copulation and egg-laying occur. 


Development and Specific Determination of Gordii.t—M. A. Villot 
has another note on this subject in answer to Dr. Camerano, in which he 
adduces evidence to support his claim to priority as to the methods to 
be adopted in determining the species of Gordii. He explains that, as 
the genital organs become developed before chitinization is complete, 
it is necessary to signify the stage reached by the worm under examina-: 
tion. M. Villot thinks he sees signs of Dr. Camerano not having fully 
studied his memoirs, and he refuses to accept as distinct certain forms 
regarded by Dr. Camerano as species, until the latter shall have been 
diagnosed by the taxonomic laws which he has formulated. 


* Arch. Ital. Biol., ix. (1887) p. 59. + Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 70-2. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 229 


Natural History of Tylenchus.*—Dr. J. Ritzema Bos continues his 
report on Tylenchus devastutrix Kiihn. (a) He discusses in the first 
place its influence on the plants which it infests. Though it never pro- 
duces what can be called galls, it causes hypertrophy of the tissues of 
the plant. The hypertrophy seems to be due to some substance excreted 
by the parasite, but it is possible that the mechanical action of the 
mouth, &c., may also be a factor. That the former, however, is at least 
the main factor is suggested by a case of a Tylenchus found between, not 
in the leaves of Hypnum cupressiforme, and yet causing a hypertrophic 
abnormality. The author then notes the various degrees of plant disease 
caused by different species of Tylenchus, which multiply at different rates, 
&c. He thus contrasts T. devastatriv and T. scandens. The secreted 
substance is only fatal to the plant when large quantities are present. 

(b) Latent life. The author cites some observations on the latent 
life of T. scandens (= Anguillula tritici). T. devastatrix seems to surpass 
the former in this capacity, which is saying a good deal. The experi- 
ments made by the author on ova, larve, and adults, are described at 
some length. Ova were kept dry for two months, and lived again on 
remoistening. Forms within the egg were similarly kept for six 
months. lLarve remained latent for 24 years, and might apparently 
have endured much longer. Sexually mature forms died in a few 
hours, and could not be resurrected. The age of the larva is an im- 
portant element in such experiments. The period required for reawaken- 
ing varies greatly. The temperature of the water used in reviving is 
likewise important; raised temperature assists the process. The desicca- 
tion may be repeated many times; the author repeated it sixteen times 
in succession ; each time a longer period was required for revivification ; 
and after the sixteenth experiment none survived. The process is thus 
by no means indefinite. The advantage of this power for the species is 
discussed. Not desiccation alone, but cold also may cause latent life. 
Some were cooled down to — 19° C., and when the plant in which the 
worms were, was slowly warmed up again, the Tylenchi larve revived. 
If the reheating was sudden, none survived. ‘he cessation of life- 
activity and the revivification is explained by reference to vital ferments. 
Lastly, the author notes how putrid substances, of plant or animal 
origin, or the presence of rotting neighbour Tylenchi may produce the 
same latent vitality. 


y. Platyhelminthes. 


Tenia nana.t—M. R. Moniez is not inclined to accept without dis- 
cussion some of the recent results of Prof. Grassi regarding Tenia nana. 
He cannot admit that Cysticercus tenebrionis belongs to that tapeworm, 
owing to the differences in their spines; C. tenebrionis appears rather to 
be the cystic stage of the T. microstoma of the mouse. 

T.murina appears to M. Moniez to be a distinct species from T. nana, 
for the former is nearly twice the length of the latter, and their embryos 
are altogether different in form; moreover, T. murina may be found in 
localities from which T. nana is altogether absent. 


Some European Triclades.$—Dr. I. Ijima has notes on various 
European Planarians, among which Planaria abscissa is a new species; 
* Biol. Centralbl., vii. (1888) pp. 646-59. 


+ Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 368-70. { This Journal, 1887, p. 961. 
§ Journ, College of Science, Imp. Univ. Japan, i. (1887) pp. 337-58 (1 pl.). 


230 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


found in Thuringia, In all individuals of this species cilia may be 
distinctly made out over the whole of the body; at various points are 
groups of stiff sete three or four times as long as the ordinary cilia, and 
to such Lang has correctly ascribed sensibility. The excretory canals at 
the anterior end of the body are very distinctly seen, owing to the slight 
development of pigment, and the absence of other opaque organs; the 
lateral primary canals are much coiled, and lie above the intestine; 
they pass forwards externally to the eyes, and soon unite with one 
another, just as in Dendrocelum lactewm; a number of the elongated 
ciliated funnels are set alone on the finer branches of the system. The 
author is of opinion that P. ulve Oersted should be placed in the genus 
Gunda, and the arrangement of its generative organs agrees exactly with 
what is seen in G. segmentata Lang. The penis of P. abscissa is much 
smaller than in other species, and there is no swelling on the course of 
its duct; between the lining epithelium and the external muscular fibres 
there are circular muscles; the great development of the muscles in the 
wall of the penial sheath may be correlated with the absence of a portion 
formed of coiled fibres, which is of great importance in the ejaculation of 
the sperm. 

In P. torva the numerous testes are arranged in two layers, above 
and below the enteric branches, just as the author has described them 
in Dendrocelum lacteum; in the other species examined they are in 
one layer, dorsal in P. gonocephala, P. polychroa, and Gunda ulve ; in 
P. abscissa they are ventral in position. 

In P. torva and P. abscissa the two oviducts unite, above the penial 
sheath, into a common duct which opens, in the former, above the top of 
the penis, and in the latter, just internally to the opening of the penial 
sheath. In P. gonocephala, as in P. polychroa, each oviduct opens 
separately into the terminal part of the uterine duct; the unpaired duct 
of G. ulvz opens at the same point. 

In addition to the two ventral longitudinal nerves there are two 
much more delicate lateral nerves; these arise a short distance in front 
of the eyes, and it may, therefore, be supposed that they do not take 
their origin directly from the brain. Like the ventral nerves, they are 
not only connected with one another by finer branches, but they give off 
laterally plexus-forming nerves, which probably become connected with 
the ventro-lateral nerves at the margin of the body, and so complete 
a nervous tube, such as has been described by Gaffron in Distomum 
isostomum. In P. abscissa and G. ulve Dr. Ijima has been able to see 
the so-called marginal nerve discovered by Lang. The stepladder- 
like transverse commissures of the peripheral nervous system of P. 
gonocephala make so many branchings and crossings, that it was 
scarcely possible to determine their number; in P. torva and P. abscissa 
they are much less numerous, and yet there are more than forty of 
them. 

The central lobes of the two just mentioned species are distinguished 
from those of Dendroceelum or Polycelis by the fact that each is traversed 
in the dorsoventral direction by a large column of ganglionic cells and 
muscular bands, with which a small amount of connective tissue may be 
connected. It may be regarded as an arrangement by which a number 
of ganglionic cells are brought into closer connection with the inner 
portions of the lateral parts of the brain. The brains of these Planarians 
are also distinguished by the backward and lateral course of the lateral 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Za 


margins of the lobes; by this arrangement the point of origin of the 
sensory nerves thence given off is somewhat increased in extent. 

The brain of Gunda ulve differs in some points from that of C. seg- 
mentata. Thus, it has three, not four, sensory nerves on either side, 
and the optic nerve is the most delicate of all; the minute structure of 
the brain of this worm is described in some detail. The greater part 
of the longitudinal nerves take part in forming the brain, but a small 
ventral portion is continued further forwards, and is separated from the 
base of the brain by a space beset with ganglionic cells, and there is 
thus formed the nerve which is ordinarily spoken of as the anterior 
longitudinal nerve; this is the chief point in which the brain of Gunda 
differs from that of other fresh-water Triclades with bilobed brains, for 
in them the hinder longitudinal nerve-trunk completely fuses with the 
base of the brain. 


5. Incerte Sedis. 


Floscularia annulata.*—Mr. J. Hood describes a new species of 
Floscularia which he has found in Fifeshire and Perthshire. The corona 
is a hemispherical cup, the edge of which is cut into three lobes of 
unequal size; these not only differ in form from those of F’. hoodii and 
F. trilobata, but also in the fact that the tips of the lobes only are 
crowned with short sete, whereas in the other two species there are 
double rows of sete running round the whole margin of the corona. 
Examined as a transparent object, F. annulata appears to have three 
brown rings below the corona ; seen as an opaque object, these are white. 
The jaws at the entrance to the stomach have an upward motion, and 
at the same time they open out to seize the food and drag it into the 
stomach. Sometimes the jaws close on the spherical body of a monad 
a little below its centre, and “ when it so happens that the jaws fail to 
clutch it, the spherical body rebounds back into the cup, just as a person 
grasping at an indiarubber ball with finger and thumb just below the 
centre produces the same result. This rebound shows the toughness 
and elasticity of the cuticula of these minute monads.” Full-grown 
specimens of F’, annulata, the female of which is alone known as yet, 
are from 1/64 to 1/50 in. in length. 


Nervous System of Myzostoma.t—Dr. F. Nansen gives an account 
of the anatomy and histology of the nervous system of several species 
of Myzostoma, and concludes with some generalizations which are more 
fully treated of in his report to the Bergen Museum. 

The central nervous system of Myzostoma consists of an cesophageal 
ring, with which ganglia or ganglionic cell-masses are connected, and a 
short ventral cord with no distinct ventral ganglia, but with indications 
of segmentation ; in connection with the ring there is a spirally developed 
complex of nerves in the proboscis, which has never before been detected 
by any observer. From the cesophageal ring these nerves pass forwards 
on either side towards the tip of the proboscis, and connect the ring with 
another—the tentacular nerve-ring, which, though variously developed 
in different species, has always considerable dimensions; it is sur- 
rounded by a thin sheath, within which there are no ganglionic cells; in 
M. Graffi, however, the ring is surrounded by a number of cells, which 


* Science-Gossip, 1888, pp. 8-10. 
+ Jenaisch, Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxi, (1887) pp. 267-321 (1 pl.). 


232 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


are unipolar, and are connected with the ring by their processes. The 
tentacular nerve-ring gives off a nerve for each tentacle, and these, at 
the tips, are broken up into a tuft of fibrils. The epithelium of the tips 
appears to consist only of long fibrillar cells, with which it is probable 
that the separate nerve-fibres are connected. Four more interesting and 
important nerves go to the hinder end of the proboscis, then bend round 
the hinder end of the bulbus musculosus, and pass forwards towards the 
cesophageal ring. Below the esophageal epithelium these four nerves 
form a kind of plexus, from which a number of small nerves are given 
off. Between the epithelial cells there are a number of ganglionic cells 
which are often seen to be in direct communication with the nerve- 
trunks; and the epithelial cells themselves, which are very elongated 
and provided with long nuclei, are connected by long processes with the 
fibrils given off from the nervous branches; this epithelium may be 
supposed to have a gustatory function. The author’s account of the 
peripheral nervous system is, unfortunately, in the form of a description 
of his figures, and without them is unintelligible. 

The nervous system is invested in an outer firmer sheath—the outer 
neurilemma or perineurium, and an inner supporting substance or 
internal neurilemma. The general discussion of the histological cha- 
racters of the central nervous system of animals is a partial statement 
of the views in the author’s fuller essay (for which see above). 


Echinodermata. 


Development of Antedon rosacea.*—Mr. H. Bury has investigated 
the early stages in the development of Antedon rosacea. 

(1) External Form. The segmentation is regular, the gastrula by 
invagination, the blastopore closes early, ciliation is at first uniform, but 
differentiates into anterior tuft and five ciliated bands, the anterior band 
is incomplete ventrally. There are two ciliated ventral depressions—the 
“preoral pit” and the “larval mouth.” The yellow cells appear before 
the rupture of the vitelline membrane. The free larva swims with ter- 
minal tuft forwards. A white patch on the left between the third and 
fourth bands marks the position of the “ water-pore.” 

(2) Internal Anatomy. A mesoderm is budded off from the archen- 
teron. The blastopore closes near the posterior end. The archenteron, 
occupying the posterior half of the larva, divides into posterior dumb- 
bell-shaped enteroccele, round the constricted part of which the anterior 
half (mesenteron) grows to form a complete ring. The two swellings 
of the dumbbell form the right and left body-cavities. ‘The anterior 
part of the mesenteron buds off the (left and ventral) hydroccele and an 
unpaired anterior body-cavity. The left body-cavity becomes anterior 
and dorsal, the latter sends a five-chambered prolongation into the preoral 
lobe to form rudiment of “chambered organ.” The hydroccele forms a 
ring, incomplete to the left, on ventral side of mesenteron, and forms 
five ventral pouches. Just before fixing, the anterior body-cavity opens 
at water-pore. Fine lateral nerve-fibres below anterior tuft, preoral pit, 
and down the sides of larval mouth disappear with loss of freedom. 

(3) Fixing. After twenty-four hours’ swimming the larva fixes by 
preoral pit; the bands disappear; the mouth invaginates to form vesti- 
bule, which, as Barrois describes, is rotated to posterior end. Histolysis 


* Proc. Roy. £oc., xlili. (1887) pp. 297-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 233 


sets in, cells budded in from the centre of the hydroccele fill the mesen- 
teron. The right and left body-cavities, now dorsal, grow round original 
ventral side, and each forms a longitudinal mesentery near the original 
ventral radius. The mouth appears as a depression in the wall of the 
vestibule. Into the now small anterior body-cavity opens the stone- 
canal, running from the water-vascular ring in the oral longitudinal 
mesentery, and not in direct continuity with the water-pore. The anus 
opens in the same interradius as the water-pore. 

(4) Skeleton. Shortly after the disappearance of orals and basals, 
three plates are developed at the posterior end of the stem, the homo- 
logues of the under-basals of the dicyclic Crinoids. After fixing they 
fuse with one another and with the top-stem-joint, so as to form a large 
plate, hitherto mistaken for a simple centrodorsal. 


New Features in Pelanechinus corallinus.*—The most interesting 
point, perhaps, in Mr. T. 'T. Groom’s account of Pelanechinus corallinus is 
the discovery of pedicellariz in a fossil species; the author has found 
them “in great variety and abundance, and in beautiful preservation.” 
The only good mode of examining them is to put the whole urchin on 
the stage of the compound Microscope and to illuminate it well; if this 
method were adopted, Mr. Groom believes that pedicellarize would be often 
found on fossils. In Pelanechinus all these organs are trivalved, and of 
these three distinct varieties were found, which are described and figured. 


Budding in Star-fishes.;—Herren P. and F. Sarasin give a figure of 
a specimen of Linckia multipora, in which the process of regeneration 
has resulted in the formation of a quite new star; in this case we have 
to do with two stars connected with one another, and so giving the 
appearance of a true animal colony. But they allow that these colonial 
formations are to be regarded as abnormalities. However, there is no 
sharp limit between pathology and variability, and so facts of this kind 
are always of significance. Fuller details are promised. 


Mediterranean Synaptide.t—Dr. R. Semon continues his account 
of the Synaptide of the Mediterranean. The calcareous ring commences 
to be formed at a time when the rudiment of the water-vessel in the 
Auricularia-larva consists of a horseshoe-shaped tube with the out- 
growths which will form ceca, primary tentacles, and radial vessels ; 
they arise as simple rods on the convex side of the tube, and, in corre- 
spondence with the number of tentacles, there are at first only five; we 
see then the relations which they have to the tentacles. This is further 
shown by the fact that the joints of the calcareous ring increase in 
number simultaneously with the tentacles. These facts bear on the 
question of the homology of the calcareous ring with some of the hard 
parts of the Echinoidea. Dr. Semon thinks that before we proceed to 
speculate on this point we must get some proof of a skeletal part of an 
Echinid holding the same relation to the five primary tentacles as do 
the parts in question in a Holothurian. The ring not only serves as 
origin for the tentacles—which appears to be its primary function—but 
also for the insertion of the semilunar valves described by Hamann. 
When the longitudinal musculature of the tentacle is relaxed that organ 
lies extended in a straight line, and the valve (in consequence of the 


* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., xliii. (1887) pp. 703-14 (1 pl.). 
t+ Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 674-5. 
t MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vii. (1887) pp. 401-22 (1 pl.). 


234 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


contraction of its musculature) is open; there is no obstacle to the 
free passage of fluid backwards and forwards. The retraction of the 
tontacle is effected by the contraction of the whole longitudinal muscu- 
lature ; and the tentacles are then so bent that the valve becomes closed. 

The author’s account of the central nervous system does not agree 
in all points with that of Hamann ; he denies the justice of the opinion 
that the peripheral cells are not nervous, and, though allowing the 
impossibility of at present making a definite judgment, he is inclined 
to think that they are nervous, and not merely supporting. 

With regard to the vesicles of Baur, Dr. Semon objects to the view 
that they are merely larval organs with no function in the adult, and 
urges that they increase in size with the growth of the individual. In 
their morphological characters they agree with the auditory organs of 
all other animals than insects. ach organ is a saccule or vesicle 
formed by an ectodermal invagination, in the fluid contents of which 
there are more or less freely moving bodies. 

The remarkable ciliated funnels of the coelom, which were described 
by Johannes Miiller, have been but little investigated since 1852 to any 
good purpose. In structure the true ciliated organ is very simple, 
consisting of a curved plate provided at its margin with a projecting 
ridge; this last is really nothing else than the margin of the plate 
which has been bent over; like the plate it consists of long, rather thin 
cylindrical cells, the elongated nuclei of which are proportionately very 
large. Each cell appears to carry only one very long cilium, but on 
this point it is impossible to be confident. The long axes of all the 
cells are directed towards the centre of the funnel, and this gives rise 
to very different appearances with different focal points. The organ 
does not seem to be a real funnel which passes into a closed tube, for 
the infundibular portion leads into a curved groove open on one side. 
This groove opens into the sac of the peritoneal membrane, which 
invests the outer side of the organ, and is continuous with the stalk. 
This investment consists of flat spindle-shaped cells, each with an 
elongated nucleus. The muscular fibres of the peritoneum are not 
continued into the stalk, nor could the author find there any nerve- 
fibres. The stalk is not hollow, and does not inclose any canal. 
Though there is no true lumen there are a large number of cells in the 
clefts in the stalk, which completely resemble the cells which are 
found in the fluid contents of the ccelom. These are the bodies which 
Semper called mucous cells, and Hamann, more appropriately, plasmatic 
wandering cells. They are distinguished from the so-called blood-cells 
by the very distinct granulation of their protoplasm, that of the blood- 
cells being clear and not granulated. The suggestion is made that the 
ciliated funnels have the function of taking up the lymphoid cells which 
swim about freely in the ccelom, and conveying them to the tissues; at 
the orifice of the funnel there are often masses of cells. Dr. Semon 
does not think that the ciliated funnels are true excretory organs. 
When the stalk is attached to the peritoneum its tissue is continuous 
with that of the peritoneal epithelium. The author is of opinion that 
we may regard the funnels as large and complicated lymph-stomata of 
the ccelom, and suggests that the cells have wandered from the enteric 
blood-vessels into that cavity. A direct connection between this vascu- 
lar system and the celom has not been made out, and it may be that its 
place is taken by the wandering of lymph-cells through the tissue. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Dae 


Coelenterata. 


Cladonemide.*—Dr. C. Hartlaub believes that the Cladonemide are 
one of the most interesting families of the Craspedota. The relations 
which they exhibit to the Ctenophora support the views of Haeckel and 
Chun. The rarity of these forms may be partly explained by the slight 
development of the gonads of the Medusa stage. And indeed sexuai 
reproduction in Hleutheria is quite inconsiderable as compared with 
multiplication by budding. 

The following classification of the group is proposed :— 


Family Ciaponemipa Haeckel. 


Eleutheiia. 
First sub-family, Exevrneripm, } Pteronema. 


with an apical cavity, Ctenaria. 
Dendronema. 
; é ; Cladonema. 
Second sub-family, CLaponemipZ,{ Cain 
sens. str. No apical cavity, o> 
Gemmaria. 


They may be defined as having the manubrium with five edges, with 
five perradial mouth-styles, and five perradial evaginations of the 
gonads ; there are five radial canals, three of which divide, so that 
eight canals of the second order open into the circular canal; there are 
eight tentacles. 

The manubrium of Cladonema has the form of a more or less well- 
marked prism, the edges of which are perradial or lie in the planes of 
the five radial canals of the first order; the central stomach may be 
distinguished from a more well-developed oral tube ; the former alone 
takes part in the development of the sexual products, and the stomach 
is, asin the Codonide, surrounded by a continuous gonad. The five 
edges of the manubrium correspond in position to five endodermal 
longitudinal ridges which project into the lumen of the gastric cavity, 
and leave between them five perradial grooves, which, at the proximal 
end of the organ, pass into the five radial canals. 

The endoderm of the mouth-tube has some interesting histological 
peculiarities; at the mouth there are gland-cells consisting of finely 
granular protoplasm, but, further in, the cells are almost all enidoblasts ; 
a large quantity of stinging cells, it may be observed, have also been 
observed in the endoderm of the planula of Eleutheria. 

Cladonema is hermaphrodite, but the hermaphroditism is successive ; 
at the same time there is no rule as to which several products shall first 
appear. Several young egg-cells of considerable size may fuse into 
one; the gonads are always traversed by high supporting cells of the 
ectoderm ; the spermatoblasts and the egg-cells, which are often found 
lying among them, are only distinguished by their size. In the 
endoderm of the gastric cavity there are to be found among the ordinary 
nutrient cells deeply coloured bodies filled with more deeply coloured 
spheres. Between the spheres it is often possible to make out distinct 
cell-boundaries; these bodies have a close resemblance to germ-cells. 


* Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 651-8. 
+ Had the author followed the conventions of the British Association he would 
haye written Cladoneminse, and so saved possibilities of confusion, 


236 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Occasionally indubitable egg-cells are to be found in the endoderm. 
The sexual cells of the Cladonemide appear to be developed, in all 
cases, in the endoderm. If the continuation of the author’s studies 
shall confirm this generalization, we have here a further point of agree- 
ment with the Ctenophora. 


Hydra.*—Prof. J. Leidy thinks that Prof. L. Agassiz was wrong 
in naming the two American species of Hydra, H. gracilis and H. carnea, 
as they do not seem to be really distinct from the European H. viridis 
and H. fusca. 


Are there Deep-Sea Meduse?}+—Mr. J. W. Fewkes discusses the 
difficult question of the bathymetrical distribution of Meduse. He 
notes (1) the two wholesale methods of dredging, which leave the actual 
depth of habitat often very hypothetical, the negative results as yet 
obtained by the use of a contrivance like Sigsbee’s “ gravitating trap,” 
and the unsatisfactoriness of actual records. (2) He approaches the 
subject from another side, and suggests the study of characteristics of 
structure in relation to probable environment. In illustration of this, 
the Siphonophore genus Rhizophysa, and the Acraspedan Collaspidze 
(Atolla, Collaspis, Nauphantopsis), are discussed. These three last 
genera present us the strongest arguments which can be found in the 
modification of external and internal anatomy, as indicative of a deep- 
sea habitat. In the same way he draws conclusions from Lucernarida. 
But Mr. Fewkes is forced to confess that neither the data so far 
gathered, nor the recorded depths, nor the structure of the genera 
considered, demonstrate that there is a serial distribution of free medusz 
in bathymetrical zones. For all that he concludes that the case for the 
affirmative is stronger than the arguments suggest. 


Sex-cells and Development of Millepora.t — Mr. 8S. J. Hickson 
communicates his observations on the sexual cells and the early stages 
of development of Millepora plicata found abundantly on the fringing 
reefs of Talisse Island, N. Celebes. (a) The young sex-cells arise in 
ectoderm of ccenosarcal canals, perforate the mesogloea, and enter the 
endoderm. The ovum is moored to the mesogloea by a pseudopodial 
stalk, or may withdraw this and migrate. (b) Before maturation the 
germinal vesicle disappears, a longitudinally striated spindle-shaped 
body appears, and gives off the first polar globule. A second does like- 
wise. The mature ova, with yolk-globules or granules, measure only 
1/100 mm. in diameter. (c) Two or three sperm-heads may be seen 
within one ovum, the flagella stuck at the surface. The nucleus is 
again visible after fertilization, subsequently with a number of nucleoli. 
d) The nucleus fragments, the portions are scattered in the pole nearest 
stalk; they travel to form an equatorial zone in middle of ovum; the 
zone divides, and the halves, with their fragments increasing in number, 
size, and distribution, move towards the poles. The result corresponds 
toa morula; faint markings indicate cell-outlines. (e¢) As asolid blasto- 
sphere, the embryo migrates into gastrozooid, and probably passes out 
by mouth. There was no trace of medusa, medusiform gonophore, or 
sporosac. 

The young male cells or spermospores have a large nucleus with 


* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1887, pp. 311-3. 
+ Amer. Journ. Sci., xxxv. (1888) pp. 166-79. 
{ Proce. Roy. Soce., xliii. (1887) pp. 245-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ak 


coarse network ; the nucleus fragments and the fragments spread. The 
spermospores matured in the canals migrate to basal endoderm of dacty- 
lozooids, lose their walls, pass as colonies of young spermoblasts into 
cavity of zooid, push out the wall into sporosacs and rest there till 
mature. Occasionally they were found in gastrozooids. 

The ectodermic origin of sex-cells (Hertwigs and Weismann) is con- 
firmed. The absence of segmentation and sperm morula may be associ- 
ated with migration after commencement of development. There is no 
corroboration of the suggestion that the Millepora have lost their yolk. 
The Hydrocoralline are probably a separate stock, never with medusi- 
form gonophores, and without any relation to Hydractinia. 


Structure and Affinities of Parkeria.* — Prof. H. A. Nicholson 
thinks that Mr. H. J. Carter was right in referring the genus Parkeria 
to the Hydrozoa. All the known facts as to the chemical constitution, 
mode of growth, and general structure of the ccenosteum, no less than 
-the minute structure of the skeleton-fibre, seem to him to point in this 
direction. The genus may be regarded as intermediate between the 
Hydrocorallines and the Hydractiniide ; it resembles the former more 
closely in the minute structure of the skeletal tissue, and the latter in the 
mode of growth by the production of successive concentric lamelle 
separated by rows of chamberlets. With regard to its supposed allies 
amoung fossil forms, the author states that Syringosphera differs in not 
increasing by the formation of successive concentric lamella with inter- 
vening rows of chamberlets, and that that genus is a true Hydrocoralline ; 
Porosphera is probably a Lithistid sponge; the resemblances between 
Parkeria and Loftusia are merely superficial ; there are unquestionable 
points of resemblance and marked points of difference between Parkeria 
and the groups of Stromatoporoids. 


Growth of Flabellum.t—Dr. E. von Marenzeller finds that in the 
genus Flabellum the new septa arise between the older ones, as in other 
stony corals. In some species this is effected regularly, but in others 
the chambers at the end of the long axis are specially numerous ; and in 
them septa of higher orders appear before those of the next lower order 
have been developed in other chambers. In a few species the septa 
retain their relative sizes, but in most those of the second and third 
order grow as large as those of the first ; this happens particularly in 
those species in which the development of the septa of the higher orders 
is irregular. ‘The equalized septa ordinarily have between them three 
septa, two of the last and one of the penultimate order, and they thus 
give rise to that division into polyparies, which is so characteristic of 
the genus. In addition to notes on known forms, there is a description 
of F. coalitum sp. n. from Japan. 


Classification of Aleyonaria.t—Prof. T. Studer, who has, in con- 
junction with Prof. E. P. Wright, studied the Alcyonacea of the 
‘Challenger’ Expedition, has an essay on the classification of the order. 
This is a matter of some difficulty as the paleontological history can 
never be completely known, owing to the fact that we can never know 
the structure of the polyps. In all Aleyonaria, with the exception of 
the small family Haimeide, which perhaps represent the primitive form, 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., i. (1888) pp. 1-12 (1 pl.). 

¢ Zool. Jahrb., iii. (1887) pp. 25-50. 

} Arch. f. Naturgesch., liii. (1887) pp. 1-74 (1 pl.). 
1888. 


~ 


238 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


there is a tendency to form colonies by budding; these buds, however, 
never arise directly from the body of the polyps, but from stolons which 
are tubular outgrowths of the digestive cavity of the polyps; the highest 
development is probably that in which a large number of individuals 
are so distributed that each has an equal share in the nourishment ; 
this is best seen in the upright arborescent stocks, where the individuals 
are spirally disposed. But such a colony is only possible if a supporting 
skeleton be differentiated ; representatives of this type are to be found in 
the Gorgonacea. 

The simplest form of colony formation appears to be that in which 
the stem-polyps give off tubular processes which are outpushings 
of the body, and the cavities of which are continuations of the digestive 
cavity of the polyps. On these stolons new polyps arise by budding, 
and these, again, may produce polyp-forming stolons ; such are found in 
Rhizoxenia, Cornularia, and some species of Clavularia. A more compact 
colony is formed when the base of the polyps, in which the mesoderm is 
considerably developed, broadens out around the polyp, and contains 
endodermal tubes from which new polyps arise by gemmation; they 
are seen in Clavularia rosea and C. violacea. In these forms the 
coenenchym is a thin membrane, but it may become better developed, so 
that the deeper part of the elongated digestive cavities lie in it, as in 
Anthelia, Sarcodictyum, and others. 

The colony may become raised up from its base, and differentiated 
spicules be developed to form a supporting axis; this is seen in the lower 
Briareid, such as Solenocaulon; in the higher types the axis is more 
developed, passes into the interior of the colony, and forms a cylindrical 
rod, which is surrounded by polyp-bearing ccenenchym, as in the 
division Scleraxonia, of which the highest type is Corallium. In another 
series of forms, the most favourable arrangement of the individuals is 
effected in another way; bundles of polyps, the walls of which have 
thickened into a common mass of ccenenchym, grow out into long tubes, 
and develope new polyps at various levels; thus we get lobed forms as 
in Alcyonium and Lobularia, or tuft-like growths such as in the 
Nephthyide. Lastly, there are trunk-polyps whose ccenenchym walls 
are traversed by canals, and which give off long tubes; in the walls of 
the axial polyp, small long tubular polyps are budded off, and these 
again may give rise to small lateral polyps as in Tolesto among the 
Cornulariide. As the hollow axial polyp cannot form sufficient support 
for the development of a broad stock, a solid horny or calcareous mass 
is developed in the long digestive cavity; this gradually gives rise to 
the central axis of the colony, while the lateral mesenterial septa become 
the vegetative longitudinal canals of the colony, and the mouth and 
tentacles of the axial individual disappear. These often exhibit a 
bilateral symmetry. The Pennatulacea do not form fixed colonies as do 
the Holaxonia (or Axifera). 

The author next points out the modifications undergone by the 
spicules, and the differentiations which affect the polyps. 

The three divisions of the Aleyonaria—Alcyonacea, Pennatulacea, 
and Gorgonacea—proposed by earlier writers, are accepted, the last 
being divided into the Scleraxonia and Holaxonia. 

In the systematic lists which follow, the relations of the genera are 
indicated, and there are notes on some of them; the various families are 
defined. Novel points, in addition to the delimitations of the Scleraxonia 


. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 239 


and the Holaxonia, are the establishment of a new family of Dasygorgide 
(owing to the discovery of some new species of Dasygorgia, and of a new 
genus, Strophogorgia, with an unbranched stem), of a new sub-family, 
Primnoisidine, of which Primnoisis is new, and of two sub-families, 
Callozostrine for Prof. Wright’s new genus Callozostron, and Primno- 
eidine for Primnoeides g.n. Among the Muriceide, Muricetdes, Antho- 
muricea, Clematissus, Placogorgia, Perisceles, and Klasma are new. 


Norse Alcyonaria.* —Herr J. A. Grieg describes and figures a 
number of new Norse Alcyonaria:—Sympodium hyalinum n. sp., Steno- 
gorgia rosea n. sp., Danielssenia n. g., D. irramosa n.sp., Paramuricea 
elegans n. sp., Protoptilum tortum un. sp., Stichoptilum n. g., S. arcticum un. sp. 
The new genus Danielssenia includes corals of Kdélliker’s Gorgonia 
genus. The trunk is branchless; the base expanded, adherent; the 
polyps in single series on each side of trunk; the polyp-cells low, broad, 
basally expanded, partly embracing the smooth, round, horny axis; 
comparatively thick sarcosoma; cesophagus and gastral filaments with- 
out spicules; the centre coral otherwise abounding in spindles, clubs, 
and double-stars. The new genus Stichoptilum includes sea-pens of 
Kolliker’s family Protoptilide. The polyp-cells are sessile, on each 
side of rachis in two single rows, the outer with full-grown, the inner 
with rudimentary polyps; the cells cylindrical with eight inconspicuous 
spines, the-zooids small, in three single rows, an inner row in the dorsal 
mid-line, the outer rows on each side of round rachis, calcareous bodies 
in stalk, rachis, cells, and tentacles. The memoir is accompanied with 
some beautiful figures. 


Porifera. 


So-called Peripheral Prolongations of Clione.t—M. E. Topsent has 
some remarks on the theory of Herr Nassonow, that the filaments found 
in shells or stones perforated by Cliona are prolongations of the 
mesoderm of C. stationis. He finds that these filaments may be wanting 
in shells attacked by Cliona during the life of the mollusc, and that they 
are abundant in all old imperforate shells. Regarded as independent of 
the sponge, they have often been studied and figured. M. Topsent has 
recently found them in the valves of Unio, and there seems to be no doubt 
that they are parasitic plants. 


Structure of Suberites.j}—Mr. J. Arthur Thomson describes the 
histology of Suberites domuncula Olivi(O.8.). After noting the general 
relations of the sponge to the mollusc shell on which it grows, he 
describes the ectoderm and small pores, the uniaxial spicules, the ciliated 
chambers disposed in Vosmaer’s fourth degree of complexity, the afferent 
and efferent canals lying side by side, the multiform connective tissue of 
the mesoderm, the incipient muscle-cells, and the like. The presence of 
developing sperm morulz and ova is also noticed. Special attention is 
directed to the very varied chromatic contents of the germinal vesicle, 
which appears to be either multinucleolar, or to have a nucleolus of very 
complicated shape. 

(2) The author also describes peculiar knob-like capsules formed on 


* Bergens Mus. Aarsberetning for 1886 (1887) pp. 1-26 (9 pls.). 
+ Comptes Rendus, ev. (1887) p. 1188. 
$ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., xxxiii. (1887) pp. 241-5 (2 pls.). 

bs) 


240 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the surface of a Spongelia in disadvantageous circumstances. They con- 
tained incipient tissue with undifferentiated cells, and had on section the 
appearance of a very intricate network. It is suggested that they secure 
the persistence of the organism in unfavourable environment. 


Protozoa. 


Digestion in Rhizopods.*—Miss M. Greenwood has continued her 
observations on the digestive processes in Ameba and Actinospherium 
with the following results :-— 

(1) The ingestion of solid matter is promiscuous in Ameba, that is, 
nutritious and innutritious matters are taken in with equal readiness. 
Actinosphzrium, on the other hand, rarely ingests innutritious particles. 
(2) The act of ingestion in Amoeba is accompanied by the emission of 
pseudopodia; in Actinospherium these may or may not be thrown out, 
(8) The nutritious matter taken in by Amoeba is not surrounded by fluid 
when it lies in the endosare. (4) Nutritious particles are in both animals 
digested by fluid poured out around them. This fluid has no action on 
the cuticle of organisms, or on cellulose or siliceous cell-walls. Fat and 
starch are apparently not digested by it. It is a colourless fluid, which 
acts on coagulated, and still more so on non-coagulated proteid matter. 
It has no action on litmus or carmine particles, accidentally inclosed 
with nutritious particles, and is therefore neutral in reaction. (5) The 
secretion is more active in Actinospherium than in Amaba. (6) Chlo- 
rophyll is changed to a dark-brown colour by Ameba; this is not so 
marked in Actinospherium. (7) Ejection is performed at the hind end 
of Ameba, either by means of a vacuole, or often without one. An 
excretory vacuole is always present in Actinospherium. (8) The time 
between ingestion and ejection is difficult to determine, and varies with 
the size and digestibility of the ingesta; it averages three to four days 
in Ameba. In Actinospherium the digestive act is shorter, and occupies 
from 13 to 8 hours. 


Protozoa Parasitic in Man.t—Prof. B. Grassi emphasizes the 
innocuous or purely commensal character of Protozoa found in man. 
He discusses Amceba coli, mono-cercomonads, Megastoma (Flagellate), 
Balantidium coli, and disputes the Protozoan nature of Pfeitfer’s Mono- 
cystis and of Plasmodium malariz. 


Psorospermium Haeckeli.{—Dr. O. Zacharias has found the sporo- 
zoon first noticed by Haeckel in the crayfish, in Silesian and Galician 
specimens ; those that were examined seem to be quite healthy. The 
parasites are of an elongated oval form, and are sharply separated from 
the tissue of their host by a firm cuticle; the long diameter is about 
0-18 mm., and the breadth from 0:04-0:05. Several thousand may be 
found in one crayfish, and it is not improbable that, if they increase too 
rapidly, they may give rise to epidemics. They are much more common 
in old than young individuals. When present they may be easily 
detected in the eye, and it is likely that this is their way of entrance 
into the body of their host. Dr. Zacharias has, however, been able to 
show that the psorosperm is capable of multiplying within the body of 


* Journ. of Physiol., viii. (1887) pp. 263-87. Cf. Journ. Chem. Soc. Lond., 1888, 
Abstr., p. 79. + Arch. Ital. Biol., ix. (1887) pp. 4-6. 
¢ Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 49-51. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 241 


its host. The reproductive bodies are in the form of spheres, which 
escape from the mother organism and wander into the neighbouring 
tissues. 


Eozoon Canadense.*—Sir J. W. Dawson gives some new facts 
regarding Hozoon Canadense. Though the form of this body is ordinarily 
regarded as indefinite, well-preserved specimens show that the normal 
shape of young and isolated examples is a broadly turbinate, funnel- 
shaped, or top-shaped form, with sometimes a depression on the upper 
surface. Other forms are rounded or dome-shaped masses. In sections 
more or less cylindrical depressions or tubes may be seen. If EHozoon 
was an organism growing on the sea-bottom, it would be liable to be 
broken up, and in this condition to constitute a calcareous sand or 
gravel; examination of Laurentian limestones frequently reveals the 
presence of Hozoon. Cryptozoum, whatever be its zoological relations, 
is found in Cambrian rocks under the same conditions as Hozoon in the 
Laurentian. The mistakes made by some lithologists are due to the 
remarkable imitative forms of gneiss, laminated limestone with serpen- 
tine, and various other laminated or banded materials which are often 
found in collections or specimens of Hozoon. As to these, Sir J. W. 
Dawson promises further details. In a postscript the objections to the 
suggestion of Julien and others that eozoonal structure may be due to 
the alternation of mineral layers formed in the passage-beds between 
concretions and their inclosing mass are summarized. 


* Geol. Mag., v. (1888) pp. 49-54 (1 pl.). Cf. also Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 
1887 (1888) p. 702. 


242 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 


a. Anatomy.* 


(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. 


Influence of Light upon Protoplasmic Movement.;—Mr. 8. Le 
M. Moore has further investigated the phenomenon that chlorophyll- 
grains alter their position, collecting into masses in sunlight, and 
moving on to the side-walls of the cells, the latter movement being 
effected also, but more slowly, in darkness. These displacements of 
chlorophyll are the effect of illumination and not of heat. Frank gave 
the name of “epistrophe” to the distribution of the grains upon the 
free walls and the parts of the wall bordering on intercellular spaces, 
and that of “ apostrophe” to the arrangement upon the side-walls. He 
also confirmed the statements of his predecessors that epistrophe is more 
quickly assumed after apostrophe than vice versd. Apostrophe produced 
by strong illumination Moore proposes to call “ positive,” that produced 
by weak illumination “ negative.” 

To the whole of these phenomena Mr. Moore applies the term 
“ photolysis,” and proceeds to discuss the question whether the grains 
of chlorophyll are drawn passively along with the streaming plasma, or 
whether they have the faculty of independent motion. The question 
was answered in the former sense by Sachs, and Frank and Pfeffer are 
of the same opinion. On the other hand, Prillieux looks upon the 
movement as resulting from the attraction of one grain upon another, 
and of the cell-wall upon the grains. Velten considered that the 
grains have some power of moving independently of the protoplasm. 

The author gives three reasons which have led him to declare in 
favour of Sachs’s theory. As to the movements of chlorophyll-grains in 
the dark, the results obtained under this head are thus summed up :— 
(1) The epistrophized grains of sun-loving plants are negatively apo- 
strophized after a few hours in darkness. (2) Negative apostrophe is very 
slow in making its appearance in aquatic types. (3) Negative apostrophe 
can be induced in sun-loving plants in low light. (4) The effect of 
continued darkness upon grains already apostrophized is to drive them 
into masses in the corners, or, more rarely, upon the side-walls of 
the cell. (5) Still longer exposure to darkness may cause many, if not 
all, of the grains to come out on to the free walls. (6) Positively 
apostrophized grains of sun-lovers remain in apostrophe on removal to 
the dark. 

The author proposes to term the whole range of possible grades of 
illumination from darkness to direct sunlight the photrum, and that 
portion of the scale which will be powerful enough to change the chloro- 


* This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm; (2) Other Cell- 
pout (including Secretions); (3) Structure of Tissues; and (4) Structure of 
Organs. 

+ Journ. Linn, Soc. Lond.—Bot., xxiv. (1887) pp. 200-50 (1 pl. and 3 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 243 


phyll-grains from the condition of apostrophe to that of epistrophe, the 
epistrophic interval of the particular plant. 

The length of a plant’s epistrophic interval depends upon the quality 
of its protoplasm; and it would appear that if an epistrophic interval 
does not reach far to the right, it will extend some (perhaps all the) 
way upon the left side of the photrum. In the case of aquatics, how- 
ever, the epistrophic interval is developed far more upon the left than 
upon the right side of the photrum. 

The author then discusses the nature of the movement of chlorophyll- 
grains. ‘The theory advanced may be shortly stated thus :—(1) Proto- 
plasm is positively phototactic to light of medium intensity, and 
negatively so to high grades of illumination and to darkness. (2) The 
attracting and repelling actions of light impose a strain upon protoplasm. 
(3) Lowering of the tone of protoplasm as respects light results from 
withholding that agent. 

Mr. Moore has included in this paper a table containing all the 
‘ information he has been able to collect on what is called the ‘ Law 
of Positive Progression,” which may be expressed in a general way by 
saying that as an advance is made towards the positive end of the 
photrum, the corresponding movement of the chlorophyll is performed 
with more despatch, while the reverse is the case in proceeding towards 
the negative end. Some points in the rotation of the protoplasm of 
Elodea and Vallisneria are also touched upon; and the author concludes 
by giving the details of some experiments on the influence of light upon 
rotation. 


Nuclear and Cell Division.*—Herr F. A. F. C. Went has examined 
afresh several undecided ‘points in the processes of the division of the 
nucleus and of the cells. 

With regard to the nucleoli, he determined that, at least in many 
cases, they are taken up into the nuclear threads on the commencement of 
the division of the nucleus. As an object for observing this process, he 
prefers the embryo-sac, especially of Monocotyledons, to pollen-mother- 
cells. The staining material employed was safranin, either in alcoholic 
or aqueous solution, and, for secondary staining, a mixture of diamond- 
fuchsin and iodine-green in a solution of equal parts of alcohol and 
water. 

By the use of fuming hydrochloric acid, a reagent which dissolves 
chromatin, he also established the identity of the spindle-fibres and of 
the ‘‘combining-threads,” the achromatic threads which unite the new 
nuclei while in the course of formation. 

The author also describes the phenomena connected with the forma- 
tion of the equatorial ring, which is accompanied by a shortening and 
thickening of the spindle-fibres, drawing along with them the two 
daughter-nuclei. This ring surrounds the cell-plate, and is distinguished 
by its power of taking up safranin. 


Crystal-plastids.;—Under this name Herr A. Wigand describes 
certain protoplasmic structures which he finds very widely distributed 
within closed living tissue-cells, in root-hairs, aérial hairs, and in the 
epidermis and parenchyma-cells. These structures appear to be 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. 247-58 (1 pl.). 
+ Wigand’s Bot. Hefte, ii. (1887) pp. 44-87. 


244 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


especially characteristic of the natural orders Gesneraces, Acanthacer, 
and Labiate, in very few species of which they were not detected, and 
were found also in plants belonging to a large number of orders of both 
Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons, as well as in Azolla and Spirogyra. 

The author was frequently able to observe the formation of these 
bodies directly out of the cell-protoplasm. They resemble in appearance 
various forms of the Schizomycetes, micrococcus, bacterium, bacillus, 
leptothrix, &c. Their microchemical reactions appear to vary, but they 
are undoubtedly of a protoplasmic nature. They differ from true 
bacteria in their power of double refraction, but in many cases exhibit 
a very distinct power of spontaneous motion. They can even be 
artificially produced out of protoplasm by simple maceration at ordinary 
temperatures, and the author believes that in this respect they do not 
differ from true bacteria, which may also, if we judge from analogy, 
arise directly out of protoplasm without pre-existing germs. 

At all events while still within the cell, and in certain cases also 
outside it, these structures have a distinct power of multiplication by 
bipartition. The author was unable to detect that they have any 
faculty of inducing fermentation. The “ plastids” combine the charac- 
ters of true bacteria and of crystalline structures. With the latter 
they agree in their double refrangibility ; with the former in the cha- 
racters already mentioned, but display greater resistance to acids and 
less resistance to staining reagents; their movements are also more 
sluggish, and liable to be altogether interrupted under certain conditions. 
They are bacteria in combination with a doubly refractive mineral 
substance, a combination to which the author applies the term “ incrusta- 
tion.” From all other cell-contents, chlorophyll-grains, chromoplasts, 
starch-generators, &c., these plastids differ in their rod-like form, and in 
their power of division when outside the cell. 


Separation of silver by active Albumin.*—JIn continuation of 
experiments by Loew and himself, Herr T. Bokorny finds that cells, 
when placed in an ammoniacal solution of silver, soon die, before any 
considerable separation of silver has taken place. In this case, there- 
fore, the silver-reduction takes place only in dead cells, and this is the 
case also when the cells, after death, are placed for an hour in spring 
water and then again in the silver solution. ‘The same reaction is also 
exhibited after killing with a1 per cent. solution of ammonia, or with 
yarious alkaloids, such as strychnine. 

Moderately dilute ammonia produces in the protoplasm, and, in 
Spirogyra maxima, also in the cell-sap, a separation of granules which 
possess a strong faculty for separating silver ; this separation of granules 
does not take place in dead cells or in concentrated solution of ammonia. 
The author regards these granules as dense aggregations of albuminous 
substances, produced out of active albumin by a kind of polymerization. 
They did not exhibit the reactions of albumin, but were stained a bright 
red-violet in aqueous solution of fuchsin. 


* Pringsheim’s Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot., xviii. (1887) pp. 194-217. Cf. this Journal, 
1883, p. 225, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 245 


(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions). 


Epidermal Chlorophyll.*—Mr. 8. Le M. Moore states that we owe to 
Stohr the greater part of our knowledge about the chlorophyll of epi- 
dermal tissues. Mr. Moore gives in this paper the details of some 
observations he has been making, and epitomizes his statements as 
follows :— 

(1) As Stéhr has shown, all but a small percentage of Dicotyledons 
have chlorophyll in their epidermis; but in about half of these chloro- 
phyil is found on the upper surface as well as the lower. Out of 
120 angiospermous species observed by the author, 102 had chlorophyll 
in the epidermis of at least the under-side of the leaf; the number of 
Dicotyledons was 115, of which 101 furnished epidermal chlorophyll. 

(2) Etiolin is formed in them, as in other chlorophyllous cells. 

(3) Ina considerable number (34 per cent.) of species with epidermal 
chlorophyli-grains, starch can be easily detected therein; in 24 per cent. 
a small quantity of starch is discoverable. Only 42 per cent. have 
absolutely starchless grains. 

(4) There is no eventuality in the appearance of the starch, as De 
Bary states; for, on the one hand the grains can easily be discharged of 
and recharged with starch, which, on the other hand, is absent from the 
grains of some types through life. 

(5) In any given case it is impossible to say a priori from the 
apparent depth of colouring shown by epidermal chlorophyll-grains, 
whether starch will or will not be found therein. This seems to support 
Pringsheim’s theory of assimilation. 

(6) The substance coloured blue by iodine and showing the tannin 
reaction with iron salts may perhaps be not tannin, but some substance 
closely related thereto. 


Fluorescence of Chlorophyll.j—Dr. G. Cugini suggests that the 
purpose of the fluorescence of chlorophyll is in connection with its 
property of impeding the rays which are most efficacious in respiration 
from penetrating the leaves, thus rendering the respiration less intense, 
and making possible the process of the reduction of carbonic anhydride. 


Preparation of Pure Chlorophyll.t—After giving the history of the 
various substances described under the name of chlorophyll by different 
writers, and the mode of their preparation, Sig. L. Macchiati proposes 
the following method for preparing pure chlorophyll. 

Fresh leaves are cut up into small fragments, repeatedly washed with 
distilled water and then with anhydric ether to remove the waxy 
substances, and are then boiled in alcohol until the solution acquires 
an intensely green colour. The solution is filtered while boiling; on 
cooling, a dark-green precipitate is obtained, which is red in transmitted 
light. This substance is identical with Bourgarel’s erythrophyll. It 
can be obtained perfectly pure, and crystallizes in square plates. When 
this precipitate has been separated by filtering, the filtered liquid is 
concentrated, and the residue washed repeatedly with distilled water. 
The first portion of this water, which is of a golden yellow colour, may 
be used for the preparation of xanthophyllidrin, The residue is then 
dissolved in ether and allowed to evaporate, when needle-like crystals 

* Journ. of Bot., xxv. (1887) pp. 858-63. 
+ Atti Congr. Naz. Bot. Critt. Parma, Sept. 1887, pp. 55-9. 
} Malpighia, i, (1887) pp. 478-86. 


246 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


appear on the sides and bottom of the vessel, which are dark green by 
reflected, brown by transmitted light. These crystals may be purified 
by repeated washing in cold alcohol and then with distilled water, and 
dissolved in ether. They dissolve with great difficulty in cold, easily in 
hot alcohol, and immediately in ether and chloroform. The ethereal 
and alcoholic solutions absorb the light of the spectrum between Fraun- 
hofer’s lines B and C. This is crystallized chlorophyll ( Hoppe-Seyler’s 
chlorophyllan). When its alcoholic solution is shaken with an equal 
quantity of pure benzin, it divides into an upper green layer, the chloro- 
phyll of green leaves, and a lower yellow layer of xanthophyll. 

The author then describes the method of obtaining other substances 
which are associated with chlorophyll, and discusses their composition. 


Presence of active Albumin in the Cell-sap.*—Herren O. Loew and 
T. Bokorny state that they have discovered this substance in the cell-sap 
of several species of Spirogyra, e.g. S. maxima. If the living plant is 
treated with a 1 per cent. solution of a neutral salt of ammonium or of 
an organic base, granules are at once separated from the cell-sap which 
have a very powerful reducing effect on very dilute alkaline silver-solu- 
tion, and give the ordinary reactions of albumen. They consist of active 
albumin, and appear at the same time in the parietal utricle; the latter 
remain fixed at the moment of their formation, while those separated 
from the cell-sap move about freely, and finally settle on the lower side 
of the cell. Neither kind of granule is formed if the cell is first killed 
by pressure; their separation is a function of life. 

The authors adduce reasons against Pfeffer’s hypothesis that these 
particles consist of tannate of albumen held in solution in the cell-sap 
by an acid; the cell-sap has not an acid reaction. 


Fibrosin, a new cell-content.t—Herr W. Zopf describes a hitherto 
unknown substance which he finds in the conidia of Podosphxra oxya- 
canthe ; also in Sphxrotheca and Erysiphe. It occurs as distinct bodies 
of various forms, imbedded in the protoplasm, never in the vacuoles, 
and apparently always present, usually from 5 to 15 in each conidium ; 
they are readily separated by slight pressure on the cover-glass. The 
most usual form is that of roundish flat discs, less often conical and either 
truncated or not, rarely cylindrical. The longest diameter varies be- 
tween 2 and 8 p, the thickness between 0°5 and 0:7 ». They readily 
swell up in hot water, lose their form, and retain only a stronger 
refrangibility. The behaviour of these substances is given in detail, 
from which the author draws the conclusion that they are of neither an 
oily, resinous, nor albuminous nature. They differ also in their pro- 
perties from all known carbohydrates, and most closely resemble Fremy’s 
fibrose. In germination they are used up in the formation of the germi- 
nating tube, and must, therefore, from a physiological point of view, be 
regarded as a reserve-substance. 

Secretion from the Roots.t—Dr. H. Molisch states that the acid 
secretion from roots attacks organic even more powerfully than inorganic 
substances, not merely dissolving them, but causing important chemical 
changes. It exercises both a reducing and an oxidizing power. It 
stains guaiacum blue. It oxidizes tannin and humin-substances, and 


* Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 849-57. 


+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. 275-81 (1 pl.). 
t SB. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxvii. (1887) p. 69. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 247 


hence promotes greatly the decomposition of humus in the soil. It 
transforms cane-sugar into reducing sugar, and has a slight diastatic 
action. Plates of ivory are corroded by it. The root behaves in many 
respects like a fungus, in so far as the fungus alters the organic con- 
stituents of the soil by definite excretions, and causes their more rapid 
decomposition. This root-secretion does not merely impregnate the 
epidermis, but is often excreted over it in the form of drops. 

Formation of organic acids in the growing parts of plants.*— 
Herr W. Palladin deduces from the facts already known respecting the 
formation of asparagin and of vegetable acids in the course of the growth 
of plants, that the formation of cellulose in growing organs must be 
accompanied by a strong elimination of oxygen; that organic acids are 
formed in these organs as a secondary product of the re-formation of 
albuminoids from asparagin and carbohydrates; and that the water 
formed in the respiration of growing organs is also a product of this 
same process. 


Localization of Emulsin in Almonds.t—M. Johannsen states that 
bitter almonds contain a glucoside, amygdalin, and a soluble ferment 
called emulsin or synaptase. Having to study the question of the 
localization of emulsin, the author gives the following as the conclu- 
sion to his researches, viz.:—That amygdalin and emulsin are localized 
in different tissues. Amygdalin (which is only found in bitter almonds) 
is localized in the parenchyma of the cotyledons, and emulsin (which 
is found in all almonds) is localized in the axile parts of the embryo 
and in the fibrovascular bundles of the cotyledons. 


(8) Structure of Tissues. 


Development of Stomata.{—Herr E. Immich finds that very good 
objects on which to study the early development of stomata are the leaves 
of both Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, either when just emerged 
from the bud-scales or at somewhat later stages; the plants specially 
observed were Syringa, Crategus, Prunus, Acorus, Scirpus, and Palme. 
The careful examination of a large number of cotyledons, especially of 
many Crucifere and Composite, shows, on sections of the epidermis, 
smaller cells of simpler and very characteristic form, the mother-cells 
of the stomata. In their external contour these cells are not unlike 
spherical triangles. ‘They are formed by an ordinary epidermal cell 
being first divided by a central septum into two segments of equal size. 
From this wall proceeds a second curved wall to the lower part of the 
cell, and from about the middle point of this a third at an angle of about 
60°; the mother-cell of the stoma being then formed. A nucleus is 
formed in this mother-cell, and it divides into two segments of unequal 
size by a division-wall a little above its middle. All this takes place 
while the seeds are still inclosed in the carpels and in quite a young 
pulpy condition. 

In the Leguminose the above course of development occurs in the 
section Phyllolcbx, in which the cotyledons rise above the soil and 
develope into ordinary leaves (Melilotus, Lotus, Trifolium, &e.) ; while 
in the Sarcolobe, where the cotyledons remain beneath the soil (Vicia, 
Hrvum, Pisum), the course is somewhat different. No rudiments of 

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. 325-6. 


t Ann. Sci. Nat., vi. (1887) pp. 118-26. 
} Flora, Ixx. (1887) pp. 435-46, 459-66, 467-82 (1 pl.). 


248 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


stomata were here found on the cotyledons ; but, on the other hand, there 
were on the plumule and first leaves of the erect shoot. The same is 
the case with the Phaseoloidex. 

In other families of Dicotyledons the mother-cells of the stomata 
were found on the cotyledons while still within the seed, substantially as 
in Crucifere and Composite. The occurrence of the triangular mother- 
cell is much less common among Monocotyledons. Those of grasses 
are characterized by their oval form, and having almost invariably two 
cells, one on each side, which distinguish them from all the other cells 
of the epidermis. 

As the young stoma does not, in ordinary cases, reach quite as far as 
the subjacent palisade-parenchyma, we have, in the air-space thus formed, 
the first indication of the “breathing-hole.’” Very early the nucleus 
loses its central position in the mother-cell of the stoma, and occupies a 
somewhat higher position; the protoplasm becomes turbid, and a few 
pale-green chlorophyll-grains make their appearance. 

The processes are somewhat different in those cases, which occur 
chiefly in evergreen and other coriaceous leaves, where the stoma is 
depressed to a lower level than that of the other epidermal cells. In 
the case of Allium Cepa this occurs not by any change in position of the 
mother-cell of the stoma, but by energetic growth of the neighbouring 
epidermal cells. In grasses, on the other hand, the mother-cell itself 
takes part in the difference of level ; and in Conifers appears to be the 
chief agent in the depression. In order to accomplish this the mother- 
cell, as it developes, loses its oval form, and becomes wedge-shaped below, 
the wedge forcing its way deeper and deeper between the epidermal cells, 
which it forces aside, until it becomes so greatly depressed that it is 
almost in contact with the palisade-cells. The fissure is not formed 
until after this process is completed. 


Protecting-wood and Duramen.*—By “ protecting-wood ” (Schutz- 
holz) Herr HE. Praél understands that new wood formed on wounds, 
which can be distinguished even by the naked eye from its brown 
colour. The wood thus formed exhibits great resemblance to ordinary 
duramen in the special cell-contents which characterize it—gum and 
resin, and also in the occurrence of thylle. The formation of thylle 
and of gum occurs in the same plant. The colouring of the cell-walls 
is exhibited both by the protecting-wood and by duramen ; the identity 
of the two is especially seen in coloured woods. The hermetical 
closing of surfaces of the wood prevents, or at least hinders, the forma- 
tion of protecting-wood. 


Split Xylem in Clematis.;—Dr. F. Krasser describes the peculiar 
fissured appearance of the xylem in the vascular bundles of Clematis 
Vitalba, which resembles that in the climbing Bignoniacee, but results 
from a different cause. It depends on the intermediate bundles between 
the primary bundles originating later, and producing less xylem than a 
leaf-trace bundle ; the difference in the radial development of the xylem 
producing to the eye the appearance of a fissure. 


Apical meristem of the roots of Pontederiacee.{—Herr S. Schén- 
land has examined the structure of the apical meristem in the roots of 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. 417-22. 
+ Verhandl. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxvii. (1887) pp. 795-8 (3 figs.). 
t Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 179-82 (2 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 249 


Hichhornia azurea and crassipes. The best mode of treatment he finds 
to be to soak the sections in potash for twenty-four hours, treating with 
acetic acid, and then mounting in glycerin, or to stain with Kleinen- 
berg’s hematoxylin after treatment with potash, and mounting in Canada 
balsam. Examined in this way he finds that, even in the youngest 
stages of the adventitious roots, it is quite impossible to refer the root- 
cap to the same initials which give rise to the dermatogen and periblem ; 
there is a distinct calyptrogen layer. The young adventitious roots of 
the Pontederiacew have, in fact, very much the same structure as the 
primary roots of Pontederia cordata, and belong therefore to the type of 
the Graminez. 


(4) Structure of Organs. 


Endosperm of Gelsominez Jasminez).*—Prof. R. Pirotta has tested 
the correctness of the usual statement that in this family, a suborder of 
Oleacex, comprising the genera Jasminum, Menodora, and Nyctanthes, 
the endosperm is entirely wanting or reduced to a mere rudiment. He 
finds, on the contrary, endosperm invariably present in the mature seed. 
In Mencdora, and in some species of Jasminum, the cotyledons are 
foliaceous, and the endosperm is then well developed ; in other species 
of Jasminum the cotyledons contain a large amount of reserve-substance, 
and in these the endosperm, though still always present, is reduced to a 
small number of cells, 


Salt-excreting glands of Tamariscinee.t—Dr. R. Marloth coniests 
Volkens’ theory that the glands on species of Tamariscinew inhabiting 
the deserts, such as Reaumuria hirtella, which excrete an incrustation of 
salt over the surface of the organ, have the power, through their hygro- 
scopic properties, of taking up the water which is precipitated through 
the air, and transmitting it to the assimilating tissue. He maintains 
that the purpose of the incrustation is, on the one hand, to serve as a 
non-conductor of heat, on the other hand to diminish transpiration. 

To this Herr G. Volkens replies, t pointing out that at all events the 
second hypothesis of Dr. Marloth is hardly consistent with the fact that 
the excretion of salt is in the form of a loose and very unequally 
distributed powdery mass. 


Organs for the absorption of vegetable food-material by plants 
containing chlorophyll.§ —Herr L. Koch describes peculiar organs on 
the roots of species of Melampyrum, especially M. pratense, connected with 
the absorption of nutriment from the soil in which they grow, and 
which contains great quantities of the decaying roots of grasses and 
stem of mosses, and the mycelium of Fungi. The root-system of 
Melampyrum, penetrating into this substance, consists of a primary root 
and lateral roots, which force their way through this layer into soil 
containing very little or no organic matter. These roots grow to a 
considerable thickness, and serve as a support to long slender roots 
proceeding from these, which play the greatest part in the absorption 
of food-material. These slender roots are of endogenous origin with 
rudimentary root-cap, and proceed often in crowded clusters from spots 
in the principal roots, which are in contact with the organic substratum. 


* Malpighia, i. (1887) pp. 427-34 (1 pl.). 

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., y. (1887) pp. 319-24. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 81. 
¢ Ibid., pp. 434-6. 

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vy. (1887) pp. 350-64. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 81. 


250 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Both they and the thicker roots are but sparsely endowed with root- 
hairs. When these slender roots come into contact with organic 
substances in the substratum, protuberances are formed on them, the 
structure and mode of formation of which are described in detail. In 
some cases both the nutrient object and the protuberance are invested 
by a number of fine hairs springing from the latter. From its apex the 
protuberance puts out a kind of clasp by which it attaches itself to the 
nutrient object, somewhat after the manner of a haustorium, some of the 
cells of the protuberance actually penetrating into the nutrient substance. 
These protuberances have often only a temporary existence, perishing 
with the complete decay of the nutrient substance. 

The special function of these organs the author believes to be the 
absorption from the soil of nitrogenous food-material. 


Haustoria of the Rhinanthee and Santalacee.*—M. Leclere du 
Sablon states that while non-parasitic phanerogamous plants absorb the 
necessary liquid food by means of the root-hairs, parasites, such as 
Cuscuta and Orobanche, absorb liquids by means of special organs called 
haustoria (sugoirs). In a third category of phanerogamous plants the 
mode of nutrition partakes somewhat of the above two methods combined. 
In the Rhinanthez and Santalaces the absorption of liquids takes place 
both by root-hairs and by haustoria. 

The author describes the haustoria of the Rhinanthee, taking Melam- 
pyrum pratense as an example. The roots of this plant are normally 
destitute of root-hairs; the haustoria commence to form towards the 
extremity of the roots shortly after germination. A slight projection is 
seen on the sides of the root; the two layers of cells which constitute 
the cortical parenchyma elongate radially, and divide by septa in 
different directions. This is the commencement of the formation of 
the haustorium. In the Santalacew the commencement of the formation 
of the haustorium is first seen in a layer of cells beneath the superficial 
cells of the cortex of the root, the superficial cells being already dead. 

In another paper by the same author,} the development and structure 
of haustoria in Rhinanthezw and Santalacesw are more minutely described. 
In the Rhinanthee both cortex and pericycle take part in the formation 
of haustoria. On the sides of the haustoria the cells of the piliferous 
layer develope into root-hairs ; towards the extremity a certain number 
of cells become differentiated, and penetrate into the host. The absorb- 
ing cells advance into the tissue of the host, either in a bundle or more 
often isolated. The Rhinanthesw, then, in every case absorb their 
liquid nutriment by means of the cells of the piliferous layer. In the 
Santalaceze, and especially in Osyris, which bears few haustoria, root- 
hairs are formed. In this family the haustoria are also formed by the 
cortex and pericycle, but here the pericycle plays a more important part 
than in the Rhinanthex. In the portion of the haustorium near to the 
root, a central cylinder and a cortex can be distinguished; the limit is 
marked by an endoderm. Towards the extremity of the haustorium the 
endoderm disappears, and at the same time the distinction between cor- 
tex and central cylinder. 

In every case the absorbing cells are connected with the xylem- 
bundles of the root by a bundle composed of spiral cells. 


* Comptes Rendus, ev. (1887) pp. 1078-81. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 80. 
¢ Ann. Sci. Nat., vi. (1887) pp. 90-117. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 251 


Structure of the root and arrangement of the rootlets in Centro- 
lepidex, Eriocaulee, Juncee, Mayacee, and Xyridee.*—M. P. Van 
Tieghem states that the structure of the root and arrangement of the 
rootlets have been frequently studied in Graminee and Cyperacee. In 
this paper the author describes these features in some of the other closely 
allied monocotyledonous groups. He concludes by stating that the 
anomaly of having the pericycle of the root regularly interrupted outside 
the woody bundles, and of forming in consequence the rootlets, opposite 
the liber-bundles, has been observed up to the present in seven families 
of Monocotyledons, namely, Xyridex, Mayacee, Juncee, Hriocauler, 
Centrolepidex, Cyperacex, and Graminez. 


Geminate Root-hairs.t—M. P. Van 'Tieghem states that occasionally 
a differentiation takes place in the piliferous layer of the root, the root- 
hairs undergoing a special grouping which merits attention. In the 
root of Pepalanthus the piliferous layer is composed of both long and 
short cells. The short cells, which are tabular in form, are sometimes 
prolonged directly into hairs, but more often they are divided into two 
halves by longitudinal septa. These two sister-cells then develope 
towards the exterior into two hairs, which diverge in the form of a V. 
This arrangement may be met with more especially in certain Eriocaulez 
and Juncee. 


Root-tubercles of Leguminose.t— Dr. O. Mattirolo and Sig. L. 
Buscalioni have made a further examination of the nature of these 
structures, chiefly on various species of Vicia. They conclude, for the 
following reasons, that the bacterium-like substances found in the cells 
of these structures are not living bacteria, but bacteroids, protoplasmic 
bodies endowed with brownian movement. Experiments on culture of 
these bodies, under the most favourable circumstances, produced entirely 
negative results. They broke up into smaller particles, which displayed 
similar movements. Immersion for twenty minutes in boiling water did 
not destroy this movement; and they were unaffected by a temperature 
of 130° continued for two hours, and by various antiseptics. The form 
also is very variable: usually somewhat that of a Y with unequal 
branches, but varying to that of an X, or exhibiting numerous branches. 


Tubercular Swellings on the Roots of Vicia Faba.§—Prof. H. Mar- 
shall Ward has succeeded in producing, by infection, the tubercular 
swellings on the roots of a number of leguminous plants, especially on 
Vicia Faba. He attributes their formation to hypertrophy of the tissue 
caused by the attacks of an undetermined parasitic fungus, probably 
belonging to the Ustilaginesw. He was able to trace hyphe of this fungus 
penetrating through the whole length of a root-hair, and then traversing 
the cortex of the root, piercing the cell-walls, at which spots they mani- 
fest peculiar trumpet-like enlargements, and branch when they reach the 
tissue of the young tubercle. In addition to the hyphe which traverse 
the cell-cavities, there are always found minute corpuscles suspended 
in the protoplasm of the cells. These Prof. Ward believes to be gemme 
or bud-like outgrowths from the hyphe; the fungus having lost its 


* Morot’s Journ. Bot., i. (1887) pp. 305-15. 

+ Ann. Sci. Nat., vi. (1887) pp. 127-8. 

t Malpighia, i. (1887) pp. 464-74, 536-41. Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 987. 

§ Phil. Trans., clxxviii. (1887) pp. 539-62 (2 pls.). Cf. this Journal, 1887, 
p. 1005. 


252 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


power of producing resting-spores, and being propagated in this manner 
only. Itis the presence of these parasitic gemmules that stimulates into 
increased activity the protoplasm of the cells themselves. 

The author describes the method by which he was successful in 
infecting healthy roots of the bean by placing them in contact with 
diseased tubercles; and finally combats Brunchorst’s and T'schirch’s 
view,* that the so-called “ bacteroids,” or bacterium-like particles, always 
found in the cells of the tubercles, are modifications of the protoplasm of 
the cells. 


Emergences on the Roots of Podocarpus.j—Dr. T. A. Baldini has 
investigated the structure of peculiar bodies already described by Van 
Tieghem on the roots of several species of Podocarpus. In all the species 
they are of endogenous origin, springing from the second or third layer of 
cells below the epidermis ; they are formed by walls, the earlier of which 
are tangential, the later radial. As regards their function, the author 
believes this to be the absorbing and storing-up of water from the soil. 
They may also serve as reservoirs for starch and other formative 
substances. 


Stipules.t—M. G. Colomb states that stipules are of such various 
forms, and occupy such different positions in relation to the leaf, that it 
is hardly safe to define a stipule from external characters alone. The 
author has therefore studied the anatomical structure of this organ in 
many plants belonging to different natural orders, the details of which 
are given in this paper. He describes a stipule as an incomplete axillary 
ligule, and draws the following conclusions from his researches :— 

Three regions may be recognized in a ligule, viz.:—(1) The lateral 
region, in which the marginal bundles of the sheath are simply prolonged. 
(2) The stipular region, where the bundles form a part of the last bundle 
of the sheath entering the leaf. (8) The axillary region, which unites 
the two stipular regions. 

If the ligule is complete with its three regions, the author has given 
to it the name of azillary ligule; if the stipular and axillary regions 
only are present, the sheathing regions having disappeared, it is an 
axillary stipule ; but if finally the axillary region is divided lengthwise 
into two halves, the one on the right and the other on the left, and the 
stipular regions exist solely at the base of the petiole, it is then an ordinary 
stipule. 

: Stipule and ligule are then organs of the same nature, between 
which it is possible to find every variety of modification, the stipule being 
a portion of the axillary ligule. A stipule can be defined as an appendix 
inserted on the stem, at the base of the leaf, the bundles of which belong 
exclusively to the corresponding foliar bundles. 


Vernation of Leaves.s—Herr R. Diez classifies the various modes 
of the vernation of leaves under a number of different heads, viz. :— 
Flat (Viscum) ; apposite (zusammengelegt) (Prunus Laurocerasus) ; im- 
perfectly apposite (Fagus); apposite and rounded (Parnassia palustris) ; 
wedge-shaped ( Veronica Andersoni) ; folded and radiate (Acer platanoides) ; 
folded and acute-angled (Pritchardia filamentosa) ; folded lengthwise and 
curved (Dioscorea villosa); folded across and curved (Castanea). These 


* See this Journal, 1887, p. 610. + Malpighia, i. (1887) pp. 474-7. 
¢ Ann. Sci. Nat., vi. (1887) pp. 1-76. 
§ Flora, Ixx. (1887) pp. 483-97, 499-514, 515-80 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ley 


may also be combined in a variety of ways. These terms (except the first) 
apply to various modes of folding; there are also a number of ways in 
which the leaves may be rolled up before opening, viz. :—Spirally twisted 
(eingerollt) (Musa) ; twisted right or left ; spiral and embricate (iibergerollt) 
(Escallonia macrophylla); spiral and valvate (gerollt) (Specularia per- 
foliata); channelled (Linum usitatissimum) ; cornet-shaped (Spironema 
fragrans) ; involute (Nymphea) ; revolute ; circinate (Utricularia montana). 

Witk regard to the value of vernation for systematic purposes, there 
are very few families in which the mode is uniform throughout all the 
species. In Nymphzacez the floating leaves are always involute on both 
sides ; in Polygonacee the leaves are always revolute on both sides; in 
Scitaminex spirally involute ; in Mimosex the pinne are always flat. In 
other families the vernation is uniform throughout, with the exception of 
a few genera or species. Within the genus the mode is usually the same 
with the same form of leaf, but most generally varies when the form of 
leaf varies. 

The vernation of leaves is also influenced by the nature of the vena- 
tion, by the consistency of the leaf, and by the presence of stipules or leaf- 
sheaths. The floating or submerged leaves of water-plants appear to be 
flat or rolled in vernation, never folded. The purpose of the different 
modes is the protection of the leaves in the bud-condition. The position 
of the leaves assumed during sleep or under the influence of irritants is 
usually partially, but not entirely, a reversion to the position in vernation. 


Double Leaves.*—By a double leaf Dr. M. Kronfeld understands one 
which bears two lamingz on one petiole. He distinguishes between an 
epidiphyllum, where the growth of the lamina has been interrupted at a 
particular spot, and a paradiphyllum, resulting from dichotomy of the 
lamina. The former occurs normally in Dionza, and probably also in 
Nepenthes ; the latter chiefly in particular varieties, especially of ferns, 
such as Asplenium Trichomanes ramosum. 


Pitcher-like leaflets of Staphylea pinnata.|—M. Lachmann describes 
the not uncommon formation of pitchers by some of the leaflets in this 
plant. It results from the more or less complete union of the edges of 
the lamina, so that either the whole, or only the upper part of the leaflet 
takes the form of a cornucopia; in the latter case the normal lower 
portion of the leaflet is connected with the pitcher by means of a stalk. 
He concludes from analogy that in Nepenthes the pitcher must be 
regarded as the terminal portion of a lamina, the basal part of which 
remains flat. 


Clinging-Plants.t—Dr. E. Huth describes the various means by 
which plants attach themselves to the fur or skin of animals, by hooked 
or barbed hairs attached to the seed-vessels or some other part of the 
plant, or by other contrivances, for the purpose of propagation. Under 
each natural order the plants are named and described in which these 
contrivances are found. 


Heterophylly.s—According to Dr. F. Krasser, when two different 
forms of leaf occur on the same plant, it may be an example of true 


* SB. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxvii. (1887) pp. 74-6. 

+ Bull. Soe. Bot. Lyon, 1886. See Bull. Soe. Bot. France, xxxiy. (1887), Rey. 
Bibl., p. 151. 

{ Uhlworm u. Hianlein’s Biblioth. Bot., Heft ix., 1887, 36 pp. and 78 figs. 

§ SB. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxvii. (1887) pp. 76-8. 


1888. i 


254 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


heterophylly, when it depends on something inherent in the organization, 
or of anisophylly, when it is the result of a difference of position, as in the 
case of aquatic plants where the floating and the submerged leaves differ 
in form. In the former case the cause is unknown, and the two kinds 
of leaves may pass into one another by insensible gradations, as in 
Broussonetia and Morus. Both may be the result either of progression 
or of retrogression. 


Colours of Leaves and Fruits.*—Ilerr A. Wigand has investigated 
the nature and the cause of the red and blue colours of a large number 
of leaves and fruits. He classifies the very numerous examples men- 
tioned under a number of heads. In many plants the stem and leaves 
exhibit normally and constantly a red or blue colour in the form of 
streaks or spots. In others, especially woody plants, it appears only as 
the branches and leaves unfold; in the ‘copper ” varieties of trees, such 
as the ash, beech, hazel, or elm, it increases in intensity as the Jeaves 
develope; while in others it appears only in the autumn, and either in 
connection with the dying of the leaves or not. Many plants exhibit 
these colours only locally as the result of injury, especially puncture by 
insects. In many fruits, especially such as are fleshy, the red or blue 
colour appears only during ripening, and then obviously depends on the 
influence of light. Many rhizomes also exhibit a red colour. 

The colour generally preponderates on the upper side of the leaf, or is 
limited to that side; usually it is contained only in the cell-sap ; less 
often it colours also the cell-walls. The seat of the red colour may be 
either the epidermis, the parenchyma, or the vascular bundles; the order 
in which it makes its appearance is always:—(1) the veins, (2) the 
epidermis, (3) the parenchyma. 

The colour of most ripe berry-like fruits is due either to insoluble 
pigment-particles, or to a homogeneous colouring of the cell-sap. It is 
not in any way due, as some have maintained, to a modification of 
chlorophyll. Some plants with coloured stems, e.g. Cuscuta, contain 
erythrophyll, but never chlorophyll. The colouring matter may be 
contained in different cells from the chlorophyll, or in the same. The 
chromogen or colouring constituent of the pigment the author believes 
to be a form of tannin. 

Alpine vegetation is especially characterized by the tendency to a 
red colouring. The author considers that the conditions specially 
favourable to the production of either red or blue colour are a feeble or 
completely suppressed assimilation and a strong light. 


Anatomy of the Floral Axis.t—Herr K. Reiche gives details of 
several points of structure in the axis of flowers, and of inflorescences, 
especially in connection with the contrast between those of male and of 
female flowers. In Cucurbita Pepo the female flower-stalk is distinguished 
from the male by its greater thickness, and by its strong bicollateral 
vascular bundles containing cambium, while the much smaller bundles of 
the male flower-stalks have no cambium ; both kinds have a hypodermal 
ring of collenchyma. In other cases the chief characteristic of the female 
as contrasted with that of the male axis, is the larger quantity of starch- 
containing tissue. This is strikingly the case in Mercurialis perennis, 


* Wigand’s Bot., Hefte ii. (1887) pp. 218-43. 
xy Ber, Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. 310-8 (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, ante, 
p- 79. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 255 


and in Platanus. That the increase in the size and number of the 
vascular bundles is directly incited by the weight of the fruit, is shown 
by the fact that when female flowers remain unfertilized, as is the case 
with large numbers in the oak, walnut, and horse-chestnut, the axis 
retains the structure characteristic of that of fugacious male flowers. 

In the case of neuter flowers, the structure of the axis varies accord- 
ing to that of the flower itself. Where sterility results from the con- 
version of stamens into petals, as in the case of the double tulip, the 
scape is twice as thick as in the case of a single flower, and has a 
correspondingly increased number of vascular bundles. When, as in 
Hydrangea and Viburnum Opulus, the sterile flowers are fugacious and 
simply for the purpose of display and of attracting insects, the axis has 
the characters of that of male flowers. 


Comparative Anatomy of Flowers.*—Rev. G. Henslow follows up 
previous observations on the relation of floral organs to their vascular 
cords or “axial traces.” Taking the cords as “floral units,” the author 
suggests their relation to axes as well as to all kinds of floral appendages. 
The two elements of a cord are trachex or spiral vessels and sieve- 
tubes, &e., or soft bast; Van Tieghem’s distinction between axial and 
foliar characters of cords is not constant. Mr. Henslow discusses the 
origin of umbels in exogens and in endogens, the influence of the union 
of the cords on phyllotactical arrangement, the multiplication of parts 
arising from the “ chorisis ” of a cord, the undifferentiated state of organs 
when in congenital union, the non-axial character of almost all placenta- 
tion, &c. The free-central placentation of Primulacesw is interpreted as 
due to the coherent and ovuliferous bases of five carpels, which have the 
upper parts of their margins cohering in a parietal manner and without 
ovules. The author proposes continuing his observations. 


Floral Nectary of Symphoricarpus.t—Prof. F. Delpino corrects a 
mistaken description by H. Miiller, Bonnier, and others, of the floral 
nectary in Symphoricarpus racemosus. The purpose of the hairs which 
clothe the tube of the corolla he states to be, not to protect the nectar 
from rain, but to prevent the entrance of insects which would be in- 
jurious by feeding on the nectar without assisting in the pollination of 
the stigma, especially of ants. 


Fruit of Borraginee.{—Friulcin A. Olbers deseribes five different 
kinds of fruit and of the structure of the pericarp in Borraginex. This 
is connected also with differences in the structure of the “ foot,’ which 
Friiulein Olbers believes to have no function, in general, in connection 
with the storing up of water for germination, but rather with the bursting 
and detachment of the fruit. 


Explosive Fruits of Alstreemeria$—Dr. O. Stapf describes the 
structure of the ripe capsule of Alstrameria psittacina, and the cause of 
its violent rupture. This depends on the differentiation of the develop- 
ment of different layers of the placenta, which consists eventually of 
three horny clasps, firmly attached at the apex to the lobes of the 
capsule, and separated by thin-walled parenchyma. Finally, these clasps 


* Proc. Roy. Soc., xliii_ (1887) pp. 296-7. ¢ Malpighia, i. (1887) pp. 434-9. 
¢ SB. Bot. Sallsk. Stockholm, May 31, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) 


p. 88. 
§ SB. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxvii. (1887) pp. 53-8. 
TZ 


256 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


give way suddenly at the point of contact with the lobes; the capsule is 
violently burst open, and the smooth round seeds thrown out toa distance 
which may amount to four metres. The same mechanism occurs in other 
species of the genus. 


B. Physiology.* 
(1) Reproduction and Germination. 


Pollination of Serapias.t—Dr. L. Nicotra describes the mode of 
pollination in two Italian species of Serapias, S. lingua and occultata. 
In the latter species the structure of the flower is favourable to homogamy. 
The pollen-masses become disintegrated into cubical massule which fall 
in large numbers into the stigmatic cavity ; and pollen-tubes can be seen 
in great quantities passing into the ovary. In S. lingua, on the other 
hand, homogamy is almost impossible, and yet it appears to be left 
almost entirely unvisited by insects. Pollen-masses are very rarely to 
be seen on the stigma, and it is very rare for this species to produce 
capsules and fertile seeds. 


Pollination in Zannichellia palustris. t—M. E. Roze thus describes 
the floral arrangement of Zannichellia palustris:—The female flower is 
composed of a membranous, cupuliform perigyne, inclosing two to six 
pistils, at the base of which will be found the male flower consisting 
of a single stamen. The filament of this stamen, which at first is almost 
sessile, becomes longer than the pistils before flowering. When ripe, 
the pollen escapes and falls into the water, and the funnel-shaped stigmas 
immediately below the stamen receive those grains which touch any 
point of their surface in their fall. It only remains now for the pollen- 
grains to emit their tubes and penetrate to the embryo-sac ; but this has 
not been actually observed by the author. 


Production of Sex and phenomena of Crossing. § —Dr. F'. Nobbe 
states, as the result of a number of experiments, that seeds of Leucojuwm 
which germinate rapidly (in three to four days) produce chiefly or 
exclusively plants with double flowers; while those of the same species 
which germinate slowly (in nine to ten days) produce chiefly single 
fertile flowers. In hybridization he finds the hybrid to reproduce the 
characters of the male ancestor in the inflorescence and in the relation- 
ship of the double to the single flowers; while the colour of the flower 
is intermediate between that of the male and the female parent. 


Physiological Organography of Flowers. || Herr K. F. Jordan 
describes the structure, in reference to the mode of pollination, of a 
number of flowers belonging to the following classes, viz.:—(1) Actino- 
morphic honey-flowers; (2) actinomorphic pollen-flowers (i.e. those in 
which there is no nectary, but the pollen is devoured by the visiting 
insect (Convallaria majalis); and (3) zygomorphic honey-flowers. In 
all he finds a direct adaptation, in the position of the nectary, and in the 
position and mode of dehiscence of the anthers, to pollination by insects, 


* This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction and Germination; (2) Nutrition 
and Growth (including Movements of Fluids); (3) Lrritability; and (4) Chemical 
Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 

+ Malpighia, i. (1887) pp. 460-3. 

t Morot’s Journ. Bot., i. (1887) pp. 296-9 (1 fig.). 

§ SB. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, Wiesbaden, Sept. 20, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., 
Xxxii. (1887) p. 253. || Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., vy. (1887) pp. 327-44 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ATT 


or at least by one particular species of insect. Even where the visits of 
such an insect have not been actually observed, they must be assumed 
from the structure of the flower. 


Bigeneric Orchid Hybrids.*—Mr. R. A. Rolfe sums up his con- 
clusions on this subject as follows :— 

(1) Hybridization may take place not only between distinct species, 
but also between distinct genera of orchids. 

(2) These hybrids are generally of artificial origin, or accidentally 
produced, and cannot be treated in the scheme of classification either as 
varieties, species, or genera. 

(3) The possibility of hybridization taking place between species 
hitherto considered as distinct does not necessarily prove them to be 
merely forms of the same species. 

(4) The occurrence of a hybrid between two structurally different 
genera does not prove the necessity of uniting them in one; nor can 
hybrids be arbitrarily referred to either of the parent genera, 

(5) Species, and genera too, will always have to be dealt with in the 
scheme of classification according to their structural peculiarities and 
differences, without reference to the possibility of hybridization taking 
place between them. It is therefore clear that hybrids, whether bigeneric 
or otherwise, should be dealt with on their own merits, and named in 
such a way as to avoid all confusion between them and existing species 
and genera. In the case of bigeneric hybrids the plan of compounding 
a name from that of the two parents should always be followed, as 
“ Philageria X,” a name invented by Dr. Masters for a hybrid raised by 
crossing Lapageria rosea with the pollen of Philesia buxifolia. By 
this means all confusion between them and natural genera would be 
avoided. 


Germination of Palms.j—Herr O. Gehrke has observed the mode of 
germination of the seeds of a number of species of palms, and finds that 
they all agree in all essential features. The subordinate points in which 
they differ are examined in detail, especially in the case of Phanix 
dactylifera. 


(3) Nutrition and Growth (including Movements of Fluids). 


Importance of the Mode of Nutrition as a means of Distinction 
between Animals and Vegetables.{—M. P. A. Dangeard considers the 
Chlamydomonadinez to form a group of the same rank as the Chytri- 
dine ; the two groups are both related to the Flagellata, but they do not 
diverge at exactly the same point. The Chytridinee are intimately allied 
to the zoosporous monads, only differing from these latter in the manner 
of nutrition; the Chlamydomonadinez appear to separate from the 
Flagellata a little higher in the series. Within these limits the deve- 
lopment between an animal and a plant does not differ sensibly. The 
author then describes in detail the mode of nutrition of Pseudaspora 
Nitellarum Cnk. and Spherita endogena Dangeard. The former species, 
when forming its sporange, introduces starch into the interior of its 
chlorophyll-grains, the starch being obtained from the protoplasm of 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.—Bot., xxiv. (1887) pp. 156-70. 

+ Gehrke, O., ‘ Beitr. z. Kenntniss d. Anat. vy. Palmenkeimlingen,’ 29 pp., Berlin, 
1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxii. (1887) p. 265. 

¢ Comptes Rendus, cy. (1887) pp. 1076-8. 


2538 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the cell of the alga in which it is found. Sphzrita endogena at no stage 
of its existence introduces solid particles in its protoplasm. We are in 
this case, then, easily able to distinguish the one from, the other; the 
former being an animal, and the latter a vegetable. 

The author concludes by stating that the Chytridines and Chlamy- 
domonadinew are two primary groups of the vegetable kingdom; the 
one being related to the alge, the other to the fungi. Their mode of 
nutrition alone allows of their vegetable nature being recognized. 


Growth of the Leaf-stalk.*—Herr P. G. Uhlitzsch compares the 
mode of growth of the leaf-stalk with that of other axial organs, and 
finds that it is governed by the same general laws. On the boundary of 
the leaf-stalk and lamina there is usually a growing-point, from which 
proceeds the activity of growth of the organ. 


Modes of Climbing in the genus Calamus.t—Prof. F. O. Bower 
states that it is of the greatest importance to climbing plants that the 
assimilating leaves should be exposed to the sunlight; and this they 
strive to effect by a straggling habit, and by the help of adaptation for 
mechanical support on other plants. If, in the case of Calamus, the 
axillary bud were developed as a flagellum, but remained inserted in 
the axil of the next lower leaf, the two members, being extended in the 
same plane and the leaf being the lower, it is improbable that the lower 
portion of the flagellum would come in contact with any support. But 
the case is otherwise when the axillary bud is displaced and adherent to 
the sheath of the next higher leaf; it is thus clear of its own subtending 
leaf, and projects freely from the shoot at a point considerably above it. 
This being so, it is probable that, as the plant straggles through and 
over the surrounding vegetation, even the lower parts of the flagellum 
will have an opportunity of affording support to the whole shoot. 

The two sections of the genus Calamus show two very distinct types 
of adaptation of the shoot to meet the exigencies of a climbing habit: 
the one developes the apex of the leaf, the other the axillary bud of the 
flagellum. Thus we see how plastic is the vegetative shoot in its mode 
of development within a single genus. 


Assimilation and Respiration of Plants.t—Herr U. Kreusler, in 
this continuation of former experiments,$ gives the details of experi- 
ments made with the shoots of the same kind of plant, Philadelphus 
grandiflorus, at different stages of growth, the temperatures of observa- 
tion being 15° and 25°. Ata temperature of 25°, a strong and marked 
decrease in assimilative power accompanies increasing age of the leaf ; 
at 15° a maximum of assimilative power is noticed in the youngest 
leaves. This power reaches its minimum at the period of blossom, and 
rises again in the oldest leaves; so that between the assimilative power 
in the youngest and in the oldest leaves there does not exist much dif- 
ference. A table showing the amount of water absorbed at the different 
temperatures is also given. 

In the second portion of this paper, amongst many statements con- 
cerning the absorption and exhalation of carbonic anhydride at different 


* Uhlitzsch, P. G., ‘ Unters. iib. d. Wachsthum d. Blattstiele,’ 62 pp. and 4 pls., 
Leipzig, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxii. (1887) p. 263. 

+ Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 125-31. 

t~ Journ. Chem. Soc. Lond., 1888, Abstr., pp. 186-7, from Bied. Centr., 1887, 
pp. 669-81, § Cf. Bied. Centr., 1887, p. 110. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 259 


temperatures, it is recorded that the range of temperature in which 
exhalation occurs is from 0-50°, and that it is greatest at the highest 
temperature, the maximum appearing to be at 46°4°. Assimilation 
seems to take place at a lower temperature than exhalation, and it is 
active at 50°; but the curve representing the relation of assimilation to 
temperature does not agree with that representing exhalation at various 
temperatures. In the case of the bramble, the maximum intensity of 
exhalation occurs at about 46°6°, whilst that of assimilation is found 
at 25°, 


Influence of Atmospheric Movement on Transpiration.* — Prof. 
J. Wiesner gives an account of his observations on the influence of 
atmospheric movements on the transpiration of plants. (1) Movements 
of the air corresponding to a medium wind yelocity for the season 
(about 3 metres per second), exercise an important influence on the 
transpiring portions of the plant. (a) Physiologically this is expressed 
in an increase, less frequently in a decrease of the transpiration. 
(6) Anatomically the influence is expressed in a narrowing or closure 
of the stomata. A plant like Sawxifraga sarmentosa closes up on the 
slightest wind velocities, while Hydrangea hortensis remains open in the 
strongest wind. 

(2) If one represents the transpiration of an organ for given time, 
conditions, and quiescent air as 1, air-movements may cause it to ascend 
to 20, or sink to 0°65. (8) The maximum influence causes an air-stream 
at right angles to the transpiring organ. (4) A sinking of the trans- 
piration ensues when by rapid and complete closure of the stomata the 
entire intercellular transpiration ceases and the epidermal transpiration 
is very slight (Saxifraga sarmentosa). 

(5) Transpiration is greatly increased by drying if the stomata of 
the organ remain open even in wind (Hydrangea hortensis). (6) With 
very vigorous epidermal transpiration there may even be a considerable 
increase, if the stomata are quickly closed (Adiantum capillus-Veneris). 
The air-movements were caused by a bladder or by rotation, and 
measured by an anemometer or by computing the rotations. 


Literature of Transpiration.;—Dr. A. Burgerstein gives an epitome 
of all works and papers on this subject published between 1672 and 1886, 
in sixteen different languages. As many as 236 different publications 
are cited, with an abstract of the contents of each. They are arranged 
chronologically. The author believes the list to include every import- 
ant paper on the subject. 


(8) Irritability. 


Movements of Irritation.t—Herr J. Wortmann has investigated the 
cause of the sensitiveness of the unicellular sporangiophore of Phycomyces. 
That the geotropic and heliotropic curvatures of this cell are not due 
to changes in turgidity is clear, since every change in the hydrostatic 
pressure affects the entire wall equally, and the curvature can only be 
the result of changes in the capacity for growth of the cell-wall caused 
by the irritation of the protoplasm, and of consequent changes in its 
elasticity and extensibility. The special object of the present inquiry 


* Biol. Centralbl., vii. (1888) pp. 667-8. SB, K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Nov. 1887. 
+ Verhandl. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxvii. (1887) pp. 691-782. 
{ Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 785-94, 801-12, 817-26, 833-43. 


260 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


is to determine the nature and the causes of the sensitiveness to con- 
tact, the set of movements termed by Errera haptotropism. 

The author found the sporangiophore of Phycomyces excessively 
sensitive to slight continuous contact, the heliotropic movements being 
comparatively very sluggish. A contact of from three to six minutes is 
sufficient in most cases to incite a decided curvature, concave on the side 
of contact ; when the pressure ceases, the curvature may either remain 
or continue. ‘This sensitiveness is limited to the growing region of the 
cell; in mature plants no curvature takes place. The strongest curva- 
ture is not, however, necessarily at the point of contact, but always at 
the point of most vigorous growth, but it must always commence at the 
exact point of contact. Phycomyces behaves, in fact, exactly like a 
growing tendril. 

As in geotropic, heliotropic, and hydrotropic curvatures, so these 
haptotropic curvatures of Phycomyces are always accompanied by a 
peculiar change in the distribution of the protoplasm, which accumu- 
lates on the concave as contrasted with the convex side. This change 
commences as soon as the curvature begins, and when this ceases the 
protoplasm again assumes its uniform distribution. This accumulation 
of protoplasm on the concave side of the cell is unquestionably the 
result of an actual transfer from one side to the other; and it is always 
accompanied by an increase in the thickness of the cell-wall. The cell- 
wall may be more than twice as thick on the concave as on the convex 
side. This increase in thickness of the cell-wall is the cause of the 
curvature, increasing its elasticity and decreasing its extensibility. 
The cell-protoplasm behaves, in fact, like a free plasmodium until its 
motion is arrested by the cell-wall where it accumulates. This is 
followed by a change in the constitution of the cell-wall, and this again 
by the action of turgidity on the altered cell-wall. 

Similar results, in their main features, were obtained with other 
unicellular organs, such as the cells of Saprolegnia, root-hairs, &e. 

Passing now to the consideration of the corresponding phenomena in 
multicellular organs—roots, stems, nodes of grasses, leaf-stalks, tendrils, 
climbing stems, &c.—no such accumulation of protoplasm can be 
iletected on the irritated side of the separate cells; the alternative that 
the entire multicellular organ acts like a single cell can be proved to be 
the correct one. On the concave side of the organs named, the cells are 
always found to contain more protoplasm than those on the convex side; 
and the same is true of roots which display geotropic curvatures ; and 
the accumulation of protoplasm is in proportion to the degree of 
curvature. 

This change in the distribution of the protoplasm in a multicellular 
organism can only take place by the transference of the protoplasm 
from cell to cell, and hence necessitates the assumption of a continuity 
of protoplasm throughout the organ, an assumption the correctness of 
which the author has amply demonstrated, both in the cortical and in 
the medullary parenchyma; this continuity is especially clearly seen in 
the growing points immediately behind the apex of the root. The 
irritation of the organ in question acts therefore not on a number of 
protoplasts, but on a single one capable of passing through the perfora- 
tions in the cell-walls. Just as in unicellular organs, this accumulation 
of protoplasm is accompanied by an increase in the thickness of the 
ccll-wall ; and this thickening is so energetic that it is perfectly visible 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 261 


to the naked eye in thin sections of stems of Phaseolus multiflorus that 
are allowed to lie for thirty-six or forty-eight hours ina horizontal posi- 
tion ; a very great thickening of the cell-walls having taken place on 
the upper side, exposed to the irritation of direct sunlight in the whole 
of the cortical parenchyma, including the epidermal cells. 

The author believes that these observations will throw great light 
on certain phenomena at present difficult of explanation, such as latent 
irritation and the secondary action. 


Irritability of the Stamens of Echinocactus.*— Mr. T. Meehan 
notes the great irritability of the stamens of Echinocactus ottonis, a 


phenomenon already recorded in many species of Opuntia and allied 
genera. 


(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 


Sources of the Nitrogen of Vegetation.t —Sir J. B. Lawes and 
Prof. J. H. Gilbert in this paper discuss the present position of the 
question of the sources of the nitrogen of vegetation, and also indicate 
some new lines of investigation which they are following up. In earlier 
papers, the authors had concluded that, excepting the small amount of 
combined nitrogen annually coming down in rain, and the minor 
aqueous deposits from the atmosphere, the source of the nitrogen of our 
crops was substantially the stores within the soil and subsoil, whether 
derived from previous accumulations, or from recent supplies by manure. 
More recently it has been shown that the amount of nitrogen as nitric 
acid in the soil was much less after the growth of a crop than under 
comparable conditions without a crop. After giving the details of 
numerous experiments performed by themselves and others, the authors 
conclude by stating that whether or not the lower organisms may 
be proved to have the power of bringing free nitrogen into combination, 
it at any rate would not be inconsistent with well-established facts, 
were it found that the lower serve the higher by bringing into an avail- 
able condition the large stores of combined nitrogen already existing, 
but in a comparatively inert state, in our soils and subsoils. 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 
Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


Conversion of Fertile into Sterile Fronds.{—Herr K. Goebel has 
succeeded in converting the fertile sporophylls of Onoclea Struthiopteris 
into barren green fronds, or rather in hindering the metamorphosis of 
the latter into the former. This fern is distinguished by having three 
distinct kinds of leaf, the fertile fronds, the barren fronds, and “ cata- 
phyllary leaves” which appear not only on the stolons, but also as bud- 
scales inclosing the hibernating terminal bud. These are all modifications 
of ordinary foliage leaves. The barren and fertile fronds differ from one 
another in many important points of structure, as well as in the time 
of their appearance, the former unfolding at the commencement, the 
latter at the close of the period of vegetation. If at the end of June all 
the barren fronds are removed, the fronds which subsequently unfold will 
display all kinds of transitional ‘stages between the two forms, their 

* Proc. Acad. Sci. Philad., 1887, p. 332. 

+ Proc. Roy. Soc., xliii. (1887) pp. 108-16. 

{ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. (Gen.-Versamml. Heft), vy, (1887) pp. Ixix.—-Ixxiv. 


262 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


conversion into fertile fronds being more or less impeded by the removal 
of the barren fronds. Similar intermediate forms are also not uncommon 
in nature, and correspond to the transition between barren and fertile 
stems in some species of Hquisetum. 

Formation of Gemmez in Trichomanes.* — Prof. F. O. Bower de- 
scribes the formation of peculiar outgrowths on the frond of Trichomanes 
alatum. The first kind were ribbon-shaped prolongations of the laciniz 
of the frond, resembling prothallia in structure, and bearing spindle- 
shaped gemme seated on sterigmata. The second were long protonema- 
like filaments widening ultimately into flat prothallium-like expansions, 
which also bore stalked gemma. Although no antheridia or archegonia 
were observed, Prof. Bower believes these structures to be prothallia 
produced by apospory. 

Enterosora.t—In his description of the plants obtained by Mr. Im 
Thurn in his expedition in 1884 to Roraima, British Guiana, Mr. 
J. G. Baker describes under this name a new genus of ferns with the 
habit of Gymnogramme, but displaying a singular peculiarity in the 
position of the sporangia. They are seated at the base of globular 
chambers in the under surface of the leaf which open only by a very 
narrow fissure, so that they are almost entirely hidden. 


Life-history of Lycopodium. {—Dr. M. Treub suggests that a more 
natural classification than any hitherto proposed of the species of 
Lycopodium may be based on the structure of the oophyte generation. 
He points out that there are three distinct types of prothallium in the 
genus, viz.:—(1) the annotinum type (not sufficiently known); (2) the 
cernuum type, and (3) the Phlegmaria type. He has now studied the 
structure of the oophyte generation in four fresh species of Lycopodium. 

In L. carinatum the prothallium appears exactly to resemble that of 
L. Phlegmaria ; and in L. Hippuris and L. nummularizfolium to be of the 
same type but much larger and thicker; while in another lycopod raised 
from spores, probably a new species, the prothallium is of the cernuwm 
type, though differing considerably from that of that species. 

In L. cernuum the root-tops change into propagating organs of a 
remarkable form. These root-gemme or bulbs produce, on germinating, 
young plants very much like those which come forth from prothallia. 


Prothallium of Equisetum.s—Dr. O. Buchtien has made a careful 
series of observations on the developmont of the prothallium of several 
species of Equisetum, especially E. arvense, pratense, and sylvaticum. 

One of the chief points brought out in these investigations is the 
difference in the development of the male and female prothallia. In 
the male prothallia septa in two directions, transverse and longitudinal, 
continue to arise, but very few lobes are formed, and, with rare ex- 
ceptions, these always remain sterile. The first antheridium is formed 
about four weeks after the germination of the spore. The mature 
male prothallium is smaller than the female, and of a yellower-green 
colour. In the female prothallium, the central portion soon becomes 
several layers of cells in thickness, by tangential as well as transverse 
and longitudinal division-walls; a few cells, distinguished by their 


* Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 183-4. 

+ Trans. Linn, Soc. Lond.—Bot., ii. (1887) p. 294 (1 pl.). 

; Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 119-23. Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 621. 

§ Uhlworm and Haenlein’s Biblioth. Bot., Heft viii, 49 pp. and 6 pls., 1887. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 263 


abundant protoplasm, swell out on the shaded side of this portion and 
grow into a lobe, one cell of which developes into an archegonium. 
The ultimate position of the archegonium is between two lobes which 
inclose it like a funnel and serve to hold the moisture which is essential 
to its impregnation. From experiments made by the author, it would 
appear that an abundant supply of nutriment is favourable to the forma- 
tion of female, a scanty supply to the formation of male prothallia. 

In the mode of formation of the spermatozoids the author’s conclusions 
differ somewhat from those of previous observers. He states that in 
none of the higher eryptogams does a disappearance of the nucleus of 
the mother-cell take place; the nucleus, on the contrary, developes 
directly into the spermatozoid, the cilia being formed from the cell-pro- 
toplasm. The bladder which is so frequently attached to the posterior 
part of the spermatozoid, he regards as the remains of the mother-cell. 

The structure of the prothallium appears to the author to indicate 
_ that the Equisetaceze are more nearly allied to the Lycopodiacex than 

to the Filices. 


Leaves of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron.*—M. B. Renault states 
a number of well-preserved leaves of Sigillaria have been met with in 
a railway cutting near Dracy-Saint-Loup. They are long and rigid, and 
in transverse sections are subtriangular. In the centre of the section is 
a single vascular bundle. The outermost layer consists of an epidermis 
composed of thickened rectangular cells. 

The transverse section of the leaves of Lepidodendron selaginoides is 
rhomboidal in shape, the greater diameter being horizontal. In the 
centre of the section is a single vascular bundle; between the bundles 
and the edges of the leaf are two round cavities. Occasionally these 
cavities, which are only to be found at the base of the leaf, are filled by 
a group of large cells. The author suggests that the destruction of these 
cells may have formed a secretory canal. 


Muscines. 


Absorption of Water and its Relation to the Constitution of the 
Cell-wall in Mosses.t—Mr. J. R. Vaizey chose Polytrichum commune 
for his observations on the absorption of water in mosses. He obtained 
stems of this species some 15-20 em. in length, and placed them with 
their cut ends in water, about half an inch being below the surface. 
Placed in a cool room with a dry atmosphere, in less than half an hour 
all the leaves except the last half-dozen nearest the water were withered. 
The author then treated sections from various parts of the plant with 
different reagents. From the reactions obtained it is obvious that the 
epidermis of the seta, apophysis, and sporangium is strongly cuticularized, 
and that there is on the outside of the epidermis a distinct cuticle. 

The hypodermal sterome appears from the reaction to contain both 
lignin and cutin, and consequently must be regarded as suberized. 
From the condition of the cell-walls, the leaves are the chief organ for 
absorbing water, as well as for carrying on assimilation in the oophyte. 


Peristome of Mosses.;—M. Philibert states that great differences 
exist in the structure of the external peristome in mosses. In a small 
number of families (i.e. Nematodontex) it is composed of filaments 


* Comptes Rendus, ev. (1887) pp. 1087-9. + Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 147-52. 
t Rev. Bryol., xiv. (1887) pp. 81-90. Cf. this Journal, 1887 p. 275. 


264 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


without transverse articulations; but in the Arthrodontez the teeth are 
articulated. 

An internal peristome has never been observed in the Aplolepidex ; 
it is present, however, in nearly all the families of the Diplolepidee. 
The internal peristome is composed of two membranous lamine, but the 
plates composing each lamina are thinner, softer, more difficult to 
separate, and often more difficult to distinguish, than is the case with 
the corresponding plates in the external peristome. In some species, 
however, the lines bordering the plates form two rosettes which are 
easily distinguishable. The plates which are placed on the dorsal 
face of the external peristome correspond to the ventral plates of the 
teeth ; they are the same in number, and are exactly opposite to the 
latter. There is thus at each stage of elevation of the internal peristome 
a circle of sixteen plates, which originate in the same layer of cells as 
the ventral plates of the external peristome ; they represent the internal 
vertical divisions of these cells, the ventral plates of the teeth being the 
external divisions. The horizontal divisions are represented by lamella 
which project at the articulations. In certain species these lamellae of 
the teeth adhere to the internal peristome, and the primitive cells remain 
entire, except on their lateral faces where a thickening of the divisions 
occasionally takes place. The internal peristomial membrane, which 
remains undivided in its lower part, shows a dorsal network formed of 
sixteen vertical equidistant lines, and numerous horizontal lines which 
are parallel and very near to one another. The author takes Mniwm 
orthorrhynchum as an example of the species in which the two networks are 
easily distinguishable, and describes their structure somewhat in detail. 
Tf a transverse section be made of a young capsule of M. orthorrhynchum 
a little above the point where the two peristomes originate, we see them 
not as two concentric circles, but as sixteen semi-cylindrical cavities. In 
the interior of these cavities the ventral lamelle of the teeth arise hori- 
zontally in the form of semi-elliptical plates, without touching the 
membrane that surrounds them. 

We have here then the sixteen series of primitive cells from which 
the two peristomes are formed ; but on account of the unequal thickening 
of their different elements the two systems of plates of which they are 
composed cease to adhere together, and they become free. 


Hybrid Mosses.*— Dr. C. Sanio records the occurrence of hybrid 
mosses in the section Harpidiew, viz. between Hypnum fluitans and 
aduncum, and between H. lycopodioides and fluitans, giving rise to a great 
variety of forms. In only one of these did the vegetative organs present 
a true species; in the remainder the hybrid character was manifested, 
especially in the vegetative portions, while the fructification was very 
little or not at all altered. 


Distribution of Hepaticze.{— Dr. C. Massalongo classifies the Italian 
species of Hepatice ; first, according to their habitat, viz. (1) aquatic 
(Riccia fluitans and natans) ; (2) calcicolous ; (8) silicicolous ; (4) sapro- 
phytic ; (5) hygrophilous ; (6) xerophilous ; (7) indifferent. Secondly, 
they are classified according to altitude ; and thirdly, geographically, 
according to the other countries of Europe in which they are found. 
A useful epitome of the structure of the various organs is appended. 


* Hedwigia, xxvi. (1887) pp. 194-214. 
+ Atti Congr. Naz. Bot. Critt. Parma, Sept. 1887, pp. 13-27. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 265 


Alge. 


Phycophein.*—Herr F. Schiitt has separated this pigment from 
others with which it is associated in a number of brown and olive sea- 
weeds from the North Sea :—Fucus vesiculosus, F. serratus, Desmarestia 
aculeata, Ozothallia nodosa, and others. It can be completely extracted 
from the living plant by triturating and treating with hot water. 
The absorption-spectrum of phycophwin presents no strongly marked 
characters. It exhibits no characteristic bands, but a regular increase 
of absorption from the red towards the blue end of the spectrum. The 
pigment appears to be identical in the species examined ; but that from 
Fucus vesiculosus showed a slightly divergent absorption-spectrum, and 
slight difference also in its chemical reactions from that obtained from 
the other species. 


Development of the Thallus of certain Alge.t — According to 
M. F. Debray, the statement that there is in the thallus of Chylocladia, 
Champia, and Lomentaria, a single apical cell, is incorrect. The grow- 
ing point situated at the end of the branches is composed of several 
independent generating cells placed round the summit. From each of 
these is formed, by repeated transverse septa, a longitudinal row, each 
cell of which divides again tangentially into a cortical cell and one 
lying at a greater depth. 

Sieve-tubes in the Laminariex. t— Mr. F. W. Oliver describes the 
occurrence of true sieve-tubes with sieve-plates in the genera Nereocystis 
and Macrocystis. 

In a transverse section of the stem of any species of Laminariez, the 
central strand consists of a meshwork of hyphe imbedded in mucilage, 
among which are a number of narrow tubes, without septa, except at 
certain points where the hypha is swollen up spherically. Across this 
enlarged portion runs a septum which is considered to represent a sieve- 
plate. These tubes are known as sieve-hyphe or trumpet-hyphx, and 
are universal in all genera of Laminariee. In Macrocystis and Nereo- 
cystis, surrounding this central strand of hyphe, is a zone of tubes with 
thick walls, which are true sieve-tubes, and resemble to an extraordinary 
degree those of Cucurbita. Callus occurs in both the trumpet-hyphe and 
the sieve-tubes of these two genera; but not, as a general rule, in the 
other genera of Laminariee. 

Between the trumpet-hyphx and the zone of sieve-tubes there run 
strands of ordinary hyphal tissue. In the trumpet-hyphe, at any rate, 
the author believes that the callus is formed directly from the cell-wall. 
In the sieve-tubes sieve-plates occur, not only in the septa, but also on 
the vertical cell-walls. The callus formation takes place on both kinds 
of plate, and ultimately completely obliterates the perforations. It is 
found at no other part of the wall except the sieve-plates, which is not 
the case with the trumpet-hyphe. The formation of this callus takes 
place at an early period in the history of the sieve-tubes. Its properties 
agree altogether with those of the callus in the sieve-tubes of Phane- 
rogams. 

The author points out the analogy between the occurrence of sieve- 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. 259 -74 (1 pl.). 

+ Bull. Scient. Départ. Nord, ix., 16 pp. and 4 figs. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 
xxxiv. (1887), Rey. Bibl., p. 160. 

{ Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 95-117 (2 pls.). 


266 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


tubes in Macrocystis and Nereocystis, in which the stem attains an enor- 
mous length without any corresponding increase in thickness, and in a 
weak climbing stem like Cucurbita ; while in the allied genus Lessonia, 
which has a very stout and erect stem with long-continued secondary 
growth in thickness, they are altogether wanting. 


Development of Confervacee.*—Herr G. Lagerheim has investigated 
the life-history of Conferva bombycina and of some species of Microspora, 
belonging to the Confervaceze, under which family he includes the genera 
Binuclearia, Cheetomorpha, Conferva, Hormiscia, Microspora, Rhizoclonium, 
Ulothriz, and Ulospora. 

The cells of Conferva bombycina contain several small disc-shaped 
parietal chromatophores without pyrenoids or starch, and a single 
nucleus. From each cell may be produced either one or two zoospores ; 
in the latter case the cell-contents are first divided in two by a colourless 
septum of protoplasm ; the cuticle of the cell is converted into mucilage 
before the escape of the zoospores. These are elongated ovate bodies 
provided with a single small disc-shaped chromatophore and a single 
cilium, but no red pigment-spot; their movement is not dissimilar to 
that of a Euglena. The young Conferva-filament springing from it has 
at first the appearance of a Characium. These correspond to the mega-~ 
zoospores of Wille, two different kinds not having been observed in this 
species. They very closely resemble the uniciliated megazoospores of 
Botrydium. 

Resting-cells are also formed in this species, either one, two, or four 
proceeding from a single cell of the filament, by the cell-contents 
rounding off, and inclosing themselves with a cell-wall while still within 
the parent-cell. They correspond, therefore, to the aplanospores of 
Wille. They hibernate within the dead cells of the parent-filament, and 
germinate in the spring. Resting swarm-cells are also formed in the 
same way. These escape from the parent-cells without any cellulose- 
coat, move about with an amceboid motion, finally come to rest, and coat 
themselves with a wall of cellulose. Whether these, on germination, 
produce zoospores, has not been observed. 

The formation of the megazoospores of Microspora was observed in 
M. Wiilleana n. sp. and stagnorum. The parent-cells contain several 
ribbon-shaped chromatophores and starch, but no pyrenoids, and a single 
nucleus. The zoospores are of two kinds. 'The megazoospores are pro- 
duced either singly or two in each parent-cell, their size varying between 
10 and 14,; they are biciliated; they have no pigment-spot; the 
chlorophyll is moderately uniformly distributed over the periphery, and 
contains starch-grains. They appear to pass through a period of rest 
before germinating. Megazoospores are occasionally produced with four 
cilia ; they probably germinate in the same way. Resting-spores and 
resting swarm-spores of the same kind as those in Conferva bombycina 
were also observed in M. Willeana. 

The author considers the above characters quite sufficient to keep 
apart the genera Conferva and Microspora, though several species usually 
placed under the former must be transferred to the latter genus. He 
also regards them without doubt as fully developed alge, and not as 
stages of development of higher alge. 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. 409-17. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 267 


Algological Studies.*—Dr. A. Hansgirg has collected into a volume 
the results of observations already published elsewhere on the following 
points, viz. :—-(1) The structure and phenomena of motion of the 
Oscillariacee ; (2) the polymorphism of alge; (3) the classification of 
some fresh-water alge ; (4) the alge of Bohemia; (5) alga-like proto- 
nemata of mosses. The following additional observations are made :— 

The genus Glaucothrix Krch. should be united to Plectonema among 
Cyanophycee. 

The genus Allogonium is identified with Asterocystis Gobi and 
Chroodactylon Hansg., and the name must take precedence of all other 
synonyms. 

Xenococcus (Kerneri) is distinguished by marked generic characters 
from most other Chamesiphonacew and Chroococcace. 

The blue-green swarm-cells described by Ehrenberg, Perty, Stein, 
Schmitz, and Zopf, and previously regarded by the author as derived 
from various Schizophycee, he now treats as a separate group of 
Phycochromacee under the name Cryptoglenacez. 

There is a genetic connection between the Euglenes, which are 
reckoned among the Flagellate and the Phycochromacee, especially the 
Oscillariacee. 

The Cylindrocapsa found by Hansgirg in the botanical garden at Prag 
is apparently a variety of C. geminella Wolle. ‘The genus belongs to 
the oogamous Confervoidex, but must be separated from Spheroplea, and 
established as the sole representative hitherto known of a new family. 

Ulvella lens is nearly related to Enteromorpha and Ulva, and appears 
to be a protonema-like structure of these Ulvacee. 

The author is unable at present to assign their exact systematic 
position to Protoderma viride Ktz. and Hormospora Bréb. 


Spheroplea.t—M. N. W. P. Rauwenhoff has afresh examined the 
structure and development of this very rare alga. The comparative 
length and breadth of the cells he finds to vary to an extraordinary 
degree ; sometimes the former will hardly exceed the latter, while in 
other cases it may be as much as ninety times as great. The plant is 
moneecious, and the number of oogonia and antheridia, as a rule, very 
nearly the same. Sometimes alternate cells will be transformed into 
the two different kinds of organ respectively. The author observed 
plants consisting only of two cells, one of each kind. The fertilized 
oospores generally hibernate within the parent-cells, the contents having 
changed to a brick-red colour, and it is only in the spring that there 
escape from each oospore three or four zoospores. The usual size of 
the oospores is about 0:02 mm.; the outer wall is strongly cuticularized 
and verrucose. As each zoospore escapes from the oospore, forcing 
itself through an orifice in its thick wall, it changes its form from 
ellipsoidal to vermiform ; after its escape it again becomes pyriform or 
fusiform, and is furnished with two cilia. This developes directly into 
the young alga, consisting at first of a single fusiform cell with both 
extremities elongated into a flagelliform point. 

After the unicellular filament of Sphzroplea has obtained a certain 


* Hansgirg, A., Physiol. u. Algol. Studien, 187 pp. and 4 pls., Prag, 1887. See 
Bot. Centralbl., xxxii. (1887) p. 226. Cf. this Journal, 1884, p. 485; 1885, pp. 495, 
684, 1037 ; 1887, pp. 125, 623. 

+ Arch. Néerl. Sci. Exact. et Nat., xxii. (1887) pp. 91-144 (@ pls.). Cf. this 
Journal, 1883, p. 888. 


268 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


length, a transverse wall makes its appearance, which is then followed 
by others. These transverse walls are of great thickness, often ten 
times as thick as the lateral walls ; and their surface is irregularly wavy, 
giving them great refringency. For a time there is not unfrequently a 
circular orifice in the middle of these “beams.” In addition to these 
there are “irregular” septa, consisting simply of excrescences of 
cellulose from the lateral and longitudinal walls. While the outer walls 
grow by intussusception, the transverse walls grow by the apposition of 
layers of cellulose. The orifices in the walls of both antheridia and 
oogones, through which the spermatozoids reach tlhe oosphere, appear to 
be formed during the development of these organs. 

On the point of the presence of a nucleus in the cells of Sphzroplea, 
Rauwenhoff corrects his former statement, and now asserts that, by the 
use of the proper reagents, a larger number of very small nuclei can be 
detected in the mature cell. The very young plant contains a single 
nucleus with a distinct nucleolus ; at a later period two may be seen, 
and then the number rapidly increases, probably by division. 

Ulothrix crenulata.*—From an examination of this alga, found 
growling on the trunks of trees, M. E. de Wildeman confirms the obser- 
vations of Gay t on the formation of cysts in the Chlorosporee. A 
gradual transformation of the cells of this species takes place into a 
form indistinguishable from Pleurococcus, exceedingly similar to the 
corresponding changes in U. radicans. The form known as Schizogonium 
may probably be regarded as another phase in the life-history of the 
same organism. 

Alga epiphytic on a Tortoise.t—Mr. M. C. Potter describes an alga, 
previously detected by Peter,§ and named by him Dermatophyton radicans, 
growing principally on the dorsal surface of the carapace of the water- 
tortoise, Clemmys caspica, where it forms irregular roundish dark-green 
patches often about 1/4 of an inch in diameter. No sexual reproduction 
was observed, the alga being propagated by means of zoospores formed 
from the outermost layers of cells, without conjugation. The author 
considers it probable that it must be ranked under the Ulvacez. 

Formation of Auxospores in Diatoms.||—Herr F. Schiitt states that 
in the genera Rhizosolenia, Orthosira, Melosira, and other forms nearly re- 
lated, he has been able to detect no indication of any process of sexual 
reproduction. In Cocconema, Frustulia, and most Naviculaces, two 
naked cells, separated by gelatinous layers, lie side by side, but do not 
unite, each of them becoming an auxospore. In Himantidium (Eunotia) 
the two naked juxtaposed cells unite into a single auxospore; while in 
Epithemia the two cells divide transversely, the two halves of each cell, 
which lie opposite to one another, uniting into an auxospore; each 
anxospore therefore including one-half the contents of the two cells. 


Fungi. 
New Forms of Mycorhiza.—Herr B. Frank states that he has 
observed the following distinct colours in mycorhiza-filaments on the 


* CR. Soc. R. Bot. Belg., 1887, pp. 119-23. + See this Journal, 1887, p. 277. 
¢ Journ. Linn. Soc, Lond.—Bot., xxiy. (1887) pp. 251-4 (1 pl.). 
§ See this Journal, 1887, p. 123. 
|| Biol. Centralbl., vi. (1887). Cf. this Journal, 1886, p. 832. 
ae Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. 395-409 (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, 1886, 
p- 113. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 269 


roots of beeches and on Monotropa growing beneath them, viz. :— 
(1) Chalk-white, in which there is no true pigment, but the colour is 
caused by a coating of minute crystals of calcium oxalate ; (2) pale pink, 
both on the beech and on Monotropa; (3) pale violet; (4) orange; 
(5) golden yellow; (6) reddish brown. With regard to the degree of 
connection of the parasitic fungus with the root, he distinguished 
between ectotropic mycorhiza, in which the fungus clothes the root only 
with an external coating, and endotropic, in which it attacks the cells of 
the root itself. 

Of ectotropic mycorhiza far the most frequent is the ordinary corai- 
like form. A second form occurs with long branches and root-hair-like 
lateral organs. This has been observed on beech-roots, and completely 
resembles externally ordinary roots not attacked by mycorhiza. The 
external fungus-coating has here an extraordinary thickness, equal to 
half the radius of the root itself, and consists of ordinary pseudo- 
parenchymatous clements, the hyphe closely united together into 
‘ parallel bands. A third form of ectotropic mycorhiza occurs on the 
roots of Pirus Pinaster from the Cape. The roots are covered with 
patent hair-like filaments resembling coarse root-hairs. These are very 
short and ‘slender branches of the root so densely covered with mycorhiza 
that the coating may even be as thick as the diameter of the root-branch. 

Of endotropie mycorhizas, one of the most remarkable forms is that 
of the roots of Ericacez (as well as Empetrum).* The roots infested by 
it are distinguished by their very small diameter, from 0-03 to 0:07 mm., 
their very simple internal structure, and the entire absence of root-hairs. 
The epidermis forms the principal part of the root, and its cells are 
filled with a colourless mass consisting of the mycorhiza-hyphe, which 
constitute a pseudo-parenchymatous tissue somewhat of the nature of a 
sclerotium, but distinguished by the extreme minuteness of its elements. 
The root-cap is, in these cases, reduced to a rudimentary condition. 
The mycorhiza was not found on the roots of other heath and marsh- 
plants growing in similar situations. 

Another form of endotropic mycorhiza is that of the roots and 
rhizomes of Orchidext occurring in the interior of the cortical paren- 
chymatous cells in the form of a ball of interwoven hyph, which pierce 
through the walls of the cells. It occurs invariably in non-chlorophyllous 
orchids, such as Neottia nidus-avis, Corallorhiza innata, and Epipogon 
Gmelini, and is essential to the absorption by the roots of nutrient sub- 
stances. The nature of the symbiosis is here one of mutual assistance ; 
the protoplasmic body of the cell of the root and that of the fungus con- 
tained in it carry on their existence side by side, without the former 
being affected parasitically by the latter or its vital processes injured. 


Abnormal Fructification of Agaricus procerus.j—Dr. R. von 
Wettstein describes a specimen of this fungus in which three additional 
pilei sprang on the underside of the primary one from between the 
lamelle. All were fully developed. 


Sexuality of Ustilaginee.s—Sig. F. Morini has made some obser- 
vations on the question of the sexuality of Ustilaginee. In a previous 
paper he had regarded the fusion of the conidia as an asexual copulation, 


* See this Journal, ante, p. 86. + See this Journal, 1886, p. 1029. 
+ Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xxxvii. (1887) pp. 414-5 (1 fig.). 

§ Mem. Acead, Sci. Bologna, vi. (1886) pp. 283-90. 

1888. U 


270 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


and had noted the influence exercised by changes in the nutritive condi- 
tion of the substratum, the evolution of each conidium, whether free or 
anastomosed, and the absence of any direct advantage in the sexual 
process. In water, whether rain, spring, or distilled, the phenomena of 
fusion were never observed. In decoction of Carex leaves, and in other 
nutritive solutions, the fusion was observed, the less rapidly the more 
nutritive the fluid. Three types of union were noted: apposition by the 
apices, apposition at an angle, apposition in H-form. In the fusion of 
the conidia of Tolyposporium an essential condition is the progressive 
diminution of the nutritive capacity of the substratum. 

Passing to a review of the phenomena of fusion in Ustilagines 
generally, the author notes two forms in which it occurs in water— 
(a) fusion of spores, (b) fusion of the points of the germinal tube of the 
spores. In the latter case (1) two segments of the same tube may be 
apposed ; or (2) two segments of the same filament, separated by one or 
more points, may unite ; or (3) two segments of distinct tubes may come 
together. After discussing these, Sig. Morini describes the germination 
of the spores in a nutritive solution. In Tilletia sp., and in Entyloma the 
spores do not germinate ; in a second series ( U. Maydis, U. Vaillantii, &e.) 
they pass through the usual saprophytic phases, and the conidia remain 
always free; in U. Betonice, U. longissima, and Tolyposporium cocconit 
fusion is observed when the nutritive medium begins to be exhausted. 
After discussing these facts, and corroborating his previously expressed 
opinion, the author emphasizes that those who would insist on sexuality 
have to explain an extraordinary complication of apogamy, partheno- 
genesis, isogamy, incipient heterogamy, and useless sterile sexuality. 
He gives other reasons for maintaining that the fusion of conidia in 
Ustilaginez is an asexual conjugation. 


Germination of the Spores in Ustilago.*—Following up his pre- 
vious researches, Sig. F. Morini has made a special study of the germi- 
nation of the spores in Ustilago Vaillantii. His general conclusions are 
as follows:—(1) In spring water, filaments are formed, more or less 
long, generally somewhat branched; each spore usually germinates from 
two opposite points; (2) in rain water, the direct formation of filaments 
is much more reduced; short tubes are formed, but not abundantly, and 
these finally give rise to short filaments ; (3) in nutritive solutions, the 
spores form simple tubes, frequently forming a short branch, which 
reproduce by budding ; when the medium begins to be exhausted longer 
filaments are formed, more frequently branched, and separating off 
terminal portions as ovoid cells; these new elements, somewhat like 
conidia, occur only on a restricted number of filaments, and have no 
special disposition on the hypha; (4) finally, when the nutritive medium 
is exhausted, a double formative activity is exhibited, destined to pre- 
serve the fungus in a latent state ; on the one hand, there is a formation 
analogous to the chlamydospores of Mucorini; on the other hand, a 
process similar to the budding prolification of the spores and of the 
mycelial tubes of some Mucorini, and to the gemmiferous segmentation 
of some micronematous Hyphomycetes. 

Tremella fimetaria.t—M. E. Boudier states that since Schumacher 
in 1881 described Tremella fimetaria, this species has not been found 


* Mem. Accad. Sci. Bologna, vi. (1886) pp. 689-94 (1 pl.). 
+ Morot’s Journ. Bot., i. (1887) pp. 330-3. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. Die 


by any mycologist. The author, however, had the good fortune to find 
it early in last November, on horse dung, in the forest of Montmorency. 
It formed little tubercules of a vinous red colour, which were 1 to 4 mm. 
in diameter and 1 to 2 mm. in thickness. They resemble little groups 
of Ascophanus carneus. These tubercules were hard and not gelatinous ; 
they were formed of septated and ramifying filaments, which were 2 to 
3 » in diameter. The spores were colourless, ovoid-oblong, slightly 
fusiform, and finely granular in the interior. The fructification is not 
that of the true Tremellz, but of the genus Helicobasidium. This, then, 
will form a new species in that genus under the name Helicobasidium 
jimetarium. 


New Genera of Ascomycetes, Oleina and Podocapsa.*—M. P. Van 
Tieghem describes two new genera of Ascomycetes, which he states are 
especially interesting, as they form their asci without any phenomena 
which may be interpreted as an expression of sexuality. 

Oleina was discovered when making researches on the vegetation 
occurring in oil. The thallus is composed of straight filaments, septated 
and branched, and projecting here and there into theoil. The filaments 
resemble those found in other Ascomycetes, notably Aspergillus clavatus. 
Here and there towards the edge of the cultures certain branches are 
septated more closely, and the short cells thus separated become of an 
ovoid or spherical form. These are the cysts, and are analogous to 
these found among the Mucorini, where they are called chlamydospores. 
When the thallus has fully developed it produces asci, varying in position 
according to the species. 

Podocapsa was observed as a singular production on the surface of 
the sporangiferous filaments of a Mucor. Each individual was composed 
of an ovoid, polysporous ascus, borne on a cylindrical pedicel, and 
attached to the Mucor by three or four cells at the base. The whole 
was not more than 0°04 mm. in height. The ascus is separated from 
the pedicel by a transverse wall, and incloses 32 colourless fusiform 
spores, 8 » long by 3 p broad, which are agglomerated together for 
some time by a gelatinous substance. 


Asci of Penicillium crustaceum.f — Herr H. Zukal does not agree 
with Brefeld in his statement that the sclerotia of this fungus are the 
result of an act of impregnation. He finds the mode of their forma- 
tion to be altogether analogous to that of the sclerotia of Aspergillus, 
from the vegetative intertwining of perfectly equivalent hyphe. After 
remaining at rest for a period of four or five weeks, the central portion 
of the sclerotium degenerates and becomes converted into mucilage. 
From the inner wall of the hollow thus formed proceeded delicate hyphe, 
which in eight or nine weeks produced the asci. 


Formation of Sporangia and Spores in the Saprolegniexw.j{—Herr 
W. Rothert has examined the mode of development of the sporangia in 
this order, especially in Saprolegnia Thureti and monoica. The results 
differ in some points from those attained by Strasburger and Biisgen. 

The earlier stages in the separation of the sporangium from the 
sporangiophore are described in detail. Before the differentiation of the 


* Morot’s Journ. Bot. i. (1887) pp. 289-96 (2 figs.). 
+ SB. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxvii. (1887) p. 66. 
t SB. Krak. Akad. Wiss., xvii. (1887) pp. 1-67 (1 pl.). Bot. Centralbl., xxxii, 
(1887) p. 322. 
v2 


272 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


spores the protoplasm may be distributed in the sporangium in three 
different ways, viz. (1) the whole of the sporangium is filled with pro- 
toplasm ; (2) the protoplasm forms a parietal layer of the same thickness 
as the height of the subsequent layer of spores; (3) the protoplasm 
forms a parietal layer of variable thickness, but always less than the 
height of the subsequent layer of spores. Of these the second case is 
the commonest. Immediately before the differentiation of the spores the 
appendage is formed, usually at the apex of the sporangium. In the 
earlier stages of the differentiation of the spores, the entire parietal layer 
of protoplasm forms itself into a network, consisting of polyhedral 
portions of nearly uniform size. These are separated by narrow, deep 
vertical indentations, but are not yet differentiated into spores. Where 
the protoplasm occupies the whole of the sporangium, the latter is 
entirely filled up by this network. After this condition has lasted for 
a few minutes, the rudiments of the spores swell up so as to come into 
close contact with one another, small vacuoles are formed, which rapidly 
increase in size and then suddenly disappear, and the spores then become 
rounded off and distinctly differentiated. The formation of the cilia was 
distinctly observed, making their appearance as short hairs with slow 
oscillating movement, and then growing rapidly in length, their oscilla- 
tions increasing at the same time in rapidity. The spores now exhibit 
a vibrating movement, which assumes a more lively character shortly 
before their escape. About the time that the cilia are being formed, a 
very peculiar process takes place. At certain spots warts are formed on 
the spores, which gradually elongate, and finally become separated as 
lumps of protoplasm of variable sizes, often one-third the diameter of the 
spore. These move about for a time with a dancing motion, and then 
become absorbed again into the same spore from which they sprang, 
without apparently producing any change init. If not again taken up, 
others are formed in the same way; and this lasts for some minutes. 
The spores escape in succession one after another, the first being ejected 
with some violence. 

The process, as described above, is essentially the same also in other 
species of Saprolegnia, in -Achlya polyandra and oblongata, Dictyuchus 
clavatus and Leptomitus lacteus. Notwithstanding statements to the 
contrary, the mode of formation of the sporangia in Aphanomyces is also 
essentially the same as that in the other genera of the family. 

Herr Rothert also investigated the mode of formation of the oogonia, 
and found it to agree in essential points with that of the sporangia, and 
even in many small details. The formation of the parietal layer of pro- 
toplasm, and of the network composed of the rudiments of “spores ” 
[oospheres], the mode of separation of the “spores,” and other details, 
are again repeated in the development of the oogonia. The ordinary 
oogonia with few “spores” correspond to the sporangia with only a 
parietal layer of protoplasm, the less common ones with many “spores” 
to the normal sporangia entirely filled with protoplasm. 


Infection of a Frog-tadpole by Saprolegnia ferax.*—Prof. J. B. 
Schnetzler had under observation two tadpoles ; towards the end of last 
June, a fly (Sarcophaga carnaria) was placed with one of them. After 
death the body of the fly became covered with filaments of Saprolegnia 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., i. (1886) pp. 162-3 (Séance Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., 
July 6, 1887). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 23 


ferax, and the tadpole, which had hitherto been lively, soon became 
more sluggish in its movements; its body quickly became covered with 
filaments of Saprolegnia, and within two days after infection it died. 
The protoplasm of the filaments of the parasite on the body of the fly 
was found to be transformed into thousands of zoospores, which, by 
means of their two cilia rapidly diffused themselves through the water, 
This observation shows that a single dead fly may become the focus of 
infection of a large number of aquatic animals. The whole surface of 
the tadpole was covered with Saprolegnia, so that death must have been 
produced by the suppression of the action of the skin. The tadpole in 
the other vessel was not affected. 


Elaphomyces.*—Drs. M. Reess and C. Fisch discuss the physiological 
relationship of this fungus to the roots of fir-trees, on which it is usually 
found, and contribute some additional knowledge to its life-history. 

The authors regard the fungus as a true parasite on the roots of fir- 
trees. It is never found at any great distance from them, and all 
attempts failed to induce the spores to germinate either in the soil or in 
nutrient solutions. It attacks only the primary root, which it completely 
envelopes without apparently injuring it; the secondary roots pierce 
through this envelope and are not attacked by it; but the authors were 
unable to determine the mode in which the root obtains its nutriment 
from the soil, or whether there is any true symbiosis between it and the 
fungus. 

The development of the receptacle is described especially in Elapho- 
myces granulatus and variegatus, which agree in essential points. The 
rudiment of the receptacle consists of a ball of mycelium with a number 
of intercellular spaces filled with air. A central hyaline nucleus is then 
differentiated from the surrounding slightly yellowish outer layer, which 
developes into pseudo-parenchyma, and is known as the “cortex vitta- 
dinis,” while the central mass becomes the true peridium with its 
ascogenous tissue. The ascogenous hyphe do not spring from the 
primary hyphe of this tissue, but from special shoots proceeding from 
the hyphal tissue which clothes the interior of the periderm, and push 
themselves between the loose tissue of the gleba. The mature fructifi- 
‘cation consists of tlrree distinct portions, cortex, peridium, and gleba. 
The asci originate as club-shaped or conical swellings on terminal or 
lateral branches of the ascogenous hyphe, and are distinguished from 
all asci hitherto known by the fact that the septum which separates 
them from their supporting filament does not make its appearance till a 
comparatively late period, even after the young spores have begun to be 
formed. The number of spores in an ascus varies between 1 and 8. The 
cells of the cortex develope at particular points into the projecting warts 
which characterize the mature fructification. 


Cabbage-Hernia.j—Dr. J. Brunchorst discusses the problem of the 
best way of obviating the loss caused by the fungoid ravages of Plasmo- 
diophora Brassice among cabbages. It seems useful to change the stock, 
but the young plants are often infected in their seed-beds, and the 
disease is as bad as ever. He has therefore been led to experiment with 
bisulphide of carbon as a disinfecting agent for the soil; and his results, 
of which the statistics are given, have been most successful. 


* Ublworm and Haenlein’s Bibl. Bot., Heft vii., 24 pp. and 1 pl., 1887, 
t Bergens Mus. Aarsberetning for 1886 (1887) pp. 227-31. 


274 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Potato Fungus.*—Herr J. Brunchorst has investigated the con- 
ditions of a common disease of potato tubers, which is known by the 
names “skurv,” “ schorf,” “grind,” &¢., and which seems most likely to 
occur on soil where potatoes have not for long, or ever before, been 
planted. The disease has been usually referred to something in the 
soil, but the author maintains that it is due to a parasitic fungus. It is 
a myxomycete nearly allied to Plasmodiophora, and it is proposed to 
designate the genus and species Spongospora Solani, 'The brown crusts 
or spots which cover the tubers are due to knots or aggregations pro- 
duced by the fungus, and are covered by the normal rind of the potato. 
Details as to the nature of these fungoid growths, the time and conditions 
of their occurrence, are communicated. 


Taphrina.t—Mr. B. L. Robinson has recently studied a number of 
American and European species of the genus Taphrina. The species 
combined by Sadebeck, in 1883, into a single genus, were formerly 
classed in three closely related genera, Taphrina Fries, Ascomyces 
Mont. et Desm., and Exoascus Fuckel. The presence of a Taphrina is 
manifested in the host in one or more of several ways, namely, by the 
occurrence on the leaves of roundish or irregular blotches, by «a curling 
or crisping of the leaves, by a swelling out of the softer parts of the 
leaves between the nerves, by deformity of the fruit, and lastly, by the 
swelling and distortion of the twigs and young branches. 

The author appends to the paper a synopsis of the American species 
examined. The primary divisions being (1) Mycelium penetrating 
interceliularly the inner tissues of the host; and (2) Mycelium spreading 
itself just below the cuticle and not entering the tissues of the host. 


Disease affecting Cherry and Plum-trees.t — M. P. Vuillemin de- 
scribes a fungus which has committed great ravages among the cherry 
and plum-trees in Lorraine. 

In the first days of May the trees begin to droop, and at the end 
of the same month most of the leaves of the cherry-trees are covered 
with spots. Each spot is caused by a mycelium which is the product of 
a spore belonging to a conidial condition which has been named 
Coryneum Beijerinki Oud. The spore fixes itself on the under side of 
the young and slightly viscous leaves, and emits its tube which 
penetrates between two epidermal cells. The filaments enlarge and 
segmentation takes place, and in the centre of the spot one or more 
polyhedric cells are formed, which are very similar to the fructification 
formed in the genus Hntyloma. 'These polyhedric cells finally assume 
the characteristic appearance of the conidia of Coryneum. Pyenidia are 
also developed towards the end of June ; they are more abundant on the 
under surface of the leaf. 


Oidium Fragarie.§—Dr. C. O. Harz describes this new species, 
which is very destructive to cultivated strawberries, growing on the 
under side of the leaves, and causing abortion of the flowers or fruit. 
Conidia were the only reproductive organs seen. It closely resembles 
O. Ruborum, and may possibly be identical with it. 


* Bergens Mus. Aarsberetning for 1886 (1887) pp. 219-26 (1 pl.). 

+ Ann. of Bot., i. (1887) pp. 163-76. 

+ Morot’s Journ. Bot., i. (1887) pp. 315-20. 

ee Bot. Verein Miinchen, Jan. 17, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxii. (1887) 
p. 313. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. DANS 


Fungi of Finland.*—Herr E. Rostrup describes the following new 
species of parasitic fungi from Finland, viz.:—Ustilago Warmingii on 
Rumex crispus, Tilletia arctica on Carex festiva, Afcidium Angelice on 
Angelica sylvestris, Trochila juncicola on Juncus compressus, T. Conioselini 
on Conioselinum Gmelini, Dothidella frigida on Phaca frigida, Sphero- 
graphium Vaccinii on Vaccinium uliginosum, Arthrinium naviculare on 
Carex vaginata, A. bicorne on Juncus compressus, and Ramularia salicina 
on several species of Salix. 


Protophyta. 


Nucleus in Oscillaria and Tolypothrix.;—By the use of the 
following method Dr. D. H. Scott has been able to demonstrate the 
presence of a nucleus in the cells of several species of Oscillaria and 
Tolypothrixz. The preparation was treated for five minutes with methy- 
lated ether, and then stained for four minutes with Kleinenberg’s hema- 
toxylin. The specimen was then mounted in Canada balsam. In the 
middle of each cell a deeply stained roundish body was seen, which had 
a distinctly fibrous structure, comparable to the “ knot stage ” of the ordi- 
nary nucleus as seen in pollen-mother-cells just before division. Other 
preparations were made by treating for two hours with picro-nigrosin solu- 
tion, followed by immersion in saturated solution of chloral hydrate for 
two minutes, the filaments being subsequently mounted in pure glycerin. 

Dr. Scott regards these observations as tending to obliterate the line 
of demarcation between Cyanophycee and true Alge. 


Microchete.{—Sig. A. Borzi has investigated the life-history of 
Microchzxte grisea, which is always found attached to a Calothriz. Besides 
the ordinary mode of multiplication by hormogonia, he finds that this 
species produces Chroococcus-like reproductive bodies, gonidia or spores. 
From the germination of the hormogonia are produced directly flagelli- 
form filaments endowed with a power of motion, which are indistinguish- 
able froma Calothriz. The author concludes that Microchzte grisea must 
be regarded as merely a biological species, a phase in the development 
of Calothrix parasitica, or of some nearly allied species. 


Life-history and Morphological Variations of Bacterium 
Laminarie.§$—M. A. Billet observed at Wimereux a new species of 
Bacterium in sea-water in which Laminariz were macerated. It was 
found in four stages, which the author distinguishes as the filamentar, 
the dissociated, the interlaced, and the zooglwic. The first is the initial 
state, and in it the organisms are colourless immobile filaments, the 
largest of which are about 120 w long; the breadth is hardly ever more 
than 1 ». The filaments are at first rectilinear, but as they grow 
they become more and more undulating, and finally they become arranged 
in from ten to fifteen spiral turns. The constitution of the filaments 
varies with the age of the culture; at first the protoplasm appears to be 
homogeneous and uninterrupted, but there are fine transverse striz 
which have the appearance of septa ; with age the protoplasm begins to 
segment, and as the joints appear the sheath of the filament becomes 
apparent. After a time the undivided filaments are replaced by chains 
of rectilinear elements which quit their sheath to enter the dissociated 


* Bot. Tidsskr., xv. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxii. (1887) p. 257. 
+ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.—Bot , xxiy. (1887) pp. 188-92 (1 pl.). 
t Malpighia, i. (1887) pp. 486-91. § Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 293-5. 


276 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


stage. In this, at a given moment, elements of all sizes and forms are 
to be seen, somo like Leptothrix, Bacillus, or Bacterium, others like 
Vibrio, and others like Spirillum; their principal character is their 
mobility, and they continue to segment very actively; when the 
segmentation comes to an end, there are a number of short Bacteriwm-lke 
forms of great activity. The dissociated state is in direct relation with 
the activity of the phenomena of putrefaction. In the third stage the 
filaments interlace with one another, and extend over the surface of the 
culture-liquid ; from this the zoogloic stage is most often derived, 
though the latter may occur if a stop is put to the putrefactive activity. 
The zoogloic patches are characterized by their distinctly stellate form, 
a mode of arrangement which has not hitherto been observed. The 
study of spore-formation is, unfortunately, incomplete, but in some fila- 
ments rounded corpuscles with a thick membrane have been observed. 
The author justly remarks that the facts which he has brought forward 
lend fresh support to the view that the bacterial elements vary in form. 


Bacillus muralis.—Dr. A. Tomaschek* found in a forcing-pit at 
Briinn that various places on the walls were covered with slimy masses of 
the consistence of paste, and collected into warty prominences about 2 mm. 
high. Their colour was grey passing into violet, and in places a pure 
violet. In spirit they became rose-coloured, and afterwards gradually 
white. In water they fell in flakes to the bottom. Microscopical 
examination showed that the gelatinous masses were composed of rodlets 
resembling Bacillus megatherium. The individual rods were about four 
times as long as thick, their ends were rounded, and they were about 
2°5 » thick. They were rarely straight, being usually more or less 
curved, but only exceptionally as much bent as a horseshoe. Each was 
surrounded by a gelatinous transparent oval area; and by the use of 
finely powered indian ink it was shown that the gelatinous mass— 
zoogloea—is produced by the adhesion of the rodlets invested with a 
gelatinous envelope, and not by the confluence of the viscid primitive 
masses. Only where two rodlets were separating was there any com- 
munity of capsule; not even in the fresh zoogloea were two rods ever 
seen in one capsule, still less could chain-formation be observed. After 
division the two rods separated from one another in such a way as to lie 
side by side, and the maternal envelope disappeared. The ends of the 
rods looked like bright spots, which might easily be mistaken for spores. 
The appearance of cocci lying between the rods was an optical illusion 
produced by the different positions of the bent rods. In the fresh 
gelatin taken directly from the glass-house, increase took place by means 
of successive fission. If the fresh mass were left in water for some days, 
and then poured into a flat vessel from which the water was gradually 
evaporated, endogenous spore-formation occurred. Staining with 
methylen-blue gave favourable results, 

At the onset of spore-formation the rods consisted of 4-6 isodiame- 
tric cells, within which a strongly refracting body occurs, and out of it 
the spherical spore finally appears. Within the gelatinous capsule are 
simultaneously developed from the mother-cell a chain of 2-4-6-8 loosely 
associated individuals. Sometimes, however, the spores separate from 
the mother-cell, and after a period of rest, grow into rods. When 
transferred to the vicinity of a conduit pipe, where grew a tuft of 
Oscillaria, the bacteria grew more quickly, while all attempts at pro- 


* Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 665-71. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. DAT idl 


pagation and cultivation in fluids had been without result. It is worthy 
of remark that within the gelatinous masses small colonies of Glaocapsa 
were invariably present. 'The constancy of their appearance indicates 
that this symbiosis is a mutualism or co-operation of functions of the two 
organisms such as exists in lichens between fungi and their attendant 
alge. The settlement of the Gloocapsa is favoured by the softness and 
moisture of the zoogloea, while in its turn it supplies the bacillus with 
oxygen, and receives in exchange carbonic acid. 

With regard to the species of Glaocapsa, it may be remarked that at 
the edge of the zooglcea, where it occurs without bacteria and forms 
blue-green rosettes, it corresponds to G. polydermatica Ktz.; in the 
zooglcea layer, where the blue-green hue is fading, with G. fenestralis ; 
and where it is quite decolorized, and the envelope become brown, it 
appears as G. fusco-lutea. Perchance other organisms may be included in 
the zooglcea, e. g. protonemata of mosses. It is accordingly probable that 
bacteria occur with alge in a symbiosis based on reciprocity of functions, 
and which promotes their mutual benefit. 

Dr. A. Hansgirg * is convinced, from having examined the material 
presented to him by Tomaschek, that the Bacillus muralis is a form of 
Aphanothece caldariorum Richter, which Richter and Zopf declared to 
be a bacillus form of Glaucothrix gracillima Zopf. The Glaocapsa 
forms described by Tomaschek have been known for a long time to 
writers on Alga, but under other names. 


Bacteria in Hailstones.j—Dr. O. Bujwid relates how in May 1887, 
there fell at Warsaw during a storm, hailstones 6 cm. long and 3 cm. 
thick. He washed one of these thrice in sterilized water, and then, 
having broken it up into pieces 2-3 cm. in size, placed these in a test- 
tube, and then washed again three times with sterilized bouillon. After 
this there remained some water, with 1 cm. of which he inoculated two 
plates. In two days numerous colonies had grown in both plates, and 
had partially liquefied the gelatin. By means of Wolffhiigel’s appara- 
tus 21,000 bacteria to the cem. were counted. Certain of the colonies 
had a different appearance, and from twelve of these gelatin tubes were 
inoculated. In a few days there developed Bacillus jfluorescens-lique- 
faciens, B. fluorescens-putridus, a mixture of rods and short Bacilli, which 
liquefy gelatin and form a dark violet scum on the surface. The latter 
form in a jar at the ordinary temperature whitish-grey colonies, which 
in two to three days assumed a blackish-violet hue. 

Apparently this kind of Bacterium is none other than the Bacillus 
janthinus described by Zopf. The author had never found this in water 
from Warsaw and its neighbourhood. And as the foregoing bacteria are 
only found in foul water, he assumes that the water was taken up by 
the wind and deposited as hailstones at Warsaw ! 


Phosphorescent Bacillus.{—Dr. B. Fischer, who has already de- 
scribed two phosphorescent micro-organisms in Bacillus phosphorescens 
and Bacterium phosphorescens, gives the following account of a third 
light-developing Bacillus which he has found to inhabit the water of 
the Baltic Sea :— 

The number of germs to the cubic centimetre of water varies from 
4 to 20. It was also obtained from raw herrings, to which, along with 


* Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) pp. 87-8. 
+ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iii. (1888) pp. 1-2. 
¢ Ibid., pp. 105-8, 137-41. 


278 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Bacterium phosphorescens, it imparts the phosphorescence. This “endemic 
light-bacillus,” as it is named, has many points in common with Bacillus 
phosphorescens, which is found in the West Indies. It consists of short 
thick rods with rounded ends, and is endowed with lively movements. 
In length they vary between 1:3-2-+1 yu, and in breadth between 
0:4-0°7 ». They are usually seen lying in pairs, just having or just 
about to divide. They stain with the ordinary anilin dyes. The rodlets 
grow in ordinary gelatin, but better when 30 per cent. of salt or fish 
geiatin is added. In plate-cultivations the surface of the gelatin is 
eaten out into circular pits by the colonies, which, when young, are of 
a pale sea-green colour, but as they increase in size assume a dirty 
greyish-yellow hue. Tube-cultivations give a characteristic appearance 
resembling a funnel at the inoculation-place, and this at the end of the 
first week is about 2 mm. wide and about 1 cm. deep. This bacillus 
not only grows at ordinary temperatures, but also thrives at 5°-10° C., 
and in this respect differs from the West Indian variety, which does not 
develope below 15° C. The addition of salt to the gelatin accelerates 
the growth, and while deprivation of air delays development, it does not 
altogether prevent it. 

The light emitted from the cultivations of this bacillus is bluish- 
white, not green like that of Bacterium phosphorescens. The light from 
the cultivations is strongest from fresh ones and diminishes with age, 
although after two months light is still visible in some tube-cultures. 
At temperatures between 5-25° C. no marked difference was visible, 
while higher degrees diminished the strength of the light. The addition 
of salt to the gelatin was found to increase the intensity of the light. 
Spectroscopic examination gave a continuous spectrum from D to some- 
what beyond G, the maximum of brightness lying between E and the 
middle of FandG. Colour differences were unrecognizable. Attempts 
to photograph the colonies did not give very satisfactory results. 


Spirillum concentricum, a new species from decomposing blood * 
—Dr. 8. Kitasato premises that his Spirillum does not betray any patho- 
genic characteristics. It was obtained from bullock’s blood and culti- 
vated on gelatin at a temperature of 20-22°C. On gelatin plates the 
colonies appear as pale-grey discs formed of concentric rings, whence 
their name. The spirilla grow on gelatin without liquefying it. In 
test-tube cultivations they grow better on the surface than beneath. 
On agar it would appear that the Spirilla grow not only along the 
inoculation-track, but invade the adjacent parts, and the cultivation 
adheres so closely to the surface that if an attempt be made to remove 
any, the subjacent agar is torn away with it. On the whole, the growth 
of the Spirillum was found to be more luxuriant at ordinary temperature 
than in the incubator; the most suitable being between 20° and 238° C. 

Microscopically, the Spirilla are short screws with two to three turns 
and pointed ends. Cultivated in bouillon they grow to long screws 
with five to twenty turns. The diameter is 2:0-2-5 p, and the length 
of a turn 38°5-4 yp. The thickness of the Spirilla is somewhat greater 
than that of the cholera bacilli. In hanging drops upon hollow-ground 
slides they exhibit lively wriggling movements like the Spirillum rubrum. 
They stain well with the ordinary anilin dyes. No evidence of resting 
forms was found. Mice, guinea-pigs, and rabbits were not affected by 
injections of the pure cultiyations. 


* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk, iii. (1888) pp. 73-5. 


et 


= 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 279 


MICROSCOPY. 


a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.* 


(1) Stands. 


Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.’s Petrographical Microscope. —This 
instrument, fig. 40, was founded on suggestions of Dr. G. H. Williams, 
Associate Professor of Mineralogy and Inorganic Geology in the Johns- 


Fic. 40. 


Hopkins University.t The general form of the stand is the Bausch 
and Lomb Optical Co’s “* Model” Microscope, with their watchspring 
fine-adjustment, and the mechanical stage described in this Journal, 1887, 


* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Iu- 
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics 
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. 

+ Cf. Amer. Journ. Sci., xxxv. (1888) pp. 114-7 (1 fig.). 

I It can also be applied to the “ Universal” and “ Professional ”’ forms. 


280 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


p- 651, with graduated scales for the rectangular movements and 
graduated circle and index. 

The nose-piece is provided with a special adapter to which the 
objective may be screwed, and into which slide the four following 
accessories, each mounted in a separate brass frame: (a) Bertrand lens ; 
(b) quarter undulation plate ; (¢) quartz wedge ; (d) Klein’s quartz plate. 
The nose-piece has also centering screws. The analyser is inclosed in 

one side of a double-chambered 

Fic. 41. box, the other side being left 

vacant, so that it may be slid 

in or out of the tube at will 

without at any time leaving 

an opening through which 
dust may enter. 


Bamberg’s Spherometer 
Microscope.*—Dr. 8. Czapski 
describes this intrument (fig. 
41) as follows:—B B is a 
strong brass frame fixed in a 
circular disc A, to which 
spherometer rings of different 
diameters can be fastened by 
the screws ss. Complete 
centering of the rings is se- 
cured by circular projections 
of rectangular section turned 
upon the under surface of A. 
The spherometer ring is either 
entire or consists (as in the 
figure) of four hard steel seg- 
ments 8 $8, which form parts 
of a complete circle turned 
upon the lathe. J and L are 
steel guides for the strictly 
cylindrical steel tube U, which 
contains the micrometer Micro- 
scope M. U terminates below 
in a steel cylinder D, at the 
end of which is a small sphere. 
P is the reflection prism placed 
under the objective, and in 
front of it is an aperture 
in U through which a scale 
Q, divided to 0°2 mm., and 
illuminated by the mirror C, 
is viewed in the Microscope. The scale Q is attached to the frame 
B by four screws, and adjusted by the nuts ¢¢ to the focus of the 
Microscope. Any vertical movement of the Microscope in its bearings 
can be measured by the divisions of the scale, which are then seen to 
travel across its field. The drum gives thousandths of a millimetre 
direct, and tenths of these can be estimated with safety. Behind U 


4) 


* Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk,, vii. (1887) pp. 297-301 (8 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 281 


is a crosspiece T, which at one end presses directly against the frame 
B, acting at the other by means of a weak spring. This is designed 
to keep the tube firm in its bearings, to prevent any rotation, and to 
make it impossible for the tube to leave the frame altogether. The 
instrument is carried by the wooden handles H H. 

In using the instrument it is placed gently on the spherical surface to 
be determined, which, if a thin lens, is supported on a ring of the same 
diameter as the spherometer ring. The Microscope is focused, and 
a reading is taken on the scale by the micrometer. The zero-point 
having been found by placing the spherometer on a true plane surface, 
and the difference of readings being = h, then R the radius of the 
h? + 7? 

2h 

A better method of determining hf is to dispense with the plane 
surface, and to take half the difference between the readings for the 
spherical surface, and for another spherical surface of exactly equal and 
opposite curvature. In this way it is possible to eliminate the error 
due to the fact that a ring which has not a perfectly fine edge rests 
upon a concave surface with a greater diameter, and upon a convex 
surface with a less diameter than the measured diameter of the ring. 

If such an equal and opposite surface cannot be obtained, the 
curvature of another lens of nearly the same radius which has an equal 
and opposite surface is first determined in the above way; this is com- 
pared with the curvature as determined by the aid of a plane surface, 
and so the error for a lens of nearly the given curvature is ascertained. 
The given lens is then measured by means of a plane surface, and the 
known correction applied in estimating the value of h. 


sphere = where + is the radius of the ring. 


Galland-Mason’s Microphotoscope.—If it is true that the world 
sometimes knows nothing of its greatest men, it would appear to be also 
true that the world sometimes may be ignorant of its greatest inventions. 
At any rate, although we are always on the look-out for all that is 
novel, and much that is curious in microscopical matters, we have only 
now become acquainted with Mr. R. Galland-Mason’s patent for the 
‘“‘ Microphotoscope.” The instrument which the patentee gives this 
name consists of a pair of spectacles with a number of microphotographs 
arranged along the upper part of the rims, and placed in front of minute 
magnifying glasses by which they are made visible to the wearer of the 
spectacles. The rims being detachable, the microphotographs (of 
written or printed matter, maps, or other objects) can be changed as 
desired. As the patentee says, “a lecturer might have his lectures 
photographed and placed in the rim of his spectacles, an actor his plays, 
a lawyer his briefs, a clergyman his sermon, a tourist, maps, views, and 
plans of the country through which he travelled, a shopkeeper a ready 
reckoner, calendar, &c., a timber merchant cubes, measurements and 
rules, and so forth.” 

In the first patent, which was taken out in 1884,* the patentee had 
provided a separate lens for each microphotograph. This he subsequently 
found to be superfluous, and in the following year he obtained a second 
patent t for the “ Improved Microphotoscope ” in which only one lens is 
used. There are occasions, and this is one of them, when (like the 


* 1884, 8th January, No. 912. + 1885, 24th January, No. 1027. 
é 


282 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


stigma of treachery applied to translators) to abstract would be to betray, 
and we therefore give the specification in full. 

“The improved microphotoscope consists in arranging microphoto- 
graphs in spectacles, eye-glasses, or hand-glasses, in concentric circular 
groups, 80 that each microphotograph may be brought separately under 
or before a single minute Microscope instead of each microphotograph 
being provided with a separate lens. 

The Microscope may be placed in a radial slide. This radial slide 
is to enable the Microscope to be moved opposite to any circle of micro- 
photographs ; or it may be let into the rim of the spectacle glass, and 
provided with a minute screw for focussing for varying sights. 

The microphotographs would be taken upon a piece of circular glass, 
gelatine, or any suitable transparent substance ; in photographing them 
it would not be necessary to take each microphotograph separately. 

If the models from which the microphotographs are taken were 
arranged in a circle, the whole circular group of microphotographs could 
be taken on one negative. 

The gelatine film or other material upon which the microphotographs 
are taken (and also the microphotographs themselves) may be protected 
from injury by friction, &c., by being placed between two very thin 
pieces of glass, talc, or any other suitable transparent substance, and the 
whole cemented together with transparent cement so as to form one 

iece. 
; These circular pieces of glass or other material upon which the 
microphotographs are taken, may be made to fit into loose frames in 
such a manner that they may be taken out at will, and others put in 
their places. These frames have several small catches or claws, by 
which they may be made to spring or clip on to spectacles, eye-glasses, 
or hand-glasses of a circular form. 

The edges of these loose frames may be milled, which when taken 
between the thumb aud finger, enables them (the loose frames) with the 
glasses they contain to be turned round and adjusted with the utmost 
nicety ; or the spectacles, eye-glasses, or hand-glasses, may have catches 
on their rims into which the circular glasses containing the micro- 
photographs may themselves be sprung, or taken out at will; thus 
dispensing with the loose frames. In this case the glasses containing 
the microphotographs would be a little larger than the spectacle glasses, 
to enable the thumb and finger to take hold of them when turning them 
round. 

This is the movement which brings each of the circularly grouped 
microphotographs under or before the small Microscope which is fixed 
in the rim of the spectacle glasses—on the side next the eye—in such a 
manner that it may either be used radially or focussed for varying sights 
by means of a minute screw. 

This circular movement is preferably obtained by the above method, 
but may also be obtained by revolving with the thumb and finger a 
minute rubber or other roller attached to the spectacles, eye-glasses, or 
hand-glasses, and pressing upon the glass or other substance containing 
the microphotographs, or upon the loose frame in which the glass or 
other substance is fixed; or this movement may be obtained by a worm 
fixed on the spectacles, eye-glasses, or hand-glasses, and working into 
teeth in the loose frame; or again the movement may be given by 
depressing a minute spring-stud on tke rim of the spectacles, eye-glasses, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 283 


or hand-glasses, which acting upon teeth in the rim of the loose frame, 
turns it round a tooth at the time. 

In the ease of hand-glasses the radial slide which holds the Micro- 
scope, may be attached to the centre of the glass, or other material 
around which the microphotographs are grouped. 

The spectacle glasses may be sighted for those who require them 
sighted, and plain clear glass for those who do not. 

In order that the practical application of my invention may be clearly 
understood, I have annexed hereto a sheet of drawings in which (for the 
sake of illustration) my invention is shown as applied to a pair of 
spectacles of the kind ordinarily designated ‘ frameless.’ 

Fig. 42 illustrates the appearance of the improved microphotoscope 
when worn, differing very slightly in appearance from an ordinary pair 
of ‘frameless’ spectacles. Fig. 45 is an end view of the same enlarged. 


a, a are the ear-pieces, b, b the plates to which the ear-pieces a, a are 
hinged, c,¢ are the spectacle glasses * to which the plates b', b' attached to 
the nose-piece d are also screwed. 

The arms e, e spring from the plates b and 6" (see also fig. 44 which 
is a front view of the metal parts detached from the glasses) and follow 
the curve of the spectacle glasses 7, 7. These arms e are bent at 
their ends, and provided with small round knobs g, g which act as spring 
clips, holding the glasses h, hk which contain the microphotographs 
securely, and at the same time allowing them to be sprung out and 
replaced by others with the greatest ease ; i, i is the minute Microscope 
before which any one of the circularly grouped microphotographs on the 
glass h, h may be brought by moving the latter round between the thumb 
and finger. 

For this purpose the glass h, h is made slightly larger than the 
spectacle glass f, 7. 

The microphotographs may be copies of books, pamphlets, news- 
papers, or any written or printed matter, maps, charts, views, landscapes, 
pictures, or any object or group of objects from which photographs can 
be taken. 

The uses to which the improved microphotoscope could be put would 
be similar to those described in my specification of the microphotoscope 
above referred to, but in a more enlarged or extended sense, as a pair 
of glasses h, h which slip into the spectacle frames would be capable of 
holding from two to three hundred microphotographs. 

If these were copies of the leaves of a book, then in one pair of 


* There is no ¢ in the drawings. 


284 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


spectacles or eye-glasses, a person would be able to carry the contents 
of a whole volume, and as the glasses are detachable and very thin, a 
person would be able to carry from fifty to a hundred pairs of these in a 
case less than an ordinary pocket-book. 

Fig. 43. The glasses might be numbered, and the 
case contain an index of the subjects; thus a 
person would be enabled to carry from fifty to 
a hundred volumes in his waistcoat pocket. 

By the aid of the type-writer in prepar- 
ing the text, books instead of being printed’ 
could be published microphotoscopically with 
ereater expedition than at present, for the 
-known resources of the modern photographer 
are so great that within twenty-four hours of 
receiving the text, he would be able to place 
numbers of microphotoscopical copies in the 
market. 

Microphotoscopical books would be almost 
indestructible, would never become mouldy or 
worm-eaien, and would take up so little space 
that a very large library could be contained in 
a small cabinet. 

The postage and carriage of books so 
published would be very small, and would be a great gain to those who 
had to send them abroad. 

The captain of an ocean-going vessel could have copies of his charts, 
maps, &c., in his spectacles, and in times of danger and peril would not 
require to leave the bridge for the chart room. In the darkest and 
stormiest night, by looking towards any of the lights that a vessel 


Fia. 44. 


Bp a 
y y 


generally carries, or by looking towards the moon or even the stars, he 
could see his charts and maps as distinctly as in the daylight; for the 
matter contained in the microphotoscope can be read in a light so dim 
that ordinary printed matter cannot be seen. 

The University student would be able to carry all his text-books in 
his waistcoat pocket, however diversified his studies were; the doctor, 
lawyer, or literary man would be able to have always with him micro- 
photoscopical copies of all the works of reference he could possibly 
require. A man with a bad memory might have microphotoscopical 
copies of a whole encyclopedia always before his eyes. In a single pair 
of glasses the leader of an orchestra could carry more music than he 
would be able to get through in one evening; a continental traveller, a 
whole pronouncing dictionary; a cyclist or tourist, maps of every road 
in the United Kingdom or other country; a member of parliament or 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETC. 285 


other public speaker, the whole of his speech*; a lecturer, the whole of 
his lecture; and a detective the features of three hundred criminals, and 
so on, to an almost indefinite extent. 

Having now particularly described and ascertained the nature of my 
Said invention, and in what manner the same is to be performed, I 
declare that what I claim is: 

The combination in the instrument called the ‘microphotoscope’ of 
a single fixed or adjustable lens or Microscope with movable or detach- 
able circular glasses or other media containing one or more circular or 
concentric groups of microphotographs, so arranged that each or any 
microphotograph may be brought separately under or before the said 
fixed or adjustable lens or Microscope (instead of each microphotograph 
being provided with a separate lens) substantially as hereinbefore 
particularly described and illustrated by the drawings annexed.” 


Bastin-Bullock Microscope. 
[* Designed by Prof. Bastin especially for the needs of pharmacognosists.”’ ] 
Amer, Mon, Micr. Journ. 1X. (1888) p. 35, from Western Druggist. 
Electric Microscope. 

(“We learn that Prof. Waldeyer of Berlin is haying an electric Microscope 
constructed in Vienna for electric light demonstrations. We presume this 
instrument is to take the place once occupied by the Solar Microscope.” | 

Scientif. News, I. (1888) p. 52. 
Minot, C. S.—American Microscopes—A Complaint. 

[A very sweeping condemnation of American Microscopes, and a recommenda- 

tion to Americans to purchase only European ones. | 
Science, 1887, December 2nd. 
(Comments on same in Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 20-2; 
Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., 1X, (1888) p. 15; Bot. Gazette, XIII. (1888) pp. 38-9; 
. Queen’s Micr. Bull., LV. (1887) pp. 41-3.] 


(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. 


Apochromatic Objectives.t—We give Mr. E. Gundlach’s paper on 
this subject in eatenso, for, like his previous papers, any attempt at 
abstract would conflict with the proper appreciation of his views. 

“The almost generally prevailing opinion, that the Microscope 
objective has been brought so rear to perfection as to leave little or 
nothing for its further improvement, has been greatly modified by the 
appearance of new and superior material of which to construct optical 
lenses—the apochromatic glass of Schott & Co., of Jena, Germany. 
The fact that this new glass has solved the long-pending problem of 
removing or reducing the secondary spectrum, has naturally aroused the 
most sanguine hopes for a general improvement of the Microscope 
objective. These hopes would doubtless long ago have been realized, 
through the efforts of the able opticians of the world, if the new glass 
did not have, aside from the great virtue of reducing the secondary 
spectrum to a minimum, some serious drawbacks not connce‘ed with 
other optical glass. In fact, if the new glass were, or could be made, in 
every respect similar to the ordinary optical glass, the objectives could 
be made of it in exactly the same manner and after the same formula as 
they are now, and their optical qualities would be just the same in every 


* In the specification to the patent of 1884 the member of parliament was only to 
have the “ facts and figures relating to the subject of his speech.” 

+ Read before the American Society of Microscopists, Pittsburg, August 30th, 
1887. The Microscope, viii. (1888) pp. 6-8. 


1888. x 


286 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


respect, but with the secondary spectrum considerably reduced, and, 
consequently, the definition greatly improved. But, unfortunately, this 
is not the case. In my paper at last year’s meeting, I pointed out the 
fact, derived from figures of the refractive and dispersive powers of the 
new glass, as furnished by the makers, that the proportions of powers 
were such as to require extremely short curvatures, which would produce 
a very injurious amount of aberrations of the second order, and that this 
error would probably overbalance the advantages of the reduced secondary 
spectrum. Since that time, however, I have tried the glass, and found 
-my assertion to be correct. Indeed, it could not well be otherwise, as 
figures seldom lie. In fact, it would be impossible to construct from 
the new glass Microscope objectives of superior quality after the usual 
or known plans. Our present low powers, for instance, from 1/2 in. 
down to 8 or 4 in., are now almost universally constructed after the 
dialytic principle, being two widely-separated systems, each consisting 
of a crown and flint glass of moderate optical powers and forming an 
achromatic lens, or nearly so, for itself. This objective has almost 
perfect optical symmetry, and forms, therefore, a very even and flat field 
of fine definition and brilliancy. No addition of lenses, nor any change 
of form could improve this objective, but would rather impair its quality. 
But the new apochromatic glass is entirely unfit for this form of objective, 
for the reasons heretofore given. I was led, therefore, to consider 
whether another form of construction could be found to which the new 
glass could be advantageously adapted, and I have succeeded in solving 
the problem so completely that, for theoretical reasons, I do not hesitate 
to claim my new formula to be the only proper one for the new glass. 
My new apochromatice objectives contain at least one triple lens of my 
new construction, adapted to the new glass. The 1/8 in. is a homo- 
geneous-immersion objective of 1:42 N.A.,and 1/50 in. working distance. 
It contains two triple systems and two single lenses, of which the back 
system is constructed after my new invention. Of this objective seven 
lenses are made of the new apochromatic, and the eighth of another new 
glass. The 1/4 in. is a dry working objective of 100° aperture. It isa 
three-system, and all but one of its lenses are made of the apochromatic 
glass, the back system being a triplet of my new form. The low powers 
are constructed after the dialytic, and consist of two triplets, both of my 
new form. ‘Thus these objectives are made entirely of the new apo- 
chromatic glass. These new dialytic objectives, aside from being 
practically entirely free from any disturbing colour, and in every other 
respect fully equal to the ordinary dialytic of the best quality, are far 
superior to any objective in flatness of field, and are therefore, unlike 
the HKuropean apochromatie objectives, in less need of ‘ compensating 
eye-pieces’ than the best ordinary objectives. 

As a very important advantage of the new apochromatic objective 
over the ordinary one, I regard the absence of a separate chemical focus, 
which quality makes the objective especially adapted to photographic 
work. A 1 in. has recently been tested photographically, with a distance 
of 14 feet between the objective and the image, and not a trace of the 
usual difference between the visual and active foci could be found, and 
the resulting picture was of unusual sharpness and brilliancy.” 

Dr. F. L. James says* that ‘one immense advantage which these 


* St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., liii. (1887) pp. 356-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 287 


ebjectives possess over those of Zeiss and other makers is that they do 
not require a specially constructed and corrected eye-piece, but give 
equally good results with any well-constructed Huyghenian ocular.” 


Cheap Objectives.*—Is there not a little something wanting in the 
following recommendation of an objective which we quote from a learned 
contemporary? “The oil-immersion objective is remarkable for its 
“ powers of definition; it has been tested against many of Leitz’s, which 
“ hitherto have been the cheapest obtainable, and has been found superior 
“tothem. This is high praise, as the price of the two is the same.” 


GIFFORD, J. W.—Apochromatic Objectives. 
Journ. of Microscopy, I. (1888) pp. 9-11. 


(8) Illuminating and other Apparatus. 


Geissler’s Culture Tubes.t — Dr. O. Brefeld’s researches on Bacillus 
subtilis were undertaken with the apparatus of G. F. Geissler, shown in 
fig. 45. 


Fie 45. 


A glass tube of nearly capillary diameter widens in the centre in the 
form shown at A, the upper and lower sides approaching each other so 
closely, that there is only a very small space between them. A drop of 
liquid drawn through the tube remains, by capillary attraction, in the 
centre without drying up, and can thus be easily subjected to examina- 
tion by the strongest objective. 

Other forms have dissimilar-tubes. as shown at B or C; the centre in 
the latter is open beneath and fastened upon a glass plate, whilst another 
smaller aperture above is intended to take the glass cover with the 
object in a hanging drop. 


Gas and Moist Chambers.—It is often necessary to ascertain the 
influence of various gases upon the objects under examination, and for 
this purpose various devices have been made use of, known as “ gas 
chambers.” { The different forms of “culture cells” are readily con- 
vertible into gas chambers, and a great variety of suggestions have been 


* Brit. Med. Journ., 1887, No. 1391, p. 470. 

+ Bericht ii. d. Wiss. Instrumente a. d. Berliner Gewerbeausstellung im Jahre 
1879 (Lowenherz), 1880, pp. 304-5 (1 fig.). 

t C. Robin describes Poiseuille’s ‘‘ Porte-objet pneumatique” of 1832, as the first 
known “ gas chamber.” This was, however, a copper box (with two apertures closed 
with glass) in connection with an air-pump to experiment upon the effects on living 
organisms of condensing or rarefying the air. Cf. ‘Traite du Microscope,’ 1877, 


p. 159. 
x 2 


288 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


made, including those of Stricker,* who converted his putty cell so as to 
make it available for gas, by the simple process of introducing two small 
glass tubes through the putty, and a second form, with a mercurial 
valve, which he ¢ adapted from Kiihne. Harless used two glass slides, 
the sides of which were cemented together so as to keep them about 
0-5-1 mm. apart; the two ends were fixed in pieces of cork, and two 
tubes passed through the corks communicating with the space between 
the slides. Kiihne’s was a small glass box into which two tubes were 
led. Huizinga t used a glass tube with a bulb in the centre, ground off 
above and below so as to have two openings, both of which were closed 
by cover-glasses, the object being placed on the under side of the upper 
one. Heidenhain’s § was a square metal box with apertures closed by 
glass plates. 7. W. Engelmann’s || was also similar. 

The following forms have not yet been described in English :— 

Bittcher { suggests the apparatus shown in fig. 46, consisting of a 
short piece of tube C, and two tubes A and B, all cemented to a slide. 


In Strecker’s ** (fig. 47) a hollow space with a groove A is cut 
away from a thick glass plate, and is surrounded by a glass ring of pro- 


portionate height cemented to the plate. At two opposite points of the 
latter, and along the diameter of the plate, are shallow grooves in which 
are cemented the glass or metal tubes B and C extending as far as the 
groove A; one of these is connected with the gas reservoir by means of 
a guttapercha tube. The object is suspended in the central space D. 


*<Manual of Human and Comparative Histology,’ transl. by Power, 1870, 
pp. viii.—ix. (1 fig.). + Op. cit., pp. xi—xii. (1 fig.). 

t Med. Centralbl., 1867, p. 675. 

§ Thanhoffer’s Das Mikroskop, 1880, pp. 86-7. 

| Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Med. u. Naturwiss., iv. (1868) pp. 331-3. 

4, Dippel’s Das Mikroskop, 1882, p. 663 (1 fig.). ** Ibid., pp. 663-4 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. 289 


Prof. Ranvier * recommended the apparatus shown in fig. 48. A 
brass plate b has a circular aperture of 2 cm. closed with a plate of glass, 


Fic. 48. 


to which is fixed a smaller glass disc a, so as to leave a circular groove c. 
When the cover-glass is put on there is 0:1 mm. between it and the 
upper surface of the disc. Two holes pierced through the brass plate 
longitudinally admit and draw off the gas. 

M. A. Nachet improved on this by the gas chamber shown in figs. 49 
and 50, which has the advantage that the glass on which the liquids to 


Fic. 49. 


= > AAA = — 


be examined are placed can be raised or lowered by a fine micrometric 
screw let into the thickness of the metal plate. By this means the 
thickness of the layer of liquid beneath the cover-glass can be increased 
or diminished. 

The modified cells of Nachet (for allowing culture ‘systems to be 
multiplied indefinitely) which we described at p. 708 of Vol. III. (1880) 
are shown in fig. 51. These were specially intended for use with the 
Chemical Microscope, where the objective is beneath the slide. A brass 
plate is attached to the stage and holds, by clips, the glass slip to which 
the gas chamber is attached. This consists of a glass ring and two 
tubes in one piece. The bottom of the ring is closed by a piece of 
cover-glass, and is cemented over an aperture in the slide. The body- 
tube and objective of the Chemical Microscope, it will be remembered, 


* ‘Traité technique d’Histologie,’ 1875, pp. 44-5 (1 fig.). 


290 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


moves over the stage, so that the complete immobility of the object is 
assured. ‘If one reflects on the necessity of attaching indiarubber 
tubes to two glass tubulures, and to 
be certain of the perfect immobility 
of certain anatomical elements, the 
advantage of such an arrangement 
will be readily understood.  Ex- 
periments in the eulture of ferments, 
the absorption of gases, the rarefac- 
tion and compression of air are 
thus greatly facilitated.” * 

The most complete form of 
apparatus, however, for experi- 
menting with gases is the Stricker- 
Sanderson hot stage, which is described and figured in this Journal, 
1887, p. 809, fig. 68. 

To allow of a rapid change of gases, Lancaster’s apparatus f (fig. 52), 
made out of a watch-glass, had two glass tubes for the entrance of the 


Fre. 52. 


gases. These were connected with indiarubber tubes provided with 
spring clips, so that different gases could be experimented with in rapid 
succession. 


Fie. 53. 
c B 
A 
F 


Hansen’s Moist Chamber ¢ is shown in fig. 53, where A is a glass 
plate with a central aperture F, and having two rings C and B. The 
* Catalogue, 1886, pp. 33-5 (2 figs.). + Dippel, op. cit., p. 664 (1 fig.). 


_ + Meddelelser fra Carlsberg Laboratoriet, 1881, pp. 184-6 (2 figs.), with French 
résumé. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 


291 


object is placed on a cover-glass, which is cemented with vaseline to the 
lower side of A, closing the opening. The space between the two rings 
is filled with water. Two tubes at D admit air or gas to the interior, 
aud the top of the outer ring is closed at E by a cover-glass cemented 


on. It is claimed that it combines the advantages 
of the moist chambers of Béttcher and Ranvier. 
The nutrient fluid has a free surface, as in 
Béttcher’s, but faces upwards instead of down- 
wards, an advantage in many cases; and, as in 
Ranvier’s, is steady. It resembles Ranvier’s in 
having the water, which assists in preventing the 
evaporation of the nutrient fluid, separated from it. 
The construction allows, moreover, of a new fluid 
being introduced, and parts of the old one re- 
moved, without, at least in certain conditions, 
disturbing the vegetation. It is possible, there- 
fore, to commence the culture with a single cell, 
and proceed gradually to a large mass. The 
chamber can be used only with Microscopes where 
the objective is below, and the illuminating mirror 
above the object which is being examined. 

Dr. T. R. Lewis's Moist Slide* is shown in 
fig. 54. Two semicircles of asphalt varnish were 
brushed on the slide, one being rather larger than 
the other, so that the ends of one _ half-circle 
might overlap the other, but not so closely as not 


to permit the entrance and exit of air. When nearly dry a minute 
quantity of growing fluid was placed in the centre, upon which a few 


spores were sown, a cover-glass being placed over 
it, which adhered to the semi-dried varnish. The 
slide was placed under a bell-glass, kept damp by 
being lined with moist blotting-paper. 

Dr. Maddoa’s Slide is shown in fig. 55. A 
strip of tinfoil is cut into two U-shaped pieces, 
one being larger than the other, so that when the 
smaller is placed upside down f) it will fit loosely 
inside the upright portion of the other. These 
are fixed in this position on a glass slide with a 
little varnish, over which a thin cover-glass is so 
arranged that the only air or foreign matter 
which can reach the preparation must pass up 
the “chimney” thus formed, between the inner 
margin of the larger strip of the tinfoil, and the 
outer one of the smaller. The arrows indicate the 
spaces left open for the admission of air. 


Fra. 55. 


Bertrand’s Refractometer.t—Mr. E. Mallard finds that this instru- 
ment { requires certain corrections due to the fact that the lower surface of 
the hemispherical lens does not pass exactly through the axis of rotation. 


* «Report on the Microscopic Objects found in Cholera Evacuations, &c.,’ 1870, 


p. 17 (1 fig.). 


+ Bull. Soc. Franc. Mineral., ix. (1886) pp. 167-71. 


Cf. Neues Jahrb. f. 


Mineral., i. (1888) Ref. p. 10. t See this Journal, 1887, p. 469- 


292 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


If the instrument is in perfeet adjustment, the readings are expressed by 
the formula n = N sin ¢, where n is the index required, N is the refractive 
index of the hemispherical lens, @ is the angle between the position of 
the lens for total reflection, and that in which its base is perpendicular to 
the axis. The apparatus must be graduated by experiment, and the 
value of N is found by observing some substance whose index is 
known. If N' and ¢' are the observed values, and v f their errors, the 
above equation becomes n = (N' + 1) sin (¢'+/), or expanding and 


g ~ Nitan ¢! = vtono' +f. 
From this formula N and f are determined by observation of a number 
of known substances. 

In the refractometer examined by M. Mallard f = 1° 44’, but when 
the correction was applied, indices of refraction were given correctly to 
two or three units in the fourth place of decimals. 


Apparatus for Microphysical Investigations.* — The following 
notes are by Dr. O. Lehmann :— 

Warming and preserving the objects Fine wire gauze should be used 
with the author’s crystallization Microscope to prevent the cracking of 
the slide during the heating of the object. To preserve the object the 
author runs a drop of paraffin round the edge of the watch-glass which 
covers it, by which it is then hermetically inclosed. For sudden cooling 
it is advisable to use mercury, in which the slide is immersed with tho 
cover-glass downwards. 

Change of solubility by pressure—A Cailletet pump, filled with 
glycerin, is connected by means of a long copper capillary tube with a 
glass capillary, which is cemented on the stage of the Microscope with 
shellac. ‘he glass tube is previously filled with a hot saturated solution 
and the end of the tube is then sealed. The capillary is placed ina 
drop of oil on the stage, and covered with a flat watch-glass. After 
waiting until the conditions are constant, the pressure is suddenly raised 
to 300 atmospheres, and so maintained; any crystal in the capillary is 
then seen to be slowly increasing in size; after a few minutes this growth 
ceases, and if the pressure is then withdrawn re-solution will commence, 
the edges and corners becoming rounded, and the faces corroded. 

Microscopic determination of capillary pressure.—A fine capillary tube 
of a diameter less than 0:001 mm. is connected with an apparatus for 
regulating the pressure. The apparatus consists of two receivers, one 
filled with compressed and the other with rarefied air, both connected 
with the capillary by means of cocks. The pressure is measured by a 
large mercurial manometer. The end of the capillary tube having been 
brought into a drop of water upon a slide, and covered with a cover- 
glass, the pressure is regulated so that the water which has entered the 
tube is just driven back to the aperture. The author has used pressures 
of nearly five atmospheres. 

It may be also proved by this apparatus that the capillary attraction 
and viscosity diminish as the temperature increases. ‘The diameters of 
very fine tubes are determined by immersing them in a liquid having the 
same index as the glass of which they are made, and measuring with an 
eye-plece micrometer. 


neglecting terms of the second order 
co 


* Zeitschr. f. Kryst., xii. (1887) pp. 377-410. Cf. Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. 
(1887) pp. 115-23. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 293 


Microscopic determination of vapour tensions—The method consists in 
introducing the vapour into a U-tube, one leg of which is closed, while 
the other is connected with two receivers containing compressed and 
rarefied air respectively ; for microscopic measurement the U-tube is a 
capillary, its horizontal part is immersed in a water or paraffin bath, and 
examined by a Microscope with horizontal tube bent at a right angle 
near the objective. The use of capillary tubes has the advantage that 
minute quantities of the substance are employed and can be examined 
under very high pressures. The observation should be made when the 
vapour volume is as large as possible in comparison with the expansion 
of the liquid in contact with it. 

Microscopic determination of the thermal expansion of liquids—For 
this purpose a similar apparatus is used except that the U-tube is 
replaced by another, one leg of which terminates in a funnel and ground- 
glass stopper, while the other has a horizontal capillary tube projecting 
from it to contain the experimental liquid. This tube can be maintained 
at a constant temperature by a water or oil bath, and is observed by the 
horizontal Microscope ; it is filled by heating to expel the air and then 
forcing the liquid in by pressure from one receiver; the superfluous 
liquid is then removed and the remainder of the tube filled through the 
funnel by suction from the other receiver with some coloured fluid. 
Coloured glycerin, for example, may be used in examining the expansion 
of carbon disulphide, the movements of the point of junction between 
the two liquids being followed by the horizontal Microscope. 

Microscopic determination of compressibility—For this the author uses 
the Cailletet apparatus; the liquid is contained in a vessel like a 
thermometer, the end of which is inserted into the glass capillary used 
for liquefying gases. 


KxLaatTscu, H.—Ein neues Hilfsmittel fiir mikroskopische Arbeiten. 
[Radial micrometer. } Anat. Anzeig., 1887, pp. 632-4. 


(4) Photomicrography. 


Photomicrography of Chemical Preparations.*—Dr. O. Lehmann 
recommends the use of oblique illumination and the colouring of the 
preparations ; in photographing crystals it is important that they should 
appear upon a dark ground, and this is best effected by the Tépler con- 
trivance as constructed by Seibert, in which half the field is darkened by 
a screen below the stage, and the other half by a screen above the eye- 
piece. As crystals cannot be coloured like organic preparations, it is 
best to use polarized light with doubly refracting crystals at any rate. 
By using the nicols parallel, or not crossed, the crystals are made to 
appear bright, dark, or coloured upon a bright or dark field. 


Neuhaus’s Photomicrographic Camera.—Dr. R. Neuhaus’s camera 
is claimed to be distinguished from others which serve the same purpose 
by the fact that it can be extended to the length of 180 cm., and that the 
focusing of the Microscope can be simply ettected for any length of the 
camera. 

It consists of bellows 15 metre in length divided into two parts, so 
that one can be kept compressed when the other is completely extended, 
and it can be clamped at any desired length. The guides in which the 


* Loc. cit. 


294 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


bellows and its frames run are made to slide into one another, and when 
the camera is completely closed they can be placed under the base on 
which the Microscope stands, so as to be out of the way. ‘The Microscope 
used for photomicrographic work is fixed to a slide which moves between 
guides on the base in such a way that the tube is horizontal, and is 
directed to the centre of the camera, the optic axis of the Microscope 
passing through the centre of the sensitive plate. The Microscope may 
at any time be removed, to be used for other purposes, and can be rapidly 
and easily clamped in the right position. 

To adjust an object, the front of the camera which is nearest to the 
Microscope, together with the partly conical tube of 80 em. length, which 


es ee 
Fic. 56. 
TTT TTT ri 


LL a ee | 


= jf J. KLONNE&G. MULLER\ 4 


BERLIN 


is provided with internal diaphragms, is drawn out, the Microscope is 
pushed in on its slide until its end approaches the aperture of the conical 
tube, the lamp or other source of light is then adjusted, and the object 
is adjusted in accordance with the directions of Dr. Neuhaus, which are 
supplied with the camera, the camera front is replaced and clamped, and 
the light-proof connection between the camera and Microscope is fixed 
in its place. 

The fine-adjustment is effected by a curved forked clamp made of 
watch spring, the two ends of which take into the milling of the micro- 
meter screw; two strings are attached to the clamp, and passing over 
pulleys on the right and left hand, traverse the whole length of the 
camera, and are fastened to a wooden rod; the strings can be rolled or 
unrolled upon the rod so that the latter always hangs in front of the 
camera. When the camera is drawn out the string is lengthened by 
unrolling it. By pulling upon the one string or the other the micro- 
meter screw is made to turn to the left or right. In this way the fine- 
adjustment is made without any inconvenient connecting rods, and can 
be effected directly by one hand, while the other is engaged with the 
focusing lens; the motion obtained by the clamp on the micrometer 
screw is, it is claimed, quite fine enough to secure the complete sharp- 
ness of the image. 

The plates which can be used are 13 x 21 em., or half that size. 
With the arrangement of the source of light, illuminating lens, and 
Microscope described, impressions may, it is said, be taken of Bacteria 
x 1000 with an ordinary petroleum lamp and an exposure of a few 
minutes. With direct sunlight an exposure of a few seconds is enough 
even with the highest powers. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 295 


Stein’s “‘ Large Photomicroscope.’t—Dr. 8. T. Stein’s instrument 
(fig. 57) consists of a “parallactic” tripod, to which the camera B is 
attached by a ball-and-socket joint C. The triple tube D has a ring f 
connected with E, which has a slot by which it can be moved up and 
down on a pin in one of the legs of the tripod. The optical part is at F, 
consisting of an objective e, coarse-adjustment a, fine-adjustment b, and 


Rite GWE 


condenser d. An arm atc carries a reflector or lamp. The apparatus 
can be extended so as to give a length of 15 metres from A to d. 


Photomicrographs of Diatoms.—MM. A. Truan and O. Witt have 
just issued a work beautifully illustrated by photographs taken from 
nature of the fossil diatoms from Jeremie, Hayti. Full details of the 
processes employed are given in the introduction. 

The peculiarity of their method consists in first photographing the 


* Stein’s ‘Das Licht im Dienste Wiss. Forschung,’ 2nd ed. 1885, pp. 177-8 (1 fig.). 


296 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


object with a magnification of not more than 100 diameters, and after- 
wards reproducing it magnified five times so as to obtain a photograph 
magnified 500 diameters proper for photo-printing. Fine details are 
thus brought out, invisible to the naked eye in the smaller photograph. 


Crystal Palace Photographic Exhibition. 

[Special Certificate in Class F. (General Appliances and Plant) “awarded to 
James Swift & Son for Apparatus and Microscopes arranged for Photo- 
micrography.” ] 

Journ. and Trans. Phot. Soc. Gr. Britain, XII. (1888) p. 80. 
JESERICH, P.—Die Mikrophotographie auf Bromsilbergelatine bei natiirlichem 
und kiinstlichem Lichte unter ganz besonderer Beriticksichtigung des Kalk- 
lichtes. (Photomicrography by the bromo-silver gelatin process with natural 
and artificial light, with special reference to the limelight.) 
xiv. and 246 pp. (4 photomicrographs and 60 figs.), Svo, Berlin, 1888. 
Knosel’s Photomicrographs. 


[Note on some photomicrographs of animals and plants, taken by the oxy- 
hydrogen light. ] 
Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., L.X. (1887) p. 48]. 


(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. 


Advantages of a Knowledge of the Theory of the Microscope.— 
Dr. W. H. Dallinger writing * on the English translation of Nigeli and 
Schwendener’s ‘The Microscope in Theory and Practice,’ says that it 
“opens to English readers an entirely new page in microscopical litera- 
ture. It leads the way in supplying a want which every thorough micro- 
scopist has realized for the last twenty years. In a complete form this 
treatise has been accessible to the German reader for at least ten years. 
The absence of it, or an equivalent, in the English language has been a 
most serious drawback to the advancement of the highest optical work in 
English Microscopes. In optical manipulation, the English optician at 
his best proves not only equal to any in the world, but in the highest 
class of work, has shown lately that he takes a foremost place. But 
with no attempt on the part of English mathematicians and microscopists 
to become masters and expounders of the theory of the Microscope and 
of microscopic vision, the practical optician can make no real advance. 
English “ stands,” and those made in America on English models, are of 
exquisite construction, and are quite equal to our present necessities ; 
but for all the great advances and improvements that have been made in 
English object-glasses during the last fifteen years, we are, for all practical 
purposes, primarily indebted toGermany. And this is readily explained 
by the fact that the German specialists have made a systematic and per- 
sistent study of the theory of the Microscope. 

“Tt is not forgotten that it was to the suggestion of Mr. J. W. 
Stephenson that we are indebted for the invaluable improvements that 
belong to the homogeneous system of lenses.} But, without doubt, it 
was on account of the insight which a study of the theory of microscopic 
vision brought with it, that Mr. Stephenson perceived at once the 
advantages of great numerical aperture, and the new way to obtain it. 
Moreover, it is certain that Prof. Abbe was approaching this very 
method of employing lenses, though from another point, and not in so 
direct a way. It would have been shortly reached by him, there can be 
but little question; but when it was reached, what did a constant, 
enthusiastic, and laborious study of the theory of the Microscope carry 


* Nature, xxxvii. (1887) pp. 171-2. + See this Journal, 1878, p. 51. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 297 


with it? A perception, that with glass of greater range of refractivo 
and dispersive indices than any we possessed, we might not only secure 
great numerical apertures, but secure them devoid of all colour; that 
we could not only annul the primary, but also the secondary and tertiary 
spectra. It need not surprise us then, that in a country where such 
splendid theoretical and mathematical work had been done by experts on 
the principles of microscopic lenses and the laws of their construction 
and use, even the Government should be convinced that the time to aid 
the optical expert had come ; that theory had demonstrated the practical 
possibility of a great improvement in the construction of lenses. The 
sum of 6000. was granted by the German Government to Abbe and his 
collaborateurs, and with, as we have reason to believe, an equivalent 
outlay on Abbe’s own part, the new glass was prepared; and the new 
apochromatic lenses with their systems of compensating eye-pieces 
devised. 

“Tt is in no spirit of boast, but rather in a spirit of humiliation and 
regret, that we say that we have examined many of these apochromatic 
objectives of ail the powers made in Germany, and we have examined 
all the principal ones that have, since the new glass has reached London, 
been made there; and we are bound to say that the English work, based 
on the principles laid down by Abbe, is so fine as to make the regret 
immeasurably keener that English micr scopical literature has been for 
all these years a blank for practical purposes, on the theory and 
principles of optical construction, and on the theory of microscopical 
observation and interpretation. Such a paper as that of Prof. G. G. 
Stokes, P.R.S., on the question of a theoretical limit to the apertures of 
microscopic objectives * from its very loneliness only gives emphasis and 
point to our contention. Those who have any doubt of the full force of 
what we are here contending for, have only to compare a dry 1/6-in. 
objective, say of twenty-five years ago, made by the best makers in 
London, with a well-chosen water-immersion of ten years ago; and both 
these with a recent homogeneous glass of the same power with a 
numerical aperture of 1:5. Or still better, a dry 1/50-in. objective, of 
the same date and the same makers, of numerical aperture 0:98, with a 
water-immersion lens of the same power of say ten years ago, having an 
aperture of 1-04, and a recent homogeneous 1/50 in., with a numerical 
aperture of 1°38. Still more strikingly, let the same observations be 
made with a dry 1/12 in. ebjective of twenty years ago, with a numerical 
aperture of 0:99, and a homogeneous lens of the same power, with 
numerical aperture 1:5; and finally, both these with an apochromatic 
objective of the same power by the same London makers, and an aperture 
of 1-40. We venture to say, to histologist, bacteriologist, diatomist, 
and all other serious workers with the Microscope, that there can be no 
proper comparison of the results; or, rather, the comparison is odious 
indeed for the oldest, and even the elder lenses. 

“ But, as we have stated, it is to Germany we are indebted for the 
knowledge out of which, alone, these improvements could have arisen. 
In spite of the length and abundance of English treatises on the Micro- 
scope, it has never been part of the scope of the respective authors to do 
other than make the scantiest reference to the principles of the Micro- 
scope; and nothing is found that will elucidate the theory of the 


* See this Journal, 1878, p. 139. 


298 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


construction of objectives, and eye-pieces, and the possible and real 
relations of each to the other. There is nothing to be found indeed in 
our language (except in the invaluable translations published in the 
successive Journals of the Royal Microscopical Society) which discusses 
the phenomena of diffraction, of polarization, of the principles of the 
true interpretation of microscopical images, and the theory of work with 
the Microscope. English workers with high powers have discovered 
painfully where their lenses during many years were at fault; they 
could show our opticians what they wanted; but it has been only as the 
result of the laborious mastery of the theory of lens-construction by 
German investigators, with Abbe at their head, that the English worker 
has been able to get his wants, in object-glasses and _ eye-pieces, 
supplied. 

“ But like all advances in insight and analytical power, these very 
improvements, so welcome and so helpful to searchers in many important 
branches of science, only open up the horizon of the unknown more fully ; 
and the very knowledge we get, through the inestimable improvements, 
only reveals new difficulties; and again creates optical wants. It is 
then, with pleasure indeed that we hail this excellent translation of 
Niigeli’s work on the theory and practice of the Microscope.” 


Fasoldt’s Test-plates.—A good deal of amusement has been felt in the 
Old World at the vagaries of part of the New over these plates. As Old 
World microscopists are aware, it is one of the plainest and best esta- 
blished scientific truths that there is a limit to the number of lines to the 
inch that can be made visible to the human eye with our existing optical 
appliances, and to believe that more have been seen relegates the believer 
to the ranks of those who believe in perpetual motion, the creation of 
force, squaring the circle, and other self-demonstrated fallacies. 

Our American brethren are not one whit behind us in their apprecia- 
tion of scientific principles, and it was therefore puzzling to read from 
time to time positive statements that many people had seen 200,000 lines 
to the inch—the limit, even with the maximum aperture of 1°52, being 
158,845. We put out of account the statements of the ruler of the 
lines, as he may be forgiven a not unnatural tendency to see lines that 
he feels certain his acknowledged mechanical skill has really put on the 
slide. , 
We gather that the explanation of these discrepancies is that the 
persons who are “ready to make affidavits” that they saw the lines are 
people who have had no practice in such observations, and it is well 
known how much the power of recognizing such minute magnitudes is 
dependent upon long habit and experience. It will be seen from the 
second report printed below that Dr. R. H. Ward, the well-known micro- 
scopist, has investigated the matter—under the superintendence of Mr. 
Fasoldt and his son—and that the results are in accordance with theory. 
The 110,000 band was seen with perfect ease, and the 120,000 clearly, 
though with difficulty, “ while in higher bands no trace or suspicion of 
lines was perceived.” Mr. Fasoldt himself “did not seem to recognize 
the lines nearly as far up in the series as this,’ while his son, who was 
the manipulator, could see nothing beyond 130,000. Dr. Ward further 
shows that the people who allege they have seen the higher bands admit 
that they “furnish only passing glimpses and cannot be kept in focus 
and examined at leisure or shown to other observers.” 

We have prefaced Dr. Ward's report by that of a Mr. P. H. Dudley, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 299 


which is a good specimen of the kind of evidence seriously put forward 
as sufficient to upset fundamental laws of light. It will be seen that 
Mr. Dudley was unable to resolve the 160,000, 170,000, and 180,000 
band, but that ‘the 190,000 band came out sharp and clear. This was 
all he could do at that time!” 

(1) Dudley's Report on the Examination of the Fasoldt Test-plates.*— 
Mr. P. H. Dudley reports his examination (on an invitation from 
Mr. Fasoldt) of test-plates of his ruling, “as shown by his new vertical 
illuminator, lamp, and specially constructed Microscope.” It was, he 
says, “an interesting and instructive evening.” The stand was one con- 
structed by Mr. Fasoldt, substituting a screw movement to the body 
instead of the ordinary rack and pinion. The vertical illuminator had, 
like Beck’s, a thin glass for a reflector, but the method of mounting, 
construction of the diaphragms, and means to control the light, were 
“entirely different.” The mechanical stage was constructed for the 
purpose of making fine measurements, and comparing micrometers. 
The eye-piece carried a micrometer, which had three delicate steel 
prongs in lieu of cobwebs, or lines on glass. Each prong was adjustable, 
extending partway across the field. One was in the upper part, and two 
in the lower part of the field. The advantages of the prongs are many, 
one being that but part of the line is covered. The lamp had a single 
wick, 2 in. wide. In trimming, the wick was curved from edge to edge; 
the centre being fully 1/8 in. higher than the edges. The chimney was 
specially formed of a metallic frame, carrying parallel plate-glass sides ; 
those opposite the width of the frame about 3 by 4 in., and those opposite 
the edges 3 by 2in. On the top of the frame was put a metallic tube, 
about 14 in. diameter, and 14 in. high, to produce the draught. ‘The 
flame was large, and burned very white and steady. The lamp was 
placed from two to four feet from the Microscope, the edge of the flame 
being turned towards the illuminator, a small condenser, of 2 in. focus, 
being placed before the illuminator, so as to throw an image of the flame 
obliquely across the band of lines. The entire field was not equally 
illuminated, as better results are obtained by having different portions 
of different degrees of brightness. 

Photomicrograph No. 1 shown by Mr. Dudley was of a test-plate 
having nineteen bands—said to have bands ranging from 5000 lines per 
inch, to the eighteenth, which has 120,000 lines perinch. The nineteenth 
band only has 50,000 lines per inch of the same depth of cutting as the 
eighteenth band. These bands all having been resolved, new plates were 
ruled, having finer bands, 

Photomicrograph No. 2 was of a test-plate with bands in the metric 
measures. In one important respect the system of ruling on this plate 
was modified. Each band, for a short portion of its length, was only 
ruled with one-half of the number of lines in the rest of the band. 

Photomicrograph No.3 was of a test-plate having twenty-three bands ; 
the highest having, it is said, 200,000 lines per inch. The ruling was 
very delicate, and the lines quite shallow, as must be the case. ‘“ Mr. 
Fasoldt says twelve persons have seen the lines in the last band, 
under his method of illumination, and with a Bausch and Lomb 1/12 in. 
objective, N.A. 1°35.” 

The first evening Mr. Dudley looked at the test-plates he saw the 


* Journ. New York Mier. Soe., iv. (1888) pp. 81-4. 


500 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


lines in the band of 180,000, clear and well-defined, after the instrument 
was focused. Unaided he was unable to go beyond the 90,000 band. 
This trial was made after a railroad trip of ten week-days and five nights. 
The vision was not as acute, and the touch of the fingers was not as 
sensitive as usual. In about a week afterwards, at a second trial, he 
“saw all of the lines to the 160,000 band, which he was unable to 
resolve.” The 170,000 and 180,000 bands he “did not resolve, but the 
190,000 band came out sharp and clear. ‘This was all he could do at 
that time. The delicacy of focusing is probably as difficult as the dis- 
cerning of the lines.” 

Photomicrograph No. 4 was of a quadruple ruling, the central bands 
being 80,000 per inch. When both sets of lines are illuminated, the 
spectra produced are gorgeous. “Mr. Fasoldt states that rulings which 
do not produce spectra are not resolvable, and he discards such rulings, 
as the lines are ruined.” 

“These rulings are of very great interest to the microscopist, as a 
measure of what can be done by different methods of illumination. 
After many trials by transmitted light, the band of 90,000 lines per 
inch was the most I could resolve. Mr. Fasoldt says the 110,000 band 
is the highest one he knows to have been resolved by the same 1/12 
objective by transmitted light. It would be very interesting to know 
what kind of rulings Prof. Abbe used in determining the theoretical 
resolving power of an objective, as well as the method of illumination.” 

(2) Dr. Ward’s Report on the Examination of a Fasoldt Test-plate— 
Dr. R. H. Ward’s report was embodied in remarks made at the Pittsburg 
meeting of the American Society of Microscopists. The following is 
furnished to us by the author :— 

The plate consists of twenty-threo bands ruled on a cover-glass, 
beginning at 5000 lines to the inch, and increasing by 5000 each time to 
80,000, and thence by 10,000 each time to or toward 200,000. ‘lhe lines 
are ruled alternately longer and shorter, so that the 40,000 band becomes 
at each end a 20,000 band with interlying lines, and the “200,000” band 
should be seen, if resolved at all, as a 100,000 band similarly interlined. 
The extraordinary mechanical skill of the maker and his success in 
ruling the lower bands attach real interest to the plate, and to his 
methods of studying it, in respect of the possibilities of fine ruling and 
of extreme resolution; an interest which is enhanced rather than dimi- 
nished by the maker’s casy faith in the character and visibility of the 
highest bands and his inability to apprehend the mechanical uncer- 
tainties and scientific absurdities involved in this belief. If he has done 
even a small portion of what he thinks, he has far surpassed all other 
experimenters, as far as yet proved, and has earned and will receive the 
credit that he claims. 

Upon learning of the appointment of a committee to consider 
the subject, Mr. Fasoldt tendered a request that he might be allowed 
to be present when the plate was examined, and kindly offered 
the use of his apparatus, and also of his own services, “to show the 
lines” to the Committee at any time. Believing it to be of scientific 
as well as historic interest and importance to know exactly what he saw 
and how he saw it, I replied that while it would be impracticable for 
the Committee as a whole to make the proposed arrangement, as a 
member of the Committee I would gladly accept his offer to show the 
lines, and that the lines desired to be seen were those of the higher 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 301 


band, from “120,000” upward. No objection was made to this form of 
acceptance. 

At an appointed time, one afternoon, the Microscope was placed in 
a wooden cabinet which nearly excluded daylight, and light from a 
kerosene lamp, with a large flat wick, placed edgewise at a distance of 
about two feet, was admitted through an opening in a cabinet on a, level 
with the nose-piece of the Microscope. The stand was a large and 
heavy one, made by Mr. Fasoldt himself, with about ten inches of tube- 
length, including the objective, and furnished with a Bausch and Lomb 
1/12-inch hom.-imm. objective claiming 1:40 N.A., and a 1-inch “ peri- 
scopic ” ocular by the same makers. The illuminating rays were brought 
to a focus at the side of the nose-piece, and about one-fourth of an inch 
from it, by means of a “ watchmaker’s glass” of about two inches focus, 
mounted as a bull’s-eye condenser, the best effect being gained with an 
achromatic one said to have been made for the purpose. The divergent 
pencil was then admitted to the tube, and reflected downward through 
the objective by means of a cover-glass internal illuminator claimed and 
patented by Mr. Fasoldt as his own. The peculiarity of this illuminator 
(aside from the oddity of its large size and square shape, the substitution 
of Fasoldt’s spring nose-piece for the ordinary Society-screw to carry 
the objective, and an adjustment for withdrawing at will the cover-glass 
reflector from the optical axis), consists of an ingenious combination of 
shutters at the side, by means of which light is admitted only through 
a long narrow slit that is adjustable in both width and position. With 
this arrangement a variety of bright- or dark-field effects were obtained 
by slight changes in the position of the lamp and the adjustment of the 
slit, When the image of the illuminating flame was formed by the 
objective just at the edge of the field of view and slightly out of the 
plane of the object, a transparent effect was produced over a considerable 
portion of the field, presumably by internal reflection at the bottom of 
the dry-mounted cover-glass, on the lower surface of which the lines 
were ruled, and in the bright portion of the field the lines of the lower- 
middle bands were very easily and distinctly seen. 

Starting from any of the coarser bands, where there could be no 
question about the lines, the plate was moved across the field by means 
of the steady mechanical stage, and the lines of successive bands ap- 
peared with distinctness, but increasing firmness, up to the band claiming 
110,000 to the inch, which was seen with perfect ease, and the alleged 
120,000 which was seen clearly and repeatedly, though with difficulty, 
while in higher bands no trace or suspicion of lines was perceived. The 
same limit was reached in several separate trials by the writer, whose 
eyes, however, by reason of long over-use, should set no limit against 
the reasonable claims of others presuming to go further. Mr. Fasoldt 
himself did not seem to recognize the lines nearly as far up in the series 
as this; but his son, Ernest C., who was depended upon for most of the 
manipulation, was positive that he saw the lines in the “ 130,000” band, 
and none beyond that. Any importance attached to his judgment at 
this interesting point must be received in connection with the fact that 
on another occasion he was satisfied that he resolved a “‘ 200,000” band. 
No attempt to measure the spacing of the lines was made at that time, 
and none is ready to report now. 

Mr. Fasoldt’s faith in the integrity and visibility of the still higher 
bands, which faith, it is scarcely necessary to say, is not known to be 

1888. > 


302 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


shared by any scientific man, seems to depend wholly upon his belief in 
the infallibility of his carefully concealed method of ruling them, and 
upon his impression that he has seen the lines as high as ‘* 150,000,” 
and upon the equally firm impression of a few other persons that they 
have seen all up to and including the “200,000.” These persons, how- 
ever, admit that the higher bands furnish only passing glimpses, and 
cannot be kept in focus and examined at leisure or shown to other 
observers, as can be done with more or less ease up to “120,000.” Is 
it possible that, after looking long and intently at the coarse and really 
visible lines, the retinal impressions may remain and be recognized by 
the observer while subsequently gazing at the higher bands ? 

On another occasion, when it was claimed that all the bands of a 
duplicate plate were resolved, and that the illumination was exceptionally 
good and the resolution exceptionally easy, the writer, and two friends 
with younger eyes who accompanied him, recognized the lines of the 
110,000 band very easily and distinctly, but failed to go further. 

“Tt would be evidently improper to undertake to anticipate the action 
of the Committee as a whole, by saying exactly what should be con- 
sidered sufficient evidence to establish the reality of certain of the lines 
and the fact of their resolution ; but it will be noticed that the projecting 
alternate lines must greatly aid in the task of counting a measured por- 
tion of a band either with a micrometer or by aid of photography. It 
can scarcely be long impossible to make a satisfactory count of the band 
claiming to be spaced at 120,000 if it is correctly ruled, since the lines 
really to be counted are only at 60,000. And if, which is not improbable, 
though not yet formally demonstrated, this band should prove to be 
successfully ruled and to be resolvable by existing lenses, a fact that 
has been plausibly claimed but never yet really proved of any band of 
equal fineness, then the study of the next two bands would be one of the 
most interesting problems in the practical optics of the present day. At 
the same time, it seems not improbable that photography may not only 
give us an easy count of lines visible, but extremely difficult to count 
otherwise, but may yet show the details of bands that are permanently 
beyond the reach of direct microscopic vision.” 

With regard to Dr. Ward’s last remark, we should remind our readers 
that, as we have already shown,* photography increases resolution in 
the inverse ratio of 53 to 40, the limit being raised from 158,845 to 
193,087 lines to the inch. 


Daylight or Lamplight for Microscopical Observation.t—Dr. W. 
H. Dallinger, referring to the fact that Nageli and Schwendener give 
the preference to daylight over lamplight, believing that it exerts less 
strain upon the eye, says he suspects that the majority of English 
observers, especially at continuous work, and with high powers, will be 
inclined to reverse this judgment. Extremely white and intense light 
can be obtained from good modern lamps, and, unlike daylight, it is 
unvarying, devoid of caprice, and easy of manipulation. But this is a 
matter, perhaps, in some sense subjective, and not of vital moment. 


Curious Interference Phenomena with Amphipleura pellucida. 
Mr. E, M. Nelson writes:—“JT have recently observed some remarkable 
interference phenomena in connection with photomicrographic glass 


* See this Journal, 1885, p. 968. + Nature, xxxvii. (1887) p. 173._ 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 303 


positives of Amphipleura pellucida x 730, the transverse striz on which 

count 126 to the inch. The wooden case in which the positive is placed 

carries a Zeiss achromatic lens (No. 127) x 6, focused on the photograph. 
The interference phenomena are as follows:—When the photograph 

is viewed through the lens, the illumination being of some extent, such 

as diffused daylight from a white cloud or 

wall, opalescent globe, &e., the transverse 


Fic, 58. 
striz appear as in fig.58 ; but when the source 
of light is of smaller dimensions, such as a Bean | | 
common Microscope lamp with a half-inch 

Fic. 59 


wick, the striz are seen as in fig. 59. 
This change of appearance cannot be 


accounted for by the non-admission of the 
pairs of diffraction spectra of either the 1st, 
2nd, or 3rd order, because the angular diver- 


gence of the Ist diffraction spectrum from the 
dioptric beam is about as many minutes of are as the lens has degrees 
of aperture. 

Any moderate difference in the relative size of the strie and inter- 
spaces would not alter the case, for Prof. P. G. Tait states that ‘ the 
ratio of the breadths of the bar and interstice has but little effect on 
the result unless it be either very large or very small.’ Neither does 
it matter if the glass side or the film side is next the lens. 

Now we come to a very curious point, viz. that other glass positives, 
printed from the same negative, do not possess the unique peculiarity 
which this one has. It is true that, by alteration of focus or other 
manipulation, the above and other diffracted images may be made; but 
I am aware of no object but this one that possesses the peculiarities 
above described. The negative from which this positive was printed 
does not exhibit the phenomena in such a striking manner, and then 
only by an alteration of focus. 

I have another negative x 1200, which will show the effect, but the 
lens, which has a focus of 1} in., requires to be altered either 1 inch 
within or without its focus before it will show it.” 


Spectra of Pleurosigma angulatum.—This subject is a veritable 
pons asinorum to Mr. E. M. Nelson, who in a further note repeats the 
mistake on which we commented in this Journal, 1886, pp. 692-5, and 
which we then described as the most typical instance known to us of a 
critic being hoist with his own petard. 

To understand Mr. Nelson’s new note * it is necessary to recall the 
original one. 

Mr. Nelson there f expressed his astonishment on two points. The 
first was that “the R. M.S.” should be so foolish as not to see that 
Dr. Eichhorn’s views on this subject “ stultified Prof. Abbe’s magnificent 
diffraction theory.” 

We pointed out that it was from Prof. Abbe that Dr. Eichhorn’s 
paper was received, and that the problem solved was set by the Professor 
himself! It was therefore obvious that there was some little mistake 
somewhere in Mr. Nelson’s views. 

The second point was that Mr. Nelson declared (giving what he 
evidently considered irrefragable reasons for his assertion) that the mark- 


* Engl. Mech., xlvii. (1888) p. 32. + Ibid., xliii. (1886) p. 337. 
¥ 2 


304 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ings in question could only be seen by enlarging the dioptric beam, and 
cutting out the six spectra. 

Here, again, there was evidently something wrong in Mr. Nelson’s 
ideas, as Mr. Stephenson used only a very narrow beam, and none of the 
six spectra were cut out. 

In his new paper Mr. Nelson, never having revised his original pre- 
misses, falls into the old blunder over again. Referring to plate IIT. 
of the present volume of this Journal, he inquires “ what has become of 
Dr. Kichhorn’s fantastic diagram ?” and “supposes that the officers of 
the R. M. S., since writing their strictures on my paper, have changed 
their minds, and have adopted Dippel’s picture, which is similar to mine.” 

We are afraid that we shall only be adding to Mr. Nelson’s present 
bewilderment when we point out that the fig. which he considers as 
“ similar to his,” was laid before the Society many years back, and that it 
emanated from the same authority as that of Dr. Eichhorn. Here again, 
therefore, there must necessarily be something a little defective in Mr. 
Nelson’s ideas on the subject! 

In our original comments we ventured to give a pretty broad hint as 
to where Mr. Nelson had gone wrong, but he does not seem to have yet 
found it out. The superficial way in which he approaches the matter 
may be judged of by the fact that he treats as a “ dictum of the R.M.S.” 
a statement in Prof. Abbe’s original paper in Max Schultze’s ‘ Archiv,’ 
translated and published by the Bristol Naturalists Society! We are 
sure if he would only sit down with a serious determination to master 
the subject he would have no difficulty in finding where he has gone 
wrong, and having found it would then laugh as heartily as other 


microscopists do now at the absurdities into which he has allowed 
himself to be led. 


Pout, A.—Sul modo di valutare ed indicare razionalmente gl’ ingrandimenti del 
Microscopio e delle imagini microscopiche. (On the mode of determining and 
indicating correctly the amplification of the Microscope and microscopical images. } 

Extr. from Spallanzani, 1887, 11 pp. 

» » Sulla misura dell’ ingrandimento dei disegni degli oggetti microscopici. 
(On the measure of the amplification of the images of microscopic objects.) 

Atti Congress. Naz. Bot. Crittog. Parma, 1887, Proc. Verb., pp. 109-13. 


(6) Miscellaneous. 


American Postal Microscopical Club. 
[Satirical directions issued by the Club to meet new U.S. postal regulations. | 
Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, 1V. (A887) p. 45. Cf. Microscope, VIII. (1888) p. 22. 


Baltimore Microscopical Society. Microscope, VII. (1887) pp. 359-62. 
Brooklyn Microscopical Society. Journ. New York Micr. Soc., 1V. (1888) pp. 96-7. 
Central New York Microscopical Club. Microscope, VII. (1887) p. 364. 


Crisp, F.—Ancient Microscopes. 
[Friday evening lecture at Royal Institution on February 3rd, 1888.] 

Daily News, Feb. 4, 1888; Scientific Enquirer, III. (1888) pp. 44-6; 
Morning Post, 1888, Feb. 4; Scientific News, I. (1888) p. 162. 

Essex County Microscopical Society of New Jersey. 
Journ. New York Micr. Soc., TV. (1888) p. 97. 
Local Microscopical Societies. Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 18-20. 
Louisville Microscopical Club. Microscope, VII. (1887) p. 364. 


MayYALtu, J., JuN.—Recent Improvements of the Microscope: a visit to Jena. 
; 19th Ann. Rep. Liverpool Micr, Soc., 1888, pp. 8-11. 
Medical Microscopical Society of Brooklyn. 


Journ. New York Micr, Soc., TV. (1888) p. 97. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. 305 


Microscopical Club of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. 

Microscope, VII. (1887) p. 364. 
Microscopical Society of Pittsburg. Microscope, VII. (1887) pp. 362-3. 
NeE.Lson, E. M.—Nobert’s Bands. 

[Lines to inch in 10, 13, 15, 19, and 20 band plates. ] 

Engl. Mech, XLVI. (1888) p. 460. 
Ohio State Microscopical Society. Microscope, VII. (1887) p. 363. 
{Osporn, H. L.— Microscopical Societies should combine for work. 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., 1X. (1888) pp. 35-6. 
Royston-Picort, G. W.—Microscopical Advances. XXXI., XXXII, XXXIIL., 
XXXIV. : 
[Butterfly dust—Latticed and beaded Ribs—Researches in High-power 
Definition—Interferences, Disappearances, and Reappearances. | 
ingl. Mech., XLVI. (1888) pp. 449 (6 figs.), 497 (2 figs.), 591 (5 figs.) ; 
XLVII. (1888) p. 93 (2 figs.). 
St. Louis Club of Microscopists. Microscope, VII. (1887) p. 363. 
Smitu, L. H.—Memoir of D. 8. Kellicott, Pres. Amer. Soc. Micr. 
Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 8-10 (portrait). 
VEREKER, J. G. P.—Presidential Address to the Postal Microscopical Society. 
Journ, of Micr., I. (1888) pp. 1-8. 
VYorcer, C. M.—Making Lantern Slides. 

[Correction of his previous paper—see this Journal, 1885, p. 866—and full details 
of amended process. ] 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VIII. (1887) pp. 172-4. 
Wenham, Mr. 

[“* Retired.—In a communication to the ‘ English Mechanic’ of a late date Mr. 
Wenham, whose name is known to every microscopist the world over, 
announces that he has retired from microscopy; that he has given it up and 
has not looked through an instrument for several months, and has no 
expectation of ever doing so again, Mr. Wenham offers no explanation of 
his determination, but however painful it may be to the thousands who have 
learned to look upon him as one of the immortals in microscopy, from the tone 
of his letter we are convinced of his sincerity, and accept his dictum as 
final.” 

: St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., LIV. (1888) pp. 29-80. 
Woop, J. G.—The Boy’s Modern Playmate. A Book of Games, Sports, and 
Diversions. 

[Contains a chapter on “ the Microscope,” pp. 690-701, 14 figs.] 

New revised ed., x. and 883 pp. and figs., Svo, London, n.d. 


B. Technique.* 
(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes. 


Collecting, Growing, and Examining Fresh-water Sponges.{—In a 
contribution to a synopsis of the American forms of fresh-water sponges, 
Mr. E. Potts has some remarks on their collection and examination. 

In collecting the author has found great advantage in the use of the 
“ scraper-net” in relatively deep water, and in connection with perpen- 
dicular timbers, &c. This consists of a small net with one part of its 
edge shaped into a scraper like a garden hoe; it is attached to a long 
pole. At depths of two feet or less, great facility of action is gained by 
wearing high rubber boots, and wading after the specimens, to pick 
from the bottom stones, sticks or pieces of waterlogged timber, under 
which they may be concealed. Where the water is deeper, of course a 


* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- 
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes; 
(4) Staining and Injecting; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &e. ; 
(6) Miscellaneous. 

+ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1887, pp. 158-84. Cf. also H. Mills in 
Microscope, vii. (1887) pp. 294-7. 


306 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


boat must be used, to approach the floating, submerged, or dependent 
sponge-bearing substances. A large, strong knife or paper-hanger’s 
scraper will be found convenient for hand work at short range. A case 
containing trays an inch or so in depth is}suitable for carrying the 
smaller specimens; the larger will of course require vessels of greater 
size. On reaching home it is well to select some specimens of charac- 
teristic shapes, and containing gemmules, for storage in dilute alcohol, 
making use of wide-mouthed bottles to avoid crushing them. The rest 
may be spread upon bvards in sheltered situations, in the shade (for the 
suo bleaches them rapidly) and left to dry; turning them every few 
hours to prevent decomposition. If time is limited or the specimens are 
large, artificial heat may be necessary; but whatever process is used, 
the drying must be thorough, or mould will soon cover the sponges with 
a mycelium which may be beautiful enough in itself, but is far from 
agreeable or sightly as a feature of the sponge. Whether they are to be 
dried or preserved in alcohol, they should be dealt with promptly, and 
on no account left to lie long in the water after being gathered. Preserve 
from dust in covered boxes. 

Unless the sponges are large, it is difficult to detach them without 
mutilation from the rough surfaces of stones. It is therefore preferable 
to gather, when possible, those growing upon wood, which may be 
scraped or chipped without injury to them. It is essential to secure the 
very lowest portions, as it is there the gemmules often abide. 

The proper season for collecting fresh-water sponges, in waters of 
the temperate zone, depends upon the purpose of the collector. If it 
is his desire to gather cabinet specimens merely, for the identification of 
old, or the determination of novel species, it is hardly worth while to 
begin before July. As with the flowering of plants, the maturity of 
different species of sponges is attained at various dates between mid- 
summer and late in November. The essential point is that the gem- 
mules and their armature shall be fully perfected; and when that 
condition is attained in any specimen, there is no reason for further 
delay. 

The author would, however, “recommend to intending students a 
far higher object for their ambition—that is, the study of the physiology 
and life-history of sponges, as members of a sub-kingdom whose position 
has been greatly questioned, and whose character, derivation, and sub- 
sequent evolution are very important and perplexing topics.” He would 
have such workers search for and examine them at all seasons of the 
year (even in midwinter, when he has never failed, in suitable situations, 
to find some in a growing condition), keeping memoranda as to each 
species separately, noting the date of their germination or earliest 
appearance, the location, elevation, and temperature, rapidity of growth 
at different scasons, time and manner of formation of gemmules, stability 
or decadence during the winter, modes of distribution and progression, 
whether always down stream or by other more adventitious methods, 
what becomes of the gemmules upon reaching salt water, and the 
thousand and one problems that go to make up the life-history of any 
animal form, and that in this instance have been very little studied. He 
is particularly anxious that some competent person should undertake 
their study in the briny, brackish, and the fresh-water lakes pertaining 
to what is known as the “ Great Basin of the West,” with a special view 
to ascertain the conditions under which they form “ protected gemmules ” 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 3807 


in such localities. By this means light may possibly be thrown upon 
the problem of their possible derivation from the marine sponges. 

Great pleasure and profit may be attained in the same direction by 
germinating the statoblasts or gemmules under artificial conditions, and 
studying the development of the young sponges by the aid of as high 
powers of the Microscope as the ingenuity of each student may bring to 
bear upon the subject. He further recommends Mr. Carter’s directions * 
for germinating statoblasts, which he considers will be found valuable. 

“To obtain the young Spongille it is only necessary to get a portion 
of an old living specimen bearing statoblasts, and, having taken out a few 
(six to twelve) of the latter, to roll them gently between the folds of a 
towel to free them from all extra material as much as possible, place 
them in a watch-glass so as not to touch each other, with a little water, 
in a saucer or small dish filled with shot to keep the saucer upright 
and, covering them with a glass shade, transfer the whole to a window- 
bench opposite to the light. In a few days the young Spongilla may be 
observed (from its white colour) issuing from the statoblast and glueing 
the latter as well as itself to the watch-glass, when it will be ready for 
transfer to the field of the Microscope for examination, care being taken 
that it is never uncovered by the water, which may be replenished as 
often as necessary; but of course the object-glass (when 1/4 in. with 
high ocular is used for viewing the minute structure) must admit of 
being dipped into the water without suffusion of the lens.” 

His own first experience in the propagation of fresh-water sponges 
may prove instructive in various ways. Late in the autumn of the year 
1879, in a pond within the Centennial Grounds, Philadelphia, he found 
for the first time a living sponge. It was a vigorous, branching speci- 
men of Spongilla lacustris, charged with gemmules in all parts of its 
structure. A fragment firmly attached to a stone was taken home and 
placed in a gallon “specie-jar” with water, in the hope, begotten of 
inexperience, that it would continue to grow, exhibit its inflowing and 
exhalent currents, &c. On the contrary, almost necessarily, it died, and 
in a few days the water became insupportably foul. It was changed and 
another trial made, which resulted as before. This time the jar was 
thoroughly cleansed ; the stone with the attached sponge was taken out 
and held long under the flowing hydrant before it was replaced in the 
jar, which was now left in an outer shed and, very naturally, forgotten. 
Weeks passed and winter came on, and one severe night the water in 
the jar was frozen solid and the vessel fractured. He supposed that 
the low temperature to which it had been subjected would prove fatal 
to the germs, but, as the specimen was a fine one, it seemed well to save 
it, even in its skeletonized condition. So when its icy envelope had 
been melted off, the sponge was again thoroughly washed until all 
the sarcode was removed, when in a fresh jar, it again became a “ parlour 
specimen.” 

The author does not clearly remember when signs of germination 
were first observed. It was probably in January, as during that month 
artificial conditions very frequently bring about the hatching of such 
animal germs as those of the polyzoa, &c. He detected first a filmy, 
greyish-white growth, that seemed associated with the detached gemmules 
which lay in a groove around the bottom of the jar. A grey, feature- 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1882, p. 365. 


308 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


less growth at first, then spicules were seen, in slightly fasciculated 
lines, attached to the glass and reaching upward, then spreading out 
fan-like and branching. These were, of course, covered with sarcode, 
nearly transparent at first, and through the filmy surface pores and 
osteoles could be detected with a pocket lens. The latter were sur- 
mounted by the so-called “chimneys” or cone-shaped extensions of 
the dermal film; and through the apertures at their summits effete 
particles could almost constantly be seen, puffed out, as if thrown from 
a volcano, and then blown off by the wind. 

These products of single gemmules did not, as time passed on, 
greatly increase in size—possibly, because of a deficient nutriment in the 
unchanged water of the jar—but, crawling upward along the glass to an 
average height of an inch or less, left the naked spicules in place behind 
them as so many ladders or stepping-stones of their dead selves by which 
they had reached to higher things. Near the summit, one or more new 
gemmules would sometimes be formed, after which the mother mass 
entirely disappeared. 

So much for the amount of growth from single gemmules. Where, 
however, they were thickly sown, or germinated in situ upon the stone, 
so that the contents of several could mingle and flow together, the 
resultant sponge was very much larger. The mass, if it may be so 
called, covered, at its best, nearly one-third the surface of the jar; while 
those gemmules remaining upon the stone and amongst the spicules 
of the old sponge continued to germinate, to form abundant sarcode 
and spicules, and, at least in one place, to throw out a long unsupported 
branch or finger-like process that ultimately reached a length of two or 
three inches. 

Of course it was impossible to bring the higher powers of a com- 
pound Microscope to bear upon a sponge growing under such circum- 
stances. A strong Coddington lens was the best that could be applied 
to this work; but a very fair share of success was obtained by the device 
of scattering small squares of mica among the growing gemmules, 
which, when covered by the young sponge, could be moved to the stage 
of the instrument, covered with water in a compressorium and examined 
comparatively at leisure. It was a perpetual cause of astonishment to 
see so large a production of silicious spicules from a single gallon of 
water, in which the chemist would probably have failed to find any 
such constituent. It is worthy of consideration however, whether such 
silica as composed the older spicules may not, at least when under 
the influence of the growth force of the younger sponges, be to some 
extent soluble. 

For the determination of species the author gives a few general 
directions, which however he thinks will be soon modified to suit the 
taste or ingenuity of the worker. It is assumed that the investigator 
has already noted the general appearance of the sponge in hand; its 
colour, size, compactness, whether simply encrusting, or cushion-like, 
sending out finger-like processes, &c. These indications may help an 
experienced collector to a guess; but there are very few species that 
even such a one could name, with any confidence, before he had made 
and examined microscopical preparations of the same. 

A stand, supporting a dozen or more test-tubes, say 3/4 in. in diameter 
by 11 in. in depth ; a dropping-bottle containing nitric acid, and the usual 
material and apparatus for mounting in balsam are all the appliances 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 309 


needed. As the processes to be described are certain to disturb the 
normal relations of the several classes of spicules to each other, it is well 
before the dried specimen has been much handled, to separate some clean 
portions of the outer or dermal film ; lay them upon a slide and mount 
in balsam without further preparation. An examination of this may 
determine the presence and decide the character of the dermal spicules, 
if there are any pertaining to the species in hand. This precaution is 
necessary in view of the displacement of parts just mentioned, and also 
on account of the indiscriminating habit of the sponge-currents during 
life, which almost necessarily charge the tissues with various foreign 
particles, including vagrant spicules of its own and neighbouring species. 
In practice, the rightful presence of dermal spicules in any species is 
often so doubtful, that it can only be settled by an examination of young 
sponges, grown under observation from isolated statoblasts, whose identity 
has been satisfactorily determined. 

Next, separate from the sponge some minute fragments containing 
skeleton spicules, the dermal and interstitial tissues, and a dozen or more 
gemmules. Place several of the last-named with a few adherent skeleton 
spicules upon the centre of a fresh slide; bring to the boiling-point in 
one of the test-tubes five or six drops of nitric acid, and by the aid of a 
dropping-tube apply a single drop of the hot acid to the gemmules 
upon the slide. While the acid is partially destroying their cellular or 
granular crust, pour the remaining fragments into the acid left in the 
test-tube and boil violently until all the tissues are destroyed and the 
spicules left as a sediment upon the bottom of the tube. Fill up the 
tube with water and stand it aside to settle, which may take an hour or 
more. The few minutes that have elapsed will probably have been as 
much as the gemmules upon the slide will bear; they must not be left 
so long as to destroy the chitinous coat, nor is it well, though a common 
practice, to boil them upon the slide, for this often smears and disfigures 
it with frothy matter. Remove most of the acid by trickling drop after 
drop of water over the slide while held in a slightly inclined position. 
Wipe off all the water that can be reached and apply repeated drops of 
strong alcohol to take up the remainder. When this is so far accom- 
plished that the gemmules will absorb benzole freely and receive their 
covering of benzole and chloroform balsam without clouding, apply the 
balsam and a cover-glass, This process of removing moisture by the 
use of alcohol, rather than by drying over a lamp, is to be preferred, 
although it requires more care and time, because the gemmules are less 
likely to be distorted in shape and the cells of the crust to become filled 
with air if they are kept always under fluid. Yet if the mounted 
gemmules, when examined, appear black, showing an accidental intrusion 
of air, much of this can be removed by carefully heating the slide over 
a lamp. 

If this mount has been successful, the gemmules are now so trans- 
parent that their surrounding spicules can be readily seen and the genus 
determined ; but a better view of the detached spicules is necessary, and 
may be obtained by mounting some of the contents of the test-tube. 
If the lately suspended spicules have now settled, carefully pour off all 
the water except one or two drops, though if there has been much acid 
used it may be better to wash them a second time. Shake up and place 
a sufficient quantity upon one or more slides, being careful not to leave 
the contained spicules in too dense a mass. It is best to allow the water 


310 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


to evaporate from these slowly, as, if hurried over a lamp, each spicule 
is often margined with minute globules that it is impossible afterwards 
to remove. However, when the slide is apparently quite dry, it may be 
safely exposed a moment to the heat to make sure of it, and then covered 
with balsam and glass as usual. 

The author adds ;—“ The investigator has now before him all the 
elements necessary for solving his specific problem, according to the 
formule which follow :—The normal sponge, the dermal film, the trans- 
parent gemmule, and a display of the detached spicules. Neither would 
alone answer, but the series will settle all points, excepting in the case 
of the genus Carterius. When this is suspected, the gemmules should 
first be examined dry; and, in preparations for mounting, great care 
should be taken to avoid the destruction of the tendrils (cirri), by the 
prolonged use of strong acids. Expert microscopists will improve their 
gemmule mounts by dividing some of them with a thin knife, endea- 
vouring to make the section through the foraminal aperture; this, in the 
case of species having long birotulates, such as Myenia crateriformis, is 
of the utmost importance. 

“«¢Seniors’in microscopy will please pardon the minutiz of the pro- 
cesses just given, as they were necessary to make them available for the 
freshmen. All are reminded that the above directions as to collection 
and examination refer to mature sponges only. It is seldom safe, or 
even possible, to name one in which no gemmules can be found. If a 
course of study is undertaken, involving the histology and physiology 
of fresh-water sponges, many peculiarities will of course be observed 
that have not been alluded to here. One of them concerns the develop- 
ment of the spicules, and, if not understood, will pretty certainly mislead 
the beginner into the supposition that he is examining a novel species. 
Both the skeleton and the dermal spicules of young sponges are fre- 
quently marked with bulbous enlargements at the middle, and often 
half-way between the middle and each end of the spicule. These seem 
to indicate an immature condition, as they disappear when the spicules 
are fully formed.” ; 

Potato Cultivations.*—Dr. J. Hisenberg, instead of using solid 
pieces of potato, employs a mash. The potatoes are first well cooked by 
steaming, and then pounded in a mortar. The mashed potato is then 
pressed down into small glass pans about 5 cm. in diameter. The pans 
are provided with a lid in which there is a groove, so that the cover may 
fit accurately. The pans are then sterilized for three successive days, 
for half an hour a day, in a steam sterilizer. When required for use, the 
cover is lifted up and the surface inoculated. To make the pan air- 
tight, it is only necessary to turn it down on the cover, and run some 
melted paraffin round the angle between the lid and the pan. If there 
should be any condensation water on the lid this can be got rid of by 
passing the pan through the flame of a Bunser’s burner two or three 
times. 


Sterilization of Potato, Apples, and Water for cultivation pur- 
poses.t|— Dr. H. Plaut first sterilizes three or four test-tubes (3 em. broad 
and 20 cm. long) which have been plugged with cotton wool in the 
usual way. Potatoes are then peeled with a clean knife, while apples 


* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iii, (1888) pp. 216-7 (1 fig.). 
+ Ibid., pp. 100-1, 126-8 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 311 


are merely washed clean. Cubes of apple or potato, sufficiently large 
so as not to interfere with one another in the tubes, are then cut up. 
About eight of these cubes are able to be put in each tube, and the latter 
having been plugged with cotton wool, are placed in a steam sterilizer 
for half an hour. When cool, transfer to a well-closed jar, upon the 
bottom of which some water must be poured from time to time. Here 
they may be kept for quite a month. Thus, after sterilization, is 
obtained from four tubes material sufficient for 32 Koch’s jars. Each 
cube is removed to a separate test-tube or jar by impaling it on the bent 
end of a piece of platinum wire previously thoroughly heated. Some 
practice is needful for this, as the cubes are apt toslip away. The 
cover of the jar may be held up by an assistant, or more simply the 
whole manipulation may be affected as described by the author in 
Ziirn’s ‘ Parasiten,’ 2nd edition, ii. p. 165. The apple-cubes, which the 
author uses for cultivating all kinds of Saccharomyces, become soft as 

jelly after sterilization, and are only held together by the peel. Hence 
‘ manipulation of them is somewhat troublesome, but if any irregularity 
of surface occur, this may be removed by smoothing it down with a 
previously heated spatula. 

To obtain and keep a quantity of water that shall be free from fungi, 
the author takes an ordinary flask ; this is three-parts filled with water, 
plugged with cotton wool, and sterilized. The rubber tube and the glass 
stoppers are then fitted in and plugged round with cotton wool. The 
apparatus is then placed in a steam sterilizer for half an hour. When 
cool, the one end is fitted with a rubber spray bellows, and the other 
supplied with a pinchcock. When to be used it is necessary to squeeze 
the bellows twice before opening the pinchcock, and to close the latter 
before the stream of water has ceased. 


ARLOING—Moditication apportee a un analyseur bacteriologique. (Modification 
in a bacteriological analyser.) CR. Soc. Biol., 1887, p. 722. 
Dau Pozzo, D.—Das Eiweiss der Kiebitzeier als Nahrboden fiir Mikroorganismen. 
(The albumen of the plover’s egg as a culture medium for micro-organisms.) 
Med. Jahrb. ( Wien), 1887, pp. 523-9. 
Fiscuu, R.—(«) Ein neues Verfahren zur Herstellung mikroskopischer Praparate 
aus Reagenzglasculturen; (+) Die Anfertigung von wirksamen mit Mikro- 
organismen impragnirten Faden. ((a) A new process for making microscopic 
preparations from test-tube cultures; (0) the preparation of threads effectively 
impregnated with micro-organisms.) Fortschr. d. Medicin, 1887, pp. 663-6. 
Rovux, E.—De la Culture sur Pomme de terre. (On potato cultivation.) 
Ann. Instit. Pasteur, 1888, pp. 28-30. 


(2) Preparing Objects. 


Demonstrating the Reticulated Protoplasm in the Interstitial 
Cells of the Ovary.*—M. N. Léwenthal remarks that it is not rare to 
meet in sections of ovary of dog, cat, or rabbit, with interstitial cells, 
the body of which appears to be subdivided by a protoplasmic network 
more or less restricted to small areas of round, oblong, or polygonal 
shape. This special conformation of the interstitial cells is particu- 
larly frequent and easy to demonstrate in the cat. It is due to the fact 
that the cell is infiltrated with globules which stain black, not only 
with osmic acid, but with chrom-aceto-osmic acid. The globules are 
particularly large in the cat; much smaller in the rabbit. They are 


* Arch Sci. Phys. et Nat., xviii. (1887) pp. 558-9. 


ole SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


disposed with much regularity all round the nucleus. As they increase 
in size they almost touch, and in consequence the protoplasm proper is 
reduced to a delicate framework. 

The procedure for showing the structural peculiarities of the inter- 
stitial cells consists in fixing the pieces in the chrom-aceto-osmic acid 
mixture, and staining the sections after Flemming’s method with safranin. 
After dehydration the sections are placed in oil of turpentine. By this 
means the globules blackened by the osmic acid aro for the most part 
dissolved; in those that remain the intensity of colour is much 
diminished. Sometimes the cell assumes a more or less deep lilac 
tint. 


Methods of investigating Structure of Nerve-tissues.*—Mr. F. 
Nansen, in his studies on the structure of nervous tissues, made use of 
fresh isolated tissues, as well as of those that had been macerated or cut 
into sections. The first were examined in the blood of the animal from 
which they were taken, either as large pieces or after being teased with 
glass-needles, the use of which the author strongly recommends. For 
macerations use was made of B. Haller’s fluid composed of 5 parts 
acetic acid, 5 parts glycerin, and 20 parts distilled water; pieces were 
treated with this for from one to twenty-four hours, then teased in 
50 per cent. glycerin, or washed and stained with ammonia-carmine or 
picro-carmine. Delafield’s solution is specially recommended. For 
some purposes it was better to macerate in dilute alcohol, when weak 
solutions (17-20 per cent.) were found good. Sometimes, however, this 
process has to be continued for weeks; when finished, the tissues were 
stained in ammonia-carmine diluted with an equal quantity of macera- 
ting fluid for twenty-four hours, and teased in glycerin of 50 per cent. 

The author usually stains before teasing or isolating, because he 
thinks it much more practical, and when one is careful not to employ 
too strong solutions, and to dissolve or dilute the staining colours in 
the macerating fluid, the facility of isolation is not seriously disturbed. 
Though one of the oldest methods, that of maceration in potassium 
bichromate is one of the best, and must never be omitted when it is 
wished to examine the most delicate structure with good results. 

The most important thing in researches on the histology of the 
nervous elements is to get good sections from well fixed and stained 
preparations. The author strongly recommends F'lemming’s mixture as 
made of 15 parts of 1 per cent. chromic acid, 4 parts of 2 per cent. osmic 
acid, and 1 part (or less) of acetic acid. Pieces as small as possible 
must be treated in not too small quantities of the fluid for from 12-24 
hours, or even longer. After washing they should be directly inclosed 
(not imbedded) in paraffin, and may then be easily cut under alcohol or 
water. Mr. Nansen has succeeded in getting sections only 0-005 mm. 
thick. 

A method which was found very useful with Mollusca was the fol- 
lowing :—The pieces for examination, cut as small as possible, were 
treated with 1 per cent. osmic acid for 48 hours, then washed in running 
water and cut at once by hand, or with the microtome (or they may be 
first hardened in alcohol and then cut). The sections were stained in 
Delaficld’s hematoxylin (diluted), and the colour destroyed in water 
containing a little acetic acid; the sections were examined in glycerin 


* Bergens Museum Aarsberetning for 1886 (1887) pp. 73-80. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ole 


or Canada balsam. By this method the fibrillar substance got a distinct 
blackish staining. 

Mr. Nansen concludes with describing a method the importance of 
which “ for our future knowledge of the nervous system can scarcely be 
overestimated, as it affords really quite marvellous preparations, and far 
surpasses every method hitherto known.’ By modifications of the 
black chromo-silver method of Prof. Golgi the author has obtained ex- 
cellent preparations. As employed for Myaine glutinosa the following 
method is adopted :—The nerve-cord is cut out of the living animal, 
and divided into pieces one or two centimetres long; these are laid in a 
solution of potassium-bichromate (2-2°5 per cent.) for about an hour, 
when the solution is changed and made a little stronger. In this the 
pieces are left for about twenty-four hours, after which they are put 
into a fresh solution consisting of 4 parts of 38 per cent. solution of 
potassium-bichromate and 1 part of 1 per cent. osmic acid, in which 
they remain for about three days. When the pieces are ready, they are 
directly treated with silver nitrate; they are first washed in a weak 
solution (0°5 per cent.), and then placed in 1 per cent. solutions. After 
one day the staining is generally complete. Sections need not be very 
thin ; if the staining is good the ganglion-cells will be seen with all 
their processes, and nerye-tubes with their ramifications will appear 
quite dark or black on a transparent field. 

Specimens intended to be preserved should be washed well in alcohol 
of 90 to 96 per cent.; when sufficiently washed they should be placed 
in absolute alcohol. After some hours of this the sections are placed in 
pure turpentine, which must be changed several times; and they are 
then placed on the slide in dammar-resin dissolved in turpentine. If it 
is desired to keep the preparation a long time, it must not be protected 
by a cover-glass; the dammar is at once dried in a warm bath or incu- 
bator, when the turpentine is very rapidly evaporated and the dammar 
becomes quite hard and smooth. The addition of a cover-glass prevents, 
of course, the evaporation of the turpentine and other volatile oils. 

Prof. Golgi mounts the sections, in dammar, on cover-glasses, and 
the cover-glasses are again mounted on wooden slides, in the middle of 
which square apertures are cut to suit the glasses. This excellent 
method not only admits of the use of oil-immersion lenses, but allows 
the sections to be examined from both sides, which is often of great im- 
portance when the sections are thick. Silver-stained preparations should,, 
of course, be kept in the dark when not being used. 


New Method for Investigation of Blood.*—Dr. D. Biondi describes 
a new method for the microscopical examination of the blood. He notes 
the disadvantages of the methods hitherto practised. Being desirous to 
study the blood more intimately, by means of sections, he experimented. 
with all sorts of imbedding mixtures without success. LHventually, he 
fixed the elements by placing drops of fresh blood in 5 c.cm. of 2 per 
cent. osmic acid solution, and this achieved the first step. The im- 
bedding was successfully effected, after many attempts, in agar-agar, 
so much used by Koch and other bacteriologists. ‘The mixture of blood 
and osmic acid is placed in dissolved agar at a temperature of 35°-37°.. 
The fluid is allowed to harden in the usual moulds, is sliced into little 
portions, placed for some days in 85° alcohol, and cut in pith. The 


* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxxi. (1887) pp. 103-12. 


314 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


agar method may also be combined with the usual paraffin process. 
He gives further details as to staining, clearing, and the like, but the 
point of importance is the successful results of this agar imbedding for 
the purpose of minute morphological study of fine elements like blood- 
corpuscles. 


Methods of studying typical Bird’s Feather.*—Mr. R. 8S. Wray 
came to the results which he has reached with regard to the structure 
ofa typical pennaceous feather, while preparing a model for the Natural 
History Museum. A feather was soaked in turpentine and bits of the 
vane were cut out and mounted in Canada balsam to show the upper and 
lower surfaces. Separate barbs were mounted, the barbules on some 
being teased out with needles, and on others the barbules were cut off 
by placing a sharp razor on the sides of the barb and pressing gently 
on the slide, when sufficiently perfect barbules of each kind were 
obtained for examination. Portions of the vane were carefully imbedded 
in paraffin, and sections mounted by the creosote-shellac method, so that 
the parts were obtained in their relative, natural, and undisturbed 
positions. In addition to transverse and horizontal, sections parallel to 
the distal barbules were made. A gutta-percha model illustrating the 
points elucidated by Mr. Wray, is to be seen in the “index-museum ” 
of the Natural History Museum, and is worthy of the attention of 
microscopists. 


Mounting Tape-worms.t—Mr. W. S. Jackman states that a joint or 
segment of tape-worm mounted in the following manner will show the 
ovaries and eggs very clearly. 

Procure good-sized specimens with well-filled ovaries. Remove the 
alcohol in which they have been hardened, wash and immerse in glycerin 
for a few days until clear and pulpy in appearance. Place between two 
strips of glass and squeeze until the specimen is quite thin. Clamp 
with a stiff spring and allow it to remain thus for several hours—a day is 
not too long; sufficient glycerin will adhere to the glass to keep it moist. 
Next place it in the stain, a few minutes will usually be long enough ; 
pass it then through the fixing solution and place in oil of cloves, allow 
it to remain here until the tissue around the eggs assumes a transparent 
glassy appearance, then remove to a thin balsam solution and mount. 
Turpentine should not be used for clearing, as it makes the specimens 
opaque. “Hard finish” answers as well as balsam, is pleasanter to 
handle, and easier to prepare. It should be thinned with benzol and 
then filtered. 


Reeves’s Method.t—Mr. R. N. Reynolds states that by following 
Dr. J. E. Reeves’s method of preparing, cutting, and mounting patho- 
logical specimens he has now great success. The sections are 1/4000 
in. thick, but only about half or one-third come from under the 
flattener in a condition to mount. Instead of balsam he uses Berry 
Bros’. oil finish. Sections 1/2000 in. thick came out straight enough 
for mounting. The chief difficulty in the method arises from not using 
sufficiently hard paraffin. The author found that the hardest refined 
paraffin of the Standard Oil Company, Cleveland, supplied the want, 
but in very cold weather a softer variety could be used. If the 


* This, 1887, pp. 422-3. + bia t abe Microscope, viii. (1888) pp. 5-6. 
id., p. 31. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 315 


specimens remain cloudy after liberal use of absolute alcohol, this is 
due to insufficient immersion in the turpentine bath. 


Mode of rendering visible the closing Membrane of Bordered 
Pits.*—Herr A. Zimmermann recommends for this object staining with 
hematoxylin (in Béhmer’s solution), and clearing with oil of cloves and 
Canada balsam. If slightly tinged, the “ torus s” alone then takes up 
the pigment strongly, while all the other membranes are almost entirely 
colourless. By this method the torus is rendered visible even in 
relatively thick sections and with low magnification. 


Mounting small Organisms—Disaggregation of Rocks.j —Sig. D. 
Pantanelli who recently suggested a method for mounting small 
organisms found in the residues from finely divided rocks, by using a 
mixture of collodion and oil of cloves, has, on account of the impurities 
in the latter, and the difficulty of making elegant preparations, now sub- 
stituted for it salicylic ether (C°H"O*), which, on being evaporated at 
a temperature of 60°, leaves the collodion unaltered, while at ordinary 
temperatures it keeps viscid sufficiently long for making the prepara- 
tion. 

Tempére advised that rocks refractory to acids should be disaggre- 
gated by boiling them in a concentrated solution of sulphate of soda, 
the act of crystallization completely breaks up the rock; when used for 
diatoms this method succeeds very well with porous rocks, and serves 
excellently for separating out the foraminifera from argillaceous or 
calcareous rocks, which are not reduced by repeated immersion in water. 
Having experimented with porous, calcareous, and compact argillaceous 
rocks, the author has succeeded in separating out, without damage, the 
most delicate foraminifera, and still more easily radiolaria and diatoms. 
Whenever siliceous organisms are sought for, the acid process should be 
adopted, and whenever this fails to break up the rock, the solution of 
sulphate of soda should be tried. 


Kiune, H.—Ueber ein kombinirtes Universalverfahren, Spaltpilze im thierischen 
Gewebe nachzuweisen. (On a combined universal process for demonstrating 


bacteria in animal tissues.) Dermatol. Studien (Unna), 1887, pp. 9-14. 
Mawnron, W. P.—Rudiments of Practical Embryology, being working notes with 
simple methods for beginners. Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 15-8. 


(3) Cutting, including Imbedding. 


Application of Paraffin Imbedding in Botany.t—Dr. J. W. Moll 
enthusiastically recommends paraffin imbedding for botanical prepara- 
tions. The reasons given why this method has not hitherto been more 
generally adopted are that tissues preserved in alcohol are unsuitable, 
and that it has usually been tried with full-grown parts, for which it is 
not so well adapted. 

The procedure is as follows :—Take, say, fresh tips of some primary 
or secondary root 1-2 cm. long, and fix in watery 1 per cent. solution 
of chromic acid, or a saturated solution of picric acid, or, best of all, a 
modified Flemming’s mixture (chromic acid 1 per cent., osmic acid 
0:02 per cent., acetic acid 0-1 per cent.). 

Herein the root-tips remain for twenty-four hours, and then the acids 

* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. (1887) pp. 216-7. 


+ Atti Soc. Tose. Sci. Nat., vi. (1887) Proc. Verb., pp, 12-13. 
t Bot. Gazette, xiii. (1888) pp- 5-14. 


516 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


are to be thoroughly washed out with running water. The water is 
then replaced by alcohol, which must be added gradually in increasing 
strengths of 20, 40, 60, 80, 95 per cent., to prevent it swelling. The 
alcohol is next replaced by a solvent of paraflin, turpentine being the best. 
This is performed gradually, first with equal parts of alcohol and turpen- 
tine, then with pure turpentine; then transfer to a cold saturated solution 
of paraftin in turpentine ; then to equal parts of turpentine and paraffin 
kept at a heat of 30°-40° C. After an hour the temperature is raised to 
50°-55° C., and the roots finally placed in pure melted paraffin renewed 
once or twice. In about six hours the roots will be thoroughly per- 
meated, and then they are placed in rectangular moulds suitable for 
being held in a microtome clamp. The inner surface of the moulds 
should be wetted with turpentine before the melted paraffin is poured 
in, and as soon as the molten mass is cooled so far that a film is formed 
on its surface, cold water should be at once poured over it, as sudden 
setting of paraffin prevents the formation of cavities. After the sections 
are made they are glued to the slide with indiarubber solution, albumen, 
or collodion; the two last are to be preferred. If albumen, equal parts 
of white of egg and albumen are mixed together, some drops of carbolic 
acid added, and the whole filtered. If collodion, then a mixture of equal 
parts of collodion and oil of cloves is made. In either case the slide 
is painted with the adhesive, the section pressed thereon, and the slide 
is then heated in the oven for fifteen minutes at 50°C. While still warm 
the slide is transferred to turpentine, which dissolves the paraffin, and 
the turpentine removed by means of alcohol. 

The specimens may be stained before imbedding or as sections on 
the slide. If the former, then Grenacher’s alum-carmine when the 
specimens have reached the 60 per cent. alcohol stage; if the latter, then 
alum-carmine, hematoxylin or the anilins, the last being specially suitable 
for demonstrating karyokinesis. 

The sections may be mounted in glycerin or balsam, but the latter is 
preferable. 


New Imbedding Material.*—Prof. E. Pfitzer describes a new mode 
of imbedding, which he has found very useful in the cxamination of 
minute and very soft or thin parts of plants, such as the flowers of 
orchids in early stages of their development. The principal objects 
were to obtain an imbedding material which should combine solubility 
in water with a great degree of transparency. These properties are 
presented by glycerin soap. 

Prof. Pfitzer heats in a water-bath of a temperature between 60° and 
70° C. a mixture of equal volumes of glycerin and 90 per cent. alcohol, 
with as many minute yellow transparent pieces of glycerin soap as will 
dissolve in it. This is best done in a cylindrical vessel stopped with 
cotton wool, from which but little alcohol evaporates. The yellow 
perfectly transparent or only slightly turbid fluid is poured either into 
a flat dish or into a paper cup made by wrapping strips of paper round 
a cork and fastening with a pin, the paper having been first saturated 
with strong alcohol. While the mixture is hardening, the object must 
be placed by a needle in a position suitable for making sections. With 
larger objects it is convenient to insure perfect saturation by laying 
them in a cold saturated solution of soap before transferring into the 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. (Gen.-Versamml. Heft) yv. (1887) pp. lxv.—-viii. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 317 


hot mixture. The imbedding substance can be preserved cold in corked 
vessels for an indefinite time, and will melt at a temperature of about 
40° ©. 

By this means perfectly clear transparent imbeddings may be 
obtained, which can be cut with the greatest ease after hardening in the 
cold, and can be preserved unchanged in a vessel over fused calcium 
chloride, which renders them somewhat harder and therefore better. 
Very minute objects may be imbedded still more quickly by placing 
drops of the material on a cork, laying the object on them, and adding 
another drop of the material. Small quantities of the solution of soap 
harden completely in a quarter of an hour. For harder parts of plants 
the process is not very convenient, the material being not sufficiently 
solid; paraffin or celloidin are better. For making the sections 
Thoma’s slit-microtome was used. 


Dale’s Microtome.—Mr. H. F. Dale has patented the microtome 
shown in figs. 60 and 61, the primary object he had in view being “ to 
‘ provide an instrument which, while it may be made at comparatively 


Fira. 60. 


S 
Y 
ohne OTTE 
- Er} 


small cost, shall be effective and durable to the highest degree possible, 
and which particularly distinguishes itself also owing to the facility 
with, and advantageous manner in which it is operated.” 

The device comprises a base-plate A, upon the surface of which is 
fixed a rectangular box B, having a freezing chamber a perforated at 
the bottom with two holes, into the larger of which is secured a tube }, 
which contains the object. The smaller perforation is provided with a 
short length of tube c, which serves to drain off the liquefied refrigerant. 
On the top of the box B is a face plate C, partially covering the box, 
the oper portion b' allowing of the introduction of the refrigerant. 

The mechanism for raising the object comprises a spindle D, to the 
centre of which is fixed a rachet-wheel E, into the teeth of which a 

1888. Z 


318 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


pawl e takes, carried upon an arm d, the pawl being pressed against the 
rachet-wheel by a small bent spring f. The arm d, which works loosely 
upon the spindle D, is kept in its proper position by means of a washer ; 
the extremity of the arm is forked, into which takes a bent wire H, 
fixed to a rod G, working horizontally in bearings. Within the bearings 
the rod is surrounded by a spiral spring h. To one end of the rod, be- 
yond the bearing, is a small hook 7, to allow of the attachment of a cord, 
which, passing over the small pulley I, is secured to a suitable treadle 
beneath the table. The other end of the rod has a screw-thread with a 
thumbscrew 7 for regulating 
Fie. 61. and limiting the horizontal 
motion or “ play ” of the rod. 

To the base plate A is fixed 
a second pawl F, of such length 
as to act upon the rachet-wheel 
E at whatever height the latter 
may be, the pawl being gently 
pressed against the rachet-wheel 
by the spring 7. The upper part 
of the vertical spindle D has a 
fine screw-thread, which works 
in a metal disc screwed to the 
base plate. The other extremity 
of the spindle is plain, and 
moves freely in a_ bearing 
formed in a rigid bracket J, 
which serves to keep the spindle 
perfectly central relatively to 
the tube b. The spindle ter- 
minates at its upper extremity in a conical point 0, upon the apex of 
which is a plug m, which moves freely up and down in unison with the 
vertical motion of the spindle. 

The mode of working the apparatus is as follows:—Having adjusted 
the thumbscrew i', the treadle is depressed, and by means of the cord n 
attached to the rod G, the latter is drawn forward in the direction of 
the arrow, a distance limited by the position of the thumbscrew 7’, and 
in this forward motion carries with it, by means of the wire H, the 
arm d; whereupon the pawl e takes into the rachet-wheel E and 
rotates the latter a distance corresponding to one, two, or more teeth, 
thus raising the plug m and object to such a height as to allow of 
a section being taken in accordance with the thickness desired. The 
whole of the mechanism, it will be seen, is actuated by the depression 
of the treadle, thus leaving both hands free to manipulate the knife, as 
also to vary the position of the object. 

The author, in his specification,* further says :—“It is well known 
that in preparing objects for microscopic examination, it is almost im- 
possible, by the methods at present generally adopted, to obtain very 
thin sections or slices of substances of a brittle or non-elastic nature. 
This difficulty is, to some extent, due to the inability to utilise both 
hands for manipulating the razor or section knife before referred to, 
but with the improved apparatus above described, inasmuch as the 


* 1887, No. 9900. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 319 


mechanism is actuated by the foot, both hands are available to give to 
the cutting knife those exact movements so essentially necessary to the 
successful production of extremely fine, thin, delicate films; therefore 
the brittle substances having been treated in any of the usual ways to 
impart tenacity and partial elasticity thereto, the knife is made to ap- 
proach and cut into the substance of the object, either direct, diagonally, 
or in any other desired manner, without fear of one part of the film or 
slice being of greater thickness than another, a most important con- 
sideration with respect to opaque or semi-opaque substances. Another 
important feature in the device arranged as above described, is the 
rigidity with which the object to be operated upon is maintained in 
position during the process of cutting or slicing the same, as the means 
for imparting motion being situated at a distance from the mechanism, 
and the latter inclosed if desired in a protective case or box, the risk of 
movement, or shifting of the substance from which a film is to be cut, is 
rendered impossible.” 


(4) Staining and Injecting. 


Staining Cultivation Media and its results on micro-organisms.*— 
Dr. G. D’Abundo’s object in staining cultivation media with various 
dyes was to attempt to ascertain if any new biological characteristics 
could be imparted to the micro-organisms cultivated thereon, and, if 
possible, to stain the spores. The media were distilled water, peptonized 
broth, gelatin, agar, and potato; the dyes were methylen-blue, fuchsin, 
and methylen-violet. Sterilization was performed in the usual way. 
The results were as follows :— 

Distilled water and methylen-blue; typhoid bacillus grow feebly, 
but were stained, the water being unaffected. Similar results were 
obtained with fuchsin, methyl-violet, and Bismarck brown. Peptonized 
broth coloured as above becomes decolorized, but the bacilli are unaf- 
fected. If the test-tube be shaken the colour returns. Stained with 
fuchsin the broth gave similar results; but with methyl-violet the 
bacillus grows slowly, but is stained. Pneumonia coccus gave similar 
results; that is, if was stained with methylen-violet, but not with other 
dyes. Anthrax seems to have stained in the blue-violet and red anilin 
if the medium were deeply stained. On gelatin stained with methylen- 
blue typhoid bacillus developed a colour, and this was demonstrated 
microscopically. Bismarck brown and methyl-violet gave similar 
results, but fuchsin failed. Pneumonia coccus only developed a faint 
colour when the medium was highly charged with pigment. On agar 
the typhoid bacillus is coloured with methylen-blue and methyl-violet, 
but not with fuchsin. On potato, coloured with methylen-blue, typhoid 
bacillus developed a hue much deeper than the cultivation medium ; but 
there was no result with fuchsin. 


Nitrate of Silver Method.t—Sig. C. Martinotti proposes the follow- 
ing improvements on the method of staining with nitrate of silver :— 
(1) increase the volume of the silver solution in proportion to that of 
the object to be stained; (2) increase the duration of immersion (15-80 
days); (8) maintain the objects at a temperature of about 25 degrees 
for ganglionic cells, or if for neuroglia cells alone at 35-40 degrees ; 


* Atti Soc. Tose. Sci. Nat., vi. (1887) Proc. Verb., pp. 15-9. 
+ Arch. Ital. Biol., ix. (1887) pp. 24-5. 
Zz 2 


320 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


(4) add 50 per cent. glycerin to the silver solution for very delicate 
results; to avoid surface precipitation cover the objects when removed 
from Miiller’s fluid with a sheath of paper brouillard previously pre- 
pared with distilled water. By following these methods Martinotti 
obtained most satisfactory results. 


FREEBORN, G. C.—Notices of New Methods. I. 
[1. Staining of elastic fibres (Lustgarten, Herxheimer, and Martinotti). 
2. Substitutes for hematoxylin (Paneth and Francotte). 3. Mounting 

(Weigert).] 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., TX. (1888) pp. 26-7. 
WiLxkiNnson, W. H.—Colour-Reaction: its use to the Microscopist and to the 
Biologist. Midl. Naturalist, XI. (1888) pp. 1-4 (1 pl.). 
ZinMAcKkt, J.—Zur Entfettung mikroskopischer Praparate von Eiter, Blut, Sputum 
u. Ss. w. vor der Tinction in wasse rigen Farbelosungen bei Untersuchung auf Mikro- 
organismen. (On the removal of fat from microscopical preparations of pus, 
blood, sputum, &e., before using aqueous staining solutions in examinations for 
micro-organisms. ) St. Petersburger Med. Wochenschr., 1885, p. 130. 


(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c. 


Indexing Microscopical Slides.*—Dr. R. H. Ward describes his 
system of indexing slides as developed in his ‘ Slide-Catalogue.” 

“The alphabetical index is, of course, a large and essential portion of 
the system. Its pages are specially ruled for convenience in entering 
titles and numbers, and they have a capacity for several references to 
each slide, the volume for 2000 slides having room for about 10,000 
references. Thus a leaf preparation may not unlikely be referred to under 
both popular and scientific names of the plant, and also under several 
such titles as, ‘Leaf of » ‘Spiral vessels in , ‘Stomates 
of » ‘Raphides in , &c. But as many simple slides require 
only two or three entries, the more complex ones will have room for 
eight or ten. The index is lettered alphabetically, the number of pages 
assigned to each letter depending upon the frequency with which that 
letter occurs at the beginning of English words. Subdivision is accom- 
plished according to the vowel system of arrangement, whose advantages 
are familiar to all readers, and which may, by means of a few obvious 
expedients, be made applicable to slide-catalogues of various sizes. 
Thus the pages devoted to any letter, as S, are divided into six portions, 
and lettered Sa, Se, Si, So, Su, Sy; the first portion being for words 
beginning with S, and having a for their first vowel, and so on for the 
rest. Further subdivision depends so largely upon individual wants as 
to be best left optional with the user. But having given a page to the 
Sa words, for instance, it is hardly possible that any thoughtful person 
could throw all these together at random. Probably nearly every one 
would enter things pertaining to animals at the top of the page, vegetables 
in the middle, and minerals at the bottom, or vice versd. A specialist in 
any department would give the lion’s share of the page to his particular 
province, subdivided to suit himself; and the vegetable kingdom, being 
in the middle, could be carried up or down, where experience shows that 
room could best be spared. After such entries as starch, pollen, hair, 
&e., several lines would be left blank for similar items, so that ultimately 
these items would appear in blocks that would be instantly recognized 
on glancing at the page. In larger collections, where Sa included many 


* The Microscope, vii. (1887) pp. 355-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 321 


pages, a certain number of these whole pages would be assigned to 
animal, vegetable, and mineral objects respectively. In this caso a 
botanist, for instance, would probably reserve more pages for plants than 
for all the rest, and at first he might devote a column, or even a whole 
page, to such a group as starches, and a like portion of Se to seeds, one 


SA.—ANIMAL. No. VEGETABLE, No. 
Saw-fish, tooth sec... ..  .. 233 Scales (see Hairs) 
Sealy epithelium .. .. .. | 272 Se Ole Mi erniipaap meet © toes meg 
aie 2440-3, 
nS A 2364 || “Star Polishing Powder” .. | 2526 
Starchs @orne) se a css 886 
Scales (see Wings) » Potato, and in situ 887-8 
a Mosquitoes nents 273 i Canna, pure and com- 
ee MePISMage ten ee eee eee NROEAD 56. Gq Sac 955-6 
279 me LaWihteat ra gecs) Geel 980 
” Podura .. +. ++41 9990 » Rice, pure and adul- 
5 Cabbage Butterfly .. | 2106 teratedi@’s) -a.2-. || 1125-6 
“ incase se coe won| pe0u0 9 Avrowroot, and in situ 1699 
- Sole, and in situ... 665-6) Sanguinaria, sec. .. .. .. 710 
a ROUGE a an ovo ike Star Honcus? Pea” Jeullen750 
“ Flounder, and in situ | 1597-8 Salici 1536 
55 Gold-fish .. .. .. | 1599 acta ogee a 855 
a Hel ee cet | esc Santonine een gee eee) wees |e O29 
a Sturgeon, sec, .. .. | 2096 Stamens (see Flowers) 
3 Dog Shark 56 oa. || ZANE 5 Kobeliay Se en oeeelood 
ee Salvia BO) eG = son | IBYRS 
Starfish (young) .. ..  .. | 2005 4 Tradescantia .. .. | 1710 
$5 Madreporic body .. | 2006 - Vaccinium 56. cod || JUSS) 
3 Pedicellaria .. .. 200% : me Deutziaweese-eee nose 
Spine, secs. 2 2 ae Es (Petaloid).. .. 1 se 
- Willow (to ovaries).. | 2740-4 
Sarcinaprices sur Gee carn ie ee 
5 995-6 
Rarcoptes --  -+ te ae os Sager Scalariform Vessels... .. ..4| 2930 


Scalp, secs. 2885 
2131 “Santa Monica” deposit .. | 2891 


- INGETONT-etsenacce tes 
Statoblasts of Cristatella .. | 2908 


MINERAL. 
Sarcoma, Giant-cell stius ata 973 Satin Spar fe Jk: eee: 589 
> Spindle-cell .. .. | 1496 ands Oolitic ye. icsu8 san eee 987 
“ (OMG, se Ton Sho: | dIZesil SSP ACULILerOUS ta) cee ZS 20 
cp Osteo- See Went ae se +> Sonorous ae easy eee eo 
55 Round-cell .. .. | 2804 
: 2987 : 2821 
» _ Melanotic +» +4! 9399 Stalactitiew. nse. sc nec es 1983 
Snails, “Palates” .. .. .. | 1073-8)| Slag from Iron Furnace.. .. | 2256 
| + Copper Furnace .. | 2741 


column of the seed page being given to whole seeds, and another to 
sections, &c. Subsequently, if too much space proved to have been 
reserved anywhere, the lower portion of the vacant parts would be filled 
with other things. By such expedients a rough but most useful working 
classification of the pages and their contents can be maintained until 
the book is nearly full. The accompanying sample page of Sa entries of 


322 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


familiar objects, though much more crowded, and, therefore, less satis- 
factory than in actual use, shows how such a plan is carried out, and 
with what facility any object may be found in a collection of three or 
four thousand slides. 

Obviously the catch-word by which an entry will be found is its 
first word, by which it was located and sought for: and the other most 
characteristic word, which distinguishes the item from others of its kind, 
and which may or may nci be the only other word, may be underlined 
for easy recognition, The author uses pencils of different colours for 
this purpose, in the serial list as well as in the index—red for animal, 
green for vegetable, and blue for mineral specimens—and thus gains a 
perspicuity whose value is evident. By a little extra care in labelling 
the slides the same distinction of colour may be extended to the labels, 
using red, green, and blue tinted papers, or white paper with printed 
borders of those colours, as a means for rapidly recognizing and distri- 
buting the slides themselves whenever they have become mixed in use. 

Though not admitting the absolutely alphabetical sequence attained 
by cards, this system is in some respects even more practical than that 
for small collections, say up to three or four thousand slides. It is 
easier to see and compare numerous items when collated upon a page 
than when stacked away in cards. Thus fifty or sixty entries of hairs 
or of crystals can be reviewed and compared, and a half-dozen selected 
for some purpose, much better by glancing over a page than by leafing 
over that number of separate cards; while the graphic effect of the page 
is of perceptible use in keeping one’s mind constantly familiar with the 
extent and character of his collection. The cards are theoretically 
better, and in very large collections practically better, for finding any 
specified slide that one knows he wants; but are not better, nor even as 
good, for assisting him to decide what he wants among many.” 


CorLin—Brief Directions for Using the Microscopical Mounting Outfit (Jefferson 


design). Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, TV. (1887) pp. 45-6. 
Latuam, VY. A.—The Microscope and How to Use It. 
(XIII. Cements and useful recipes. ] Journ. of Micr., I. (1888) pp. 39-46. 


(6) Miscellaneous. 


Colouring matter of blood as a means for distinguishing between 
the gas exchange of plants in light and darkness.*—Dr. T. W. Engel- 
mann, while experimenting as to the secretion of oxygen by purple bac- 
teria, made use of hemoglobin for showing the variations in the amount 
of oxygen developed under the influence of light by certain plants. For 
this purpose he placed a filament of Spirogyra, rich in chlorophyll, about 
0-1 mm. thick and 1 cm. long, under a cover-glass, and immersed in a 
drop of defibrinated bullock’s blood which had assumed the venous 
colour by transmitting a stream of hydrogen or carbonic acid through 
it. When the preparation was placed in diffused light, the immediate 
vicinity of the green filament for a distance of 1/2 to 1 or 2 mm. became 
bright red in ten to fifteen minutes. In direct sunlight the action was 
produced in a fraction of a minute. The boundary between the dark 
venous and the bright arterial colour was so sharp that under the Micro- 
scope it could be determined to less than 0:1 mm. In the dark the 


* Arch. f. d. Gesammt. Physiol. (Pfliiger), xlii. (1888) pp. 186-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 323 


venous colour returned in about the same time. By intense illumination 
of a single cell or part of a cell a bright-red area formed only about the 
illuminated spot. 

The development of oxygen in the light and its absorption in the 
dark can be followed with a spectral ocular, or, better still, with the 
microspectral photometer. It is then seen that on illuminating the cell 
(gaslight or an electric incandescent suffices) in place of the dark 
absorption-bands of oxygenless hemoglobiuy the two dark bands of 
oxyhemoglobin appear. The change becomes apparent in ten to twenty 
seconds, and first occurs at the surface of the cells, from which it spreads 
outwards. Per contra, in the dark the hemoglobin-band returns. 

The next step was to ascertain if the unequal effects of the different 
rays of the spectrum upon the development of oxygen could be rendered 
visible to the naked eye. For this purpose a filament of spirogyra was 
placed in venous blood under a cover-glass, and illuminated with a 
spectrum of about 1 cm. long from a Sugg’s burner of 50 candle-power. 
In about fifteen minutes the boundary between the arterial and venous 
colour was seen in the extreme visible red, and it attained its maximum, 
about 1 mm., near C. Although, owing to the cloudiness of the weather, 
the experiments with sunlight were few, they were sufficient to show 
that the strongly refracting rays were mere powerful than those of the 
gas spectrum. The maximum lay in the middle of the visible red, not 
in the orange or yellow. The action in the green between D and E was 
less strong than in the blue-green or blue. Even in the violet a slight 
action was perceptible. In conclusion, the author remarks that he does 
not doubt that plants with red, yellow, or brown chlorophyll will give 
characteristic ‘‘ hematospectrograms” of the development of oxygen. 


Microchemical Tests for Callus.*—Mr. F. W. Oliver gives the fol- 
lowing microchemical tests for the callus which he finds in the trumpet- 
hyphe and true sieve-tubes of Macrocystis and Nereocystis ;t but they 
apply also to the callus in the sieve-tubes of Phanerogams. 

(1) Russow’s callus reagent (a mixture of equal parts of chlorzinc- 
iodine and iodine in potassic iodide) stains callus a deep brown ; a very 
delicate test; (2) Coralline-soda (prepared by adding rosolic acid toa 
strong aqueous solution of sodium carbonate) gives a brilliant rose-pink ; 
(3) Bismarck brown dissolved in water reveals a very decided stratifi- 
cation; (4) Hoffmann’s blue (dissolved in 50 per cent. of alcohol) stains 
the callus-plates a brilliant blue ; (5) chlorzinc-iodine does not, as a rule, 
stain the plates, but they swell up and show stratification ; (6) methylene- 
blue gives negative results; (7) hematoxylin, with dilute solutions, the 
callus-plates stain deeply; (8) hydric sulphate causes the plates to swell 
up, showing a very beautiful stratification, and finally they are completely 
dissolved; (9) potash causes them to swell up, but does not actually 
dissolve them. 


BEAUREGARD, H., and VY. Gautrppre,—Guide pratique pour les travaux de 
Micrographie, comprenant la Technique et les applications du Microscope a 
l’Histologie vegetale et animale, a la Bacteriologie, a la Clinique, a l’Hygiéne 
et a la Médecine légale. (Practical Guide to Microscopy, including technique 
and the application of the Microscope to vegetable and animal Histology, to 
Bacteriology, to Clinics, to Hygiene, and to Medical Jurisprudence.) 

2nd ed., vii. and 901 pp., 586 figs., 8vo, Paris, 1888. 


* Ann. of Bot. i. (1887) pp. 109-11. t See ante, p. 265. 


324 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES, ETC. 


Brown, F. W—A Course in Animal Histology. I. 
Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 13-5. 
GOLDMANN, F.—Kritische Studien iiber die Bestimmungsmethoden des Stiirke- 
mehles in Vegetabilien, speciell in Kornerfriichten. (Critical studies on the 
methods of determining the presence of starch in plants, especially in grain- 
plants.) 24 pp., 8vo, Erlangen, 1887. 
How to work with the Microscope. Scientif. News, I. (1888) p. 82. 


JAMES, F. L.—Clinical Microscopical Technology. X., XI. Examination of Semen. 
St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., LIL, (1887) pp. 357-60 (1 fig.) ; 
LIV. (1888) pp. 98-100. 
[Ossorn, H. L.].—Practical Courses. 
(Considers “microscopic investigation to be a subject that is far more im- 
portant than microscopical technique.” | 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., 1X. (1888) p. 35. 
Smitu, T.—The Microscope in the Study of Bacteriology. 
[Abstract of a paper read before the Microszopical Society of Washington, D.C. ] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., TX. (1888) pp. 34-6. 
Tater, A. W.—Use of the Microscope for practical purposes. (The application of 
the Microscope to technological purposes.) 
[Presidential Address to Liverpool Microscopical Society. ] 
Engl, Mech., XLVI. (1888) pp. 505-6; Scientif. News, I. (1888) pp. 116-7. 
” ” Microscopical Examination of Commercial Fibres. 
[Brief abstract only.] 19th Ann. Rep. Liverpool Micr. Soc., 1888, p. 13. 
TAYLOR, T.—Crystalline formations of Lard and other Fats. 
Microscope, VII. (1887) p. 358 (1 pl.). 
WIESNER, J.—Die mikroskopische Untersuchung des Papiers mit besonderer 
Beriicksichtigung der altesten orientalischen und europaischen Papiere. (The 
microscopical investigation of paper, with special reference to the oldest Oriental 
and European papers.) - iii. and 82 pp., 1 pl. and figs., 4to, Wien, 1887. 


a 


AON 


H 


JOHN MILLAR, LRC.P, ELS, FRMS. 


Died 1888. 


~-_~ 
Os 
bo 
on 
nw 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Annvat Meetine or 81H Fss., 1888, at Kiya’s Cottecr, Stranp, W.C., 
THE PresipEeNt (THE Rev. Dr. Dauuinesr, F.R.S.) in rue Cuaarr. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 11th January last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received 
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given 
to the donor. 


From 
Slides of Chauliognathus Pennsylvanica, Doryphora decemlineata, 
Ectobia germanica (2), and larva of Dragon-fly.. .. ..  .. Mr. H. W. Fuller. 


The Report of the Council was read (see p. 330). 
The adoption of the Report having been moved by Mr. Oxley, and 
seconded by Mr. McIntire, was carried unanimously. 


Mr. Crisp said: While it has been usual for the President to be the 
official exponent of the Society’s feelings on the occasion of the death of 
any prominent Fellow, I do not wholly regret that he has asked me to 
say a few words on Dr. Millar’s death, not because the President in any- 
thing he might say on the subject would be formal or official only in any 
sense of the words, but because I am glad to have the privilege of testi- 
fying to our estimation of our deceased friend. 

The good men that die are separated into somewhat different classes 
by the impressions which their deaths make upon us. There are the 
great and eminent men whose deaths we recognize as leaving the world 
distinctly the poorer thereby, and whom we cannot think of without 
sorrow, both for ourselves and our neighbours. This feeling is in every 
way genuine and sincere; but if analysed, there is a greater or less trace 
about it of what I may term a calculating nature; the sorrow and the 
regret is more particularly heightened by a sense of the material loss 
which has been sustained. If it is, for instance, a great party leader, or 
the prominent man of any other organization, we think of the results on 
the future of the organization. Our late friend was not to be placed with 
these, nor with that other class which includes those essentially good 
men whom we know never to have harmed a human being by word, or 
act, or thought, who have lived peaceable and peaceful lives, and the news 
of whose deaths we receive with feelings of genuine sorrow and regret ; 
and yet with this there is added a large admixture of what I may almost 
eall pity. To a different class to either of these belonged our late 
friend. Our sorrow and grief at his loss is an unqualified and unmixed 
feeling. We feel the loss, not so much for the world at large or for any 
of our fellow-men, but solely for ourselves, with the fullest intensity of 
purely personal feeling. What others have lost we do not stop or care 
to consider ; we know that the world is the worse, but our sense of the 
loss we mourn is above and beyond any idea of measuring its extent. I 
do not wish to attempt to make any list of the qualities which 
endeared Dr. Millar toso many of us. I should be afraid that any such 


326 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


attempt would leave much unrecorded, while if it embraced all that 
could be said it would inevitably be treated by some as dictated by what 
is sometimes called the “ partiality of friendship.” Moreover, I feel that 
a single sentence sums up that which best expresses what I mean. Dr. 
Millar was a typically genuine man. In all that he said or that he did, 
we knew that he was saying and doing exactly what he seemed to say 
and do ;—that there was nothing behind, nothing to be read between the 
lines, nothing suggested by any selfish or personal motive or desire. 
Dr. Millar has been for more than thirty years a Fellow of this Society, 
and for nearly thirty years a member of the Council. Although he was 
asilent member, he was unremitting in his attendance at the meetings, 
and I can only recall two absences in the last ten years. His influence 
was largely felt, however, in all the affairs of the Society, and I personally 
am greatly indebted for the support which he gave me at times when a 
little encouragement was a very important matter and of very prac- 
tical use. 

Nothing shows more clearly the impression which Dr. Millar made 
upon those with whom he came into contact than the way they received 
the news of his death. It occurred on the day of one of the meetings of 
the Linnean Society, at which he was a constant attendant, and the 
expressions heard on all sides proved a depth and earnestness of pathetic 
feeling that is but rarely found—a feeling that is well recorded in 
the letter which I received from the President of that Society (Mr. 
Carruthers) on the day after the funeral, which, to my great sorrow, I 
was unable to attend: “ Yesterday I stood by the open grave of one of 
the best friends and truest and most lovable men I have known—John 
Millar, aged 69.” 

I now beg to propose “ that this Society desires to record the deep 
sorrow with which they have heard of the death of Dr. John Millar, so 
long a member of the Council, and who for more than thirty years has 
taken such a lively interest in the affairs of the Society, and that the 
secretaries be instructed to communicate this resolution to Dr. Millar's 
family.” . 

Mr. Glaisher said that, as one of the oldest friends of Dr. Millar— 
one who knew him even before he came to London—he rose to second 
this resolution with great warmth of feeling. He agreed entirely 
with every word which Mr. Crisp had used in reference to the matter, 
and in which he had so well described what must indeed be felt by all to 
whom Dr. Millar had been intimately known. 

The President felt sure that this resolution accorded so entirely with 
the feeling of the meeting, that he might declare it to be unanimously 
carried. 


The list of Fellows proposed as Council and Officers for the ensuing 
year, as presented to the last meeting, was read as follows, the name of 
Prof. Chas. Stewart being substituted for that of Dr. Millar :— 

President—* Charles T. Hudson, Esq., M.A., LL.D. (Cantab). 

Vice-Presidents—Robert Braithwaite, Esq., M.D., M.R.C.S., F.LS. ; 
*Rev. W. H. Dallinger, UL.D., F.R.S.; William Thomas Suffolk, Esq. ; 
*Professor Charles Stewart, M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 

Treasurer—Lionel 8. Beale, Esq., M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. 


* Have not held during the preceding year the office for which they are 
nominated. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOOIETY. B27 


Secretaries—Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B., B.A., V.P. & Treas. LS.; 
Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A., F.Z.S. 

Twelve other Members of Council—Joseph Beck, Esq., F.R.A.S.; 
*Alfred W. Bennett, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. ; Rev. Edmund Carr, M.A. ; 
Frank R. Cheshire, Esq., F.L.8.; Prof. Edgar M. Crookshank, M.B.; 
James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.; *Prof. J. William Groves, 
F.L.S.; *George C. Karop, Esq., M.R.C.S. ; *John Mayall, Esq., Jun. ; 
Albert D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.; Prof. Urban Pritchard, M.D.; Charles 
Tyler, Esq., F.L.S. 

The President having appointed Mr. Bevington and Mr. Dadswell to 
act as scrutineers, the ballot was proceeded with, and the Fellows 
nominated were declared by the President to be duly elected as Council 
and officers for the ensuing year. 


The Treasurer’s Account was, in the absence of Dr. Beale, read by 
Mr. Crisp (see p. 331), who moved that the account should be received 
and adopted, and that the thanks of the Society be given to the Treasurer 
for his services during the past year. 

Mr. J. J. Vezey seconded the motion, remarking, as one of the 
Auditors, that they had found the accounts to be kept in a very satis- 
factory manner. 

The President put the motion to the meeting, and declared it 
carried. 


Mr. Crisp, in pursuance of the notice given at the preceding meeting, 
moved, “ That the existing Bye-laws of the Society be repealed, and that 
the following be in future the Bye-laws of the Society.” As the 
principal alterations and the reasons for making them had been fully 
explained at the previous meeting, and as a copy of the new Bye-laws 
had since been lying upon the table for the inspection of the Fellows, 
they were agreed to be taken as read. 

The motion having been seconded by Mr. A. D,. Michael, was put by 
the President, and carried unanimously. 


Dr. Dallinger then delivered his annual address, which was listened 
to throughout with the deepest attention, and very heartily applauded 
by the large number of Fellows present. 

Mr. Glaisher said that he rose with great pleasure—yet also with 
some pain—to ask the Fellows to give their warmest thanks to their late 
President, not only for the very admirable address to which they had 
just been listening, but also for the four years’ service which he had so 
efficiently rendered to the Society. When they remembered that during 
the whole of that period he had been constantly with them at their 
meetings, although living at Sheffield, when they also remembered his 
regularity of attendance at their council meetings, his earnestness in 
all that affected the well-being of their Society and the interests of 
microscopical science, and when they coupled with all this the remem- 
brance of what he had done when out of their presence, it needed 
nothing upon his (Mr. Glaisher’s) part to convince them of the value of 
the services which their President had performed. They would part 


* Have not held during the preceding year the office for which they are 
nominated. 


328 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


from him with feelings of great regret, and would long preserve as a 
pleasant memory to look back upon the great enjoyment they had de- 
rived from the connection now about to be severed. For his own part, 
he could say that there was no time at which he had met him when he 
did not like him better than before. Residing as he did at all that 
distance from London, and yet attending to the duties of his office in 
the manner in which he had done during the whole of the four years he 
had presided over them, he was sure that the Fellows present would 
accord that vote of thanks with three times three. (Applause.) After 
that display of feeling, it was quite unnecessary to put the motion to the 
meeting in a more formal manner, as the appoval of it, which had been 
thus expressed, evidently came from the hearts of all. He trusted that 
the President would, on his part, be able to look back upon his period 
of office with as much pleasure as those who had been associated with 
him. 

Prof. Bell said that after the way in which the Society had received 
the proposal, it was hardly necessary for him to add to what Mr. 
Glaisher had said. But after the very remarkable services rendered by 
Dr. Dallinger it was only right that one of those to whom the Society 
intrusted its business should express some sense of the thanks which 
were due to him as their outgoing President. If any one examined the 
conditions which appeared necessary to constitute a good President, they 
would be found summed up in the requirements that he must know 
everything of something and something of everything. In their own 
case the something to be known was not only the wide range comprised 
within the term “ biological knowledge,” but also what on the other side 
of the table was spoken of usually as brass and glass. When they began 
to look into the wide range of biological science they would find that it 
contained a very large number of subjects which were extremely inter- 
esting, yet if a person were to devote a lifetime to the study of the 
Volvocines or the Ostracoda, though he would undoubtedly be able to 
derive pleasure from the pursuit, it was more than possible that he 
would not be able to excite great interest in the subject amongst a large 
audience. But the subject of which the President knew everything was 
one which had been made interesting to all, and the questions which 
arose in connection with the processes of decomposition of organic 
matter were such as impressed them the most, and were the most widely 
interesting to instructed minds. If they considered what subjects the 
annual addresses of the President had brought before them, the import- 
ance of their range and of their bearing would be seen at once. In one 
of them he traced out the history of the formation of the cell-nucleus, 
whilst in another he described the long-continued and patient observa- 
tions he had made as to the effects of change of environment under 
different degrees of temperature. These two subjects were treated by 
the President in a way such as no one but a thoroughly skilled micro- 
scopist would have been able todo. It might indeed be said that the 
President had offered an example in respect of careful and long-con- 
tinued research which would go down, along with the labours of Darwin, 
as a striking example of what patience, perseverance, and love a true 
student of nature could throw into his work. Reference had also been 
made by Mr. Glaisher to the question of the President’s attendance at 
the meetings, and though this was one which had to some extent 
naturally come under the notice of the Society, it was perhaps not so 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 329 


much known that on leaving that room after the meetings he had 
generally gone back to Sheffield by the early newspaper train the next 
morning. If they wished to have a most obvious sign of his devotion to 
the interests of the Society, they could not find it better than in that 
fact. The last matter to which he would refer was the admirable 
manner and tact displayed by the President in conducting their 
meetings. Of this the Fellows themselves would be as good judges as 
he could be himself. He should like also to add that they must not 
conclude they were about to lose Dr. Dallinger; he would remain to 
them as one of their Vice-Presidents, and there was a rumour that a 
change in his environment was not improbable, which might result in 
the possibility of his being able to attend their meetings without having 
to undertake so long a journey. 

Mr. Crisp said that it had fallen to him on all previous occasions to 
second the vote of thanks to Dr. Dallinger for his annual address ; but 
he purposely did not do so on the present occasion lest it might look too 
stereotyped and formal; but on the other hand, if he did not say any- 
thing it might perhaps be thought that his enthusiasm had cooled down. 
What he had to say was summed up in a single remark which, however, 
required a preface. Carlyle had said that the people of England were, 
so many millions in number, “ mostly fools.” That, however, was not 
true, but only a piece of Carlylean exaggeration. If, however, he had 
said they were mostly humbugs, it would have been nearer the truth on 
account of the large number of people who said one thing and thought 
another. If he followed the ordinary practice he ought, no doubt, as an 
official of the Society, to affect to believe that the Society had shed great 
additional lustre upon Dr. Dallinger by allowing him for so long a time 
to be their President.- If, however, they wished to admit the naked 
truth, it was that Dr. Dallinger had, during his Presidency, thrown 
great additional lustre upon the Society. 

Dr. Dallinger said he felt it would be very improper on his part if 
he were to receive such warm expressions of cordial feeling without 
saying a few words in response. With regard to his attendance he 
might say that he had tried to make it a principle of his life, no matter 
what the subject might be, never to undertake what he did not mean to 
carry out thoroughly, so that it was with this intention that he had 
entered upon his duty as President. Of course, circumstances might 
sometimes arise beyond a person’s control which would prevent him from 
doing all that he desired. This, happily, had not occurred in his case. 
He found the other day that his wife was commencing a calculation of 
the number of miles he had travelled in carrying out his engagement— 
a calculation which, however, he interrupted. He could, for his own 
part, say that it was a pleasure to him to look back upon the proceedings 
of these years, and he should always feel that the manner in which their 
thanks had been bestowed for such services as he had rendered consti- 
tuted a deeper source of pleasure than he was able to express. 

Mr. Crisp said that in his journeys to and fro to attend their 
mectings, the President had, he found, travelled a distance equal to 
more than half round the world. 


Vetes of thanks to the Auditors and Scrutincers for their services 
were proposed by Mr. A. D. Michael, seconded by Prof. J. W. Groves, 
and carried unanimously. 


330 PROOEEDINGS OF THE SOOIETY. 


Mr. Crisp said he had received a letter from Dr. Hudson, the new 
President, expressing his regret at not being able to be present at the 
annual meeting, having met with an injury to his knee ; he was, how- 
ever, progressing favourably, and hoped to be present at their next 
meeting. 


New Fellows.—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. Frank Ballard, M.A., Edward Halkyard, John Thompson, and 
Arthur J. Wolff, M.D. 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR 1887. 


Fellows.—43 Ordinary Fellows have been elected during the past 
year, whilst 29 have died, resigned, or been removed, leaving the 
increase during the year 14 Ordinary Fellows. One Honorary Fellow 
has been elected, Mr. P. H. Gosse, F.R.S. The list now stands as 
follows:—Ordinary Fellows 631, Honorary Fellows 50, Ex-officio 
Fellows 82, or in all—763. 

The Society have to regret the deaths of several prominent Fellows 
since the commencement of the present year—three Honorary Fellows, 
Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, Prof. A. de Bary, and Dr. Asa Gray; and an 
Ordinary Fellow, Dr. John Millar. Dr. A. Farre, a Past President, 
died during the past year. 

Mr. G. R. Waterhouse was for many years keeper of the Geological 
Department of the British Museum, and was the author of a Natural 
History of Marsupials and Rodents, a Catalogue of British Coleoptera, 
and a description of the Mammals collected during the voyage of the 
‘Beagle, he being at the time Curator of the Zoological Society. 

Dr. Anton de Bary, Professor of Botany at Strassburg, was well 
known as a distinguished Myeologist and as one of the most philosophical 
Botanists of the age. He may be said to have laid the foundation of our 
knowledge of Vegetable Pathology. 

Dr. Asa Gray, who was elected an Honorary Fellow as long ago as 
1851, was the most eminent of American botanists, and his influence 
with the late Mr. Darwin has recently been brought into prominent 
notice. 

Dr. Arthur Farre, F.R.S., was the sixth President of the Society, 
having been elected in 1850, at which time he took a very active part in 
the affairs of the Society. He was afterwards appointed a Physician 
Extraordinary to the Queen and Physician Accoucheur to the Princess 
of Wales. 

The Council cannot refer to the death of Dr. John Millar without 
expressing the deep sorrow with which they received the intelligence. 
Dr. Millar has been a Fellow of the Society for thirty-one years, and for 
twenty-eight years a member of the Council. At their last meeting the 
Council recorded their sense of the loss which they and the Society have 
sustained by his death, and a resolution on the subject will be submitted 
to the Annual Meeting. 

Finances.—The net increase of revenue from the election of new 
Fellows during the past year has amounted to 341. 2s. 6d. as against 


331 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


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332 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


241. 3s.in 1886. The invested funds of the Society stand at 20617. 10s, 3d. 
(taking the Consols at par), The difference between this amount and 
that shown at the end of the previous year is occasioned by the sale of 
Consols to meet the donation of 1001. granted by the Society to the 
Marine Biological Association. 

Library and Cabinet.—Considerable progress has been made with the 
rearrangement of the Library, and a number of books which were of no 
interest from a microscopical or biological point of view have been 
disposed of. It is intended to make a further revision with a view of 
excluding others for which there is no accommodation, and which can be 
only of secondary interest to the Fellows. 

It has been found possible to add an additional shelf to some of the 
cases in the Library without interfering with their general construction. 

The circulation of the books will commence at the beginning of the 
next Session under regulations which will be issued with the August 
number of the Journal. 

Mr. Suffolk has continued his examination of the Cabinet, but the 
large number of the slides, and the defective state of many of them, 
require still more time to deal with satisfactorily. 

Bye-Laws.—During the past year the Council have revised and 
amended the Bye-Laws, which had not been revised since their original 
issue at the time the charter was granted. Since that date some 
important modifications have been made, including the election of Ex- 
officio Fellows and the admission of Lady Fellows, and it became 
necessary to amend many of the provisions in order to make the Bye- 
Laws consistent throughout. Some new clauses have also been added, 
and as revised the Council think that the new Bye-Laws will be found 
to constitute a considerable improvement upon the old ones. 

Journal.—The Council have much pleasure in indorsing the remarks 
made by Mr. Crisp in the preface to the last volume of the Journal with 
regard to the co-operation of the co-editors, and they cordially agree 
that the best thanks of the Society are due to these gentlemen for the 
able and persevering manner in which they have carried out the portions 
of the Summary of Current Researches committed to their charge. 


Meeting or 147nH Marcu, 1888, at Kine’s Coniecr, Srranp, W.C., 
Dre. R. Brarrawaite, F.L.S., Vicz-Presmpent, IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 8th February last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received 
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given 


to the donors. 
From 
Allen, T. F., The Characes of America. Part L, 62 pp., 54 figs. 
(8vo, New York, 1888) BE oe er Sete ee” Go. pre ee dare 
Martin, B., The Young Gentleman and Lady’s Philosophy. 3 vols. { Executors of 
(8vo, London, 1781-2) .. eh eee eee Aven cee coal Goleeitel tars 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 333 


Mr. Crisp read a letter received from Dr. Hudson, the President, 
expressing the regret which he felt at his enforced absence in con- 
sequence of the effects of the accident to his knee, reported at the previous 
meeting. 


Mr. Cooke exhibited a number of photomicrographs of the odonto- 
phores of Mollusca, as an attempt to illustrate this group of objects by 
photography. He said that the photographs had been made from speci- 
mens arranged and selected by his friend Mr. Watkins, his own part in 
the matter being the photography. Mr. Watkins had in his collection 
about 1400 specimens from which the series had been made. The 
classification of Mollusca by means of the radula dated back to the 
work of Prof. Lovén, but had not received the recognition which it 
should, and in his opinion would have in the future. He imagined that 
this want of attention was largely due to the extremely inadequate 
representations which had hitherto been made of these organs, for in the 
drawings usually made it had generally been the practice to select only 
one row of teeth, from which it was obvious that only a very imperfect 
idea could be obtained of the whole. The photographs had the advan- 
tage of showing considerably more. Then again the figures in most 
cases omitted the shading, which was a very important part, so that they 
failed to indicate the thickness. The present series of photographs had 
been prepared with a very rude apparatus, mainly of his own devising, 
which when closed folded into a space of 1 ft. 6 in., but could be 
expanded to 5 ft., thereby enabling him to get increased magnifying 
power without the necessity for using a large number of lenses. He had 
used Swift’s 1 in., 1/2 in., and 1/4 in., and one of Zeiss’s 1/12 in. im- 
mersion lenses with a projection eye-piece, giving for the whole a range 
of powers from 30 to 600. The results already obtained were such that 
he ventured to think that when that method of illustration became better 
known and had been further improved upon, the system of classification 
by the radula would receive better recognition. Amongst instances in 
which the application of the method had led to valuable results, he 
mentioned that there had been described as being found in Australia no 
less than fifty-two species of the genus Physa which ranged generally 
throughout the South Pacific. Specimens of these having come to hand, 
proved upon examination to be no Physa at all, but really a sinistral 
Limnza, and when they were able to get more specimens, he thought it 
very likely that they would be able to get rid of the whole of those fifty- 
two species of so-called Physa. He ventured to ask any Fellows of the 
Society that could to assist them in procuring new specimens, as he found 
it a matter of extreme difficulty to obtain shells with the molluscs inside 
from the remote corners of the earth. 

Prof. Stewart said that he had listened to the remarks of Mr. Cooke 
with very great pleasure, and was delighted with the series of photo- 
graphs which had been submitted for their inspection, which he thought 
were exceedingly well done, considering that in many cases great diffi- 
culty was encountered in consequence of colour and want of flatness in 
the object. He should like to ask what was the bearing of the structure 
on the evidence as to the character of the food—was there anything 
which would tell them whether the creature was carnivorous or a 
vegetable feeder? and if the former, whether it fed upon the softer kinds 
of flesh, or was capable of boring through hard shell? In making a 

1888. a x 


9 


334 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


collection so large as that of Mr. Watkins a great amount of experience 
in mounting must have been obtained, and he should therefore like to 
ask what kind of medium had been found best for the purpose. He had 
a number of slides of this kind, but his experience was like that of most 
other persons, that after a lapse of time a great many specimens became 
deteriorated: but he had some which were said to be mounted in 
“Suffolk ”—whatever that might mean—and these were all in most 
excellent condition, both as to the way in which they were displayed 
and that in which they had retained their characters. 

Mr. Cooke said, with regard to the character of the teeth as indi- 
cating the nature of the food, so far as the land mollusca were concerned 
there was a very marked distinction, the carnivora being conspicuous 
by haying teeth with sharp arrow-like points; but in the case of slugs, 
which generally ate animal matter, but which would also eat anything 
else, and would even eat one another if other things failed, the radula 
presented a curious mixture of the sharp arrow-like forms with others 
of a squarer form approximating to that of the vegetable feeders. He 
could not say with certainty that the marine Mollusca fell into the same 
classification, because, more especially in the case of deep-sea varieties, 
it was difficult to say what their food really consisted of. As regarded 
mounting, all the preparations from which the photographs were taken 
were mounted in glycerin jelly. 

Mr. Suffolk disclaimed all knowledge of the peculiar medium men- 
tioned by Prof. Stewart; but as he had been advising for a number of 
years upon questions of mounting, it was just possible that it might be 
something which he had at some period recommended. 


Mr. E. M. Nelson exhibited and described a new form of mechanical 
stage, in which two points were moved by milled heads in rectangular 
directions, carrying the slide with them, the slide being pressed against 
them when they were withdrawn by the hand. 

Mr. Crisp said it seemed to him to be a very great disadvantage not 
to have the object follow the mechanical movements in both directions. 

Mr. Michael said he should not like to have to use a stage on this 
principle, at any rate for the work in which he was chiefly engaged. 
He could not agree with what Mr. Nelson had stated as to the side move- 
ment being seldom wanted; for his own part he thought he used it more 
than he did the other. 

Prof. Groves thought that one great disadvantage in the arrangement 
was that it necessitated the use of both hands to manipulate the slide, 
whereas the great advantage of the ordinary mechanical stage was that 
it left one hand free for focusing at the same time that the slide was 
being moved. 

Mr. Crisp said that this, to his mind, was the fatal objection to 
Mr. Nelson's device, which really required three hands to work it 
properly. 


Mr. C. L. Curties exhibited a new Combination Condenser, which 
in addition to the condenser also contained an iris diaphragm, a spot- 
lens, and a polarizing prism. It would, of course, like all “ Combina- 
tion” apparatus, be only used where portability was a desideratum. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SCCIETY. 300 


Mr. Crisp exhibited Collins’s Aquarium Microscope, which could be 
fixed by suction to the glass side of the tank, like the railway reading 
lamps. Also Klénne and Miiller’s Aquarium Microscope for examining 
objects in a small aquarium or trough, specially constructed for the 
purpose, and fitted with movable diaphragm sldes. Also a new form 
of Thury’s Quinque-ocular Class Microscope, having a reflecting prism 
made to rotate so as to exhibit the object upon the stage alternately to 
each of five observers. (See this Journal, 1887, p. 796.) 


Mr. G. Massee read a paper ‘“‘ On the Type of a new Order of Fungi 
—Matulez,” illustrating the subject by drawings on the board. (Supra, 
p- 173. ; 

Ms G. Murray congratulated Mr. Massee on having recognized the 
features of this very interesting type. The Gasteromycetes were com- 
posed of a number of types which were linked together, but he should 
not have expected that those which Mr. Massee had mentioned were so 
closely related as he had shown them to be. 

Mr. Bennett quite agreed with the last speaker that this was a very 
interesting paper. He had always considered that the Fungi must be 
regarded as a division of the vegetable kingdom quite distinct from the 
Alge. Some years ago a method of classification was proposed which 
would have abolished the difference between them. This he always 
believed to be a mistake, and, therefore, though perhaps they could not 
regard fungi as a single series, it was: encouraging to find one more 
proof of their connection inier se, rather than with the Alge. 


Mr. Rattray gave a *ésumé of his paper “‘ A Monograph of the genus 
Aulacodiscus,” the subject being illustrated by diagrams, and by a 
tabulated list of groups of allied species. 

Mr. Carruthers, whilst afraid that the account which had been given 
by Mr. Rattray might not have been very attractive to the audience 
generally, yet felt sure that when they saw the paper printed in extenso 
they would find it very interesting to study. The table exbibited 
showed the result of a very great deal of work with regard to that very 
interesting group of diatoms. The genus was one which had long been 
known, and perhaps specimens of Aulacodiscus formosus were in the 
possession of every one interested in the subject. He wished that 
Mr. Rattray had been able to give them a demonstration of the central 
form and to explain the processes which went to form the distinctive 
type. No one could look at the table without seeing that it represented 
the result of a very careful examination of all the published information 
relating to those groups, and Mr. Rattray had been afforded opportunities 
of getting together the whole known material with relation to that 
genus. What he had done was to describe the whole in harmony, and 
when they came to read the paper they would find it to be a very 
exhaustive monograph of that interesting genus. 

The Chairman said that Mr. Rattray had been setting them an 
example which he hoped would be largely followed, for he was quite 
sure that no better service could be done by any one than by working 
out the whole history of a separate group in the way it had been done 


v0 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


in this paper. There was a very large amount of work to be done ‘in 
this way, and he considered that microscopists owed Mr. Rattray 
a debt of gratitude. 


The Chairman announced that the date of the next Conversazione 
had been fixed for April 25th. 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 

Mr. Bolton :— Weistes crystallinus. 

Mr. Cooke :—Photomicrographs of Odontophores of Molluses. 

Mr. Crisp :—(1) Collins’s Aquarium Microscope; (2) Fol’s Quinque- 
ocular Class Microscope ; (3) Klénne and Miiller’s Aquarium Microscope 
and Tank. 

Mr. C. L. Curties:—Combination Condenser, Iris Diaphragm, Spot- 
lens, and Polariscope. 

Mr. Nelson :—Microscope with new mechanical stage. 


New Fellows:—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. Edward Bage, Charles J. Martin, B.Sc., and Rev. George W. 
James, F.R.A.S. 


The Journal is issued on the second Wednesday of 
. February, April, June, August, October, and December. 


To Non-Fellows. 
JUNE. { Price 5s. 


JOURNAL 


| 
| ROYAL 
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY; 


CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS, 


AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 
ZOOLOGY AND BOTAN DW 
{principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 
MICROSCOPYT, Sc. 


Edited by 


FRANK CRISP, LLB. B.A,, 
One of the Secretaries of the Society 
and a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Society of London; 
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND 


A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.S:z., F.LS., F. JEFFREY BELL, M.A, F.Z.S., 
Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospitat, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in Aing’s College, 


JOHN MAYALL, Jon., F.Z.S,, R. G. HEBB, M.A., M.D. (Cancab.), 

AND 

J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A, 
Lecturer on Zoolozy in the School of Medicine, Edinburgh, 

PELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY; 


WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 


24 - LONDON AND EDINBURGH. 
SS 


PRINTED BY WM, CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,] {STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS; 


CONTENTS. 


—_—+—_ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SocieTY— PAGE 


VI—A Revision or tox Gunus Aviacopisous Enrs. By John 
Rattray, M.A., B.Se., F.R.S.E. (Plates V., VI., and VII.) .. 837 
VIL—Tue Forammtrera or tHe Rup Cnann. By H. W. Burrows, : 
C. Davies Sherborn, and Rey. G. Bailey .. .. 9... .. =». 888 


SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES. 


ZOOLOGY. 
A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 


a. Embryology. : 
First, C. M.—Spermatogenesis of Marsupials ..  .. s+ se ee ve vs «» O80 


Mau, F. P.—First Branchial Cleft of Chick .. «» «387 
BENEDEN, E. yan—Attachment of the paca at to the Uterine Wall in the Bat .. 387 
Orr, H.—Embryology of Anolis ..  .. oR be. files oe este ke 
Scort, we B.— Development of Petromyzon .. cae Pokey Pate pata wet Tie hae 3 
Swarn, A.—Development of Torpedo oedllaas Ss 0 Seo ence eee 


8. Histology. 


Ronvzr, E.— Nervous System of Amphioxus ..  .. 11 es ee oe ee tee SD 
spores O.—Changes of Position of Nucleus... se ee we te wee ~ O 


Kossret, A.—Chemistry of the Nucleus .. je, cea bok bese eae 
Pritzner, W.—Pathological Structure of the Call-nuctens ay Ciivew oe ita el anne aren 
Scuuirze, O.—Segmentation in Axolotl ae Diep eRe Ae oe Be ee 
Prutret, A.—Glandular Cells of Stomach .. a eS et cao ea ene 
ARNOLD, J.—Division and Metamorphosis of Wandering Celle. PIRES SEY Saye OF oe 
JosePu—Histology of Nerve-fibres .. es PEE ote Bue oi, 
CvurEnot, L.—Development of Red Blood-corpuscles del Hes, Faddaaces se yuptoe. cee 


B. INVERTEBRATA. 
LANKESTER, E, Ray—Celom and Vascular System of Mollusca and Arthropoda .. 395 
Mollusca. 
a. Cephalopoda. 


Wartase, S.—Homology of Germinal Layers of Cetiplopods ert oieetcen Moar s, castes 
eee F. A.—Shell-growth in Cephalopoda .. ge Hale OL ioe. Scat payee 
Brock, J.—Systematic Arrangement of Cranchia Wee SY ples See oe PAE ae ti Se ae 
y. Gastropoda. 

Rosert, E Be ap Se asters sie in Aplysia. TRY eT aR NE ON i | 
GARNAULT, P.—Reproductive Organs and Oogenesis of elie os, oh ccuiege ad WOO 
Relaernegh F.—Mantle of Gastropods and Dependent Organs .. .. «so +. 399 
Perrier, R.—Kidney of Monotocardate Prosobranch Goelropods Deke wd! tidde eA RODS, 
Tnerine, H. von—The Orthoneura 400 
Lacaze-Duruiers, H. pE—Classification of Gastropods, based on the Arrangement 

of the Nervous System «see pra, Adee le ag st eget OE 


6. Lamellibranchiata. 


RAwitz, B.—Mucous Celle in Mussels.) 00 be ev at nee yp ee ee AOD 
BLANCHARD, Rt.—Striated Muscles in Mollusea .. 2) 4s ae se ne we 402 


Molluscoida, 

B. Bryozoa. 
SaErrricen, A.—Nervous System of Phylactolematous Fresh-water Bryozoa.. .. 402 
Jovevx-Larrurg, J J.—New Genus of Bryozvoa’ se oe ea ae be we ee ve 408. 


MacGiturvray,. P.*H.—Polyzoa of Victoria 05 fae he dant ue Cee 408 


Cea 


Arthropoda. 
a. Insecta. 
VIALLANES, H.—Nerve-Centres and Sensory Organs of Articulata 


Piareav, F.—Vision of Caterpillars and Adult Insects 
Povuuron, E. B.—Secretion of Pure Aqueous Formic Acid we Trepidopterous. Lara 


for the Purposes of Defence .. s 
Suiru, T. F.—Finer Structure of Butterfly Bales SoS, 
ee P.—Scent-organs of German Lepidoptera .. «+ 44 +> we 
MiLier, W.—Scent-Glands of Phryganide .. oh 


CHOLODKOVsKY, N.—Development of Endoderm of Blatta germanica : 

_ Ostex-Sacken—Comparative Biology of Necrophagous and Coprophagous ‘ Dip- 
; terous Larve .. watbuags 
Cuccari, J. — Organization of Brain of Somomya eryflrocephata 


JourDAIN, S.—Machilis maritima... .. 

Lemon, V.—Brain of Phylloxera Hh one 
B. ireainede: 

Sarnt-Remy, G.—Brain of Iulus .. 0-2 esis 


vy. Prototracheata. 


Sepewicn, A.—Development of the Cape Species of Peripatus .. 
Scrater, W. L.—Development of « South American Peripatus 


6. Arachnida. 


Parker, G. H.—LZyes in Scorpions 
Waaner, W.—So-called Auditory Hairs 
M‘Coox, H. C.—New Orb-weaving Spider .. 
Micuarr, A. D.—British Oribatide AN 


e. Crustacea. 


PLATEAt, F.—Palpiform Organs of Crustacea .. 

Herrick, F. H.—Abbreviated serrate lee ef Alpheus, “and its Relation to the 
Condition ofplifes 2. es 

Broox, G.—Reproduction of Lost Parts. 

GIaRD, A. oe Castration in the Eue, yphotes of ‘Palzmon and 1 Hippol yte 

Mitne-Epwarps, A.—Fresh-water Crabs of Africa .. 1... Bane 33 

VALLENTIN, R.—Photospheria of Nyctiphanes norvegica .. ei ero es att ne 

CHEYyREUX, E:, & J. D—E Guerne—New nes Anphipod 

Crats, CO: ” Apseudes and the Tanaidz.. 


Tuompson, I, C.—New Parasitic Copepod . Tet ae ee 

WELTNER, W.—New Cirriped Z Re Vicguatd Famke oiseny awe ere ete s ates 

Norman, A. M.—New Crustacean Parasite. Spe SN eels in eRe Nk a NOS RTE tary 
Vermes. 


a, Annelida. 


Sovuttmr, A.—formation of Tube of Annelids 

Horst, R.—Cardiae Body of Annelids.. 

Eisie, H— Monograph of the Capitelide .. 

LEesMANN, O.—Homology of Segmental Organs and Hfferent Duets of Genital Pro- 
ducts in Oligocheta : 


Beppagsp, F. E.—Structural Characters of Earthworms epee 
FLEercuen, J. J.—New Australian Earthworms .. 0 ee ve wt 
Bepparp, F, E.—Nephridia of Harthworms Sirk eee tact gss eet an ai eae tae 
x ae Anatomy of Allurus tetraedr us pe ee Pat Pe 
ee Pp Anatomy of Perichxta 26ers 
~ = Mucous Gland of Urocheta ..  .. 0 es ws 


8. Nemathelminthes. 
Koerner, R.—Structure of Echinorhynchi 


Benevgn, E. van— Fertilization and Segmentation in Ascaris ‘megatocephala nae 


iad ee T.—Polar Globules of Ascaris... et : 
Lutz, A.— Life-history of Ascaris lumbricoides and Tznia elliptica PE ee is 


y. Platyhelminthes. 


Scumipr, F.—Development of Generative Organs of Geitnda- 5 hee eee 
- Sranton, J. G.—Interesting Specimen of Tenia saginata ea Ria caiparactes Scene 


AS: ies, 


ZELLER, Re ene Apparatus of Diplozoon paradoxum ., 4. seve we 

Repiacuorr, W .—Second Species of Tubellarian living on Nebalix 

Kunstirr, J.—New Remarkable Worms... 6. se ee tere we 

Echinodermata, 

Sarasin, P. & ba esky Museles and Stewart's Cat, in Echinothue. 
rids 

Provuno, H. _—Researches on “Dorocidaris papitata and other: “Mediterranean 
Echinids  .. BeStN pe Lee has Meee a as ONES gg, haga alae ok 

DODERLEIN, L:—Echinoidea of Japan Ze. Pontes ; 


SARASIN, P.& F.—Gemmation in Linckia multipora ; 
Dunnam, H. E.—Emigration of Ameboid Corpuscles in Star- fish 


Madreporite of Cribrella ocellata ..... Reet awe wad 
Hamann, O. Morphology of Ophiurids peta 
Gmslontarata. 
Brooxs, W. K.—New Method of Multiplication in Hy pees Tat! Aas decane Pee 
Fow er, G. H.—Anatomy of Madreporaria Honest sa acho ie Cie Tinta hare 
Wison, H. V.—Development of Mancinia areolata ., Paar Cems Poet SHAY 3 
Koon, G. v.— Gorgonide of Naples .. .. eure! dee: Saul pws hn anata 
pidtaede: 

Mosius, K.— Direct Division of Nucleus in Euplotes harpa be oot hee 
Anpverson, H. H.—New Parasitic Infusoria = 4.0 0 ae tee ne ee 
Dapay, E. v.—Monograph of Tintinnodeer .. 1. 6 as 


Scniirr, F.—Spore-formation in Peridinex . Siinclos Woiee Mivles ieee Tiron eee 

FTA OR Big HC Feel war tea en ancien 5 Gal NP wns a8 hog tae an ae 

KunstLer, J.—New Foraminifer .. 

Carter, H. J.—Nature of Opaque Seurlet ‘Spherales found i in may "Fossilized 
Foraminifera ° 

Nortine, C. C.—New Species of Acineta 

Perroncito, E.—Encystation of Megastoma intestinale 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 


a, Anatomy. 
(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. 


Decacny, C.—Nuclear Origin of Hyaloplasm «5 we sn we we 

Hatstep, B, D.—Three Nuclei in. Pollen-grains .. 6. ee ba ee we we os 
ZACHARIAS, E.—WNuclear and Cell-division .. a si mel eden: ap bot eee ae 
KRABBE, G.—Structure and Growth of the Cell adall ao an eee ee 
Nou, F.— Growth of the Cell-wall i La N avec mbe totems 
ZIMMERMANN, A.— Morphology and Phystology of BOOMs ee ae 


-(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions). 


Waxker, J. H—Formation of Alewrone-grains .. 1. su wee et 
Elaioplast .. ., goer pe Bias 

Mixoscu, K. *S airnstare. of Starch-grains tet stip swe bgtt uur es 

Hitivuovuse, W.—Function of Tannin .. ues 


Scuimper, A. F. W.—Formation of Oxalate ‘of Lime in Leaves? 25 0 Soe 


Waxker, J. H.-—Crystals of Calcium oralate 4. 41 ee ae tee 
E1seLen, J.—Position and Number of Raphides .... big Pio ait een oy ee 
Horngeercer, R.—Spring-sap in the Birch and Hornbeam EVA ee ee wee, 


(8) Structure of Tissues. 


Bouiaer; G. 8. Hadosper mec. oy. cce ab nee PE OA 
Mer, E.—Formation of the Duramen .. Natal ey oni eee nae 
SAUVAGEAU, C.—Diaphragms in the Air-canals of the ‘Root Ra scrae a baa anaes 
TRIEBEL— Oil-passages in the Roots of Composite *¢ ciel = eg tio 
Lrecomtr, H.—Effects produced by the Annular Decortication of Trees. pit es 
Souereper—Systematic value of the Perforation in the Walls of Vessels.. 1. «+ 
Purr, C.—Anatomy of the Leaf-stalk ..— . Paks as iawn 


Manein, L.—Permeability of the Epidermis of Leaves to Gases Pear seer. 
Vesqun, J.—Hpidermal Keservoirs for Water...  .. zs 
HILDEBRANDT, H.— Comparative Anatomy ag: Ambrosiaceze ‘and ‘Sencetoider 5 
Jurn, O—Anatomy of Marcgraviacee .. Be meaegateaae a 


C953) 


(4) Structure of Organs. 

Scureng, J.— Vegetative Organs ef Brasenia peltata .. : 

Tusecr, C. v.—Hormation of Roots in Loranthace® .. «1 66 ue ews 
Sasion, LecLERc DU—Root-hairs of the Rhinanthez.. a doe ped 

Leunpstroém, A. N.—Mycodomatia in the Roots of Papilionaceze Toape sage 
Brucx, T.— Morphology of Underground Stems .. «5 2s ee eevee 
Frior, L.—Aerial Stems... RE ee ED 
TRAUTWEIN, gh —Anatomy of Annual Branches and Inflorescences Seb aes noes 
Dacuititon, A.—Structure of the Leaves of certain of the Conifere .. 1. .. 
Scuumann, K:.—Comparative Morphology of the Flower By eee capes 


Kener, R.—Size and Colour of Alpine Flowers ... .. 4k we ewe 
Harsrep, B. D.—Trigger-hairs of the Thisile-flowers Boil eee ee LCR 
Bar.ioy, H H.—Ovules of Planiago.. .. ee ce eee 
Penzic, O.— Anatomy and Diseases of Apne 2 ee Se 
Greryert, M.—Morphology and Anatomy of Loasacee  ., «4 es news 


Crerin, F.—Polymorphism attributed to certain. generic groups 
B. Physiology. 
(1) Reproduction and Germination. 
Buren, W.—Heterostylism and Self-fertélization .. 
Rosertson, C.— Fertilization of Calopogon parviflorus 


Linpmann, C.—Pollination of Alpine Plants ROPE 
Macnuts, P—Pollination of Silene inflata =... se) 00 ue ae oe eee 


(2) Nutrition and Growth Gincluding Movements of Fluids). 
Detmer, W.—Physiological Oxidation in the Protoplasm .. 


Huerrrs, F.—Assimilation in Plants destitute of Chlorophyll 


CuraprowiTzk1—Synthests of Albuminoids 
RoOpEWALD, H.— Relation between the Heat and. the Carbonic Acid given “off by 


Plants in Respiration Soi eas 
Sonntac, P.—Duration of the “Apical Growth of the Leaf.. Bea a aes en wee: 
Noun, F.—Influence of External Forces on the Form of Plants Ares etre 
Hexstow, G.—Transpiration as a Function of Living Protopiasm ..  .. 


(3)¥ Irritability. 


GarpIner, W.— Contractility of the Protoplasm of certain Cells aes certs a 
Vines, 8. H.—Movement of Leaf of Mimosa ene ie a er eae 
SAPosHNikorr, W.—Geotropism .. + on eel ing OR a ne Saree 


vy. General. 
BryERinck, M. W.—Cecidium of Nematus Capree .. +» 4p - 45 un wow 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 


Vaizey, J. R.—Alternation of Generations in Green Plants ..  .. 
Eccies, RB. G.—Thallophytes in Medicinal Solutions ., .. 4, .» 


Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


Ketynovic, J _—Development of the Sporangium of eas Sua eNO hs Meh saige 
M‘Nas, W. R.—Stomata and Ligules of Selacinella .. .. se se ae as 


Muscinez. 


Vaizey, J. R.—Anatomy and Development of the ple Ulva ae Mosses 
Puitipert—Internal Peristome of Mosses 5 3 
SaBLon, Lecterc Du—Antherozootds of Hepaticz 


Characee. 
Auten, T. F.—American Charace®  .. 2. ve 
Algee. 
SrroemreLt, H. F. G.—Altachment-organ of Alge .. Peter naps oa 
Hick, T.—Physiology of Pheophyceze .. ba Rane hit vo 
Lorw, O., & T. Bowonny—Chemico-physiological Study of Algie Shes 
~ Waxkker, J. H.—Crystalloids in Marine Alga VEE we eae La eR RY 
Leicrs, H.—Incrustation of the Cell-wall of Meatabalagia ss OR Ie 
_Petur, A.—Batrachospermum, Chantransia, and Lemanea 4... sete 


Waxger J. H.—Rejuvenescence of Caulerpa — «1 sy ws oe ne new 


PAGE 
449 
450 
450 
430 
450 
451 
451 
451 
451 
452 
452 
452 
453 
453 
453 


453 
454 
454 
454 


454 
455 
459 


455 
455, 
456 
456 


457 
457 
458 


458 


459 
459 


459 
460 


460 
461 
461 


461 


461 
462 
463 
463 
463 
464 
464 


2,87. 9 


PAGE 
Cramer, C.—Dasycladacex } Oe Rigel iiaie Utne Saale RA Oe 
Srrormrent, H. F. G.—New Genera of Phaozoospores REY PM ee) pre ket. 
Gay, F,.—Ulothri« Sa BIE Nhe Ge alee 465. 
Kirron, F,.—New Species ‘of Biddulphia fr om » Fiji se utes lele Gan ta ae hee ea eee 
PantooseK, J.—Fossil Diatoms of Hungary me pW, Wels Orin ae Freaky 70 ee 
Lichenes. 
Mo.tier, A.—Cultwre of Lichen-forming Ascomycetes without aise: 466 
Fungi. 
Macnvus, P.—Sterility of Fungi .. Wa Hot aes aia SS ant Sate ogi ace aS 
PATOUILLARD, N.— Classification of the “Agaricinew Perera. 5 6 ( 
Moror, L.—Identity of Polyporus abietinus Fr. and Irpex Fusco-violacens Fr. 468 
Gasprertni, G.—Polymorphism of the Hyphom hee iy Kaceetoaies 468 
Zorr, W.—Cultivation of Phycomycetes..  .. Fives eee 469 
Brr.e asp, A. N.—Pleospora t 469 
Harrie, R.—Trichospheria paradoa and Herpotrichia nigra 470 
Jouanson, C. J.—Taphrina .. 470 
Seymour, A. B.—Character of the Injuries produeed by Parasitic jc. Fungi “upon 
their Host-plants.. ip ete: LAU 
Tuseur, C. v.—New Disease of the Douglas-pine RTM Og Mom ane cere cy WC {| 
Brunoworst, J.—New Potato-disease ee 471: 
Tuimen, F. v., & E. Rituayv—New Vine- disease ap te bgd Sak Pelee Wad ee 
Montez, R. —New Parasite of the Silk-worm wh bw at nan ales ep haa Hota cee eee 
Protophyta. 
Borner, E., & C, Fuanavtt—Filamentous Heterocystous Nostochinew .. .. + 472 
Smirn, J. A.—New Chromogenic Bacillus—Bacillus caruleus .. : ; 472 
BaumMGarten, P.—Schewrlen’s Cancer Bacillus 472 
> Spore-formation in the Bacillus ue Glanders 473 
ENGELMANN, T. W.—Bacterio-pur. purin 473 
MICROSCOPY. 
a. Instruments, Accessories, &c. 
(1) Stands. 
Nacuet’s (A.) Crane-arm Microscope (Fig. pe 475 
Demateer’s Travelling Microscope (Fig. 63). . 476 
Netson’s (E. M.) Mechanical Stage  .. 477. 
FINE-ADJUSTMENT by tilting the Stage (Figs. G4 73); 478 
Minor, C. 8.—* American Microscopes—A Complaint” 482 
(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. 
Swirt, J.—The Jena Optical Glass (Figs. 74 and 75) aeoie Neie oho) Uae oe ane 
(3) Illuminating and other Apparatus, 
Domaten’s Camera Lucida (Fig. 76) 9. 0. ce ee ae ee ee ae ewe, 487 
EYE-SHADES ae er 0 Si Vacs hee oa ee 
Domaicu’s Nose-piece “for Changing Objectives (Fig. 77) Siar eee AOS 
~Matassez’s (L.) Hot Stage (Fig. 7 8) : ie Stawiee, Mae Mane dapat Pp i: ste ss 
HAvtisrin’s (K.) “ Compressorium ” (Fig. 79) Sir eee eeeaee Remy aM ame rea 2st! 
Harpy’s (J. D.) Growing Slide (Fig. 80) .. pease Se SwS bs 3 489 — 
Scuinck’s (J. W.) Microscope Lamps (Figs. 81-81) eecpe eee 3 A490 
GERLACH’s Embryoscope (Bigs. 85 and 86) .... SMe hark Bae ieee ei |: | 
(4) Photomicrography, oe cs 
(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. Baca 
Poutton, E. B.—Learning to see with the Microscope —.. we ue ee we ve 495 
REICHERT, C.—Cover-correction  .. ; Sen dee a ste eee 
Brox, R. & J. le a an Objective for the Thickness “of the Cover-glass 
(Figs. 87-92) wae dal: Maine pe ee eee 
Royston-Picort, G. w— Vili on the Scales of Buentes a and i Moths Ser spitet > get ee 
Suirx, T. F.—New Appearances in Nioieed pe coat PER Gr eer e et: Se 
“ New Glass just made in Sweden” a Sache 499 


Ch) 


(6) Miscellaneous. PAGE 
- Hearuer’s ‘ Mathematical Instruments’ RESTENOSIS eRe ages: ZOE 
RUoKER, A; W.—Micromillimetre= 2 > ao 0 bo ee oe ew ee we : 502 
B. Technique. 
(1) Collecting {Objects, including {Culture Processes. 
TaRCHANOFF, J., & Koiussnrxorr—Alkaline Hag slaumnen as a Medium for Bac- 
teria Cultivation . “ s LER eS ta eee Ole 
Maxrrevi, L.—Fatty Matters tn Cultivation Meteo Soe ee o «904 
(2) Preparing Objects. 
ZacHArtas, E.—Demonstrating Nuclein and Plastin .. Per a OU 
Koriarewsxy, Anna—Preparation of Nerve-cells and Peripheral Ganglia +» oe 006 
“Harrisvrton, W. D.—Methemoglolin Crystals 2.00. ue ne oe we oe ee 906 
Fiusce, M. ——Preparation of Brains and other Organs E Sktee we Ok 
Brrecuer, ©. E.—Preparing Radula of small species of Gastropoda SES ae Od. 
Garpint, A.— Preparation of Cypridinw’ © .. Pg nag a NES 508 
BENEDEN, KE. van-—Preparing Ova of Ascaris megalocephala ra at ; .. 508 
_ Koester, R.—Mode of Investigating Echinorhynchi .... mo eee a09 
“Rixentuat, W.—Preparing the Nervous System of Opheliacex a 509 
Hamann, O.—Preparation of Echinodermata — .. 5 510 
KuirscnzKy, N.—Methods of Fixing and Preserving “Animal Tissues ss be DLO, 
Zorr, W. —Tsolating OREN ANTE. co ate Guia Ns eh Sa we es 511 
(3) Cutting, including Imbedding. 
ScH6Ontanp, S.—Limbedding Plant Tissues .. Se eee Wi ienrren empeann a) | 
Ryper, J. A.—Celloidin-parafin Methods of Imbedding : -. O12 
Vinassa, E.—Pharmacognostice Microtome and Technique (Figs. 93 and 94) . od, tea once 
(4) Staining and Injecting, 
Furscu, M.-—Staining Living Preparations .. Rrvtry Paste iets) 1 
ARNSTEIN, C.—Staining Nerve-endings with Methylen-blue se iad Se OD. 
eee G., & L. ReseGorr1—Demonstrating Karyokinetic Figures pas a OLO 
Nou, F Staining Membranes in Living Siphonex .. AY feeder et OLO 
Wenpt, E. C.—Rouza’s Colour-test for the detection of Gonococous Leta rest rig oe OLE 
Acip Logwood Stain .. ss Site. Ruta rae wae PEK Ae Ae Be RE CLE tir OREN, 
Bokpen, W. O.— Alcoholic Alim-Carmine Stain ACR OE ote Piel CRM g Chey eRe Nr gay: EY 8 
PREPARING ss Coal a Saaeec = ws 
Friemuinc. W.—Staining with Rosanilin Nitrate in watery Glycerin Solution 518 
‘Minter, M. N.—New Injecting Mass .. .. Somes eg ea 518 
. (5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c. 
Mnartes, Antoun E.—Medium of Ha eget TM OM: gy eo Rea et ee See HOES 
Taytor— Was Cells... “ Se at Ys hea ee wREOE aOD 
Sraman, W. N.—Shellac Cement Lantos RUE AE sigh 2 cee Hee Sanaa OO 
: (6) Miscellaneous. 
James s CH; Tai) Teasing- Necdle (EIR S OB) oo ages ee) Wwe wea a Soe ee BO 
Frrry—Medico-legal Identification of Blood-staing .. 2. 4. eee ue «520 
Wiesner, J.— Microscopical Examination of Paper 2. 15 16 en we ew we DD 
ILLUSTRATIONS to Microscopical Publications .. Paar bg cate Rist ROSE 
Scuriy, J. F.—Leewwenhoek’s Discovery of Micro-organisms RE On Pea ee eT ice ipy 
Cotzeptups Papers of; D2 Ts Pewee nok eS B05 oR ee tS we RR. eS OED 
Coix’s (A. C.) Microscopical Lao Cade ecards oH Oty Sn TER Ne vg Rae ineM SECTRY WaT TG ED 
Enoox’s (F.) Insect Slides — -. ae) CS pea aay haere PetNaE Ha pe A coe ae aoe 
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ‘Boaary Sar YET esa Serer hat Rone em sy eee wes Lk 


I.—APERTURE TABLE. 


Corresponding Angle (2 «) for Limit of Resolving Power, in Lines to an Inch. Poin: 
Numerical ; A tratin 
Monochromatic LJ 
Aperture. Air Water ee ene White Light. | (Blue) Light. | Photography. P aie 
(nsinu=a.)|| (mn =1-00). | (n= 133). | (m= 1°52). [AFOSR Me | OT TAY as Oem Like wo (<) 
1:52 . i 180° 0’ | 146,543 | 158,845 | 193,037 “658 
1:51 ae ae 166° 51’ 145,579 157,800 191,767 y * 662 
1:50 Ne ee 161° 23' 144,615 156,755 190,497 f *667 
1:49 ae se 157° 12’ 143,651 155,710 189,227 : ‘671 
1:48 a % 153° 39° | 142.687 | 154.665 | 187,957 ‘676 
1:47 a ee 150° .32' 141,723 153,620 186, 687 2° ‘680 
1:46 at ee 147°.42' 140,759 152,575 185,417 - 2° "685 
1:45 7 et 145° 6’ 139,795 151,530 184,147 2" *690 
1:44 a as 142° .39/ 138, 830 150,485 182,877 2° *694 
1°48 ze vt 140° 22’ 137,866 149,440 181,607 2° -699 
1°42 ey ae 188° 12’ 136,902 148,395 180,337 2° +704 
1:41 ¥ “3 136°. 8’ 135,938 147,350 179,067 ue +709 
1:40 e ‘i 134° 10’ | 134,974 | 146,305 | 177,797 | 1- 714 
1°39 ae ee 132° 16' 134,010 145,260 176,527 I: “719 
1°38 as ie 130° 26’ 133 , 046 144,215 175, 257 Le‘ *725 
1'37 ‘3 i 128° 40’ 132,082 143,170 173,987 Ee “739 
1:36 t se 126° 58’ 131,118 142,125 172,717 I; “739 
1°35 Ue ws 125°. 18’ 130, 154 141,080 171,447 a *746 
1°34 be py 123° 40 129,189 140,035 170,177 1: “741 
1°33 a 180° 0’ }.122°° 6! 128,225 138,989 168 , 907 Ay “752 
1°32 re 165° 56’ | 120° 33’ 127,261 137, 944 167,637 Ls *758 
1-31 Se 160° 6’; 119° 3’ 126,297 136,899 166,367 Ts “763 
1:30 a 155° 38!-1970"35" 125,333 135,854 165,097 Ts *769 
1:29 a 151° 50’.| 116° 8’ 124,369 134,809 163,827 1: *775 
1:28 oe 148° 42’ | 114° 44’ 123,405 133,764 162,557 1: *781 
i Ebi cs 145° 27’ | 113° 21’ 122,441 132,719 161,287 1° *787 
1:26 at 142989! | 111° 59’ 121,477 131,674 160,017 bg “794 
1:25 Fe 140° 3’ | 110° 39’ 120,513 130,629 158,747 is “800 
1:24 Sy 137°. 86'4| 1092; 207 119,548 129,584 157,477 I? +806 
1-23 He TSDC Al OBS OF 118,584 128,539 156,207 dB +813 
1°22 “6 133° 4’ | 106° 45’ 117,620 127,494 154,937 i *820 
dh ae 130° 57’ | 105° 80’ 116,656 126,449 153,668 1: *826 
1:20 sy 128° 55’ | 104° 15’ 115,692 125,404 152,397 Ls +833 
1:19 Pe 126°::58'-) 103° = 22" 114,728 124,359 151,128 Ag) -840 
1:18 ae 125°° 38!) 101° 50° 113,764 123,314 149,857 “is *847 
n EC berg Jet 123° 13’ | 100° 38’ 112,799 122,269 148,588 1 *855 
1:16 ee 121° 26"|° 99° 29’ 111,835 121,224 147,317 1° * 862 
1:15 66 119° 41’ | 98° 20’ 110,872 120,179 146,048 ie *870 
1:14 i 118° Ol} 297° 11’ 109,907 119,134 144,777 1 “877 
1:18 ae TPLGSS BO 96% So" 108,943 118,089 143,508 a hy “885 
1:12 56 114°-44’ | 94° 55’ 107,979 117,044 142, 237 As “893 
111 113° 9| 93° 47" | 107.015 | 115.999 | 140,968 | 1- -901 
1:10 ~*~ 111° 36'| 92° 43’ 106,051 114,954 |- 139,698 1 -909 
1:09 Ar TLOS 54> 910 2382 105,087 113,909 138,428 1 ‘917 
1:08 2% 108° 36’ | 90° 34’ 1045123 112,864 137,158 A *926 
1:07 os 107° 8’ | 89° 30' 103,159 111,819 135,888 1 °935 
1:06 $3 105° 42’} 88° 27’ 102,195 110,774 134,618 Bs °943 
1°05 on 104° 16’ | 87° 24’ 101,231 109,729 133,348 | 1° *952- 
1°04 ay 102953" 42-- 862221! 100,266 108,684 132,078 a +962 
1°03 oF 101° 30'| 85° 19’ 99,302 107,639 130,808 pe “971 
1:02 ee 100° 10'} 84° 18’ 98,338 106,593 129,538 Ls “980 
sine ee 98° 50" 83° 17 97,374 105,548 128,268 5 BO “990. 
6-09 || 16> 487 | 90° 49'| siory | so’sie | dos'ase | Jasi7as | -980 11-010 
0:98 || 157° 2 | 94° 56’| 80°17’ | 94,482 | 102,413 | 124,458 1-020 
0:96. || 117 29° | 920 2v'| a0 20° | on’ase | too’zs | tallois 1012 
’ > ? 
ce (ire | Semel he | oie | er) ee 
0:93 || 136° 52" | gg° 44’| 75° 97° | 89,661 97,188 | 118,108 1-075 
oe cee | eel eet eal eee 
> r b] ? 
Bee ook 19’ 85° 10'| 72° 36’ 86,769 94,053 114,298 1‘111 
45 84° 0’! 71° 40’ 85,805 93,008 113,028 1°124 
0 111,758 1136 


‘88 || 123° 17’ 82° 51’ | 70° 44’ 84,841 91,963 


APERTURE TABLE—continued. 


Corresponding A’ oy Baa y 
| Numerical | SSD) 2 a8 Ucn ies ge stalin ae 
Aperture. Air Water 20mo, M i “eg Denes 
: - geneous 3 : onochromatic luminating} trati 
= Siar Ti : White Light. | (B : g} trating 
i Saeeaetiag (= 1-00). | (mn = 1°33), ‘as. eT -52), (A = 0-530 b> ee O° ABEL fi Ehbtourapby. ee Power. 
0:87. || 120° 55’ | 81° 42’ yee Ss ine He) {Line P.) | near Line b.) (z) 
0-86 || 118° 38’ | 80° 34! | 69° 49 83,877 90,918 | 110,488 | °757_ 
0:8 igo on | 68° 54’ 82,913 7 y 757 | 1:149 
5 116° 25 79° 37’ = > 89,873 109,21 
0:84 or 7+ 682-0" |. 81,949 | 38 Dake “740 | 17163 
114° 17” | 78° 20" | 67° 6 , 88,828 107,948 -793 | 
an | 112° 42! 17° 1405 | @n6 Ae eae 87,783 106,678 706 aoe 
: 110° 10’ 76° 3? pete 302 86,738 105.408 ‘ g 
0:81 108° to’ Ss ; 65° 18 79,056 85 ; *689 11-205 
oS | to es ec a ee ke press | donaes | -es6. 11-035 
0:79 104°. 99" | 79° 53" 63° 31 77,128 83,603 101,598 et Shae 
0-78 || 102° sr’ | 71° 49" Ne 33’ | 76,164 82,558 | 100,328 | 20) Lone 
0°77 |} 100° 49° | 70° 45’ 1° 45’ | 75,200 | 81,513 99058 624 | 1-266 
0:76 0 56! 60° 52’ 74,236 ; 608 | 1-282 
98° 56 ge 49 | 60° 0° > 80,468 97,788 5 
: 95° 28° SO anh it  e é : 78,378 #5 awe z 
ER ROBO eae 8 ee ee Le Bs ea 
0°72 99°. g | 65° 32’ | Bee 24! 70,379 76,288 92.709 3 : 1:351 
O-71 90° 28” 642 39” | 55° 32! 69,415 75,242 91.439 | re 1°370 
0-70 roe Bie eg ie ag goa ee 74.197 | 902169 be 
0-69 || 87° 16 | 622 30’ | 58° 50’ | 67,487 | 73,152 ep Es pees 
0:68 85° 4]’ 61° 30! Rge 59" 66,523 72,107 87.629 i 90 1°429 
oe set Sea | eat | ieee | ie | Ge ae 
82° 36" | ~59° 80’ ate as) 70,017 85,089 449 | 1: 
0°65 81° 6 | 5B? 30" 51° 28! 63,631 68.972 , 449 | 1-493 
O-64 | 73° 38 | 58° 30" | 50° as’ | 62,607 | 67,927 Ne Ea ae Ste 
° 78°! o 991 ; ,702 66,882 5 : ‘dak 
o-68 | teay | tear | dey | Som | ohne soon) | carr | bbe 
75° 10’ | 54°. 36’ eee ri 64,792 | 78,739 
0:60 73° 44! | 53° 47°. 19 58,810 | 63,747 : 384 | 1-613 
. 7 38’ | 46° 30' i , 77,469 372 |1- 
0:59 72° 18" | Baal 57,846 62.702 1:639 
O58 | 702 5 22 40" | 57 40’ | 96,881 | 61,007 i ee ye 
: 69° 30’ 50° 45° ac ay ,918 60,612 73.659 : : 
0:56 gee! | 49° “44° 2 54,954 59.56 : 336 | 1°724 
3 48’ 43° 14! 2 3067 72,389 325 . 
3 51’ 42° 95) ae ? 71,119 “314 pe 
0-54 65° 22! 47° 5 53,026 57,47 , 1°786 
: 54! 44° 37° ? 477 69,849 -303 e 
0-53 6420’ | 46° 52,061 56,432 x7 1-818 
: 58’ 40° 48’ ? et, 68,579 | .°292 : 
0:52. || +62° 40’ | 46° 51,097 55.38 1°852 
- ~ 9! 40° 0’ ; 5387 67,309 “281 : 
0-51 61° 20° 45° 50,133 54.349 1°887 
: 6’ | 39° 12° , 66,039 -270 : 
0:50 60° 0’ 44° 49,169 53.29 1-923 
: 10’ 838° 24" | »297 64,769 260 : 
0:48 57° 29° Sar Shoe ? 48,205 52, 252 60 | 1°961 
O46 | ear | doa | apis | an2 | Aso G0.e59 | 230 | 2-08 
“45 | 53° 30’ | 39° 33’ ° 7349 | 48,072 |. 58,419 
0-44 59° 13° 3 3 34° 27’ 43. 385 470 ’ -212 | 2°174 
g° 39’ 330 40! > 7,026 57.149 -20 : 
0-42 49° 40’ 360 0 42,420 45.981 zon 3 | 2°222 
‘ 49° 39° 5! ’ 3 55, 879 -194 E 
0:40 47° 9! FOS gi % 40,492 43891 2273 
9°88 ip iy | Seo | aia | Gesek | aisson | gtvzo9 | sada | a-00 
: 42° 19’ 31° 94° Selina, 6 39,711 48.959 ‘ 
0-35. || 40° 58’ | 30° 27° 24' | 34,708 37,65 : "144 | 2-632 
0° 30’. | 26° 38 ? »621 45,719 | -1 ; 
0-34 || 39° 44’ | 29° 38’ | 33,744 36.57. / 30 | 2°778 
: yo 87" |. 25° 51! > 1976 44,449 123 | 2: 
0-32 37° 99" |. 97° 32,779 35,53 2857 
7 | , } 51’ - 24° , ? ool 43.179 - 116 Z 
0:30 34° 56! = tS 30,851 | 33,441 zeus 
0:28 || 32° 32" oe ie | ns 46" 28,923 | 81,351 387099 "102 | 3-125 
: 28° 58° 21°. 40! s 5,067 27,171 : : - 
0:24 97° 46’ aie 7 a 56’ 24,103 26.126 erase é 068 3-846 
ae fe dap ger 199. 2h Ik yee ne Feet 25,081 30,479 eee: te 
: : 93° 4! 17° 18° ‘ »210 22,991 27 s x 
O18 | oar | egy | ne sy | ia | sien 25300 | -040 | 5-000 
; | 18° 24" *|" 713° 50" 19° 5! we 18,811 22,860 : r 
0°15 172 14! 12° 58’ 5) 15,426 16,72 : 032 45°555 
j 58’. | 11° 19° 46 ,721 | 20,320 | °026 | 6-250 
0°14 16° 5 jo. @ p> 14,462 15,676 9 6+250 
ote eee a tage) gees Uren eee es ed Stead Bee 
pee ee al eee ae ids lees 
5 9° 41" |- 6° 54’ pats 2% Js 10,450 9°7 § 33% 
EL ane grevnre Beare gue rit: ee ee ee as tah 
O05" jp 25° 4# 4°18" ae 5,785 6,270 7’ 620 006° }12°500 
: si ; 3° 46" 4,821 | 509% FO, +004. 116° 667 
: gA20 25 O aay “003 - j20°000 


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ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


JUNE 1888. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. 


VI—A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiseus Ehrb. 
By Joun Rattray, M.A., B.Sce., F.R.S.E. 
(Read 14th March, 1888.) 
Piates V., VI., AND VII. 


In the preparation of the following monograph I have examined the 
extensive series of specimens in the British Museum, Natural History, 
which are included in the collections of Greville, Dickie, W. Smith, 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES V., VI., anp VII. 


PuaTE V. 
Fig. 1.—Aulacodiscus gracilis sp. n. x 660. 

» 2.—A. attennatus sp. n. x 460. 
», ~ 3. —A. lucidus sp. n. x 460. 
» 4.—A.concinnus Kitton MS. x 660. 
» 9.—A. prominens Kitton MS. x 660. 
» 6—A. intumescens sp. n. x 460. 
» 7.—A. carruthersianus Kitton and Grove MS. x 460. 
» 8.—A. compactus sp. n. x 460. 
» 9.—A. dispersus sp. n. x 660. 
», 10.—A. rotulus sp. n. x 460. 


PuLate VI. 
» 1.—A. neglectus sp. n. x 460. 
» 2.—A. patens sp.n. x 460. 
» 3.—A. margaritaceus var. inconspicua nov. x 460. 
» 4.—A. excavatus var. apiculata nov. x 660. 
5» 90.—A. Comberi var. irregularis nov. x 660. 
» 6—A. decorus var. canariensis noy. x 460. 
» 7.—A. exiguus var. undulata nov. x 660. 
» 8.—A. crux var. subsquamosa Grun. MS. x 660. 
», 9.—A. umbonatus var. dirupta Grove and Sturt MS. x 660. 


Puiate VII. 


», 1.—A. Petersii var. expansa noy. x 660. 

», 2.—A. Petersii var. rara nov. x 660. 

» o.—A. inflatus var. stellata nov. x 660. 

» 4.—A. inflatus var. minor noy. x 660. 

» 9.—A. amoenus var. subdecora noy. x 660. 

;, 6.—A. spectabilis var. depressa nov. x 660. 

55 7.—A. Comberi Arnott x 660. Showing the inner apiculate 
layer of the valve. 


Notr.—As the new species A. parvulus mihi, A. acutus mihi, and A. coronatus 
Grove MS. came to my knowledge only after the plates were in proof, it has not been 
possible to give figures of them.—J. R. 

1888. 2B 


338 Transactions of the Society. 


LIST OF SPECIES. 
AULACODISCUS. 
. page 339 


suspectus Sch. ..  .. oregonus Harv. & Bail. 


Beeveriw Johnson - 340 | intumescens sp.n. .. 

5 var. ceylanica .. « o¢ aflinis Grun. ee 
MNES NG po Gh OO OC ” » var. Lunyacsekii Bh Ot 
probabilis Sch. ” » 9» commutata are 0 
parvulus sp. n. ,. 341 | puleher Norman 
Browneii Norman .. ” > var. sparse- -radiata A 
Comberi Arnott . ” orientalis Grey... .. .. « 

» var. irregularis .. 342| pracilis'sp:; ms) ose see) seen 
hyalinus Pant. » formosus Arnott.. ..  ..  « 
minutus sp.n. .. +. « $43 | inflatus Grey. -5- a2. os se 
EXIPUUS=Wittaeeeen eaencin” | oo 33 » var. minor 

» var. undulata... .. «- ” . 5, stellata .. we 
harbadensis Ralfs  ..  .. + ” mammosus Grey. aBYietoar 0c 
kilkellyanus Grev. .. «+ sie var.extans .. «. 

9 var. minor .. ae, | 9? Janischii Grove & Sturt .. 
55 ee ate ” = var. areolata G6 
decorus Grev. - -- 3849 | carruthersianus Kitton & Grove 

SP MRVGE-SLOSCOILG me eri lie ” aucklandicus Grun. me 

»  canariensis .. .. ” var. late- inflata & 
spectabilis Grey. “a . 346 | Wittii Janisch ae oF 

” var. depressa oo 9 cinctus:Grevs | Zs" ie 9 lem tele 
quadrans Sch. .. 5 OC ” PetersiiHhrbs ss.0 fe.) -eees 
dispersus sp. 1. .. «2 «- ” 5) Var asperulas | 9s. mee. 
angulatus Grev. .. ae 347 5 SS aoeMoibe "Ae 4c 

Ay var. hungarica .. 33 5 » eXpansa 6 

a“ 5, neogradensis ” ss » circumdata .. . 

= » plana.. 348 a St TATALS (ca, nen cae 
rotulus sp. n. ae he AO 9 macraeanus Grey. 
grevilleanus Norman.. ” excavatus Sch. ace ae 
apedicellatus sp.n. .. .. 349 r var. apiculata .. .. 
cellulosus Grove & Sturt... ” acutus sp. 0. ne 
elegans Grove & Sturt .. .. «. » Huttonii Grove & Sturt bc 
radiosus Grove and Sturt.. .. .. 390 | Lahuseni Witt... .. .. 
(omibe INAS. Go 5 60 Oo é 9 x var. marginalis.. 

»» Var. Subsquamosa .. «. - ” - » punctata 
margaritaceus Ralfs .. 55 sath! » hyalina 
3 var. Debyi.. as) Lis Sturtii Kitton .. BP 
= sy ClO, Ga Go radiatus Grey. 
A » robusta .. .. 302 | pallidus Grev. 
” » distams .. « 4» reticulatus Pant, 
= acini Kerimunc. ” Grunowii Cleve . 
- » Undosa .. 9 5 var. subsquamosa- 
2 » Molleri es) 39 » squamosa .. .. 
5 », distincta .. 353 Rogersii Sch cselse cae ees 
» imconspicua .. 5, Argus Sch. . 
“s »  tenera 4p 66 Thumii Sch. 
scaber Ralfs Sau -ae “50 "oo 00 a concinnus Kitton 

5 \Whiey OEE 50 oo 304 | prominens Kitton 
SCORING 59 oo 06 co oo | Kittoni Arnott 
compactus sp.D... ..  .. co SD », var. Johnsonii 
patens sp. n. aeoee cea wale ate <n », africana . ae 
septus Sch... ..  «. . 3805 Rattrayii Grove & Sturt .. 
Schmidtii Witt. 20 : Sess 5 var. convexa 

gs var. quatuor-radiata 5) oD sollittianus Norman .. 
archangelskianus Witt. .. .. .. 356 5 var. nova-zealandica 
Super bus Matton Mecmmee Cullen cc) miss a 5, protuberans 
attenuatus sp. n. asec Nicos ney a 5) jitlandica 
anthoides,Schoy.. "<5, 2. ss. +-sdor | meglectussp. 1-00. cs... ese 
polygonus Grun. 60 60 Co bo sh umbonatus Grev. .. .. « 
@moonus Greve c.) wee) auch commer: 3 var, dirupta : 

5 War. hunparica 7. 4. <. suS) | Sucidugisp.m. =. a0) sues 


. » subdecora 


* eInINOL eee en eee 


coronatus Grove... .. «. 


oe 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 389 


and O’Meara, Hauck and Richter’s ‘Phykotheka Universalis,’ and 
H. L. Smith’s ‘ Diatomacearum Species Typice,’ and have through 
the great kindness of Mr. H. Grove, Dr. James Rae, Dr. John Murray, 
Mr. Julien Deby, Mr. Laurence Hardman, Mr. Kitton, Mr. Wilham 
A. Firth, Mr. Doeg, Dr. Griffin, Dr. Gray, Herr E. Weissflog, 
Dr. Otto N. Witt, Dr. Pantocsek, and Herr Kinker, been able to ex- 
amine the specimens from their private collections. Prof. Wittrock 
has also kindly forwarded to me the preparations belonging to 
Prof. P. 'T. Cleve, preserved in the Royal Botanical Museum, Stock- 
holm. 


Avxacopiscus Ehrb. emend., Ehrb. Mon. Ber. Ak., 1844, p. 73.— 
Valve circular, rarely polygonal. Surface flat, crateriform, or with a 
raised zone; inflations small and mammillate beneath processes, or 
large and cuneate along primary rays, sometimes absent. Colour trans- 
‘ parent, grey or lurid. Central space irregular or round, hyaline or 
punctate, filled in by a rosette, or absent. Markings round, oval, or 
angular, sometimes pearly, in rows straight or slightly curved, radial 
or parallel within the compartments, and forming secondary oblique 
or concentric lines; interspaces hyaline or punctate. Primary rays 
distinct, rarely inconspicuous, on a level with or raised above adjoining 
area, the rows diverging, rarely in contact. Border with radial or 
oblique, rarely moniliform striz, sometimes hyaline, usually distinct. 
Processes 1 to 45, inserted near border, conspicuous or small, some- 
times absent.—Tripodiscus Ehrb. Abh. Ber. Ak., 18389, p. 159; 
Tetrapodiscus Ehrb. Mon. Ber. Ak., 1843, p. 166; Pentapodiscus 
Ebrb., ibid.; Podiscus Bail. Amer. Journ. Sei., 1844, vol. xlvi. p. 187 ; 
Eupodiscus Ehrb. pro parte, Mon. Ber. Ak., 1844, p. 73. 


§ 1. Compnanami. 


Surface flat to 1/3 of radius or onwards to processes. Markings in 
radial straight rows. “Primary rays not elevated. 

A. suspectus Sch., Atl, pl. xxxvi. figs. 17, 18—Diam. 0°05 to 
0-075 mm. Surface flat almost to border. Colour dark brown on 
median zone, and light brownish-grey near border. Central space 
irregularly angular, 1/12 to 1/15 of diam. broad, hyaline. Markings 
rounded, granular, 6 in 0:01 mm., decreasing regularly outwards, 
towards central space their faint outlines visible. Primary rays 
3 or 4, indistinct, straight, extending for 1/7 to 1/10 of radius from 
circumference, the rows closely apposed. Border indistinct, non- 
striated. Processes absent, no clear area at outer ends of primary rays. 

Allied to Cosenodiscus. Moller, according to Schmidt, makes this 
a var. of Coscinodiscus punctulatus Ehrb. Cleve’s specimens are cer- 
tainly without processes, and Schmidt figures the valve with no indi- 
cation of their scars, though in his text he incorrectly says that these 
scars exist. Processes are also absent from A. apedicellatus sp. n. 
and abnormal forms of A. Kittond. 

Habitat: Mors deposit, Jutland (Schmidt, Cleve !). 

2B 2 


340 Transactions of the Society. 


A. Beeverix Johnson, in Pritch. Inf., p. 844, pl. vi. fig. 5— Diam. 
0:0625 to 0°08 mm. Surface flat to zone of processes. Colour steel 
erey at centre, smoky grey towards border. Central space irregularly 
rounded, 1/16 to 1/17 of diam. broad, closely punctate. Markings 
round or bluntly angular, 4 in 0°01 mm., central dot dark, interspaces 
irregular, small, punctate. Primary rays with markings round or 
compressed when in contact, the space between the rows evident, ex- 
panding gently outwards. Border striz 8 to 10 in 0°01 mm., 1/25 
to 1/32 of radius broad, mostly in contact with outer ends of rows of 
markings. Processes 3, insertion about 1/5 of radius from circumfer- 
ence, no space at base.—Sch. Atl, pl. xxxvi. fig. 12; Cleve, Diats. 
Vega Exp., p. 509. 

Johnson’s type in Greville’s collection is somewhat imperfect, the 
processes being broken off, leaving a roundly elliptical scar. 

Habitat: New Zealand (Johnson !); Sydney (Cleve). 

Var. ceylanica. A. Comberi var. ceylanica Grun., Cleve & Méller’s 
Diat., No. 278—Diam. 0°06 mm. Central space less distinctly 
punctate. Markings smaller, 6 in 0°01 mm. Primary rays less 
obvious, the rows diverging less towards processes. 

Habitat: Ceylon (Grove !). 

A, simplex sp. n.—Sp. aff. A. decoro Grev., Sch. Atl, pl. xxxii. 
fig. 9.—Diam. 0°1275 mm. Surface flat for 1/3 to 1/2 of radius. 
Colour pale grey at centre, lignt bluish on median zone, pale grey 
towards border. Central space obtusely angular, about 1/3 of diam. 
broad, hyaline, boundary faint. Markings rounded granules, 4 to 5 in 
0:01 mm., with narrow, clear interspaces, arranged in secondary 
irregular concentric bands, and less crowded towards central space. 
Primary rays inconspicuous, rows diverging but slightly outwards, 
interspace hyaline. Border strie 10 in 0:01 mm., 1/31 to 1/32 of 
radius broad, separated from radial rows by an irregular clear space 
about 1/53 of radius broad. Processes 6, symmetrical, insertion 
about 1/5 of radius from circumference, proximal portion rounded, 
distal more cylindrical, constriction median, sharp but shallow, free 
ends rounded, length about 31 times breadth, clear space at base 
small. 

More nearly allied to A. probabilis and A. Comberi than to 
A, decorus. Scar of broken-off process is obovate. 

Habitat: Monterey (Weissflog !). 

A, probalilis Sch., Atl., pl. xxxvi. figs. 13, 14, excl. 15, 16.—Diam. 
from 0°045to0°105 mm. Surface flat to about half-way to processes, 
within the border almost flat for about 1/10 of radius. Colour pale 
erey, darker towards processes, sometimes light blue at centre. Central 
space circular, elliptical, or irregular, 1/16 to 1/21 of diam. broad, 
finely punctate, a limiting band of markings rarely distinct. Markings 
rounded near centre, 4 in 0°01 mm., moniliform near border, central 
dot minute; interspaces on inner half narrow, irregular, punctate; the 
rows sometimes deflected near processes, only distinct beyond middle 
of radius. Primary rays distinct only near processes. Border striz 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiseus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 341 


12 in 0°01 mm, 1/15 to 1/21 of radius broad, indistinct. Pro- 
cesses 2 to 4, insertion 1/3 to 2/7 of radius from circumference, proximal 
portion equal to distal, constriction median, wide, shallow, free ends 
rounded, length about 5 times breadth, no space at their base-—Sch. 
Atl., pl. civ. figs. 3, 4. 

The central space is larger as the number of processes is less. 
Some valves from Simbirsk have the free ends of the processes more 
knob-like than others. ‘Transitional to the simpler species of the 
section Raprari. 

Habitat: Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Weissflog! Rae!); Monterey 
stone (Cleve! Weissflog!); Barbadoes (Firth!); Sysran deposit, 
Siberia (Hardman !). 

A. parvulus sp. n.—Diam. 0°0675 mm. Surface flat to zone of 
processes, slope to border gentle. Colour smoky grey, lighter 
- towards border. Central space rounded, about 1/27 of diam. broad, 
hyaline. Markings polygonal, 6 in0°01 mm., decreasing but slightly 
towards border, without interspaces. Primary rays inconspicuous, 
rows in contact to their outer ends. Border hyaline, inner edge 
distinct, about 1/18 of radius broad. Processes 5, symmetrical, 
insertion about 1/4 of radius from circumference, large, constriction 
median, shallow, free ends rounded. 

Habitat : Shell cleanings Nicobar Islands (Doeg !). 

A. Browneit Norman, in Pritch. Inf, p. 844.—Diam. 0:06 to 
0°0775 mm. Surface flat to zone of processes. Colour pale blue or 
grey, light or dark grey at border. Central space irregular, 1/24 to 
1/36 of diam. broad, hyaline, rarely reduced to an elongated clear line. 
Markings rounded, towards centre more irregular, 5 in 0:01 mm., 
rows sometimes slightly bent, at outer ends separated by narrow clear 
Spaces, secondary concentric bands obvious, sometimes confined to 
elevated central portion or to periphery. Primary rays distinct, space 
between rows narrow as on rest of surface. Border striw 12 to 14 
in 0-01 mm., 1/80 to 1/36 of radius broad, sometimes a narrow clear 
band at its inner edge. Processes 2 to 4, insertion 1/3 to 2/9 of 
radius from circumference, proximal portion oval, with a rounded, faint, 
obliquely placed mark on the corresponding side of all the processes 
of same valve, distal larger spathulate, clear space at base small. 
—Sch. Atl, pl. xxxvi. figs. 15-16; pl. ev. fig. 6. 

In specimens with 2 processes the concentric bands are most 
obvious at periphery. In the presence of a faint oblique mark at 
base of processes this species recalls A. barbadensis. It is allied to 
the flatter forms of A. kilkellyanus. 

Habitat: Monterey stone (Greville! Hardman! Stokes! Arnott!) ; 
Santa Monica deposit (Rae!); marine alge, California (Rae!) ; shell 
scrapings, California (Grove!); on Haltotis shell, South Sea Islands 
(Hardman! Weissflog !). 

A. Comberi Arnott, in Pritch. Inf, p. 844.—Diam. 0:11 to 
0°265 mm. Surface flat to processes, rarely depressed at centre for 
1/4 to 1/5 of radius. Colour lurid or pale to brownish grey arcund 


342 Transactions of the Society. 


centre, rarely hyaline. Central space rounded or 3-4-angled, about 
1/21 of diam. broad, punctate. Markings rounded or angular, 3 to 
34 in 0:01 mm.; interspaces most obvious towards centre, narrow, 
irregular, and punctate; rows moniliform towards border, rarely 
subfasciculate, secondary rows irregular, oblique, or subconcentric 
towards centre. Primary rays distinct, between the rows a narrow 
wavy space. Border striz 10 in 0°01 mm., 1/28 to 1/55 of radius 
broad. Processes 3 to 5, insertion 1/4 to 1/11 of radius from cir- 
cumference, large but faint, proximal portion smaller than distal, free 
ends flattened, angles rounded, inner end of axial structure distinct, 
obovate, space at base distinct, punctate-—Pl. VII. fig. 7; Sch. Atl., 
pl. xxxvi. fig. 11; pl. civ. fig.5. A. Habirshawii Pant., Fossil. Bacil. 
Ung., p. 58, pl. xxix. fig. 296; A. Miller Grun., Sch. Atl., pl. xli. fig. 11. 

‘The inner layer of the valve is sometimes minutely apiculate. On 
corresponding side of base of each process there occurs a faint oval 
mark, only visible when the valve is transparent, as in A. Browneii 
and A. barbadensis. The scar of the broken-off process is roundly 
elliptical, Schmidt distinguishes A. Miilleri by its being quite flat, 
but this seems scarcely sufficient to found another species. 

Habitat: Peruvian guano (Rae! Hardman! Macrae! Weissflog !) ; 
Bolivian guano (Kinker!); Pabillan de Pico guano (Kinker! Cleve !); 
Ichaboe guano (O’Meara!); “guano” (Norman! Macrae!); San 
Filipe guano (Ralf). 

Var. irregularis—Diam. 0°1075 mm., a faint depression opposite 
each process. Surface flat at centre. Colour pale lurid grey, border 
darker. Markings in zones, from centre to semi-radius rounded, at 
semi-radius on a band 1/7 to 1/8 of radius broad, angular, from this 
to processes rounded, between processes on a narrower band 1/21 to 
1/24 of radius broad, and separated from inner and outer portions by 
granulate narrow areas, again angular. Primary rays with markings 
in rows similar to those on corresponding areas of compartments. 
Border strie 7 to 8 in 0:01 mm.,, 1/23 to 1/24 of radius broad. 
Processes 3, insertion about 2/11 of radius from circumference.— 
PIV Detignb: ' 

Habitat: Pabillan de Pico guano (Weissflog !). 

A. hyalinus Pant., Fossil. Bacil. Ung., p. 58, pl. i. fig. 5. —Diam. 
0°25 mm. Surface, central portion flat to processes with outer edge 
indistinct and concave between these, slope to border gentle. Colour 
light grey, darker towards border. Central space quadrate, about 
1/25 of diam. broad, delicately punctate. Markings round, small, 
outlines faint, central dot distinct, interspaces unequal, large, punc- 
tate; sub-equal to zone of processes, near border moniliform ; rows 
straight radial, secondary rows irregular, oblique towards centre, 
straight between processes. Primary rays undifferentiated towards 
centre. Border striz faint, 8 to 10 m 0°01 mm., inner edge definite, 
about 1/50 of radius broad. Processes 9, insertion about 1/8 to 1/10 
of radius from circumference, clear space at base non-punctate, almost 
semicircular, with the greater convexity towards the centre. 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 348 


The scar of the broken process is irregularly obovate. Allied to 
A. Comberi. 

Habitat: Szent Peter deposit (Pantocsek !) 

A, minutus sp. n. Cestodiscus or Aulacodiscus ? Sch. Atl., pl. 
lyiii. fig. 34.—Diam. about 0°025 mm. Surface flat to zone of 
processes, slope to border gentle. Colour pale grey (?) Central space 
absent. Markings rounded granular, irregular at centre, in subradial 
rows to processes. Interspaces hyaline. Primary rays distinct, rows 
separated by a wide interspace of uniform breadth. Border strize 
distinct, 8 in 0°01 mm., about 1/9 of radius broad. Processes 14, 
insertion about 1/9 of radius from circumference, consisting of a 
single portion with rounded ends. 

Habitat : Monterey (Weissflog). 


§ 2. TeneRRimt. 


Surface flat. Central space hyaline or with faint grey tinge. 
Primary rays distinct. Border hyaline. Processes minute. 

A, exiguus Witt. Simb. Polirsch., p. 19, pl. vii. fig. 6.—Diam. 
0°03 mm. Colour almost hyaline, the areas about primary rays a 
little darker. Central space round, about 1/6 of diam. broad, tinged 
light grey, outside of this a clear narrow band with a short conical 
clear space extending into middle of apex of each compartment for 
about 1/6 of radius, and forming a distinct stellate figure. Markings 
unresolved. Primary rays with the rows undifferentiated, the inter- 
spaces surrounding at peripheral ends the bases of processes. Processes 
5, subsymmetrical, insertion about 1/4 of radius from circumference 
as minute radially elongate narrow marks.—Sch. Atl., pl. ci. fig. 12. 

Habitat: Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Weissflog !). 

Var. undulata—Diam. 0°06 mm. Central area about 1/5 of 
diam. broad, a broader clear line passing from it into apex of each 
compartment, with edges more irregular. Markings larger, as close 
minute puncta, most evident at edge of primary rays, outer edge of 
sculptured area undulate, with sides convex at processes and concave 
on compartments. Primary rays 9, symmetrical, insertion about 1/12 
of radius from circumference. Border with a single band of minute 
puncta, within it a clear area, widest at middle of compartments.— 
PL. Vi--fig: '7. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit (Hanwell !). 

A. barbadensis Ralfs, in Pritch. Inf., p. 939.—Diam. 0°045 to 
- 0°0825 mm. Colour pale smoky grey. Central space round to 
4-angled, 1/12 to 1/17 of diam. broad, edges uneven, with sides at 
right angles to directions of primary rays. Markings polygonal, 
12 in 0:01 mm., without interspaces, less regular near central space, 
rows radial, secondary rows irregularly concentric towards centre, 
minute apiculi sometimes present, except on an area at middle of each 
compartment in zone of processes similar to the clear area at base of 
processes on same yalye. Primary rays with indistinct rows. Border 


344 Transactions of the Society. 
1/12 to 1/16 of radius broad, well marked. Processes 3 or 4, 


insertion 1/3 to 1/6 of radius from circumference, minute, constriction 
shallow, a faint ovate oblique mark towards same side of base of each, 
clear area at base irregularly semicircular or triangular, its edge 
delicately striated at right angles to its margin.—A. notatus Grove & 
Sturt, Journ. Quek. Mic. Cl., 1887, pp. 9, 146, pl. i. fig. 11. 

Habitat: Newcastle deposit, Barbadoes (Rae! Firth!); Oamaru 
deposit, New Zealand (Grove & Sturt !). 


§ 3. Rapratt. 


Surface crateriform or almost flat at centre, highest zone distinct, 
often convex and angular at primary rays, which are usually elevated. 
Clear space at base of processes minute. 

A. kilkellyanus Grey., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1863, p. 70, pl. iv. 
fig. 14.—Diam. 0°075 to 0°1025 mm. Surface rising for almost 1/3, 
or flat for 5/9, of radius, outside of highest zone plain or slightly sig- 
moid—first concave then convex between processes; no inflations ; 
slope to border gentle. Colour pale grey, darker at border. Central 
space rounded, 1/17 to 1/20 of diam. broad, hyaline, boundary faint. 
Markings round, 4 in 0°01 mm, decreasing uniformly to border, out- 
lines faint, central dot distinct, interspaces minute, hyaline, rows 
straight, radial, the shorter attenuating inwards. Primary rays incon- 
spicuous, rows in contact or with a narrow interspace not expanding 
outwards. Border striz 12 to 14 in 0:01 mm., about 1/40 of radius 
broad, inner edge distinct. Processes 3 or 4, insertion 1/4 to 1/5 of 
radius from circumference, hourglass-shaped, proximal and distal por- 
tions equal, constrictions deep, length about 24 times breadth, clear 
space at base distinct. 

Habitat: Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Greville! Johnson! 
Hardman !). 

Var. minor.—Diam. 0°0525 mm. Surface forming a low cone, 
convex from centre to about 1/8 of radius. Central space angular, 
about 1/21 of diam. broad. Markings subequal, 8 in 0:01 mm., rows 
separated by narrow clear lines. Primary rays more distinct, traceable 
to central space. Striated border absent. Processes? insertion about 
2/7 of radius from circumference. 

Dr. Greville had distinguished this as a species, but on what 
appears to me insufficient grounds. The scar of the broken-off process 
is elliptical. 

Habitat: Bridgewater, Barbadoes (Johnson !). 

Var. sparsa. A. sparsus Grey., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1866, p.123, 
pl. xi. fig. 6—Diam. 0°075 mm. Surface most elevated at centre, 
slightly convex to processes, slope to border steep. Central space 
bluntly and irregularly 4-angled, about 1/20 of diam. broad. Markings 
sometimes polygonal and in contact, decreasing but slightly towards 
border, and little more crowded here than on other parts of valve. 
Primary rays only recognized on central half when traced inwards 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 345 


from processes. Border strize 8 to 10 in 0°01 mm., about 1/20 of 
radius broad. Processes 3 or 4, insertion about 1/5 of radius from 
circumference, cylindrical, attenuating towards base, free ends 
emarginate. 

Habitat: Barbadoes deposit (Greville !). 

The Ceylon specimen from Witt, figured by Schmidt (Atl. pl. cii. 
fig. 3), appears to me to be nearer to var. sparsa from its markings, 
primary rays, and processes, but its surface is very convex. 

A. decorus Grey., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1864, p. 82, pl. x. fig. 2. 
—Diam. 0°1025 to 0:13 mm. Surface flat to about semi-radius, or 
slightly depressed at central space, with outer edge distinct and con- 
cave, outermost 1/3 of compartments almost flat. Colour pale bluish 
at centre, elsewhere grey, darker towards border. Central space 
irregularly rounded, 1/20 to 1/21 of diam. broad, hyaline. Markings 
angular, 53 to 6 in 0°C1l mm., outlines faint, near processes oval, 
oblique, rows subradial, converging round processes, concentric near 
centre, interspaces most evident at origin of shorter rows. Primary 
rays with rows diverging slightly outwards. Border strie 12 to 14 
in 0°01 mm., about 1/27 of radius broad, inner edge sharp. Pro- 
cesses 6, insertion about 1/5 of radius from circumference, proximal 
portion rounded, distal subcylindrical, free ends truncate, length 1} 
to 2 times breadth.—Sch. AtL, pl. ev. fig. 8. 

The scar of the broken-off process is oval. 

This species is sometimes confounded with A. amenus, but bears 
to it but little affinity. - A. Stoschi, figured by Walker and Chase, is 
distinct. A Panama specimen in the Royal Botanical Museum, Stock- 
holm, named by Cleve A. Stoschii, is A. angulatus var. neogradensis, 
and Weissflog’s ‘Gazelle’ specimen, also named A. Stoschii, is 
A. ameenus var. hungarica with 5‘ processes. 

Habitat : Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Greville !). 

Var. Stoschit. A. Stoschit Janisch in Sch. AtL., pl. xxxiv. fig. 11. 
—Diam. 0°165 to0°175 mm. Central portion flattened to about 
5/7 of radius, outer edge more distinct, convex on compartments ; 
inflations short, abrupt; slope to border gentle. Markings 5 in 
0°01 mm., concentric rows less distinct. Primary rays indistinct 
towards centre. Processes 6, cylindrical, insertion about 1/6 of radius 
from circumference. 

Habitat: Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Greville! Johnson !) ; 
‘Gazelle’ Exped. (Janisch). 

Var. canariensis—Diam. 0:14 mm. Central portion flat to 3/7, 
rarely to 2/3 of radius; inflations more distinct, rarely short. Central 
space larger (1/9 to 1/14 of diam.), sometimes with short extensions 
into apices of compartments. Markings 4 in 0°01 mm., without 
interspaces, secondary fringe-like rows around processes more evident. 
Border striz coarse, 8 to 10 in 0:01 mm. Processes 7, free ends 
rounded, constriction median.—PIl. VI. fig. 6. 

Norman proposed to erect a new species for these valves ; Hardman 
has regarded them as a var. of A. angulatus. 


346 Transactions of the Society. 


Habitat: Teneriffe (Norman! Hardman! Weissflog!); ‘Gazelle,’ 
Exped. (Weissflog !). 

A. spectabilis Grey., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1863, p. 71, pl. v. 
fig. 16.—Diam. 0°075 to 0°1225 mm. Surface rising to 1/3, or flat 
to about 1/4 of radius; highest zone about 1/5 of radius broad, 
straight, or slightly concave outwards on compartments; inflations 
extending to border, tapering but slightly inwards, their edges abrupt ; 
slope to border gentle. Colour pale grey, darker about primary rays 
and middle of compartments. Central space pentagonal, 1/16 to 
1/25 of diam. broad, sides convex inwards, hyaline. Markings oval 
or bluntly angular, 6 in 0°01 mm., least crowded towards centre, 
decreasing but slightly towards border, rows transverse or oblique 
on inflations. Primary rays distinct only outside highest zone where 
the rows suddenly diverge, again converging somewhat towards pro- 
cesses. Border striae 10 in 0:01 mm., 1/21 to 1/24 of radius broad, 
a narrow clear aréa between it and the radial rows. Processes 5, 
insertion 1/4 to 1/5 of radius from circumference. Constriction 
median, distinct, free ends conyex.—A. grandis Walker, New and 
Rare Diats., p. 3, pl. i. fig. 8. The scar of broken-off process is 
oval. 

Habitat: Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Greville! Johnson !). 

Var. depressa.—Diam. 0°115 mm. A small, rounded depression 
on compartments near outer edge of highest zone, and about 1/12 of 
radius broad. Markings rounded, 6 to 8in 0°01 mm., faintly traceable 
across depressions, more irregular near central space. Primary rays 
with wider median space. Processes 5, ends truncate.—Pl. VIL. fig. 6. 

Habitat : Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Johnson !). 

A. quadrans Sch., Atl., pl. xxxv. fig. 10—Diam. 0°1125 mm. 
Surface, central portion flat to 1/8 of radius, with outer edge distinct, 
round or somewhat irregular; primary rays on same plane to pro- 
cesses, inflations distinct, compartments flat for about outer 2/3 of 
radius from border. Colour pale grey. Central space irregularly 
quadrate, 1/22 of diam. broad. Markings polygonal, rounded close 
to central space, outlines delicate, 5 in 0:01 mm., rows straight, radial, 
secondary rows distinct on raised areas. Primary rays well marked, 
rows diverging for 1/3 of length from inner ends, thence remaining 
parallel or converging but slightly towards processes.. Border narrower 
by about 1/2 opposite processes, hyaline, about 1/25 of radius broad. 
Processes 4, insertion about 2/11 of radius from circumference, obovate 
or subclavate, beyond distal ends a subcrescentic line sometimes 
visible, clear space at base large, sometimes asymmetrical. 

Habitat: Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Weissflog !). 

A. dispersus sp. n.—Diam. 0°15 to 0-175 mm. Surface, central 
portion flat for about 1/5 to 4/9 of radius, with outer edge slightly 
convex on compartments, and angular at primary rays. Central 
space quadrate, indistinct, about 1/40 of diam. broad. Markings poly- 
gonal towards centre, rounded towards border, 4 to 6 in 0°01 mm., 
outlines indistinct, central dot minute, rows radial, straight, separated 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 347 


by distinct hyaline radial interspaces. Primary rays well marked, 
beyond central area sometimes rising slightly to processes, the rows 
diverging widely outwards, again converging more distinctly towards 
processes, and continued to border. Border striz distinct, 8 in 
0-O0i mm. Processes 4, insertion about 1/6 of radius from circumfer- 
ence, symmetrical.—PI. V. fig.9. A. spectabilis Grove & Sturt, Journ. 
Quek. Mic. Cl., 1887, p. 14. The scar of broken-off processes is oval. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit (Grove! Doeg!). 

A, angulatus Grey., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1863, p. 71, pl. v. 
fig. 15.—Valve rarely elliptical. Diam. 0°09 to0°325 mm. Surface 
rising for 1/3 to 1/2 of radius, highest zone distinct, 1/6 to 1/10 
of radius broad, compartments from highest zone to zone of processes 
first slightly convex, then concave, flat towards border; primary rays 
sloping uniformly downwards to processes. Colour pale or dark 
grey. Central space round or angular, 1/15 to 1/18 of diam. broad, 
punctate. Markings round or angular, 3 to 4 in 0:01 mm., outlines 
delicate, central dot brilliant, interspaces punctate, rows subradial or 
subparallel on compartments. Primary rays distinct, rows not diverg- 
ing. order strie 6 to 8 in 0°01 mm., about 1/30 of radius broad, 
indistinct. Processes 5 to 16, insertion 2/9 to 2/15 of radius from 
circumference, proximal portion somewhat larger than distal, con- 
striction submedian (towards apex), free ends rounded.—Sch. Atl. 
pl. xxxiv. figs. 7-8; pl. cu. fig. 2; pl. cv. fig. 7. The scar of 
broken-off process is oval. 

Habitat: Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (W. J. Gray!); shell 
cleanings, S. America (Hardman!); Pacific Ocean (Weissflog!); 
‘Gazelle’ Exped. (Janisch!) ; Oamaru deposit, New Zealand (Grove & 
Sturt !). 

ae hungarica. A. hungaricus Pant., Fossil. Bacil. Ung., p. 57, 
pl. xxv. fig. 231.—Diam. 0°15 to 0°225 mm. Surface more sharply 
crateriform, rising for 1/5 to 2/9 of radius, highest zone 1/7 to 2/7 
of radius broad, when wide angular at primary rays; inflations more 
prominent. Central space irregular, 1/35 to 1/90 of diam. broad. 
Markings subquadrate, 4; in U-01 mm., rows parallel on each com- 
partment, secondary concentric bands distinct to outer edge of highest 
zone, outside of this more straight across compartments. Primary 
rays more prominent. Border stri# 8 to 10 in U-U1 mm., 1/35 to 
1/45 of radius broad. Processes 7 or 8, cylindrical, constriction slight, 
proximal ends more opaque, free ends truncate, no clear space at 
base. 

Habitat: Szent Peter deposit, Hungary (Pantocsek! Hardman! 
Grove!) ; Szakal and Kékko deposits, Hungary (Pantocsek !); Santa 
Marta deposit (Griffin !). 

Var. neogradensis. A. neogradensis Pant., ibid., p. 59, pl. xxv. 
fig. 227.—Diam. 0°125 to 0°19 mm. Surface flat for 1/5 to 1/7 of 
radius, highest zone 1/8 of radius broad, outer edge convex outwards 
on compartments, angular on both sides at primary rays, more rarely 
on outer only; inflations short. Central space irregularly angular, 


348 Transactions of the Society. 


1/35 to 1/50 of diam. broad, coarsely punctate. Markings as in var. 
hungarica, but 4 in 0°01 mm., the rows subradial. Primary rays 
inconspicuous. Processes 7 to 9, insertion 1/6 to 1/8 of radius from 
circumference.—A. subangulatus Pant., ibid., p. 60, pl. 1. fig. 11; 
pl. xxviii. p. 276. 

Greville united in his collection under A. angulatus specimens of 
A. spectabilis, A. decorus, and A. amceenus var. subdecora. Some 
Kékk6 forms of the var. neogradensis are transitional to A. amoenus. 

Pantocsek’s original specimens of A. subangulatus, with which he 
also associates Kinker’s Kékk6 valve (Sch. Atl, pl. ev. fig. 8), are worn 
forms of this var. 

Habitat: Szent Peter, Szakal, and Kékké deposits, Hungary 
(Pantocsek !); Santa Marta deposit (Weissflog! Griffin !). 

Var. plana.—Diam. 0°1075 mm. Surface rising to about semi- 
radius, highest zone convex, broad, outside of this primary rays but 
slightly elevated above level of compartments. Colour light grey 
towards centre, most opaque about semiradius, and on semicircular, 
centrally convex areas surrounding the processes. Central space 
round, about 1/12 of diam. broad. Markings rounded, or bluntly 
angular, in irregular concentric bands towards central space. Processes 
11, insertion about 1/9 of radius from circumference. 

Habitat: Jackson’s Paddock, Oamaru (Kinker!). 

A. votulus sp. n.—Diam. 0°195. Surface flat at central space, 
thence rising for about 1/4 of radius, highest zone 1/4 of radius 
broad, its outer edge abrupt and primary rays in same plane with it 
to processes ; inflations abrupt, about 1/4 of radius in greatest breadth, 
at each angle an irregularly rounded lobe with longer axis at right 
angles to corresponding ray, compartments flat near border. Colour 
pale to slaty grey, mottled with darker spots, darker at sides of infla- 
tions. Central space irregularly round, about 1/16 of diam. broad, 
faintly punctate. Markings rounded, 3 in 0°01 mm., interspaces 
unequal, punctate, rows subradial to outer edge of highest zone, beyond 
this more parallel, straight or forming wide curves. Primary rays 
within highest zone undifferentiated, outside of this distinct. Border 
strie, 8 in 0:01 mm., about 1/26 of radius broad, inner edge distinct. 
Processes 8, insertion about 1/8 of radius from circumference, proximal 
part rounded, distal cylindrical, free ends convex. Allied to A. angu- 
latus through its var. hungarica.—Pl. V. fig. 10. 

The scar of the broken-off process is rounded. 

Habitat: Newcastle deposit, Barbadoes (Firth !). 

A. grevilleanus Norman, Grev., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1864, 
p- 10, pl. i. fig. 1.—Diam. about 0°0275 mm. Surface with several 
distinct concentric zones to about 1/4 of radius from centre, the area 
adjoining primary rays sharply defined, with sides straight, and con- 
verging inwards. Central space circular, about 1/28 of diam. broad, 
hyaline. Markings round or oblong near centre ; rows radial, beyond 
central zonate area forming evident oblique curved intersecting 
secondary rows, on area adjoining primary rays are wart-like cushions, 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiseus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 349 


each with a cluster of 4 to 6 larger markings, and at outer end of each 
ray is a small sharply defined area extending symmetrically on both 
sides of process, and bearing coarse radial striz. Primary rays distinct, 
the rows diverging slightly outwards. Border striw delicate, about 
1/27 of radius broad. Processes 10, insertion about 1/16 of radius 
from circumference, space at base small, hyaline. 

Habitat: Moron deposit, Seville (Norman). 


§ 4. AREOLATI. 


Slope to border sometimes steep. Inflations absent or rudimentary. 
Markings pearly, central dot round or oval, distinct, rows radial, 
slightly concave towards and adjoining primary rays. Primary rays 
straight or with shght bendings. Border striated. 

A, apedicellatus sp.n. Aulacodiscus ? sp.—Sch. Atl., pl. ciii. fig. 4. 
—Diam. 0°085 to 0°225 mm. Surface flat for 1/3 to 2/3 of radius 
and just within border, intervening slope steep. Colour pale slaty 
grey, darker at outer edge of central area, Central space angular, 
outline irregular, rarely regular, 1/30 of diam. broad, short diverticula 
passing into apices of compartments; rarely somewhat excentric. 
Markings polygonal, 4 in 0-01 mm., rows deflected at origin of shorter 
rows, rarely subfasciculate, secondary oblique rows evident. Primary 
rays 7 to 13, distinct, sometimes asymmetrical, rows in contact, areolee 
enlarging towards outer ends, where they are cuneate with long axis 
oblique or radial. Border indistinct. Processes absent, but outer 
ends of rays at 1/5 to 3/8 of radius from circumference, and opaque 
when centre is in focus. 

Habitat: Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Kinker! Cleve! Rae!). 

A. cellulosus Grove & Sturt, Journ. Quek. Mic. Cl., 1887, p. 8, 
pl. ii. tigs. 8, 9.—Diam. 0°09 to 0°23 mm. Surface, central portion 
flat for 1/3 to 2/3 of radius, rarely almost to processes, with outer edge 
bluntly angular and sides convex. Colour pale grey, darker towards 
border. Centre with an inconspicuous rosette, 1/12 to 1/23 of diam. 
broad. Markings large, irregular, polygonal, 2 to 3 in 0°01 mm., de- 
creasing somewhat suddenly towards border, around the outer edge a 
band of minute puncta, secondary oblique rows distinct. Primary 
rays indistinct, rows in contact. Border striz sometimes oblique, 
6 to 8 in 0°01 mm., inner edge indistinct. Processes 4 to 9, insertion 
1/9 to 1/12 of radius from circumference, constriction median, wide, 
shallow, free ends rounded, no clear space at base.—A. cellulosus var. 
plana Grove & Sturt, ibid., p. 140. 

The valves named var. plana Grove & Sturt are flat to processes 
and the slope to the border is still more gentle. 

Habitat : Oamaru deposit, New Zealand (Grove & Sturt! Rae!). 

A, elegans Grove & Sturt, Journ. Quek. Mic. Cl. 1887, p. 140, 
pl. xu. fig. 50.—Sometimes subcircular, diam. 0-105 to 0-175 mm. 
Surface flat to zone of processes, outer edge faintly angular at pro- 
cesses; slope to border steep. Colour pale grey. Central space 


350 Transactions of the Society. 


irregularly angular, indistinct, 1/27 to 1/35 of diam. broad, edges 
uneven. Markings mostly hexagonal, largest about semiradius, 4 in 
0-01 mm., decreasing gradually to border, central dot indistinct ; 
rows straight, secondary rows inconspicuous, rarely with large irregular 
clear spaces around central space. Primary rays distinct, the areole 
more regular than those on compartments, increasing for 1/2 to 2/3 
of radius, thence diminishing towards processes. Border strize monili- 
form, 6 in 0°01 mm., in part continuous with radial rows. Processes 
5 to 7, insertion 1/5 to 1/7 of radius from circumference, minute sub- 
clavate, free ends rounded or truncate, no clear space at base.— 
A. decorus Grove & Sturt, ibid., 1887, pp. 8, 146. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit, New Zealand (Grove & Sturt'!). 

A. radiosus Grove & Sturt, Journ. Quek. Mic. Cl, 1887, p. 140, 
pl. xu. fig. 33.—Diam. 0°19 to 0°27 mm. Surface flat for about 1/3 
of radius. Colour pale bluish grey, or darker at centre and border. 
Centre with an irregular inconspicuous rosette 1/25 to 1/72 of diam. 
broad, formed by unequal areole. Markings polygonal, 4 in 0:01 mm., 
central dot faint, rows somewhat convergent only about processes. 
Primary rays inconspicuous, recognized towards centre only when 
traced inwards, the rows diverging slightly near outer ends. Border 
strie 12 in 0°01 mm., 1/25 to 1/36 of radius broad, its inner edge 
indistinct. Processes 5 to 7, insertion about 1/5 to 1/8 of radius from 
circumference, clavate, constriction wide, shallow, clear space at base 
small, rounded. 

The scar of the broken-off process is obovate. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit, New Zealand (Grove & Sturt !). 

A. cruw Ehrb., Mon. Ber. Ak., 1844, p. 76.—Diam. 0°0875 to 
0:0925 mm. Surface flat along primary rays to processes, and to 
about 1/2 of radius on compartments; inflations rudimentary, inter- 
vening concavities distinct, shallow. Colour pale grey, darker towards 
centre and border. Central space angular or elongate, 1/28 of diam. 
broad, hyaline, rarely sub-obsolete. Markings polygonal, 4 in 
0°01 mm., central dot faint, rows at centre of compartments together 
forming an indistinct cruciform figure, alternate with rays, secondary 
rows evident on inflations, sometimes irregular and indistinct. Primary 
rays distinct, cruciform, rows diverging in outer 2/5 of their length. 
Border indistinct, strize coarse, continuous with radial rows. Pro- 
cesses 4, insertion 1/7 to 1/8 of radius from circumference, minute 
free ends, rounded, clear space at base minute-—Ehrb. Mikrog., p. 8, 
pl. xvii. fig. 47; Grunow, Denk. Wien. Ak., 1884, p. 69; Sch. Atl., 
pl. xxxui. fig. 8. Hupodiscus crux Kitz., Sp. Alg., p. 185. 

The scar of the broken-off processes is elliptical or obovate. 
Affinity to A. Comberi, pointed out by Ralfs, is remote. 

Habitat : Richmond, Virginia (Kinker! Weissflog !) ; Petersburg, 
Virginia (Ehrenberg) ; Sta. Barbara deposit (Rae!); Szent Peter 
deposit (Grove !); Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Cleve !). 

Var. subsquamosa Grun. MS.—Diam. 0°0775 to 0°19 mm. 
Surface with outer edge of elevated area more distinct, inflations more 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 351 


evident. Central rosette inconspicuous, 1/10 to 1/19 of diam. broad. 
Markings more irregular, more pearly, 3 in 0°01 mm., decreasing 
suddenly at 1/5 to 1/7 of radius from border, secondary subconcentric 
rows towards centre indistinct. Primary rays with rows less divergent. 
Border hyaline, 1/17 to 1/38 of radius broad, inner edge definite. 
Processes 4, rarely 3, insertion 1/6 to 5/17 of radius from circum- 
ference, larger, constriction median, wide, shallow, no clear space at 
base.—PI. VI. fig. 8. 

The scar of broken-off process is narrow and elongate. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit, New Zealand (Grove & Sturt! Rae !). 

A. margaritaceus Ralfs, in Pritch. Inf., p. 844.—Diam. 0°1 to 
0:°415 mm. Surface flat to processes or to 1/2 of radius, sometimes 
concave at centre, highest zone angular at processes, 1/8 to 1/3 of 
radius broad. Colour pale grey, border darker. Central space 

angular, elliptical, rarely sub-obsolete, 1/10 to 1/60 of diam. broad, 
‘hyaline, rarely punctate. Markings rounded or polygonal, pearly, 

4 in 0°01 mm., moniliform towards border, dot often unilateral, 
interspaces hyaline. Primary rays with rows in contact or diverg- 
ing from semiradius, sometimes interrupted. Border strie 8 in 
0:01 mm., 1/30 to 1/40 of radius broad. Processes 3 to 12,* insertion 
1/4 to 1/11 of radius from circumference, small, clavate, constriction 
shallow, about 1/3 of length from base, clear space at base small, 
length about 24 times breadth.—Sch. Atl. pl. xxxvii. figs. 4, 5; 
plexci, fie. 12; -pl. civ: fies. 7,.8>) pl. ev. figs. 1 2,455 Annu 
Ehrb. Mikrog., pl. xxxv. A. 16 fig. 2. A. samoensis Grun. 1883, 
Moller, Preisverzeichniss Mikr. Priip. fide Cleve. A. crua var. 
peruana Grun., Denk. Wien. Ak., 1884, p. 69; Sch. Atl, pl. xxxui. 
figs. 1-3. The scar of the broken-off process is oval. 

Habitat: Patos Island guano (Johnson! Browne! Weissflog !) ; 
California guano (Greville! Norman!) ; Mejillones, Peru (Kinker ! 
Hardman !); Sta. Marta deposit (Hardman ! Weissflog!), Sta. Monica 
deposit (Joshua !); Calvert Co., Maryland (Weissflog!); California 
(Cleve ! Grundler !) ; New Caledonia (Kinker !) ; Sierra Leone (Hard- 
man!) ; Rio Janeiro (Hardman! Fuirth!); Java ex Holothuria edule 
(Kinker ! Weissflog !) ; Samoa (Cleve!) ; Labuan (Weisstlog! Cleve !) ; 
San José Pearl Islands (Cleve !). 

Var. Debyi.—A. Debyi Pant., Fossil. Bacil. Ung., p. 58, pl. xxv. 
fig. 226. Diam. 0°205 to0°6 mm. Surface flat for 3/8 of radius, 
slope to border steep. Primary rays inconspicuous, the rows diverg- 
ing for about outer 1/3 of length. Processes 4 to 11, insertion 1/5 
to 1/9 of radius from circumference, much larger, free ends flattened, 
proximal portion about 3/5 distal in breadth, clear space at base 
small, length about 14 times breadth—Sch. Atl., pl. civ. fig. 9. 

Habitat: Mejillones, Peru (Kinker !) ; California Guano (Greville !) ; 
Oamaru deposit (Grove & Sturt! Rae!). 

Var. elongata.— Diam. 0°375 mm. Surface rising gradually for 


* The number on valves of a single frustule is sometimes different, e. g. four on 
the one, five on the other. 


302 Transactions of the Society. 


3/5 of radius. Central space rounded, 1/17 diam. broad. Markings 
3 in 0:01 mm., interspaces towards centre hyaline. Primary rays 
with rows diverging in outer 1/6 of length. Processes 6, msertion 
about 1/6 of radius from circumference, sides concave, breadth at 
proximal and distal ends subequal, length about 34 times breadth, 
narrow.—Sch. Atl. pl. xxxvii. figs. 1-3. 

Schmidt regards this, on what appears to me to be insufficient 
srounds, as perhaps a new species. 

Habitat: California, Pacific Coast (Cleve !). 

Var. robusta Witt, Sch. Atl, pl. xxxvii. figs. 6, 7—Diam. 
0:51 mm. Surface rising to zone of processes, slope to border 
steep. Markings 14 to 2 in 0°01 mm., often with two lateral dots. 
Primary rays indistinct towards centre, often mterrupted. Processes 
6 to 17, insertion 1/5 to 1/17 of radius from circumference, large, 
between insertion and margin two almost parallel dark bands.—Sch. 
Atl, pl. ev. fig. 3. 

Habitat: Santa Monica deposit (Rae!) ; Yokohama (Witt!). 

Var. distans—Diam. as in var. Debyi. Central space elliptical 
to quadrate, about 1/160 of diam. broad. Markings 2 to 3 in 
0-01 mm,, largest at middle of radius, decreasing towards centre and 
border. Primary rays inconspicuous. Processes 4 insertion 2/7 of 
radius from circumference, proximal part larger than distal—Sch. 
Atl., pl. civ. fig. 6. 

Schmidt regards this as worthy to be a distinct species. 

Habitat: Calvert Co., Maryland (Weissflog !). 

Var. Kinkeri.—A. Kinkert Sch. Atl. pl. evi. figs. 4, 5. Diam. 
0:23 to 0:25mm. Surface flat to border. Markings 2in 0°01 mm., 
the radial axis shorter than that at right angles to radius, brilliant, 
decreasing suddenly outside zone of processes. Primary rays some- 
times interrupted. Processes 4 or 5, insertion 1/4 to 1/5 of radius 
from circumference, length 3 times breadth.—A. catenarius Witt, 
Sch. Atl. pl. ev. fig. 5, pl. evi. fig. 8. The scar of the broken-off 
process is oval. 

Habitat: California, near Sta. Monica (Kinker!). - : 

Var. undosa, Grove & Sturt MS. Diam. 0°23 to 0°445 mm. 
Surface, central portion flat, stellate with angles at processes, and 
sides deeply concave between these. Markings 2} in 0:01 mm. 
Primary rays distinct. Processes 9 to 14, insertion 1/9 to 1/11 of 
radius from circumference, obconical, free ends but little rounded. 

The scar of the broken-off process is obovate. 

Habitat: Jackson’s Paddock, Oamaru (Grove !). 

Var. Mélleri—A. Molleri Grun., Sch. Atl., pl. xxxui. fig. 14. 
Diam. 0°11 to 0°25 mm. Surface as in var. wndosa, but angles at 
processes more obtuse. Markings 38 to 4 in 0°01 mm.,, rows at 
middle of compartments cruciform. Primary rays cruciform. Pro- 
cesses 4, rarely 5, insertion 1/3 to 1/4 of radius from circumference, 
small hourglass-shaped constriction sharp.—Sch. Atl. pl. xxxv. fig. 6 ; 
pl. xxxvii. fig. 8; pl. xl. fig. 12; pl. cu. figs. 1, 2. 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiseus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 353 


The scar of the broken-off process is elliptical. 

Habitat: Calvert Co., Maryland (Kinker ! Cleve!); Nottingham 
deposit, Maryland (Greville! Norman! Johnson! Cleve! Weissflog !) ; 
Bermuda tripoli (Greville! Weissflog !). 

Var. distincta.—A. Molleri var. Sch. Atl., pl. xcii. fig. 18.—Surface 
showing an elevated polygonal central area with distinct outwardly con- 
cave edges. Central space sharply defined, about 1/35 of diam. broad. 
Markings somewhat smaller than in var. Molleri (fid. Sch.). Primary 
rays conspicuous, the markings in the rows with longer axis at right 
angles to length of ray. Border with inner edge indistinct, more 
opaque. Processes 5, insertion about 1/4 of radius from circum- 
ference, clear space at base well marked. 

Habitat : Nottingham deposit (Janisch). 

Var. inconspicua.—Diam. 0°1125 to 0°2mm. Central space 3-4- 
_ angled, finely punctate. Markings 24 to 4 in 0°01 mm., increasing for 
about 7/8 of radius, then decreasing suddenly to border. Primary 
rays indistinct. Processes 7, insertion 1/10 of radius from circum- 
ference, as small conical protuberances with rounded ends.—Pl. VI. 
fig. 3. 

”" Habitat : New South Wales (R. Rattray!) ; Sydney (Cleve !). 

Var. tenera.—A. crue var. tenera Witt, Simb. Polirsch., p. 19, 
pl. vi. fig. 10. Diam. 0°095 to0°1125mm. Surface flat to processes. 
Central space round, 1/38 of diam. broad. Markings 8 in 0:01 mm., 
rows deflected at processes. Primary rays distinct. Processes 3 or 
4, minute, insertion about 1/3 of radius from circumference.—Sch. 
Atl, pl. ci. fig. 4. 

Habitat: Chincha Island guano (Arnott !); Hadliotis shell 
scrapings, California (Weissflog !); Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Witt !). 

A. seaber Ralfs, in Pritch. Inf., p. 844.—Diam. 0°08 to 0°27 mm. 
Surface flat from centre to processes, sides convex on compartments. 
Colour light, lurid. Central space angular, 1/34 to 1/84 of diam. 
broad, hyaline. Markings polygonal, 4 in 0:01 mm. decreasing sud- 
denly towards border. Apiculi numerous, short, irreeularly placed, 
sometimes chiefly between processes, rare outside of latter. Primary 
rays distinct, rows in contact or diverging but little at outer ends. 
Border strie 6 to 8 in 0°01 mm., 1/14 to 1/42 of radius broad. 
Processes 3 to 5, insertion 1/4 to 1/5 of radius from circumference, 
hourglass-shaped, constriction well marked, length 2 to 23 times 
breadth.— Sch. Atl. pl. xxxii. figs. 4-8. A. crua Ehrb. var., 
Habirshaw Cat. Diat., § Aulacodisceus; A. ternatus Janisch, Abh. 
Sch. Ges. vater. Cult., 1861, p. 161, pl. ii. fig. 4; A. crue Janisch 
(not Ehrb.), ibid. 1861, p. 161, pl. 11. figs. 1-3; 1862, pl. ia. fig. 12 ; 
A. quinarius Janisch, ibid., 1861, p. 162. The scar of the broken-off 
process is elliptical. 

Habitat: Peruvian guano (Ralfs! Macrae! Greville! Johnson! 
Weissflog! Schmidt, Janisch, Browne); North Celebes, Ichaboe, and 
Chincha guanos (O’Meara !). 


1888. 2c 


304 Transactions of the Society. 


Var. jonesiana.* A. jonesianus Grey., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 
1862, p. 24, pl. it. fig. 5.—Diam. 0°261 mm. Surface flat to 3/10 
of radius. Central space oblong or angular, limiting areola larger 
than those on compartments. Markings mostly hexagonal, rows 
deflected at processes, rarely subfasciculate, when apices are in focus 
elongated, opaque areas are visible opposite ends of shorter rows. 
Processes 5 to 8, insertion 1/6 to 1/7 of radius from circumference, 
proximal portion rounded, distal cylindrical, length 4 times breadth. 

Habitat: “Guano” (Macrae!) ; Bolivian guano (Rae!). 

A. secedens Sch. Atl. pl. evi. fig. 2. Diam. 0°24 mm. Surface flat 
to about 3/10 of radius; highest zone occupying middle third, angular 
at processes, sides straight, abrupt; slope to border steep. Colour pale 
grey. Central space angular, about 1/90 of diam. broad, limiting 
markings equal. Markings polygonal, 4 in 0°01 mm., central dot 
inconspicuous. Primary rays distinct, the rows diverging slightly at 
outer ends. Border stria 8 in 0:01 mm., about 1/24 of radius broad, 
inner edge distinct. Processes 5, symmetrical, insertion about 1/5 
of radius from circumference, proximal portion short, constriction 
shallow, free ends knob-like, no clear space at base. 

Habitat : Panama shell-scrapings (Kinker !). 

A. compactus sp. u.—Diam. 0°175 to 0°2 mm. Surface, central 
portion flat to processes, sides deeply concave outwards between these; 
slope to border gentle. Colour highest area lurid, remainder dark grey. 
Central space rounded, 1/18 to 1/20 of diam. broad, coarsely punctate. 
Markings polygonal, 4 in 0°01 mm., rows parallel to that at middle of 
compartments or subradial, secondary concentric bands inconspicuous 
towards centre. Primary rays distinct, rows diverging in outer 1/4 of 
length. Border granules 6 to 8 in 0°01 mm. in a single band, or 
strie 8 in 0:01 mm., sometimes a narrow clear space at inner side. 
Processes 10, insertion 1/7 to 1/8 of radius from circumference, sub- 
cylindrical, constriction median, slight.—PIl. V. fig. 8. 

Habitat: Sta. Maria deposit (Kinker!); Newcastle deposit, Bar- 
badoes (Firth !) 

A. patens sp. n.—Diam. 0°27 mm. Surface flat from centre for 
about 1/11 of radius, thence sloping gently to a slightly angular 
clear zone, about 1/28 of radius broad, and from this somewhat more 
steeply to border, outside of the clear zone the primary rays slightly 
elevated. Colour pale grey. Central space round, about 1/22 of diam. 
broad, punctate. Markings polygonal and in contact, 3 in 0:01 mm., 
decreasing gradually from flat central portion to clear zone, thence 
subequal to border, central dot brilliant, rows subradial within, more 
nearly parallel outside of clear zone. Primary rays inconspicuous 
within, distinct outside of clear zone, the rows diverging slightly 
towards outer ends. Border striz coarse, 6 in 0°01 mm., about 1/55 
of radius broad, its inner edge indistinct, separated by a narrow punctate 
space from the markings on the compartments. Processes 13, insertion 


* Dedicated by Greville to Prof. Jones, University, Calcutta, formerly associ- 
ated with Dr. Macrae in the investigation of the Indian Diatomacezx. 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 355 


about 1/11 of radius from circumference, short but stout, length sub- 
equal to breadth, space at base small, punctate.—PI. VI. fig. 2. 

Habitat: Jackson’s Paddock, Oamaru (Kinker! Hardman! 
Grove!). 


§ 5. Sepratt. 


Surface of 3 portions—a central triangular, rarely elliptical, 
sharply defined, sides convex outwards, with angles at primary rays, a 
médian highest, convex, bluntly angular, with outer edge more faint, 
an outer sloping gradually to border. Colour pale grey. No central 
space or rosette. Processes with clear space at base large, V-shaped. 

A. septus Sch. Atl, pl. xxxvi. figs. 19-21.—Diam. 0:°035 to 
0:04 mm. Surface, central area sometimes elliptical with ends of 
major axis at primary rays, extending for 3/8 to 5/14 of radius 
- median about 1/6 of radius broad. Markings on central area polygonal 
outlines faint, irregular, 6 in 0'01 mm., with a few small round 
isolated granules, from median area decreasing slightly outwards, 8 in 
0:01 mm. Primary rays sometimes interrupted, the rows prolonged 
past sides of processes to border. Border striz 8 in 0:01 mm., 1/14 
to 1/16 of radius broad. Processes 2 or 3, insertion 1/3 to 1/4 of 
radius from circumference, as obovate dark spots. 

Habitat: Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Witt! Weissflog !). 

A. Schmidtii Witt., Simb. Polirsch., p. 21, pl. vi. figs. 1, 2— 
Diam. 0°07 to 0°1025 mm. Surface, central area flat, rarely lowest 
at centre, extending for about 1/3 of radius, median portion 1/3 to 
1/4 of radius broad, with angles passing round outer side of processes. 
Markings on central portion polygonal, subequal, 4 in 0°01 mm., 
forming straight rows near and at right angles to its edge, the round 
isolated granules placed about its middle, on median and outer 
portions round or compressed, 4 in 0°01 mm., rows straight only 
at middle of compartments, elsewhere curving towards processes. 
Primary rays absent. Processes 3, insertion 2/5 of radius from cir- 
cumference, narrow margins, concave, free ends rounded, length 3 to 5 
times breadth.—Sch. Atl., pl. ci. figs. 1-8. 

The scar of the broken-off process is elliptical. 

Habitat: Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Witt! Weissflog! Hardman !). 
Sysran deposit, Siberia (Grove !). 

Var. quatuor-radiata. A. septus forma quatuor-radiata Pant., 
Fossil Bacil. Ung., p. 60, pl. x. fig. 84.—Diam. 0°0875 mm. Surface, 
central area rounded, flat, highest, extending to 5/17 of radius, 
adjacent zone hyaline, median portion quadrate. Markings on central 
portion reniform, irregular, outside hyaline zone round or oblong, 4 to 
6 in 0:01 mm. Border indistinct. Processes 4, insertion about 5/18 
of radius from circumference, minute. 

Habitat: Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Pantocsek !) 

By discovery of additional specimens A. Schmidti may be shown 
to be but a var. of A. septus, as A. Kinkert and A. Molleri are of 
A. margaritaceus. 

202 


356 Transactions of the Society. 


§ 6. Mrrasizezs. 


Highest zone distinct, angular at processes. A reticulum or 
irregular ridges. Primary rays indistinct within highest zone. 
Border stric faint. Processes with clear area at base small. 

A. archangelskianus Witt., Simb. Polirsch., p. 18, pl. vi. figs. 11, 
12.—Diam. 0°1025 to 0°195 mm. Surface with highest zone at 1/4 
to 1/8 of radius from centre, primary rays rising slightly outwards ; 
inflations reaching border, compartments flat near border. Colour in 
lighter or dark grey zones. Central space angular, 1/16 to 1/33 of 
diam. broad, clear. Markings rounded within highest zone and about 
middle of compartments, elsewhere more crowded and angular, 6 in 
0°01 mm., secondary oblique rows obvious on inflations which bear 
irregular blunt ridges. Primary rays with rows widest about middle. 
Border strie 12 in 0°01 mm., 1/20 to 1/30 of radius broad, with a 
median line curving inwards at each inflation. Processes 5, rarely 6, 
symmetrical, insertion 1/5 to 1/6 of radius from circumference, 
proximal portion much larger than distal, constriction distinct, free 
ends rounded.—Sch. Atl., pl. ci. figs. 7-11; Pant., Fossil Bacil. Ung., 
p- 60, pl. x. fig. 83. 

Habitat: Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Witt! Cleve! Rae! Hard- 
man !). 

A. superbus Kitton, Month. Mic. Journ., 1873, p. 205, pl. xxxviil. 
fig. 1—Diam. 0°175 mm. Surface with highest zone 1/17 of radius 
broad at about 1/3 of radius from centre, from this the primary rays 
continuing on same plane to processes; inflations reaching border, 
merging gently into intervening areas. Colour pale grey, edges of 
highest zone and inflations darker. Central space irregularly angular, 
1/17 diam. broad, clear. Markings polygonal, rounded near centre, 
6 to 8 in 0°01 mm., rows radial within, almost parallel outside of, 
highest zone, secondary irregular concentric bands near central space. 
Reticulum distinct, absent only from central space, highest zone, outer 
ends of primary rays and border, meshes smallest towards centre. 
Primary rays with rows diverging slightly near processes: Border strize 
6 to 8 in 0:01 mm., about 1/33 of radius broad, inner edge sharp. 
Processes 7, insertion 1/12 of radius from circumference, sides con- 
verging towards base, constriction slight, length 14 to 2 times 
breadth. 

Habitat: Clark’s Cliff,* Barbadoes (Kitton! Hanwell !); “Barba- 
does” (Johnson) ; Upper Springfield, Barbadoes (Griffin !). 

A. attenuatus sp. n.—Diam. 0°1 to 0°105. Surface rising to 
about semiradius, thence along primary rays to processes, edges of 
inflations abrupt. Colour pale grey. Central space subregularly 
polygonal, 1/13 to 1/14 of diam. broad, hyaline. Markings polygonal, 
8 to 10 in 0°01 mm., rows parallel between inflations, a few at sides 
of primary rays, parallel to the latter, a reticulum of subequal 


* According to label on Hanwell’s material; according to Kitton probably a mis- 
take for Chalk Cliff. 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 357 


meshes just visible, secondary oblique rows conspicuous at outer ends 
of inflations. Border indistinctly defined, strie 10 in 0:01 mm., 
about 1/20 of radius broad. Processes 7, insertion 1/8 of radius from 
circumference, cylindrical, or tapering somewhat towards outer ends, 
small, free ends emarginate.—PIl. V. fig. 2. 

The scar of the broken-off process 1s oval. 

Habitat : Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Johnson !). 

A. anthoides Sch., Atl. pl. cui. fig. 1—Diam. 0°1125 mm. 
Surface rising gently for about 1/5 of radius to highest zone, the 
latter about 2/5 of radius broad ; slope near border gentle, outer ends 
of inflations sharply defined by a curved dark line. Colour pale grey, 
darker towards border. Central space pentagonal, sides inwardly 
convex, 1/15 of diam. broad, sometimes rounded. Markings rounded, 

6 in 0-01 mm., smaller near central space, rows on peripheral region 
‘ in fasciculi, separated by wide irregular interspaces, more hyaline than 
those between the component rows of the fasciculi. Primary rays with 
rows diverging from inner ends, outside highest zone interspace much 
wider. Border striz 10 to 12 in 0:01 mm., about 1/23 of radius broad. 
Processes 5, insertion 1/3 to 2/7 of radius from circumference, proximal 
part rounded, distal subcylindrical, free ends truncate, length about 
three times breadth.—The scar of the broken-off process is oval. 

Habitat: Barbadoes (Weissflog !). 


§ 7. Sprcratt. 


Surface flat or slightly depressed at centre, highest zone angular 
at processes, edges concave outwards on compartments, slope to border 
steep, sometimes gentle; inflations as low mammillations beneath 
processes. Central space punctate, granulate or hyaline. 

A, polygonus * Grun., Pant. Fossil. Bacil. Ung., p. 59, pl. xxvi. 
fig. 236. Valve polygonal, margin of compartments slightly con- 
cave. Diam. 0°182 to 0°35 (?) mm. Surface flattened from centre 
almost to processes, concavities between the latter shallow. Colour 
pale grey, darker at border. Central space inconspicuous, 1/16 to 
1/18 of diam., broad. Markings round, outlines delicate, 3 to 434 in 
0°01 mm., rows radial, straight. Primary rays indistinct. Border 
with coarse strie, 6 to 8 in 0:01 mm. Processes 10 to 12, insertion 
1/15 to 1/23 of radius from circumference, conical, free ends truncate, 
no clear space at base, length 24 times breadth.—A. polygonus var. 
polygibba Grun., Pant., ibid., pl. xxvi. fig. 237. 

Habitat: Szent Peter deposit (Grunow); Oamaru deposit 
(Pantocsek !). 

A. amenus Grev., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1864, p. 10, pl. i. 
fig. 3. Diam. 0:07 to 0°28 mm. Surface with highest zone 1/4 to 
1/8 of radius broad, outer edge distinct, straight or concave between 
processes; inflations abrupt on peripheral side. Colour pale grey, 


* Of this species only Pantocsek’s fragmentary Oamaru specimen has been ex- 
amined. 


308 Transactions of the Society. 


darker at processes. Central space rounded, 1/14 to 1/22 of diam. 
broad. Markings round or bluntly angular, oval and oblique about 
processes, 24 to 34 in 0°01 mm., interspaces largest towards centre, 
punctate, rows subradial or more parallel, slightly bent at origin of 
shorter rows. Primary rays sometimes distinct, the rows diverging 
but little near processes. Border indistinct, rarely a clear space next 
its inner edge. Processes 5 to 11, insertion 1/5 to 1/9 of radius from 
circumference, cylindrical, tapering near base, constriction median, 
slight, free ends rounded.—Sch. Atl., pl. xxxiv. fig. 6; pl. xli. fig. 18. 
A, pellucidus Grey., ibid., 1864, p. 12, pl. 1. fig. 5; A. amoenus var. 
sparso-radiata Grove & Sturt, Journ. Quek. Mic. Cl., 1887, p. 9. 

Habitat: Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Johnson! Firth!) ; 
Oamaru deposit (Grove & Sturt!) ; Japan (Griindler). 

Var. hungarica Pant., Fossil. Bacil. Ung., p. 57, pl. i. fig. 13.— 
Diam. 0°085 mm. Surface flat to 1/2 of radius, highest zone 1/4 of 
radius broad, concayities between processes deep. Central space 
1/19 of diam. broad, slightly excentric. Markings polygonal, 5 in 
0°01 mm., rows subradial, not deflected at processes. Primary rays 
distinct. Processes 7, insertion 5/17 of radius from circumierence, 
shorter and broader, clear area at base small. 

Habitat: Szent Peter deposit (Pantocsek !). 

Var. subdecora.—Diam. 0:075 to 0°12 mm. Surface rising for 
3/5 to 5/8 of radius, outer edge polygonal with angles at centre of 
compartments and sides straight, a second polygonal figure more distinct 
with angles at processes, intervening area flat. Central space 1/15 to 
1/19 of diam. broad, hyaline. Markings 5 in 0°01 mm., rows often 
flexed at periphery. Primary rays inconspicuous. Border striz 
10 to 12 in0°O1 mm. Processes 5 or 6, insertion 1/5 to 1/6 of radius 
from circumference, proximal portion bulb-like, distal cylindrical— 
BiAVil fig::5: 

Habitat: Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Johnson !). 

Var. minor Grove & Sturt MS.—Diam. 0:06 mm. Surface 
highest and flat from centre to 7/12 of radius, adjoining zone angu- 
lar at processes, between these sides convex, inflations inconspicuous. 
Central space quadrate, 1/24 of diam. broad, delicately punctate. 
Markings 4 in 0°01 mm. Primary rays cruciform. Border striz 
8 in 0°01 mm., sometimes indistinct, within it a narrow clear space. 
Processes 4, insertion 1/4 of radius from circumference, proximal 
portion rounded, distal infundibulate or slightly convex. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit (Grove !). 

A. oregonus Harv. & Bail. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1853, 
p- 480.—Diam. 0°075 to 0°235 mm. Surface flat or slightly con- 
cave at centre, highest zone 1/4 to 1/8 of radius broad. Concavity 
between processes deep, rarely shallow. Colour light blue or slaty 
grey. Central space rounded, rarely subquadrate, 1/16 to 1/20 of 
diam. broad, granulate. Markings round, 4 in 0°01 mm., with finely 
granulate interspaces towards centre, rows parallel on each com- 
partment. Primary rays distinct, rows diverging slightly in outer 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 359 


half. Border strie 12 in 0°01 mm.,, about 1/35 of radius broad, 
inner edge distinct. Processes 6 to 27, usually 9 to 20, insertion 1/6 
to 1/7 of radius from circumference, subcylindrical, margins slightly 
convex.—A. oreganus Grev., Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci., 1859, p. 156, 
pl. vii. fig. 2; Sch. Atl, pl. xxxiv. figs. 4-5; A. oregonensis Bail. 
& Hary., Wilkes, Explor. Exp. § Algz, vol. xvii. p. 176, pl. ix. fig. 6. 

In 1856 Greville received authentic specimens—now in British 
Museum—tfrom Bailey. In smaller valves the elevation extends to 
the centre, the number of primary rays is less, but the central space 
not always so. 

Habitat : Puget Sound, Oregon (Harvey and Bailey! Greville!) ; 
California (Greville! Arnott! Weissflog! Grindler) ; California on 
Polysiphonia (Kitton! Kinker!); on marine alge (Rae !); among 
shell scrapings (Dickie! Grove!) ; Bodega Bay, California (Bailey) ; 
South Sea Islands (Greville !); on Haliotis shell, loc. (?) (Stokes !) ; 
on Haliotis shell, Peru (Grove); California guano (Greville!); 
Monterey stone (Ralfs, Cleve!) ; Los Angelos, California (Cleve !). 

A, intwmescens sp.n.—Diam. 0°29 mm. Surface slightly concave 
at centre ; highest zone at processes, with sides distinct, the outer bluntly 
angular at processes, almost straight on compartments, abrupt, 
beyond this a narrow somewhat steep zone with deep concavities on 
outer side of each process, and sides convex opposite compartments, 
border at a much lower level; inflations slight. Central space round, 
about 3/6 of diam. broad, puncta most marked at centre. Markings 
within highest zone round, outlines faint, central dot distinct, clear, 
21 to 3 in 0-01 mm., on highest zone more distinct crowded, inter- 
spaces punctate, largest at inner ends of short rows, rows slightly 
deflected at processes. Primary rays distinct, interspaces narrow. 
Border with a single band of granules 4 to 5 in 0°01 mm.,, at its 
inner side a narrow minutely punctate space. Processes 15, conical, 
sides slightly concave, large, free ends truncate, at base of each a 
brilliant round clear spot.—Pl. V. fig. 6. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit (Doeg !). 

A. affinis Grun., Sch. Atl., pl. xxxiv. figs. 9,10; pl. evi. fig. 7.— 
Valves rarely elliptical. Diam. 0°12 to 0°47 mm. Surface flat to 
about 4/9 of radius, thence rising to highest zone at processes, con- 
cavities between latter distinct. Colour, centre greenish yellow, bluish 
about semiradius, pale or dark grey at border. Central space round, 
1/14 to 1/23 of diam. broad, granulate. Markings rounded, 4 rarely 
2 in 0:01 mm., compressed towards border, interspaces punctate or 
granulate, secondary irregular subconcentric bands obvious towards 
central space. Primary rays indistinct, space between the rows en- 
larging near processes. Border granules 6 in 0°01 mm., strize beyond 
these sometimes only present, 1/24 to 1/52 of radius broad. Processes 
5 to 27, insertion 1/6 to 1/13 of radius from circumference, constriction 
as in A. oregonus.—A. Lunyacsekii f. minor Pant., Fossil. Bacil. Ung., 
p- 59, pl. i. fig. 2, pl. xxv. fig. 229; A. Lunyacseki f. major polygona 
et polygibba Pant. in litt.; A. Lunyacsehkit f. maxima Pant., ibid., 


360 Transactions of the Society. 


p. 59, pl. ii. figs. 9, 10, pl. xxv. fig. 225; A. Chaset Pant., ibid., p. 57, 
pl. xxix. fig. 294; A. oregonus var. sparsius-punctata Grun. in Sch. 
AtL., pl. evi. fig. 6. 

Habitat: Szent Peter deposit (Pantocsek!) ; Santa Monica deposit 
(Rae! Cleve!); Sta. Maria deposit (Rae!); ex Holothuriis, China * 
(Macrae!); Posiette Bay (Beresford!); Los Angelos, California 
(Cleve!) ; Japan oysters (Weissflog! Rae!) ; Yokohama (Hardman!). 

Var. Lunyacsekit.—Diam, 0°19 to 0°23 mm. Surface with 
concayities between processes shallow, rarely deep. Colour pale grey 
with darker zones near processes. Central space irregular, 1/13 to 
1/18 of diam. broad. Markings, polygonal, 34 to 4 in 0°01 mm., inter- 
spaces near centre narrow. order with 2 bands of oval granules, 
6 in 0-01 mm. Processes 13 to 16.—A. Lunyacsekii f. major Pant. 
in litt. 

Habitat: Kékk6 and Szakal deposits (Pantocsek !). 

Var. commutata—Diam. 0°22 mm. Surface flat to 1/3 of 
radius, adjacent to this a narrow hyaline irregular zone 1/22 to 1/24 
of radius broad, outside ef this rising for a short distance, thence flat to 
processes. Colour pale grey to bluish. Markings within hyaline zone 
round, outside of this angular, 6 in 0°01 mm., rows subradial. 
Primary rays undifferentiated within hyaline zone. Border striz 
10 to 12 in 0°01 mm,, about 1/55 of radius broad. Processes 19, 
insertion about 1/7 of radius from circumference. 

Habitat: Sta. Monica deposit (Rae !). 

A. pulcher t Norman, in Pritch. Inf, p. 845, pl. vii. fig. 28.— 
Diam. 0°1025 to 0°205 mm. Surface flat to about 3/8 of radius, 
thence primary rays rising gently to processes, concavity between 
these shallow, slope to border gentle. Colour light grey at centre, 
pale blue outwards for 1/2 to 2/3 of radius, thence dark grey to 
border. Central space rounded, 1/16 to 1/20 of diam. broad, smooth. 
Markings round, 4 in 0:01 mm., central dot brownish, moniliform 
towards border, interspaces hyaline, rows subradial to almost parallel 
on compartments, secondary irregular concentric bands towards centre. 
Primary rays distinct, straight, the rows diverging on outer 2/3 of 
length. Border striz 10 to 12 in 0:01 mm., 1/40 to 1/55 of radius 
broad, adjacent to its inner edge a narrow hyaline space. Processes 


* Specimen presented to British Museum by G. H. King. The Holothurie, 
though sold in the China market, are mostly, according to Dr. Macrae, from Torres 
Straits and the adjoining islands. 

+ As this species has long remained doubtful the following remarks by Kitton 
are of interest :—‘“ Norman had his sample of Monterey stone from Mr. Brightwell or 
myself, and it was in this that he found A. pulcher, of which he sent me a specimen. 
Unfortunately I lent it to Eulenstein when he undertook at Prichard’s suggestion 
a new edition of the diatom part of the Infusoria, and this with several others were 
not returned. [I find several slides marked A. pulcher, mounted some time before I 
parted with Norman’s preparation; it therefore seems pretty clear that I knew this 
form, but the valves all have a smooth centre, and not one irregularly punctate, as 
Ralfs describes and figures it.” I have examined these specimens, and they conform 
to the above definition. Somewhat worn forms transitional to A. affinis occur in 
Sta. Monica deposit. 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 361 


7 to 12, insertion 1/5 to 1/7 of radius from circumference, cylindrical, 
free ends flat or slightly convex, clear space at base minute. 

Habitat: Sta. Monica deposit (Johnson! Weissflog! Rae! Cleve!) ; 
Sta. Maria deposit (Grove! Rae!) ; San Pedro (Kinker!), 

Var. sparse-radiata.—Diam. 0°185 mm. Surface flat at central 
space, from this rising for about 5/12 of radius to highest zone, the 
latter about 1/4 of radius broad, convex; slope to border more steep. 
Markings in more widely placed parallel rows, attenuated at periphery 
for 1/20 to 1/25 of radius, with short rows in the intervals. Pro- 
cesses 11, insertion 1/7 to 1/8 of radius from circumference. 

Habitat: Sta. Maria deposit (Rae !). 

A. orientalis Grev., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1864, p. 12, pl. ii. 
fig. 6.—Diam. 0°095 to 0°35 mm. Surface rising for 2/7 to 4/9 of 
radius, thence flattened to highest zone, the latter 1/14 to 2/9 of radius 
broad, concavities between processes well marked. Colour deep brown 
on central space, elsewhere slaty grey, rarely hyaline. Central space 
round, 1/17 to 1/19 of diam. broad, usually granulate. Markings 
quadrate to onter edge of highest zone, 4 in 0°01 mm., beyond this 
rounded, rows straight, radial, deflected at processes, secondary 
regular concentric bands obvious. Primary rays obvious. Border 
with coarse strize, inner edge indefinite. Processes 7 to 45, insertion 
1/6 to 1/25 of radius from circumference, proximal and distal parts 
subequal, constriction median, slight, length 14 to 2 times breadth. 
—Sch. Atl. pl. xxxiv. figs. 1-8. A. orientalis var. nankoorensis 
Grun., Reise d. Novara (Bot. Th.) Bd. i. p. 103. 

The scar of the broken-off process is roundly elliptical. Some- 
times confounded with A. oregonus. Stodder has described its central 
space as bluish green. 

Habitat: Sandwich Islands (Greville! H. L. Smith, Weissflog !) ; 
Ceylon (O’Meara! Macrae! Clive !); Eimio (Hardman!); Point de 
Galle Ceylon, Vega Exp. (Cleve! Weissflog!); N.Celebes (Griindler) ; 
Labuan (Cleve!); Nicobar Islands (Macrae!); “Indian Ocean” 
(Macrae!) ; pearly shell débris loc. (?) (Norman!); off Philippine 
Islands, 705 fms. (Rae !). 


§ 8. Inratt. 


Surface flattened at centre; inflations large, sharply circum- 
scribed, inner ends merging with raised central area. Primary rays 
distinct. 

A. gracilis sp. n.—Diam. 0°095 mm. Surface flat to 7/19 of 
radius, thence primary rays rising to processes; inflations evident only 
at outer ends. Colour transparent, outer ends of inflations light grey. 
Cental space indistinct, about 1/13 of diam. broad, an irregular granule 
at its centre. Markings round, 4 in 0:01 mm., or compressed, out- 
lines faint but distinct at outer ends of primary rays, rows parallel. 
Primary rays straight, rows diverging at outer ends. Border indis- 
tinct, a narrow hyaline space adjacent to it opposite compartments. 


362 Transactions of the Society. 


Processes 6, insertion 4/19 of radius from circumference, cylindrical, 
free ends truncate, no clear space at base.-—PI. V. fig. 1. 

Habitat: Newcastle deposit, Barbadoes (Firth !). 

A. formosus Arnott, in Pritch. Inf., p. 843.—Diam. 0°21 to 
0°325 mm. Surface almost flat at centre, rising slightly to inflations, 
then steeply upon these, becoming flattened along their crest or 
sloping slightly down to processes, slope to border gentle. Inflations 
with sides convex, inner ends sharply defined. Colour lurid, pale 
grey at centre. Central space rounded or quadrate, 1/28 to 1/30 of 
diam. broad, punctate. Markings round or polygonal, 3 in 0:01 mm., 
interspaces punctate, rows in wide curves near inflations. Primary 
rays with rows diverging on outer 2/3 of length. Border, inner side 
with granules, outer with striz, 6 in 0:01 mm.,1/15 to 1/25 of radius 
broad. Processes 4, insertion 2/5 to 4/13 of radius from circum- 
ference, proximal portion smaller than distal, constriction shallow, wide 
towards base, large but faint, space at base lentelliptical, punctate.— 
Kitton, Month. Mic. Journ., vol. x. p. 6, pl. xxi.; Sch. Atl, pl. xxxv. 
figs. 7,8. A. Brightwellii Ralfs, ibid., p. 843; A. boliviensis Bréb., 
fide Ralfs, ibid., p. 843. 

Affinities to A. Petersit, pointed out by Ralfs, remote. First 
found living by Capt. J. A. Perry, in harbours at Iquique, Pisagua, 
Islay, and Callao, Peru, at 20 to 32 fms., associated with A. mar- 
garitaceus, A. Comberi, and A. crux. 

Habitat: Bolivian guano (Greville! Rae! Dickie! Norman! 
Cleve!); Peruvian guano (Browne! Stokes!); Iquique (Kitton! 
Hardman !). 

A, inflatus Grev., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1863, p. 69, pl. iv. fig. 12. 
—Diam. 0°0625 to0°1875 mm. Surface flat for 1/3 to 4/9 of radius, 
from its outer edge primary rays rising slightly to processes; infla- 
tions with margins distinct and outer ends semicircular. Colour pale 
grey. Central space quadrate or irregular, 1/18 to 1/27 of diam. broad. 
Markings round to bluntly angular, 4 in 0°01 mm, decreasing but 
slightly at border, rows straight, radial. Primary rays with rows in 
contact only near central space. Border stria 10 in 0:01 mm., 1/25 
to 1/30 of radius broad. Processes 4, rarely 5, insertion 1/3 to 1/5 
of radius from circumference, cylindrical, attenuating near base, free 
ends truncate, clear space at base minute, length about 3 times 
breadth. Girdle 5/22 of diam. broad with 2 faint parallel lines, 
height of inflations above girdle 0:01 mm.—Sch. Atl., pl. xcii. fig. 14. 

Habitat : Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Johnson! Greville! 
Hardman ! Weissflog!) ; Bridgewater, Barbadoes (Johnson !). 

Var. minor.— Diam. 0°04 to 0:0525 mm. Surface with central 
portion extending to about 1/5 of radius. Markings granular, 
minute, round, rows wider at middle of compartments than near 
inflations. Primary rays with rows wide and separated to central 
space. Lorder striae 12 to 14 in 0°01 mm. Processes 4, insertion 
1/4 to 3/8 of radius from cireumference.—Pl. VIL. fig. 4. 

Habitat : Barbadoes deposit (Johnson !). 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Hhrb. By J. Rattray. 363 


Var. stellata.— Diam. 0°12 mm. Central space quadrate, 1/32 of 
diam. broad, inner ends of stellette meeting at its middle. Mark- 
ings most distinct about outer 2/5 of radius. Central stellette 4-rayed, 
each ray ovate with narrow end passing through angles of central 
space, 0°02 mm. long. Border strize 10 to 12 in 0°01 mm. Processes 
4, insertion 1/5 of radius from cireumference.—PI. VII. fig. 3. 

Habitat: Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Johnson !). 

A. mammosus Grey., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1863, p. 70, pl. iv. 
fig. 13.— Diam. 0:0775 to 0°16 mm. Surface, central portion flat 
to 1/3 or 1/4 of radius, outer edge distinct, concave, primary rays 
rising gradually for 1/2 to 2/3 of length, then more steeply to pro- 
cesses ; inflations with distal ends prominent and rounded. Colour 
pale smoky grey. Central space quadrate, rarely rounded, 1/11 to 
1/16 diam. broad, hyaline, rarely with a few granules. Markings 
polygonal, rounded near central space, 4 in 0°01 mm., rows straight 
and radiai on inflations and at middle of compartments, elsewhere 
somewhat sigmoid, the greater flexure concave towards primary rays 
at outer end. Primary rays distinct to central space. Border strice 
moniliform, 6 in 0°01 mm., 1/15 to 1/20 of radius broad, inner edge 
indistinct. Processes 4, insertion 1/5 to 1/7 of radius from cireum- 
ference, cylindrical, sides convex towards base, free ends convex.— 
Walker and Chase, New and Rare Diats., p. 4, pl. 1. fig. 11. 

The scar of the broken-off process is obovate. 

Habitat: Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Greville! Johnson !) ; 
Newcastle deposit, Barbadoes (Firth !). 

Var. eatans. A. extans Grey., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1864, p. 87, 
pl. xu. fig. 1—Diam. 0°215 to 0°32 mm. Surface with primary 
rays rising more uniformly to processes, but somewhat more steeply in 
peripheral 1/3, inflations more abrupt. Central space round, clear, 
about 1/17 of diam. broad. Markings, apiculi most distinct on in- 
flations, sides concave, apices acute. Border strie 8 in 0:01 mm., 
1/24 to 1/25 of radius broad, inner edge distinct. Processes 4 or 5, 
insertion 1/9 to 1/25 of radius from circumference. 

Habitat : Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Greville ! Johnson !) ; 
Newcastle deposit, Barbadoes (Firth !). 

A. Janischii Grove & Sturt, Journ. Quek. Mic. Cl., 1887, p. 139, 
pl. xi. fig. 28. Diam. 0°125 to 0°425 mm. Surface with inflations 
rising gradually to processes, sharply defined for outer 3/10 to 1/2 of 
length, at middle of compartments narrow, radial, clear areas distinct. 
Colour pale to dark grey. Central space elliptical to angular, 1/16 
to 1/24 of diam. broad, punctate. Markings polygonal but round 
towards centre, 33 to 4 in 0:01 mm,, outlines delicate, interspaces 
punctate, rows in curves round inflations. Primary rays with rows 
diverging in outer 1/2 of length. Border strie 10 to 12 in0-01 mm., 
1/50 to 1/85 of radius broad, sometimes with 2 concentric bands of 
oval granules. Processes 7, rarely 6, insertion 1/6 to 1/9 of radius from 
circumference, proximal and distal parts subequal, constriction slight. 
—A, Janischia var. abrupta Grove & Sturt, ibid., p. 189; A. in- 


364 Transactions of the Society. 


flatus var. Huttonii, Grun., Bot. Centralbl., Bd. xxxi. No. 5, p. 133 ; 
A. Huttonii Grun. in litt. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit, New Zealand (Grove & Sturt! Rae !). 

Var. areolata.—Diam. 0°26 to 0°4 mm. Surface, outline of 
central portion less marked, inflations distinct only near outer ends, 
narrow, radial, clear areas absent. Colour pale grey, smoky grey 
at border, bluish at outer ends of inflations. Central space round, 
about 1/26 of diam. broad, at its middle a quadrate punctate spot. 
Markings rounded towards centre, polygonal with outlmes distinct 
in outer portion, 4 in 0°01 mm., reticulum of irregular meshes well 
marked on outer 5/15 of compartments. Primary rays with rows 
diverging in outer 1/3 of length. Border strie 8 in 0°01 mm., 
inner edge indistinct. Processes 7, insertion about 1/10 of radius 
from circumference, cylindrical, free ends truncate, length about twice 
breadth. 

Habitat : Oamaru deposit (Grove! Doeg !). 

A. carruthersianus Kitton & Grove, MS.—Diam. 0°185 to 
0-2 mm. Surface flat to 2/7 of radius. Primary rays rising 
gradually from this to their flattened central portion, thence sloping 
slightly downwards to processes; inflations with outer ends rounded, 
sides faint; areas between inflations flat at middle with outer 
edge distinct, convex outwards; slope to border steeper opposite 
processes and middle of compartments than elsewhere. Colour pale 
grey. Central space irregularly quadrangular, 1/25 to 1/40 of diam. 
broad, hyaline. Markings polygonal, 4 in 0:01 mm., rows sometimes 
curved at inflations. Primary rays with markings muriform, rows 
diverging slightly near outer ends. Border striz coarse, 6 in 0°01 mm., 
sometimes with irregular short protuberances. Processes 4, insertion 
1/6 of radius from circumference, hourglass-shaped, clear space at 
base small.—PI. V. fig. 7. 

Habitat: King George's Sound (Grove! Weissflog!) ; Newcastle 
deposit, Barbadoes (Rae !). 

A. aucklandicus Grun., Sch. Atl., pl. xli. fig. 83—Valve rarely 
elliptical. Diam. 0:07 to0°155mm. Surface, central portion flat for 
2/7 to 1/4 of radius, with outer edge convex or almost straight across 
compartments, primary rays on same plane or rising slightly from 
edge of the central portion to processes, outer ends of inflations 
merging gradually into peripheral area. Colour dark grey, sometimes 
bluish at centre. Central space subquadrate or irregular, 1/16 to 
1/18 of diam. broad, hyaline or with faint granules. Markings poly- 
gonal, 5 in 0°01 mm., without interspaces. Apiculi large, rounded, 
irregular, most distinct within and near processes, rare on intervening 
portions of compartments, variable on different inflations of same valve. 
Primary rays with rows diverging but little but often of different 
lengths. Border strie 8 to 10 in 0°01 mm., 1/13 to 1/26 of radius 
broad. Processes 4, rarely 3 or 5, insertion 2/7 to 3/8 of radius from 
circumference, proximal portion subelliptical, distal with edges diverg- 
ing, rarely converging outwards, around each a narrow crescentric line. 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 365 


The scar of the broken-off process is elliptical. 

Habitat: Auckland Islands, New Zealand (Schmidt!) ; Whangarei, 
New Zealand (Rae !). 

Var. late-inflata nov.—Diam. 0°09 to 0°11 mm. Surface with 
inflations much wider, its edges abrupt. Central space quadrate, 1/19 
to 1/38 of diam. broad. Border less distinct on its inner side. Pro- 
cesses 4, insertion 1/3 to 3/8 of radius from circumference. 

Habitat: Whangarei, New Zealand (Rae!). 

A. Wittit Janisch, in Sch. Atl, pl. evi. figs. 1, la.—Diam. 
0°365 mm. Surface, inflations low, wide, obovate, with edges distinct 
but not abrupt. Central space subquadrate, about 1/48 of diam. broad, 
hyaline, its angles at middle of apices of compartments. Markings 
polygonal, or rounded close to central space, interspaces absent, rows 
in wide curves on inflations, secondary oblique rows well-marked. 
Apiculi few, only around, and chiefly on central side of processes. 
Primary rays cruciform, rows in contact. order striz distinct, 8 in 
0:01 mm., about 1/19 to 1/24 of radius broad, its inner edge definite, 
a narrow sharp line close to inner edge and concentric with it. Pro- 
cesses 4, insertion about 1/3 of radius from circumference, proximal 
portion rounded minute, distal large, rounded, striated, sometimes 
with a small terminal knob, clear space at their base, irregular, well- 
marked. 

Habitat : Simoda, Japan (Witt). 

A. cinctus Grey. MS.—Diam. 0°08 to 0°14 mm. Surface flat 
for 1/5 to 3/8 of radins, thence primary rays rising gradually to 
processes, outer ends of inflations sharply defined. Colour pale grey. 
Central space 3—4-angled, 1/14 to 1/21 of diam. broad. Markings 
polygonal, 4 in 0°01 mm., rounded, with narrow clear interspaces 
about middle of compartments, rows widely curved towards processes. 
Apiculi round, many, placed irregularly over inflations beyond flat 
central area, on this area rare, absent from intervening portions of com- 
partments. Primary rays with rows in contact. Border striz 8 in 
0°01 mm., 1/16 to 1/19 of radius broad, inner edge distinct, near 
outer a dark line, prominent small protuberances with rounded outer 
ends at its outer edge. Processes 4, insertion 1/4 to 1/5 of radius 
from circumference, proximal portion longer than distal, constriction 
well marked, free ends rounded, no clear space at base.—A. inflatus 
Grev., Sch. Atl. pl. xxxv. fig. 9, pl. evii. fig. 5. 

Habitat: Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Johnson! Greville! 
Hardman! Weissflog!); Newcastle deposit, Barbadoes (Firth !). 

A. Petersii Ehrb., Mon. Ber. Ak., 1845, p. 861.—Diam. 0°0825 
to 0°195 mm. Surface flat for about 1/4 of radius, thence rising 
along primary rays to process, outer ends of inflations just beyond 
the processes distinct, compartments within and near zone of processes 
almost flat; slope to border gentle. Colour pale grey, darker about 
central space, middle of compartments and processes. Central space 
quadrate, more rarely triangular, 1/20 to 1/40 of diam. broad, sides 
opposite ends of primary rays. Markings polygonal, mostly hexa- 


366 Transactions of the Society. 


gonal, 5 to 6 in 0°01 mm., rows straight only at middle of com- 
partments; apiculi irregular, round, about outer 2/3 of primary 
rays, absent from central area and intervening areas of compartments. 
Primary rays with rows diverging slightly in outer half. Border 
strie 10 in 0°01 mm., 1/18 to 1/27 of radius broad, a delicate marginal 
undulation. Processes 4 or 5, insertion 1/3 to 1/5 of radius from 
circumference, proximal portion smaller than distal, constriction 
shallow, about 1/3 of length from base, striz distinct, clear space at 
base minute, length 14 to 2 times breadth.—Sch. Atl. pl. xxxv. fig. 4, 
pl. xli. figs. 1-2. Hupodiscus Petersii Kiitz., Sp. Alg., p. 135. 
i. crucifer, Shadb., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1854, p. 16, pl. i. 
fig. 12. 

Habitat: Mouth of Zambesi River, East Africa (Ehrenberg) ; 
Algoa Bay guano (Dickie! O’Meara!); Natal (Johnson!); South 
African guano (Greville! Rae!); Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes 
(Greville! Hardman!); Newcastle deposit, Barbadoes (Firth!); New 
Zealand (Johnson! Arnott!); Teneriffe (Greville!); Tamatave 
(Hardman !); Nankoori (Cleve !). 

Var. asperula. A.cruciferShadb.? Sch. Atl, pl. xl fig. 4.—Diam. 
0:18 mm. Surface flat to about 2/7 of radius, inflations much larger 
at outer extremity, equal in breadth to radius, edges straight. Central 
space irregularly angular, about 1/36 of diam. broad. Markings, 
apiculi prominent and large about middle of inflations, less evident 
towards their margins, minute, on a zone of irregular breadth close to 
border. Border striz coarser, 8 in 0:01 mm., inner edge sometimes 
distinct. Processes 4, insertion 1/3 to 1/4 of radius from circumfer- 
ence.—A. Petersi Ehrb. according to Grunow and Witt fide Schmidt, 
Atl. pl. cu. fig. 6. The scar of broken-off process is elliptical. 

Habitat: Simoda, Japan (Weissflog !). 

Var. notabilis, A. Petersii Khrb. var.? Sch. Atl. pl. xxxv. figs. 
1-3.—Diam. 0°11 to 0°265 mm. Surface, outer edge of central area 
more concave outwards than in type, inflations rising more steeply, 
crests flattened near processes, outer ends sometimes reaching border, 
intervening portions of compartments almost flat from central area for 
about 3/10 of radius. Central space minute, 1/32 to 1/60 of diam. 
broad. Markings 6 to 8 in 0°01 mm.; apiculi numerous on central 
area, inflations fewer and inconspicuous on intervening portions of 
compartments. Processes 5 to 7, insertion 1/4 to 2/5 of radius from 
circumference, length about 13 times breadth. 

Habitat: California (Schmidt! Weissflog! Rae!); Colon and 
Vera Cruz (Hardman !). 

Var. expansa.—Valve rarely elliptical, diam. 0°105 to 0°29 mm. 
Surface with inflations tapering rapidly towards centre, peripheral 
area flat, its edge convex inwards between inflations. Markings, 
apiculi minute, continued on inflations to centre, rarely on central 
Space, on intervening portion of compartments confined to an 
irregular marginal band extending to angles of inflations. Border 
strie 8in 0°01 mm. Processes 4, insertion 1/4 to 1/7 of radius from 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 367 


circumference, constriction shallow and wide, placed towards base. 
Pl. VIL. fig. 1. Transitional to A. carruthersianus. 

Habitat: Newcastle deposit, Barbadoes (Firth! Griffin !). 

Var. circumdata. A. cirewmdatus, Sch. Atl. pl. xxxv. fig. 5.— 
Small. Surface with inflations sharply defined and rounded at outer 
ends. Central space quadrate, 1/18 to 1/20 of diam. broad. Mark- 
ings, apiculi few, distinct, confined to inflations and raised central area. 
Border, irregular, inner edge defined by a distinct dark line with 
slight curves between the irregular dark radial lines passing to its 
outer edge, striz delicate. Processes 4, insertion about 1/3 of radius 
from circumference, free ends knob-like, constriction acute.—The scar 
of broken-off process is obviate. 

Habitat: California (Grimdler). 

Var. rara.—Diam. 0°0575 to 0°1025 mm. Surface flat to about 
1/8 of radius, inflations less elevated, edges more straight. Markings 
8 to 10 in 0°01 mm., apiculi minute on central area, near processes 
fewer than in type. Processes 4, insertion about 1/4 of radius from 
circumference.—PI. VII. fig. 2. The scar of the broken-off process is 
elliptical. 

Habitat : Newcastle deposit, Barbadoes (Weissflog!) ; Cambridge 
deposit, Barbadoes (Greville! Johnson !). 

A. macracanus Grey., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1862, p. 23, pl. 11. 
fig. 4—Diam. 0°075 to 0°17 mm. Surface flat to about 1/4 of 
radius, thence primary rays rising gradually for about 3/5 of length, 
thereafter flat, or descending slightly to processes ; inflations at outer 
ends merging gradually into peripheral area, a slight depression about 
middle of each compartment. Colour pale smoky grey. Central space 
minute, angular, 1/35 to 1/60 of diam. broad. Markings polygonal, 
7 to 8 in 0°01 mm., increasing slightly to depressions on compart- 
ments, again decreasing to border; apiculi inconspicuous on raised 
central area, numerous and distinct on inflations and near the border. 
Primary rays with rows in contact. Border striz 8 to 10 in 0°10 mm., 
1/15 to 1/20 of radius broad. Processes 3 to 5, insertion 1/4 to 2/5 
of radius from circumference, hourglass-shaped, constriction median. 
—Sch. Atl. pl. civ. fig. 2. 

The scar of broken-off process is oval and minute. 

Habitat: Ceylon (Macrae! Weissflog!); Gazelle Exp. loc. (?) 
(Weissflog!); ‘Tamatave (Hardman!); sounding off Philippine 
Tslands 705 fms. (Rae !). 

A. excavatus Sch. Atl, pl. xxxvi. fig. 10.—Diam. 0°075 to 
0°175 mm. Surface flat for about 1/10 of radius, thence primary 
rays rising to processes, sides of inflations straight or slightly concave 
outwards, somewhat abrupt, a broad basin-like depression at middle of 
each compartment, deepest at about 1/3 of radius from border. Colour 
pale grey, or blue at depressions, dark grey at border. Central space 
round to quadrate, 1/11 to 1/12 of diam. broad, hyaline. Markings 
round, 4 to 6 in 0°01 mm., widest at depressions, interspaces hyaline, 
secondary oblique rows evident on depressions. Primary rays with 


368 Transactions of the Society. 


rows entire or interrupted, rarely wanting, and replaced by inner ends 
of contiguous radial rows. Border strize 8 to 10 in 0°01 mm., 1/15 
to 1/30 of radius broad. Processes 3, rarely 4, insertion 1/3 to 3/8 of 
radius from circumference, oval or rounded, no clear space at base. 

Habitat: Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Weissflog!); Sysran deposit, 
Siberia (Kitton! Grove! Hardman!); Fuur Island, Jutland (Weiss- 
flog !). 

Var. apiculata.—Diam. 0°0875 mm. Surface flat for about 1/7 
of radius, sides of inflations merging gradually into intervening areas 
of compartments, basin-like depressions slight, or absent. Central 
space round, about 1/7 of diam. broad. Markings, secondary rows 
on compartments indistinct, apiculi prominent around processes, few. 
Primary rays irregular, rows wider than in type. Border about 
1/18 of radius broad, inner edge indistinct. Processes 3, oval.— 
PL VI. fig. 4. 

Habitat: Fuur Island, Jutland (Weissflog). 

A. acutus sp.n.—Diam. 0:195 mm. Surface with a wide but 
shallow depression extending almost from central space to border 
and to edges of inflations, this depression flat but slightly deepest at 
the middle of the compartments; inflations distinct, narrow, rising 
gradually from the central space to the processes. Colour grey, 
bluish at middle of compartments. Central space round, about 
0°0125 mm. broad. Markings rounded closely disposed granules, 
8 in 0°01 mm., in interrupted rows arranged in radial fasciculate 
patches with wide irregular radial interspaces; a narrow subhyaline 
band at the zone of the processes, outside of this band coarse strie 
8 in 0:01 mm.; on the inflations short oblique crowded rows obvious. 
Primary rays with the rows sometimes interrupted and widely sepa- 
rated by a hyaline interspace expanding outwards. Border indistinct. 
Processes 3, symmetrical, insertion about 1/8 of radius from circum- 
ference, rounded and knob-like, clear space at their base small. 

Habitat: ? (Deby!).* 


§ 9. Onnatt. 


Surface with highest zone at processes, round or angular, well 
defined. Primary rays inconspicuous. 

A. Huttonii Grove & Sturt, Journ. Quek. Mic. Cl., 1887, p. 140, 
pl. xii. fig. 31.—Diam. 0°0875 to 0°21 mm. Surface flat for 9/14 to 
10/17 of radius, highest zone 1/6 to 1/7 of radius broad. Colour grey 
or bluish to highest zone, dark grey near border. Central space 
angular, often irregularly quadrate, 1/16 to 1/42 of diam. broad, 
hyaline or punctate. Markings round or angular, 3 to 34 in 
0:01 mm., interspaces punctate, rows radial, straight. Primary rays 
sometimes only distinguished towards centre when traced inwards. 
Border strize delicate, 1/17 to 1/28 of radius broad. Processes 3 to 6, 


* This rare diatom occurs in an Aulacodiscus type-plate, by Thum, in the collection 
of Mr. Julien Deby. 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiseus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 369 


insertion 1/7 to 5/17 of radius from circumference, hourglass-shaped, 
but proximal portion the larger. 

The scar of the broken-off process is oval. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit, New Zealand (Grove & Sturt !). 

A. Lahuseni Witt, Simb. Polirsch., p. 20, pl. vi. fig. 9, pl. vii. fig. 5. 
—Diam. 0:1275 mm. Surface flat to about 17/25 of radius, with 
outer edge round, passing abruptly into highest zone, the latter about 
4/25 of radius broad, slightly convex, its outer edge circular, more 
abrupt, bearing a narrow ridge with minute undulations; slope to 
border steep. Colour pale grey. Central space absent. Markings 
round or bluntly angular, 34 in 0-01 mm., smaller and more crowded 
on inner portion of highest zone, at middle of this zone again larger, 
with more unequal interspaces, interspaces hyaline, widest towards 
centre, rows radial, straight, interrupted, and not traceable near centre. 
. Primary rays distinct, straight, cruciform, rows interrupted. Border 
strie faint, 8 in 0:01 mm., indistinct. Processes 4, insertion about 
1/6 of radius from circumference, cylindrical or subinfundibulate, 
sides concave, in oblique aspect conical, free ends tunicate.—Sch. Atl., 
pl. ci. fig. 5. 

Habitat : Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Witt !). 

Var. marginalis Witt, ibid., p. 21, pl. vii. fig. 3.—Diam. 0° 105 
mm. Surface flat to about semiradius, adjoining this a zone rising 
gently to highest zone, the latter about 1/10 of radius broad, both 
edges indistinct, circular, slope to border more gradual. Colour more 
clear, outer part pale- grey. Markings on central portion more 
minute, on adjacent zone moniliform, 6 in 0:01 mm., on highest zone 
irregular. Primary rays with rows wider, sometimes markings on 
highest zone are continued across the rays. Border 1/28 of radius 
broad. Processes 4, insertion 1/4 of radius from circumference.— 
A. Lahusenii var. marginata, Sch. Atl. pl. ci. fig. 4. 

Habitat: Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Witt !). 

Var. punctata Witt, ibid., p. 20, pl. vii. fig. 4.—Diam. 0°165 mm. 
Surface flat to about 8/11 of radius, outer edge less distinct, highest 
zone about 1/11 of radius broad, outer edge sharply defined, slope to 
border short, steep. Colour as in var. marginalis. Markings round 
or oval towards centre, towards outer edge of central portion more 
crowded, 6 in 0°01 mm.,, at middle of highest zone irregular, 
elliptical, sometimes granular and minute, rows inconspicuous, but 
traceable to centre. Primary rays less distinct, rows more regular, 
not interrupted. Processes 6, insertion 1/7 to 1/8 of radius from cir- 
cumference.—Sch. Atl., pl. ci. fig. 6. 

Habitat : Simbirsk Polirschiefer (Witt !). 

Var. hyalina.—Diam. 0:1 mm. Surface, central portion flat to 
about 3/5 of radius and on a plane with border, its outer edge sharply 
defined, adjacent zone between processes convex, its outer edge less 
distinct. Markings on central area round, minute, irregular in radial 
rows, but absent from its outer portion, on adjacent zone closely 
disposed, submoniliform. Primary rays interrupted by basis zone 

1888. D 


370 Transactions of the Society. 


on central area, but within this traceable to central space. Processes 
4, insertion about 1/4 of radius from circumference, with slight 
median constriction. 

Habitat : Sysran deposit (Grove !). 

A. Sturtvi Kitton, Journ. Quek. Mie. Cl., 1884, p. 17, pl. iv. fig. 1. 
—Valve sometimes elliptical, diam. 0°085 to 0°21 mm. Surface flat 
to processes, sometimes slightly elevated around central space, a 
distinct dark zone, bluntly angular at processes, 1/7 to 1/8 of radius 
broad, with outer margin less sharply defined than inner, outside of 
this slope to border gradual. Colour pale grey towards centre, pale 
blue towards processes, elsewhere dark grey. Central space round 
to bluntly quadrangular, 1/30 to 1/40 of diam. broad. Markings 
round or bluntly angular, outlines indistinct, 4 to 5in 0:01 mm., rows 
radial to subparallel, slight flexures towards periphery and processes. 
Primary rays distinct, space between rows narrow. Border indistinct, 
strize absent. Processes 3 to 5, insertion 1/5 to 1/7 of radius from 
circumference, minute, simple, subcylindrical, constriction slight, 
length about 4 times breadth.—Sch. Atl. pl. evii. figs. 8, 9. 

The scar of the broken-off process is round or elliptical. 

Habitat: Japan oysters * (Kitton!); seaweed washings, Japan 
(Grove !). 

A. radiatust Grey., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1864, p. 11, pl.i. fig. 4. 
—Diam. 0:11 mm. Surface flat or rising gradually to about 2/3 of 
radius, outer edge irregular, distinct ; highest zone about 1/7 of radius 
broad, convex, well marked, round or faintly angular at processes, 
outer edge abrupt irregular; slope to border gentle. Colour trans- 
parent, highest zone dark grey. Central space round to angular, 
1/15 of diam. broad, hyaline, or with a few granules. Markings round 
or compressed, 4 to 5 in 0:01 mm., outlines faint, on highest zone 
outlines almost inappreciable, but central dots prominent with long 
axis oblique, and interspaces radially elongated conspicuous, hyaline, 
with uneven edges. Primary rays inconspicuous, rows separated by a 
narrow interspace. Border striz 12 in 0°01 mm., inner edge distinct, 
1/22 of diam. broad. Processes 5 or 6, insertion 2/11 of radius from 
circumference, broken off; clear space at base well marked, with 
edges uneven. 

The scar of the broken-off process is rounded. 

Habitat: Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Johnson !). 

A. pallidus Grev., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1863, p. 72, pl. v. 
fig. 17.—Diam. 0°08 mm. Surface flat to about 3/4 of radius, 
highest zone distinct, pentagonal, 1/8 of radius broad, inflations at 
processes inappreciable ; slope to border gentle. Colour transparent, 
highest zone pale grey. Central space round, about 1/16 of diam. 
broad, indistinct, at its centre a small irregular more prominent mark 


* These oysters were exhibited at the Colonial Exhibition, and were purchased 
by Mr. Sturt. 

t+ Not A. radiatus, as in Brightwell, Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc., 1860, p. 95, pl. v. 
figs. 10a, 10. See p. 379. 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 371 


with two opposite sides straight, convergent, the third convex between 
the closer ends of former, the fourth concave. Markings polygonal, 
without interspaces, 4 to 5 in 0°01 mm., outlines faint, those on 
highest zone more distinct, rows straight, radial. Primary rays only 
recognizable with difficulty when traced inwards from processes. 
Border indistinct. Processes 10, insertion about 5/16 of radius from 
circumference, of these 5 are at the angles of the highest zone, the 
others at a slightly higher level at middle or somewhat towards one 
side of intervening area. The processes are broken off, leaving a 
round scar. 
Habitat : Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Johnson ! Greville !). 


§ 10. Rerirormes. 


Markings small, round or oval, rarely angular, reticulum well 
marked. Primary rays indistinct. 

A. reticulatus Pant., Fossil. Bacil. Ung., p. 60, pl. 1. fig. 1—Diam. 
0°25 to 0°275 mm. Surface rising gradually to zone within pro- 
cesses, outer edge of this sharply defined, thence sloping steeply to 
border. Colour pale grey, reticulum and border darker. Central 
space angular, 1/27 to 1/33 of diam. broad, punctate. Markings 
mostly round or oval and oblique, rarely angular, 4 in 0:01 mm,, 
outlines indistinct, rows straight, deflected at processes, beyond highest 
zone moniliform, interspaces punctate, largest at origin of shorter 
rows, at outer edge of highest zone a narrow band 1/10 to 1/11 of 
radius broad, with markings similar to, but inversely more or less 
crowded than, those on rest of valve ; reticulum with meshes large, 
irregular, long axis radial, indistinct on outer portion of highest zone, 
a well-marked single or double band at border with division lines 
radial. Primary rays inconspicuous, traceable to central space or to 
more irregularly marked surrounding area. Border strice 8 to 10 in 
0-01 mm., about 1/55 of radius broad, outer edge sometimes inflected 
at lines of reticulum. Processes (?), insertion about 1/5 of radius from 
circumference, large, proximal part evanescent, constriction distinct, 
free ends truncate or slightly emarginate, clear space at base small.— 
Sch. Atl. pl. cil. fig. 7. 

Habitat: Szent Peter and Szakal deposits (Pantocsek !). 

A. Grunowii Cleve, Journ. Quek. Mic. Cl., 1885, p. 171, pl. xii. 
fig. 8— Diam. 0'14 to 0°315 mm. Surface slightly convex and ele- 
vated to about 5/8 of radius, and thence along primary rays to 
processes, with outer edge concave outwards on compartments, at 
border flat, in larger valves flat to about 7/19 of radius, thence rising 
to highest zone, which is about 4/19 of radius broad. Colour grey, 
raised areas lighter in hue. Central space irregular, indistinct, 1/23 
to 1/33 of diam. broad, punctate. Markings round, granular, oval 
about primary rays and polygonal near border, interspaces unequal, 
largest towards central space, punctate, rows radial, straight ; reticu- 
lum with large meshes, less evident outside highest zone, - outer 

2D 


O72 Transactions of the Soccety. 


ends of compartments scale-like, their edges flexuous. Primary rays 
distinct from inner edge of elevated zone, space between rows wide, 
diminishing towards processes. Border striz 8 in 0°01 mm., 1/35 to 
1/55 of radius broad, inner edge undulate, formed by rounded outer- 
most meshes of reticulum. Processes 5 to 10, insertion 1/5 to 1/8 of 
radius from circumference, narrow, constriction median, shallow, wide, 
free ends rounded, a curved line close to base sometimes distinct, 
length 23 times breadth.—Pant., Fossil. Bacil. Ung., p. 58, pl. xi. 
figs. 98, 95; Sck. Atl, pl. cvii. figs. 1, 2. A. kinkerianus EH. §. 
Nott, Walker & Chase, New and Rare Diats., p. 3, pl. 1. fig. 9. 

Habitat: Briinn Tegel (Cleve! Weissflog!); Kékké, Szent Peter 
and Szakal deposits (Pantocsek !). 

Var. subsquamosa Pant., ibid., p. 58, pl. 1. fig. 3; pl. xi 
fig. 100.—Diam. 0°16 to 0°27 mm. Surface flat to processes, 
with edges concave between these, slope to border less steep. 
Colour pale grey, darker towards border. Central space round or 
angular, 1/22 to 1/28 of diam. broad. Markings in rows slightly 
deflected at processes; reticulum indistinct, disappearing towards 
outer edge of raised area, at border again indistinct. Primary rays 
undifferentiated on inner half, rarely traceable to central space, space 
between rows narrow. Processes 9 or 10, insertion 1/6 to 1/7 of 
radius from circumference.—Sch. Atl., pl. xci. fig. 1; A. Grunowit 
f. punctata Pant., ibid., p. 59, pl. xu. fig. 102. 

Habitat: Szent Peter, Szakal and Kékko deposits (Pantocsek !). 

Var. squamosa Pant., ibid., p. 59, pl. i. fig. 4—Diam. 0°11 to 
0:115 mm. Surface with slope to border gradual. Central space 
1/16 to 1/22 of diam. broad, hyaline or punctate. Markings round, 
oval, interspaces irregular, rarely polygonal throughout, outlines 
prominent; reticulum with polygonal irregular meshes more manifest, 
a single band at periphery with smaller meshes than in var. sub- 
squamosa. Primary rays distinct to central space, rows often inter- 
rupted. Processes 6 to 9, insertion 1/3 to 2/9 of radius from 
circumference. ; 

Habitat: Briinn Tegel (Cleve!); Szent Peter and Szakal 
deposits (Pantocsek !). 

A. Rogersti Sch., Atl., pl. evi. fig. 3.— Diam. 0:095 to 
0:22 mm. Surface flat for about 2/5 of radius, thence rising 
gradually to highest zone just within processes, this zone convex, 1/4 
to 1/5 of radius broad, its inner edge circular, indistinct, its outer 
more manifest, angular at processes, slope to border steep. Colour 
pale grey, darker towards border. Central space indistinct, angular, 
1/25 to 1/32 of diam. broad, reticulate. Markings granular, irregu- 
larly round, interspaces wider towards centre, rows inconspicuous 
within, moniliform outside of processes; reticulum absent from 
hichest zone, elsewhere distinct, around border two concentric bands of 
meshes more prominent, those on the outer larger and more distinct, 
within highest zone an indistinct concentric arrangement of meshes 
recognizable to centre. Primary rays inconspicuous, rarely evident 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiseus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 878 


near central space. Border strie 10 in 0°01 mm., often punctate 1/24 
to 1/28 of radius broad. Processes 3 to 7, insertion 1/4 to 1/6 of 
radius from circumference, elongated, constriction wide, shallow, or 
more sharp, free ends knob-like. Podiscus Rogersi Bail., Amer. 
Journ. Sci., 1844, vol. xlvi. p. 137, pl. i. figs. 1, 2. Podiseus 
Rogersti var. senaria Bail., Ehrb. Mon. Ber. Ak., 1844, p. 81. 
Podiscus Rogersii var. septenaria Bail., Ehrb., ibid., 1844, p. 81. 
Eupodiscus Rogersii Ehrb., ibid., 1844, p. 81. Sch. Atl., pl. xcii. 
figs. 2-6. Eupodiscus Bayleyi Ehrb., ibid., 1844, p. 81. Aulaco- 
discus areolatus O’Me., Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc., 1878, p. 104. 

Podiscus was separated by Bailey from T'ripodiscus Ehrb., as the 
number of processes (“feet”) varied from 3 to 7. His P. Rogerse 
var. senaria, with 6 processes, was accepted by Ehrenberg in 1844 as 
the true Ewpodiscus Rogersii Ehrb., his P. Rogers: var. septenaria, 
with 7, then becoming Hupodiscus Bayleyi. O’Meara’s association of 
A. areolatus O’Me. with Coscinodiscus asteromphalus from Richmond, 
Virginia, is erroneous. O’Meara regarded 6 as the prevailing number 
of processes; in the many specimens I have examined 3, 4, or 5 are 
more common. 

Habitat: Petersburg, Va. (Ehrenberg); New Nottingham 
deposit (Rae! O’Meara!); Maryland (Cleve! Witt, Griffin !). 

A. Argus Sch. Atl., pl. evii. fig. 4—Diam. 0°125 to 0°19 mm. 
Surface flat, sometimes slightly angular at processes, and convex 
between these, the slope to border steep. Colour dark grey at centre, 
almost opaque towards border. Central space absent. Markings 
rounded, granular, in inconspicuous radial rows, most obvious in large 
valves with wide meshes, mostly a few (8 or 4) at centre, and angles 
of the smaller meshes, more numerous and along sides of larger; 
recticulum coarse, meshes sometimes larger for 2/9 to 1/3 of radius 
from centre,* their walls robust, often strongest at the angles, their 
surface under reflected light rounded, with delicate finely undulating 
closely placed lines, the meshes are arranged in radial rows, and 
within border in several inconspicuous concentric bands. Border 
indistinct, strie 8 to 10 in 0°01 mm., 1/25 to 1/40 of radius broad. 
Processes 3 to 5, insertion 1/3 to 1/5 of radius from circumference, 
clavate, length 24 times breadth, no clear space at base.—T'ripodiscus 
Argus Ehrb., Abh. Ber. Ak., 1839, p. 159, pl. iii. figs. 6a-e; Tripo- 
discus germanicus Ehyrb., ibid., 1839, Explan. pl. i. figs. 6a-c; 
Tetrapodiscus germanicus Ehrb., Mon. Ber. Ak., 1843, p. 166; 
Pentapodiscus germanicus Ebrb., ibid., 1848; Hupodiscus ger- 
manicus Ehrb., Mon. Ber. Ak., 1844, p. 81; Ewpodiscus quater- 

* At centre of valves meshes seen on surface sometimes unite at a slight depth 
into larger meshes, of which the outlines are in focus at same time as interjacent 
granules. Cuxhaven specimens belonging to Weissflog, from which the upper layer 
of valve bas been removed, show the transparent lower layer with the processes still 
attached. This layer has a rounded central space about 1/24 of diam. broad, the 
markings are round granules, 4 in 0°01 mm., with hyaline interspaces, and are arranged 
in straight radial rows often disposed in pairs towards the centre, but more crowded 
towards the border, which bears evident strie, and now appears sharply defined on 
its inner side. 


374 Transactions of the Society. 


narius Ehrb., ibid., 1844, p. 81; Huwpodiscus quinarius Lhrb., ibid., 
1844, p. 81; Eupodiscus monstruosus Khrb., ibid., 1844, p. 81; 
Tetrapodiscus monstruosus Ehrb., ibid., 1844, p. 81; Hupodiscus 
Argus Smith, Syn. Brit. Diat., i. p. 24; Sch. Atl. pl. xeu. figs. 7-11 ; 
Van Heurck, Syn. d. Diat. d. Belg., p. 209, pl. exvii. figs. 3-6; 
Sch. Atl, pl. xevu. figs. 7-11; Hupodiscus americanus Khrb., fide 
Ralfs in Pritch. Inf., p. 843. 

Habitat: Richmond, Va., Petersburg, Va., Piscataway, Md. 
(Ehrenberg); Patagonian guano (Janisch); Cuxhaven, Glickstadt, 
Hamburg (Ehrenberg) ; Thames near Gravesend (Poulton, Roper) ; 
near Faversham (Shadbolt); Isle of Dogs (Roper); River Orwell 
near Ipswich (Hodgson); Medway (Dallas); coast of France (de 
Brébisson) ; coast of Holland (Suringar) ; coast of Denmark (Heiberg) ; 
Charleston Harbour, N. America (Bailey); Ascidia, Hull (Greville! 
Gregory); Ascidia off Flamborough Head (Norman !); stomach of 
oysters, Humber (Dickie!); stomach of mussel (loc.?) (Dickie!) ; 
Noctiluca miliaris (Baddeley). 

A. Thumit Sch. Atl., pl. ci. fig. 8—Diam. 0°185 mm. Surface 
flat to, and slightly angular at, zone of processes; slope to border 
gentle. Colour dark grey, becoming almost opaque about zone 
of processes. Central space indistinct. Markings round or oval 
and oblique granules, most brilliant in the meshes of the reticulum, 
moniliform towards border, in radial rows that are indistinct between 
centre and semiradius; interspaces irregular, most evident towards 
the centre. Reticulum evident, the meshes rounded, a single band at 
border, with much larger meshes separated by stronger radial lines. 
Primary rays evident, the rows diverging but slightly at outer ends. 
Border well marked, strize 8 in 0°01 mm., about 1/12 of radius broad, 
outer edge sometimes irregular. Processes 5 or 6, large, insertion 
1/4 to 1/5 of radius from circumference, proximal portion with sides 
convex, converging outwards, distal subcylindrical, constriction slight, 
free ends convex, length 2 to 3 times greatest breadth, clear space 
at base evident. : 

Habitat: Sta. Monica deposit (Thum !). 


§ 11. Buanoprtt. 


Inflations sometimes distinct. Markings polygonal. Primary 
rays well marked. 


(a) Processes small. 


A. coneinnus Kitton MS.—Diam. 0°1 to 0°1075 mm. Surface 
flat for about 5/8 of radius, with outer edge indistinct, slope to border 
gradual, sometimes slightly convex at centre. Colour blue to some- 
what beyond semiradius, beyond this smoky grey. Central space 
minute, angular, 1/40 to 1/43 of diam. broad. Markings subequal 
on central portion, 6 in 0°01 mm., decreasing gradually to border, 
sometimes largest on median zone, rows radial, straight, secondary 
oblique rows inconspicuous. Primary rays 4, cruciform, distinct, 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiseus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 375 


rows diverging slightly at outer ends. Border strie delicate, 14 in 
0-01 mm. Processes 4, insertion 1/4 to 3/11 of radius from cireum- 
ference, clear space at base absent.—PI. V. fig. 4. 

The scar of the broken-off process is elongately elliptical. 

Habitat: Sysran deposit, Russia (KGtton !). 

A. prominens Kitton MS.—Diam. 0°0875 mm. Surface with 
central area much elevated, quadrate, angles extending to processes, 
outer edges with a slight concavity about middle of compartments ; 
slope to border steep. Colour bluish at centre, elsewhere smoky grey. 
Central space rounded, about 1/35 of diam. broad, clear. Markings 
5 to 6 in 0:01 mm., rows slightly deflected at processes, secondary 
oblique rows indistinct. Primary rays manifest, cruciform, rows 
diverging slightly in outer 1/3 of length. Border striz 8 in 0:01 mm., 
about 1/23 of radius broad, inner edge indistinct. Processes 4, 
- insertion about 6/17 of radius from circumference, hourglass-shaped, 
constriction median, wide, free ends protuberant, clear space at base 
small.— PI. V. fig. 5. 

Habitat : Sysran deposit, Russia (Kitton !). 

A. Kitioni Arnott, in Pritch. Inf., p. 844, pl. vii. fig. 24.— 
Diam. 0:0625 to 0°23 mm. Surface flat for about 1/3 of radius, 
with outer edge faint and concave between primary rays, the rays 
often rising somewhat to processes, slope to border gentle. Colour 
pale brownish or smoky grey, rarely clear throughout. Centre with 
distinct rosette, 1/12 to 1/23 of diam. broad, rarely inconspicuous. 
Markings 43 to 5 in 0-01 mm., without interspaces, rows straight or 
slightly sigmoid with sharper curve towards periphery, secondary 
oblique rows distinct. Primary rays well marked, sometimes inter- 
rupted towards centre. Border strie 4 to 5 in 0:01 mm., 1/24 to 
1/40 of radius broad. Processes 4 to 8, rarely 3, 2,1, or 0; insertion 
about 1/6 of radius from circumference; a long, straight, tapering 
mark opposite primary rays, with two transverse or oblique rounded 
lobes at its outer end and a broad crescentic band on peripheral side ; 
in girdle aspect mammiform, with a clear apical portion protruding at 
sides and on peripheral but not on central aspect. Girdle 0°025 mm. 
wide on valve 0°13 mm. in diam., with faint parallel lines—Sch. Atl., 
pl. xxxvi. figs. 5-7; pl. xli. fig. 6. A. levis Brightw., Quart. Journ. 
Mic. Soc., 1860, p. 95, pl. vi. fig. 138. A. Ehrenbergit Janisch., 
Abh. Sch. Ges. vater. Cult., 1861, p. 162, pl. ii. fig. 6; Sch. Atl, 
pl. xxxvi. figs. 8, 4. A. Brightwellii Janisch, ibid., 1861, p. 162, 
pl. ii. fig. 7; Sch. Atl, pl. xxxvi, figs. 8, 9. A. deformis (Habirsh. 
Cat. Diat. § Aulacodiscus) is, according to Habirshaw, equivalent to 
Eupodiseus deforms, and is a var. of A. Kittone. 

Habitat: Peruvian guano (Greville! Weissflog! Rae! Hardman! 
Harrison); Monterey stone (Gregory, Kitton, Ralfs, Cleve!) Sta. 
Monica deposit (Rae! Kinker!); Islay, Peru (Kitton, Hardman !) ; 
“New Zealand” (Johnson!); Bay of Islands, New Zealand (Hard- 
man!); San Francisco (Witt); sea foam, Sta. Cruz, California (H. L. 
Smith, Weissflog !) ; marine alge, California (Rae!) ; Monterey sea- 


376 Transactions of the Society. 


weed (Norman!) ; west coast South America (Kinker!); Houanillas 
(Kinker !). 

Var. Johnsonii. A. Johnson Arnott, in Pritch. Inf., p. 844. 
—Diam. 0°05 to 0°125. Surface flat to processes. Colour light 
grey to transparent. Central space round or angular, 1/20 to 1/25 
of diam. broad. Markings polygonal, 4 in 0°01 mm. Outlines 
more delicate, secondary rows less distinct. Border strive 6 to 10 in 
0°01 mm., 1/20 to 1/25 of radius broad. Processes 4, insertion 1/4 
to 1/5 of radius from circumference, proximal portion semicircular, 
distal clavate; at_base a delicate, rounded, obliquely placed lobe on 
corresponding side of all the processes; the crescentic line distinctly 
angular. 

Habitat: S. African guano (Greville!); Nankoori deposit (Gray!) ; 
Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes, Algoa Bay, and Sumatra (Hardman!) ; 
Nicobar (Weissflog!) ; Sierra Leone (Leuduger-Fortmorel, Cleve !). 

Var. africana. A. africanus Cottam, Journ. Quek. Mic. CL, 
1876, p. 149, pl. xii. figs. 1, 2, 3, 8—Diam. 0°0625 to 0°1125 mm. 
Surface rising slightly to processes. Central rosette 1/12 to 1/15 of 
diam. broad. Markings with still fainter outlines, 4 to 5 in 0°01 mm. 
Border about 1/45 of radius broad. Processes 4 or 5, rarely 2, 3, 6, 
or 0; insertion 1/4 to 1/6 of radius from circumference, proximal 
portion flask-shaped, with a small cylindrical portion at outer end 
whence a long delicate mark proceeds inwards, external crescentic 
line forming a uniform arc; in girdle aspect curving outwards, and 
concave on outer side, sigmoid towards centre. Girdle 0°0225 mm. 
wide, in frustule 0'079 mm. in diam., with four faint parallel 
lines.—A. Johnsonii Arnott, Sch. Atl, pl. xxxvi. figs. 1, 2; pl. xli. 
figs. 7-10; pl. civ. fig. 1. Hauck & Richter, Phykothek. Univ., 
1887, No. 150. 

Habitat: Banana Creek, Congo River, W. Coast Africa (Cottam ! 
eee. &c.); Nukahiva sand, Marquesas (Kitton! Weissflog! 
Cleve). 


(8) Processes large. 


A. Rattrayvi Grove & Sturt, Journ. Quek. Mic. Cl., 1887, p. 139, 
pl. xi. fig. 29.—Diam. 0:075 to 0°235 mm. Surface almost flat for 
1/2 to 5/7 of radius, its outer edge angular just within processes, 
convex between these; slope to border steep. Colour pale lurid to 
pale grey, darker between processes. Central space 3—4-angled, 1/30 
to 1/47 of diam. broad, hyaline. Markings 4 in 0°01 mm., outlines 
distinct, subpearly, rows straight radial, at sides of processes areole 
oblique. Primary rays distinct, rows in contact or diverging slightly 
at outerends. Border strize punctate, 10 to 12 in 0°01 mm., secondary 
oblique rows distinct, 1/13 to 1/15 of radius broad. Processes 2 to 4, 
insertion 2/5 to 2/9 of radius from circumference, proximal portion 
evanescent, distal knob-like, constriction well marked, free ends 
rounded, clear space at base distinct, length 14 to 3 times breadth. 
In girdle aspect height of centre 0:0225 mm., processes truncate— 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 377 


A. Beeveriz Johnson, Grove & Sturt, ibid., p. 9. A. Comberi var. 
oamaruensis Grove & Sturt, ibid., p. 140. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit (Grove & Sturt! Bucknal!). 

Var. convexa. A. convecus Grove & Sturt, ibid. p. 140, pl. xii. 
fig. 82.—Valve elliptical. Diam. 0°0875 to 0°09 mm. Surface flat 
to about 1/4 to 2/3 of radius. Colour pale bluish at centre. Central 
space 1/36 to 1/40 of diam. broad, sometimes replaced by a faint rosette. 
Processes 3, insertion about 1/3 to 1/5 of radius from circumference, 
length about 17 breadth, clear space at base minute. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit (Grove & Sturt !). 

A. sollittianus Norman, Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1861, p. 7, pl. ii. 
fig. 5.—Diam. 0°0825 to 0°22 mm. Surface depressed at centre, 
rising to highest zone just within processes, this zone angular at pro- 
cesses, sides concave, slope to border gentle, rarely showing several (5) 
angular zones. Colour pale grey, darker at middle of compartments 
and at outer edge of highest zone. Central space round, 1/90 of diam. 
broad, hyaline, with rosette round or angular, 1/18 to 1/20 of diam. 
broad. Markings 4 in 0-01 mm., central dot faint, interspaces absent, 
rows curved around processes, hence at centre of periphery of com- 
partments a V-shaped area frequent, secondary oblique rows distinct. 
Primary rays with markings increasing in outer half. Border striz 
4 to 6 in 0:01 mm., about 1/30 of radius broad. Processes 4 to 6, 
insertion 1/3 to 1/4 of radius from circumference, large, irregularly 
hourglass-shaped, proximal portion smaller than distal, constriction 
towards base, free ends rounded, length about twice greatest breadth, 
clear space at base large——Sch. Atl., pl. xxxii. figs. 11,13; pl. ci. 
fig. 5; pl. ciii. fig. 3. 

Habitat: Nottingham deposit (Norman, Hardman! O’Meara! 
Cleve). 

Var. nova-zealandica, Grove & Sturt, Journ. Quek. Mic. Cl., 
1887, p. 9, pl. iti. fig. 10—Diam. 0°125 to 0°226 mm. Surface 
highest and slightly convex at centre, median area uniformly depressed, 
its angles rounded close to border, periphery flat. Central space 
minute, no rosette. Markings 44 to 5 in 0°01 mm., on inner portion 
small apiculi sometimes present. Primary rays with markings equal 
or decreasing on outer half to processes. Border strie 10 to 12 
in 0-01 mm., 1/12 to 1/21 of radius broad, secondary oblique lines 
distinct. Processes 3, insertion 2/5 to 3/8 of radius from circum- 
ference, larger distal portion rounded, 2 to 24 times as broad as 
proximal, constriction deep. 

Habitat : Oamaru deposit (Grove & Sturt !). 

Var. protuberans—Diam. 0°2 mm. Surface with low inflations 
about outer ends of primary rays, outer edge of highest zone concave 
between processes, abrupt, a flat level elliptical area at outer end of 
each compartment. Central rosette 1/20 of diam. broad. Markings, 
apiculi numerous. Primary rays with markings increasing still more 
towards processes. Processes 6, insertion 1/4 of radius from cireum- 
ference, smaller, constriction submedian, length about twice breadth. 


378 Transactions of the Society. 


Habitat: Sta. Barbara deposit (Rae !). 

Var. jiitluandica. A. jiitlandicus Kitton, Journ. Queck. Mic. Cl., 
1885, p. 168, pl. xiii. fig. 3—Diam. 0°1175 mm. Surface flat to 
about 1/6 of radius, thence primary rays continued on same plane to 
processes, inflations at outer ends low, wide. Central space rounded, 
about 1/23 diam. broad. Markings 6 to 8 in 0°01 mm., secondary 
oblique rows distinct around processes. Processes 4, insertion about 
1/3 of radius from circumference, small hourglass-shaped, proximal 
portion somewhat smaller than distal—Sch. Atl, p. xh. fig. 5. 
A. crue var. glacialis Grun., Denk. Wien. Ak., 1884, p. 69, pl. 1. (B), 
fig. 62. Sch. Atl, pl. xli. fig. 5. 

Habitat: Fuur, Jutland (Kitton! Weissflog !). 


§ 12 Spxctost. 


Surface highest at centre. Markings sometimes pearly, rows 
radial, subradial or parallel, interspaces hyaline. Primary rays dis- 
tinct, rarely inconspicuous, sometimes slightly elevated above level of 
adjoining area. 

A. neglectus sp.n.—Diam. 0°2 mm. Surface flat to about semi- 
radius, thence slope to border gradual, primary rays on a level with 
adjacent areas. Colour pale to slaty grey. Central space irregularly 
quadrangular, punctate, about 1/24 of diam. broad. Markings mostly 
quadrate, in contact, 4 in 0°01 mm., somewhat pearly, interspaces 
at origin of shorter rows or as interuptions in course of longer rows, 
rows deflected slightly at processes, moniliform at border, secondary 
regular concentric bands distinct to zone of processes. Primary rays 
inconspicuous, rows diverging a little at their outer ends. Border 
strie 12 in 0:01 mm., about 1/40 of radius broad, a dark line at its 
middle or inner third, outside of this strie more faint. Processes 
12, insertion about 1/7 of radius from circumference, proximal portion 
wider than more cylindrical distal, constriction slight, free ends 
convex, length 24 times breadth.—Pl. VI. fig. 1. At edge of scar of 
broken-off processes there is a circlet of minute puncta. 

Habitat: Sta. Monica deposit (Rae !). 

A. umbonatus Grev., Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond., 1864, p. 9, pl. 1. 
fig. 2—Diam. 0°095 mm. Surface, central portion flat to about 
semiradius with outer edge rounded abrupt, adjacent area on compart- 
ments also flat, slope to border steep, primary rays somewhat above 
level of adjoining areas. Colour pale grey, darker about elevated area. 
Central space angular, 1/19 of diam. broad, punctate. Markings 
subquadrate, 4 in 0°01 mm., without interspaces, more irregular on 
raised central area, decreasing irregularly outside zone of processes, 
rows straight parallel, secondary almost straight rows parallel to each 
other, and to a tangent to circumference at middle of compartments. 
Primary rays distinct, rows diverging widely in a V-shaped manner 
on outer 1/3 of length, prolonged past processes to border. Border 
granules 8 in 0°01 mm. Processes 7, insertion about 1/5 of radius 
from circumference. 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Khrb. By J. Rattray. 379 


The scar of broken-off process is large and irregularly oval. 

Habitat: Cambridge deposit, Barbadoes (Johnson! Norman !). 

Var. dirupta Grove & Sturt M.S—Diam. 0°035 mm. Surface 
flat from centre to border, primary rays not elevated. Colour smoky 
grey, darker at border. Central space about 1/14 of diam. broad. 
Markings quadrate, 34 to 4 in 0°01 mm., rows sometimes subradial, 
moniliform at border. Primary rays distinct, rows diverging widely 
almost from central space. Border with inner edge indistinct. Pro- 
cesses 6, insertion about 1/7 of radius from circumference.—Pl. VI. 
fig. 9. 
4 The scar of broken-off process is minute, oval. 

Habitat: Oamaru deposit (Grove !). 

A. lucidus sp. n.—Diam. 0°1135 to 0°175 mm. Surface flat for 
2/7 to 1/2 of radius, primary rays slightly elevated, compartments 
* with a wide flat portion at border. Colour light grey. Central space 
minute, about 1/65 of diam. broad. Markings polygonal, 4 in 0-01 
mm., rows radial, in wide curves towards and around processes. 
Primary rays distinct, rows with markings larger in outer than in 
inner half, diverging but slightly at outer ends. Border strize irregu- 
lar, 5 to 8 inO*O01 mm., inner edge irregular. Processes 8, insertion 
about 1/4 to 1/5 of radius from circumference, proximal portion 
smaller than round knob-like distal; clear space at base absent.— 
Ble V. fis..3. 

Habitat : Barbadoes deposit (Hanwell! Grove !). 

A. coronatus Grove MS.—Diam. 0°0925 mm. Surface flat for 
about 1/4 of radius, thence sloping slightly to zone of processes, 
almost flat around border. Primary rays on a level with adjacent 
areas. Colour subhyaline, darker at centre and processes. Central 
space indistinct. Markings polygonal, 5 in 0°01 mm. on central 
portion, 8 to 10 in 0°01 mm. from zone of processes to border, without 
interspaces; rows straight, radial. Primary rays inconspicuous, the 
rows in contact. Border indistinct, about 1/19 of radius broad. 
Processes 9, 11/19 of radius from circumference, proximal portion 
small, distal knob-like ; clear space at their base large. 

Habitat: Jackson’s Paddock, Oamaru (W. J. Gray !). 

T am unacquainted with “ Aulacodiscus californicus Bail. Coll.” 
recorded by Habirshaw in the second edition of his Catalogue. The 
name is only recorded here, and remains a nomen nudum. 

Auliseus sculptus Ralfs and Hupodiscus radiatus Bail. were in 
error printed in Brightwell’s paper (Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc., 1860, 
p- 94) as species of Awlacodiscus, but the errors were corrected in the 
errata on p. 139 of the same volume. 

The valve from the Barbadoes deposit, placed doubtfully by 
Greville in Aulacodiscus as A (?) paradoxus (Trans. Mic. Soc. Lond. 
1863, p. 72, pl. v. fig. 18), was subsequently referred by him to 
Omphalopelta, and recorded as such in the copy of his memoir in the 
possession of Mr. Kitton. It is really a species of the genus 
Actinoptychus. 


9 


380 Transactions of the Society. 


AnrtiriciaAL Key. 
1.-Ontline polyepugheerisee ss ss) os ss os pal ne Magn POTUOON Ia 
2 


» circular 30. 2: ACU uD OOREEOERD OIE COS Lot loc 
PR MEISE ANN oo cov os) GOO mCDeNEOG | 00 | ob) 2 on 3 
~ present «.. «. ae Dc 4 
3. Primary rays indistinct, markings round, ‘interspace hyaline suspectus. 
+ » distinct, markings polygonal, incontact .. .. «apedicellatus. 
4, A prominent broad crescentic band on peripleral side of 
DIOCCRSCAMMECRIMENSCET ier fess cs) ss (ace) olen tee uaan rem mELUICOTEDS 
IMTEWOA lel: c. _ soe “ag: ego BOOnweOOs  y00l2 99) ba .c0 5 
5. Surface flat to FOriGree ey a: con is. as. ee Re ee 6 
a », to zone of processes ..  .. 7 
> » from centre for a portion of ‘radius within zone 
of processes, centre not eg 50. 08 © 00 8 
3 depressed at centre .. .. 9 
6. A hyaline band at outer edge of central space with ‘short 
extensions into apices of compartments; markings unre- 
BOLVEGM act) ues .. =exiguus. 
No such band ; markings polygonal, minute but larger, “clear 
area at base of processes large a jah eae seen vanbadenstas 
7, Reticulum coarse, meshes radi: , primary rays undifferenti- 
ated; opaque... 50 Argus. 


Meshes within processes large, rounded, outermost band much 
larger than the others, with division lines radial. Markings 
more distinct, due oval and opligne bod ed ct ba YM OmnTTO0. 
No reticulum .. .. Gc ac she ples 10 
10. Apiculate; primary rays distinct : processes hourglass- 
shaped, clear space at their base minute .. .. .. «.  scaber. 
Non-apiculate -.9 3... s. «- 11 
11. A dark band at zone of processes more ‘sharply defined on 
inner than on outer side; primary rays distinct ; processes 
small, subeylindrical, clear space at their base absent seh uae) MSU Lies 


WOON [GL 5, co co “do “So 00 “cg og. on Go oo 12 
12. Markings concentric r. 00 OS 66 90 00 cb. 00 co LeMpeh 
s non-concentric So a0 oo. oa oo oC 13 
13. Markings rounded with punctate interspaces 5 30 14 
“5 round, granular, interspaces hyaline ; central space 
absent; striated border wide; processes nu- 
merous (14) ad 00 on 100 OG hb no! LAGE 
5 polygonal, without interspaces 0G. Ga) o0 = OG ado 15 
14. Processes large, faint space at base punctate ; lurid... 2. Comberi. 
5 with space at base semicircular, hyaline : valve 


transparent, edge of central area somewhat con- 
cave between processes .. .. o « « «  Ayalinus. 


* minute, space at their base absent .. .. Beeveriz. 
15. Processes minute, subclavate, clear space at their base absent .. elegans. 
x larger, subeylindrical, free ends truncate, space at 
their base small... .. .. oe oe compactus. 
ee large, with median constriction, and “free ends 
rounded ; border hyaline... .. .. parvulus. 
3 small, constriction wide, median, clear space at their 


base small, outline of central portion of valve 

concave outwards between processes... .. .. prominens. 

8. A basin-like deep depression at middle of compartments... .. ewcavatus. 
Depression wide, shallow; markings in interrupted rows 
arranged in radial fasciculate patches with wide irregular 


hyaline radial interspaces.. .. 50. oo) ad. CATIITES 

A clear angular zone a short distance within processes +» «+. patens. 

INo such depression oriclearzone).. 2. a. 8 ss ee es oe 16 

16. Without large cuneate inflations .. .. .. .. .. «. « 17 
Such inflations present .. ..  .. 18 


17. Processes large, proximal portion much amaller than distal, 
inserted far in on valve, clear space at their base large, border 
sirie punctate =... .s5 cs ge we 0 so tee Woe | jaw  ueeUUMaUEE, 


A Revision of the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. By J. Rattray. 


Processes small or minute 


19. Markings quadrate, pearly, concentri ic ‘on elevated area .. 


non-concentric 


bh] 


20. Markings rounded with brown central dot, rows on n compart- 


21. 


. Markings round, interspaces hyaline ; 


ments parallel 
rounded in wide rows. with hyaline interspaces, 
towards centre polygonal ; 
angular, rows parallel, primary rays with rows 
diverging widely at outer ends ; 
polygonal, not pearly, processes with "proximal 
portion smaller than isis’ Dey rays diverging 
but slightly : 
pologonal, not pearly, " processes placed near the 
semiradius with large clear space at their base, 
central space indistinct =SP— s.. oc ce aes 
in radial rows or irregular... 
Markings on elevated portion large, round, ‘irregularly placed, 
outside of this much smaller and radial; pro- 
cesses with wide shallow constriction ots 
more equal; primary rays distinct 
processes with | sharp 
median constriction... 0s. we 
polygonal, without interspaces 


” 


” 


: Markings small (6 in 0°01 mm.); primary rays ¢ cruciform : 


18. 


24. 


25. 


26. 


27 


28. 


29. 
30. 
31. 


32. 


; Nou crateriform 


33. 


processes with free ends protuberant 

Markings larger (4 in 0°01 mm.); Brecon clavate, free ends 
simply younded .. 

Markings still larger 2 ‘to 3 in 0: OL mm.); " processes ‘with 
sharp median constriction, and no clear space at their base 

Inflations wide, cuneate, sides ee inner ends pag 
circumscribed 

Inflations with inner ends merging - into raised central area 

Inflations rising gently on inner portion, steeply near Bpovesses 


3 more uniform s. : mG 

Rows parallel on compartments, valves ‘transparent do 60 
So SLCL lum mci ters 

Primary. rays on @ level with central area, cruciform, more 


conspicuous than rest of valve, sides of inflations indistinct 
Primary rays rising slightly outwards.. 
Inflations long, sides convex, more conspicuous in outer portion 
where the oblique markings are distinct 
Inflations with sides more straight the oblique markings less 
obvious aC 
Markings rounded, processes “harrow, cylindrical navies 
5 polygonal, processes with a constriction .. .. 
Non-apiculate ... 


Apiculate.. .. RAR Ge i fg ss mi im 
Outer ends of inflations sharply defined .. ab. 0c 
Es merging gradually into ‘peripheral area 


Proximal portion of processes larger than distal, markings sub- 
pearly, protuberances on border large .. 
Proximal portion of processes much smaller than distal, 
markings more delicate : 
A distinctly defined broad apiculate zone at border, apiculi on 
inflations small ..  .. no 100 
No such zone, apiculi on inflations large A bc - 
BS few, minute soe testes 


oe oe oe oe 


Crateriform .. 

A prominent deeply "serrated ‘ridge on zone of, 
processes ; 

No such ridge .. 


and between 


oe 


35, A large, distinctly " defined, elliptical or t triangular, “finely 


areolate central area... .. «. Prec 
INOVSUCHIATCR cae tee sees tee mee cece Eamets 


19 
neglectus. 

20 
pulcher. 


dispersus. 


umbonatus. 
lucidus. 


coronatus. 
21 


probabilis. 

22 
simplex. 

23 
concinnus, 
radiosus. 
cellulosus. 
formosus. 

24 
mammosus. 


25 
gracilis. 
26 


quadrans. 
Janischit. 


28 
inflatus. 
29 


381 


carruthersianus, 


31 
32 


cinctus. 


Petersiz. 


macracanus. 
aucklandicus. 


Lahuseni. 
35 


36 
37 


382 
36. 
37. 


38. 


40. 


39. 


41. 


43, 


53. 
54. 


. Marking round, large, distinct 


. Primary rays on a level with adjoining surface .. 


b dak distinet lobe at sides of outer ends of inflations 


. Coralloid markings on sides of inflations oe ee 


Transactions of the Society. 


Primary rays short, V-shaped, markings small... ..  .. 
~ » Obsolete, markings larger and more pearly.. 

A reticulum SG 26 ; 

No reticulum 

Meshes large, unequal, often. imper fect, with one distinct band 
at border, markings aime oval and oblique 

Markings round 

Meshes" smaller, subregular, ; in concentric ‘bands, a | few “bands 
at border well defined , absent from most elevated zone 

Meshes most evident and scale-like on flat HpeHEH ET portions 
ofcompartments.. .. 2. «. « 

Inflations absent or slight : 

=p present, low, mammillate beneath processes 

Process large, proximal portion much smaller than distal, clear 
space at base well marked ; a central rosette oe Ac 

No rosette.. .. 

A sharply defined polygonal ai area from centre to processes, its 
outer edge steep and sides straight across compartments 

Markings large, brilliant, with distinct central or unilateral 
dot, processes with well-marked clear space at their base .. 

Markings smaller, less brilliant, the rows at middle of compart- 
ments together forming an inconspicuous cross; primary 
rays cruciform with slight inflations at outer ends; pro- 
cesses small, with clear space at base minute 00 ae 

Most elevated zone at processes narrow angular 


. With prominent, hyaline, irregular, radial spaces on most 


elevated zone MMe EN. see cass) ois em ae 
No such spaces Ae a0. 0D \oG =bde 0d. moo 
ee 


£ polygonal, small, indistinct, valve. transparent 


. Processes long, narrow, cylindrical 


rs conical, large, outer edge of sculptured area undulate 


B with lateral median constriction Ae one SOMO 


. Markings in regular concentric bands.. 


No such pands.. 


. Markings in irregular ‘angular ‘ubconcentrie ‘bands towards 


central space ; primary rays indistinct F 04 
No such bands; primary rays well-marked, more opaque «e 
» raised on inflations.. . a5 OC 


No such lobes .. 


. Conspicuous bent subradial or r oblique ‘irregular interspaces 0 on 


outer portion of valve ; outer ends of inflations bounded by 
prominent dark curved lines 30 50. 60 06 
No such interspaces 


No such markings ee 


Most elevated zone sharply defined, narrow ‘angular. ac 
55 less ee ha defined, sometimes wide ie 

A reticulum evident a . Son AC 
just visible ae nays Mee) des 
No reticulum, irregular ridges on inflations as ae 


Processes with proximal portion rounded, distal eylindrical 3¢ 
»  biconyex on each side a : 
Slope of primary rays from highest zone to processes ‘steep ; 
interspaces punctate ..  . 
Slope of primary rays from highest zone to processes gentle; 
interspaces hyaline ..  .. .. o ne EO) OO 


<2 


septus. 
Schmidtii. 
38 
39 


reticulatus. 
40 


Rogersti. 
Grunowiti. 
41 
42 


sollittianus, 
43 


secedens. 


margaritaceus. 


crus. 
44 


radiatus. 

45 
Huttonii. 
pallidus. 
amenus. 
intumescens. 

46 
orientalis. 

47 


affinis. 
oregonus. 
kilkellyanus. 
48 
rotulus. 
49 


anthoides. 
50 

grevilleanus. 
51 


52 

53 
superbus. 
attenuatus. 


archangelskianus. 


spectabilis. 
54 


angulatus. 


decorus. 


(883°) 


VII.—The Foraminifera of the Red Chatk. 


By H. W. Burrows, C. Davizs SuHersory, and Rey. G. Bartey. 
(Read 9th May, 1888.) 


In 1859 the Rey. Prof. Wiltshire in a paper “On the Red Chalk 
of England,”* read before the Geologists’ Association, quoted and 
figured (pl. ii. fig. 8) one species of Foraminifer (Cristellaria rotulata 
d’Orb.) as occuring in the red chalk of Speeton. In the following 
year Major-General Emmett in “ Notes on the Red and White Chalk 
of Yorkshire,” ¢ gave, on the authority of Messrs. W. K. Parker and 
T. R. Jones, the following species :—Globigerina bulloides, Textularia 
 pygmea, Rotalia ammonoides, Dentalina communis, Cristellaria 
rotulata. 

Professor Blake,t speaking of the chalk of Yorkshire, mentions the 
occurrence of minute hollow spheres, but says that he has “not been 
able definitely to find any apertures in them, otherwise they look like 
the Orbulina universa, abounding to the extinction of all other 
Foraminifera.” Parker and Jones in Emmett’s note above mentioned 
had noticed this also in the red chalk, and suggested the minute 
chambers were “ separate cells of Globigerina and Dentalina, the former 
predominating.” 

The Mem. Geol. Survey published in 1880 on “The Geology of 
Scarborough” mentioned Cristellaria rotulata Lam. as occurring in 
the red chalk of Speeton. 

Mr. Whitaker in the list of fossils of the red chalk,§ quoted two 
species from the Hunstanton red chalk, Cristellaria rotulata Lam., 
and Globigerina cretacea VOrb. 

Thus up to date only siz species of Foraminifera have been noted 
from the red chalk of England. 

For some years we have been working independently on this 
subject, and the combined result shows an important addition to the 
previously recorded species. These will form the subject of a joint 
paper to be issued shortly, and for which the drawings are already 
prepared. 

The following is a provisional list of the forms in our collections 
already determined, a number of somewhat obscure specimens re- 
maining to be finally examined. 

Spiroloculina, 2 spp. 

Miliolina spp. 

Trochammina cretacea ? Reuss. 

fe gordialis P. & J. 
$5 incerta d’Orb. 


* 8vo, London, 1859. t Geologist, 1860, pp. 419-20. 
+ Proc. Geol. Assoc., v. (1877) p. 266. 
§ Proe. Norwich Geol. Soc., i. pt. vii. (1883). 


384 Transactions of the Soctety. 


Textularia agglutinans d’Orb. 
(Proroporus) complanata Reuss. 
pygmea Reuss fide P. & J. 
trochus d’Orb. 
be turris d’Orb. 

Verneuilina, 2 spp. 
Spiroplecta biformis P. & J. 
Gaudryina sp. 
Bulimina affinis d’Orb. 

“A Presli Reuss. 
Bolivina textularioides Reuss. 


” 
”? 


” 


eee: 
eleeeoetarnells alternans Schw. 
- subnodosa Reuss. 
Lagena apiculata Reuss. 
” ” (var.). 
aspera Reuss. 
globosa Montt. 
levis Montf. 
marginata W. & B. 
»  cincta Seg. 


3 2 SPP: 
Nodosaria (Glandulina) laevigata, d’Orb. 
* a obtusissima Reuss. 
radicula Linn. 
calomorpha Reuss. 
limbata d’Orb. 
longiscata d’Orb. 
obscura ? Reuss. 
oligostegia Reuss. 
- prismatica Reuss. 
Nodosaria (Dentalina) abnormis Reuss. 
is brevis d’Orb. 
cs communis d’Orb. 
A ‘5 soluta Reuss. 
Lingulina carinata d’Orb. 
Frondicularia Archiaciana d’Orb. 
biformis Marsson. 

. gaultina Reuss. 
Rhabdogonium tricarinatum d’Orb. 
Vaginulina arguta Reuss. 
eurynota Reuss. 
recta Reuss. 

. legumen Linn. 
Cristellaria crepidula F. & M. 
cultrata Montf. 
gibba d’Orb. 

PY Marckii Reuss. 


” 


9 


99 
9 


The Foraminifera of the Red Chalk. 


Cristellaria rotulata Lam. 


By H. W. Burrows, &e. 385 


e 4 spp. 
Polymorphina amygdaloides Reuss. 
” cibba d’Orb. 
= horrida Reuss. 
: lactea W. & J. (elongate var.). 


Uvigerina sp. 
Ramulina aculeata d’Orb. 
Globigerina bulloides d’Orb. 


“: 99 (var.) 
es eretacea d’Orb. 
4 Linnzana d’Orb. 


Orbulina universa d’Orb. 
Planorbulina ammonoides Reuss. 
Truncatulina sp. 
Pulvinulina Menardii d’Orb. 
Discorbina, 2 spp. 
Nonionina sp. 
Polystomella macella F. & M. 

- subnodosa Miinst. 


By far the greater number of the above-named species are of 
comparatively large size, and come from Speeton; a table showing 


distribution will be given in the paper. 


1888. 


386 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


SUMMARY 


OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


LOOmrOG Y AND BOTANY 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 
MICROSCOPY, &c., 


INCLUDING ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.* 


ZOOLOGY. 
A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 
a. Embryology.t 


Spermatogenesis of Marsupials.{—Dr. C. M. Fiirst has had the 
rare opportunity of studying the spermatogenesis of marsupials. The 
testes which he has sectioned were those of Metachirus quica and 
Phascogale albipes. His chief results are as follows :— 

The seminal canals contain two main forms of cell—the seminal 
and the marginal cells. The latter have no direct role in spermato- 
genesis. ‘The former exhibit three stages—(a) the primitive cells (S?) 
(Samenstammzellen), which give origin by division to (b) the sperm- 
mother-cells (S') (Samenmutterzellen), which divide by karyokinesis to 
form (c) the sperm-daughter-cells (Samentochterzellen (8°), which give 
off a polar body and form spermatozoa (S). The first are peripheral, 
the second move centrewards, the third are median and central. The 
cells and spermatozoa lie in tiers and rows, each of which exhibits cells 
of the same stage. Development proceeds from the periphery inwards, 
and a complete series may be observed in successful sections. In the 
sperm-daughter-cells (S°) the nucleus undergoes polar differentiation, a 
cap is formed, a polar body is extruded at the tail end (opposite to the 
cap), then maturation proceeds apace. : 

The nucleus elongates and grows. The diffusely stained contents 
exhibit well-defined chromatin-granules. These aggregate along with 
adjacent achromatin and are drawn to the cap. The nuclear membrane 
is invaginated. The chromatin is disposed at the cap and tail poles. 
The cap becomes flat and is finally thrown off. The chromatin nuclear 
substance, continuous with that of the head, is prolonged in a fine thread 
at the tail end. The cellular substance is lost. Nuclear substance alone 
is left ; a spiral thread occurs only provisionally. The sperm consists of 


* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do 
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted, 
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of 
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, and to 
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have 
not been previously described in this country. 

+ This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called, 
put also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Reproduction, and allied 
subjects. 

t Arch. f. Mikr, Anat., xxx. (1887) pp. 336-65 (8 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 387 


a chromatin portion forming head and axial filament. This is uncovered 
on the upper surface of the head, but enveloped further down, and in the 
fail by an achromatin or parachromatin sheath. 


First Branchial Cleft of Chick.*—Mr. F. P. Mall finds that on the 
fourth day of incubation four small tubercles are formed round the 
ventral haif of the first branchial groove; these, the colliculi branchiales 
externi, mark the beginning of the external ear ; a little later a sack-like 
process, the canalis tubo-tympanicus, grows from the lateral aboral part of 
the branchial pocket, and forms the primitive drum-cavity. From the 
aboral end of the second arch an embryonic operculum projects over the 
third and fourth arches ; the operculum and the main part of the second 
arch unite with their fellows of the opposite side to form a horseshoe 
hoop around the ventral part of theneck. Before this is well formed, the 
two colliculi branchiales externi of the second arch separate from the 
rest of the arch, and aid in forming the external ear. The third and 
fourth arches form a depression which is closed by the operculum blend- 
ing with the thoracic wall. The tympanic membrane is formed by the 
membrane of His. From the dorsal part of the cleft an involution of 
ectoderm extends to the ganglion of the facial nerve and blends with it; 
this involution is one of the rudimentary branchial sense-organs, described 
by Van Wijhe, Froriep, and Beard. 


Attachment of the Blastocyst to the Uterine Wall in the Bat.j— 
Prof. E. van Beneden has studied in Vespertilio murinus the attachment 
of the embryo to the mucous membrane of the uterus. He gives a brief 
description of the uterus and of the successive relations of the ovum, but 
devotes most attention to histological facts connected with the attachment 
of the blastocyst. 

(1) The uterine epithelium degenerates completely. It disappears 
over the entire cavity of the uterus. It cannot therefore have any share 
in the formation of the maternal portion of the placenta. 

(2) In Vespertilio murinus, the uterine glands have no relation to the 
placenta. They are wholly absent in that portion of the mucosa which 
corresponds to the placental ring of the blastocyst. In the animal under 
consideration there can be no question of the absorption by the placenta 
of a glandular secretion, spoken of as uterine milk in other mammals. 

(8) Ata very early stage in development, while the embryo is still 
two-layered throughout, before the formation of the primitive line or 
placental villosities, there obtains throughout the entire extent of the 
placental ring so intimate a union between the embryonic epiblast and 
the modified uterine mucosa, that it is difficult to distinguish the boundary 
between maternal and embryonic tissues. 


Embryology of Anolis.t—Mr. H. Orr has investigated the embry- 
ology of Anolis zagrei. He finds that the notochord extends forward in 
the head, along the line of the cranial flexure, and ends in a mass of 
fused hypoblast or epiblast, which forms the dorsal part of the oral 
fusion. From the hypoblastic portion of this mass of cells the head 
cavities arise ; they retain for a considerable time their median con- 
nection with the anterior end of the notochord. The relation of the 
anterior end of the notochord, the head-cavities, and epiblast, precludes 


* Johns-Hopkins Univ. Circulars, vii. (1888) p. 38. 
+ Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belg., xv. (1888) pp. 17-26, 1 pl. (mot appended). 
¢ Johns-Hopkins Univ. Circulars, vii. (1888) p. 38. 

252 


388 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


in this case the supposition of a pre-oral intestine, and scems to argue 
against the theory that vertebrates once had a more primitive mouth 
placed anteriorly to that which they now possess. Previous to the 
development of any white matter in the brain six symmetrical swellings, 
separated by sharp lateral constrictions, appear in the hind-brain; these 
are homologous with the medullary folds found by Kuppfer in osseous 
fishes ; in the lizard they give rise to the roots of the fifth, sixth, com- 
mon root of seventh and eighth, and roots of the ninth and tenth nerves ; 
it is proposed to call these swellings neuromeres. About the time of 
disappearance of the neuromeres, nerve-fibres begin to appear as lateral 
bands of longitudinal fibres passing along the lateral external surface of 
the spinal cord and brain, and uniting in a single band on the morpho- 
logically anterior surface of the brain immediately ventral to the optic 
stalks. The fibres of the optic nerve appear on the internal surface of 
the eye-cup, and on the anterior surface of the hollow of the stalk; they 
differ from the fibres of all other nerve-roots in not being developed as 
polar outgrowths of the cells. 

Shortly after the first appearance of lateral bands cf fibres a second 
system begins to develope as polar outgrowths of the cells lying just 
internal to the lateral band; they extend ventrally, and form a con- 
tinuous ventral commissure, which ends at the point where the floor of 
the midbrain merges into the infundibulum. About the same time the 
commissures of the anterior part of the brain begin to develope; they 
are all morphologically dorsal, and are nearly similar in their develop- 
ment. The author has obtained essentially the same result with 
- urodelous and anurous Batrachians. 


Development of Petromyzon.*—Dr. W. B. Scott, in the present 
memoir, deals only with the development of the nervous system and 
sensory organs of Petromyzon. He finds that the upper lip rotates 
through an arc of 180°, and this has a great effect on the development 
of the anterior organs of the head. In the freshly hatched larva the 
brain, and especially the fore- and mid-parts, are exceedingly small, in 
correlation, no doubt, with the undeveloped condition of the sense- 
organs during the greater part of larval life. The cranial flexure is 
always slight, and is partly corrected by a rotation in the opposite 
sense. ‘he hemispheres arise as an unpaired solid mass, and the 
olfactory lobes are formed from them. The infundibulum is a diverti- 
culum of the thalamencephalon, which is at first single, but afterwards 
divides into lobus and saccus; the epiphysis arises as in other verte- 
brates, and soon exhibits its character as an optic vesicle, but has no 
lens; the primary gives rise to a secondary vesicle which enters into 
close relations with the left ganglion habenule; the changes in 
characters and relations which it undergoes suggest that it has acquired 
some secondary character of importance, but what that is cannot be 
guessed, The right ganglion habenule is from the first much larger 
than the left; the former comes to project above the roof of the brain, 
a ips latter divides into two portions which are connected by a fibrous 
stall. 

The pituitary body is derived from the epiblast of the surface of the 
head in close connection with the olfactory involution; Dr. Scott be- 
lieves that this connection is secondary ; the morphology of this structure 


* Journ. of Morphology, i. (1887) pp. 253-310 (4 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 389 


is discussed at some length, and it is believed to be the rudiment of a 
canal which once opened on the surface of the head. In correlation with 
the retarded development of the eyes the optic lobes do not appear till 
late in larval life. The cerebellum is formed from the posterior wall of 
the dorsal fold between the mid- and hind-brains, and long remains very 
minute. The spinal cord in the later embryonic and early larval stages 
is like that of the higher vertebrates ; the characteristic flattening is 
effected during larval life. 

The peripheral nerves are developed much as in Selachians; the 
olfactory nerves are originally paired, and the optic are at first remark- 
able for their great length; the trigeminal has two, and the facial has 
one ganglion formed from the skin. 

The epidermal sense-organs of the head and lateral line are not 
developed in connection with the ganglia of the cerebral nerves, or with 
the lateral nerve, but at a later stage ; this, however, is looked upon as 
“ a secondary process. The olfactory organ is at first ventral in position, 
and is always single and median ; the rotation of the upper lip brings 
the opening to the dorsal side of the head, and it was probably this 
condition which produced the coalescence of the primitively paired nasal 
pits. A glandular organ, resembling that of Jacobson, but having no 
communication with the mouth, is formed from the postero-inferior 
portion of the nasal involution. The eye is formed as in other verte- 
brates, but is remarkable for the very small part of the primary optic 
vesicle which gives rise to the retina; the retinal elements appear only 
just before metamorphosis, and no cornea is present in the larva; the 
lens is probably of mesoblastic origin. The ear, in its early stages, is 
like that of other vertebrates, and the first divergencies appear in the 
young larva. Thereis no trace of the horizontal semicircular canal; the 
vestibule is divided imperfectly into chambers, and a median appendix 
is formed. This organ is relatively better developed in the larva than 
either nose or eyes, and does not undergo such marked changes at 
metamorphosis. Dr. Scott considers that the sense-organs of Petromyzon 
do not show degeneration, but rather retardation of development. There 
are certain minor peculiarities which appear to have been acquired 
within the Cyclostomatous phylum, but they cannot be regarded as 
degenerate; such are the union of the nasal pits, and the development 
of the naso-palatal canal; the peculiar structure of the retina; the 
absence of the horizontal semicircular canal, the division of the vestibule 
into chambers, and the presence of the auditory appendix. 


Development of Torpedo ocellata.*—Prof. A. Swaen, in the first 
part of his memoir, deals with the formation of the gastrula, of the meso- 
blast, and of the notochord in Torpedo ocellata. He finds that the meso- 
blast arises throughout the blastoderm from a mixture of epi- and 
hypoblastic cells. In the anterior part it arises from the special cellular 
zone which connects the epiblast and hypoblast ; in the posterior part it 
arises indirectly, in the sense that the zone of cells commences by formin 
a special layer (the secondary hypoblast), from which alone the mesoblast 
takes its origin. The notochord is found to be developed from the endo- 
blast of the digestive tube, on the roof of which a notochordal groove is 
first formed. The epithelial cells of the groove are, in consequence of 
their orientation around the notochordal axis, partly isolated from the 


* Arch. de Biol., vii. (1887) pp. 537-85 (3 pls.). 


* 


390 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


rest of the wall. The epithelial cells in the neighbourhood pass from 
without inwards, and lie below the cord, where they gradually become 
isolated. The dorsal wall of the embryo is developed as in Amphioxus. 
The epithelium which forms the upper wall of the cavity of the gastrula 
gives rise to the two halves of the mesoblast and to the notochord, just 
as in Amphioxus. 


B. Histology.* 


Nervous System of Amphioxus.{—Dr. E. Rohde has made an investi- 
gation into the structure of the nervous system of Amphiovus, and finds a 
close resemblance between it and that of the same system in the poly- 
chetous Sthenelais. In both there are certain nerve-fibres which are 
remarkable for their great size, constant position, and enormous lengths. 
These colossal nerve-fibres are the processes of colossal ganglion-cells, 
which are placed at definite distances from one another, partly at the 
anterior (though rare in the brain), and partly at the hinder end of the 
central nervous system. These fibres, which run from before backwards, 
break up into an unpaired median fibre (which is always the largest), and 
paired lateral fibres, and they are connected by fine lateral branches with 
the other nerve elements. In both forms the supporting tissue is of 
ectodermal origin. 


Changes of Position of Nucleus.{—Herr O. Schultze describes some 
of the changes of position observed in the nucleus. (a) Passive displace- 
ments.—The nucleus may be pressed to the surface by accumulations of dif- 
ferent substances, e.g. fat and mucus. (b) Active displacements.—These are 
associated with the maturation and fertilization of the ovum. Auer- 
bach has described the rotation of the nucleus in the fertilization of 
Rhabdonema nigrovenosa. This is explained by O. Hertwig as due to the 
mutual influence of protoplasm and nucleus. Various observers have 
noticed the change of position associated with the extrusion of polar 
globules. Herr Schultze observed this in the ova of Amphibians, and 
especially of Siredon. He explains it in terms of Hertwig’s law, that 
the stretching of the nucleus must take place in the direction of the 
greatest aggregation of protoplasm within the cell. In mammals a 
similar turning of the directive spindle seems to occur, as the author’s 
observations on the ova of guinea-pigs, taken along with what Flemming 
has described, certainly suggest. 


Chemistry of the Nucleus.$—Prof. A. Kossel points out in connec- 
tion with adenin that the most recent researches on the importance of the 
nucleus to the life of the cell (especially the knowledge that when uni- 
cellular organisms are artificially cut into pieces, only those parts exhibit 
a complete regeneration which contain a portion of the nucleus), and 
the importance of the nucleus in impregnation have given an increased 
importance to the chemistry of the nucleus. 

Among the chemical substances which compose the nucleus, adenin, 
which has recently been discovered by the author, appears to possess a 
special importance, since, on account of its composition, C;H;N,, it 
belongs to the cyanic group of bodies. This substance was obtained 


* This section is limited to papers relating to Cells and Fibres. 

+ Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 190-6. 

t SB. Phys.-Med. Gesell. Wirzburg, 1887, pp. 4-5. 

§ Nature, xxxvii. (1887) p. 168, from Proceedings of Berlin Physiological 
Society, 1887, Nov. 18. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 391 


from tea-leaves in large quantities, and from it a series of compounds, 
which were exhibited as extremely fine preparations; namely, the 
salts with hydrochloric, sulphuric, and nitric acids, as also some com- 
pounds with platinum. Adenin was found to be extremely resistant 
to feebly oxidizing agents, but, on the other hand, to be easily acted 
upon by reducing agents. The substances which are produced by 
these means were not very well characterized from a chemical point of 
view. The author, however, thinks that, owing to the ease with which it 
can be reduced, adenin plays an extremely important part in the physio- 
logical action of the nucleus. When adenin is reduced in presence of 
oxygen a brownish-black substance is obtained, which appears to be 
identical with the azocuminic acid which is produced when hydrocyanic 
acid is exposed to the air for a long time. In conclusion, adenin makes 
its appearance in large quantities under certain pathological conditions, 
and the author has succeeded in detecting it in the urine of persons 
suffering from leuchemia. 

Pathological Structure of the Cell-nucleus.*—Prof. W. Pfitzner 
draws attention to the fact that the lower we descend in the animal 
kingdom, the nuclei are found to be so much the poorer in chromatin. 
The same holds good for the vegetable kingdom. The development of 
chromatin is in proportion to the stage of development of the cell. Ina 
young animal the nuclei are poorer in chromatin than in an older one. 
A small amount of chromatin is an indication of the embryonic character 
of the cell. Unfertilized ova of animals and plants show this poverty 
in a very striking way. On fertilization an increase of the nuclear chro- 
matin of the ovum occurs through the head of the spermatozoon which 
contains a considerable- quantity of chromatin, and whereby an increase 
in the vital energy of the cell is produced. in the nuclear chromatin 
are seen changes due to age, and these the author describes in the cornified 
epithelium of the epidermis, and in the epithelium of the cornea and of 
the oral cavity. The horny condition is associated with degeneration 
of the nucleus, the chromatin substance becoming less refractive and 
colourable, and thus disappears, or the form of the chromatic nuclear 
constituents becomes so altered that finally it assumes the form of so 
many separate lumps. Both processes may take place cotemporaneously. 
Secreting cells also show nuclear degeneration. If the cell-body be filled 
out with the secretion, the nucleus seems crumpled up, and the chromatin 
packed closer together ; after evacuation it resumes its normal appearance. 
In most cases effective work in a secreting cell is associated with consider- 
able wear and tear. In sebaceous glands the nuclei of cells which line 
the walls of an acinus show normal structure, and frequently mitosis. 
The cells filling up the gland lumen, however, show, and more clearly 
the nearer they are to the orifice, appearances which recall the corneous 
cells of the epidermis; the nucleus becomes small, round, homogeneous, 
and loses in power of refracting and of receiving colours, and finally is 
lost in the cloudy cell-contents. The nucleus of perfect goblet-cells 
shows similar appearances. 

In the salamander larva karyokinesis of the red blood-cells takes 
place in the whole of the circulatory system; in the adult salamander, only 
in the spleen. In the blood of the larva there are found also cells which 
show changes due to age in addition to the fully formed cells. After the 


* Virchow’s Arch. f, Path. u. Hist. Anat., ciii. (1886) pp. 275-300 (1 pl.). 


392 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


nucleus has divided karyokinetically, it passes through the star and 
skein forms into the network and nucleoli form again. As the volume 
of the nucleus diminishes, the chromatin network becomes smaller and 
plumper, and the nucleoli present in the majority become quite large, 
while owing to the condensation of the chromatin network, they become 
more and more imperceptible. In the blood of adult larve no actual 
nuclear figures appear, but nuclei and the same transition forms up 
to the homogeneous stage, as in the larve. But here the atrophy 
increases rapidly, the chromatin network becomes coarser, the nucleus 
assumes a mulberry shape, becomes flat, and loses its power of refraction 
and of taking up dyes more and more, until it has completely vanished. 
Non-nucleated blood-cells are found in some animals which have fasted 
for half a yearand more. Nuclei of leucocytes in their sites of prolifera- 
tion always present a normal structure, but outside this, various changes, 
as rarefaction of the chromatin network, or a massing together of it. 
If the leucocytes outside their sites of formation seem to divide directly, 
this is to be regarded as*a pathological change, and indeed everywhere 
where a nucleus divides without mitosis. 

Besides senile degeneration the nucleus may become altered from 
purely pathological conditions. When the author incised the snouts of 
dogs, rabbits, or guinea-pigs, or scratched the cornea with a needle, he 
found that the cells between the wound and the regeneration area showed 
changes which resembled those of senile atrophy. Sometimes the 
morphological, sometimes the chemical decomposition of the chromatin 
network predominated. In the nests of epithelioma the nuclei diminish 
in volume and then lose their refractive power and capacity for staining. 
The difference between the regeneration of epithelium under normal 
circumstances and in inflammatory and neoplastic conditions consists in 
the greater number of figures found in the latter. Secondly (and 
principally) the nuclei are strikingly poorer in chromatin than in the 
healthy parts of the same organ, and the figures correspondingly smaller. 
Accordingly, both the cells of malignant tumours and epithelia of inflamed 
parts present similar characters to those of embryonic cells. That para- 
sitic disease can influence cell-structure, follows from the author’s 
observation that mould fungi affect in a characteristic and constant 
manner the form of the chromatin structure of the cell-nucleus. 


Segmentation in Axolotl.*—Herr O. Schultze confirms Bellonci’s 
results as to the karyokinesis of the first segmentation cells of the 
Axolotl. 

The framework of the resting nucleus does not pass by direct modifi- 
cation into the nuclear coil, which lies at the periphery, while the frame- 
work is still recognizable within. It seems as if the coil originated from 
an entirely fresh molecular grouping. In the wall of the nucleus small 
granules (Pfitzner’s granules) appear, and these seem to group themselves 
to form the coil. 

The importance of the attractive spheres or centres is then emphasized. 
They consist of filar and interfilar substance. The former is associated 
with radial arrangement in the body of the cell, and the “ amphiaster ’’ 
is most distinct at the commencement of the so-called star form of the 
daughter nuclei. Former observations on the formation of the daughter 
nuclei are confirmed. : 


* SB. Phys.-Med. Gesell. Wiirzburg, 1887, pp. 2-4. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 393 


Glandular Cells of Stomach.*—M. A. Pillict has made a comparative 
histological study of the morphology and evolution of the glandular cells 
of the stomach. 

The first type of principal cell may be described as prismatic, 
and is found in the first portion of the tubes. The nucleus is at the 
base of the cell, the network is variable, the general appearance is 
opaque, but also variable. The second or cubical type is represented by 
two forms, (a) by cubical cells in the second portion of the glands, with 
well-defined network, more or less developed, the appearance more or 
less opaque, the nucleus in the centre of the cell, and (b) by cubical or 
polyhedral cells in the same situation, with much restricted network, 
with a clear appearance, and with a mucous development in the inter- 
jacent plasma (“infiltrat”). This last is known as Heidenhain’s stage. 

The limiting cells are really identical with the principal. Two 
phases may be distinguished, (1) Nussbaum’s stage, where the cells 
are round, refractive, and granular, with the nucleus proliferating, with 
possible mucous development; (2) the state of coagulation where the 
round cells are homogeneous, refractive, and with atrophied nucleus. 

The evolution of a glandular cell of the stomach is comparable 
to that of any other epithelial cell, either ecto- or endodermic. The 
principal prismatic cell, like the other cells of the intestine, is trans- 
formed into a cubical cell more or less globular. At a further stage 
the cell becomes Jaden with large granules, begins to undergo coagula- 
tion, and passes into the homogeneous phase. The limiting cell (“cellule 
bordante”’) which results, is characterized by the development of the 
albuminoid network and by the accomplishment of coagulation and 
infiltration. The latter is due especially to the ternary compounds of 
metabolism, and developes in proportion to the vital activity of the 
albuminoid network. The elements become tumid and globular. 
Coagulation becomes complete, the cell falls into the stomach cavity, 
and undergoes disintegration. The same process occurs throughout. 
The evolution must be described as in part mucous and in part coagu- 
latory. Hither type may occur on to an advanced stage. Research 
must establish the chemical differences in the inter-reticular cytoplasm 
or enchylema, and on this fundamental point some classic investigations 
have already been made. 


Division and Metamorphosis of Wandering Cells.;—Dr. J. Arnold 
has made a detailed study of the processes of division in wandering 
cells, and of their progressive and retrogressive metamorphosis. On 
this subject satisfactory information has long been wanted. Following 
Ranvier, Arnold utilized plates of elder-pith on which to observe the 
cellular changes. The experiments and observations on living cells were 
controlled by the study of preserved phases. 

A. (1) Both on living and preserved specimens it was seen that the 
wandering cells could divide by a process of fragmentation. (2) This is 
associated with changes in the form of the nucleus, conditioned by active 
movements, and probably also with changes in the form of the cells them- 
selves. (3) Before, during, and after division, the content of chromatic 
filaments is very frequently increased. The diffuse staining, especially 
of the polymorphic nuclei, represents both a state of contraction in the 


* Journ, Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), xxiii. (1887) pp. 463-97 (1 pl.). 
+ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxx. (1887) pp. 205-310 (5 pls.). 


394 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


nuclei and also an increase in the diffuse stainable substance. (4) From 
a diffuse staining of the nuclei degeneration cannot be directly inferred, 
and especially not in the sense that the form in question owes its origin 
to a degeneration. (5) The succession of the various phases of division 
is in fragmentation very frequently by no means regular. Nuclei and 
cells may persist for long in one stage. The occurrence of polynuclear 
and of united cells is thus intelligible. 

B. (1) From larger and smaller wandering cells polynuclear ele- 
ments may arise by fragmentation, without any division of the cellular 
body at first occurring. (2) In such processes very complex nuclear 
figures are at times formed, and the nucleus is sometimes simply con- 
stricted. (8) An increase in the chromatic substance was frequently, 
but not constantly observed. (4) Observation of living objects shows 
that from giant-cells nucleated elements may be given off, sometimes in 
the form of processes, sometimes simply peripherally. 

C. (1) That wandering cells may divide according to the ordinary 
type of mitosis is very probable, but not certain. Division by fragmen- 
tation is, on the other hand, very frequent. (2) The discovery of mitosis 
in the elements of the blood, lymph, and lymphatic organs cannot be 
held as a proof that the lymphocytes usually divide in this fashion, far 
less that they do so exclusively. Deductions from these elements to 
wandering cells, and vice versd, are not directly admissible, since the 
two kinds of cells are not homologous, and may in different conditions 
divide differently. (3) Polynuclear cells arise on the plates usually by 
fragmentation, much less frequently by mitosis. The two processes 
must not, however, be too rigidly separated, nor must the difference be 
minimized, for in fragmentation the typical disposition of chromatic 
filaments is different, the relation of the nuclear membrane is different, 
the contour is usually sharp, &e. 

D. The nuclear degeneration is next discussed. This may take 
three forms—(1) simple disappearance of nucleus, without disorder of 
chromatic substance ; (2) nuclear degeneration, in which disorder of the 
chromatin precedes disappearance ; (3) degeneration of the figures of 
division or abortive division. 

E. Progressive changes are next described. Whether the wandering 
cells finding their way into the tissue may break up, or remain and pass 
through progressive changes, is undecided. It is yet more doubtful 
whether they play a part in the development of the granular and con- 
nective tissue, for instance of the vessels. That progressive metamor- 
phosis is impossible must not be concluded, since many of the experi- 
mental conditions were not favourable to such changes. The cells which 
were allowed to grow on the above-mentioned plates (on the mesentery), 
united together in continuous layers, and became flat, with dull proto- 
plasm and vesicular nucleus. So in plates placed in the lymph-sacs, it 
seemed almost demonstrable that the cells changed within the recesses 
of the plate. The cells in the meshes became epithelioid and giant cells, 
before the development of tissue and vessels proceeding from the walls 
of the lymph-sacs had penetrated the most external layer of the lymph 
thrombus. The epithelioid and giant cells may persist for long as such 
before the above-mentioned development reaches the surface of the 
plates. As to the share of the epithelioid and giant cells in the forma- 
tion of connective tissue, no conclusion was arrived at. In the thrombus 
at a later stage the epithelioid cells could not be distinguished from the 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 395 


elements which had grown in; and further, in cells within the meshes no 
development of connective substance was to be observed, even after a 
long time. 

The research concludes with a chapter on the epithelioid and giant 
cells, and with further discussion of the relation of wandering cells 
to the problems of histogenesis. 


Histology of Nerve-fibres.*—Herr Joseph has investigated the 
accuracy of Kupffer’s conclusion that the axis cylinder of medullary 
nerve-fibres was fibrillar in structure. As the object of investigation he 
chose the electric nerves of Torpedo marmorata. 

His results led him to conclude (a) that in the axial space there is a 
fine network, in the meshes of which the nerve-fibrils lie. In a normal 
nerve-fibre the axial space must include the greatest contingent of fibres, 
and exceed by five or more times the diameter of the medullary sheath. 
In this axial space a network is for the first time distinctly determined. 
The author criticizes as without sufficient basis the recent conclusions of 
Nausen. (6) In the medullary sheath, he notes, besides the fat-spherules 
(stained grey with osmic acid), a strongly refractive, generally darkly 
stained framework. He believes that there is a second constituent 
in the medullary sheath. This Ewald and Kiihne proposed to term 
“neurokeratin,” but as Herr Joseph failed completely to verify their 
experiments (in which this framework persisted in digestion), he thinks 
that the use of the term is unjustifiable. 


Development of Red Blood-corpuscles.,—M. L. Cuénot submits the 
results of his observations on the development of the coloured corpuscles 
of the blood. (a) The spleen of any of the lower vertebrates includes 
two sets of nuclei, surrounded by a little protoplasm. The smaller are 
the nuclei of the red blood-corpuscles ; the larger become amceboid white 
blood-corpuscles. (b) The rest of the development must be studied in 
the blood. He is convinced that the nucleus of the leucocyte never 
developes into a red blood-corpuscle. (c) The smaller nuclei above 
mentioned acquire a more regularly contoured surrounding of proto- 
plasm. The nucleus gives off from its surface little refractive granules, 
and becomes in consequence reduced in size. At adult size the secretion 
of hemoglobin begins in the cell. The nucleus thus appears to have an 
important réle in the formation of hemoglobin. The process was 
observed in fishes, amphibia, reptiles, and birds. (d) In mammals the 
development above indicated takes place wholly within the spleen. 


B. INVERTEBRATA. 


Colom and Vascular System of Mollusca and Arthropoda.t—Prof. 
E. Ray Lankester points out that the system of blood-containing spores 
which pervades the body of Molluscs and Arthropods is not equivalent 
to the ccelom or perivisceral space of Chetopoda and Vertebrata, but is 
a distended and irregularly swollen vascular system ; the cavities may 
be called “ hemoccel” in contradistinction to celom. In the Mollusca 
the chief representative of the true ccelom is the pericardial space; this 
does not communicate with the vascular system and does not contain 


* Arch, f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Anat. Abtheil.), 1888, pp. 184-7 (Physiol. Gesell. 
Berlin). 
+ Comptes Rendus, cvi. (1888) pp. 673-5. {+ Nature, xxxvii. (1888) p. 498. 


396 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


blood. The perigonadial spaces (so-called generative glands) are also 
ccelomic in character, and in Cephalopods and the archaic Neomenia they 
are continuous with the pericardium. In both Molluscs and Arthropods 
the ancestral blood-vessels have swollen and enlarged, so as to form 
large irregular spaces which have blocked up and so obliterated the 
previously existing ccelom. In the Arthropoda the ccelom is represented 
by the tubular generative gland, and as a system of small spaces (lymph- 
spaces) in the connective tissue of Astacus and Limulus, and as the 
internal terminal vesicle of the green glands and other nephridia present 
in various Arthropoda. The heart and pericardium of the Arthropoda are 
absolutely peculiar to the group, and characteristic of all its members. 

Prof. Lankester considers that each pair of valvular apertures in 
the heart of an Arthropod represents a pair of distinct tubular veins, 
which in the ancestral form brought blood to the heart from the gills. 
These veins have dilated, and their adjacent walls have been absorbed, 
so that we now have, instead of a series of veins, a great continuous 
blood-series on each side of the heart or dorsal vessel. Capillaries of 
the finest dimensions have been found in certain parts of Astacus and 
Limulus ; between them and unconnected with them, in the connective 
tissue, there is a system of spaces containing a coagulable fluid ; into 
this system the tubular nephridium, which becomes the coxal gland of 
Limulus, opens, so that these are remnants of the ccelom, elsewhere 
blocked up and obliterated by the swollen veins which form the hemoceel. 
The tubular generative glands of Arthropods are to be explained as 
perigonadial celom communicating with the exterior through modified 
nephridia. 

Mollusca. 
a. Cephalopoda. 


Homology of Germinal Layers of Cephalopods.* — Mr. S. Watase 
has a preliminary communication on the formation of the germinal layers 
in Loligo Pealii and other Cephalopods. A noticeable feature in the 
distribution of the food-yolk and germinal protoplasm is that the line of 
demarcation between them is perfectly distinct from the beginning of 
the embryonic history, so that segmentation goes on regularly without 
any disturbing effect on the food-yolk. 

In the stage which is regarded as the gastrula stage, the germinal dise 
consists of three zones—the central, which is a circular area of single 
cells ; the intermediate, two-cell-thick, zone; and the marginal single- 
cell zone ; some of the cells of the intermediate zone are spindle-shaped, 
and so show the characteristics of the future yolk-membrane cells. 
This germinal disc may be regarded as an inverted gastrula with its 
concave side turned towards the yolk-mass ; the line of junction between 
the marginal zone and the food-yolk corresponds to the lip of the 
blastopore, and the shallow cavity to the archenteron. Looked at in 
this way, the first origin of yolk-membrane cells near the inner side of 
the marginal zone fully justifies its comparison with the lining of the 
gastrula cavity or to the hypoblast. The delamination of the interme- 
diate zone before the completion of the lining of the gastrula cavity must 
be looked upon as precocious development due to the influence of food- 
yolk. 

It is clear, then, that the author recognizes in the early stages of 


* Johns-Hopkins Univ. Circ., vii. (1888) pp. 33-4. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 397 


Cephalopods the existence of three germinal layers, the outer columnar 
epiblast, the intermediate polygonal mesoblast cells, and the inner 
spindle-shaped hypoblast cells. ‘The evidence as to the yolk-membrane 
being the hypoblast is further discussed, and some objections to this 
view are noted. The fact that it does not take any part in the formation 
of the digestive tract, which consists only of fore-gut and hind-gut, may 
be explained by the quantity of food-yolk to be absorbed being so large 
that other structures are completed before it is all absorbed. 


Shell-growth in Cephalopoda.*—Mr. F. A. Bather returns to this 
subject.t| His conclusions are that the whole of the true shell, and the 
whole of the sheath are first formed in chitinous membranes, secreted by 
the visceral hump and mantle respectively ; these become calcified by the 
deposition in their interstices of arragonite and calcite respectively ; 
there is no intussusception, except of lime, and that is probably a 
physical process. Secretion of chitin continues after growth ceases, 
and may be accelerated in phylogeny. ‘The rate at which lime is 
deposited is independent of the animal, and hence extent of calcification 
varies inversely as rapidity of chitin secretion. 


Systematic Arrangement of Cranchia.{—Dr. J. Brock, referring to 
Mr. Hoyle’s report on the ‘ Challenger ’ Cephalopoda, in which Cranchia 
Reinhardtii of Brock is regarded as not identical with the type specimen 
of Steenstrup, which is preserved in the Copenhagen Museum, enters into 
some details as to his specimen; the differences do not appear to him to 
justify the formation of a new species. 


y. Gastropoda, 


Spermatogenesis in Aplysia.S—M. E. Robert has investigated the 
development of spermatozoa in Aplysia depilans and A. fasciata, where 
he finds two different processes, In the first, which appears to be the 
more normal and frequent, the nuclei of the spermatoblasts divide into a 
certain number of parts; these elongate and take on the form of spiral 
filaments, while the nucleus continues to grow; the filaments, which are 
the heads of the spermatozoa, separate from one another. As the nucleus 
grows it seems to absorb the surrounding protoplasm, which becomes 
reduced to a delicate zone. At maturity the protoplasm of the sperma- 
toblast is all absorbed by the nucleus. The nuclein is divided into a 
number of spiral filaments, each of which is the head of a spermatozoon. 
The nucleus bursts, and the heads of the spermatozoa escape in the 
form of large Vibrios. The author believes that the tails of these 
elements are formed by the elongation of a portion of the spermato- 
blastic protoplasm which is carried away by the cephalic filament of 
chromatin. 

In the second mode of development the spermatoblastic cell gives 
rise to only one spermatozoon. The nucleus, instead of dividing into 
distinct masses, elongates at one extremity, and takes on the form of a 
strongly curved rod; its other end elongates, and it becomes of an 
elongated fusiform shape. Finally the middle becomes more delicate, 
and elongates in its turn, This elongation is not, however, straight, but 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., i. (1888) pp. 298-310. 
+ See this Journal, ante, p. 200. 

t Nachr. K. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen, 1887, pp. 320-2, 
§ Comptes Rendus, evi, (1888) pp. 422-5. 


398 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


spiral in direction. Here the tail of the spermatozoon is more distinctly 

than in the first case formed at the expense of the protoplasm of the 

spermatoblast. The amceboid pseudopodia, which have been described, 

are nothing more than the first stage in the elongation of this proto- 
lasm. 

The differences in the modes of development depend on the more 
precocious fragmentation of the nucleus in the first case, and there is 
no morphological value in the difference between these two kinds of 
spermatozoa. 


Reproductive Organs and Oogenesis of Helix.*—M. P. Garnault 
has studied by means of sections the structure of a portion of the repro- 
ductive organs of Helix aspersa, and also the mode of oogenesis and the 
first stages in fertilization. 

(1) In regard to the organs, the portion known as the “ diverticu- 
lum” or “ talon” at the corner of the albumen gland has been studied. 
The efferent canal forms, near its posterior extremity, a sort of sac, 
bordering on the concavity of the albumen gland. ‘This sac is the 
swollen end of the efferent canal. <A little below the point where 
the swollen portion of the efferent canal is pressed into the albumen 
gland, it gives origin laterally toa tube, lined by ciliated non-granular 
epithelium. This tube branches into 3-8 ramifications, ending in culs- 
de-sac, and lodged between the ascending and the descending or swollen 
portion of the efferent canal. In the adult these tubes are filled with 
living spermatozoa. 

(2) In regard to the oogenesis, (a) the follicle is formed from the cells 
of the germinal epithelium, becomes delicate in adolescent ova, and is 
absorbed on dehiscence. (b) The nucleus of the adult ovum has a 
distinct membrane; it contains a large deeply stained sphere, and 
a still more deeply stained corpuscle within the latter. There is 
a well-developed karyoplasmatic network, with intensely stained cor- 
puscles at the nodes. The large nucleolus and accessory nucleoli 
are formed by the concentration of the chromatic material of the 
network. 

(8) When the Helix is beginning to deposit ova, the swollen portion 
of the efferent canal is seen to be full of sperms and ova. Admirable 
preparations were obtained by 3 per cent. nitri¢ acid and by Delafield’s 
hematoxylin. The vitelline expansions discovered by M. Perez were 
well seen over the whole ovum or at the poles. Their formation is pro- 
bably due to the irritability of the vitellus evoked by the action of the 
spermatozoa. 

(4) The author then describes the formation of polar globules, 
and is convinced that the process has the significance of cellular 
division. 

(5) The sperms penetrate the ovum usually by the vitelline expan- 
sions, which seem to be ‘‘cones of attraction.” They soon lose their 
tail and the head increases. 'Three male pronuclei were sometimes seen 
in one ovum. The pronuclei increase by the apposition of stainable 
granules from the vitellus. They soon acquire stellate form, with a 
central mass and three, increasing to six, lateral masses. The volume 
increases with the complexity. Never more than one enlarged male 
pronucleus was seen in the ovum. No male aster was to be seen. The 


* Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 675-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 399 


pronuclei occur sometimes at the germinative pole near the directive 
amphiaster, but usually at the other end of the ovum. They move very 
slowly in the vitellus, which at the most advanced stage observed did 
not possess a vitelline membrane. M. Garnault notes in conclusion that 
M. R. Blanchard has also suggested that the male pronucleus developed 
at the expense of the substance of the germinal vesicle, but has given no 
evidence, and further that the observations above summarized in regard 
to the male pronucleus hardly agree with what Platner has described in 
Arion. 

Mantle of Gastropods and Dependent Organs.*—M. F. Bernard 
continues his investigation of the structures associated with the mantle 
of Gastropods. 

(1) Monotocardii ; false bipectinate gill. 'The author has previously 
described the structure of this organ, but adds some notes on the nervous 
terminations. In the epithelium, outside the basilar membrane, the 
_ terminal ramifications of the nerves end in a network of multipolar cells. 
The terminal cells end in little rods, often reduced to minute heads 
plunged in the pigment of the non-ciliated epithelial cells which sur- 
round them. The neuro-epithelial cells may be distinguished by the 
absence of cilia. 

False gills with a single ganglion have been observed by Lacaze- 
Duthiers, and by the author in Vermetus, Paludina, Littorina, Bithynia, 
&c. His observations on Cyclostoma agree with those of Garnault. 
The peculiar structure of the false gill of Paludina is described. 

(2) Diotocardii. In reference to the observations of Spengel, 
Bouvier, and Wegmann, the author maintains that there is in the 
branchial support of Diotocardii no trace of rudimentary gills; the 
branchial ganglion and nerve are exactly as in Littorina. 

(3) The structure of the false gill is not essentially different from 
that of other portions of the mantle, but the neuro-epithelial terminations 
are more numerous, more constant, and better grouped. Their sensitive 
function does not seem doubtful; but to say that they are olfactory is 
premature. 

(4) In Prosobranchs, in all the organs associated with the mantle 
and with the foot, there is neither cartilaginous nor capillary structure. 
The modifications of connective, muscular, and epithelial tissue differ 
only in the proportions of their elements. Thus neuro-epithelial, 
secretory, pigmented, and indifferent epithelium occur throughout, but 
in certain regions (tentacles, false gill) the former predominates, and the 
regions become sensitive. In the mucus-glands, purple-glands, and 
certain parts of the branchial lamelle glandular tissue predominates. 
All parts-seem equally adapted to respiratory function. 


Kidney of Monotocardate Prosobranch Gastropods.{—M. R. Perrier 
has examined particularly the renal organ of Littorina littorea. He finds 
that the secreting apparatus is composed of a series of anastomosing 
lamella, one edge of which is attached to the wall of the renal sac, 
while the other hangs freely in the cavity. Along the short edge there 
is a vessel, the walls of which are distinctly bounded, and it extends 
throughout the whole of the lamella. The renal vessels all arise from a 
commor trunk which has its origin in the sinus which surrounds the 
intestine ; they contain venous blood, divide frequently, and convey the 


* Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 681-3. + Ibid., pp. 766-8. 


400 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


blood to a vast system of lacune which is contained in the interior of 
the lamelle. These lacune are partly occupied by connective cells and 
fibres, and by muscular fibres, and they communicate with superficial 
lacuns in the wall of the body. 

The glandular epithelium lies on a delicate basal membrane, the cells 
of which are arranged in a single layer; some of these cells are large, 
are quite devoid of cilia, and are glandular in function, while others are 
ciliated and gradually diminish to a delicate peduncle which is inserted 
in the basal membrane. The mechanism of secretion is very remarkable ; 
the author has never seen the cells detach themselves and fall into the 
cavity in the way which has always been described, but the excreted 
materials collect near the apex of the glandular cell in a vacuole which 
gradually increases in size, and contains solid concretions. This vacuole 
has sometimes been regarded as a second cell formed endogenously, 
When the vacuole is sufficiently large the cell projects into the cavity, 
and allows the vacuole to fall out. 

The glandular tissue of the kidney does not reach the pericardium ; 
all along the latter there is a special organ. It is a large lacuna in the 
form of a canal, which freely communicates with the auricle; it is 
composed of a tissue formed of stellate connective cells, which make 
a wide-meshed plexus. Wide ramified canals, lined by ciliated cells, 
pass into the lacuna, and open by numerous orifices into the renal 
cavity. 

The Orthoneura.—The memoir of Dr. H. von Ihering* on the 
Orthoneura is critically noticed in Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers’ ‘Journal.’ f 
The author attempts to support the division of the Prosobranchiata into 
Orthoneura and Chiastoneura against the criticisms of B. Haller, Spengel, 
Biitschli, and others by an account of the arrangements which obtain in 
the nervous system of Ampullaria. He comes to the conclusion that 
Spengel and Haller have regarded as a visceral commissure an anasto- 
mosis of the visceral nervous system, and he contends, therefore, that 
the Mollusca which they studied are really orthoneurous and not 
chiastoneurous, The anonymous critic points out that M. Bouvier has 
shown that in Ampullaria the right commissural ganglion connected with 
the corresponding pedal ganglion is not simple, but is equivalent to the 
right commissural ganglion and the subintestinal; that there is a 
twisted visceral commissure formed by its visceral commissure, a part of 
its visceral loop (the plexus), and by a dorsal nerve which had escaped 
Dr. Ihering’s attention ; if this be so, Thering’s argument fails, inasmuch 
as the type which he selects is chiastoneurous itself. Bouvier has also 
shown that the nerve which Ihering describes as arising from the right 
commissural ganglion and going to innervate the gill is not a branchial 
nerve, but a pallial one, and that the right gill of Ihering is always a 
left gill, innervated by the supra-intestinal ganglion and the part of the 
visceral commissure which unites the supra-intestinal ganglion to the 
abdominal ganglion. 

The critic thinks that the new work of Dr. Ihering fails to establish 
the existence of orthoneurous Prosobranchs, all of which are chiasto- 
neurous except the Neritinw and Helicine, which present an apparent 
orthoneury. 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xliv. (1887) pp. 499-531 (1 pl.). 
t Arch. Zool. Expér. et Gén., v. (1887) pp. xvii—xx. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 401 


The following is Ihering’s classification of Mollusca :— 


MOLLUSCA. 
Class J. AMPHINEURA. 
be II. AcEPHALA. 
»  LII. CepHanopopa. - 
= IV. SoLENoconcHz. 
= V. CooHLipEs. 


Order 1. Chiastoneura. 
5, 2. Orthoneura. 
» 3. Heteropoda. 
» WI. Prorococuuipes (Rhodopide). 
» WII. Preropopa. 
» WIII. Icunopopa. 
‘ Order 1. Nudibranchiata. 
» 2. Pleurobranchia. 
»» 93. Steganobranchia. 
» 4. Branchiopneusta, 
» 9. Nephroneusta. 

Classification of Gastropods, based on the Arrangement of the 
Nervous System.*—Prof. H. de Lacaze-Duthiers has summed up the 
results of his well-known work on various types of Gastropods. In it 
the “law of connections” has been his surest guide, and has been most 
rigorously applied. He has more than once urged that there are four 
nerve-centres around which all secondary ganglia can be grouped; three 
of them are symmetrical—the cerebral, the pedal, and the stomato- 
gastric. The fourth is asymmetrical, and is always composed of more 
than two ganglia; there are often, indeed, as many as five. This asym- 
metrical centre may be looked upon as the characteristic organ of the 
group, and Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers considers that its variations afford 
the best basis for classification. 

When the asymmetric commissure is very short, all the ganglia touch 
and form an are which is connected with the brain by a connective equal 
in length to the cerebro-pedal connective; in this case the centre is 
a little below the pedal ganglion, and in front of the digestive tube; to 
this type the term gastroneural may be applied; it is found in terrestrial 
and aquatic Pulmonata, Gadinia, Onchidium, and Ancylus. 

In the second type the asymmetric centre is divided into two, and 
occupies a dorsal position; the connectives uniting the centre are so 
short that they seem to disappear, and all the ganglia appear to have 
passed to the dorsal side of the digestive tube; this notoneural type 
is well marked in Tethys, and is found also in Tritonide, Doridide, 
Ombrellide, and Molidiez. 

In the pleuroneural type, which is seen in Aplysia, Bulla, and Philine, 
the asymmetrical ganglion lies at a distance from the rest, and on the 
right side; in the strepsineural condition there is further torsion of the 
connectives, and this torsion may come from the dorsal (aponotoneural) 
or from the pedal (epipodoneural) surface; of the former the Pectini- 
branchiata, and of the latter the Fissurellide and Haliotide are types. 
The latest classification of the Mollusca is then :— 

I. Astrepsineura.—1l. Notoneura; 2. Gastroneura; 3. Pleuroneura. 

II. Strepsineura.—4. Aponotoneura; 5. Epipodoneura. 


* Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 716-24. 


to 
ty 


1888. 


402 SUMMARY OF OCURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


5. Lamellibranchiata- 


Mucous Cells in Mussels.*— Dr. B. Rawitz has found in the 
mantle of Mussels goblet-cells, of which some are small, with a large 
central nucleus and granular protoplasm ; others are large, with a small 
central nucleus, the rest of the cell-contents being uniform in appear- 
ance ; and others again are large, with a small nucleus situated at the 
base of the cell, the protoplasm having oily granules scattered through- 
out itself. This last kind of cell allows the oily granules and mucous 
contents to pass out at the apex of the cell into the surrounding water. 
A careful investigation has shown that the above three different kinds 
of cells are merely different stages in the seeretory activity of the 
mucous cells, and that during this activity the cell-contents not only 
undergo a change of minute structure, but also of chemical composition, 
the latter being evidenced by the changed reactions which they give 
with staining agents. During secretion the cell itself is not broken 
down, but only a portion of its protoplasm is excreted in the form of 
oily drops and mucous threads, the nucleus remaining intact. Dr. 
Rawitz considers that special importance must be assigned to the 
nucleus in connection with the nutrition of ‘the cell, as during the 
secretory activity of the cell it undergoes changes, not only in its shape, 
but in its behaviour towards staining reagents. 


Striated Muscles in Mollusca.—M. R. Blanchard} thinks that 
Prof. Fol cannot have fully carried out the proper means of investigating 
the structures of the muscular tissue of Molluscs, or he would not have 
denied the presence of striated fibrils. He calls attention to his account 
of the muscles of Pecten, and asserts the accuracy of his observations on 
the true transverse striation which can be seen in that form. 

M.L. Roule§ has reinvestigated the subject and confirms Fol’s obser- 
vation. In muscles which exhibit contractions of some amplitude (e. g. 
the retractors of the shell), it may be seen that during extension the 
fibres have their fibrils parallel to their longitudinal axis, while during 
contractions the fibrils become spirally twisted. Fol’s note seemed to 
indicate that the spiral state was constant, whereas it is only exhibited 
in contracted fibres. The anthor suggests that the same state of affairs 
may possibly obtain in the case of some Annelids and other Vertebrates 
where transverse striz have been deseribed. 


Molluscoida. 
B. Bryozoa. 


Nervous System of Phylactolematous Fresh-water Bryozoa.| 
Dr. A. Saefftigen has a preliminary notice on the nervous system of these 
Bryozoa, based on a study of Cristatella and Plumatella. He finds that 
the cavity of the supra-cesophageal ganglion is not completely sur- 
rounded by nervous elements, for on the side which is turned towards 
the cesophagus there is endothelium. The nervous elements of the 
ganglion consist of a cortical layer of cells, bounded externally by endo- 
thelium, and inclosing a fibrous mass, which in transverse section is 


* Nature, xxxvii. (1887) p. 168, from Proceedings of Berlin Physiological 
Society, 1887, Nov. 18. t+ Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 425-7. 

t See this Journal, ante., p. 199. § Comptes Rendaus, cvi. (1888) pp. 872-4. 

|| Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 96-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 403 


horseshoe-shaped. The nerve-fibres of the cornua of the ganglion are 
traversed pretty regularly by ganglionic cells. The fluid in the cavity 
does not coagulate on the addition of chemical reagents, contains no 
morphological elements, and is connected with the body-cavity. The 
mode of distribution of the tentacular nerves is described in some detail. 
Direct continuations of the central fibrous mass, in the form of two 
nerves, innervate the lower part of the body; the hinder part is supplied 
by a large number of nerves, the distribution of which in the body-wall 
could not be followed far. 


New Genus of Bryozoa.*—Under the name of Delagia chetopteri, 
M. J. Joyeux-Latfuie describes a new and curious Bryozoan, which lives 
on and in the internal wall of the tube of Chxtopterus. It is ectoproctous, 
gymnolzmatous, and stenosomatous, and may be placed among the 
group Stolonifera of Ehlers. It belongs to the division Orthonemida 
of Hincks; its stolons recall somewhat those of Cylindrecium, 
Victorella, Avenella, or even Buskia. In the arrangement of the zocecia 
we find some points in common with what is observed in some species of 
Bowerbankia ; but a quite special character is given to these zowcia by 
the large and apparently spherical vesicle which is found on either side, 
a little below their orifice. The whole colony is protected by a 
chitinous and transparent ectocyst. 


Polyzoa of Victoria.t—Mr. P. H. MacGillivray continues to publish 
in the decades of the Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria figures of 
Polyzoa; among those lately figured are Maplestonia cirrata, Amphi- 
blestrum albispinum, Caberea rudis, C. glabra, and Schizoporella ridleyi. 


Arthropoda. 
a. Insecta. 


Nerve-Centres and Sensory Organs of Articulata.t—M. H. Vial- 
lanes commences his fifth memoir with an account of the brain of the 
Field Cricket (Gidipoda cxrulescens and Calopterus italicus). 

Dividing, as before, the brain into protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, 
and tritocerebrum, he finds that the first consists of the layer of post- 
retinal fibres, the ganglionic layer, the external chiasma, the external 
medullary mass, the internal chiasma, the internal medullary mass, the 
protocerebral lobes, the ocular nerves and ganglia, the pons of the 
protocerebral lobes, and the median protocerebrum. The first five of 
these have essentially the same constitution as in insects already 
described. ; 

The internal medullary mass is formed of three capsules of dotted 
substance, covering one another, and all three are, by their internal edge, 
closely connected with the protocerebral lobes. A direct union is 
established by the commissural cord between the right and left halves. 

The two protocerebral lobes fuse with one another in the median 
line, but only anteriorly and posteriorly ; the space between them is part 
of the median protocerebrum. These lobes are formed of dotted sub- 
stance invested over a large part of their surface by ganglionic cells. 

Immediately behind each of the three ocelli there is a small ocellar 
ganglion, and from each of these a long ocellar nerve is given off. The 


* Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 620-3. 
t+ Natural History of Victoria. Prodromus of Zoology, Decades xiii. (1886) and 
xiv. (1887). t Ann. Sci. Nat., iv. (1887) pp. 1-120 (6 pls.), 
2F 2 


404 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


pons of the protocerebral lobes is a narrow band of dotted substance, of 
a horseshoe shape; by either end it is united with one of the proto- 
cerebral lobes, and its substance is invested by ganglionie cells. 

The pedunculated body is partially inclosed in the protocerebral 
lobe; it consists of a calyx, a stalk, an anterior and an internal tubercle ; 
the cavity of the ealyx is filled with very small nerve-cells, containing 
but a small quantity of protoplasm. ‘The median protocerebrum is 
placed below and between the protocerebral lobes, and consists of a 
central body, a median lobe, two lateral lobes, and the two tubercles of 
the central body. The deutocerebrum is situated below the proto- 
cerebrum, and is composed of two pairs of nervous masses ; 1t gives rise 
to four pair of nerves—the antennary, the aceessory antennary, the tegu- 
mentary nerye, and the root of the stomatogastrie ganglion. The trito- 
eerebrum is formed of a pair of lobes, each of which is placed below and 
in front of the corresponding dorsal lobe of the deutocerebrum. 

In the second part of the memoir a comparison is instituted between 
the brain of Insects and that of Crustacea; * in both there are the same 
constituent parts, but the protocerebral lobes of Crustacea are widely 
separated from the median line, and placed in the oculiferous peduncles. 
As the deutocerebra are similar it follows that the antennary nerve of 
the Insect is the homologue of the nerve of the antennule of Crustacea. 
The tritocerebrum of the Insect is, as compared with that of Crustacea, 
considerably reduced. The nerve of the external antenna is not repre- 
sented, but the nerves of the labra are homologous. The root of the 
stomatogastric ganglion of Crustacea is the homologue of the root of the 
frontal ganglion of Insects, and the stomatogastric ganglion of the former 
is homologous with the frontal ganglion of the latter. M. Viallanes is 
of opinion that the head of the Insect is formed of three pre-buccal and 
three postbuccal “ zoonites”; the first carries the eyes and ocelli, the 
second the antenne, the third has no appendages but bears the labrum, 
the fourth carries the mandibles, the fifth the maxille, and the sixth the 
lower lip. 


Vision of Caterpillars and Adult Insects.;—Prof. F. Plateau con- 
tinues his researches on the powers of vision by an investigation of cater- 
pillars and of the frontal ocelli of adult inseets. 

(1) He made a series of experiments and observations on the cater- 
pillars of fifteen species of Lepidoptera, and obtained the following 
results :—(a) The eyes of caterpillars have a more important réle than 
that of simply distinguishing between light and darkness. ‘They really 
see, though badly. (b) The distance of distinct vision is short, and 
usually about a centimetre. (c) At greater distances caterpillars can 
perceive large masses, but do not discern their nature. (d) They only 
perceive the movements of bodies within the limits of distinct vision. 
(e) Tactile hairs present on the anterior segments of many forms are 
of much sensory importance. (f/f) The antennz are much used in 
testing the path and surrounding objects. 

(2) In the next chapter Prof. Plateau discusses the function of the 
frontal ocelli of adult insects. He gives an historical summary of past 
researches, describes the manifold conditions of his own observations 
and experiments, submits tabulated results of his investigations of 


* See this Journal, 1887, p. 379. 
+ Bull. Acad, R. Sci. Belg., xv. (1888) pp. 28-91. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 405 


different forms, and formulates the following conclusions. («) Diurnal 
winged insects, Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Lepidoptera, when blinded 
by covering the entire eyes with black, or by cutting all the optic nerves, 
rise to a great height in the air when liberated. (b) When the compound 
eyes are suppressed, but the frontal ocelli left, in Hymenoptera, Odonati, 
and Diptera, the insects behave exactly as if the ocelli also had been sup- 
pressed. When freed, they rise vertically as before. In a chamber 
lighted from one side they behaved as if they were totally blind. (c) 
But if the frontal ocelli be alone suppressed, the above insects behave ag 
if they had lost nothing. (d) In diurnal insects equipped with com- 
pound eyes, the ocelli count for almost nothing. They only afford the 
animals very feeble perceptions which they do not know how to use. 

The author concludes his memoir with the following suggestions, 
which he describes as “ plausible hypotheses,” supported by a certain 
number of observed facts :—(1) Diurnal insects, in which all the eyes 
have been suppressed, still enjoy dermatoptic perceptions. (2) They 
are almost reduced to the same limitations if the ocelli alone are left at 
their disposal. (3) The dermatoptic perceptions are the primary cause 
of the ascending flight of liberated blinded insects. (4) The frontal 
ocelli serve neither for the perception of movements in adjacent objects, 
nor for the perception of light in relatively obscure media. (5) The 
simple eyes, which the author has shown to function in an imperfect 
fashion in most Myriopods, in many Arachnids, and in caterpillars, have 
entirely lost their utility in the great majority of insects equipped with 
compound eyes. 

Secretion of Pure Aqueous Formic Acid by Lepidopterous Larvee 
for the Purposes of Defence.*—Mr. H. B. Poulton has made observations 
on the larve of the genus Cerura (Dicranura), which have long been 
known to have the power of ejecting a colourless fluid from the mouth of 
a gland which opens on the prothoracic segment. This secretion was 
found to contain about 33 per cent. of anhydrous acid. A mature larva, 
which has not been previously irritated, will eject 0°050 grm. of secre- 
tion, containing about 40 per cent. of acid. It appears certain, from 
the chemical investigations that were made, that the secretion consists 
of a strong aqueous solution of very nearly pure formic acid. The rate 
of secretion is comparatively slow ; starvation lessens its amount, and 
decreases the quantity of the acid, but this seems to be due rather to the 
general health than to the acid being formed directly from the food ; 
there was no difference when the larvee fed on poplar and not willow, or 
vice versa. 

Finer Structure of Butterfly Scales.t—Mr. T. F. Smith regards the 
scales of Amathusia as being very simple in structure ; longitudinal ribs 
run “ from end to end of the scale; cross-ribs at regular intervals, and 
rising from these two or three beads, some of which seem to stand close 
on the cross-ribs, and some to rise from them with a stalk.” In Morphe 
menelaus attention should be given to the contrast between the coarseness 
of the main structure, and the beautiful minute beads with which it is 
outlined. In Papilio memnon “ instead of a single cross-bar at regular 
intervals connecting the long ones, they are connected by a beautiful 
interlacing pattern, from which rise numerous minute filaments not more 


* Rep. Brit. Assoc. Ady. Sci., 1887 (1888) pp. 765-6. 
¢ Journ. Quekett Micr, Club, iii. (1887) pp. 178-81. 


406 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


than the 100,000th of an inch in diameter.” In Zygena trigonilla the 
structure is quite different ; there is no trace of cross-ribbing, but from 
the inner part of the membranes of the scale Mr. Smith thinks a tufted 
structure springs, which in appearance is not unlike the hairs on the 
leaves of some plants. 


Scent-organs of German Lepidoptera.*—Prof. P. Bertkau has con- 
tinued his observations on the scent-organs of various German Lepidoptera. 
The Noctuina have ventrally placed organs of the Sphingid type. In 
Hadena and Dichonia the hairs of the tuft are extraordinarily long ; 
there is not, as in the Sphingide, one scale on one large gland-cell, but 
several smaller cells belong to one scale. A very similar apparatus was 
found in some Orthosiide. It is somewhat remarkable that homologous 
organs should be found in groups which are, systematically, so wide 
apart as the Sphingide, Noctuina, and Geometride. 


Scent-glands of Phryganide.t—Dr. W. Miiller has been confirmed 
in his opinion that the peculiar palpi of Sericostoma personatum were 
comparable to the scent-glands of Lepidoptera by the discovery that they 
are confined to the male. Instead of the four elongated joints of the 
maxillary palp which are found in the female, the male has a single 
terminal joint formed by the fusion of several joints; this is almost 
spoon-shaped, the edge which is turned away from the head is widened ; 
on the other side the spoon lies so close to the head that it seems to form 
part of it, and covers it like a mask; by this means the secretion appears 
to be protected from evaporation. The interior of the spoon is quite 
filled by very fine hairs, which are pale, faintly knobbed, and about one 
millimetre in length. When the palpi are separated the hairs become 
spread out. 

The secondary sexual organs which have been observed in various 
Phryganids, such as Notidobia, Drusus, and Grumicha, are probably also 
scent-organs. 


Development of Endoderm of Blatta germanica.{ — M. N. Cholod- 
kovsky has undertaken the reinvestigation of the origin of the endoderm. 
The endoderm in Blatta germanica does not become differentiated until 
after the closure of the primitive groove, the appearance of rudiments of 
the appendages, and the beginning of the differentiation of two nerve- 
trunks from the ectoderm. The inner of the two constituent layers of 
the embryo breaks up into two rows of hollow mesodermal somites ; the 
cells of the inner median wall of the somites become distinctly differ- 
entiated into two layers, the thicker of them form the mesodermal 
enteric wall, while the other gradually separates itself from the wall of 
the somite, lies close to the nutrient yolk, and forms the true endoderm, 
which, later on, completely incloses the yolk. The yolk-cells take no 
part in forming the endoderm, and appear to be provisional phagocytes 
in the histolysis of the nutrient yolk. 

The late appearance of the endoderm of Blatta is intelligible when 
we consider the extremely small part which it playsin the structure 
of the complete insect, in which the greater part of the organs are of 
ectodermal origin. 


* Verh. Nat. Ver. Preuss. Rheinlande, xliv. (1887) pp. 118-9. 
+ Arch. f. Naturgesch., li. (1887) pp. 95-7. 
¢ Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 163-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 407 


Comparative Biology of Necrophagous and Coprophagous Dip- 
terous Larve.*-—Baron Osten-Sacken has a report on Mr. Portchinski’s 
observations on the life-history of various dipterous larve. Referring 
to the well-known fact that the larve of various widely separated 
species can scarcely be distinguished from one another, he points out 
that this is a result of adaptation to their modes of life. The larvae of 
Calliphora erythrocephala, Lucilia cesar (which are Muscine), and 
Cynomyia mortuorum, which is a Sarcophaginid, are almost indistinguish- 
able. The coprophagous larve, which are found in very various 
families, all show a tendency to shorten as much as possible the period 
of development, and in many cases they are viviparous. The compara- 
tive ease with which the course of development may be modified is 
shown by Musca corvina; in the north of Russia this species lays 
twenty-four eggs, and the larvae omit the second stage of development ; 
in the south of Russia the same species has the same history in spring 
only; towards the end of spring and in summer it lays only a single 
very large egg, which, on extrusion, passes at once into the third stage. 

All the various modes of development, which result in as rapid an 
acquirement as possible of the imaginal stage, are regarded by Mr. 
Portchinski as the consequence of the coprophagous mode of life of the 
larve. The large number of such forms are found together on food- 
areas which are often small, and this causes the animals to complete 
their developmental stage as rapidly as possible. With this is con- 
nected a small degree of fertility. 

That Musca domestica (the common housefly) should afford an ex- 
ception by laying a large quantity of eggs (120-160), and by its larvee 
passing through all three stages, may be explained by its having 
become a domesticated animal, which is not exposed to the same struggle 
for existence as are its allies. 


Organization of Brain of Somomya erythrocephala.t—Dr. J. Cuccati 
has a contribution to our knowledge of the structure of the brain in 
insects. In the brain of Somomya he finds that the olfactory-optic- 
bundle of Bellonci is present, together with the bundle which connects 
the antennary swellings with the fibrous plexiform substance of the 
head of the fungiform body; there, too, is the crossed olfactory-optic- 
bundle of the same author. The antennary swellings are connected 
with one another by two large and by intermediate smaller commissures. 
The antennary nerves consist of fine outer and larger inner fibres ; they 
are connected by nerve-fibres with the central stalk, and with the motor 
nerves of the labium. The optic swellings are ikewise connected by 
commissures with one another. They give off a crossed bundle, the 
fibres of which pass into two plexiform masses; they are directly con- 
nected with the anterior cerebral masses and with the hinder masses of 
the cerebral spheres. 

In the brain there are a larger number of commissures placed in 
different planes; there are also crossed bundles, which arise from the 
cells in the median line, and these send off fibres in the direction of 
the optic swelling. As in the Orthoptera there are two bundles, one of 
which arises from cells and the other from the plexiform mass; the 
former serves to supply the proboscis, and the latter passes into the 


* Naturforscher, xxi. (1888) pp. 66-7. 
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool,, xlvi. (1888) pp. 240-69 (2 pls.). 


408 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


stalk of the brain, of which only one is present. The nerve of the 
stemmata has both fine and strong fibres; the former probably pass, as in 
the Orthoptera, into the fork-shaped body, but the latter go to the hinder 
part of the brain. Groups of cells send out processes into the fan- 
shaped body, and into the “‘ body of elliptical section.” Other groups 
in various parts of the brain send out processes in various directions, 
according to the position which they occupy. 


Machilis maritima.*—M. S. Jourdain has a preliminary note on this 
Thysanurid, in which he limits himself to an account of the thoracic and 
abdominal appendages, and of the curious exsertile vesicles of this 
animal. Externally to the coxa there is an articulated piece which the 
author compares with the exopodite of a crustacean appendage; if this 
view be correct, the thoracic appendage of a Machilis may be said to be 
composed of a basal piece which carries an endopodite and an inarticulate 
exopodite. ‘The abdomen is formed of eleven, and not, as is generally 
stated, of ten rings; the first has no appendages; the seven that succeed 
carry a pair of delicate and short appendages, consisting of a very 
reduced basal piece, and a longer joint which ends in a single unguis. 
The appendages of the ninth ring are more developed, and these are the 
organs which, by separating sharply, form the leaping organs. Those 
of the tenth ring are modified with long, sebaceous, and multi-articulate 
filaments ; while the last ring has one such appendage, which may be 
supposed to be formed by the fusion of two. The possession of these 
abdominal limbs causes the author to regard Machilis as intermediate 
between Insects and Myriopods. 

To get a good view of the exsertile vesicles which are found on the 
inferior surface of the abdomen, it is necessary to place the animal in a 
glass tube, the inner wall of which has been moistened; it may then be 
seen to suddenly protrude twenty-two vesicles, which have the form of 
small oblong sacs, distended by liquid. These organs, which appear to 
correspond to the abdominal vesicles of certain Podurids, are arranged 
in two longitudinal rows on either side of the middle line. They 
are formed by a portion of the integument of the abdomen, which 
is delicate and membranous, is invaginated when in repose, and when 
distended by the liquid of the general cavity is evaginated suddenly on 
contact with a moistened surface. It is possible that they are organs 
which absorb the water which is necessary to make up for that lost by 
the animals when running over surfaces exposed to the rays of the sun. 


Brain of Phylloxera.t—M. V. Lemoine pursues his researches on 
the nervous system of the winged Phyllowera punctata, and has made 
sections of its brain. He describes the structure of the ocelli and their 
innervation, the optic lobes, and the innervation of the compound eyes. 
The author gives an intimate account of the various divisions of the 
brain, the different commissures, the subcesophageal, and other ganglionic 
masses. 


B. Myriopoda. 


Brain of Iulus.{—M. G. Saint-Remy has examined the internal 
structure of the brain of Julus sabulosus, and I. maritimus. The organ is 
divisible into three ganglionic regions, the optic, the antennary or 


* Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 623-5. 
+ Ibid., pp. 678-80. t Ibid., pp. 618-20, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 409 


olfactory, and the mandibular. The first of these is divisible into two 
regions, the median optic ganglion which occupies the posterior and 
superior part of the brain, and the optic lobes which lie laterally and 
correspond to the optic ganglia of Insects and Crustacea. The former 
portion is interesting in two points; in the middle of the cortex of 
ganglionic cells there are two islets of small nuclei grouped around an 
eminence of the medullary substance ; these have all the characters of 
the ganglionic nuclei of Dietl, and may be considered as cells which are 
very poor in protoplasm. The optic lobes are small cylinders situated 
at the extremities of the brain; though their structure is somewhat 
complicated, it is much simpler than that of the optic ganglia of Insects ; 
each consists of four layers, internal medullary, layer of optic fibrils, 
ganglionic layer, and layer of optic bundles. 

The olfactory ganglia are formed by the two olfactory lobes, each of 
which consists anteriorly of a thick layer of ganglionic nuclei, below 
which the dotted substance is peculiarly fine and homogeneous. On the 
outer side the lobe is swollen into a lobule invested by ganglionic cells, 
in which the dotted substance is differentiated into glomeruli comparable 
to those of Insects. The mandibular ganglion, which is situated in the 
inferior and anterior part of the brain, is formed of two lobes united 
behind by a commissural band, and in front by a well-isolated nervous 
bridge which gives off the stomatogastric nerves. Its ganglionic cortex 
consists only of cells rich in protoplasm. The nervous bridge is formed 
of a cylinder of dotted substance invested by large cells. There is a 
transverse commissure of the cesophageal ring, which is formed by a 
bundle of fibres that take a U-shaped course. 

We may conclude that the brain of Iulus is more complicated than 
that of other Myriopods yet studied by M. Saint-Remy, and that it 
presents striking resemblances to that of Insects ; there are traces of the 
pedunculated body ; the optic ganglion, though complex, has no chiasma ; 
the olfactory lobe is relatively more important than that of Insects, as 
in them there are cells poor in protoplasm which are specially reserved 
for the centres of special sensibility. 


y. Prototracheata. 


Development of the Cape Species of Peripatus.*—Mr. A. Sedgwick 
continues his account of the development of Peripatus of the Cape from 
stage G to birth. The changes which take place are mainly those of 
growth and histological differentiation. The segmented thickenings of 
the ectoderm which are called the ventral organs are, in the first seg- 
ment, probably represented by the cerebral grooves; those of the second 
differ from all the posterior in not coming into contact with one another 
in the mid-ventral line; they remain in the ectoderm and appear to 
retain a connection with the posterior lobe of the brain; the ventral 
organs of the oral papille become divided into two parts by the lips; 
those of the seventeen ambulatory legs appear to retain a cellular con- 
nection with the lateral nerve-cords. The ventral cords withdraw from 
the ectoderm, though they still appear to be attached to the latter by 
marked cellular processes. The changes in the nervous system and eye 
are described. The crural glands seem to be entirely derived from the 
ectoderm, but nothing is known as to the details of their development. 


* Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xviii. (1888) pp. 373-96 (4 pls.). 


410 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The endoderm in stage G becomes reduced to a layer of extreme 
tenuity ; soon, however, it begins to increase in thickness; the endodermal 
part of the alimentary canal is without glandular appendages of any kind. 

The mesoderm may be considered under four heads :— 

(1) The muscles of the skin arise from the subectodermal fibrous 
network, the outer part of which becomes arranged in a circular manner, 
and so forms the circular muscles of the body-wall; the longitudinal 
muscles arise in seven patches. The contractile tissue of the gut-wall 
and internal organs generally is derived from wandering cells, which 
themselves appear to be derived from the walls of the mesodermal 
somites, 

(2) The body-cavity is vascular in type, and may, as Lankester 
suggests, be called the “ hemocele.” The heart, in stage G, becomes a 
tube with thin walls and flattened nuclei, lying freely in the pericardial 
cavity, with cellular cords projecting from its walls into the latter; 
these cords seem to become transformed into a pericardial network, 
which contains round nuclei in its nodes, and is continuous with the 
floor and roof of the pericardium. The hemoccle becomes divided 
into five main chambers—central compartment of the body-cavity, heart, 
pericardial cavity, two lateral compartments in which the nerve-cords 
and salivary glands lie, and the leg-cavities which contain the nephridia. 

(3) Mr. Sedgwick recapitulates the history of the nephridia under 
the head of the somites from which they are respectively derived. 

(4) The generative organs, in stage G, form two tubes lying in the 
central compartment of the body-cavity, and closely applied to one 
another in the middle line. The generative ducts may be regarded as 
modified nephridia. 

It is commonly said that, in the Arthropoda, the generative ducts 
are continuous with the glands, but in Peripatus, at any rate, they 
present exactly the same relation to the gonads as do the oviducts of 
the dogfish or the earthworm to the ovaries of these animals; or, in 
other words, the generative ducts open into the ccelom, and the ova are 
products of the coelomic epithelium. 

Not only has Peripatus nephridia, but the coxal glands of Limulus, and 
the antennary glands of Crustacea are, as Lankester has suggested, pro- 
bably nephridia; so that the negative feature often regarded as charac- 
teristic of Arthropods—the absence of nephridia—can no longer be 
considered as justified by the facts of the case. 


Development of a South American Peripatus.*—Mr. W. L. Sclater 
has an account of the early stages of development of a South American 
species of Peripatus from Demerara, which he proposes to call P. Im- 
thurmi. The egg is small, as in P. torquatus and P. Edwardsii, and there 
is an “extraordinary discrepancy” between its early stages and those of 
P. capensis. The segmentation is complete, and there is no appearance 
of sponginess, such as is described by Sedgwick for P. capensis, nor 
would one suppose from the nature and size of the ovum that it had 
only comparatively recently lost its yolk. The only similar case known 
to us is that of placental mammals, and in both cases there appears to 
have been diminution in the size of the ovum, total segmentation, and the 
formation of an embryonic (Peripatus) or blastodermic (mammals) vesicle. 

A curious phenomenon, of which the author can offer no explanation, 


* Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xxviii. (1888) pp. 343-68 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 411 


is the apparent inversion of the layers, for the epidermis appears to be 
formed from the inner layer of cells, and the hypoblast from cells that 
are, morphologically speakiag, part of the outside layer of the embryo; 
the cause may perhaps be found in the so-called amnion. 

The species of Peripatus appear to fall into three groups: New 
Zealand species, Cape species, and South American species. The only 
anatomical difference between the two latter which is of importance is 
the presence of a receptaculum ovorum, or closed vesicle, between the 
ovary and the receptaculum seminis. The only other instance of great 
variation in development which the author remembers is that of Bateson’s 
Balanoglossus and the ordinary Tornaria-Balanoglossus ; but that difference 
is explicable by the difference in habit, for the former is mud-living and 
the latter is pelagic. But, with Peripatus, the habits and mode of life 
seem to be much the same wherever they occur, so that the striking 
differences in development cannot be explained by change of habits 
_ modified by external conditions. 


6. Arachnida. 


Eyes in Scorpions.*—Mr. G. H. Parker finds that the retine of the 
median and lateral eyes of scorpions are hypodermal in origin. The 
median eye is found to be triplostichous, and to be formed by an invo- 
lution of the hypodermis and an inversion of the middle layer; the first 
layer (lentigen) is modified hypodermis immediately external to the 
pocket of involution ; in addition to secreting the lens, it serves the pur- 
pose which gained for it its earlier name of vitreous. The lens differs 
from ordinary cuticle in having no pore-canals, and, except the external 
hyaline layer, it can be stained throughout. The lentigen can produce 
cuticula independently of the general hypodermis. The second layer, or 
retina, is inverted, and consists of nerve-end-cells and pigment-cells ; it 
contains phaospheres. ‘The walls of the nerve-end-cells are thickened 
into prenuclear rhabdomeres, and a nerve is given off from their deep ends ; 
five rhabdomeres unite to form one rhabdome. Each pigment-cell forms 
two sacs, connected by astiff fibre; the nucleus is in the inner one. The 
third or post-retinal layer is the “sclera matrix” of Graber, and it 
becomes intimately fused with the retina. In the embryo the fibres of 
the optic nerve emerge from the external ends of the inverted retinal 
cells, but in the adult from the opposite ends. The basement membrane 
is a cuticula formed by the inner ends of the hypodermal cells; the 
preretinal membrane is the united basement membranes of the lentigen 
and retina; the sclera is the basement membrane of the post-retina. 

The lateral eyes are monostichous, and arise from a simple thickening 
and depression of the hypodermis ; around the margin of the depression 
is a ring of perineural cells which secretes the lens; they differ from the 
lentigen in not having a vitreous function, owing to subsequent recession 
removing them from between the lens and retina. The lens has the same 
structure as in the median eye, but the retina wants the phaospheres ; there 
is no preretinal membrane. Mr. Parker thinks that the lateral eyes 
may well be supposed to represent the ancestral type of the median eyes. 

So-called Auditory Hairs.;—Herr W. Wagner has investigated the 
nature of the hairs which Dahl described as “auditory.” He distin- 


* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Camb., xiii. (1887) pp. 173-208 (4 pls.). 
+ Buil. Sec. Imp. Nat. Moseou, 1888, pp. 119-24. 


412 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


guishes two types of hair, one in which the cuticular root-portion is 
thick compared with the free stem, a second in which the root is the 
more delicate portion. The first or tactile hairs are described at 
length and contrasted with the second or protective hairs. As to those 
hairs which Dahl described as auditory, two types occur, and minor 
variations besides. They are not uniform structures. A very distinct 
third type, swollen in a cucumber-like expansion, was observed by the 
author on a species of Mygale brought from New Guinea by Korotneff. 
The three forms are very carefully described, but the details can hardly 
be compressed. It is more important to notice Herr Wagner's con- 
clusions: —(1) That the functions of the types described cannot be 
supposed to be identical; (2) that no one of the types can be recognized 
as auditory. 

What, then, is their function? They are more perfect and 
more sensitive than the ordinary tactile hairs. They can be affected 
by slight agitations which do not influence the latter. Herr Wagner 
is convinced that their réle is to perceive finer sensations, such as 
those which indicate the approach of rain. Thus it is intelligible why 
the vagabond forms should have these hairs in much richer abundance 
than the sedentary forms, in which (e.g. in Epeiride and Theridiide) 
they occur only on the tibia and the metatarsus. 


New Orb-weaving Spider.*—Dr. H. C. M‘Cook has discovered in 
Florida a new orb-weaving spider, which he calls Cyrtophora bifurea., 
Though with some resemblances to C. caudata of Hentz, it differs entirely 
in the shape of its cocoon, for this is of a somewhat irregular octagon 
shape, and is of a light-green colour. ‘The number of cocoons found on 
one string varied from ten to fourteen ; they are bound together by con- 
tinuous series of thick white threads, which extend from the top to the 
bottom of the string. Within each cocoon, which consists of two parts, 
there is a very slight tuft of flossy white silk, in which the eggs are 
deposited. The spider is of about the shade of its cocoon; the female 
is most remarkable for the cleft at the apex of the conical prolongation 
of the abdomen. 


British Oribatide.|—Mr. A. D. Michael has published the second 
volume of his admirable monograph of the British Oribatide. An 
amended table is given of the genus Tegeocranus and the genera Notaspis 
(with nineteen species), Damzus (with eight), Hermannia (with six), 
Eremzus (with two), Nothrus (with thirteen), Hypocthonius (with four), 
and Hoplophora (with five), are described in detail. An amended table, 
with descriptions of two new species, is also given of Scutovertex. A few 
nymphs whose adults were included in the first volume are described, 
and supplementary notes are made on other species. 

The author considers the classifications recently proposed by 
Canestrini and by Berlese, and makes some emendations of his own 
earlier classification, the most important of which is the reduction of 
the monodactyle and tridactyle distinction to specific instead of generic 
value, in consequence of the discovery of some monodactyle species of 
Nothrus. It will be remembered that Mr. Michael made use of this 
means of distinction with some reluctance. 


* Proc, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1887, pp. 342-3. 
+ British Oribatidw, ii. (Ray Society’s vol. for 1887), London, 1888, pp. i—xi. 
and 337-657, pls. xxv.—liv. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 413 


There is an interesting chapter on anatomy. ‘The author is more 
strongly than ever of opinion that the so-called stigmata are sense- 
organs. Some additions are made to the account of the mouth-organs. 
Coition probably takes place by a bursa copulatrix within the anal 
plates and in immediate proximity to the anus, and not at the vulva of 
parturition within the genital plates. Mr. Michael finds that there is 
not in every species a complete breaking-up or dissolution of all the 
organs of the nymph prior to the formation of the adult; in some cases, 
at all events, some of the internal organs of the nymph are transferred 
to the adult, and are not dissolved, but are identical in both stages. 
Where dissolution and reformation have occurred in the specimens ob- 
served by the author, the twe processes have gone on simultaneously, 
and there has not been any time when the cuticle contained only plastic 
or liquid matter without any organs. In the earlier stages of this change 
the contents of the nymphal skin have, in such cases as were observed, 
shrunk backward towards the posterior portion of the creature, leaving 
‘ the cuticle of the rostrum, &c., empty, while the contents of the legs 
have been withdrawn or shrunk inward into the body-substance, leaving 
the cuticle of the legs empty. In the later stages of formation the 
organs of the adult have again advanced forward nearer to the rostrum 
of the nymphal cuticle, but not as far forward as the old organs originally 
were. 

A list is given of foreign species of Oribatide, and the work con- 
cludes with a bibliography. There is a copious index. 


e. Crustacea. 


Palpiform Organs of Crustacea.*—Prof. F. Plateau continues and 
concludes his series of studies on the function of palps in Arthropods 
by an investigation of the palpiform organs in Crustaceans. In an 
introductory discussion of the homologies between the appendages of 
Crustaceans and those of other Arthropods, he concludes (1) that neither 
the pseudopalp of the mandible nor the so-called palps (exopodites) of 
the three pairs of maxillipedes are homologues of the palps of insects, 
and (2) that the real homologues are to be found in the endopodites of 
the two pairs of maxillz and of the three pairs of maxillipedes. 

He then gives an account of his observations and experiments on 
the following forms in order :—Talitrus saltator Montagu, Gammarus 
pulex Linn., Porcellio scaber Latr., Oniscus murarius Cuv., Ligia oceanica 
Linn., Asellus aquaticus Linn., Carcinus menas Baster. 

His results on crabs disprove, he believes, (1) the opinion of Brullé, 
Milne-Edwards, and Claus, that the maxillipedes of Crustaceans are 
used in seizing food, and in conveying it between the other buccal 
parts. This is quite erroneous as regards the Brachyura. The external 
maxillipedes are merely auxiliary in retaining the food seized by the 
claws and under the action of the mandibles. (2) The hypothesis of 
Milne-Edwards and Huxley that the external, and probably also the 
other pairs of maxillipedes, as well as the maxille proper, are of use in 
mastication, is not true of crabs. There the mandibles alone are masti- 
catory. (3) The function suggested by Dugés and Rolleston that the 
mandibular palp is used to direct the food, is not supported by any 
observed facts. In crabs it can be readily observed to have no such role. 


* Bull. Soc. Zool, France, xii. (1888) pp. 537-52 (11 figs.). 


414 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The palps of masticating insects, female Araneide, and Chilopod 
Myriopoda, represent degenerate appendages, without definite function, 
all but useless, and readily dispensed with. The same may be said of 
many of the palpiform organs of Crustaceans, since Isopods and Amphi- 
pods, deprived of the endopodites of their maxillipedes, seem to get on 
just as well. Finally, the exopodites (miscalled palps) of the maxilli- 
pedes of Decapod Crustaceans do not share at all in the prehension of 
food or in its introduction into the mouth. 


Abbreviated Metamorphosis of Alpheus, and its Relation to the 
Condition of Life.*—Mr. F. H. Herrick has discovered a Bahaman 
species of Alpheus (A. preecow sp. n.) in which the animal acquires 
all its adult characters in twenty-four hours after hatching. Some 
interesting data are afforded by the subjoined table :— 


Species. | Habitat. Metamorphosis. pee of) Diameter. ae of 
SSS = Ee 

(Shell heaps and 

A. minus .. exhalent oscula Complete 500-600 | 1/35 in. | 1/2-1 in. 
Neer: I 
| of sponges 

A. heterochelis .. | Do. Abbreviated | 200-300 | 1/28 in. | 14 in. 
‘(Interior of K . a aig 

A, precoy .. i sponges \ Nearly lost 5-350 | 1/24 in. |1/6-12 in. 


It is now generally agreed that the zoéa of Decapod Crustaceans is 
not a primitive form, but one gradually acquired as the habits of the 
larva diverged from those of the adult. When, therefore, the habits of 
the adult or larva tended to converge, the zoéal stage would be shifted 
to the egg. The fact that of the numerous species of Alpheus only two 
are known to undergo an abbreviated development is evidence of the 
extreme plasticity of young animals, and of their tendency to vary with 
varying conditions of life. 


Reproduction of Lost Parts.j;—Mr. G. Brook gives an account of 
his observations on the reproduction of lost parts in the common lobster. 
A brief résumé of the history of previous observations is given. The 
reproduction of the chele, walking legs, and antenne is described, and 
their rates of growth are noted. It seems probable that limbs lost in 
summer are reproduced more rapidly than those lost in winter. The 
author describes the deposition of pigment in the new appendages, and 
notices finally, in regard to the rupture of the carapace during ecdysis, 
that the cephalothorax splits along the dorsal suture in some cases, but 
certainly does not do so in others. 


Parasitic Castration in the Eucyphotes of Palemon and Hip- 
polyte.{—M. A. Giard has recently collected evidence which supports his 
view that male Palzemons appear not to harbour Bopyri, because the 
atrophy of the testes in the infected males produces, as a consequence, an 
arrest of the external sexual characters. Reference is made to the 
secondary sexual characters in Palemon, indicated by Grobben and 


* Johns-Hopkins Univ. Cire., vii. (1888) pp. 34-5. 
+ Proc. R. Phys Soe. Edin., ix. (1887) pp. 370-85 (1 pl.). 
+ Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 502-5. 


s 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 415 


J. v. Boas, as well as other points. As in previously studied cases of 
castration, there is a very singular want of uniformity in the phenomena 
observed, which is probably due to the date at which infestation 
occurred ; and the modifications are not indelible, for in male Paguri, 
which had been freed from their parasites, the characters of the male sex 
gradually reappeared at the successive moults. The numerous species of 
Hippolyte have been described in a way that leads M. Giard to suppose 
that the castrating influence of parasitism has not been taken into 
account.. 


Fresh-water Crabs of Africa.*—M. A. Milne-Edwards finds that the 
fresh-water crabs of Africa are all Thelphuside ; twenty-five species are 
enumerated; for a form from Lake Tanganika, a new genus—Platy- 
thelphusa—is instituted. The species is called P. armata. 


Photospheria of Nyctiphanes norvegica.t—Messrs. R. Vallentin 
and J. T. Cunningham have investigated the structure of the phosphores- 
cent organs of this Schizopod. They find that the hinder part of each 
organ is bounded by a layer composed of wavy fibres, which, to some 
extent, anastomose ; this layer is of considerable thickness, and forms 
a hemispherical cross, open in front only. It contains no distinguishable 
cell-arez, and, as it resembles to some extent a tapetum, it may be called 
the reflector. The external surface is covered by a flat mosaic-like 
epithelium of polygonal, red pigment-cells. Internally to the reflector 
is a layer of large cells, each with a large nucleus; the internal surface 
of the ceilular layer is perfectly smooth, and in the hollow contained by it 
isa curious fibrillar mass. The fibrils of this are mostly straight, and those 
that are external are perpendicular to the surface of the cellular layer, 
while the core consists of two bundles of straight fibrils which cross at 
right angles, and other bundles set in other directions. In front of the 
fibrillar mass are a few flat cells, which belong to the cellular layer, and 
in front of these is a bi-convex lens; this is perfectly homogeneous and 
highly refringent, and, as its diameter exceeds that of the fibrillar mass, 
it rests on the edges of the cellular layer. In front of the lens is a layer 
of cellular tissue, which contains a ring of circular fibres, running round 
the edge of the lens. The cells of this layer, which may be called a 
cornea, are much smaller and more regular than those of the posterior 
cellular layer. The differences between the photospheria of the body, 
which have just been described, and that of the ocular peduncle is con- 
siderable; in the latter, every layer, with the exception of the straight 
fibrils and the reflector, is continuous with the epidermis. This would 
appear to indicate that the organ is formed by differentiation of parts 
from a simple thickening of the epidermic layer of cells. The reflector 
is probably a specialization of subepidermic mesoblastic tissue, and the 
posterior cellular layer a specialization of the deepest portion of the 
epidermic thickening. The other photospheria are advances in speciali- 
zation. 

With regard te the function of these organs, the authors admit, with 
reservation, that their activity is under the control of their possessor ; 
nothing like continual luminosity was ever observed. When an animal 
was crushed beneath the fingers certain particles were luminous, and re- 
mained so till they were dry. When crushed under a cover-glass it 


* Ann. Sci. Nat., iv. (1887) pp. 121-49 (3 pls.) 
Tt Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xxviii. (1888) pp. 319-41 (1 pl.). 


416 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


was found possible to separate all the component layers from one 
another. The internal surface of the reflector was the only part that was 
not perfectly transparent; it, with transmitted light, glowed with a 
beautiful luminous-looking rosy-purple colour. When the light was 
cut off it was yellowish-green. This colour was found to be due to 
fluorescence, and not to a pigment. 

A comparison of the photospheria with other luminous organs pre- 
sents few points of resemblance. All that can be said is that the cells 
of the cellular layer are similar in general appearance to the cells of the 
luminous layer in Lampyris splendidula, and that some or other of the 
cellular elements in the luminous organs of fishes are the active light- 
producing agents. The cells of Nyctiphanes may be really the active 
agents in emitting light, and the fluorescent surface of the stratified 
layer only an accessory adjunct. 


New Commensal Amphipod.*—MM. E. Chevreux and J. de Guerne 
describe a new amphipod (Cyrtophium chelonophilum), which was found 
commensal on the marine tortoises (Thalassochelys caretta), living near 
the Azores. The new species differs from forms already known by the 
shortness of its antenne; it resembles C. lave in the smoothness of the 
upper part of its body, but differs by its shorter head. Its mode of 
life is like that of C. parasiticum, which lives commensally with a large 
Holothurian in Port Jackson. In previous records of crustaceans 
living on tortoises there has never been sufficient evidence to show that 
their presence was not accidental, but in the case of the present species 
the habit has been noticed by Prince Albert of Monaco in 1885, and by 
one of the writers in 1887, while in the latter instance seventy-seven 
specimens were found. 


Apseudes and the Tanaide.t—Prof. C. Claus has contributed a 
detailed account of the structure of Apseudes latreillii Edw., both in 
itself and in relation to the Tanaide. He emphasizes the relationships 
which the Anisopode (‘Tanaide and Apseudide ) exhibit, on the one hand 
with the Cumacew in the Thoracostraca group, on the other hand with 
the Isopoda among the Arthrostraca. In expressing the contrast be- 
tween Thoracostraca and Arthrostraca, the Anisopoda should be recog- 
nized as an order correlated with the Isopoda. - 

The Trieste species of Apseudes is probably A. latreillii Edw. The 
British form with the same title (Spence Bates and Westwood) is quite 
different. (a) There is no ventral joint between the first and second 
thoracic segment; they are fused. A minimal trace of the ventral 
myomere remains as a rudiment, though the joint has quite disappeared. 
(b) The brain most nearly resembles that of Isopods (Sphzroma), and 
consists of fore-brain, with central ganglia and lateral eye-ganglia, of 
the somewhat ventral middle portion with one large ganglion and nerves 
for the first pair of antennee, and of the hind portion extending over the 
cesophageal ring, and including ganglion and nerves for the second pair 
of antennz. Besides the anterior and posterior commissure, there is, on 
the esophageal ring, a marked transverse commissure, which is in rela- 
tion with the ganglia of the second pair of antennz. There is a nerve- 
ring on the upper lip with unpaired ganglia, as in Branchipus and the 
Phyllopods. The ventral chain consists of a sub-cesophageal portion, 
with four distinct pairs of ganglia for the mandibles, maxille, and 


* Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 625-8. 
+ Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien, vii. (1887) pp. 139-220 (7 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 417 


maxillipedes, of seven pairs of ganglia in the thorax, and of six pairs in 
the abdomen, of which the last is due to two or more. The anterior 
side of the gizzard bears a large sympathetic ganglion, with two lateral 
nerves. (c) The eye is without corneal facets or crystalline cones. It 
contains in its pigment-mass eight retinule. Each of these consists of 
a 7-partite rhabdom and seven nerve-cells running out into nerve-fibres. 
The retinal ganglion lies on the lateral edge of the large optic ganglion. 
(d) Delicate plumose bristles occur on the metacarpal joint of the six 
thoracic appendages on both pairs of antenne, and on the dorsal surface of 
the anal segment. The stalks of the bristles are protected by cuticular 
capsules. (e) The structure of the mouth is then described, with notice 
of the two glandular sacs on tke epipharyngeal wall, &c. The stomach 
essentially resembles that of the Diastylide, and presents close analogies 
with that of Decapods. The pyloric portion, with its pouches and 
tongue-shaped valve, is no sieve, but retains the food for further diges- 
tion. There are three pairs of digestive glands. The hind-gut has no 
‘special features. (/f) At the base of the second pair of antenne lie the 
rudimentary antennary glands. Urates occur in the fatty body in the 
abdominal and posterior thoracic segments. (gq) The shell-gland is 
represented by two coiled canals, with a central sac and lateral efferent 
duct, which opens on an elevation at the base of the second maxilla. 
The shell-gland is also present in various Isopods. In the Diastylide 
also it has a ventral maxillary position. (h) The upper lip is filled 
with a group of glandular salivary cells, opening by pores. Quite 
different are the skin-glands, found especially on the two first pairs of 
appendages. They consist of two pyriform apposed cells, and of a 
third serving as duct and opening by pore. (7) The heart is like that 
of Tanais and Leptochelia. There are only three ostia, though two 
pairs are present in the embryo. Besides the cephalic aorta and the 
two abdominal arteries, three pairs of arteries were distinguished in the 
fourth, fifth, and sixth thoracic segment. A transverse septum divides 
the body-cavity into a pericardial sinus and a ventral blood-space, in 
which gut, digestive gland, reproductive organs, and ventral nerve-chain 
are contained. (j) The reproductive rudiments are represented by a few 
cells in the fourth thoracic segment, above and somewhat to the side 
of the gut. The ovarian rudiments grow gradually into long tubes. 
Generative apertures in the female are seen only in the stage of brood- 
sac formation, as narrow clefts on the fifth thoracic segment. The 
testes always remain as simple pear-shaped sacs in the fourth thoracic 
segment, and give off a long narrow vas deferens, which opens on the 
posterior margin of the seventh thoracic segment, on the median spine, 
which serves as a copulatory organ. 

New Parasitic Copepod.*—Mr. I. C. Thompson describes a new 
species of Lichomolgus, L. sabelle#, which was found attached to the gill- 
filaments of a Sabella from Beaumaris, North Wales. The posterior 
antenne are four-jointed and very powerful, the second joint being pro- 
vided with four small curved hooks and the apical with four large strong 
hooks. 


New Cirriped.j—Dr. W. Weltner found among the thirty-one 
species or Cirripeds collected during the voyage of the Prinz Adalbert 


* Sci.-Gossip, 1888, pp. 32-3 (4 figs.). 
+ Arch. f. Naturgesch., li, (1887) pp. 98-117 (2 pls.). 
1888. 264 


418 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


a new species of Acasta, which he calls A. scuticosta, and of which ho 
gives a full description. It is distinguished from A. undulata by the 
less broad crest of the tergum. 


New Crustacean Parasite.*—The Rev. Dr. A. M. Norman describes 
a remarkable new parasite allied to Lacaze-Duthiers’ Laura. Like it, 
Synagoga mira (g. et sp. n.) is parasitic on an Antipatharian, Antipathes 
larix, but it differs in position, for Synagoga is external to its host. 
Other differences are that the valves of Synagoga are shorter than its 
body ; the antenne are strongly developed grasping organs, the hinder 
limbs are two-branched, jointed, and freely setose, and the lamin of the 
caudal furca are much longer, spined on the edges, and provided with 
long sete. Synagoga appears, therefore, to be much less retrograde 
than Laura. Of its relations Dr. Norman contents himself for the 
present with saying that there is much in its structure to remind us 
of the Cypris-condition of a larval Cirriped, and other features which 
strongly recall the much-disputed genus Nebalia. 


Vermes. 
a, Annelida. 


Formation of Tube of Annelids.;—M. A. Soulier’s observations 
on the mode of formation of the tube of Myxicola do not confirm the 
generalization of Claparéde. This worm produces a filament of mucus 
which escapes from the branchial funnel; this falls by its own weight, 
and is afterwards taken up by the branchie and cast out. In no case 
does this mucus take part in forming the tube. While it is being 
secreted the animal is being very rapidly enveloped in an independent 
mucous tube. If a Myxicola be cut below the tubiparous glands the 
hinder part of the body continues to secrete mucus in great abundance, 
and a worm deprived of its tubiparous glands can surround itself with 
a mucous tube in a few minutes. Branchiomma behaves in the same 
way. In both cases the tube is due to the secretion of isolated mucous 
glands, scattered irregularly over different parts of the surface of the 
body. These glands form accumulations near the feet and on the 
ventral surface. The author promises an account of them in a short 
time. 


Cardiac Body of Annelids.t—Dr. R. Horst has a note on the re- 
cent observations and criticisms of Mr. J.T. Cunningham. He thinks 
that his views and interpretations have been too severely attacked, and 
he urges certain historical considerations which his critic appears to 
have neglected. 


Monograph of the Capitellide.§—In this large monograph Dr. H. 
Hisig does not confine himself to the description of the species that 
compose the group Capitellide, but discusses many points of great 
morphological importance. 

In the first part the anatomy and histology of Notomastus, Dasy- 
branchus, Mastobranchus g. n., Heteromastus g.n., Oapitella, and Capito- 
mastus g. n., are described under the heads of general form, integument, 


* Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1887 (1888) p. 86. 
+ Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 505-7, 
t Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 135-8. 
an ae u. Flora des Golfes yon Neapel, Monogv. xvi. (1887), xxviii. and 906 pp. 
pls.). : 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 419 


musculature, enteric canal, central nervous system, sensory organs, 
parapodia, respiratory organs, nephridia, generative organs, ccelom, and 
hemolymph. The second portion is morphological and comparative. 
Among the cuticular structures which are discussed are the segmental 
spinning glands of Polyodontes, the hairs of Aphrodita aculeata, the 
glandular pouches of Polydora and Spio bombyx, the tubular glands of 
Owenia filiformis, the coiled tubes of the Nereide, Spherodorum and 
Phyjliodoce, the secretions of Typhloscolex, and of the hypodermal cells 
of Phyllochetopterus and Ranzania. Comparisons are then instituted 
with the skeleton of horny sponges, the stinging organs of Ccelenterates, 
the Cuvicrian organs of Holothurians (which much resemble the secre- 
tion of Polyodontes), and the cuticular organs of worms other than 
Annelids. In the Arthropodan phylum the spinning glands of Anne- 
lids appear to have as homologues the spinning and crural glands of 
Peripatus, the spinning and coxal glands of Myriopods, the coxal glands 
of Thysanura, and the spinning (and ? coxal) glands of Insects, and the 
‘ same glands in Arachnids. The nephridia of Annelids have as homo- 
logues the salivary glands and genital ducts, and in some cases perhaps 
also glands of offence. The cuticular structures of Molluscs and Verte- 
brates are next considered. The other systems of organs are dealt 
with in a similar, though not always so comprehensive a manner. 

The third section of the monograph deals with physiological ques- 
tions. Among those discussed are the pigments of the gastric region of 
the enteron in Capitella, which are shown to be free from bile-pigments 
and acids ; the mode of ingestion of carmine and the absence of intra- 
cellular digestion; the respiratory action of the enteric appendage. 
The view that the neurochord is a supporting organ for the ventral cord 
is accepted. Some additions are made to the author’s already published 
observations on the lateral and goblet-shaped organs. The chemical 
properties of the blood, and of the excretory vesicles and concretions 
found in the nephridia are discussed. The mode of excretion of carmine 
is described, and evidence is given of the excretory activity of systems 
of organs other than the nephridia. The significance of pigment from 
various points of view is fully considered. 

The concluding chapter is systematic and faunistic, and concludes 
with some phylogenetic observations, the chief outcome of which is that 
Annelids should not be divided into Oligocheta and Polycheta, but 
that the former should merely be regarded as a family of Annelids. 

The wide range of this work will be evident from this short notice, 
and its importance will doubtless be great. 


Homology of Segmental Organs and Efferent Ducts of Genital 
Products in Oligocheta.*—Dr. O. Lehmann is of opinion that in the 
earthworm there are two germ-epithelia for the mother-cells of the 
spermatozoa, one the small bodies called testes by Hering, and the 
other the so-called sperm-reservoirs or testes of D’Ukedem. The 
mother-cells of the former continue their development in the median 
seminal reservoirs in such Lumbricide as are provided with them and in 
others, e. g. Allolobophora, freely in the ceelom. The efferent ducts of 
the male products are the vasa deferentia, each of which commences 
by a large, folded infundibulum. In the species which are provided 
with a median seminal capsule (or sperm-reservoir), the funnel is in- 


* Jenaisch. Zeitschr, f. Naturwiss., xiv. (1887) pp. 322-60 (1 pl.). 
262 


420 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


closed by it. In Allolobophora the funnel consists of two elongated lips, 
which lie against one another and have ciliated epithelium on their 
inner surface. The canals from the funnels do not unite till they 
reach the fourteenth segment. The funnels may be regarded as thicken- 
ings of the peritoneum, and the vas deferens is at first a solid cord of 
cells, which in time becomes hollow. The oviducts are developed in 
the same way; the funnels are thickenings of the peritoneum at the 
side of the segmental funnel, and the receptacula are thickenings of the 
peritoneum of the dissepiment. In their mode of origin, then, the 
male seminal reservoirs and the receptacula ovorum present great simi- 
larity, and may be homologous, but in their functions they are quite 
different, so that the peculiarities of the receptacula must not be regarded 
as a proof of the non-testicular nature of the seminal vesicles. 

Lehmann is of opinion that the vasa deferentia and oviducts have no 
genetic relations to the segmental organs. As, however, they have to 
perform the same kind of function—the removal of material from the 
interior of the body—it may well happen that vasa deferentia may serve 
as ducts for the excretory organs, and the excretory ducts carry away 
generative products to the exterior. 


Structural Characters of Earthworms.*—Mr. F. E. Beddard de- 
scribes a new genus of earthworms—Neodrilus monocystis—from a single 
specimen which it is possible may be really an Acanthodrilus in which 
the posterior pair of male generative pores, together with their glands, 
have not yet been developed. A detailed account is given of Urocheta 
sp. from Queensland, which is compared with U. corethrurus, and 
U. dubia. Pericheta newcombet sp. nu. is remarkable for the great 
development of the genital papillz ; while agreeing in many points with 
the two species—P. australis and P. covii—lately described by Mr. 
Fletcher, it differs in the presence of vesicule seminales in all of the 
segments from 9-12 inclusive. P. upuloensis sp. n. is, also, mainly 
characterized by the number and arrangement of the genital papille. 
It would seem that the number and arrangement of these papille afford 
good characters for discriminating the different species of Pericheta, 
although the number is apt to vary somewhat at different stages of 
maturity. 


New Australian Earthworms.t—Mr. J. J. Fletcher gives descrip- 
tions of ten new species of Australian earthworms, but he leaves the 
consideration of morphological details for a future revision. All but 
two belong to the common Australian type Perichzxta, and one—P. cana- 
liculata —is interesting as being intra-clitellian, while another — P. 
wilsoniana—has most of its representatives post-clitellian, but one is 
intra-clitellian ; these facts support the view of Mr. Beddard that Perrier’s 
division of intra- and post-clitellian groups is too artificial to be per- 
manently retained. A new genus, Perissogaster, is established for a 
form, P. excavata, which is characterized by the possession of three 
gizzards, while it differs from the West Indian genus Trigaster of 
Benham in the characters of its generative apparatus. One species is 
referred provisionally to Cryptodrilus, and is called C. rubens. 'The other 
new forms are Hudrilus (?) dubius, Pericheta ewiqua, and var. murray- 
ana, P. monticola, P. stirlingi, P. raymondiana, P. hamiltoni, and 


* Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 1886-7, pp. 156-76 (1 pl.). 
+ Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, ii. (1887) pp. 375-402, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 421 


P. fecunda. Eudrilus dubius has only been obtained from gardens, and it 
is not certain, therefore, that it is a true Australian form. 

Mr. Fletcher also * gives a preliminary account of six new species 
of earthworms, four from Victoria, one from Tasmania, one from New 
South Wales. The Tasmanian form and one of the Victorian forms 
were very large, and presented favourable opportunities for the study of 
the reproductive organs, in regard to which fuller details are promised. 
In the Tasmanian Notoscolex the true testes were very well seen as two 
pairs of small cellular masses, each made up of an inner solid portion 
attached at one point to the mesentery, and of an outer portion consist- 
ing of numerous short radiating filaments. ‘The new species are Noto- 
scolex gippslandicus (apparently 4 to 6 feet long, said to be able to 
produce sounds), Notoscolex tasmanianus (peculiarly thick), Notoscolex 
iuberculatus (very slender), Cryptodrilus mediterreus, Pericheta bakeri, 
Pericheta dorsalis. ; 

; Nephridia of Earthworms.t—Mr. F. HE. Beddard calls attention 

to the occurrence of numerous nephridia in the same segment in certain 
earthworms. In Acanthodrilus multiporus there are more than one pair 
of nephridiopores in each segment, but no internal orifices could be 
detected, and the appearances presented can only be explained on the 
assumption of a network of nephridial tubules. In Perichxtat{ the 
nephridial network of one segment is continuous through the septum 
with that of the next, so that the system differs from that of any other 
“ Annelid,” except Pontobdella, in that it forms a continuous network 
uninterrupted by the intersegmental septa. There also appears to be a 
perfect continuity between the nephridial system of the right and left 
halves of the body, but there is no longitudinal duct on either side, as 
in Lanice conchilega. No traces of internal apertures could be seen. In 
Typhzeus and Dichogaster numerous nephridiopores in a single segment 
have likewise been observed. 

In proceeding to consider the relations of the excretory organs of 
Annelids to those of Platyhelminths, Mr. Beddard indicates the views 
of preceding writers. The facts here recorded support the view that 
the annelid excretory system is directly traceable to that of the Platy- 
helminth, but a rather different account of the course of development 
than that proposed by Lang is given. Pericheta appears to be the most 
archaic form; Acanthodrilus multiporus offers the next stage, and with 
it the Capitellidx present many points of agreement. The gap between 
Acanthodrilus and Lumbricus is only very partially bridged over by 
Plutellus, where the irregularity in the position of the nephridiopores is, 
perhaps, to be regarded as a last trace of the numerous pores of Acantho- 
drilus and Pericheta. The recent researches on the epiblastic origin 
of the segmental duct of vertebrates and the longitudinal duct of Lum- 
bricus must make us hesitate to accept Lang’s view of the identity of the 
longitudinal duct of Lumbricus with the longitudinal canals of Platy- 
helminths, for the latter are of mesoblastic origin. 

Anatomy of Allurus tetraedrus.s—Mr. IF’. HE. Beddard finds that 
Allurus || differs from Lumbricus in having the male reproductive folds on 


* Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, ii. (1887) pp. 601-20. 

+ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxviii. (1888) pp. 397-411 (2 pls.). | 

$ See also Proc. Roy. Soc., xliii. (1888) pp. 309-10. 

§ Quart. Journ, Micr. Sci., xxviii. (1888) pp. 365-71 (1 pl.). 

|| ‘* Allolobophora,” on p. 370, is evidently a misprint for “ Allurus,” 


422 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


segment 13, and therefore in front of the female generative orifice. 
There appears to be but one pair of spermathecze, which open on to the 
middle of their segment, a little to one side of a seta. The calciferous 
glands of consecutive segments are not distinct from each other; they 
occupy segments 10-14. The gizzard is confined to a single (the 17th) 
segment, There is a continuous glandular fold on either side of the 
body, which is of the same structure as the clitellum, extending from 
the 4th to the 24th segment, and interrupting the muscular layers. 
This glandular mass is specially developed in segment 13, round the 
orifice of the vas deferens. 

Anatomy of Pericheta.*—Mr. F. HE. Beddard has some pre- 
liminary notes on the anatomy of this earthworm. He finds that the 
salivary glands exhibit a metameric arrangement, and he looks upon 
them as the homologues of the septal glands of the Enchytraide and 
Lumbricide. There are a number of small glands which may possibly 
represent the capsulogenous gland of Lumbricus, but, in the absence of 
any definite knowledge of the histology of these glands in the earth- 
worm, it is impossible to speak with certainty. In P. mirabilis and 
P. aspergillum, the organs consist of groups of unicellular glands. As 
their number and position differ in four known species, their arrange- 
ment may furnish a means of discriminating the species of the genus. 


Mucous Gland of Urocheta.t—Mr. F. E. Beddard finds that the 
“mucous gland” of Urochxta is provided with ccelomic apertures, which 
have the form of large funnel-shaped ciliated discs, composed of the 
usual columnar cells. This character, added to those discovered and 
described by Prof. Perrier, completes the resemblance of these organs 
to nephridia. The “ mucous glands” consist, in fact, of a tube opening 
on to the exterior by a single orifice, and branching distally into a 
number of tubules, each of which opens into the cclom by a ciliated 
funnel. These funnels appear to be disposed irregularly and not 
metamerically. 


RB. Nemathelminthes. 


Structure of Echinorhynchi.t—Dr. R. Koehler has had great diffi- 
culty in obtaining specimens of Hchinorhynchus gigas from the Pig, 
which seems to be becoming excessively rare. He was specially inter- 
ested in the structure of its muscular system. 

He finds that in Hchinorhynchi the elements of the muscular system 
become differentiated into cells ; these are sometimes numerous, and the 
contractile substance forms a single group of fibrils in each cell (trans- 
verse fibres of EH. heruca); sometimes the fibrils form two or three 
distinct groups in each cell, but the size of the latter does not notably 
increase, nor does the protoplasm become less abundant (longitudinal 
fibres of EH. heruca). In other forms (H. angustatus and E. proteus) the 
groups of fibrils become more numerous in each of the muscular cells, 
and these are larger in size, and the remains of the protoplasm are more 
reduced. Finally, in H. gigas, the muscular cells are of enormous 
size ; a very large number of fibrils appear in their protoplasm, and take 
on a much more complicated structure than in other types; they become 
much more perfectly isolated, and are better differentiated from the 
formative protoplasm in which they are placed. 


* Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 91-4. + Ibid., pp. 90-1. 
} Journ. Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), xxiii. (1887) pp. 612-59 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 423 


With regard to the affinities of the Echinorhynchi, reference should 
be made to the remarkable form Paradowites discovered by Lindemann ; 
in it the body is flattened, and divided into distinct rings, of which all 
but the first and last three are similar in character. The proboscis and 
its receptacle in the first ring are like those of other Echinorhynchi ; there 
is a pair of ovaries in every ring, and they open into two longitudinal 
lateral canals; the male organ is found in the same individual, and con- 
sists of a long tube which arises from the floor of the receptacle, and 
has a swelling in each ring. The oviducts and the efferent canals open 
to the exterior by a single duct. J. roseus differs only from Para- 
doaites by the absence of rings. Notwithstanding the incompleteness of 
our knowledge of this form we cannot doubt its affinities to the Cestoda. 
If it should be proved that Paradowites is not an ancient form, then the 
origin of the Echinorhynchi must be sought for in oligomeric worms, 
such as the Gephyrea, and the lemnisci may be regarded as segmental 
organs. But the pressing point is, obviously, further study of Para- 
dowites. 

Fertilization and Segmentation in Ascaris megalocephala.*—Prof. 
. van Beneden publishes a preliminary account of his further researches 
on the ova of Ascaris megalocephala. These have been made in association 
with M. Ad. Neyt, well known for his applications of photography to 
microscopical and astronomical purposes. He has succeeded in obtain- 
ing a series of about 1200 photographs of all the details of maturation, 
fertilization, and karyokinesis. Prof. van Beneden has for two years 
been making use of a more rapid and satisfactory method of fixing and 
hardening his objects. 

From the first, two nuclear elements can be seen in the ova. The 
moment when the male pronucleus is formed at the expense of the small 
chromatic nucleus of the sperm coincides exactly with that at which the 
female pronucleus is formed from the two chromatic rod-like elements 
which result from the second pseudo-karyokinetic figure. At the 
moment of origin the male pronucleus is enveloped in the degenerate 
residue of its protoplasmic body which does not lose itself in the egg- 
protoplasm, but forms a definite layer round the male pronucleus, 
becoming gradually reduced to a globule, and finally being digested 
away. With the staining reagents above noticed the protoplasmic body 
becomes brown, the chromatic elements green, the vitellus almost colour- 
less. Before the male pronucleus has freed itself from its degenerating 
mantle, the female pronucleus is formed as a reticulate nucleus near the 
second polar body. The chromatin, at first homogeneous, resolves itself 
into a network of granules united by filaments; from the periphery of 
the two rods issue small tracts of achromatic granules united in 
filaments; the rods increase rapidly in volume, and invade the surround- 
ing clear space. A discussion of the value of his method, and of the 
possibilities of error, is also given. He then proceeds to describe his 
results at length. 

I. Formation of Pronucleii—The origin of one of these from the 
nucleus of the sperm, of the other from the residue of the germinal 
vesicle, is described as in the first classic research, which in this particular 
is left unaltered. 


* Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belg., xiv, (1887) pp, 215-94 (6 pls.), 
+ Cf. infra, Microscopy 8. 


424 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


II. Preliminary Kinesis—The pronuclei do not conjugate. The 
formation in each of a chromatic band (cordon) is intimately described. 
It resolves itself into two primary chromatic loops. The pronuclei are 
directed laterally to one another, with their polar regions towards the 
attractive spheres between them. At length the chromatic loops of the 
two groups come to lie indistinguishably side by side. They then form 
secondary loops by longitudinal division. The primary chromatic stars 
divide into two secondary chromatic stars, which separate. The order of 
priority as regards the longitudinal division of the primary loops is 

1) Van Beneden; (2) a month later, Hensen ; (3) several months later, 

abl. There is no fusion of pronuclei; the chromatin elements of male 
and female pronucleus furnish each two chromatic loops to the nuclei of 
the two first blastomeres ; the same process always occurs; transmission 
is effected, therefore, by the chromatic distribution. 

II. Theory of Fertilization lt is evident that the facts of fertiliza- 
tion, according to Van Beneden, are not exactly harmonious with Hertwig’s 
theory of fertilization. The nuclear fusion so important for the latter is 
not recognized by the former. (1) The genesis of the pronuclei coin- 
cides exactly with the elimination of the second polar globule, i. e. with 
the completed maturation of the ovum, (2) In the vast majority of cases 
the pronuclei do not even become adjacent. (3) The preliminaries to the 
dicentric figures take place simultaneously in the two pronuclei, which, 
though distant, behave exactly as if they were one. (4) Two nuclear 
elements, the equivalent of two chromatic loops, are eliminated by the 
ovum in the formation of polar globules, in such a way that the female 
pronucleus differs from that of the ordinary cells in including only two 
instead of four chromatic loops. (5) The male nucleus also includes 
only two chromatic elements, instead of the four found in the spermato- 
meres; like the female pronucleus, it is a seminucleus. (6) From the 
moment when the pronuclei become spherical reticulate nuclear bodies, 
kinesis begins. The first embryonic cell capable of division, and poten- 
tially representing the future individual, is formed at the moment when, 
at the expense of the remnant of the egg-chromatin on the one hand, and 
of the spermatozoid-chromatin on the other, two nuclear reticulated 
elements are formed. Together these represent a complete nucleus. It 
is quite indifferent whether they approach and fuse; in Ascaris, in fact, 
this does not take place in the immense majority of instances. Then 
there follows a vigorous criticism of Carnoy and Zacharias. His answer 
to the former does not lack in asperity. 

IV. Metaphasis and Anaphasis—(1) The doubling of the primary 
chromatic loops frequently exhibits this peculiarity, that in the blasto- 
meres the secondary loops may remain united by their extremities, though 
otherwise distant. As the result of this terminal union a barrel-shaped 
figure is produced. This may be called the heterotypical form, and is 
minutely described, (2) In this form the incurved extremities of the 
secondary loops are never directed directly towards the poles of the 
dicentric figure, as Flemming represents in the spermatogenesis of Sala- 
mandra. The constitutive fibrils of the achromatic spindle are clearly 
contractile. In a large number of cases the primary and secondary 
chromatic loops are found to be connected by interposed achromatic fibrils, 
which are probably contractile, and explain the relative displacement of 
the primary loops preliminary to the formation of the equatorial star. 
(3) As to the reconstitution of the nuclei derived from the dyasters, what 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 495 


Flemming has described does not take place in Ascaris ; but this subject 
is too complicated to admit of brief summary. 

V. Origin of attractive spheres, asters, and achromatic spindle.——The 
“attractive spheres” are to be observed in the ovum, not only during the 
stages of “ pelotonnement,” but even earlier, when the pronuclei are still 
reticulate and far separate from one another. The two appear simul- 
taneously. They are slightly separate, and sometimes, if not always, the 
fibrils have their central corpuscles united. Their position in relation to 
the pronucleus seems to vary considerably in different ova. The various 
positions and the relation to division are described. The first plane of 
division does not represent in the Ascaris ovum the median plane of the 
animal, The attractive spheres become more conspicuous and extensive 
the further advanced the development of the pronuclei. It is absolutely 
certain that the achromatic spindle is in part derived from the attractive 
spheres. When the contours of the pronucleus are still present, those 
rays of the spheres which are directed towards the pronucleus become 
more apparent than all the other rays of the asters. Often they con- 
verge, not towards the centres of the attractive spheres, but towards a 
globule situated between the medullary and cortical zones of the spheres. 
There appear to be two stellar centres, one for the spindle, the other for 
the aster. 

The further history of the attractive spheres is followed in detail. The 
doubling resulting from the division of the central corpuscles and of the 
attractive spheres is intimately described. The spheres are permanent 
organs of the cell, presiding over division. All the internal movements 
which accompany cellular division have their immediate condition in the 
contractility of the fibrils of the cellular protoplasm, which form a kind 
of radial muscular system, composed of antagonistic groups. The central 
corpuscle has the role of an organ of insertion. It is the first to divide, 
and its doubling leads to the grouping of the contractile elements in two 
systems. 

VI. The form and structure of the cell during mitosis is the subject 
discussed in the last chapter of the memoir. (1) Subequatorial circles 
mark on the surface of the cell the boundaries of the regions invaded by 
the radiations of theasters. In metakinesis the cells have three portions : 
(a) two asteroid, rounded, radiate regions, round the central corpuscles 
of the attractive spheres, and separated medianly by the chromatic 
equatorial plate; and (b) a marginal ring, determining the superficial 
formation which van Beneden calls the “ bourrelet équatorial.” (2) The 
circles and polar elevations depend upon the presence of antipodal cones, 
that is to say, on fibrillar cones where the radiations of the asters are 
more voluminous and more active. The polar elevations are probably 
dependent on the contractions of the fibrils of the antipodal cones. The 
author calls attention to a recent research by Boveri, which confirms 
some of his results. Explanation of six plates is given, but only two are 
appended, Those are very clear, and in part semidiagrammatic. 


Polar Globules of Ascaris.*—Herr T. Boveri has made some im- 
portant contributions to the investigation of the processes of maturation 
in the ovum of Ascaris. Van Beneden’s prophecy has been indeed 
fulfilled, for the eggs of these Nematodes have become zoologically 


* Biol. Centralbl., viii. (1888) pp. 17-9. Zcllen-Studien, Jena, 1887, 4 pls. 


426 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


“classic.” The species which Boveri studied were Ascaris megalocephala 
and A. lumbricoides. 

(1) The author has shown, and the observation is very welcome, that 
two types of ovum exist, one (van Beneden’s type) with a single chro- 
matic element, the other (Carnoy’s type) with two. 

(2) He is also convinced that the separation of the two polar globules 
in both the species investigated is a true mitotic division, and no pseudo- 
karyokinesis as van Beneden would have it. 

(3) His main conclusions are as follows :—(a) the daughter ele- 
ments shift to the poles of the directive figure, and true daughter plates 
arise ; (b) the spindle is lessened before division, but does not disappear ; 

c) the chromatic elements are halved in the formation of each polar 
globule ; (d) in each of the two polar globules there are exactly as many 
elements as are present in the ovum at the moment of the formation ; 
(e) of each of the elements half goes to the first polar globule, and the 
elements are again halved to form the second body; the female nucleus 
contains as many elements as the germinal vesicle, though each is 
reduced to a quarter of its original volume ; (f) the fibres between the 
daughter plates are not independent of the old figure, but are indeed the 
same as the “ connecting fibres ” of the karyokinesis. 


Life-history of Ascaris lumbricoides and Tenia elliptica.*—Dr. 
A. Lutz brings forward some evidence in favour of the view of Grassi that 
these parasites may continue to exist without the intermediation of a 
second host. Prof. Leuckart t fully recognizes the lacunar condition of 
our helminthological knowledge, but does not think that there is yet 
sufficient evidence to justify us in regarding as incorrect conclusions 
which are founded on positive facts. 


y. Platyhelminthes. 


Development of Generative Organs of Cestoda.t{—Herr F. Schmidt 
comes to the conclusion that the whole of the generative apparatus of 
Tapeworms, inclusive of the efferent ducts and genital passages, arises 
from elements of the parenchyma; or, in other words, from elements of 
the parenchyma of the young proglottids which is characterized as tissue 
of an embryonic character. The organs are not developed from one 
rudiment, nor are they to be referred to a definite group of cells; they 
appear as quite independent rudiments in the parenchyma and in 
positions which correspond generally to the position of the fully de- 
veloped organs. The yolk-glands of Bothriocephalus and Trizenophorus 
arise quite independently of the primary generative rudiment, for their 
elements are at first scattered in the parenchyma of the cortical layer 
at a time when the primary generative rudiments have not undergone 
much differentiation, and before the efferent ducts have been de- 
veloped. In a good series of sections it is easy to show that the 
testicular vesicles are likewise independently developed in the paren- 
chyma of the median layer. These observations doubtless apply to 
other Cestodes. The so-called primary generative rudiment is not a 
sharply limited structure, which can be easily distinguished from the 
surrounding parenchyma ; it does not become distinct when the different 
organs begin to be differentiated ; it grows by the constant proliferation of 


* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., i. (1887) pp. 713-8. 
+ Loe. cit., pp. 718-22. + Zeitschr. f Wiss. Zool., xlvi. (1888) pp .154-87 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 427 


the elements of the surrounding parenchyma which become fused with it. 
In consequence of this it is difficult to determine whether the several 
elements which become conyerted into the elements of the ovary arise 
from the primary rudiment, or from the parenchyma. 

Put shortly, we may say that the development of the generative 
organs commences with the differentiation of the efferent apparatus; the 
germ-producing organs appear later, and, in correspondence with their 
position in the mature proglottis, either more or less closely connected 
with the rudiment of the efferent apparatus, or quite independently of 
it. The information which we have as to the mode of development of 
the generative organs of other Platyhelminthes is too slight and too 
contradictory to enable the author to make any useful comparisons 
between them and the Cestoda. 


Interesting Specimen of Tenia saginata.*—Dr. J. G. Stanton 
gives an account of a specimen of Teenia saginata, which is remarkable 
for its unusual length and for the malformations it presents. The total 
is estimated as 1061 joints in a chain about 7°655 metres long; with 
this remarkable length the number of joints is rather below than above 
the average. There is an extra joint which is heart-shaped, and has its 
inner border resting in a semicircular depression at one side of the 
chain, opposite the point of union of two adjoining segments of large 
size. Its free border extends some distance beyond the lateral margins 
of the two adjacent joints, and terminates in a slightly rounded point. 
The largest number of successive joints with genital foramina on the 
same side is six. 


Generative Apparatus of Diplozoon paradoxum.t — Dr. E. Zeller 
has investigated the structure of the generative apparatus of Diplozoon 
paradoxum. The male apparatus consists of a single testis with one 
duct, while the female organs are the ovary with its duct, the yolk- 
gland with its duct, the canal of Laurer, the uterus and oviduct, and an 
external papilla. 

The testis is placed in the hindermost part of the hind-body, is of 
considerable size, and has a rounded slightly lobate form. There is a 
fairly well-developed investing membrane within which are very clear 
cells with a diameter of 0°015 mm., and of an irregularly polyhedral 
form. The nucleus is of an extraordinarily large size, its membrane is 
very thick, and the homogeneous fluid contains distinct nucleoli. The 
spermatozoa are long. 

The ovary occupies the anterior half of the hind-body; it is 
elongated, and curved in such a way that its commencement and termi- 
nation lie close to one another, as van Beneden has already observed. 
The youngest are very small and indistinct; as they pass forwards they 
increase in size and finally become quite large. The ovule, when ready 
to leave the ovary, has a thick and very elastic envelope, a finely 
granular yolk, a germinal vesicle filled with clear fluid, and a germinal 
spot in which there is one large or several smaller cavities. Its duct is 
proportionately narrow, but very extensile. The yolk-gland is a large 
organ, and its rounded lobules fill up the greater part of the fore-body ; 
its constituent cells are more or less rounded. The number of lobules 
is so extraordinarily large, and are so closely packed, that it was not 


* Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 94-5. 
+ Zeitschr. f, Wiss. Zool., lvi. (1888) pp. 233-9 (1 pl.). 


428 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


possible to find an efferent duct in the mass of the gland; where it 
emerges from the gland it is simple. The uterus is a cavity of con- 
siderable size, and, when empty, lies on the outer side of the yolk-sac ; 
on its inner free surface there are a large number of clear hemispherical 
cells, which are very thick-walled ; at its upper end is the narrow but 
extraordinarily extensile oviduct. 

From this description it will be seen that the generative apparatus 
of Diplozoon agrees essentially with the arrangements seen in other 
Trematoda ; it is peculiar for the passage of the canal of Laurer through 
the yolk-duct, and the fact that this canal does not open on the dorsal 
surface of the body. In consequence of the cross-like fusion which the 
ventral surface of one animal makes with the dorsal surface of the other, 
the end of the seminal duct of one, and the commencement of the canal 
of Laurer in the other pass directly into one another. The mutual re- 
lation which is permanent in Diplozoon, is probably temporarily effected 
between other mutually impregnating Trematoda. 


Second Species of Turbellarian Living on Nebalie.*— Mr. W. 
Repiachoff, who some years ago} described a species of Turbellarian 
living on Nebaliz at Trieste, has since found another species at Mar- 
seilles. He points out the differences between the two forms ; of these, 
the most important is the slighter development of the creeping sole. It 
will be remembered that a sole is found in the genus Acmostoma, from 
which Graff is inclined to derive the Platycochlides. The new type, to 
which no name is given, does not belong to the same family or even 
group (Alloioccela) as that genus; and it must therefore be conceded 
that a creeping sole may be independently developed in quite different 
groups of the Rhabdoccelida. 

In the possession of ventral sete, the new type calls to mind certain 
Rotifers, Dinophilus, and some Annelids, but as it cannot be supposed 
that it is their ancestor, we must suppose that the disappearance or 
reduction of dorsal setae may also occur independently in various worms. 

These results appear to the author to justify the view that among the 
lower Bilateria there may appear sporadically characters which in the 
more highly organized groups become distinctive characteristics, and 
may there be justly regarded as proofs of community of descent. On the 
other hand, we know that it has not yet been possible to find complete 
series of intermediate forms between the Turbellaria and the higher 
Bilateria, and it is possible that they were derived from Turbellaria, 
which were as different from the Accla, Alloioccela, Rhabdoccela, 
Polyclades, and Triclades, as there are groups one from another. It 
may, in fact, be some day shown that the Turbellaria form a small side 
branch of the trunk of the Metazoa. The author thinks that in our 
phylogenetic speculations, we must be content with the fact that the 
Bilateria are probably derived from Celenterata, or Ccelenterate-like 
organisms (Gastrea). 

New Remarkable Worms.{—M. J. Kunstler has found in the 
intestine of Solen vagina a Cestode and a Planarian, and in the tissues of 
the body an Echinobothrium. 'The first of these is microscopic in size, 
pyriform in shape, and without any indications of segmentation. At its 
anterior extremity there is an enormous imperforate sucker; in the 


* Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp. 141-4. + See this Journal, 1885, p. 248. 
t~ Comptes Rendus, cvi. (1888) pp. 553-4. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 429 


median region of the body there are four other suckers, which are often 
of a bright red colour, The excretory pore at the hinder end of the 
body is the orifice of a single duct, which is not swollen into a vesicle, 
and which soon divides into two. The two branches extend to the base 
of the anterior sucker, where they bend backwards to pass into the 
general parenchyma of the body, where they terminate in small swollen 
ends, which are, in all probability, vibratile infundibula. There are 
calcareous grains in the parenchyma of the body. As the forms ex- 
amined were devoid of generative organs, it is probable that they are 
immature, and that they are destined for some large fish or a Cetacean. 
The Cestode parasites of Sepiola atlantica and Pleurobrachia pileus are 
distinguished from that here described by the absence of the enormous 
anterior sucker. The Planaria of the Solen is never more than two 
millimetres in length ; the body is clothed in cilia which take on special 
characters near the anterior end. Two large black eyes, provided with 
a very large crystalline lens, are situated at about the level of the mouth, 
and receive large nerves from the cerebral ganglia. The mouth is sur- 
rounded by a rosette, and followed by a distinct, simple, and elongated 
digestive tube. Beneath the peripheral cellular layer which carries the 
cilia, there is a dense, pale yellow parenchymatous layer, while the rest 
of the body is filled by a colourless vesicular parenchyma ; in this last 
tissue ova are found in all stages of development, and the young are 
not expelled until they are completely developed. Vesicles filled with 
spermatozoa are found in the same parenchyma. On either side of the 
body there are elongated tracts, which appear to be accessory glands of 
the reproductive apparatus. 


Echinodermata. 


Longitudinal Muscles and Stewart’s Organ in Echinothurids.*— 
Herren P. and F. Sarasin have made some anatomical investigations on 
the Echinothurid which they called Cyanosoma urens, but which they 
now recognize to belong to the genus Asthenosoma. The five pairs of 
longitudinal muscles which extend between the boundaries of the 
ambulacra and interambulacra are not simple smooth bands, but are made 
up of a number of radially arranged muscular bundles. The separate 
bundles arise from the outermost ends of the ambulacral plates, and 
extend centrally into asmalltendon. The tendons fuse with one another, 
and so form a true centrum tendineum about the middle of each muscle, 
A complete muscle, seen from the side, is semilunar in form; its lower- 
most bundles are inserted into the auricles ; from the adoral auricular 
surfaces there arise still wider, but much weaker bundles, which are 
inserted serially into the buccal membrane. These semilunar longi- 
tudinal muscles divide the body-cavity into ten chamberlets, of which the 
five interambulacral are broader than the five ambulacral. Sir W. 
Thomson saw these muscles, but described them as mere fascie; they 
not only serve as locomotor organs, but also as suspendors of the enteron. 
Such muscles are wanting in Echinids with firm tests, but in the Dia- 
dematidz and allied forms the relations of the enteric mesentery recall 
the arrangement of muscles in the Echinothuride, The organs of Stewart 
were first seen in the Cidaride ; in Asthenosoma they are also well 
developed ; they are five thin-walled vesicles, about five centimetres 


* Zool. Anzeig., xi. (1888) pp, 115-7. 


430 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


long, lying in the free ambulacral chamberlets. In Asthenosoma they 
are mere evaginations of the membrane of the lantern, and are devoid 
of the secondary diverticula which they have in the Cidaride. 


Researches on Dorocidaris papillata and other Mediterranean 
Echinids.*—M. H. Prouho has, inter alia, studied the development of 
the spines of Dorocidaris papillata. He has not been able to determine 
the functions of the glandular pedicillariz, each calcareous valve of 
which contains a mucous sac. The principal bundles of the peripheral 
nerve-plexus are situated in the special grooves hollowed out in the 
calcareous surface of the test; this discovery explains the nature of the 
grooves which have been observed on fossil species; the peripheral 
plexus forms a nerve-ring at the base of each spine, which is visible to 
the naked eye. The ambulacral nerves are tubular, and the intra-neural 
space ends between the epithelium of the pharynx and that of the peri- 
stomial lip. The internal part of the ambulacral nerve-tubes forms the 
peribuceal ring, which is continuous with the epithelial layer of the 
pharynx. In D. papillata alone, so far as is known, there is no intestinal 
siphon to the digestive tube. The visceral lacunar system is solely 
composed of lacunz hollowed out in the connective tissue of the mesen- 
teric layers; the absorbing capillary plexus opens into two marginal 
lacune, one of which is external and oneinternal. The internal marginal 
lacuna leads into a peri-cesophageal ring which is placed in the internal 
wall of the aquiferous ring. This lacunar ring gives rise to a plexus 
which is distributed to the ovoid gland, and is continued into the genital 
pentagon, and five pharyngeal lacune; the latter give off five radial 
lacune, which again give off lateral branches for the tentacles. No 
Polian vesicles are differentiated from the cesophageal rings. The 
visceral lacunar system does not communicate with the exterior; nor 
does the ring belonging to that system communicate with the aquiferous 
ring. 

The larval form of D. papillata is a pluteus with four pairs of arms, 
two of which have delicate spicular networks; the cupola is flattened, and 
has two lateral lobes, in addition to which there are other well-developed 
lobes along the ciliated fringe; there are no ciliated epaulets. 

In Echinus acutus M. Prouho has discovered the peripheral nerve- 
plexus, and a genital nerve-ring connected with the five ambulacral 
nerves. In Strongylocentrotus lividus the five genital glands were 
observed to arise from a single primitive bud, which is developed at the 
expense of the mesentery; the ovoid gland is not a genital stolon. 
Spatangus purpureus has an internal apophysis, at the extremity of which 
the aquiferous tube and the annexed canal open. The internal marginal 
lacuna gives off a branch which forms a circumoral lacunar ring; this 
ring gives off on one side five radial lacune, and on the other a lacuna 
(glandular canal) which extends as far as the ovoid gland, is distributed 
in its walls, and ends in a plexus in the membrane which connects 
together the four genital glands. The aquiferous apparatus is divided 
into two parts which do not communicate with one another ; there is the 
true aquiferous tube, prolonged by a ramified canal which ends in a cul- 
de-sac near the cesophageal region, and an ambulacral system consisting 
of five radial vessels, a circumoral ring, and a canal which extends along 


* Arch. Zool. Expér. et Gén., y. (1887) pp. 213-380 (18 pls.). See also this 
Journal, 1887, p. 406, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 431 


the esophagus, and ends in a cul-de-sac. The visceral lacunar system 
communicates with neither of these parts, nor with the exterior. 


Echinoidea of Japan.*—The first part of Dr. L. Déderlein’s mono- 
graph of the Echinoidea of Japan deals with the Cidaride and Saleinide ; 
four new species of Cidaris, a new Porocidaris, and three species of 
Goniocidaris are described ; of the latter G. mikado is remarkable for the 
small number of coronal plates, and the extraordinary form of the 
spines. 

Gemmation in Linckia multipora.j—Drs. P. and F. Sarasin have 
published a further account of their observations on gemmation in 
Linckia multipora,{ where they add to their own facts an historical notice 
of what has been seen and said by some other observers, and give 
illustrations of the specimens they collected. 


Emigration of Amceboid Corpuscles in the Star-fish.S—Mr. H. E. 
Durham has made some observations on the emigration of amceboid cor- 
puseles in Asterias rubens. Indian ink or precipitated anilin blue was in- 
jected into the ccelomic cavity ; the granules thus introduced are ingested 
by the amceboid corpuscles that float in the ccelomic fluid, and the granule- 
laden phagocytes can be seen very plainly in the dermal branchiz of a 
living specimen; here the cilia of the coelomic epithelium cause them to 
dance up and down in the branchia, and to be thrown against the wall ; 
every now and then a corpuscle adheres at or near the apex of the bran- 
chia, and by repetition a small clump may be formed. After adhesion the 
corpuscles creep by their amceboid movement through the ccelomic 
epithelium, the connective tissue layer, and the epidermis to the exterior, 
and the animal is thus freed from some of the irritating particles. For a 
time the corpuscles retain their irregular amoeboid shape; they then 
become spherical and swell up; later they disintegrate, and the contained 
granules are set free. 

Besides the corpuscles containing Indian ink, others were found 
loaded with refringent granules. Ifa star-fish be kept in a vessel into 
which fresh sea-water is constantly dripping, it throws off from its 
surface a certain amount of a dirty brownish slime. This slime appears 
to contain identically loaded corpuscles. For such bodies the author 
proposes the term spheruliferous. On them a holotrichous Infusorian 
and a species of Caprella were seen to feed. 


Madreporite of Cribrella ocellata.||—Mr. H. E. Durham has made 
a series of vertical longitudinal sections through the madreporite of a 
full-grown specimen of Cribrella ocellata, in which the madreporic canals 
have a peculiar relation to the stone-canal or water-tube. Most of the 
pore-canals pass into collecting canals, which open into the stone-canal 
directly ; but a few lead into the space below the madreporite, which is 
the upper extremity of the “schlauchformiger Kanal.” The stone-canal 
dilates laterally on either side into an ampulla, and one of these has an 
aperture into the latter canal. Now this is derived from the enteroccele, 
so that, in the specimen described, there is a permanent connection be- 
tween the hydroccele-cavity and the enteroccele-cavity. It is not yet 
known whether or no this is an abnormal arrangement. 


* Nature, xxxvii. (1888) pp. 243-4. 

+ ‘Ergebnisse Naturw. Forschungen auf Ceylon’ (Wiesbaden, 1888), pp. 74-9 
C1 pl.). t See this Journal, ante, p. 233. 

§ Proc. Roy. Soc., xliii. (1888) pp. 327-30 (1 pl ). || Tom, cit., pp. 330-3. 


432 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Morphology of Ophiurids.*—-Dr. O. Hamann has published a pre- 
liminary account of his observations on the morphology of Ophiurids. 

(1) Central or Peripheral Nervous System.—This differs from that of 
Asterids by lying in the mesoderm. When sections are made of a nerve- 
trunk it is seen that its cellular investment is not always the same, the 
cells being sometimes in one and sometimes in several layers. There is 
only one layer at the points where the branchlets are given off to the 
pedicels. ‘The cells are very small, the cell-substance can scarcely be 
seen, and there is a spherical nucleus. In the intermediate regions the 
cells are arranged in several layers, but no supporting fibres can be 
made out, and there is nothing which prevents our regarding them as 
ganglion-cells. This would show that the Ophiurids are the most highly 
developed of Echinoderms, for a segmentation of their nerve-trunks can 
be made out. Another peculiarity is the presence of a nearly circular 
blood-lacuna in the middle line of the nerve-trunks ; this passes towards 
the centre, where it meets with a circular blood-lacuna ring, which lies 
internally to the nerve-ring. Of the branches given off from the central 
trunks the author recognizes nervi costales, which pass to the intercostal 
muscles, and nervi epitheliales which branch in all directions. Below 
the epidermis there is a nervous plexus which may be distinctly seen on 
both arms and disc. In no group of Echinoderms is there such an ex- 
quisitely developed nervous system. The large number of epithelial 
nerves, and the extension of the sub-epithelial nerve-plexus, are closely 
associated with the great power of rapid movement possessed by these 
animals. 

(2) The Wandering Germ-cells and their Sites of Maturation—The 
ova and spermatozoa arise from primordial germ-cells, which make 
their way into the developing genital saccules, and then become differen- 
tiated. The author has discovered a genital tube, which extends partly 
into the dorsal wall of the dise and partly into the walls of the genital 
pouches. This tube is placed on a cord of connective substance and is 
surrounded by blood-fiuid, which flows into the lacune and clefts of the 
cord. The latter lies in a schizoccel space. In structure this genital 
tube closely resembles that of Crinoids. 

(3) The Dorsal Pore—The author thinks that an association of 
Ophiurids with Asterids in one group can only be justified on the ground 
of their external similarity; otherwise the Ophiurids are more closely 
allied to the Crinoids. In an adult Ophiolepis albida, Dr. Hamann has 
discovered an excentrically placed dorsal pore. ‘The body-wall is 
traversed by an infundibulum which puts the ccelom into communica- 
tion with the sea-water. The inner wall is quite flat, and is lined by 
ciliated cells, which on the one hand pass into the outer body-epithelium, 
and on the other into the epithelium of the enteroccel. This pore has 
nothing to do with the stone-canal, but is to be compared rather to the 
calycinal pores of Crinoids. 

(4) Schizoceel Pores and Blood-lacunar System.—In O. albida the 
author finds a space which passes partly into the dorsal wall of the 
body-dise and partly into the walls of the genital pouches. In this 
there lies the blood-lacuna ring, which takes the same course and lies in 
a septum of connective tissue. The blood-fluid flows into the peripheral 
lacune of this septum. These lacune are best developed in the dorsal 


* Nachr. K. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen, 1887, pp, 394-400, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 433 


wall, and therce a branch goes into the ccelom, extends to the enteron, 
where its wall fuses with that of the gut. There are also schizoccel 
spaces in the arms, which fuse around the pharynx into an oral schizoccel- 
sinus; in these the central nervous system is suspended. On this 
latter there is a blood-vessel, placed in a poorly developed connective- 
tissue-septum. These radial blood-lacune also form a circumoral ring, 
whence there is a communication of blood to the so-called heart. 


Coelenterata. 


New Method of Multiplication in Hydroids.*—Prof. W. K. Brooks 
has observed a new method of multiplication in a species of Oceania 
found at the Bahamas. The hydroid larva is a small Campanularian, 
and the hydranths are carried in toothed cups; the blastostyles spring 
from the root, inclosed in nearly sessile gonothecx, and produce a series 
of medusa-buds, which mature and escape in succession from the 
_ distal end. Soon after it is set free the medusa has a shallow bell, 
four radial and four interradial tentacles, capable of considerable exten- 
sion, an otocyst on either side of the base of every interradial tentacle, 
and four rudimentary reproductive organs. A few of these meduse 
presented a remarkable and unexampled peculiarity, for they had true 
blastostyles growing out from their reproductive organs into the cavity 
of the bell; these were inclosed in chitinous gonothece, covered with 
medusa-buds exactly like those on the blastostyles of the hydroid com- 
munities, and the little medusa which escaped from them was identical 
with those which were reared from the hydroid blastostyles. As the 
homology between blastostyles and hydranths is undoubted, and as 
nobody has questioned Prof. Brooks’s dictum that the hydra is essentially 
a medusa-larva, we have in this Oceania an adult which buds off larve. 

Sections show that the relation between the medusa and the blasto- 
style is quite anomalous and very different from that which ordinarily 
obtains between the bud and the parent in the Hydromeduse. All the 
meduse with blastostyles which were examined were found to be males, 
with a well-defined layer of ectoderm outside the unspecialized germ- 
cells of the reproductive organ, and this layer is directly continuous 
with the ectoderm of the blastostyles, but there is no connection 
between the radiating canal of the medusa and the stomach of the 
blastostyle, nor is the endoderm of the latter an outgrowth from that of 
the medusa. The endoderm of each blastostyle is quite independent 
of the same layer in other blastostyles upon the same reproductive 
organ. 

Near the proximal end of each blastostyle the ectoderm becomes 
thickened to form a glandular collar, by which the perisarc of the gono- 
theca is excreted. The layer of ectoderm bends round the base of the 
sheath of perisare, folding it into a circular furrow, outside which the 
ectoderm and its supporting layer is directly continuous with that of 
the medusa. The endoderm is continued into the substance of the 
reproductive organ as a hollow tube, which divides up into smaller 
tubes; these ultimately split along one side and flatten out into a single 
layer of cells directly continuous with the unspecialized germ-cells of 
the reproductive organs. In the body of the blastostyle the endoderm 
cells are opaque, granular, vacuolated, and filled with food-particles, 


* Johns-Hopkins Univ. Circulars, vii. (1888) pp. 29-30. 
1888. 28 


434 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


but towards the base they become more transparent and similar, and in 
the branching tubes they become indistinguishable from those of the 
reproductive organs. 

In early stages of the growth of new buds the endoderm is seen to 
be derived from the cells of the reproductive organs, and, when the 
buds are formed, the blastostyles are nourished at the expense of the 
tissue of the reproductive organs of the medusa. 

We seem here to have to do with a peculiarly modified process of 
gemmation, and not with pedogenetic phenomena, as is probably the 
case with the “sporogenesis ” observed by Metschnikoff in Cunina. 


Anatomy of Madreporaria.*—Dr. G. H. Fowler gives an account of 
the structure of Madracis asperula, Amphihelia ramea, Stephanophyllia 
formosissima, Sphenotrochus rubescens, Stephanaria planipora, Pocillopora 
nobilis, and Seriatopora tenuicornis. He thinks there is evidence that 
the law that the body-wall, when present, is supported in accenenchy- 
matous forms upon peripheral lamelle of the mesenteries, and in 
coenenchymatous species upon the echinulations of the ccenenchyme, 
requires modification. The two methods of support may coexist in a 
ccenenchymatous form (Madracis), and to a certain extent in an accenen- 
chymatous (Amphihelia) ; the body-wall of accenenchymatous species 
may rest, either mainly (Amphihelia), or entirely (Stephanophyllia) on 
pseudocostee ; in Sphenotrochus it rests on pseudocoste and true coste. 
These apparent exceptions to the law may be due to exceptional condi- 
tions, of which we are at present ignorant. 

The ultimate attachment of the polyp to the corallum consists, in 
many genera, of a series of laminated offsets of mesoglceea in the neigh- 
bourhood of the mesentery; these are the structures which have been 
previously described as calicoblastic in function. In Sphenotrochus a 
sphincter muscle, comparable to the “ Rétteken’s muscle” of the Hexac- 
tiniz#, may be found in the region of the mouth-disc. In the same form 
follicle-cells, which are perhaps immigrants from the endoderm, may 
surround the ripening ovum as it lies in its mesogleal capsule. Stepha- 
naria appears to be distinctly degenerate, owing to the low develop- 
ment of the mesenterial filament, and the slight definition of the 
boundaries of the polyps which compose the colony; the individuality 
of the several polyps is, indeed, hardly more marked than in a Poriferan 
colony. 


Development of Mancinia areolata.j—Mr. H. V. Wilson gives an 
abstract of his observations on Manctnia areolata, a common Astreid 
coral in the Bahamas, and allied to the well-known brain-coral. After 
segmentation there is a blastosphere with a very large cavity, and the 
cells contain numerous vacuoles which are probably filled with a fluid 
yolk; the germinal layers are formed by delamination, which takes 
place irregularly over the whole surface of the blastosphere. The 
permanent endoderm is a single layer of cells except in the region of 
the cesophagus, where it forms a solid mass which stretches from the 
cesophagus to the external ectoderm. The “mesenterial filaments” are 
found to be not the thickened edges of the mesenteries, but lobes of the 
cesophageal ectoderm. To form the first mesentery the whole cesophagus 
moves laterally towards the meridian of the future mesentery, until in 


* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxviii. (1888) pp. 413-28 (2 pls.). 
+ Johns-Hopkins Uniy. Circulars, vii. (1888) pp. 31-3. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 435 


this meridian there is nothing between the external ectoderm and the 
eesophageal ectoderm but the supporting lamella; the result of the 
movement is that the endoderm in the place of the first mesentery is 
pulled down; the cesophagus now grows downwards in the meridian as 
a lobe of ectoderm, which represents the first filament. The filament, 
like the cesophagus above it, rests on the supporting lamella, and is 
consequently flush with the surrounding endoderm. The second fila- 
ment is formed on the opposite side of the animal in the same way as 
the first. After this the formation of mesenteries as such begins; the 
cesophagus withdraws from the body ectoderm along the line of the first, 
and subsequently of the second mesentery, remaining connected with it 
by the supporting lamella, which narrows to a thin band. The two 
intermediate chambers thus formed are at first solid. Below the ceso- 
phagus the endoderm forces its way under the short filaments, forming 
very slight ridges, with an axial band of supporting lamella; these 
ridges are the mesenteries, and on them the ectodermic lobes, or filaments, 
rest. When the two intermesenteric chambers are hollowed out the 
formation of the second pair of mesenteries with their filaments begins. 
The incomplete mesenteries of the larva are successively supplied with 
filaments by the reflection and upward growth of the ectoderm, and it is 
very probable that the incomplete mesenteries of the adult are se 
supplied in the adult. 

In the older larve studied by the author the filaments are quite 
simple, and the cells are continuous with the endoderm of a thin 
mesentery. In the adult the edge of the mesentery is considerably 
enlarged, and forms two rather definite tracts, between which the filament 
proper rests. ‘The author thinks that the very elaborate division of the 
filaments into three tracts physiologically distinct, made by the Hertwigs, 
cannot be considered as typical. 

Mr. Wilson agrees with Koch, Fowler, and Bourne, in regarding the 
skeleton as a pure ectodermic structure, which is morphologically 
outside the body. With reference to the recent observations of Gitte on 
the embryology of Aurelia, and his proof that the Scyphostoma larva, with 
its ectodermal cesophagus and four complete mesenteries, is of an 
Anthozoan nature, Mr. Wilson urges that his observations dispose of the 
view that what is seen in Aurelia is typical of the Anthozoa; he thinks 
that the symmetrical method has been derived from the gradual method 
seen in Mancinia, and he suggests that it may be connected with the 
reduction of the mesenteries to four. He is the more inclined to believe 
this, as an individual variation, seen in several larve, suggests the 
manner in which the condition found in Aurelia has been brought about. 


Gorgonide of Naples.*—Dr. G. v. Koch commences his monograph 
on the Gorgonide of the Bay of Naples with some remarks on the 
structure of Alcyonarians in general. With regard to the mode of 
formation of colonies he points out that the stolons may arise only at 
the base of the polyp, and may be simple, as in Cornularia, or fused into 
basal plates as in Rhizowenia and Gorgonia, or they may arise at 
different points of the polyp ; these may be simple or fused into plates, 
as in Telesto, Pennatula, and Gorgonia, or the stolons may be irregular 
and fused into a massive tissue, as in Aleyonium, Corallium, and Sclero- 
gorgia. ‘There may be no skeleton as in Mowenia, or an investing ecto- 


* Fauna u. Flora des Golfes von Neapel, Monogr. xv. (1887) 97 pp. (10 pls.). 
2H 2 


436 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


skeleton only as in Cornularia, or a mesoskeleton only as in a number of 
forms, or both an exo- and a mesoskeleton. There are a few remarks on 
development. 

The Alcyonaria are divisible into three suborders; the Aleyonacea 
are fixed, and have no independent axis formed by a continuous epithe- 
lial layer ; the Gorgonacea are fixed, and have such an axis, but are not 
polymorphous, while the Pennatulacea are free, formed of a stalk and 
polyp-supports, with polymorphous polyps which are generally 
regularly arranged. 

The suborder Gorgonacea contains only one family, that of the 
Gorgonide. An account is given of the form and colour of the whole 
colony, of the axial skeleton and epithelium, the cortex, the polyps, and 
the spicules. The species found in the Bay of Naples are described ; 
these are Gorgonella sarmentosa and G. Bianci, Muricea chameleon, 
M. placomus and M. bebrycoides (sp. n.), Bebryce mollis, Gorgonia Cavo- 
lini|7| (sp.n.), G. verrucosa and G. profunda (sp.n.), Primnoa Ellisii, and 
Isis elongata. Three analytical tables are given which are destined to 
aid the student in (1) recognizing the living animal, (2) determining 
complete colonies, and (3) making out species from fragments. In the 
last, of course, much assistance is obtained from the characters of the 
spicules. 


Protozoa. 


Direct Division of Nucleus in Euplotes harpa.*—Herr K. Mobius 
calls attention to the direct division of the nucleus during the transverse 
division of Euplotes harpa. This mode of division commences with the 
appearance of a row of cilia on the ventral surface ; these are at first 
very delicate and short, and so are scarcely visible; they soon increase 
in size, and form a sigma-shaped row. While this has been going on 
the whole body has elongated, and become constricted in the middle. 
As the constriction grows deeper the new row of cilia passes completely 
to the hinder half, and forms its oral circlet. Other cilia appear, and 
the anterior half looks like a miniature of the mother-individual. The 
nucleus has the form of a sac placed transversely, gets thin in the 
middle, and finally divides into two elongated nuclei; there are no 
mitotic nuclear figures. 


New Parasitic Infusoria.t—Mr. H. H. Anderson has described to 
the Microscopical Society of Calcutta a species of Anoplophrya which 
was found parasitic in the alimentary canal of AYolosoma chlorostictum 
(MSS. sp.) ; it divides by fusion (? fission), and “in some instances two 
septa have formed in a single organism.’ 


Monograph of Tintinnodee.t—Dr. E. v. Daday discovered at 
Naples a large number of new species of Tintinnodew, and he has 
written a monograph on the family. 

After an historical introduction, an account is given of the test, of 
the external form of the body, and of the structure of its surface ; this 
last is always ciliated, and in some species there are two kinds of cilia, 
some stiff, and some finer. In all marine, and probably also in fresh- 
water forms, the cilia are only arranged in four spiral rows. The 


* SB. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1887, pp. 102-3. 
¢ Sci.-Gossip, 1888, p. 38. 
} MT. Zool, Stat. Neapel, vii. (1887) pp. 473-591 (4 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. 437 


peristome, which is a dise lying transversely to the long axis of the 
body, is next described; it has but a slight power of retraction, and is 
so far by no means comparable to the peristome of Stentor or Vorticella ; 
the adoral ciliated plates aid in closing it. The account of the internal 
structure is divided into descriptions of the body-substance, the nuclei, 
and the vacuoles. 

After some notes on their life-habits, the author passes to a systematic 
account of the forms that compose the family ; Amphorella, and Undella 
are new genera, and twenty-nine new species are described. 


Spore-formation in Peridines.*—Herr F. Schiitt has made some 
observations on the development of Peridinex, which appear to him to 
strengthen considerably the case against their being animals. 

(1) He corroborates, in regard to Ceratium fusus and C. furea, the 
observations of Bergh on the division of C. tripos. (2) Quite distinct 
from the latter, a further process was observed which the author terms 
spore-formation. The protoplasm retracts, rounds itself off, and secretes 
a homogeneous sheath ; the original case bursts, a pear-shaped “‘ sporan- 
gium” issues, and divides into two. So far Peridinium spiniferum 
Clap. Lach. But in Peridinium acuminatum Ehrbg., a further evolution 
was observed. The daughter-cells, issuing from their sheath, were seen 
to rest for a few minutes and then exhibited a flagellum at one end. 
Herr Schiitt therefore calls them “swarm-spores,” and compares his 
results with the history of diatoms. Finally, he suggests that further 
observations will show that the naked forms of Peridinex, e. g. Pouchet’s 
Gymnodinium gracile, are simply stages in the history of encased forms. 


Radiolaria.t— Under the title of part ii. of ‘Die Radiolarien’ Prof. E. 
Haeckel has published a ‘ Grundriss einer allgemeinen Naturgeschichte 
der Radiolarien,’ which consists of the introduction to the ‘Challenger’ 
Report on Radiolarians, to which are appended a ‘ Catalogus Radiola- 
rium, and a ‘Clavis Generum’; the latter based on the keys in the 
‘Challenger’ Report. The seventy-four plates are a selection of those 
of the atlas of the report. 

New Foraminifer.{—M. J. Kunstler describes a remarkable new 
Foraminifer found at Arcachon. The adult has an ovoid monaxial test, 
one to two millimetres long, with the mouth at one pole; in youth the 
test is delicate, finely chitinous, and distinctly areolar in structure ; it 
increases in thickness by the division of the areole into two, and then 
into several layers ; the outermost and innermost layers remain chitinous, 
while the intermediate become charged with carbonate of lime, which 
forms a row of globules often arranged in regular lines. The increase 
in growth takes place throughout the whole thickness of the test, and so 
shows that the entire envelope is living. The protoplasm, which is 
areolated, does not always fill the whole of the test. 

From the accumulation of protoplasm round the mouth, a variable 
number of fine transparent pseudopodia are given off; when these are 
all retracted, there may be seen a somewhat irregular excavation, at the 
bottom of which is the entrance to a tube, which, in appearance, is 
analogous to the cesophageal tube of a number of Infusoria. The nuclei 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., v. (1887) pp. 364-74 (1 pl.). 

+ ‘Die Radiolarien (Rhizopoda Radiaria), Zweiter Theil. Grundriss einer 
allgemeinen Naturgeschichte der Radiolarien.’ Folio, 1887, 248 pp. and 74 pls. 

t Comptes Rendus, cvi. (1888) pp. 769-71. 


438 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


vary greatly in form and number, and their appearance is coincident 
with the commencement of the reproductive period. Reproduction is 
effected by the formation of a chitinous layer around the mass of proto- 
plasm which surrounds each nucleus; there are thus formed a number 
of small embryos which divide repeatedly as they increase in size; when 
they have acquired a certain size they escape by the mouth. A free 
young form is provided with a chitinous test perforated by one pore, 
and contains a small external nucleus. Hach embryonic chamber soon 
produces by budding a small elongated chamber which becomes rolled 
spirally round it; other chambers are afterwards produced till the 
organism resembles a Miliola. The spiral arrangement becomes 
irregular, and finally dendritic. 

The author is of opinion that the adult forms of certain Foraminifers 
have been hitherto misunderstood, and that the condition in which all 
the chambers are continuous is sometimes an embryonic stage. 


Nature of Opaque Scarlet Spherules found in many Fossilized 
Foraminifera.*—Mr. H. J. Carter gives an account of curious coloured 
bodies which he has observed in sections of various fossil Foraminifers. 
At their earliest distinguishable stage they are colourless or slightly 
opaque, indistinct, and situated simply “in the cells of an areolar 
structure which fills the chamber of the Nummuhte.” Others are more 
defined, adherent to each other or clustered; others are more separated, 
semitransparent, and of a brown colour; finally, they present themselves 
as opaque scarlet spherules. These last vary from 1/600 to 1/7000 in. 
in diameter, and they are always confined to the sarcodiferous cavities of 
the test, so that they cannot be confounded with any inorganic mineraliza- 
tion. Mr. Carter cannot but regard these bodies as elements of repro- 
duction, and compares them with similar bodies in recent specimens 
which differ in not being red (which is the effect of mineralization). No 
definite suggestion is offered as to the relation which the larger have to 
the smaller spherules. 


New Species of Acineta.t—Mr. C. C. Nutting describes a new fresh- 
water species of Podophrya, to which he gives the name compressa ; most 
like P. buckii, it differs in having a distinctly compressed instead of 
cylindrical body, and in the possession of a short and thick pedicle. 
Observations on its mode of feeding did not support the ordinarily 
received doctrine that solid food is not ingested through the tentacles. 
A ciliated infusorian that had been seized as a prey was observed to have 
four incisions made into its ectosarc, and soon four rapid streams of 
protoplasm were observed passing into the body of the Acinetan; during 
the process solid coloured granules were seen to pass through the 
tentacles of the captor. ‘This ingestion of solid material explains the 
apparent excretory function of the tentacles, for the Podophrya was 
observed on one occasion to violently eject a stream of granular proto- 
plasm by one of its tentacles. 

An account is given of the life-history of this form, and the fact that 
the writer was at first entirely misled by discovering a specimen with 
embryos clustered round its anterior end which appeared to have under- 
gone exogenous gemmation, leads him to ask whether others have not 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., i. (1888) pp. 264-70. 
+ Amex. Natural., xxii. (1888) pp. 13-17. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 439 


been similarly deceived, and this mode of reproduction less common 
among Acinetans than is generally supposed. 


Encystation of Megastoma intestinale.*—Prof. E. Perroncito finds 
that this monad undergoes encystation in the large intestine of Mus 
musculus. In the feces cysts, perfect, or dividing specimens may be 
found. Dr. P. Blanchard} adds a note as to the nomenclature of the 
species, which he calls Lamblia intestinalis, as the generic term is 
already in use. 


* Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xiii. (1888) pp. 16-8. t Loe. cit., pp. 18-9. 


——— tt SS 


440 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 


a. Anatomy.* 
(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. 


Nuclear Origin of Hyaloplasm.t—M. C. Degagny states that ob- 
servers who are interested in the phenomena which accompany the 
indirect division of the nucleus, or k#ryokinesis, have asked if there is 
not in the nucleus, besides chromatic bodies, nucleoli, and nuclear sap, 
other plasmic matter which in certain cases is seen in the form of granu- 
lations, for example, in the nucleus of the mother-cell of the embryo-sac 
of the lily. If sections of the endosperm of the fritillary, lily, or iris be 
examined when the embryo-sae is not completely full, one finds all the 
nuclei of a certain region inclosing a hyaline matter which might be 
taken for an agglomeration of protoplasm; but this matter, which is 
very abundant in certain nuclei, is less so in others. 

The author concludes by stating that the formation of carbohydrates 
and the formation of protoplasm are brought about by the dissemination 
or disorganization of nuclear substances. In the formation of protoplasm 
there are two distinct phases separated by a total change in molecular 
condition. In the first phase of its existence the fundamental protoplasm 
retains the crystalline form, like homogeneous inorganie substances in 
which the cohesion is uniform. In the second phase it is reorganized, 
and passes into the colloidal or amorphous state. 


Three Nuclei in Pollen-grains.{—Mr. B. D. Halsted describes the 
structure of some pollen obtained from Sambucus racemosa, When 
viewed dry, the pollen-grains are about twice as long as broad, and 
exhibit three dark longitudinal lines or sutures. For germination, fresh 
pollen was placed in a 10 per cent. solution of cane-sugar ; and by means 
of the colouring substances eosin and azo-rubin, the author was able to 
determine the presence of three nuclei in nearly all the tubes. When 
only two nuclei were found in a grain or its tube, one was frequently 
larger than the other. This fact led to the suggestion that the larger 
or vegetative nucleus may undergo a process of division early in the 
development of the pollen-grain. 


Nuclear and Cell-division.—Herr E. Zacharias § contests the view 
of Strasburger and Berthold, || that, during the division of the nucleus, 
while it is passing over into the spindle-condition, the cell-protoplasm 
enters it, so that a sharply defined nucleus no longer exists, but the 
sections of its framework lie free in the cytoplasm. The observations 
were made on pollen-mother-cells of Hemerocallis and Tradescantia, 
epidermal cells of Tradeseaniia, and rhizoids of Chara, the latter in a 
living condition. 

Zacharias finds that the nucleus does not give up its individuality 


* This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm; (2) Other Cell- 
contents (including Secretions); (8) Strueture of Tissues; and (4) Structure of 
Organs. + Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxiv. (1887) pp. 365-72. 

t Bot. Gazette, xii. (1887) pp. 289-8 (1 pl.). 

& Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 33-40, 51-62 (1 pl.). 

| See this Journal, 1887, p. 429. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 44] 


during division. But, while chlorophyll-grains are simply bisected by 
a central constriction, during the division of the nucleus a portion of 
the parent-nucleus is not taken up into the daughter-nuclei, but is 
absorbed into the cytoplasm. Only its framework passes entirely into 
the daughter-nuclei, a portion of the matrix of the parent-nucleus does 
not. The author also differs from Strasburger’s view that the combining- 
threads are partially identical with the spindle-fibres which originate 
from the cytoplasm that penetrates into the nucleus. 

With regard to the formation of the cell-threads and cell-plate, the 
author dissents from the conclusion of Berthold, and maintains that the 
cell-threads originate in the barrel-shaped residue of the old nucleus 
between the separated filament-segments; the spindle-threads can still 
be recognized in the residue. The nature of the cell-plate was made 
out best in living rhizoids of Chara. The elements of the cell-plate 
travel from the surrounding cytoplasm into the residue of the parent- 
nucleus; the longish bodies from which essentially the cell-plate is 
constructed stand in no demonstrable relation to the fibres which are 
visible in the homogeneous body after treatment with reagents. 

Zacharias identifies the process here described with the “ perfect 
karyokinesis” of Carnoy. : 

With regard to the function of the cell-nucleus, the author was 
unable to come to any definite conclusion. At least at certain times in 
the life of the cell, when the nucleus is dividing, considerable quantities 
of albumen pass out of it into the cytoplasm. 

To the above Herr G. Berthold replies,* maintaining the correctness 
of his statements, in opposition to those of Zacharias. ‘The coalescence 
of the matrix of the old nucleus with the cytoplasm is very gradual, but 
still is distinctly demonstrable. 

Herr Zacharias further repliest to several points in Schwarz’s 
rejoinder to the criticisms of Zacharias on his paper on the morpho- 
logical and chemical composition of protoplasm. 


Structure and Growth of the Cell-wall.i—Herr G Krabbe has 
investigated several points in the structure and mode of development of 
the wall of cells, of which the following are the more important details :— 

With regard to the spiral striation of bast-fibres, the author agrees 
with Dippel (in opposition to Niigeli), that it is never the result of the 
crossing of two systems in one plane. This is seen especially on trans- 
verse section, where the striation-systems appear as radial lines, which 
alter their position on a change in the focus. 

The mode of increase in thickness in the walls of bast-cells was 
investigated especially in the Apocynacez and Asclepiadew. Krabbe 
follows Strasburger in describing the wall as composed of distinct layers, 
themselves made up of lamelle. The separate lamelle, which are 
especially distinguished by variations in the striation, arise by fresh 
formations from the protoplasm, at first only loosely attached to the 
older parts of the cell-wall, but always sharply separated from the 
protoplasm, and showing distinct cellulose-reaction. It is probable that 
the separate lamelle are all formed by new formation, and that increase 
in thickness from intussusception can only play a subordinate part, and 
must be confined to the innermost lamelle. 

* Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 153-7. 
+ Ibid., pp. 69-75, 90-2. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 69. 
} Pringsheim’s Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot., xviii. (1887) pp. 346-423 (5 pls.). 


442 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The inequalities in the radial diameter of older bast-cells in Ascle- 
piadexw and Apocynaces does not result from constriction or compression 
of the narrower, but from a later widening of the broader part, which is 
always accompanied by a new formation of lamelle of cellulose, com- 
mencing usually with the formation of fine transverse lamelle and caps. 
Remains of protoplasm could often be detected between the separate 
cap-like pieces. A very distinct formation of caps takes place also at 
the ends of the bast-cells of Euphorbia palustris. 

The local widenings of bast-cells can be explained only on the sup- 
position of a superficial growth depending on intussusception, This 
the author claims to have proved by measurements, which show that 
the superficial increase could not be the result of simple stretching of the 
cell-wall. 

The spiral striation of bast-cells the author believes to be always the 
result of subsequent differentiation in an at first homogeneous cell-wall, 
which advances in a centripetal direction. Besides this spiral striation, 
he observed in bast-cells a transverse stratification resulting from actual 
differentiation of the substance of the cell-wall. This differentiation 
also arises at a late period, but is said again to disappear in older 
bast-cells. 

As a general result, the author concludes that, in addition to growth 
by apposition and by intussusception, there is also a periodic fresh 
formation of cell-wall, proceeding exclusively from the protoplasm, and 
independent of the portions of cell-wall already in existence. This new 
formation is not always accompanied by a contraction of the protoplasm, 
as is shown by the inclusion of masses of protoplasm in the formation 
of caps. But the caps do not always show the same chemical reactions, 
and it is probable that at later stages they are sometimes permeated by 
albuminoids. 


Growth of the Cell-wall.*—From the experimental application of 
staining reagents, Dr. F. Noll has come to the conclusion that the mode 
of growth of the cell-wall is chiefly by apposition, while of the part 
played by intussusception there is no definite proof. The experiments 
were made chiefly on unicellular Siphonex, species of Bryopsis and 
Derbesia, by causing the production of Berlin blue in the cell-walls of 
the growing plant by the use of potassium ferrocyanide and iron chloride. 
The apical growth, however, takes place by a kind of “eruption”; the 
old membrane bursts, and the membrane of the young shoot is formed 
entirely of new material. The growth of the “leaves” of Caulerpa 
takes place especially in this way. From the fact that no surface- 
growth of the cell-wall has been observed independent of turgidity, the 
author concludes that a growth by apposition may be hereafter experi- 
mentally proved in the case of the cells of the higher plants similar to 
that which he has demonstrated in some Siphonee. 


Morphology and Physiology of the Cell.j—As a section of the 
third volume of Schenk’s ‘ Handbuch der Botanik,’ Herr A. Zimmermann 
publishes an exhaustive treatise on this subject. After a general in- 
troduction he treats of the following subjects :—The form of the proto- 
plasmic body, the finer structure and chemical composition of the 


* Abhandl. Senckenberg. Naturf. Gescll., xv. (1887) pp. 101-62 (1 pl.). 
+ Zimmermann, A., ‘Die Morphol. u. Physiol. der Pflanzenzelle,’ 228 pp. and 
36 figs., Breslau, 1887. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 443 


eytoplasm, the nucleus and chromatophores, cilia, and “ eye-spot,” the 
“ bacteroids” and ciliated bodies of the Characez, protein-grains and 
crystalloids, the starch-grains and nearly related structures, such as the 
starch of the Rhodophycez and Phzophycee, amylon and cellulin, the 
various other cell-contents, cell-sap, and cell-wall. Finally, the various 
phenomena of the physiology of the cell are discussed. 


(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions). 


Formation of Aleurone-grains.*—According to observations of Herr 
J. H. Wakker, aleurone-grains are not, as has been generally stated, 
dried masses of protoplasm ; but, at least in many cases, are vacuoles 
filled with soluble albuminoids; and hence the crystals, crystalloids, 
and globoids found in them are not formed in the protoplasm, but within 
the cell-sap. The investigations were chiefly made on a large number of 
seeds. In the process of germination the aleurone-grains first become 
vacuoles by the absorption of water, the albumen then gradually dis- 
appears from them; the vacuoles usually become smaller, and finally 
the globoids and crystalloids are dissolved. The crystalloids of Der- 
besia Lamourouxii were also found to have their origin in the cell-sap. 


Elaioplast.;—Under this term Herr J. H. Wakker describes nearly 
globular strongly refringent yellow bodies which he finds, in addition to 
the colourless amyloplasts, in epidermal cells of the leaves of Vanilla 
planifolia. 'They exceed in size both the amyloplasts and the nuclei, 
having a diameter of 8-10 » in the half-formed leaf. Treatment with 
a 10 per cent. solution of nitric acid coloured by eosin shows these bodies 
to be outside the vacuoles ; a concentrated solution of picric acid, acetic 
acid, sulphuric acid, and potash lye, cause the exudation from these 
bodies of strongly refringent oil-drops, as does also simply warming. 
The oil-drops are coloured dark brown or black by a 1 per cent. solution 
of osmic acid, a beautiful red by tincture of alcanna, and blue by 
cyanin ; absolute alcohol dissolves them gradually. 

The elaioplasts are formed gradually in the epidermal cells during 
the development of the leaf. The author found them also in Vanilla 
aromatica, but not in Cypripedium latifolium. 


Structure of Starch-grains.{—Herr K. Mikosch has applied the same 
mode of investigation to the discovery of the ultimate structure of starch- 
grains as that employed by Wiesner§ in determining the structure of 
the cell-wall. By laying for months in a 2 per cent. acid, hydrochloric, 
sulphuric, or chromic, or by the application of chlorine-water and sub- 
sequent pressure, he was able to break up potato-starch-grains into radial 
apparently homogeneous rods. Five weeks’ action of 2 per cent. hydro- 
chloric acid produced no change except a slight swelling, and rendering 
the stratification more conspicuous. In about three months the breaking 
up of the starch-grains into minute but sharply defined rods has been 
nearly completed. The processes are nearly the same in wheat-starch, 
but here the ultimate particles are granules, which can be made visible 
by simply warming in water of 45° C. 

The author concludes that the starch-grain is composed of minute 


* Maandbl. v. Natuurwetensch., 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 361. 
+ Maandbl. v. Natuurwetensch,, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 139. 
{ Mikosch, K., * Unters. iib. d. Baud. Starkekérner,’ Wien, 1887, 17 pp. and 5 figs. 
§ See this Journal, 1886, p. 818. 


444 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


but still visible amylosomes, imbedded in a homogeneous watery matrix 
which swells up easily. This matrix is coloured blue by iodine, but the 
extreme minuteness of the amylosomes rendered it difficult to determine 
whether this was the case with them also. He was unable to detect in 
the starch- grains the presence of any albuminous substance. The 
amylosomes when isolated are singly, but in their natural position 
doubly refractive. 


Function of Tannin.*—Prof. W. Hillhouse states that in all its forms 
tannin is characterized by a weak acid reaction and an easily recognizable 
astringent taste. Although it is convenient to speak of the group under 
a single name, it must be borne in mind that the term includes a con- 
siderable series of bodies of slightly varying character, and our know- 
ledge of which is still extremely limited. Most of them appear to 
be glucosides of gallic acid, and to be capable of resolution into 
gallic acid and glucose; those which give the blue-black reaction 
with ferric salts as a rule yield pyrogallol, while those which give 
the iron-green reaction commonly yield pyrocatechin. As regards 
the general chemistry of tannin, two conclusions may be drawn, viz. 
(1) that tannin is richer in carbon and oxygen than are carbohydrates, 
and (2) that either free, or in comparatively loose combination with it 
in the vegetable tissues, is an uncertain percentage of glucose. The 
author conducted his experiments upon the following lines:—(1) To 
determine whether the quantity of tannin in stems diminishes pari passu 
with the increase in the quantity of starch; (2) whether in spring the 
quantity of tannin increases as that of starch decreases; (8) whether in 
germination and in stems in spring tannin is used up when the quantity 
of starch or other carbohydrate has reached a low point. 

The author’s experiments point to the conclusion that tannin, once 
formed, is not used up in the further processes of growth, except perhaps 
in the formation of resin ; and in this the evidence completely coincides 
with the non-transfer of tannin from falling leaves, and from the leaves 
of evergreens in winter. The function of tannin may be in some way to 
protect the dead or dying parts of the plants from diseases due to the 
attacks of fungoid organisms; putting this on one side, evidence does 
not support the view that tannin acts as a food-material analogous to 
starch, glucose, or oil. ; 


Formation of Oxalate of Lime in Leaves.j—Herr A. F. W. Schimper 
has made a detailed examination of the mode of occurrence and forma- 
tion of crystals of calcium oxalate in the leaves of plants. Only rarely, 
as in some families of mosses and in most ferns and grasses, does 
this salt appear to be entirely wanting in the cell-sap. When the 
crystals take the form of raphides, they are fully formed in the young 
leaves while still growing; but in the far larger number of cases where 
the crystals of calcium oxalate take some other form, the quantity is very 
small in young leaves, gradually increasing with age. An exceedingly 
good instance of this gradual increase with age is furnished by the 
leaves of Acer Negundo. 

Distinguishing the crystals formed during growth as primary, and 
those formed after growth has been completed as secondary, the primary 
crystals are formed independently of light, while the formation of the 


* Midl. Natural., x. (1887) pp. 269-76, 305-9; xi. (1888) pp. 5-11, 32-8. 
+ Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 65-9, 81-9, 97-107, 113-23, 129-39, 145-53. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 445 


secondary is dependent on light and on the presence of chlorophyll. 
Leaves exposed to sunlight contain much larger quantities of this salt 
than those that remain in the shade. Cells destitute of chlorophyll may 
contain large quantities of the oxalate if the material for their formation 
is afforded by adjacent green cells. The formation of secondary calcium 
oxalate is therefore independent of assimilation. The salt can be 
transferred from place to place with great facility, and this takes place 
especially from the leaves into the stem. 

The presence of lime appears to be essential for the conduction of 
the carbohydrates. The origin of the lime in the secondary oxalate is 
unquestionably the decomposition of the nitrates sucked up by the plant 
from the soil, the nitrogen being assimilated, and the secondary calcium 
oxalate remaining behind as a useless secondary product of assimilation. 
Leaves growing in the shade are found to contain larger quantities of 
undecomposed nitrates than those exposed to sunshine. 


Crystals of Calcium oxalate.*—Herr J. H. Wakker has investigated 
the origin of crystals of calcium oxalate in a large number of cases 
where they are formed in the interior of the cell; and finds that they are 
not, as is usually supposed, formed in the protoplasm, but in the cell-sap, 
and are therefore without any direct relation to the life of the plant. By 
the use of either a 4 per cent. solution of cane-sugar, or a 10 per cent. 
solution of potassium nitrate with eosin, by which the outer protoplasm 
is killed, while the walls of the vacuoles are left intact, the formation 
within the vacuoles was demonstrated in the case of a large number of 
raphides and a smaller number of clusters of crystals, octohedra, granules, 
and amorphous masses. Although formed in the vacuoles, the crystals 
are sometimes carried along by the currents of protoplasm. 


Position and Number of Raphides.t—According to Herr J. Hiselen, 
the size of the bundles of raphides varies about 5-fold in plants examined 
belonging to several different natural orders ; the smallest bundles were 
found in the Ampelidex, the largest in the Onagracee. The number 
of bundles in a unit of surface also varies in a manner characteristic 
of the family; the Mesembryanthemaces exhibited the smallest, the 
Balsaminez the largest number. The position of the raphides is not so 
characteristic from a systematic point of view as their number or size. 
Nyctaginez and Balsaminez exhibit peculiarities in the position of the 
bundles in the spongy and palisade-parenchyma. In Fuchsia, which 
differs in this respect from other genera of Onagracex, the raphides 
surround the veins as a sheath. 


Spring-sap in the Birch and Hornbeam.t{—Herr R. Hornberger has 
studied the composition of the sap exuding from the trunk of these trees 
by “bleeding” in the spring. The incisions were made at various 
heights from the ground. In both cases the sap contains levulose, with 
some dextrose, nitrogen, malic acid, and salts. 

The amount of sugar was found, in the case of the birch, first to 
increase and then to diminish, from the commencement of the bleeding. 
The same was the case with malic acid, but to a less extent. The pro- 
portion of malic acid was, on the average, higher during the night than in 


* Maandbl. v. Natuurwetensch., 1886. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiv. (1888) p. 360. 

+ Hiselen, J., ‘Ueb. d. systematischen Werth der Rhaphiden in dikot. Familien,’ 
27 pp., Halle, 1887. 

t Forstliche Blatter, 1887, 16 pp. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 227. 


446 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the day. The hornbeam contains less sugar and acid than the birch ; 
but the general results did not differ greatly. Incisions made at differ- 
ent heights showed that the upper portion of the trunk contained about 
twice as much nitrogen as the lower portion; the greater part was in 
the form of non-albuminoid nitrogenous substances. The hornbeam 
contained less nitrogen than the birch. The proportion of mineral sub- 
stances in the birch steadily increased, the upper sap containing more 
than the lower, and the proportion being greater in the day than in the 
night. The upper sap contained more potassa, lime, and magnesia than 
the lower ; there was only a very small quantity of iron, but a percep- 
tible amount of manganese. Nearly all the sugar disappears before the 
hornbeam ceases to blossom, while it still appears in the birch until the 
blossoming is completed. 


(8) Structure of Tissues. 


Endosperm.*—Prof. G. S. Boulger alludes to the ambiguity in the 
use of the term endosperm. In Prof. Goebel’s ‘ Outlines of Classification 
and Special Morphology,’ it appears with three, if not four, somewhat 
disparate significations. 'To obviate this, the author proposes the term 
‘“‘archisperm” for those structures formed before fertilization, or at an 
early stage in the macrospore, viz. the meniscus-shaped “ primary ” 
(female) prothallium above the diaphragm in Selaginella, the so-called 
“endosperm” in Gymnosperms, and the antipodal cells of Angiosperms, 
and either to reserve the term “‘ endosperm” or to use “ metasperm” for 
those formed at a later stage, viz. the large-celled “secondary pro- 
thallium” below the “diaphragm” in Selaginella, the “secondary endo- 
sperm” in Gymnosperms, and the endosperm originally so called, formed 
after fertilization by the division of the secondary nucleus of the embryo- 
sac In Angiosperms. 


Formation of the Duramen.t—According to M. E. Mer, the heart- 
wood or duramen is distingu shed from the wood of the peripheral 
region (alburnum) by its being more deeply coloured, and by several 
special industrial qualities. The duramen is often very apparent, as in 
the oak, chestnut, &c., while in other trees this region is either indistinct, 
or its dimensions are variable and its boundaries ill-defined. In some 
cases the existence at all of heart-wood has been denied (as in the beech, 
maple, fir-tree, &e.), the wood of the centre and of the periphery pos- 
sessing, for industrial purposes, almost identical qualities. But if a fresh 
section be examined with care, the central portion will be found to 
possess a deeper tint, especially if it be taken from near the base of the 
tree. 

The author gives the following as the principal results of his 
researches on the duramen. 

(1) The duramen does not differ from sap-wood either in structure 
or in more advanced lignification, or in the existence of a colouring 
matter, but only in the presence of a quantity of tannin or in some 
cases of tannin and resin. 

(2) The characters which distinguish the heart-wood from the sap- 
wood always exist, although the extent may vary. 


* Journ. of Bot., xxvi. (1888) pp. 37-9. 
+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxiv. (1887) pp. 341-63. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 447 


(3) The tannin which is found in the heart-wood appears to be 
formed by the transformation of starch. 

(4) Whenever an accumulation of starch is found in a woody tissue, 
it is either because the migration of this substance has been stopped, or 
because there is in the tissue an excess in quantity beyond the use that 
can be made of it. 

(5) Tannin oxidizes on contact with air, and the colour is deepened. 

(6) This oxidation of the tannin contained in the wood proceeds 
spontaneously, following the growth in age of the tree. 


Diaphragms in the Air-canals of the Root.*—-M. C. Sauvageau 
states that vascular plants which live in damp places or in water nearly 
always possess air-canals intercepted by transverse diaphragms situated 
in the middle region of the cortex; only, until the present time, the air- 
canals of the root were supposed to be destitute of these diaphragms. 

In the course of a series of researches on the comparative anatomy of 
aquatic plants, the author found, in the root of Hydrocharis morsus-rane, 
diaphragms similar to those in other parts of the plant. The lacune or 
air-canals are parallel to one another throughout the length of the root; 
the diaphragms, which can be seen in either a transverse or longitudinal 
section, are sometimes oblique to the direction of the root, but more often 
they are at right angles to it. 


Oil-passages in the Roots of Composite.{—Herr Triebel finds oil- 
passages in the roots of thirty-one species of Composite examined 
belonging to the groups Cynaresw and Radiate. They are always of 
schizogenous origin, resulting from tangential division of the endoderm, 
with which they usually continue in direct contact. In Inula Helenium 
similar structures occur. in the middle of the root. 


Effects produced by the Annular Decortication of Trees.{—M. H. 
Lecomte states that the annular decortication of trees brings about 
several important changes in the manner of growth. The stem, the 
leaves, and the fruit are made by this mutilation the seat of an ex- 
aggerated development; the liber also grows more strongly in proportion 
to the other tissues, and there can be no doubt that decortication, while 
suspending the passage of substances elaborated in the green organs, 
produces hypertrophy of the upper parts, and causes an arrest in the 
development of organs situated below the mutilation. 


Systematic Value of the Perforation in the Walls of Vessels.s— 
Dr. Solereder discusses the value of the different modes of perforation of 
the walls of true vessels and of tracheides from a systematic and 
phylogenetic point of view. 

The tracheides of the Vascular Cryptogams exhibit what must be 
regarded as the primary type of perforation, viz. that with scalariform 
pits. True vessels occur only in a few isolated cases in Vascular 
Cryptogams. In Gymnosperms they are confined to a single order, the 
Gnetacex. In almost all Conifer and in Cycadez, the xylem consists 
entirely of tracheides; the medullary rays and the phloém of the 


* Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 78-9. 

+ Nov. Act. K. Leop.-Carol. Akad., 1. (1887) 32 pp. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. 
(1888) p. 201. 

{t Morot’s Journ. de Bot., i. (1887) pp. 266-70, 273-8. 

§ Bot. Ver. Miinchen, March 21, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) 
p. 315. 


448 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


vascular bundles of prosenchymatous and parenchymatous cells. In 
some Conifers bordered pits occur in the parenchyma of the medullary 
rays, which is never the case with Dicotyledons. The true vessels of 
the Gnetaces are constant in all the three genera, Ephedra, Gnetum, and 
Welwitschia ; the perforation of the wall is in the form of circular pores, 
arranged in one or two rows; in Gnetum scalariform and elliptical 
perforations also occur. 

In Monocotyledons we find simple and scalariform perforations. In 
Dicotyledons, simple perforation preponderates greatly in comparison 
with the scalariform; this latter is exclusively characteristic only of 
some small families, such as the Hamamelidez. 


Anatomy of the Leaf-stalk.*— Herr C. Plitt has examined the 
structure of the leaf-stalk in 283 plants belonging to thirty different 
families, with the view of establishing whether it can be used for 
purposes of classification ; but the results are chiefly negative. 

The configuration of the vascular bundles of the petiole may be 
either symmetrical or unsymmetrical; and in the former case the 
bundles form either a closed or an open system; and of both these a 
number of variations occur. In the open system the line of symmetry 
bisects the central bundle, which is often much larger than the others. 
The closed system may exist either as a central ring of distinct bundles, 
or as a central fibrovascular mass with compact xylem and closed 
cambium-ring. 

The various types of petiole do not coincide with the various types 
of stem. 


Permeability of the Epidermis of Leaves to Gases.t— M. L. Mangin, 
as the result of a number of experiments, comes to the conclusion that— 

(1) The permeability of the epidermis of aerial leaves is very limited, 
but is greater for plants with deciduous than with non-deciduous leaves. 

(2) When the surfaces are unlike, the permeability of the lower surface 
of the leaf is greater than that of the upper; it may be no more than 
one-third more, but may be five times as much. 

(3) The permeability of the epidermis of submerged leaves without 
stomata, is very great, and may be as much as twenty times that of the 
most permeable aerial leaves. : 

(4) Where the surfaces of the leaves are waxy, the permeability is 
much diminished by the waxy material. 


Epidermal Reservoirs for Water.{—M. J. Vesque adds some fresh 
ones to his previous observations on the adaptation of the epidermis for 
the storing up of water. This was shown by the fact that when the 
epidermal cells were placed in nitric acid not sufficiently concentrated 
to produce plasmolysis (2-8 per cent.), or when exposed to excess of 
transpiration over absorption of water, they decreased in volume. The 
plants in which this was found to take place were Lilium candidum, 
Tropxolum majus, Clematis Vitalba, Euonymus japonicus, Prunus Lauro- 
cerasus, and others. 


* Plitt, C., ‘ Beitr. z. vergleich. Anat. d. Blattstieles d. Dikotyledonen,’ 52 pp. and 
1 pl., Marburg, 1886. See Naturforscher, xxi. (1888) p. 90. 

+ Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 771-4. 

t~ Ann. Agronom., xii. pp. 497-521. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 137. 
Cf. this Journal, 1887, p. 261, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 449 


Comparative Anatomy of Ambrosiacee and Senecioidee.* — The 
examination of a large number of species belonging to these families 
leads Herr H. Hildebrandt to the conclusion that a great many nearly 
related species can be clearly and sharply distinguished by their 
anatomical structure. Points of anatomical structure may therefore be 
used for purposes of classification; but the divisions thus established do 
not coincide with those founded on morphological characters. Many 
species have an altogether abnormal structure ; thus Rhynchopsidium and 
Leyssera resemble Crucifere. 


Anatomy of Marcgraviacee.j—In an account of the anatomical 
structure of this natural order, Herr O. Juel states that sclerides, either 
isolated or associated in groups, occur commonly in the parenchymatous 
tissue. The order is distinguished by its dimorphic branches, erect 
fertile, and creeping sterile. The larger leaves have no stomata, while 
the smaller leaves have stomata on both surfaces; in the larger leaves 
the chlorophyll-grains have a diameter of 5-9 «4; in the smaller leaves 
they are about 20 » long and 10 » broad. The ovules are very small, 
with two integuments, of which the inner one projects far beyond the 
other, the apex emerging almost unchanged outside the testa of the ripe 
seed. 


(4) Structure of Organs. 


Vegetative Organs of Brasenia peltata.t—Mr. J. Schrenk describes 
the structure of the vegetative organs of Brasenia peltata Pursh., a plant 
belonging to the natural order Nymphzaceee. What is described in the 
manuals as the creeping rootstock is really a system of runners that 
proceed from the rhizome proper. The secondary roots arising at the 
nodes are long and slender; at the tip of each rootlet there is a sheath 
or case which looks exactly like the finger of a glove; it consists of a 
single layer of elongated oblong cells, forming a distinct firm mem- 
brane with an unbroken smooth rim. There is a central very thin 
plerome surrounded by thin-walled endoderm cells; the other root- 
tissues are very loose, with large intercellular canals, and a thin epider- 
mis. In the stem the central portion is invariably occupied by two 
fibrovascular or mestome bundles. The two mestome bundles are 
separated by parenchymatous tissue, and groups of intercellular canals. 

The leaf is thick, oval, and peltate, and has at most twenty principal 
veins, converging at the centre over the petiole. The cells of the upper 
epidermis have a peculiar structure ; they are two or three times as high 
as they are broad. The palisade-tissue underneath the epidermis is 
composed of two or three, sometimes even four tiers of cylindrical, 
narrow ceils, with numerous air-spaces between them, and containing, on 
their vertical walls, large chlorophyll-grains. If the epidermis of parts 
of this plant which are in contact with water be examined, it will be 
found to be thickly beset with hairs. The hairs are all unicellular, but 
vary much in size and shape; some divide into two equal or unequal 
branches ; others again expand horizontally in the upper portion. By 
these hairs a mucilage peculiar to Brasenia is produced, 

The author gives the results of a series of experiments with various 


* Hildebrandt, H., ‘Beitr. z. vergleich. Anatomie der Ambrosiaceen u. Sene- 
cioideen,’ 52 pp. and 1 pl., Marburg, 1887. 

+ Bot. Sallsk. Stockholm, Feb. 16, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) 
p- 27. t Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xv. (1888) pp. 29-47 (2 pls.), 

1888, 21 


450 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


reagents which he made in order to ascertain the structure of the hairs, 
and the nature of the secretion. 


Formation of Roots in Loranthacee.*—Dr. C. v. Tubeuf has ex~ 
amined the structure and mode of formation of the roots in several 
exotic species of Loranthaces, viz.:—Arceuthobium Douglasi, parasitic 
on Pseudotsuga Douglasii, and A. americanum on Pinus Murrayana in 
America; Viscum Kaempferi on Pinus densiflora in Japan ; V. articulatum 
on Ligustrum japonicum, and Loranthus longiflorus from India. 

The species of Arceuthobium have cortical roots, with layers, but with- 
out the regularity of structure and arrangement of the layers on the 
cortical roots of the mistletoe. 'They cause not only a hypertrophy, but 
also a “ witch-broom ” formation, which is exceedingly destructive to the 
Douglas pine. Viscum articulatum has only a single root-disc, which 
grows in the cambium region of the host, interposing like a shell 
between the wood and the bast. V. Kaempferi and Loranthus longi florus 
twine round the host, and put out roots which penetrate the bark into 
the wood. Loranthus has only a single growing point to the root, while 
the root of V. Kaempferi branches in the cambium region of the host like 
a many-fingered hand. The roots grow with great rapidity, spreading 
over a large space of wood in the course of a year, and putting out 
numerous lateral branches, which penetrate successively into all the 
subsequent annual rings of wood. 


Root-hairs of the Rhinanthee.t—M. Leclere du Sablon, having ex- 
amined the roots of Melampyrum pratense, which have been developed in 
a humid atmosphere, determined the existence of numerous hairs of very 
different dimensions; some the length of ordinary root-hairs, others 
much shorter, others again developed as small papille. In Melampyrum 
the parasitism has not done away with the normal organs of absorption. 


Mycodomatia in the Roots of Papilionacee.t—Herr A. N. Lund- 
strém accepts generally Woronin’s interpretation of the swellings on the 
roots of Papilionacez, that they are caused by substances of a fungoid 
nature, which develope a kind of symbiosis advantageous to the plant in 
causing these structures to become reservoirs of food material. The 
tendency to produce these structures may, he thinks, become hereditary. 

In specimens examined of Trifolium repens, he finds in the cells large 
numbers of active “ bacteroids”; the number of these and the quantity 
of starch in the cell appear to be in inverse proportion to one another. 
They seem, in fact, to derive their sustenance from the starch-grains. 
The bacteroids are very transparent, not refringent, and are coloured a 
light yellow by chlor-zinc-iodide. The author considers that their very 
active movements cannot be due to molecular motion. They vary greatly 
in size, and become gradually more and more granular. Attempts to 
produce germination had negative results. 


Morphology of Underground Stems.$—According to a number of 
observations made by Herr T. Bruck on both Monocotyledons and 


* Bot. Ver. Miinchen, March 21, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) 


. 346. 
+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 81-2. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 250. 
+ Naturv. Studentsillsk. Upsala, April 28, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. 
(1888) pp. 159 and 185 (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 281. 
§ Progr. d. griech.-oriental. Ober-Realschule in Czernowitz, 1885, 14 pp. and 
5 pls. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 168, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 451 


Dicotyledons, there is not in nature any sharp dividing line between 
the different kinds of underground stem described as bulb, tuber, root- 
stock (rhizeme), &c. They pass into one another through a number of 
intermediate forms which it is difficult to classify. 


Aerial Stems.*——M. L. Flot makes the following observations on the 
aerial stems of certain plants:—(Ajuga reptans, Linaria spuria, Vinca 
minor). ‘Che endoderm is more developed in horizontal stems. The 
fibrovascular bundles either early form a continuous are, or their indi- 
viduality disappears almost completely. The thickness of this are is 
always more considerable than the corresponding part in vertical stems. 
The pith is less developed in horizontal stems. These facts entirely 
accord with those that have been described by M. Costantin.t The 
author, in conclusion, asks if it is not remarkable that absolutely com- 
parable stems, living in the same surroundings, should have a different 
structure following the influence of geotropism ? 


Anatomy of Annual Branches and Inflorescences. t—According to 
Herr J. Trautwein, there are no less than four distinct currents in a 
plant at the time of the unfolding of the leaves and flowers. The first 
carries up through the xylem the water and all inorganic substances 
dissolved in it. The second, the soft bast, is the medium for the trans- 
port of the nitrogenous substances or albuminoids. The third current, 
which conducts carbohydrates and oils, takes place chiefly through the 
cortical parenchyma. The author discusses in detail the relative de- 
velopment of the tissues through which these currents pass in the 
various portions of an annual stem. The general result of his observa- 
tions is that all variations in the anatomical structure of the axial parts 
of plants are dependent solely on their usefulness and adaptability for 
the advantage of the organ in question. It is in this way that the flower 
acts on the axis which supports it. 


Structure of the Leaves of certain of the Coniferee.§--M. A. Daguil- 
lon calls attention to the well-known fact that in many of the Conifere 
the leaves inserted on the principal stem are different in appearance and 
in form from those borne by the lateral branches. The author has 
endeavoured to ascertain whether this external dimorphism corre- 
sponds to any difference of structure. In Picea excelsa the chief 
difference between the stem-leaves and the branch-leaves is that the 
latter are very much more flattened. The endoderm in the stem-leaves 
of this tree is composed of twenty-two cells, while in branch-leaves 
there are only sixteen. The liber and conjunctive parenchyma of the 
vein of the leaf are also represented by fewer elements in the branch- 
leaves. 


Comparative Morphology of the Flower.||—From the examination of 
flowers belonging to a large number of natural orders, Herr K. Schumann 
defends the older view that all the whorls of plants are foliar organs; all 
the known facts being reconcileable with this theory, which is also 
simpler than any other that has been proposed. He also adheres to the 


* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 54-6. 

+ Cf. this Journal, 1884, p. 252. 

{ Trautwein, J., ‘Ueb. Anatomie einjihriger Zweige u. Bliitenstandachsen,’ 
40 pp., Halle, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 201. 

§ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxy. (1888) pp. 57-61. 

|| Pringsheim’s Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot., xviii. (1887) pp. 133-93 (2 pls.). 


2 p22 


452, SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


theory that all gamophyllous whorls are the result of cohesion, this 
cohesion sometimes taking place in a very rudimentary condition of the 
organs. It may take place either in the collateral or in the serial 
direction, or in a combination of the two, The inferior ovary must be 
regarded as resulting from the serial coalescence of the members of 
the different whorls. If it is an axial structure, then all gamophyllous 
whorls must be considered to be tubular differentiations of the axis. 
All placentze are organs of a foliar character. 


Size and Colour of Alpine Flowers.*—From observations of a 
large number of Alpine flowers, Herr R. Keller has come to the conclu- 
sion that their larger size is generally comparative only to the size of 
the plant, not absolute ; and that their conspicuousness is due to the in- 
tensity and other peculiarities of their colouring, such as the scarcity of 
white and yellow flowers as compared to red. The number of species of 
insect is not less than at low levels, but the number of individuals is 
very much smaller, and the fayourable time for visiting flowers shorter. 
The greater intensity of colour of the flowers is partly due to a physical 
effect of light, which can be demonstrated by experiment. 


Trigger-hairs of the Thistle-flower.{—Prof. b. D. Halsted describes 
the structure of the hairs found upon the filaments of the stamens of 
Onicus altissimus Willd. Each trichome consists of two nearly parallel 
cells, which extend side by side to nearly the end of the outgrowth. 
There is a hyaline outer layer common to the two cells. 

It is not difficult to determine the origin and development of these 
twin-celled hairs if the filaments are taken for study while young. The 
surface is at first smooth; in slightly older stamens small enlargements 
at certain places, where the surface cells meet end to end, may be recog- 
nized. The ends of these two cells now take on a lateral growth, and 
soon become bent at right angles to the surface of the filament. 

These trichomes, therefore, originate by the lateral extension of the 
ends of two adjoining cells, and they evidently play an important part in 
the movements of the filaments. 


Ovules of Plantago.{—Prof. H. Baillon corrects previous descriptions 
of the position of the ovules in this genus. It varies remarkably in the 
different species. In P. alpina and maritima one of the two loculi 
incloses a single ovule at the upper part of the septum; the other con- 
tains two at the base. In P. maxima there are usually two ovules in 
each loculus a httle above the base. In P. arabica, Lagopus, saxatilis, 
Cynops, aristata, lanceolata, and Webbii, there is one in each loculus above 
the middle. In P. coronopus there are two in each loculus, or four, of 
which two are imperfectly developed, or three, of which two stand lower 
than the others. In P. subulata the young pistil has three ovules in each 
loculus, one above the others and on the central line, the other two lower 
and lateral, with their backs turned to one another. In P. major there 
are 12-15 ovules in each loculus, or sometimes fewer, placed irregularly 
in several rows. 


* Keller, R., ‘Die Bliiten alpiner Pflanzen, ihre Grosse u. Farbenintensitit,’ 
36 pp., Basel, 1887. 

+ Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xv. (1888) pp. 82-4 (2 figs.). 

{ Bull. Mens, Soc. Linn. Paris, 1887, p. 663. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) 
p. 10. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 453 


Anatomy and Diseases of Aurantiacee.*—In a very exhaustive 
monograph of the twelve genera which constitute the Aurantiacee, 
Dr. O. Penzig discusses the morphology of the various organs, the 
physiological relationship of the species, the fruits and the organic sub- 
stances found in them—citric acid, an ethereal oil, calcium oxalate, 
hesperidin, aurantiin, murrayin, eglein, decumanin, and limonin—and 
the diseases to which the crop is subject. 

Of parasitic and saprophytic fungi on the Aurantiacee, Dr. Penzig 
enumerates 190, of which 12 belong to the Hymenomycetes, 4 to the 
Discomycetes, 109 to the Pyrenomycetes, 56 to the Hyphomycetes, and 
2 tothe Phycomycetes. There are, besides, 1 Myxomycete and 12 sterile 
forms of mycelium. 


Morphology and Anatomy of Loasacee.t—Herr M. Greinert de- 
scribes the peculiarities of this order, including about 100 species, 
especially in relation to the structure of the seeds, the germination, and 
the nature of the hairs. The embryo is always elongated, straight, and 
placed in the middle of the endosperm. The cotyledons are flat and 
plano-convex, and always lie with their flat sides in contact. The endo- 
sperm always contains large quantities of oil, but never starch. The 
very characteristic hairs are of different kinds: unicellular and multi- 
cellular, glandular, stinging, sharp-pointed, barbed, and silky. The 
anatomy of the stem and leaves shows a great uniformity throughout the 
order, although some of the species are herbaceous and others climbing. 


Polymorphism attributed to certain generic groups.|—M. F. 
Crépin queries whether the exceptional polymorphism which is attributed 
to certain genera is not more or less of a fallacy. The genera Hieracium, 
Mentha, Rubus, and Rosa are often quoted as examples of groups where 
excessive polymorphism exists, but these genera have been carefully 
studied by many generations of botanists. The degree of polymorphism 
accorded to a genus varies directly in proportion to the amount of ana- 
lytical examination which has been devoted to the species and varieties 
of that genus; and the author considers that the exceptional poly- 
morphism attributed to certain genera, and the stability of form attributed 
to certain other genera, have as yet not been sufficiently proved. 


B. Physiology.§ 
(1) Reproduction and Germination. 


Heterostylism and Self-fertilization.||— Herr W. Burck finds a 
transition between dimorphic and trimorphic flowers in species of Con- 
narus and Averrhoa. C. Bankensis and diversifolius are dimorphic, with 
rudiments of a second internal whorl of stamens which do not produce 
pollen. C. falcatus is trimorphic, but the inner whorl of stamens has 
smaller anthers and smaller pollen-grains. These anthers do not open, 


* Penzig, O., ‘Studi bot. sugli Agrumi,’ 590 pp. and 58 pls., Rome, 1887. 

+ ‘Beitr. z. Kenntniss d. morph. u. anatom. Verhiltnisse der Loasaceen,’ 58 pp. 
and 1 pl. Freiburg i. B., 1886. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 204. 

t~ CR. Soc. R. Bot. Belg., 1888, pp. 39-47. 

§ This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction and Germination; (2) Nutrition 
and Growth (including Movements of Fluids); (3) Irritability; and (4) Chemical 
Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). 

al Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, vi. (1887), See Bot, Centralbl., xxxiil. (1888) 
p. 260. 


454 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


and the species is therefore functionally dimorphic. In Averrhoa also 
the dimorphic is derived from the trimorphic structure by the dis- 
appearance of the inner row of stamens. In Rubiacee and other 
instances it appears to have a different origin. 

Species of Cassia have been described by H. Miller as having styles 
bending either to the right or left, and this he believed to be a contrivance 
for promoting cross-fertilization. Herr Burck adduces the reasons which 
have led him to an opposite conclusion, that the arrangement favours 
self-fertilization, and renders cross-fertilization almost impossible. 


Fertilization of Calopogon parviflorus.*— Mr. C. Robertson de- 
scribes the fertilization of Calopogon parviflorus Lindl., very common in 
the pine-barrens of Florida. Small bees (Andrenide), approaching the 
flower in front, light upon the crest, when the labellum bends suddenly, 
so that the dorsal surface of the insect comes down upon the column. 
The broad, slightly upturned wings of the column keep the body from 
passing to either side, and so require it to slip off the end. In doing this 
the body strikes the stigma, and becomes smeared with viscid matter. 
As the body slips off the end of the column the exposed ends of the 
pollinia strike the part which is smeared with viscid matter from the 
stigma, and the pollinia are drawn out and cemented to the exact spot 
which struck the stigma in the first place. When the insect visits 
another flower, the part to which the pollen is glued comes down upon 
the stigma. 


Pollination of Alpine Plants.t—Herr C. Lindman describes the con- 
trivances for promoting pollination in a number of plants from the 
Scandinavian Alps. They include species adapted for self- and others 
adapted for cross-pollination. 


Pollination of Silene inflata.t—Herr P. Magnus has observed that, 
while in the neighbourhood of Berlin this species is polygamous and 
tricecious (the hermaphrodite plants strongly proterandrous), at high 
altitudes near Zermatt it is always gyno-dicecious, with inconspicuous 
female and more conspicuous proterandrous hermaphrodite flowers. In 
the latter the corolla is very fully developed, and projects far out of the 
ventricose calyx, the flowers standing on long stalks. In the former the 
corolla scarcely projects beyond the calyx; the rudimentary stamens are 
sometimes petaloid. All the plants bore well-developed capsules with 
seeds, and the flowers must obviously have been pollinated by the agency 
of insects. 


(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Movements of Fluids). 


Physiological Oxidation in the Protoplasm.§— Herr W. Detmer 
maintains that the oxidation of difficultly oxidizable substances, such as 
sugar, which goes on in every living cell, is a process dependent on the 
vitality of the protoplasm in the living cell, and he proposes for it the 
term “ physiological oxidation.” In dead parts of plants experimented 
on immediately after death, he finds that no respiration or combustion of 
carbon takes place. The contrary conclusion of Reinke || he attributes to 


* Bot. Gazette, xii. (1887) pp. 288-91. 

+ Bot. Sallsk. Stockholm, May 4, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 58. 

t Ber. Hauptvers. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, June 5, 1887. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 136. 

§ Bot. Ztg., xlvi. (1888) pp. 39-45. || See this Journal, ante, p. 88. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 455 


the fact that the experiments of this writer extended over too long a 
period after the death of the parts of the plant in question, when the pro- 
duction of carbonic acid has set in, resulting from the presence of bacteria 
or ordinary putrefaction. 


Assimilation in Plants destitute of Chlorophyll.*—Herr F. Hueppe 
has determined that a nitrifying bacterium which presents no peculiarities 
in the spectroscope, possesses the power of making use of the carbon in 
carbon dioxide for the production of carbohydrates, ammonium carbonate 
being broken up into ammonia, formic aldehyd, and oxygen; the oxygen 
thus set free then, in the nascent condition, oxidizing the ammonia into 
nitric acid, and causing the aldehyd to split up into cellulose and water. 
Whether sugar was formed in the first place was not determined. 


Synthesis of Albuminoids.t—M. Chrapowitzki caused seedlings of 
Phaseolus, Lupinus, Pisum, Cucurbita, Helianthus, Cannabis, Zea, and 
Pinus, to use up the whole of their reserve albuminoids by water-culture 
in solutions of mineral salts containing no nitrogen. If then trans- 
ferred to another solution containing nitrates, a gradual fresh forma- 
tion of albuminoids may be observed in the chlorophyll-grains, com- 
mencing in from three to six days. The author concludes that the 
chlorophyll-grains are the seat of the formation not only of the carbo- 
hydrates, but also of the albuminoids. 


Relation between the Heat and the Carbonic Acid given off by 
Plants in Respiration.t—Dr. H. Rodewald has attempted to investigate, 
by means of caloria or chambers constructed for the purpose, the amount 
of heat given off by plants in the process of respiration, comparing this 
with the quantity of carbonic acid eliminated. The objects experimented 
on were ripening apples‘and potatoes. He finds that always by far the 
larger part of the energy set free by respiration is given off in the form 
of heat. Supposing the whole of the carbonic acid to result from the 
combustion of starch, he found the actual quantity of heat developed to 
be 92-2 per cent. of that which would be due theoretically to the con- 
sumption of the corresponding amount of starch. The contrivances by 
which the vitiation of the results through errors was prevented are 
described in detail. The loss of heat from transpiration could be esti- 
mated from the loss of weight, from which the quantity of carbon con- 
sumed in respiration must be deducted. The specific heat of the body 
experimented on was determined by a calorimeter to be about 0-924, 
The quantity of carbonic acid evolved was estimated at the same time 
in all the experiments. 


Duration of the Apical Growth of the Leaf. §—Herr P. Sonntag 
discusses the correctness of the view that axial and foliar structures 
may be distinguished from one another by the difference in the mode of 
growth, whether basal or apical. The termination of apical growth may 
be inferred from the formation of hairs on the growing point, and from 
the development of intercellular spaces in the apical tissue. 

Among Vascular Cryptogams we find that in most ferns apical growth 
of the leaves has ceased when all the lateral segments have been formed, 


* Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, Wiesbaden, Sept. 21, 1887. See Bot, 
Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 60. 

+ Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, xxxii. (1887) pp. 96-8. 

{ Pringsheim’s Jahrb. f. Wiss, Bot., xviii. (1887) pp. 263-345 (1 pl.), 

§ Ibid., pp. 286-62 (1 pl.). 


456 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


which may not take place until after the formation of the basal portion. 
To this there are some striking exceptions in the unlimited apical growth 
of the leaves of Nephrolepis and of some Gleicheniacere. 

The Cycadex exhibit the same variation in this respect as ferns. 
Among Conifers, on the other hand, apical growth appears always to 
cease at a very early period. 

In Monocotyledons the apical growth of the leaves is in general very 
limited, the intercalary growth being of far greater importance. 

Among Dicotyledons three distinguished types of leaf-growth may 
be distinguished, viz.:—(1) Intercalary, where the lateral segments, 
whether pinne or teeth, proceed from a point which is not at the apex 
of the leaf; the apex soon passes into a resting condition, the growing 
point lying below it; (2) apical, where all the lateral segments of the 
first order proceed from the growing apex; and (3) an intermediate type, 
partaking of the characters of the other two. To the first type belong 
the leaves of the greater number of herbaceous and woody Dicotyledons. 
The lateral segments may arise in either basipetal or basifugal succession. 
Of the second type the most striking examples are the Umbellifere, most 
Leguminose (except the Acaciew and Cesalpinice), and some Filices 
and Cyecadew. To the third type belong the leaves of a large number of 
Composite. 


Influence of External Forces on the Form of Plants.*—Herr F. Noll 
discusses the question, What is the source of the energy which deter- 
mines the varying growth and development of the different parts of a 
plant? If we take such a unicellular organism as Caulerpa and Bryopsis, 
the different parts of the single cell are differentiated physiologically, 
but not anatomically, since it is possible, by reversing the position, at 
once to convert the apex of the “stem” into a “root.” There can be 
here no protoplasm ‘peculiar to stem, leaf, or root, since the protoplasm, 
with its chromatophores and nuclei, is in constant motion from one organ 
to another, and cannot therefore determine the difference in the nature 
of the irritability of the different organs. This power must reside in a 
substance which remains permanently attached to each organ ; and, since 
it cannot be referred to the cell-wall, it must belong to the quiescent 
parietal layer of protoplasm, which must be the seat of the properties of 
geotropism and heliotropism. The same argument applies also to the 
cells of the higher plants, where the granular protoplasm is in constant 
varying circulation or rotation, the parietal utricle alone remaining at 
rest. The continuity of protoplasm which has been demonstrated from 
cell to cell is a continuity of this active parietal homogeneous, not 
granular, protoplasm. 


Transpiration as a Function of Living Protoplasm.j—Rev. G. 
Henslow gives the results of numerous experiments, from which he draws 
the following general conclusions :—That plants which do not possess 
chlorophyll at all transpire more under light than in darkness, but ex- 
hibit slight, but not very appreciable, differences under light of various 
colours. Transpiration appears to be more sensitive to increments of 
temperature than to colours, and perhaps than to pure white light itself. 
Etiolated plants still show some slight difference due to coloured rays. 


* Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, Wiesbaden, September 20, 1887. See 
Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 29. 
+ Journ. Linn, Soc. Lond.—Bot., xxiv. (1888) pp. 286-307. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 457 


In both cases transpiration is a function of living colourless proto- 
plasm, this function, however, being greatly enhanced by the presence 
of chlorophyll. 

The author made a number of experiments on transpiration in a 
saturated atmosphere, selecting Buawus sempervirens, Ligustrum vulgare, 
and Epilobium hirsutum, to represent three types of foliage. The result 
obtained was that, as long as the plants were exposed to diffused day- 
light they continued to lose weight, although the atmosphere was appa- 
rently perfectly saturated all the time. 

Finally, the author gives the details of some experiments on evapora- 
tion in a saturated atmosphere. The results which he obtained prove 
that dead saturated substances continue to evaporate, notwithstanding 
that the atmosphere in which they are suspended is apparently saturated. 


(8) Irritability. 


Contractility of the Protoplasm of Certain Cells.*—Mr. W. Gardiner 
describes certain experiments made upon the pulvinus of Mimosa pudica. 
Transverse and longitudinal sections were cut under an aqueous solution 
of eosin, and it was found that the dye readily penetrated into and 
stained the protoplasm of the outer cells of the convex side of the pul- 
vinus ; the tract of cells situated towards the more external portion, the 
seat of the specially irritable tissue, was left unstained. Electrical 
experiments with the pulvini were then made. The wonderful delicacy 
with which the irritable cells of the pulvinus at once reply to stimula- 
tion suggest that in dealing with the movements of the pulvinus of 
Mimosa we have essentially to do with the phenomenon of contractility. 
Experiments were then made with an organism peculiarly sensitive to 
stimulation, viz. Mesocarpus pleurocarpus. 

The author states in conclusion that there can be no doubt that the 
protoplasm of plant-cells, like that of animal-cells, is capable of active 
contraction, and he believes that in all irritable organs the movements 
are brought about in consequence of a definite contraction of the proto- 
plasm of the irritable cells, and that during such contraction some of 
the cell-sap escapes to the exterior. 


Movement of Leaf of Mimosa pudica.j—Dr. 8. H. Vines has at- 
tempted to get some further information as to the nature of the mechanism 
of the movements of the leaf of Mimosa pudica. Experiments with 
atropin on the main pulvinus resulted in showing that movement of the 
petiole on stimulation becomes gradually less and less, until it ceases 
altogether, the petiole retaining the more or less nearly horizontal 
diurnal position ; with the leaflets the induced movement is at first well 
marked, and they readily recover the expanded position; but gradually 
they failed to expand completely after stimulation, and at last remain 
completely closed. With physostigmin the effect on the main pulvinus 
is gradually to diminish the extent of recovery after stimulation, until 
eventually the pulvinus retains the position characteristic of stimulation ; 
the closing movement of the leaflets becomes less and less marked, until 
finally they make no movement at all, but remain open. 

The effect of atropin, then, is that of darkness, while that of physo- 
stigmin is that of light. 


* Proc. Roy. Soc., xliii. (1887) pp, 177-81. 
+ Rep. Brit, Assoc. Ady. Sci., 1887 (1888) pp. 742-3. 


458 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The author concludes that it is the protoplasm which is the active 
agent in the movement of the leaves, and not the cell-wall or the cell-sap. 
It is not conceivable that the physical properties of the cell-wall, or the 
osmotie properties of the cell-sap, should be affected in such opposite 
ways by these alkaloids. 

In the course of these observations Dr. Vines noted some points in 
the physiology of the movements of the leaves of Mimosa which seem 
to have been hitherto overlooked: the fall of the petiole is in no case 
caused by artificial darkness during the daytime, but takes place only in 
the evening, when the general tension diminishes ; the secondary petioles 
are likewise unaffected by darkness during the daytime, and they are 
sensitive to mechanical stimulation only when the leaf is young. 


Geotropism.*—Herr W. Saposhnikoff defends the older theory of 
Knight and Hofmeister, of the passive geotropic curvature of roots, 
against the new theory of active curvature. Roots from which the apex or 
heaviest part has been removed, are geotropic in the air, but show no 
curvature in water. Microscopic examination of the curved portions of 
roots show that the lower part of the cork-parenchyma of the root is 
thicker than the upper part. In the root, as in the stem, the lower part 
has a tendency to grow more rapidly than the upper part. 


y. General. 


Cecidium of Nematus Capree.{—Herr M. W. Beyerinck states that 
the galls produced on various species of willow by the Tenthredinee may 
be divided into two groups, one having a globular form and being con- 
nected with the leaf by a short stalk, the other forming a thickening on 
both the upper and under side of the leaf. To the former group belong 
the cecidium of Nematus viminalis on Salix purpurea, and that of 
N. pedunculi on S. aurita ; to the latter that of N. Caprex, which is 
most common on S. amygdalina, alba, and fragilis, less frequent on 
S. babylonica and pentandra. 

Nematus Caprex occurs in two generations. At the end of May the 
small saw-wasp pierces with its saw the young leaves in the terminal 
bud of S. amygdalina, making a triangular puncture in which the egg is 
laid, and the orifice is closed by a drop of mucilage from the poison- 
bladder. Hypertrophy sets up immediately in all the tissues of the leaf, 
and the gall attains its full development in from two to three weeks. 
By the end of June the larva pierces the gall, falls to the ground, and 
spins a dark brown cocoon, changing into a nymph-pupa, from which, 
in August, the second generation proceeds fully developed. This also 
seeks the shoots of the willow in which to lay its eggs; the animal goes 
through the same changes, but the cocoon is spun within the gall, which 
falls to the ground. In the first generation the males are entirely 
wanting, and are very rare in the second. Parthenogenesis appears to 
take place from generation to generation without any unfavourable results. 

The formation of the gall appears to be caused neither by the egg, 
nor by the larva, but by the action of the drop of poison injected by the 
insect herself. The substance which produces the gall is not an ordinary 
albuminoid, but as is probably the case also with all galls, it has all the 
properties of a ferment. 


* Schrift. Moskauer Univ., 1887, 21 pp. and 1 pl. (Russian). See Bot. Centralbl., 
REX. (1888) p. 101, + Bot. Ztg., xlvi, (1888) pp. 1-11, 17-28 (1 pl. and 1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 459 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 


Alternation of Generations in Green Plants.*—Mr. J. R. Vaizey is 
of opinion that comparisons of the life-histories of Coleochete, Cidogonium, 
Spheroplea, Hydrodictyon, Pandorina, Chara, and the Floridex with that 
of the lowest mosses show that in all these forms there is virtually an 
alternation of generations. In the lowest forms the sporophore genera- 
tion consists of a simple mass of cells produced by the division of the 
oospore, and each cell becomes a spore which gives rise to the vegetative 
body of the oophyte; in Pandorina, which is the simplest case, the 
oospore sometimes gives rise directly to a single sexual Pandorina 
ccenobium, or by division to several spores, each of which gives rise to a 
sexual Pandorina ccenobium. 

it is suggested that alternation of generations arose from poly- 
embryony ; if this be true, the sporophyte, as it is more generally known 
in the mosses and higher plants, is a new body originating among the 
higher Algze and lower Liverworts not genetically connected with the 
sexual body; it follows that the tissues of the sporophyte cannot be 
homologous with those of the oophyte, though they may be analogous. 


Thallophytes in Medicinal Solutions.j — Mr. R. G. Eccles states 
that most educated pharmacists are aware of the fact that aqueous 
supplies of medicine are subject to pollution during warm weather, even 
if prepared with what is ordinarily considered scrupulous care as to 
cleanliness. Unidentified forms of cryptogamic vegetation develope 
therein from spores supplied by the air, water, drug, or vessel. The 
author examined various preparations. In a sample of infected dilute 
phosphoric acid, long, branching, obscurely jointed filaments were the 
most conspicuous thing in sight. A closer inspection revealed the 
presence of living micrococci, and of somewhat larger bacteria, probably 
Bacterium termo. In cinnamon water only bacterial forms were seen, 
and these evidently decompose the essential oil. In sulpho-cyanate of 
potassium, carbonate of barium, and phosphate of sodium, organisms 
containing chlorophyll appear. In solutions of the salts of morphia the 
long stringy masses that invade other solutions of alkaloidal salts seldom, 
if ever, appear. Only motile bacteria and undetermined bacilli were 
developed. 


Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


Development of the Sporangium of Polypodiacex.t—Dr. J. 
Kiindig has investigated the history of the development of the sporangium 
in several species of Polypodiacee. He finds Polypodium vulgare to 
differ from all other members of the order in the first division-wall in 
the epidermal cell which ultimately developes into the sporangium being 
transverse ; in all the other species examined it is oblique. 

Paraphyses of two different kinds occur in the Polypodiaces :—(1) 
they spring from the surface of the receptacle among the sporangia, agree- 
ing in their structure altogether with the trichomes on the under surface 
of the leaf; (2) from the stalk of the sporangium. In several species of 
Aspidium, e.g. A. Filix-mas, each sporangium bears one such paraphysis ; 
while in some other species several spring from each sporangium-stalk, 


* Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1887 (1888) pp. 771-2. 


+ Journ. New York Micr. Soc., iv. (1888) pp. 19-28. 
¢ Hedwigia, xxviii. (1888) pp. 1-11 (1 pl.). 


460 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


when they are always considerably smaller. They are often swollen 
and glandular at the apex, and may serve both as secretory and as 
protective organs. The view that these paraphyses are rudimentary 
sporangia is confirmed by the facts that they are sometimes found 
divided in the same way as true sporangia, that in Aspidiwm Steboldiit 
the sporangia are normally branched, and that in this species the 
paraphysis has been found replaced by a sporangium. 

The origin and development of the sporangium agrees with that of 
the Polypodiacez in all essential points in the Cyatheacex, Schizeacen, 
Gleicheniacex, and Hymenophyllacee. 


Stomata and Ligules of Selaginella.*—Prof. W. R. M‘Nab reports 
that he lately exhibited leaves of Selaginella densa and S. Poultert, show- 
ing a triple series of stomata developed along each margin. In leaves of 
seedling plants of S. Kraussiana the peculiar marginal stomata were also 
found to be present; they form three rows, one on the actual edge of 
the leaf, one on the upper, and one on the lower side; and in these three 
species the elongated sclerous cells which are often found on the margin 
of the leaf are wanting. The marginal stomata are easily demonstrated 
by carbolic acid, which renders the whole part exceedingly transparent. 
In such preparations the course of the fibrovascular bundles can be 
easily traced, and the relation of the ligule to the bundle clearly made 
out. The author suggests that the ligule is an organ of absorption. 


Muscines. 


Anatomy and Development of the Sporogonium of Mosses.;— 
Mr. J. R. Vaizey holds that the Musciner are not separated from the 
Vasculares by so great a gap as has been usually supposed. 

The Polytrichacez are a favourable group for the examination of the 
structure of the sporogonium, as they are easily obtained, and their 
large size makes the examination of minute structure in them easier 
than in most of the other common orders of Musci. The author 
summarizes his conclusions as follows :— 

(1) The tissues of the central strand in the cases investigated 
consist of two kinds, the leptophloem whose function is inferred on 
anatomical grounds to be similar to that of the phloem of Vascular 
Plants, and the leptoxylem, the function of which was originally inferred 
on anatomical grounds, but has lately, by direct experiment, been deter- 
mined to be that of conducting the transpiration current up the seta. 

(2) The apophysis of the sporogonium of the Polytrichacee is an 
organ for assimilating and absorbing gases, and that transpiration takes 
place from it must be evident from its anatomy; and it is in this respect 
similar to the leaves of vascular plants. 

(3) The foot (the portion of the sporogonium placed within the 
vaginula) is the organ of absorption of fluids, although it does not 
present the ordinary form of a root, as it does not show any sign of 
endogenous structure. 

The author suggests that the root of Phylloglossum may form a 
connecting link between the foot of the Muscinez and the root of the 
Vasculares. : 


* Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1887 (1888) pp. 745-4. : 
+ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.—Bot., xxiv. (1888) pp. 262-85 (4 pls.). Cf. this 
Journal, ante, p. 91. 


. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 461 


Internal Peristome of Mosses.*—M. Philibert continues his studies 
on the structure of the peristome. He states that the internal peristome 
is always constructed on one general plan, except in the Funariacee ; 
nevertheless in the various genera, and even between the species, certain 
differences in its structure exist. The dorsal network is always the 
same, although more or less apparent; but the meshes of the ventral 
network vary in number and form. This form is usually more or less 
trapezoidal, but they are often pentagonal or hexagonal. The number 
of rows corresponding to each of the teeth is also very variable; in 
the genus Mnium there are four or five, while in most of the Hypnacez 
there are only three or four. Other differences result from the entire 
absence or from the feeble dimensions of certain elements in the normal 
structure. The author then describes in detail the structure of the 
internal peristome as found in the Meese, In this group of mosses the 
peristome has exactly the same origin as in Mnium and Bryuwm, and its 
elements are disposed on the same plan; but a diiference in appearance 
is caused by the inequality of the thickening of the primitive elements. 


Antherozooids of Hepaticze.t—M. Leclerc du Sablon has investigated 
the development of the antherozooids of Hepatice in Metzgeria furcata, 
Radula complanata, Frullania dilatata, and Alicularia scalaris. They 
are formed at once from the nucleus and from the protoplasm of the 
mother-cell. The body of the antherozooid does not correspond solely 
to the nucleus of the mother-cell, but to nucleus plus protoplasm. There 
is a change in properties and structure. The body of the antherozooid 
is more refractive and more homogeneous than the protoplasm of the 
nucleus, and is less susceptible to staining, especially at the climax of 
its formation. The mother-cell undergoes a total renovation in forming 
the antherozooid. : 


Characezx. 


American Characee.{—The first part of Dr. T. F. Allen’s mono- 
graph of American Characee is occupied by an Introduction, Morphology, 
and Classification. A complete account is given of the structure and 
development of the various organs, vegetative and reproductive, illustrated 
by very numerous and well-executed woodcuts. For the female organ 
before fertilization the term “‘sporophydium” is proposed, its cellular 
envelope being termed the “sporostegium.” A clavis follows of all the 
American species belonging to the genera Mitella (79), Tolypella (13), 
Lychnothamnus (3), and Chara (62).  Lamprothamnus does not occur 
in America, 

With regard to the species described as Tolypella Macouni,$ Dr. 
Allen now |j regards it as a Nitella. 


Alge. 


Attachment-organ of Algx#.§—Dr. H. F. G. Stroemfelt calls atten- 
tion to the different modes of structure and development of the basal 
portion of the thallus of alge, by which they attach themselves to a sub- 


* Rey. Bryol., xv. (1888) pp. 6-12. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 263. 

+ Comptes Rendus, evi. (1888) pp. 876-8. 

t Allen, Dr. T. F., ‘The Characeze of America,’ Pt. 1, 64 pp. and 55 figs., New 
York, 1888. 

§ See this Journal, ante, p. 90. || Bot. Gazette, xv. (1888) p. 11. 

4 Naturv. Studentsaillsk, Upsala, May 13, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. 
(1888) pp. 381 and 395. 


462 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


stratum, and which is wanting only in unicellular and endophytic alge. 
The attachment is always superficial, the organ having no function in 
the absorption of food-material similar to that of the root of higher 
plants. Three types may be distinguished of this organ, viz. :— 

(1) On germinating, a single primary radicular cell is developed, 
which primary cell may either be the sole root-organ, or may develope 
secondary root-organs. The former case occurs only with comparatively 
few alge ; the simplest case is Hrythrotrichia, which is attached only by 
its slightly differentiated basal cell; a somewhat higher degree of 
development occurs in Gdogonium and Spirogyra adnata, and a still 
higher in some species of Cladophora and Chetomorpha, e.g. C. rea. In 
most cases there are also secondary radicular filaments, formed by a 
swelling at the basal end of a cell which developes into a filament, the 
growth of which is generally directed downwards. This filament may 
consist of one or more cells, and may branch; it may or may not be 
separated from the parent-cell by a septum. Various special cases of 
further development are described, such as the investing cortical fila- 
ments of Batrachospermum. The large attachment-disc of Fucacex is 
formed entirely of intercellular root-filaments. 

(2) A creeping branched filament of cells is developed on germination. 
This usually branches into a layer, from which ascending axes rise which 
form the most conspicuous part of the alga; this may either remain 
distinct, or may coalesce into a cushion or crust, as in Myrionema, Falfsia, 
Lithoderma, &c. Tt is not improbable that all the Pheozoospore belong 
to this type; but in Laminaria it undergoes so many changes in the 
course of development as to be hardly recognizable. Sphacelaria is 
distinguished by its erect polysiphonous shoots. 

(3) A cushion-like mass of cells is developed on germination. The 
alge belonging to this type are all Floridew with distinct thalloid 
shoots, such as Furcellaria, Plocamium, Gigartina, Chondrus, Lomen- 
taria, &c. The organ does not here develope radicular filaments, as in 
the two preceding types. 


Physiology of Pheophycee.*—Mr. T. Hick has chiefly investigated 
Fucus vesiculosus, F. serratus, F. canaliculatus, Ascophyllum nodosum, 
Laminaria digitata, and Himanthalia lorea. He has found that the cell- 
walls possess chemical and physical properties not met with in those of 
ordinary plants, and he concludes that these properties enable the walls 
to act as a reservoir of water, on which the tissues may draw when the 
plants are exposed to desiccating influences. The quantity of water 
contained by the wall may be very great; a piece of A. nodosum 
which, when dried, weighed 0°65 gramme, absorbed artificial sea-water 
until the weight reached 1°56 gramme, or a gain of 140 per cent.; in 
other experiments gains of from 200 to 240 per cent. were observed. 
The absence of stomata and intercellular spaces is usually correlated 
with the aquatic habit and consequent non-transpiration ; it is to be 
remembered, however, that in aquatic phanerogams there is no well- 
developed system of intercellular spaces, and the absence in this par- 
ticular case ought perhaps to be rather correlated with the absence of 
any necessity for mechanical assistance in maintaining the erect position, 
and may prevent transpiration when the plants are exposed ; in any case 
it proves that intercellular spaces are not indispensable for respiratory 


* Rep. Brit. Assoc. Ady, Sci., 1887 (1888) pp. 761-3. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 463 


purposes, and that in the plants studied the absorption of gases is per- 
formed by the superficial cells alone. Experiment proved that there is 
little or no movement of water from below upwards. 

A number of brown seaweeds were examined without the presence of 
starch being detected in any one of them; proteids, on the other hand, are 
present in considerable quantities; the presence of the phycophain 
which distinguishes the assimilating organs of the Fucacez from those 
of ordinary green plants may be directly or indirectly responsible for 
their peculiar action. With the presence of a large quantity of proteid 
material we may correlate the sieve-tube-like character of the rows of 
component cells. 


Chemico-physiological Study of Alge.*— Herren O. Loew and 
T. Bokorny state that alge (Zygnemacee), superficially dried with 
blotting-paper, contain 85-90. per cent. of water; when dried at 100° 
their composition is—oil 6-9 per cent., albumin 28-32 per cent., cellu- 
lose and starch 60-66 per cent. The oil is situated chiefly in the 
chlorophyll region, but is not visible in drops under ordinary circum- 
stances; lecithin is probably present. The quantity of starch varies 
very considerably according to circumstances; during conjugation its 
amount decreases, and glucose is formed. The gum is situated in the 
cell-wall, the tannin, however, in the substance of the plant. Cholesterin 
and succinic acid (0°4 per cent.) are also found in alge, but the xan- 
thines, leucine, and asparagine are not present. The authors conclude 
that Baeyer’s theory of the formation of starch is the correct one, not 
only from the result of their own experiments, but because it is supported 
by other facts, especially by the rapid growth of bacteria in solutions 
containing compounds of methyl. 


Crystalloids in Marine Alge.j—Herr J. H. Wakker has examined 
the crystalloids in certain Floridex, Gracilaria dura, Dasya Wurdemanni, 
and Bornetia secundiflora ; also in Vidalia volubilis, Derbesia Lamourouwii, 
and four species of Codium. 

They are all unchanged by alcohol and water, with the exception of 
those of Vidalia, which are dissolved in both these media; they swell 
up and subsequently disappear in dilute sulphuric acid or potash-lye. 
The author was unable to find any crystalloids in living plants of 
Dasycladus, Acetabularia, and Bryopsis. 

The erystalloids in Laurencia, Spherococcus, Rhizophyllis, and Ploca- 
mium are nearly globular strongly refringent bodies. Those of Laurencia 
are gradually made granular by distilled water, alcohol, and dilute 
potash-lye; under the influence of concentrated sulphuric acid they 
shrivel up, and exude small oily drops, in consequence of which the 
author includes them under the category of “ elaioplasts.” 


Incrustation of the Cell-wall of Acetabularia.t — According to 
Dr. H. Leitgeb, the incrustation of Acefabularia does not consist, as has 
been usually supposed, entirely of calcium carbonate, but partly also of 
calcium oxalate in a crystalline condition. This latter salt is found 
chiefly in the inner layers of the cell-wall; and is formed earlier than 
the calcium carbonate. The sphero-crystals of Acetabularia have been 


* Journ. Prakt. Chem., xxxvi. pp. 272-91. See Journ. Chem. Soc. Lond., 1888, 
Abstr., p. 315. 

+ Nederl. kruidk. Arch., iv. (1887) pp. 369-82. 

¢ SB. K, Akad. Wiss. Wien, xcvi. (1888) pp. 13-37, 


464 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


determined by Leitgeb to consist of inulin; in the alcohol-material are 
found bright red partially crystalline masses, which correspond in many 
of their reactions to rhodospermin, but whose separation is the result 
of the action of the reagent. The cell-wall does not always consist of 
three distinct layers, as has been stated by Niigeli; the innermost is 
often wanting, and is then replaced by a thin parietal layer of proto- 
plasm. 'The younger portion of the stalk, and the rays of the “pileus” 
are often furnished with a well-developed cuticle. 


Batrachospermum, Chantransia, and Lemanea.*—Dr. A. Peter 
confirms the observations of Sirodot, that young plants of Batrachosper- 
mum may develope from heteromorphic branches of Chantransia. In 
addition to organs previously known, he has observed on Chantransia 
vesicular structures resulting from the swelling out of an ordinary 
filament-cell, the interior of which is ultimately divided into compart- 
ments. Whether these are organs of reproduction, or reservoirs of food- 
material, the author was unable to determine. He frequently observed 
the unbroken connection of the “prothallium” of Chantransia and 
Batrachospermum. 

Dr. Peter also asserts the development of the sexual form of Lemanea 
flwwiatilis out of heteromorphic branches of a Chantransia. 'The forms 
included in the genus Chantransia must therefore be regarded as stages 
of development in the life-history of a number of the higher Alge. 


Rejuvenescence of Caulerpa.t—Herr J. H. Wakker finds that in 
Caulerpa the rejuvenescence of the thallus after injury takes place in 
just the same way as in Saprolegnia, Mucor, Vaucheria, and in other 
Siphonew. The wound is first closed by a drop of protoplasm, after 
which a new cellulose-membrane is formed. 'The process is the same 
in these unicellular plants as in the formation of adventitious organs on 
the leaves of Begonia and of Crassulacez, and in bulbous plants. Pro- 
lification was never observed on cut leaves. 


Dasycladacexe.{—Prof. C. Cramer describes a new species of Neo- 
meris, N. Kelleri, from Madagascar. It has the form of small curved 
cylindrical bodies, from 5 to 14 mm. in height, and 1-2 mm. in thick- 
ness, brittle from a strong calcareous incrustation, pale green where not 
so encrusted, and furnished at the apex with a tuft of hairs. The surface 
consists of a large number of usually hexagonal facets, to near the upper 
margin of each of which is attached a long delicate simple or branched 
hair; these hairs drop off from the lower portion of the plant, leaving 
scarcely any visible scar. The axis of the plant is occupied by a very 
large nearly cylindrical fusiform cell, which ends below in a branched 
unseptated radicular portion. From the axial cell proceed a large 
number (from 60 to 80) of lateral branches, which are separated 
from the axial cylinder by a septum ; and these are again furnished with 
secondary branches, usually three to each primary branch. The hairs 
are also not in direct connection with the main axis, and may themselves 
each consist of from two to five very elongated cells. Of the three 
secondary branches attached to each primary branch, the central one is 
ovoid and communicates by a narrow opening with the primary branch ; 


* Bot. Ver. Miinchen, Feb. 28, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl,, xxxiii. (1888) p. 188. 
+ Versl. K. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, iii. (1887) pp. 251-64 (1 pl.), 
tT Denkschr. Schweiz. Naturf. Gesell., xxx. (1887) 50 pp. and 5 pls. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 465 


while the two lateral branches are shut off by septa, are club-shaped, 
their apices form the superficial hexagonal facets, and each ends in a 
hair. All the cell-walls are strongly doubly refractive. The axial 
cell possesses a distinct power of apical growth. The order of formation 
of the branches is acropetal. No nucleus or crystalloids could be 
detected. 

The author then gives descriptions of other allied species and genera, 
viz. Neomeris dumetosa Lmx., Dasycladus Ag., Cymopolia barbata Lmx., 
Acetabularia Lmx., and Polyphysa Lmx. 

Dr. Cramer proposes to include the above genera under the family 
DasycLADACEa#, in which the primary axial cell is prolonged below into 
rhizoids not separated by septa; axial cell always sterile, lateral 
branches fertile. These short branches are sporangia, which may either 
produce directly gametes, i.e. conjugating swarm-cells, or spores, within 
which the gametes are produced. The zygotes resulting from the con- 
jugation of the gametes may give rise either to sexual or to spore-pro- 
-ducing individuals, exhibiting, in the latter case, an alternation of 
generations. The family may be divided into two sub-families, the 
Acetabulariee and the Dasycladew. In the former are included the 
following genera:—(1) Polyphysa (P. peniculus and Clifton); all the 
fertile branches free to the base, forming a single whorl at the end of 
the erect stem; gametes unknown; only known mode of reproduction 
by spores. (2) Acetabularia (A. mediterranea, crenulata, and Calyculus) ; 
all the lateral branches completely united laterally into an umbrella- 
shaped structure ; reproduction by conjugation of gametes. To the Dasy- 
clades belong :—(3) Dasycladus (D. claveeformis, australasicus, and occi- 
dentalis); club-shaped spongy plants; axial cell usually simple and 
torulose; lateral branches branched; all thick-walled ; reproduction 
uncertain. (4) Neomeris (N. Kelleri and capitata); axial cell always 
simple; lateral branches consisting of a fertile secondary branch (spor- 
angium), and usually two greatly elongated sterile secondary branches ; 
no production of gametes known. (5) Cymopolia (C. barbata) ; axial cell 
segmented and dichotomizing repeatedly in one plane; secondary 
branches in whorls, and the upper whorls repeatedly branched; repro- 
duction unknown. 


New Genera of Pheozoosporee.*—Herr H. F. G. Stroemfelt de- 
scribes two new genera of Pheozoospores from the coasts of Norway :— 

Microcoryne n. gen. Chordariacearum. TF rons ex axi centrali hyalino 
et filis periphericis endochromate largiore preditis, pilis hyalinis inter- 
mixtis, composita. Gametangia transformatione filorum periphericorum 
orta, elongata, subcylindrico-fusiformia, unam tantum seriem loculorum 
continentia. M. ocellata on Chorda filum. 

Phycocelis n. gen. Ectocarpacearum. Frons e strato basili filis re- 
pentibus formato et filis erectis inde exeuntibus, pilis hyalinis intermixtis 
constituta. Gametangia transformatione filorum erectorum orta, unam 
tantum seriem loculorum continentia. P. fecunda on Rhodymenia palmata. 


Ulothrix.t—M. F. Gay has followed the history of development of 
several aerial species of Ulothrix, and has come, on some points, to 
different conclusions from those of Hansgirg.[ The species specially ex- 


* Notarisia, iv. (1888) pp. 381-4 (1 pl.). 
¢ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxv. (1888) pp. 65-75. 
t See this Journal, 1885, p. 1037. 


1888, 2k 


466 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


amined aro U. radicans, parietina, and crenulata, all of which he con- 
siders ought properly to be placed under Schizogonium. In U. radicans 
the chloroleucites appear completely to fill up the cell-cavity, and do 
not constitute a parietal plate, as in true species of Ulothria, They 
have the form of irregular stars, characteristic of Prasiola and Schizo- 
gonium, and similar to that in Zygnema. The filament usually consists 
of a single row of cells, less often of several, but never takes the true 
ribbon-like form of Prasiola, It differs moreover from P. crispa in the 
presence of rhizoids ; and the author believes that its identification as a 
form of development of that alga is founded on a mistake. U. parietina 
W. & N. he identifies with Schizogonium Rabh. The author also 
disputes the identity asserted by some writers between Ulothria and 
Pleurococcus. 

Schizogonium is characterized by a filamentous or ribbon-shaped 
thallus, consisting in the latter case of two collateral rows of cells, 
rarely a larger number, and formed by longitudinal septation of the 
filament. Prasiola, on the other hand, has a foliaceous thallus, derived 
directly and by various processes from reproductive cells or propagula. 
P. crispa partakes of the characters of both genera. 


New Species of Biddulphia from Fiji—Mr. F. Kitton writes 
that in a gathering made at Vuna Point, Island of Taviuna, Fiji, by Mr. 
H. B. Brady (which he placed at Mr. Kitton’s disposal), he has found a 
new species of Biddulphia in considerable abundance, and which he 
describes as follows :— 

Biddulphia echinata nu. sp. F. K.  Frustule quadrangular, cingulum 
punctate, valves broadly elliptical or suborbicular, very convex, processes 
conspicuous, divergent, with a few short spines at the base, margin 
distinctly spinous, upper surface more or less covered with triangular 
scales (spines?) attached by one of the sides, inner surface finely pune- 
tate, length from 0°0082 to 0:0085 in., breadth 0°0025 to 0:0075 in. 

Mr. Kitton remarks that this species seems to be very subject to 
abnormal development; he has seen it circular with three equidistant 
processes, triangular ditto, oblong with two imperfectly developed 
processes at one end, and a perfect one at the other. 


Fossil Diatoms of Hungary.*—Dr. J. Pantocsek publishes the first 
part of an illustrated work on the fossil diatoms of Hungary, which 
comprises fossil forms from the Tertiary strata. They include a number 
of remarkable forms, the genus Zrinacria being largely represented. 
The species included in this part are all marine, and furnish evidence of 
the existence during the Tertiary period of a tropical ocean, bounded by 
the chain of the Carpathians, the mountains of Bitraria, and the Balkans. 


Lichenes. 


Culture of Lichen-forming Ascomycetes without Alge.j—Herr A. 
Moller has repeated the experiments of Brefeld and others on the nature 
of the so-called “‘ spermatia ” of lichens, and has come to the same con- 
clusion that the earlier view which regarded them as male reproductive 
organs is erroneous. He was able, in a number of cases, to induce . 
eermination of these “ spermatia,” with the production of a mycelium, 


* Pantocsek, Dr. J., ‘ Beitr. z. Kenntniss d. fossilen Bacillarien Ungarns,’ Th. 1. 
See Journ. de Micrographie, xi. (1887) p. 484. 
+ Unters. Bot. Inst. K. Akad. Miinchen, 1887, 52 pp. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 467 


and ultimately even ofa thallus. This thallus was then indistinguishable 
from that of an ascosporous fungus, and developed new “ spermogonia,” 
the ‘‘ spermatia” from which germinated in the same way. It follows 
that these organs are of the nature of conidia, and the author therefore 
substitutes for the terms “‘ spermogonia ” and “ spermatia,” pycnidia and 
pycnogonidia. 

Successful experiments in germination were made in fruticose, folia- 
ceous, crustaceous, and gelatinous lichens. Details only are given of 
those on crustaceous lichens, including the species Lecanora subfusca, 
Thelotrema lepadinum, Pertusaria communis, Bueilia punctiformis, Lecidella 
enteroleuca, Opegrapha subsiderella, Graphis scripta, Arthonia vulgaris, 
Calicium parietinum, C. trachelinum, Verrucaria muralis. 

The author concludes by saying that all “‘spermatia” of lichens, 
whether belonging to fruticose, foliaceous, or gelatinous forms, are 
formed, like those here described, either on simple sterigmata or on 
arthrosterigmata, within the chambers designated “spermogonia,” and 
there cannot be the slightest doubt about the perfect morphological 
identity of all these organs. 


Fungi. 


Sterility of Fungi.*—Herr P. Magnus describes a number of instances 
in which fungi have lost their power of producing spores, and have 
developed also in a monstrous fashion, from the absence of light. The 
same result follows from a deficient supply of nutriment. The author 
adduces a remarkable case of the development in mushroom-culture in 
Berlin, as the result of overmanuring, of bodies having a general external 
resemblance to sclerotia, but resembling in structure the receptacles of 
subterranean Gasteromycetes, in which the formation of the gleba has 
been suppressed. 


Classification of the Agaricinee.t—M. N. Patouillard considers 
that the small degree of constancy in the vegetative characters of the 
Agaricines renders their classification difficult. The coloration of the 
spores is a very important character, and the distribution of the genera 
in series having spores of the same colour is useful for study ; but this 
arrangement is far from corresponding to their natural affinities. As in 
all systems of classification where the essential character is not sufficiently 
dominant, one finds in certain genera species, or even groups of species, 
which have only one single character in common with others of the same 
genus. This common character ought to be made of primary importance 
in some cases, but of secondary value in others. 

The author then gives numerous examples. In comparing Lepiota 
with Coprinus, two genera which have many characters in common, the 
former, however, having white spores and the latter belonging to the 
Melanosporez, it will be observed that in the genus Lepiota there are 
several species which, besides their own generic characters, have others 
common to the two groups. This analogy has been long recognized, and 
several of the Lepiotz are designated as having a coprinoid facies. From 
the instances quoted in the paper, the author states that it will be seen 
that the character of the colour of the spores ought not to be made the pivot 


* Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, Wiesbaden, Sept, 21, 1887. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 62. 


+ Morot’s Journ. de Bot., ti. (1888) pp. 12-6. 
2K 2 


468 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


for the division of the Agaricinem, but only retained as a generic 
character. 


Identity of Polyporus abietinus Fr. and Irpex fusco-violaceus Fr.* 
—M. L. Morot had the good fortune to find in the forest of Sénart 
numerous specimens of Polyporus abietinus Fr. and Irpex fusco-violaceus 
Fr., and was able to observe the passage of the one into the other, and 
thus establish their identity. The author states that certain other 
members belonging to the genera Irpex, Sistotrema, and Dedalea seem 
destined to disappear, and to belong really either to Polyporus or 
Lenzites. 


Polymorphism of the Hyphomycetes.j—Sig. G. Gasperini has made 
a series of experiments on the cultivation of various fungi which he 
classes among the Hyphomycetes, with special regard to the effects on 
the course of development of changes in the temperature, the degree of 
moisture, the nature of the substratum and environment, &c. The genera 
chiefly experimented on were Verticillium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and 
Sterigmatocystis ; and the following are the more important conclusions 
at which he arrived. 

(1) The degree of autonomy of the species of Micromycetes inves- 
tigated does not differ fundamentally from that ascribed by modern bio- 
logists to the higher organisms ; in no instance were sporophores truly 
typical of distinct species or genera found to spring from the same mycelial 
filament either simultaneously or successively. 

(2) All the species followed out in their natural evolution from the 
spore to the adult plant, and to the sporigenous condition, present a 
cycle of forms constant in proportion as the conditions of the experiment 
were unchanged. 

(3) Species cultivated in a moist chamber with suitable substratum, 
at the ordinary atmospheric pressure, and with abundant oxygenation, 
exhibited peculiarities which were less marked in their natural state, or 
of which they were altogether deficient, peculiarities which have given 
rise to not a few errors in taxonomy. 

(4) Species growing in conditions unfavourable to their development 
exhibit a distinct tendency to assume lower forms:—an example of 
atavism or reversion to a primitive type. 

(5) The proportion between the luxuriance of the mycelium and the 
number and complexity of structure of the sporophores, varies in each 
species within wide limits. 

(6) The polymorphism of the conidial fructification, in the various 
species examined in diverse vital conditions, remained constantly within 
limits marked on one side by the typical form, on the other side by 
fertile hyphe differing from the mycelial filaments, with which they 
were continuous only in bearing one or more conidia at their extremity. 
roe these extremes each species presented a complete gradation of 

orms. 

(7) The fasciculate varieties of Penicillium, known as Coremiwm and 
Coremioides, formerly considered to be accidental, or dependent on an 
abundant supply of food-material, express rather a biological adaptation, 
special and unfavourable to vital conditions, for the purpose of providing 
for the perpetuation of the species. 


* Morot’s Journ. de Bot., ii. (1888) pp. 30-2. 
+ Atti Soc. Tose. Sci. Nat., Vi. (1887) pp. 20-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 469 


(8) The varieties Coremium and Coremiotdes, which occur not only in 
Penicillium, but also in Verticillium and Aspergillus, become more per- 
sistent by the aggregation of fertile filaments, until the spores of a 
Coremium reproduce the same form even in conditions in which at first 
it would not have been produced. 

(9) The purpose of the Hyphomycetes in the economy of nature 
appears to be to prepare dead or dying organic substances for the attack 
of the Schizomycetes by which their putrefaction is accomplished. 

(10) If species of Hyphomycetes are transplanted singly into an 
Erlenmeyer’s chamber containing a sterilized substratum, and are then 
infected by Micrococcus prodigiosus, they do not appear to experience any 
evil effects in their development, but in time cover the whole surface of 
the culture, and exhibit well-developed sporophores. 


Cultivation of Phycomycetes.*—Herr W. Zopf recommends the 
following method for the cultivation of Chytridiacex, Saprolegniee, and 
Monadinew. He covers the surface of the water with pollen-grains 
(those of Conifers are best), or spores of ferns or fungi. The zoospores 
of the Phycomycetes attack these and develope in them, and their growth 
can be readily watched. He has followed in this way the development 
of Rhizophidium pollinis, and of four new species, Lagenidium pygmeeum, 
Rhizophidium Spherotheca, R. Cyclotelle, and Rhizophyton Sciadi. 

Herr Zopf finds Rhizophidium jpollinis to be not epiphytic, but 
parasitic, with an endophytic mycelium. Besides the well-known 
zoospores, he finds large resting-spores, The escape of the zoospores 
takes place through several openings. It attacks the pollen-grains of 
many Angiosperms and Gymnosperms. 

Rhizophyton Sciadii attacks the cells of Sciadium arbuscula. Its 
zoospores attach themselves, and put out a branched mycelium into the 
cell-cavity of the host, forming zoosporangia externally which open by 
an-apical pore. No resting-spores were observed. 

Rhizophidium Sphzerotheca was observed on the microspores of species 
of Isoetes ; the course of development resembles that of R. pollinis, but 
the zoospores are smaller. Resting-spores were not observed. R. 
Cyclotellz does not attack pollen-grains, but is a parasite on Cyclotella. 
The zoospores are very minute, from 1°8 to 2°5 «3; the sporangia open 
by from 1 to 3 orifices. 

Lagenidium pygmzum was found on pollen-grains of Pinus Laricio 
and allied species. The mycelium developes in the interior of the 
pollen-grain and puts out a perforating tube, which often branches and 
then developes into a globular zoosporangium. ‘The zoospores are 
biciliated. The mycelium of the sexual generation is stouter, and soon 
divides into an antheridial and an oogonial cell. The latter rounds 
itself off, while the former puts out a conjunction-tube which penetrates 
the oogonium; and the oospore results from the passage of the whole 
contents of the antheridium. 


Pleospora.{—Dr. A. N. Berlese gives a monograph of this genus of 
Spheriacex, of which he makes 105 species, reducing to the condition of 
synonyms a very large number of published species. He divides the 
genus into 7 sections, as follows, viz. :—A. Sporidia transverse triseptata, 
loculis uno alterove septis longitudinaliter divisis; B. Sporidia trans- 


* Abbandl. Naturf. Gesell. Halle, xvii. (1887) (2 pls.). See Bot. Centralbl., 
XXXlii, (1888) p. 325. + Nuov. Giorn, Bot. Ital., xx. (1888) pp. 1 -176 (8 pls.). 


470 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


verse 4-soptata loculis uno vel duobus septis longitudinaliter divisis ; 
C. Sporidia transverse 3-5-septata; D. Sporidia transverse semper 
5-septata ; E. Sporidia transverse 6-7-septata; F. Sporidia transverse 
8-pluri septata; G. Sporidia hyalina. 

Trichospheria paradoxa and Herpotrichia nigra.*—Herr R. Hartig 
gives some further particulars respecting these two parasitic fungi 
parasitic on Conifers. 

Trichospheria paradoxa attacks almost exclusively Abies pectinata. 
The pseudoparenchymatous mycelium puts out a number of rod-like 
haustoria, which penetrate the cuticle, but do not actually enter the 
epidermal cell. These haustoria exude a ferment which kills the 
adjacent mesophyll-cells; and a number of hyphx then enter the leaf 
through the stomata, completely killing it. The ripe spores are usually 
divided into four, sometimes into only two or three compartments, or are 
rarely undivided. 

Herpotrichia nigra is parasitic on Picea excelsa, Pinus montana, and 
Juniperus communis and nana. The dark-brown granular mycelium also 
puts out haustoria into the cuticle. The asci are large, 76-100 p long 
and 12 » wide; they contain eight ascospores, each of which is con- 
stricted and septated in the middle. 


Taphrina.t—Herr C. J. Johanson has made a careful study of the 
twenty-one species of Taphrina Fr. (Hxoascus Fkl.) known in Sweden, 
five of which have not been found outside the Scandinavian peninsula. 
The character hitherto considered common to the genus, of producing a 
hibernating mycelium, he finds to be not universal; an exception is 
furnished by 7’. carnea; and probably also by T. Sadebeckii, parasitic on 
the leaves of Alnus glutinosa, and by T. Betulz. 

The following new species are described :—T. alpina, and T. bacterio- 
sperma on living leaves and branches of Betula nana. The former of 
these species produces the deformation known as “ witch-broom,” while 
the latter does not. The latter is the only species which extends into 
Greenland. TT. rhizophora Johans. (Exoascus aureus Sad.) is distinguished 
by the absence of pedicel-cells, and by the asci having yellow contents, 
and putting out a long narrow root-like portion into the tissue of the 
-host. It occurs on the fruit of Populus alba and tremula, causing them 
to become deformed and covered by a yellow bloom. 


Character of the Injuries produced by Parasitic Fungi upon their 
Host-plants.t—Mr. A. B. Seymour discusses the various ways in which 
parasitic fungi injure their host-plants. 

Firstly, they deprive them of nourishment; this is by far the most 
important and general injury which is produced upon plants by parasitic 
fungi. (2) While the food supply of the plant is reduced, its power to 
replenish it is at the same time impaired, i.e. in case the fungus grows 
upon the green parts, as it does most frequently. (3) Growth may be 
abnormally accelerated or retarded, and both these effects may be pro- 
duced in different cases by the same fungus, thus causing distortion ; 
(4) not only green parts are affected, but roots, stems, inflorescence, 
flowers, and fruit; (5) leaves and fruit when diseased fall prematurely. 


* Hedwigia, xxvii. (1888) pp. 12-5. Cf. this Journal, 1886, p. 298. 

+ Naturv. Studentsallsk. Upsala, April 28, 1887. See Bot, Centralbl, xxxiii. 
(1888) pp. 222 et seg. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 274. 

t Amer. Naturalist, xxi. (1887) pp. 1114-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 471 


(6) Many fungi cause decay of ripe fruit, both while attached to the 
plant and after removal while still alive. (7) Some valuable plants are 
liable to injury from others of less value by ordinary infection or 
hetercecism. 

Certain groups cf phanerogams are liable to be attacked by certain 
groups of fungi. 


New Disease of the Douglas-pine.*—Dr. C. v. Tubeuf describes a 
disease which is very destructive to Pseudotsuga Douglasii, produced by the 
attacks of the mycelium of an (unidentified) parasitic fungus. It causes 
the branches to curve and the leaves to fall; the mycelium puts out 
processes which appear as black spots on the leaves. Late in the year 
sclerotia are formed which gradually burst the epidermis. From both 
the sclerotia and the mycelium there arise conidiophores resembling 
those of Botrytis. The conidia germinate in water and nutrient solutions, 
putting out from one to three germinating tubes which develope into 
septate mycelial filaments which subsequently become green. 


New Potato-disease.j—Herr J. Brunchorst describes a potato- 
disease known under the name of “scurf,” caused by the attacks of an 
undescribed species of Myxomycetes, to which he gives the name 
Spongospora Solant. 


New Vine-disease.—Dr. F. v. Thimen { describes a new disease of 
the vine in south Tyrol which destroys the immature berries, and which 
he states is caused by a hitherto undescribed parasitic fungus, Acladiwm 
interaneum. 

Herr E. Rathay asserts$ that the fungus described under this 
name is identical with Peronospora viticcla, and that the bodies which 
v. Thiimen calls its conidiospores are in reality the haustoria of the 
Peronospora. 


New Parasite of the Silk-worm.||—Prof. R. Moniez publishes a 
brief notice of a new parasite whick he found in great abundance in the 
visceral cavity of diseased silkworms. The liquid of the cavity was 
milky, and this was due to the extraordinary abundance of small (3 jin 
diam.) spherical homogeneous elements, in which no trace of nucleus 
could be seen. Other bodies both larger and smaller were observed. 
There were hints that reproduction took place by regular segmentation ; 
but no fission nor budding was to be seen. It seemed probable that the 
multiplication of the fungus took place within the tissues and not in the 
visceral cavity. 

There was no possibility of confusing this parasite with that of 
pebrine, and still less with that of muscardine. It differs from the 
former in size, form, constant absence of the clear spot, and of fission. 
The elements observed were in size and form like the spores of the 
muscardine fungus, but form asci, and do not exhibit cylindrical conidia 
or filamentous mycelia. The symptoms of the disoase are furthermore 
different from those either of pebrine or muscardine. 


* Bot. Ver. Miinchen, March 21, 1887. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p, 347. 
+ Bergens Museums Aarsberet., 1887, pp. 219-46 (2 pls.). 

+ Weinlaube, 1886, pp. 447-8. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii, (1888) p. 16. 

§ Id., 1887, 37 pp., 2 pls., and 10 figs. See id., p, 17. 

| Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xii. (1888) pp. 535-6. 


472 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Protophyta. 


Filamentous Heterocystous Nostochinew.*—Messrs. E. Bornet and 
C. Flahault have prepared a synoptical table to all known species 
of Rivulariacee, Sirosiphonacew, and Scytonemesw. These include 
21 genera and 114 species. Of these species 83 are fresh-water, and 
27 marine, while 4 belong to brackish water. 20 of them are cosmo- 
politan ; 52 belong to Europe only, 40 to America, and 5 to the East ; 
18 are common to Europe and America, 6 to America and the East, 2 to 
Europe and the East. In temperate countries, and especially in HKurope, 
the plants of these families abound most in the warmer regions; and 
the reason why so comparatively few species are known to inhabit the 
tropics is probably the paucity of material from those countries. 
Advancing from the hot level country to the mountains, the species 
gradually become less numerous, and finally disappear altogether in the 
Alpine regions. The fourth family or Nostocacee are not treated of in 
this paper. 

New Chromogenic Bacillus—Bacillus ceruleus.;—Dr. J. A. Smith 
has found in the water of the Schuylkill river a hitherto unknown 
species of chromogenic bacillus, which he has named Bacillus ceruleus, 
At ordinary temperatures it developes on boiled potato a beautiful dark 
blue colour, which later deepens to a black-blue. The colonies form 
cup-shaped depressions with raised edges. It is aerobic, at least its 
colour-formation is associated with access of air, for cultivations within 
the gelatin mass are colourless, while the upper part shows a bluish 
tinge. Gelatin cultivations were always fluid on the surface. The cells 
take up the colour, which is insoluble in water, spirit, or acid. On 
potato, where the colour is best seen, the bacilli, in contrast to Micro- 
coccus cyaneus, only grow on the surface. The bacillus is 2-2°5 p 
long and 0:5 w broad. It usually developes in leptothrix-like chains. 
If the preparations were overheated, many became comma-shaped. ‘They 
stain well with methyl-violet. 

Bacillus ceruleus is distinguished from B. syncyaneus, B. violaceus, 
and M. cyaneus by its deep blue colour. It is not pathogenic. 


Scheurlen’s Cancer Bacillus.{—Prof. P. Baumgarten, in conjunction 
with Dr. Rosenthal, immediately after the publication of Scheurlen’s 
communication on the cancer bacillus, instituted a series of experiments 
for ascertaining the value to be attached to the presence of the organism 
in question. He states that before the cultivation experiments with 
cancer juice were begun, there presented itself as an unbidden guest upon 
a potato slice a bacillus, which in its appearance and morphology bore a 
striking likeness to Scheurlen’s bacillus, even if it were not identical 
therewith. The only demonstrable difference between the two consisted 
in the fact that the rod-like cells and spores of the potato bacillus seemed 
somewhat larger than the corresponding formations from the Scheurlen 
preparations, and that the potato bacillus fluidified the gelatin more 
strongly than was the case with Scheurlen’s cancer bacillus. By means 
of Scheurlen’s method he succeeded in obtaining from the juice of a large 
number of cancers, chiefly of the mamma, but also from various other 


* Mem. Soc. Sci. Nat. Cherbourg, xxv. (1887) pp. 195-222. Cf. this Journal, 
1887, p. 793. + Med. News, 1887 (ii.) p. 798. 
$ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iii. (1888) pp. 397-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 4738 


places, a bacillus almost completely resembling the potato bacillus on the 
one hand, and Scheurlen’s bacillus on the other. The same bacillus was 
also found in the juice of a sarcoma of the mamma, a sarcoma of the 
pericranium, and even in a neuroma of the vola manus. Moreover the 
Scheurlen cancer bacillus (or a bacillus extremely like it) does not merely 
appear in carcinomata, but in other neoplasms, and not only is it not 
exclusively associated with carcinoma, but it is found in agar plate culti- 
vations in connection with various other kinds of bacteria derived from 
the cancer juice. Nor is the Scheurlen bacillus a constant concomitant 
of cancer, for the author failed to find it in a cancer of the rectum, and 
also in a case from the mamma, although submitted to the same procedure. 
The author therefore concludes that there is no proof that the Scheurlen 
bacillus is peculiar to cancer, and suspects that it is an immigrant from 
the skin or mucous membrane. 


Spore-formation in the Bacillus of Glanders.*—Prof. P. Baum- 
garten states that Dr. Rosenthal has made numerous experiments to 
determine the question, previously unsolved, of endogenous spore-forma- 
tion in gianders bacillus. Numerous experiments with cover-glass 
preparations from somewhat old potato cultivations of this microbe have 
shown the presence of spores, the appearances resembling those obtained 
with anthrax bacillus. Neisser’s method for staining spores (one hour’s 
staining in Ehrlich’s fuchsin solution in a steam sterilizer at 100° C., or 
at 150° C. with dry heat, decolorizing in hydrochloric acid and alcohol, 
and after-staining with methylin-blue) was adopted. The spores were 
coloured a deep red, and the rest of the rodlet blue. The spores were for 
the most part free, but sometimes within the bacilli. It must therefore be 
considered as settled that glanders bacillus forms spores, but whether 
always or under certain conditions only remains to be determined. 


Bacterio-purpurin.t—Dr. T. W. Engelmann, who in 1882 described 
a red bacterium, B. photometricum,t has recently examined this and other 
red Schizomycetes obtained both from fresh and salt water. The forms 
examined are known as B. photometricum, roseo-persicinum, rubescens, and 
sulfuratum, Clathrocystis roseo-persicina, Monas Okeni, vinosa, and War- 
mingii, Ophidomonas sanguinea, Rhabdomonas rosea, and Spirillum violaceum. 
Whether they are one or the same kind, they at any rate belong to the 
sulphur bacteria which, in the presence of free hydrosulphuric acid, 
become filled with sulphur granules and oxidize this sulphur to sulphuric 
acid. All are coloured by a purplish-red pigment diffusely disseminated 
in the protoplasm (bacterio-purpurin Ray Lankester). 

The recent experiments have confirmed the earlier ones as to the 
behaviour of B. photometricum and the others to light, the peculiar 
influence of which is not associated with the presence or absence of 
sulphur, but with the presence of bacterio-purpurin, wherefore it is 
proposed to distinguish these forms of “ Purpuro-bacteria” from the 
unpigmented sulphur-bacteria which are not influenced by light. 

From a series of experiments made with sun, gas, and electric light, 
the spectra showed that there was an evident proportion between absorp- 
tion and physiological effect, and that this, like the analogous chemical 
process of carbon assimilation by chlorophyll, was brought about by 


* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., iii. (1888) p. 397. 
+ Arch. f. d. Gesammt. Physiol. (Pfliiger), xlii. (1888) pp. 183-6. 
t See this Journal, 1883, p. 256. 


474 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the action of light. The purple bacteria in fact givo off oxygen under 
the influence of light, and culture-experiments showed that the develop- 
ment, growth, and multiplication of purple Schizomycetes is only per- 
manently possible in the light. 

The elimination of oxygen is intimately associated with the presence 
of bacterio-purpurin in the living protoplasm. Yet, as with chlorophyll, 
it stands in no simple relation to the saturation of the plasma with the 
pigment. In individual cases, however, it is proportionate for different 
wave-lengths to the absorbed energy of the light. Ultra-red (gas or sun- 
light deprived of visible rays by means of iodine in sulphide of carbon or 
pure ultra-red between 0°80 and 0°90 4 wave-lengths) acts less weakly 
than perfectly mixed light. The visible red, the extreme ultra-red, 
violet, and ultra-violet, gave, at least in the spectrum of powerful gas- 
light, no obvious effect. 

Bacterio-purpurin is therefore a true chromophyll; apparently 
not a simple chemical body, but a mixture like other chromophylls 
(chlorophyll, diatomin, rhodophyll); and is distinguished from the 
latter most strikingly by the absence of the green constituent. It 
demonstrates anew that the elimination of oxygen can be effected in the 
light by non-green pigments and by every kind of wave-length, and that 
in all cases, for the different wave-lengths it is proportional to the 
absorbed energy of the light. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 475 


MICROSCOPY. 


a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.* 
(1) Stands. 


Nachet’s Crane-arm Microscope.—This form of Microscope (fig. 62) 
was designed by M. A. Nachet on the suggestion of Prof. Lacaze- 


Tig. -62. 


* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Ilu- 
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography ; (5) Microscopical Optics 
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. 


476 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Duthiers to meet the case of microscopic examination being required of 
the surfaces of large objects of various kinds, especially animals. 

On a tripod with broadly spreading feet is fixed, so as to rotate on 
the centre of the tripod, a curved standard 20 inches long, pierced in 
five places to reduce the weight. At the top of the standard is the slide 
support for the body-tube, which is raised and lowered by rack and 
pinion. The slide itself also rotates laterally on the end of the standard 
so that the body-tube can be set at an angle. 


Dumaige’s Travelling Microscope.*— This Microscope of M. 
Dumaige (fig. 63) anticipates one of the features of Mr. Giles’s “ Army 
Medical Microscope,” in that the stage and foot are in one piece. 

The following is a translation of the description :— 

“The instruments which the makers offer for sale under the name of 
travelling Microscopes, if they have the advantage of being small in size, 


Fia. 63. 


EK 
Se LL 


= 


have on the other hand, in most cases at least, the grave inconvenience 
of being deficient in the stability necessary for delicate observations, 


* Comptes Rendus Soe. de Biol. (Paris), 1887, p. 103. (Séance of 19th Feb.) 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 477 


M. Dumaige has devised an instrument which while packing into a 
small compass, has all the conditions of perfect stability and all the 
improvements which are applied to large laboratory Microscopes. 

When set up the instrument is an inclining Microscope of ordinary 
dimensions. It can be divided into two parts; the first comprising the 
stem and the tube; the second the stage and the foot. 

The standard is fixed on the stage by a screw of special construction 
having four threads. This mode of construction assuring very great 
stability, it has been possible to make the standard very short. Owing 
to the arrangement of the screw it is sufficient to turn the standard 
half round to fix it in the stage perfectly securely. 

The lower part of the Microscope can be reduced to minimum 
dimensions by [rotating the stage and short pillar 180° and then in- 
verting the stage on the hinge by which it is connected with the pillar] 
and placing it between the feet of the base. 

Thus divided and folded the Microscope occupies only a small space, 

-and can be placed in a case of reduced dimensions” (6 in. x 6 in.). 

A special condenser is added, differing, however, from the Abbe form 
only in its mechanical part, which is arranged so as to take up only a 
very small space. 

Nelson’s Mechanical Stage.—In bringing before the March meeting 
a new mechanical stage, Mr. H. M. Nelson said he “ desired to point out 
that, in designing a Microscope, one had to guard against falling into 
one of two errors—over-complexity on the one hand, and over-simplicity 
on the other. It must be remembered that over-simplicity is an error 
just as great as over-complexity ; it is to be feared that in consequence 
of so much notice having been given to over-complexity (and surely it 
was wanted), the other error of over-simplicity has been neglected. It 
is almost an abuse of terms to call the heavy-footed, non-inclining, 
Continental abomination, with its spring-clip stage, small aperture, and 
with a sliding-tube coarse-adjustment, by the now exalted name of 
Microscope. As to stages, it would be hard to invent a worse form 
than that usually found in Continental stands, consisting of a small flat 
stage, one small hole, and spring clips.” 

Mr. Nelson then described his new stage as follows :— 

“The stage, which is of my horseshoe form, has two narrow vertical 
slots cut in it, one on either side of the opening. The usual rack-and- 
pinion which is placed underneath the stage, moves blocks sliding in the 
vertical slots. These blocks come flush with the stage, and have a screw 
in them, the head of which, projecting above the stage and pressing 
against the lower edge of the slide, pushes it up. The position of the 
Microscope is assumed to be an inclined one, then on turning back the 
pinion the slide drops. In fine, the slide is kept against the screw-heads 
by gravity, the Microscope being inclined. 

As the blocks only come up through the slots flush with the stage, 
the screw-heads alone projecting, a plain stage may be obtained at any 
time by removing the screws. Or, if preferred, a bar may be fixed by 
the screws to the blocks, which will make a mechanical sliding bar. 

This last is the form I have adopted in my own Microscope. In 
addition to the vertical, a horizontal movement may be fitted in the same 
way by slotting the stage and moving a block by a screw underneath. 
Such a fitting has been put to the Microscope before you. It is obvious 
that by such a method one can push the slide across the stage; but there 


478 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


is no means but that of the finger to bring it back again. Of course, by 
keeping the slide pressed against the stud one can regulate the motion 
backwards by means of the screw. If a horizontal backward motion is 
required, there are two—and only two—alternatives before you: either 
you must clip the slide, or you must place the slide in a moving plate. 
If, on the one hand, the slide is clipped, you fall into the errors 
mentioned above; and if, on the other, you adopt the moving plate, you 
must, if it is to stand a crucial test, copy the Powell model. Now, as 
the scope of the new stage is to improve the student’s Microscope at a 
small extra cost, it stands to reason that the second alternative is out of 
the question. 

The advantages I claim for the new movement are as follows :— 

(1) The vertical and horizontal movements are independent of one 
another, so you can have a vertical movement fitted to your Microscope 
without the horizontal, or vice versd. 

(2) By removing the screws in the blocks which are the only things 
above the stage, the stage is left perfectly plain, just as if there was no 
mechanical movement at all. 

(3) By merely slotting the sliding-bar, to enable it to pass over the 
screw-heads, the sliding-bar and the mechanical movement can be used 
independently of one another. 

(4) By screwing a bar to the blocks you have a perfect mechanical 
vertical movement. This, I think, in practice, will be found the most 
useful. 

(5) By graduating the heads of the pinions, and by marking the 
stage for each complete revolution, a finder and a rough micrometer 
sufliciently accurate for low and medium powers is made, 

(6) It is inexpensive, 

tr} And perhaps the most important. The moving pinions being 
fastened to a fixed stage, and the biocks sliding in grooves in the stage, 
renders the movement peculiarly steady.” 

When exhibited it was pointed out * that as both hands are required 
to work the stage—one for the milled head and the other to keep the 
slide pressed against the screws—the great advantage of a mechanical 
stage, in being able to focus at the same time that the slide is moved, 
was lost.t 


Fine-adjustment by tilting the Stage—JIn describing Queen and 
Co.’s “New Laboratory Microscope, Acme No. 5,” in which the upper 
stage-plate is lifted at one end by a screw, the writer says { that this 
“plan of constructing the fine-adjustment has the following invaluable 
features, which especially fit it for class work in the laboratory. 

First (and principally). Perfection of action: The upper plate, 
carrying the object, must respond instantly to the movement of the screw 
—upward by positive action, downward by the spring of the plate; and 
without any lateral or side motion; these, of course, are the essential 
features of a good fine-adjustment. 

Second (and important). This perfect action will continue as at first ; 
as there are no joints to wear loose or become strained, there can be 
developed no lost motion nor lateral motion by wear or rough handling, 
all being made practically in one solid piece. 


* Ante, p. 334. + Cf. Engl. Mech., xlvii. (1888) p. 117. 
~ Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, iv. (1887) p. 44 (1 pl). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 479 


Third. It is inexpensive in construction. An objection is sometimes 
made that one side of the stage-plate is moved, while the other is not, 
thus elevating one side more than the other. We only ask those to 
whom this may appear an objection, to make a practical and careful 
test. They will find that this objection is utterly invalid in practice, as 
the range of the motion required is very slight.” 

On the other hand it must be pointed out that this system of fine- 
adjustment is hardly tolerable for any but rough-and-ready elementary 
work, as the continual tilting of the stage-plate supporting the object 
renders the employment of substage apparatus very inconvenient, not to 
say practically impossible. 

Amici adopted this mechanism in one of his models we have met 
with, one of which is shown in fig. 64, where the stage consists of a 
plate bent on itself, the upper half being pressed upwards by a screw, 
returning by its own “spring” when the screw is withdrawn. The 
more common form is that shown in figs. 65 and 66, where the stage 
does not consist of one plate bent on itself, but of two joined by a 
short bar at one end. A peculiar modification of this plan is shown in 
fig. 67, where the thick stage has a thin plate separated from its upper 
surface, which is raised at one end by a screw, as in the other cases. 
Fig. 68 shows another modification, adopted by Seibert, of Wetzlar, 
the stage being suspended between two pivots at one end and tilted 
by a screw at the other end, acting against the pressure of a spiral- 
spring. 

= Amici also adopted the system of suspending the stage (fig. 69) 
on pivots on either side of the pillar, an angle-piece being connected 
at the back forming a bent lever, by which the stage was tilted by a 
screw acting against a spring. Nobert modified this latter system, even 
with his largest Microscopes to which he applied his stage-micrometer, 
by suspending the stage on pivots on either side of the pillar, and at- 
taching the angle-piece beneath the stage so’as to be acted upon by a 
screw passing through the pillar; the downward motion of the stage 
acted by gravity only as in the small French Microscope shown in 
fig. 70, which instrument has in addition a peculiar crank-arm attached 
near the edge of the milled head, which raises and lowers the body-tube 
instead of the usual rack and pinion. This plan has been adopted in 
many of the commoner types of Microscopes issued in recent years in 
Germany, in some cases (as in the Microscope by Schieck, of Berlin, 
shown in fig. 71) the downward motion of the stage is controlled by a 
spiral-spring pressing on the front of the angle-picce. 

Trécourt and Oberhiuser (fig. 72) avoided the tilting of the stage 
by making the upper plate move up or down in a horizontal position 
by means of a screw and socket at one end and a guide-pin at the other 
end. Charles Chevalier and others in France adopted this mechanism, 
with more or less modification; and in England, Pritchard, Carpenter 
and Westley, and others also employed the system. Fig. 73 shows the 
application of a rack and pinion with a guide-pin giving parallel motion 
to the upper stage-plate. This focusing by the stage was subsequently 
elaborated by the late Hugh Powell, for which he was awarded a silver 
medal by the Society of Arts in 1841, and which consisted in making 
the upper part of the stage, carrying the “ 'Turrill” mechanism, to move 
upwards or downwards in the strictly horizontal position by a system of 
screws acting upon levers and wedges. Andrew Ross appears to have 
adopted this system also in some of his early constructions. 


SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


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Microscopes with SvTace IiNgb-ADJUSTMENT. 


482 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


It appears to us regrettable that so many opticians should struggle 
to issue “ students’ ”” Microscopes, the chief aim of which appears to be a 
low cost of production regardless of the modern requirements in such in- 
struments. Our own experience is that with a stand well equipped with 
substage appliances for controlling the illumination, every good objec- 
tive may be made to yield images at least 50 per cent. better than are 
possible without such appliances. <A “student” should obviously com- 
mence his training in microscopy by learning to use his optical battery 
in the most effective manner, which practically necessitates his being 
provided witha stand altogether superior in construction to those usually 
supplied as “ students’? Microscopes. 

Since the above was written the writer. of the article on which we 
were commenting replied * to a similar criticism as follows :— 

“Another eminent professor, for whose opinion we have great 
respect, in reply to our argument in favour of the Acme No. 5, urging 
the inexpensive construction combined with thorough efficiency, of the 
fine-adjustment, presents the well-known theoretical objection to this 
form, and (while willing to admit that he might not be able to tell, by 
looking through the Microscope, which side of the stage was most ele- 
vated) says that in his experience expense is not an objection if the 
Microscopes are likely to be effective and durable in use in the labora- 
tory. He considers it desirable to pay more and get instruments free 
from theoretical objection. He speaks of his experience in Germany 
with German laboratory Microscopes; how each year they required to 
be sent to the maker for repair. Right here is a strong argument in 
favour of the construction of the fine-adjustment adopted in the Acme 
No. 5. In instruments of the usual German type the operation of the 
‘slip-tube ’ brings a great strain on the slide of the fine-adjustment; in 
the Microscope above referred to the two adjustments are entirely 
separate, and there is no strain on the fine-adjustment from the use of 
the other; in fact, there is no slide or joint whatever that can wear 
loose. The slip-tube adjustment is carried upon a solid arm, to which 
it is firmly dovetailed and screwed fast. We are willing to admit that 
another form of fine-adjustment may be preferable for the expert en- 
gaged in work which requires the use of substage condenser, highest 
powers, &c.; but for the ordinary work of the histological laboratory 
we believe that it will prove eminently adapted. In the language of 
modern science, its structure being suited to the conditions of its 
‘environment,’ it will survive, being of the ‘ fittest.’ ” 


*‘American Microscopes—A Complaint.’—A great sensation has 
been caused in the United States by the publication ¢ of the following 
article by Prof. C. 8. Minot, condemnatory of American Microscopes. 
The author’s criticism is much too sweeping and indiscriminate. 

“Every autumn when the colleges and medical schools of the country 
begin their Academic years, there are many students who come to their 
instructors seeking advice in regard to the purchase of Microscopes. 
Often they appear already furnished with an instrument of which they 
are anxious to learn that the lenses are particularly good. 

“As it has been my duty for several years to conduct a large class 
in practical histology, I have had frequent applications for advice 
about Microscopes, and have seen and examined a great many different 


* (Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, y. (1888) p. 2. + Science, x. (1887) pp. 275-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 483 


stands, and the lenses of many manufacturers. I have had, therefore, 
opportunities to test the practical convenience and advantages of the 
many sorts of Microscopes which the students have brought along with 
them. The result of this experience is the conviction that it is un- 
desirable to recommend a student to purchase any Microscope whatsoever 
of American manufacture, and to always counsel him to obtain, if possible, 
one of the German or French instruments. 

“Tn order to make my judgment more clear, I may add that I know 
of no American Microscope which I should like to purchase at any 
price, for my own use in histological or embryological work. 

“JT venture to express this adverse opinion in regard to American 
Microscopes in the hope of inducing some of our opticians to manu- 
facture a stand for a Microscope suitable for the use of students of 
histology and biology. It appears to me that the simple model now 
almost universally adopted in Europe is far superior to everything 
offered us in rivalry to them by our own dealers. 

“To justify myself, I should like to give, first, the reasons for my 
disapproval of the American forms; and, second, the reasons for my 
preference of German forms. The fundamental error in Microscopes of 
American manufacture is that they are for the most part constructed 
with a view of, I might almost say, entrapping inexperienced purchasers. 
The zeal of the maker is turned too much to decorative lacquering and 
nickel-plating ; he adds to his stand as great a variety of mechanical 
contrivances and adjustments as the price of the stand will permit, and 
many of these contrivances are not really commendable for their utility. 
In the majority of cases the stands are made to tilt, which, for one that 
uses the Microscope for real work, is an almost useless luxury, because 
he who really works in histology necessarily examines fresh specimens 
in fluids, or at least constantly has on the stage of his Microscope 
preparations in various stages of unreadiness, and not mounted in a 
permanent form. All this implies the constant use of fluids, and, if the 
stage of the Microscope is inclined, the use of liquids is impracticable. 
Any one, therefore, who uses his Microscope for the ordinary purposes 
of a student or an investigator, or in connection with clinical or patho- 
logical work, very soon falls out of the habit of tilting his Microscope. 
Hence it is, that, while making a Microscope to tilt renders it consider- 
ably more expensive, it adds nothing essential to the convenience of the 
stand for laboratory work. This same fact, that most of the work must 
be done with the tube of the Microscope vertical, renders it indispensable 
that the Microscope should not be too high; so that we must put down 
the ten-inch tube as a bad feature for a student’s Microscope. A rack 
and pinion is undoubtedly advantageous; it renders the use of the 
Microscope more convenient, and increases its durability by diminishing 
the strain upon the stand during the coarse adjustment of the focus. 
When this adjustment is effected by shoving the tube with the hand, the 
Microscope wears out sooner than with the rack-and-pinion movement ; 
yet even the rack and pinion, which are so generally put on our American 
Microscopes, are not indispensable, and the greater part of the histo- 
logical and embryological investigations of the past twenty years have 
been made without the employment of this convenience. 

* The stage of the American Microscope is very faulty. The large 
movable glass plate with a hole through it is a toy fit only for an 
amateur or fancy collector; it interferes with the use of fluids, and with 

2u 2 


484 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the freedom of movement of the slide over the field of the Microseope— 
the two things which are most indispensable in practice. A good stage 
should be large and flat, with nothing upon it except a pair of spring 
clips and a hole for a diaphragm. The diaphragms are often a matter 
of particularly fanciful construction. Thus the iris diaphragm is often 
introduced to allure the inexperienced, but it is not a good form except 
in conjunction with an achromatic condenser. There are other details of 
construction which are equally open to unfavourable criticism, but it is 
unnecessary to go into their discussion. 

“Unfortunately, while we see so much pains expended upon the 
brasswork of the Microscope, we see a neglect of the optical members 
of the instrument; so that the Microscope as a whole is converted into a 
showy piece of apparatus, and the eye-pieces and objectives are generally, 
though not always, of a decidedly inferior character; when they are 
really good, the lenses are very expensive. 

“Tf, now, our manufacturers would reverse the distribution of their 
painstaking, and make a simple stand of small size and compact model 
with first-class lenses, they would furnish something which could be 
recon mended to students and others by conscientious advisers, 

“Turning now to the consideration of Continental Microscopes, so 
universally used in Europe, and now happily gaining supremacy in this 
country, we see at once that they conform to the practical requirements 
which are disdained in the making of most American Microscopes. 

“They are built with a firm base. The stage is easily reached by 
the fingers when the hand is resting upon the table. It carries no 
superfluous appurtenances, but is large and flat. The eye-piece is of 
such a height, that when the instrument is vertical it is easy to look into 
it. Concerning the lenses, it must be said that most of the European 
manufacturers are very conscientious in regard to those which they 
furnish. There are, of course, some makers who put upon the market 
objectives of inferior quality, and which are sold as such, and therefore 
at a correspondingly low price. This is of course legitimate, as there is 
a demand for cheap Microscopes. 

“The price of these desirable Microscopes is very much less than 
that of undesirable American ones. According to our system of protec- 
tion, the physicians, scientific men, and students are taxed enormously if 
they buy a foreign instrument. Put into plain English, this means that 
we are heavily fined if we secure what we require in the way of Micro- 
scopes, while a small number of manufacturers, whose money-making is 
of very little significance to the public, receive a bonus for furnishing 
an inferior article at a high price. Thas what is really important is 
sacrificed for what is unimportant. Many valuable members of the 
nation are sacrificed by being obliged to pay for the advantage of a small 
number of men who have never shown themselves willing to supply to 
those by whose sacrifices they benefit, the kind of instrument wanted, 

“Can anything be more unjust ? and are not we, who are engaged in 
university careers, in the practice of medicine, or any other useful 
occupation requiring the employment of Microscopes, justified in com- 
plaining of the condition of affairs, which is little short of a national 
calamity ? Is it unreasonable to ask the manufacturers of Microscopes 
in this country to furnish us instruments of the kind we really need, as 
some sort of acknowledgment of the money they extract from us whether 
we will or not? 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 485 


“Tn expressing myself so decisively and emphatically upon the 
subject of American Microscopes, I have not considered it necessary to 
give a detailed discussion of the relative merits and demerits of the 
different makes, because what I have expressed is the opinion, in these 
matters, of all the competent judges with whom I have talked on the 
subject. 

“T know positively that many of the best scientific men of America 
are ready to join me in saying, as I said at the beginning, that there is 
no American Microscope which we should like to buy at any price for 
our own use.” 

In reply to some comments* to which his article gave rise, Dr. 
Minot wrote as follows f :— 

“The object of my letter in ‘Science’ was to direct attention toa 
special need which I believe to exist in this country. This need is one 
which has arisen in consequence of the introduction of the Microscope 
as an aid to the educational courses of American colleges and medical 
schools. There the requirement is that the Microscope shall be as 
inexpensive as possible. Now, a Micrescope must fulfil one in- 
dispensable requiremeut, it must be optically good. If the lenses are 
inferior, the value of the instrument is excessively diminished. 

“Pretty much all the other qualities of the Microscope may vary 
without affecting anything but the convenience of the Microscope. It 
is therefore evident that it is solely in regard to the stand that the 
economy must be effected. I hold, therefore, that the ideal student's 
Microscope must have the simplest construction possible, and that 
nothing should be added to it which can be left out, and still leave the 
instrument sufficiently convenient for actual use. The hinged joint for 
tilting, the rack and pinion, and the iris diaphragm all increase the 
expense of the Microscope, and yet do not add anything indispensable. 

“In Germany Microscopes are very little used by amateurs, but are 
extensively used by scientific investigators and students ; accordingly, 
we find the stands which are made in that country adapted to the 
demand, A similar demand has arisen in this country, and will probably 
grow, and Ishould suppose that it would be for the interest of American 
manufacturers to meet this demand rather than to leave the, market to 
Kuropean makers without competition.” 

Buffalo Microscopical Club. 
[Protest against Prof. Minot’s article on American Microscopes, supra, p. 482.] 
The Microscope, VIL. (1888) pp. 55-6. 
Hewnnict, J. F.—Recently-discovered Microscopes of historic interest. 
{Describes and figures two Microscopes—(1) cf. post; (2) a Culpeper, “ the 
exact counterpart in every particular of one figured in plate iv. of Adams’s 


‘ Essays on the Microscope’ (1787),” with the addition of a rack and pinion 
for focusing. ] 
The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 97-9 (2 figs.). 
Scort, G. P.—[Exhibition of a Microscope.] 

(“This Microscope possesses many ingenious appliances connected with the 
body, the stage, and the substage of this instrument. Especially noticeable 
among these are the contrivances by which, with a quarter revolution, the 
polarizer, the selenite, and the analyser of the polarizing apparatus can 
instantly be brought into use or turned to one side, so as to avoid all inter- 
ference with the examination of an object by ordinary light.” ] 

Journ. N. York Micr, Soc., TV. (1888) p. 120. 


* Cf. inter alia Queen’s Micr. Bull., iv. (1887) pp. 41-3; also v. (1888) p. 4. 
+ Queen’s Micr. Bull., v. (1888) p. 8. 


486 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives. 


The Jena Optical Glass.*—Mr. J. Swift states that the difficulties 
in the practical use of this glass has been great, “for nearly the whole 
of the new glass purchased by him was found to be worthless, so rapid 
was the deterioration of most of the samples; and some systems of 
lenses made of them became pitted on the surfaces within a week after 
the manufacture. He found about three stable samples in the whole 
of a very large batch.” Figs. 74 and 75 represent in the actual dimen- 
sions the eye-piece and objective of a Microscope made entirely of the 
new materials. In fig. 74, A, B, and C are of the new crown glass, 
and D of the new flint. In the objective, fig. 75, A is the aperture 
above the compound lens BC; B is of hard crown, C of flint, D crown, 


Fic. 74. Fig, 75. 


E flint, and F a plano-convex crown element of deep curvature, cemented 
to the meniscus flint element above it. Although it is difficult work to 
make an objective entirely of the new glass in its stable forms, Messrs. 
Swift use the glass now in all their Microscopes to some extent for 
objectives varying from the 1/12 in. immersion to the 3in.; the benefit, 
they state, is that the 2 in. objective which formerly had an angular 
aperture of 15°, with the new glass has an angular aperture of 22°, and 
strange to say, instead of being dearer it is cheaper, because with the 
good samples of the new glass the manufacturing optician is more sure 
of his results. As regards the eye-piece, fig. 74, Mr. Swift says :— 
“Tt would be very difficult to use the ordinary Huyghenian eye-piece of 
the same power, as the loss of light would be so great that the detail the 
objective would be capable of picking up would not be seen, or the eye 
would have to be nearly in contact with the eye-piece, to enable the 
object to be seen, but with the eye-piece shown the focal distance is so 
increased that it can be used with as much ease as one of the ordinary 
construction with a magnification of only ten diameters.” 
Bauscu, E.—Society Screw. 

(Condemns the ambiguity of the instructions of the original committee, and 


urges that something should be done to get a better standard. } 
The Microscope, VIIL. (1888) p. 127. 


* The Engineer, 1888, March 2, pp. 182-3 (2 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 487 


L., A. S.—Inquiry as to the best proportion of Eye-piece to Objective. 
Engl. Mech., XLVII. (1888) pp. 169-70. 
Objectives, English and Continental. ; 

{Inquiry “how to compare the English and Continental nomenclature of 
objectives.” 

Reply by “'T. F. S.” that such a list as desired “would be impossible, from 
the simple fact that the magnifying powers of the objectives as supplied by 
the makers do not agree with their own catalogues.” He then proceeds as 
follows :— 

“ Within certain limits, however, the focal distance of the objective is not of 
the slightest importance, the numerical aperture being the only measure of 
its capacity to show fine detail. Thus if a 1/4 in. and a 1/8 in. objective 
have the same N.A., and an object is shown under the first with an eye-piece 
magnifying eight, and under the latter with an eye-piece magnifying four 
times, there will be no difference between the images whatever, neither in 
brightness nor in the amount of detail shown, provided both glasses are 
equally corrected. The measuring the capacity of an objective by its focus 
is an old superstition handed down from the time when the angle had to be 
limited from a want of skill in making the necessary corrections for chromatic 
and spherical aberration, and like most superstitions, has lingered for a long 
time after the cause, which made it a real faith, has disappeared. I can only, 
then, counsel ‘A Constant Reader’ to throw aside all notions of measuring 
the capacity of a glass by its focal length, and in its place to study the 
‘Aperture Table’ given in the ‘Journal’ of the Royal Microscopical 
Society, where he will find the resolving power for any given aperture, and 
can then compare catalogues for himself.” 

It cannot, however, be quite so broadly laid down that the “focal distance of 
an objective is not of the slightest importance.”” Even when resolution is 
alone considered there is a proper relation between aperture and power 
which renders a knowledge of the latter important. } 

Engl. Mech., XLVIL. (1888) pp. 125 and 146. 


(3) Illuminating and other Apparatus. 


Dumaige’s Camera Lucida.—The peculiarity of M. Dumaige’s camera 
lucida is that the prism and reflecting mirror are in a box, which can be 
closed when the camera is not in use. When in use the cover of the box 
hangs down at the side of the eye-piece, as shown in fig. 76. The optical 
arrangement consists of a small prism over the eye-piece, covering half 


Fic. 76. 


the eye-lens, with a mirror about 1 in. square which receives the image 
of the paper and pencil and reflects them to the prism, whence they 
are reflected to the observer’s eye, which views simultaneously the image 
from the object through the uncovered half of the eye-lens. The 


488 


SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


prism is mounted on a short pin on an adjustable slide at the side of 


the box. 


Eye-shades.— These “shades,” intended to be placed in front of the 
unused eye in microscopical observations, have hitherto been blackened, 
but it is suggested * that it would be preferable if they were white. 


Dumaige’s Nose-piece for Changing Objectives.—This device 


(fig. 77) 


Fr 


of M. Dumaige somewhat resembles that of the Geneva 
Physical Instrument Co., described in this Journal, 
Teme 1884, p. 284. It differs from that, however, in 


the use not of two hinged plates kept together 
by a set screw acting on a spiral spring, but of 
two spiral springs, as shown in the figure, which 
press the lower horseshoe plate against the ad- 
apter. The objective is provided with a sloping 
flanged collar, which is slipped between the lower 
plate and the adapter, and is held fast by the 
action of the springs. In order to further secure 
it there is an annular countersunk piece in the 
adapter into which the collar fits. 


Malassez’s Hot Stage.t—M. L. Malassez has devised a hot stage 


which is 


3 


‘dl 


both simple and handy. It consists (fig. 78) of a metal 


SIT as 


| Fic, 78 
ri | 

iil 

| i 
Smeal 

=f 

iu 

ae = /_ 7a = 
=X oo __a 

> 


i" 
4 


| 


co 


plate, covered over so as to form a box, into which the preparation is 


slipped. 


From the front of the plate projects a flat double arm, also of 


* Queen’s Mier. Bull., v. (1888) p. 5. 
+ Arch. de Physiol., viii. (1886) pp. 271-3 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 489 


metal. The end of the arm is expanded in order to be more readily 
heated. The sides of the hot chamber or box are of unequal thickness, 
the side farthest from the arm being the thicker, in order that the 
temperature of the side from which the arm projects and that of the 
opposite side may be about equal. This is shown by putting little 
pieces of paraffin on the top of the box, for they melt at almost the 
same time. A thermometer is placed within the chamber to mark the 
temperature, and this may be made to rise more or less quickly, ac- 
cording as the expanded end of the arm is more or less heated, and 
thus the temperature be kept fairly equable. If, however, a constant 
temperature be necessary, the author advises the use of M. Vignal’s hot 
stage. The one described, however, is much more simple, and quite 
suitable for most purposes. The instrument may also be used for cooling 
down preparations by using methyl chloride on the expansion at the end 
of the arm. 


Hallstén’s “ Compressorium.”*—Dr. K. Hiillstén apologetically calls 
his apparatus a compressorium for want of a better name, for its main 
use is intended to safeguard the face of the objective from the deposit of 
vapour while examining the circulation of S 
the blood, e.g. in the chick. It may, Fig. 79. 
however, be used as a compressorium for 
flattening out or exerting equal pressure 
upon the parts of a specimen. 

The apparatus (fig. 79) consists of a 
cylindrical brass tube H, which surrounds 
the objective and carries the cover-glass D 
so that watery vapour is prevented from 
reaching the objective or face of the lens. 
R is a ring into which the upper end of the 
brass tube is screwed. This ring is screwed 
in between the body-tube T' and the objec- 
tive O. The cover-glass DD is fixed to the 
lower end of the compressorium tube by an 
alcoholic shellac solution. When in use the 
tube can be screwed down so that the cover- 
glass penetrates within the examining fluid 
and comes in contact with the blastoderm, and observation is unhindered 
by the presence of vapour. 

When the apparatus acts as a compressorium, the action is effected 
by merely screwing or pushing the tube down upon the object. 


Hardy’s Growing Slide.—Mr. J. D. Hardy writes :—“ The absolutely 
necessary qualities of a growing slide are that there should be a perfectly 
free current, that the water supply should be pure or devoid of any 
extraneous matter, and that the object should be observable at any time. 
To carry out these desiderata I use apparatus shown in fig. 80 consisting 
of the old ‘animalcule box’ of 1} in. in diameter. At the upper part of 
the raised cylinder a small vertical slit is made half-way down. On the 
opposite side a hole is drilled in the bottom of the groove which runs 
round the central glass disc. A hole is drilled in the side of the cap 
about half-way down, so that when the cap is pressed close down the 


* Zeitschr. f. Biol., xxii. (1886) pp. 404-7 (1 fig.). 


490 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


hole is below the bottom of the slit. The compressor is now inverted, 
and a bottle or tube, made to fit watertight, and having a small hole in 
the side at the bottom, is inserted in 
the well. The hole in the bottle 
and that in the bottom of the groove 
are plugged with cotton-wool, either 
loosely or tight, according as the 
flow of water is desired. The water 
flows through the hole in the bottle, 
and then through that in the bottom 
of the groove, and so between the 
glass covers containing the object, 
passing out through the slit and the 
hole in the cap. The flow can be 
so regulated that it may take either 
a day or an hour to empty the bottle, 
which will contain about one fluid 
ounce. The cotton-wool plugs com- 
pletely stop any foreign substance 
passing. When observation is re- 
quired, the bottle being removed, 
the water will remain in the life-box, or it may be at once rendered 
watertight by turning the hole in the cap away from the slit.” 


Schieck’s Microscope Lamps.—Herr J. W. Schieck has devised the 
lamps shown in figs. 81-4. 


Fic. 82. 


The pecularity of the two former (which differ only in their mounting) 
is the metal shade and reflector, which is shaped as shown in the figs. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 491 


with a condensing lens in the lower end. The two latter have a hinged 
shade which can be placed in different positions in front of the lens 
according to the illumination required. 


Gerlach’s Embryoscope.* —The embryoscope, devised by Dr. L. 
Gerlach, supplies a great and long-felt desideratum in experimental 
embryology. It is a mechanism for closing hermetically a circular 
opening, made with a trepan, in the shell of the hen’s egg; and it serves 
the purpose of a window, through which the living embryo may be 
directly observed, and its development followed from day to day. 

The instrument consists of two parts:—-(1) A mounting-ring to be 
firmly cemented to the egg-shell. (2) A key-piece with glass front, 
which screws into the ring and closes it air-tight. 

Fig. 85 represents the embryoscope in perspective, and fig. 86 in 
section. ‘The metallic mounting-ring is 1} mm. thick, and has a lumen 
2 cm.in diameter, The lower edge Ar is bevelled and saddle-shaped so 
as to fit the equatorial surface of the egg, while the upper edge is flat. 
From the outer surface of the ring two square-cornered bars Z project 
in opposite directions. On its inner surface, a little above the lower 
edge, is a diaphragm Md with an opening 13 mm. in diameter. Rest- 
ing upon this diaphragm, and correspoading with it in size and shape, is 
a second diaphragm of thin wax-cloth Wd, which serves as a packing- 
washer for the key-piece. 

The key-piece of the embryoscope consists of a low metallic cylin- 
der, closed by a disc of glass G, which represents the window that is to 
cover the artificial opening in the shell. The upper part of the cylinder 
expands peripherally to form a rim witha milled edge Vs. This rim has 
two notches E opposite each other, into which fit the arms of a small 
wrench, by the aid of which the key-piece can be tightly screwed down. 


* Anat, Anzeig., ii. (1887) p. 583 (2 figs.). 


492 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


There is also a short, narrow vertical canal Vo or vont, the lower end of 
which must open in the middle of the key-piece ring. 

The accessory apparatus required in the use of the embryoscope 
consist of (1) a trepan; (2) a guide-ring for the same; (3) a motallic 
fork ; and (4) the key or wrench before mentioned. 


Fia. 86. 


The trepan is a thin metallic cylinder, 2 to 24 em. long, the lower 
end of which is toothed, while the upper part is fluted and serves as the 
handle. The diameter of the trepan is a trifle smaller than that of the 
opening of the diaphragm. The object of this is to leave a very narrow 
zone of shell, covered with shellac, inside the inner edge of the 
diaphragm. 

The guide-ring for the trepan has the same construction as the key- 
piece, except that it has no glass disc. It serves to steady as well as 
guide the trepan during the process of cutting. 

The fork has two notches at the ends of its prongs fitted to receive 
the two bars of the mounting-ring. When adjusted to the bars, the 
fork serves as a means of holding the embryoscope securely while 
screwing or unscrewing the key-piece. 

The wrench, the use of which has already been explained, is similar 
in construction to the wrench used for mathematical instruments. 

The mounting-ring is fastened to the egg by means of a cement con- 
sisting of two parts of wax and three parts of colophonium. The cement 
is hard and brittle at the ordinary room-temperature, but becomes soft 
and kneadable when held in the hand for a few moments. After 
warming the mounting-ring over a gas or a spirit-lamp, a roll of the 
softened cement is pressed into the space which must be completely 
filled between the lower face of the diaphragm and the lower edge of 
the rmg. As soon as the ring becomes sufficiently cool, it is pressed 
firmly to the equatorial surface of the egg, and the excess of the still 
soft cement, which is thus forced outward and inward beneath the ring, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 493 


should be removed before it becomes brittle by the aid of a small, sharp- 
pointed blade. In order to avoid injuring the blastoderm, which might 
occur if the hot ring were fastened to the shell directly over it, it is 
best to fix the ring to the side rather than the top of the egg. 

After the ring has been securely fixed and the superfluous cement 
removed, the exposed edges of the remaining cement seen beneath the 
lower edge of the ring and the inner edge of the diaphragm, must be 
covered with a coat of an alcoholic solution of yellow shellac. This 
may be applied with a small brush, care being taken to cover the cement 
completely, and as little of the egg-shell as possible. 

After the shellac has dried, a process which is completed in twelve 
to fourteen hours in the open air and in six hours in the incubator, the 
shell may be trepanned. 

Antiseptic precautions are required in opening the egg. An oblong 
porcelain trough or glass dish is first filled with a 3 per cent. solution of 
carbolic acid, and in this are placed the instruments to be used in the 
operation: a glass rod, a medium-sized brush, small shears, forceps, the 
trepan, and the guide-ring. Before using, these instruments are dried 
with carbolized cotton, and after using, returned to the dish of carbolic acid. 

After washing the hands in dilute sublimate, or carbolic acid, a 
perfectly fresh egg is painted with the 3 per cent. solution of 
carbolic acid, and then dried with carbolized cotton. The small end of 
the egg-shell is then cut out with the shears, and the thick white poured 
with the aid of the glass rod into a clean dish, leaving the yolk and the 
thinner white in the shell. The white is to be used in screwing in the 
key-piece, and must therefore always be prepared beforehand. 

After these preparations, the egg to which the mounting-ring has 
been cemented is disinfected in the manner above described, and placed 
in an egg-carrier with the ring uppermost. 'The inside of the ring is 
then brushed with carbolic acid, which is shaken out after one or two 
minutes, and replaced by a 1/2 per cent. solution of common salt, which 
is also allowed to remain from one to two minutes, and then completely 
removed by means of carbolized cotton. The guide-ring is now screwed 
in, and the egg trepanned from the side in order to avoid injuring the 
blastoderm. 'The egg is next placed with its opening upward, and the 
guide-ring removed. When the trepan is withdrawn, the excised piece 
of shell often comes with it, and sometimes the underlying shell- 
membrane. If this is not the case, the two pieces must be removed 
separately by the aid of the pincers. Care must, of course, be taken not 
to injure the biastoderm and the zona pellucida. 

The thin white, which was left with the yolk in the shell, is allowed 
to flow over the glass rod upon the exposed blastoderm until the ring is 
filled, care being taken to avoid air-bubbles. The wax-cloth diaphragm 
is next taken from the dish of carbolic acid, dried in blotting-paper, 
drawn through the thick white, and inserted in the ring in close contact 
with the metallic diaphragm, and then the key-piece, previously washed 
with carbolic acid, and dried with carbolized cotton, is slowly screwed 
down. The superfluous white is thus slowly forced out through the 
vent Vo, until the key-piece reaches the diaphragm and closes the 
vent. Finally, when the strength of the hand is no longer sufficient, 
the egg with its embryoscope is placed in the metallic fork, and the 
wrench applied, until with this means it is no longer possible to turn 
the key-piece farther. 


494 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The process of trepanning and inserting the key-piece is somewhat 
more complicated in the case of eggs that have already been incubated, 
as the egg and the fluids employed must be kept warm. A water-bath 
is required, consisting of a low tin box, filled with water, and provided 
with covered apartments for the reception of the egg, the thin white, 
the carbolic acid, and the salt solution, which are in this way maintained 
at a proper temperature. In other respects, the mode of procedure is 
exactly the same as given above. 

The key-piece may be removed as often as desired, provided the 
above precautions are taken each time in inserting it. If the key-piece 
is unscrewed by means of the fork and wrench, it must, of course, be 
washed in the warm carbolic acid, and the vent cleared by the intro- 
duction of a wire. The egg must be placed in the incubator with the 
embryoscope on one side. If it is placed upward the respiration of 
the embryo is hindered. The embryoscope can be turned up at any 
moment, and kept upright for five minutes at a time without injury to 
the embryo. With a little practice the whole process of arming an egg 
with the embryoscope may be completed in from six to eight minutes. 

The embryoscope is well adapted for purposes of class-demonstra- 
tion, for investigating the growth of the various parts of the embryo, 
and the physiological processes during embryonic life, as the action of 
the heart, movements of the body, &c. It is indispensable to the study 
of the effects of external agents upon the embryos of warm-blooded 
animals, and must be of great service where it is required to determine 
the precise stage of development before removing the embryo from the 
egg. It has been found useful in studying the formation of double 
embryos. Fenestrated eggs have been successfully incubated up to the 
thirteenth day, and it is probable that, under favourable conditions, the 
embryos of such eggs would reach maturity. 

On the fifth day it is still easy to bring the embryos under the 
window. On the sixth and seventh days it is more difficult. At this 
period the change in the position of the embryo, which requires from 
five to ten minutes, should take place in the incubator. 

After the eighth day the embryo cannot be brought under the 
window. If it be necessary to determine whether such an egg or an 
older one still lives, we have only to leave the egg for several hours in 
the incubator with the window directed upwards a little, after which, by 
strong reflected light, one may readily see the blood circulating through 
the channels of the vascular area.* 


Curtis, J. 8.—The Quantitative Determination of Silver by means of the Micro- 
scope. 

[Describes a “ micrometer measuring apparatus,” consisting of a Microscope 
with a vertical and two horizontal cross hairs and a mechanical stage. ] 

6th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1885, pp. 823-52 (1 pl. and 2 figs.). 
MataAssez, L.—Sur quelques nouveaux Appareils. II. Hemochromométre perfec- 
tionné. (On some new apparatus. II. Improved hemochromometer.) 
Arch. de Piysiol., VIII, (1886) pp. 261-8 (2 figs.). 
Ney, O.—Magnesiumlampen. (Magnesium lamps.) 

[The magnesium ribbon is unrolled from a wheel at the back of the apparatus, 
and there is a patent adjustment for the burner which remoyes the ash by 
means of a clockwork motion with brushes, rollers, revolving discs, or some 
such mechanism. Three kinds are figured, one representing the lamp in the 
form in which it can be used directly with suitable lenses or mirrors for 


> 


* Cf. Dr. C. O. Whitman in Amer. Natural., xxii. (1888) pp. 186-90 (2 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 495 


general purposes of illumination. A second, in which it is shown as applied 
for projecting microscopic objects, &e.; it is claimed that as an illuminator 
for this purpose it is far superior to petroleum lamps as being free from smell 
and from excessive heat, and at the same time more brilliant. The third is 
a special form for photographic illumination. ] 
Central-Ztg. f. Optik u. Mech., 1X. (1888) p. 82 (8 figs.). 
Puurricn, C.—Ein neues Refractometer, besonders zum Gebrauch fiir Chemiker 
eingerichtet. (A new refractometer, specially intended for the use of chemists.) 
Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., VIII. (1888) pp. 47-53 (2 figs.). 


SpirertT.—UVeber das Auer’sche Gasgliihlicht. (On the Auer incandescent gas 
burner.) 
[Recommendation of the Auer von Welsbach light (known in England as the 
Welsbach) for microscopical observations, examination of the nose, ear, &c.] 
SB. Physik,-Med. Gesell, Wiirzburg, 1887, pp. 11-3. 


(4) Photomicrography. 
Cross, C. F., E. J. Bevan, C. M. Kine, E. Joynson, and G. WatTt.—Report 


on Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances exhibited at the Colonial and Indian 
Exhibition, 1886. 
[Contains a description of the photomicrographic apparatus and the method of 
working, pp. 13-6, 1 fig.] 
viii. and 71 pp., 5 pls. of photomicr., 8vo, London, 1887. 
{Manton, W. P., and others. ]|—Photomicrography. 
[Urging that the “ helpful devices and methods” of workers should be “ written 
up and published for the general good, and not held secret for individual 
benefit.” | 


The Microscope, VIII. (1888) p. 89. 
NeE.Lson, E. M.—On the Formation of Diatom Structure. 
{In exhibiting some photomicrographic positives of diatoms, Mr. Nelson said, 
“I believe we are on the verge of a new departure in the field of micro- 
scopical work, viz. illustration by means of lantern pictures from photo- 
micrographic positives.’ | 
Journ. Quek. Micr. Civb, IIL. (1888) pp. 201-2 (1 pl. of photomicr.). 


(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. 

Learning to see with the Microscope.*—Mr. E. B. Poulton, in a 
review of the new edition of Huxley and Martin’s ‘ Course of Elemen- 
tary Instruction in Practical Biology, writes on this subject as 
follows :— 

“The most striking thing in the revised form of ‘ Practical Biology’ 
is the reversal of the old arrangement, so that the student is now led to 
begin with a vertebrate type, and from this to work his way down to 
the lowest forms of life, and from these again upwards to a type of the 
flowering plants. There is little doubt that such a change will be met 
by conflicting criticisms. I believe, however, that the majority of those 
who have had the widest experience of biological teaching, and espe- 
cially those who have instructed students in the first use of the Micro- 
scope, will heartily agree with Prof. Huxley’s defence of the alteration 
in the preface to the revised edition. 

“The process by which the student first learns to see with the 
Microscope is almost like the education of a new sense-organ suddenly 
conferred upon a mature organism. We know that under such circum- 
stances it would be a very long time before the impressions conveyed 
by the new organ could be harmonized with the well-known experiences 
resulting from the stimulation of other organs. Accustomed to judge 
of the shapes of objects by their appearance in three dimensions, the 
student is suddenly provided with a field of vision in which shapes have 


* Nature, xxxviil. (1888) pp. 505-6. 


496 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


to be nearly always inferred from the appearance of solid three-dimen- 
sioned objects when seen under conditions which prevent them from 
being examined in more than two dimensions at any one time. For it is 
a long time before the student can accustom himself, by focusing at suc- 
cessive depths, and by making the most of the limited third dimensions 
of depth which the high powers of the Microscope provide, to judge 
accurately of the forms of objects. And the novel conditions under 
which a student sees with a Microscope effectually prevent him from 
making the best of the impressions he receives. Thus, if the section of 
a solid object presented the appearance of a circle 1 inch in diameter, 
and if two other sections at right angles to each other and to the first 
section presented the appearance of a rectangular figure 3 feet by 1 inch, 
nearly every one would readily infer that the shape was that of a cylinder 
3 feet long by 1 inch in diameter. But precisely similar data when 
presented in the field of the Microscope, do not readily lead the student 
to any definite conclusions as to the forms of objects, and in reality a 
long course of discipline is necessary in order to make him form any 
clear conception of the actual shape of the object at which he is 
lcoking. 

“‘T therefore think that it is expedient to begin the course of biologi- 
cal teaching with organisms which only require the use of a Microscope 
for the investigation of part of their structure, and thus to gradually 
work downwards to the minutest organisms, in which the whole investi- 
gation depends upon high microscopic powers. Thus the gradual 
training in the use. of the Microscope will proceed parallel with its 
gradually increasing necessity.” 


Cover-correction.—Herr C. Reichert considers* that the “im- 
portance of ‘ cover-correction’ by means of a screw collar is not so great 
as it once was, because, in the first place, it is now possible to readily 
obtain cover-glasses of a definite thickness, and, in the next place, 
because all good Microscopes are now provided with a draw-tube. In 
all high-class instruments, the draw-tube forms an important part, and 
is less intended to increase the magnification than to correct for the 
difference in the thickness of the cover-glasses. By means of varying 
the length of the tube, we are able to produce an effect upon the image 
similar to that which is the result of making the back lenses approach or 
recede from the front lenses of the objective. The effect due to varying 
the tube-length is noticeable in an objective such as No. 5, which has 
a focal length of about 1/16 in., and is more marked as the power of 
the objective increases. For example, if an objective having a focal 
distance of about 1/10 in. be corrected for a cover-glass 0:17 mm. thick, 
when the tube is half drawn out, it may, by shortening the tube, be 
made suitable for cover-glasses having a thickness of 0:25 mm. to 0°30 
mm.; and if the tube be fully drawn out, the objective will then be 
suitable for cover-glasses from 0°14 to 9°12 mm. 

“ Those commencing microscopical studies should make themselves 
familiar with the influence exerted by the varying length of the tube, 
and this may conveniently be done by studying a delicate test-object, 
such as Pleurosigma angulatum, when the tube is extended or shortened 
in the manner already described.” 


* Reichert, C., ‘Directions for using the Microscope,’ translated by A. Frazer. 
8vo, Edinburgh, 1887, 12 pp. (2 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 497 


On this point we will observe that the student will find his range 
of experience much increased by varying the position of the mirror so 
as to make the illumination more or less oblique. The differences 
between the positions of the draw-tube required to obtain the more 
perfect definition will thus be much more plainly appreciable by the 
untrained eye, and he will thus learn to discriminate at a glance when 
he is obtaining the best images his objectives will produce. 

Further, this method of practice should also be adopted in con- 
junction with the correction-collar of the objective, which should be 
turned slowly from end to end of its range in one direction, and then ir 
the other whilst following the varying focus by the other hand on the 
fine-adjustment. The eye and the hand will thus be trained to the 
skilful employment of the Microscope, a matter which has been far too 
much neglected hitherto. 

It is a subject of common observation by opticians that the great 
majority of Microscopists have no practical training in the use of a 
, correction-adjustment in improving the quality of the image under 
varying conditions of the illumination and with different thicknesses of 
cover-glass. Through neglect of such points the student drifts into 
regarding the correction-adjustment as useless ; hence, he too frequently 
contents himself with mediocre definition, when his Microscope is 
capable of superior work if only properly handled. 


Adjusting an Objective for the Thickness of the Cover-glass.— 
In a description of their “ National” Microscope, Messrs. R. and J. Beck 
give directions for adjusting an objective, which are conveniently arranged 


Fic. 87. 


fe ru 

oe 
mali i 
hath i 


re 
rt 
i oe a : curtx 
hsascesenpca te et nt e4 
YER I este 5 OE . ~y 
RAITT EG “| 
CARS Cote mere it Sigs Wy ala 


for the use of the student microscopist, and with these they give the 
following figures showing the appearance of a Podura scale when (fig. 87) 
1888. 2M 


498 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the adjustment of the object-glass is correct ; the effect (fig. 88) produced 
on each side of the exact focus; and the way (fig. 89) in which the 
markings individually divide when all the adjustments are correct, and 
when the focus is altered the least possible amount only each way. 

Figs. 90 and 91 show the two appearances on one and the other side 
of the best focus when the adjustment is incorrect; fig. 92 showing the 
appearance of the same at its best focus. 


Villi on the Scales of Butterflies and Moths.—Dr. G. W. Royston- 
Pigott considers * that the resolution of these difficult objects is a capi- 
tal introduction to the study of the minute structure of discase germs, 
and he can consequently strongly commend it to the attention of micro- 
scopists who have neglected this department of natural history. 

Many of the villi in butterfly and moth scales are pawn-shaped, 
possessing a base and a spherical summit. This form was the first one 
discovered, with exceeding difficulty, on the scales of the Red Admiral 
butterfly. The scales of Amathusia Horsfeldii gave clearer indications, 
but their extreme delicacy permits of no pressure being applied, as it 
fluttens and distorts them. After seven years’ prosecution of the re- 
search he was rewarded with finding an entirely new vein, which has 
proved very rich in material, in moths of the Zygena tribe. Occasion- 
ally they are seen to lie flat upon the basic membrane, and to be con- 
nected by cross ramifications, interlacing in an extraordinary manner. 
At other times the bases of the villi are ciliated, forming reticulations, 
resembling ancient hieroglyphics or archaic writing. Their thickness 
varies from 1/60,000 to 1/120,000 in., and their length is sometimes 
prodigious. 

The villi principally observed at present take the following forms :— 
i. Beaded villi; ii. Embossed villi; iii. Pillar villi; iv. Ciliated 
villi; v. Connected villi; vi. Banana or Bunched villi; vii. Spinous 
villi; and viii. Tall villi. 

Out of about 400 preparations (dry mounts) of scales obtained from 
all parts of the world, the author selects a few which with good object- 
glasses give, he considers, some startling results. Only a brief abstract 
is, however, given of the appearances. 

Mr. T. F. Smith considers ¢ that some of the appearances described 
in the paper are due to the villi being seen out of focus. In his view 
they are in between the two membranes of which the scales are com- 
posed, their use being to keep the two surfaces of the scale-apart, 
and they are longer or shorter according to whether the surfaces are 
more or less rounded. He had seen some of the appearances, but only 
by taking too deep a focus. ‘As for the beading, he had never seen it, 
and he was strongly inclined to the belief that it arose from Dr. Pigott’s 
methods being in some way at fault. He believed from what he had 
read that Dr. Pigott worked with a very small aperture, and if any one 
wanted to produce false appearances they could not go a better way to 
work ; by using the lowest aperture of the condenser the same effects 
could be produced. With regard to Dr. Pigott’s test rings, he knew 
that appearance perfectly well; but it was again a false effect due to the 
results of using too small an aperture.” 

Mr. Smith also shows t that “some very respectable beads” may be 


* Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, iii. (1888) pp. 205-7. 
+ Ibid., pp. 234-5. t Ibid., p. 204. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 499 


developed by using the smallest aperture of the condenser, but that they 
instantly vanish when the light is restored. 

There can be very little doubt that Mr. Smith is right in his criti- 
cism, and that it is Dr. Pigott’s defective methods of manipulation that 
have led him astray in this matter. 

New Appearances in Podura Scale.*—Mr. T. F. Smith calls atten- 
tion to what he considers to be a new appearance of the Podura scale not 
yet recorded. In place of the optician’s appearance of the scale, with 
the exclamation marks, blue or red, according to the corrections of the 
glass, and with a light streak in the middle, more or less extended as 
the aperture is larger or smaller, the usual markings had vanished, and 
in their stead “the whole scale was studded with very slender spines 
with round heads, and the pointed ends stuck into the scale like a lot of 
pins stuck loosely and anyhow into a paper, and instead of being blue 
or red were a pure white.” At first he thought there were two sides to 
the scale, and that this was the wrong one, but he found that the scale 
was tight against the cover, and that all the scales so placed had the 
same appearance. 

Since then he has examined many scales on several slides, and is 
“now strongly of opinion that the note of exclamation markings are 
spurious, and that the light streak is the true appearance, which has 
hitherto been seen with the darker outline on each from taking too deep 
a focus. It is a well-known fact that an oil-immersion objective works 
only with its full aperture when an object mounted dry is well on the 
cover, and this in itself should be sufficient evidence that the appearance 
the object presents, under these circumstances, is the truer one. Then, 
again, the pin-like looking spines are not more than half the diameter of 
the exclamation marks, and the image is always at its smallest when in 
focus; never larger.” Another fact which guides the author in his 
estimation of the structure is the observation of a hair with small pro- 
jecting spines. ‘‘ Here was structure of which there could be no doubt, 
and the same point of the correction-collar that gave the sharpest image 
of this hair gave also the sharpest image of the spines on the scale. 
Still another proof. To bring the note of exclamation marks out well 
requires a deal of management of the light, and they are best seen with 
the smallest apertures of the condenser; but no amount of light will 
obliterate the new ones or prevent them from standing out sharply from 
the general blaze.” 


“New Glass just made in Sweden.”—We have received from a con- 
siderable number of correspondents cuttings from various newspapers 
describing this “new glass.” As will be seen it is a revival of the 
paragraphs to which we called attention in the last volume of this 
Journal, pp. 155 and 321. What is the cause of this recrudescence 
we do not at all know, but it has apparently been disseminated all over 
England, as our cuttings come from London papers, local country 
papers, religious papers, &ce. 

The paragraphs are the most outrageous piece of rubbish ever pub- 
lished, and while of course editors can’t be expected to know everything, 
they might surely get to know enough to avoid putting in such asinine 
statements as these. 

“Perhaps the most wonderful thing that has been discovered of late 


* Journ. Quek. Mier. Club, iii. (1888) pp. 203-4. 
2m 2 


500 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


is the new glass which hast just been made in Sweden. The revolution 


‘ which this new refractor is destined to make is almost inconceivable, if 


it is true, as is positively alleged, that, while the highest power of an 
old-fashioned microscopic lens reveals only the one four-hundred- 
thousandth part of an inch, this new glass will enable us to distinguish 
one two-hundred-and-four-million-seven-hundred-thousandth part of an 
mens 7 

“« A new kind of glass, which is to revolutionize scientific investiga- 
tion, has been invented in Sweden. Ordinary glass is composed of six 
ingredients, but this compound contains no less than fourteen, chief 
among the new substances employed being phosphorus and boron. For 
microscopic purposes the power claimed for this Swedish glass is almost 
incredible. One 400,000th of an inch can be distinguished by the 
strongest lens at present, but the new glass will, it is said, reveal the 
204,700,000th part of an inch. If the Swedish invention at all ap- 
proaches what is promised for it, its importance can hardly be exagger- 
ated, but the very moderate performance of the so-called ‘ unbreakable 
glass’ invented a few years ago, may warn us to be somewhat sceptical 
in regard to new wonders in the way of glass.” T 


Curiosities of the Senses. 


[‘‘ According to a memoir communicated to the Biological Society of Paris by 
M. Mathias Duval, and reported in the Siecle, it is not advantageous when 
looking through a telescope with one eye to close the other, but rather the 
contrary. We have not succeeded in verifying this observation with the 
Microscope.” } 

Scientif. News, I. (1888) p. 372. 


Cz[apsKk1i, S.]—Bemerkungen iiber Prof. Abbe’s Abhandlung: Die Vergrésserung 


einer Linse oder eines Linsensystems. (Remarks on Prot. Abbe’s paper: The 
magnifying power of a lens or a lens-system.) 

[Criticism of the papers of Prof. Abbe and Prof. Giltay in this Journal, 1884, 
p. 348, and 1885, p. 960. 

“For practical microscopists to adopt Abbe’s definition for ordinary use seems 
to me not only purposeless, but at no time desirable. On the other hand, for 
scientific purposes in theoretical discussions relating to the magnifying 
power of an optical apparatus, the stricter definition of Abbe will be of 
value; and even in Giltay’s point of view, the number which represents the 
magnifying power is subjective, and applies only to an eye which sees an 
object best at the distance of 25 cm., but is different for another length of 
vision. The arbitrary character of the measure which Giltay raises as an 
objection to Abbe cannot be supported as an argument against his definition, 
for it is common to all magnitudes expressed in so-called absolute units. ] 

Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., VIII. (1888) pp. 104-5. 


D., M. T.—Microscopical Drawings. 


[Device for drawing with the Microscope :—“ Take a small portion of the 
silvering from the back of a mirror, about 1/16 in. in diameter (there must 
be a thick coating of paint on the back of the amalgam to support it, or it 
will not break off). This small reflector is to be mounted with cement on 
the edge of a piece of watch-spring at the proper angle. ‘The spring is bent 
round and fixed to a brass tube fitting over the eye-piece, so that the reflector 
stands about 1/4 in. from the eye-lens and central with it. On looking into 
it the object on the stage of the Microscope is seen, and appears to be pro- 
jected on to the paper spread below. I believe that steel mirrors are used 
for the same purpose; but the amalgam has a very good surface, costs 
nothing, and can be renewed in a very short time, It is better than the 


‘neutral glass plate,’ ”’] 
Engl. Mech., XLVI. (1888) p. 170. 


* Essex local paper. + Christian World, 1888, April 19. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 501 


Hopexinson, A.—On the Diffraction of Microscopic Objects in Relation to the 
Resolving Power of Objectives. 
Proc. Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc., XX V. (1886) pp. 263-7 (5 figs.) and 
pp. 223 and 271-2. 
J Ames, F. L.—Nobert’s Bands. 
St. Lowis Med. and Surg. Journ., LIV. (1888) pp. 166-7. 


L., A. S.—Powers of Eye-pieces. 
[Table of the powers of the eye-pieces of different makers as deduced from the 
total magnification with the 1 in. objective.”’] 

Engl. Mech., XUVII. (1888) p. 146. 

Quxren, J. W.—Apparent and Actual Size of Field, Magnifying Power, &c. 
Queen’s Micr, Bulletin, V. (1888) pp. 1-2. 

5 $ General Hints on the use and care of the Microscope. 

The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 4-5. 


Royston-Picort, G. W.—Microscopical Advances. XXXV., XXXVI. 
[Researches in High Power Definition. Interference lines, circles, and dots. 


Attenuated lines, circles and dots. ] 
Engl. Mech., XLVIL. (1888) pp. 187 (2 figs.), 226-7 (2 figs.). 
Wiener, O.—[Measuring Thin Films.] 

(In an exhaustive paper upon methods of measuring thin films, Otto Wiener 
makes certain measurements of the thickness of a film of silver which can 
just be perceived by the eye, and arrives at the conclusion that 0°2 millionths 
of a millimetre is an upper limit of the diameter of a silver molecule.” } 

The Microscope, VIII. (1888) p. 93, from Scientific American. 
Zecu, P.—Elementare Behandlung von Linsensystemen. (Elementary treatment 
of lens-systems.) 8vo, Tiibingen, 1887. 


(6) Miscellaneous. 

Heather’s ‘Mathematical Instruments.’—It is really a disgrace to 
all concerned—publishers and editor—that this book with a title-page 
of 1888,* should have been published. 

It is inconceivable that any intelligent grown-up person should not 
have known that the extracts we print below are an anachronism in this 
year 1888 or even in the year 1848. Imagine, for instance, describing 
any Microscope of this date as having the “ amplifying lens” of the old 
makers. 

“The compound or achromatic Microscope consists of four lenses 
and a diaphragm, placed in the following order: the object-lens, the 
diaphragm, the amplifying lens, so-called because it amplifies or enlarges 
the field of view, the field-lens, and the eye-lens. The relations 
between the focal lengths and intervals of the lenses, and the distance 
of the diaphragm from the object-lenses are determined so that the 
combination may be achromatic, aplanatic, and free from spherical con- 
fusion. The field-lens and eye-lens form what is called the eye-piece, 
and the object-lens and amplifying-lens form, or tend to form, an 
enlarged image of the object in the focus of the eye-piece, which image 
is viewed through the eye-piece” (p. 79). 

The following paragraph is also deserving of note :— 

“The best Microscopes are constructed with compound object-lenses, 
which are both achromatic and aplanatic, and by this means the 
aperture, and consequently the quantity of light, is much increased. 
Good compound lenses possessing the required properties have been 
formed of a concave lens of flint glass placed between two convex 
lenses, one of crown glass and the other of Dutch plate” (p. 79). 


* Heather, J. F., ‘A Treatise on Mathematical Instruments, their construction, 
adjustment, testing, and use concisely explained.’ 14th ed., revised, with additions 
by A. T. Walmisley. 8vo, London, 1888. 


502 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The above is followed by a whole page on “the Reflecting Micro- 
scope,’ no such a Microscope having been made certainly since 1840. 


Micromillimetre.*-—Prof. A. W. Riicker observing that the word 
micromillimetre is used as equivalent to the thousandth of a millimetre, and 
being told that it is now commonly employed by biologists, and especially 
by botanists, with that meaning, protests against such a use of the word. 

As he thinks it would be very unfortunate if the same word were 
habitually used in different senses by students of different branches of 
science, he points out that, according to the definitions of the C.G.S. 
system, a micromillimetre is the millionth of a millimetre. 

In the well-known report of the Committee of the British Association 
for the “Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical 
Units,” it is laid down that the prefixes mega and micro are to be em- 
ployed “for multiplication and division by a million.” ‘This ruling has 
been generally accepted not only by scientific men, but also by those 
engaged in commerce. Megohm and microfarad are terms which are used 
in contracts, and are universally understood to mean a million ohms and 
a millionth of a farad respectively. It will be hopeless, he thinks, to try 
to introduce scientific systems of measurement into the affairs of daily 
life if scientific men themselves disregard the rules on which those 
systems are framed. 

It would also, in his view, be particularly confusing if the micro- 
millimetre were wrongly used by microscopists. In its proper sense it 
is the most convenient unit in which to express molecular magnitudes. 
It has been employed for that purpose by Sir William Thomson and 
others in England, and also by physicists abroad. If the micromillimetre 
of the microscopist is 1000 times too large, all sorts of mistakes will be 
rife as to the relative dimensions of molecules and of the smallest objects 
visible with the Microscope. 

The proper name for the thousandth of a millimetre (j) is, in his 
view, the micrométre, and though the similarity of this word to microméter 
is no doubt a drawback, it is not likely that confusion could often arise 
between them. He therefore begs respectfully to suggest that botanists 
should bring their nomenclature of units of length into conformity with 
the definitions of the C.G.S. system. Otherwise there will be a permanent 
confusion between the micrometre (w) and the micromillimetre (yp). 

On the other hand, Mr. H. J. Chaney suggests t “that even the de- 
nomination ‘micrométre’ may be hardly acceptable to scientific workers. 
The denomination for the measure of the one-thousandth of a millimetre 
(4), or 0°000001 metre, is ‘micron,’ and not ‘ micrometre.’ 

“ For the ‘micron’ we have the authority of the ‘ Comité International 
des Poids et Mesures.’ One shudders at the thought of the confusion 
likely to arise when computers are required to deal with both micro- 
metre-units and microméter-divisions. 

“The Comité International have also recommended the use of the 
following metric denominations for minute measurements :— 


Denomination. Symbol. Equivalent. 
Micron aces ee = | O00 millimetre: 
Microgramme .. y .  .. 0:°001 milligramme. 
Milliitre ..  .. amlo:.  . “OrgOl iitre: 
Microlitre 2s. ~.. ~Av .. +. 0000001 (htre.* 


* Nature, xxxvil. (1888) pp. 388-9. + Ibid., p. 488. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 503 


Mr. A. D’Abbadie also writes* to say that “here” (presumably 
Paris), micron is currently used to express the 1/1000 mm.; while 
Mr. R. B. Hayward proposes f a new nomenclature which would convert 
the micro-millimetre into a “ hexametret.” 

The Council of the Society having considered the question raised by 
Prof. Riicker, decided, as announced at the April Meeting, that the term 
micron should in future be used in this Journal and in the official pro- 
ceedings of the Society, in place of micro-millimetre. It was felt that 
the term micrometre from its similarity to micrometer (especially in 
French) was unsuitable. 


American Society of Microscopists—Columbus, Ohio, Meeting, 1888. 
The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 117-8. 
Bonn, G. M. (Kditor).—Standards of Length and their practical application. A 
résumé covering the methods employed for the production of standard gauges to 
insure uniformity and interchangeability in every department of manufactures, 
including the reports of Prof. W. A. Rogers; the Committee on Standards and 
Gauges, American Society of Mechanical Engineers; the Committee of the 
Master Car-Builders’ Association; and including also the Report of the Special 
Committee appointed by the Franklin Institute, April 1864. 
[Describes and figures the Rogers-Bond Universal Comparator. ] 
iv. and 180 pp. and 31 figs., 8vo, Hartford, Conn., U.S.A., 1887. 
Calcutta Microscopical Society. The Microscope, VIIL. (1888) pp. 89-90. 
DaLLinGcerR, W. H.—Least and simplest forms of Life. 
(Three lectures at the Royal Institution. | 
Scientif. News, I. (1888) pp. 282, 306, 378. 
East London Microscopical Society. 
[Report of meeting. ] Engl. Mech., XLVII. (1888) p. 142. 
Micuaer., A. D.—Parasitism. 
[Presidential Address.to Quekett Microscopical Club. ] 
Journ. Quek. Micr, Club, III. (1888) pp. 208-24. 
M‘Intrire, S. J.—The Quekett Microscopical Club. 
[Report on soirée of 9th March. ] Sci.-Gossip, 1888, p. 92. 
Postal Microscopical Society. 
[Suggestion for the formation of “ circles” for “ work either of a general or a 
specific character.” 
Journ, of Micr., I. (1888) pp. 118-20. 
QuimsBy, B. F.—[Widening the Scope of Microscopical Societies. ] 
The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 125-6. 
ScuroperR, H.—Aufforderung der Griindung eines Instituts, um die grossen Ent- 
deckungen der neuesten Zeit in der Astronomie, Astrophysik, Optik und 
Mikroskopie Allen zuganglich zu machen. (Suggestion for the establishment of 
an Institute to make accessible to all the great discoveries of recent times in 
Astronomy, Astronomical Physics, Optics, and Microscopy.) 
Central-Ztg. f. Optik u. Mech., 1X. (1888) pp. 85-9 (5 figs.). 


8B. Technique.t{ 
(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes. 


Alkaline Egg-albumen as a Medium for Bacteria Cultivation.§ — 
Dr. J. Tarchanoff and Dr. Kolessnikoff find that if hens’ eggs with their 
shells be placed in 5 to 10 per cent. solution of hydrate of potash for 


* Nature, xxxvii. (1888) p. 438. t Ibid., pp. 437-8. 

¢ This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro- 
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes; 
(4) Staining and Injecting; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c.; 
(6) Miscellaneous. 

§ Russkaja Medicina, No. 11, 1887, p. 191. Cf. Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. 
(1887) pp. 405-6. 


504 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


from four to fourteen days, the albumen undergoes a change of consist- 
ence. By the fourth day it is fluid and transparent; from the fifth to 
the fourteenth it is transparent but firm, gelatinous and yellowish. Both 
modifications can be produced in a steam sterilizer either alone or in 
combination with gelatin (3 to 10 per cent. half-fluid) or agar agar (1 per 
cent. firm). For testing the utility of this medium for cultivation purposes 
the author’s three combinations of alkali albuminate were (1) Bouillon 
albuminate: Albumen of eggs having lain four days in 10 per cent. 
KHO solution, and water added to make a 10 per cent. solution which 
was steam sterilized in the usual way for three days, and then put in 
test-tubes or Pasteur’s “ Matras” and again sterilized. (2) Syrup alkali 
albuminate: Albumen having been four days in KHO was diluted one- 
half with water, placed in test-tubes, and sterilized in the usual way. 
(3) Firm albuminate (a) Sterilized: Half-fluid albumen of four days’ 
standing was poured in test-tubes and steam sterilized at 105° for some 
minutes to one hour on one or three days. It resuited that albumen 
after fifteen minutes’ sterilization became opalescent-whitish, but was 
always transparent. On repeated or protracted sterilization it hardened 
and became of a yellowish-orange colour. (b) Unsterilized: Hard 
transparent hen’s egg albumen of fourteen days’ standing in 10 per cent. 
KHO was cut up into thin plates and treated like potato cultivations. 
On these three media various bacteria were sown. Bacillus anthracis 
grew very well on the bouillon albuminate; on No. 2 and 3 it was 
slower in starting. The cultivations were all pathogenic. Spirochzte 
cholere asiatice and Prior-Finkler grew just as well as on their ordinary 
media. Although the latter fluidified No. 2 and No. 3 albuminates, the 
colonies were not characteristic. Bacillus tuberculosis and Mallei grew 
well, as did also Bacillus subtilis, prodigiosus, Micrococcus ruber Fliigge, 
Sarcina flava, and orange. The authors lay stress on the simplicity of 
the production, the transparency and the cultural utility of this new 
medium for the most different kinds of bacteria. They anticipate that 
it will eventually supplant the ordinary gelatin, agar, and serum 
media. 


Fatty Matters in Cultivation Media.*—Sig. L. Manfredi reports 
his experiments with cultivation media containing fatty matters. 

The results were that whenever the fatty constituent (as in broths) 
reached one-third of the total amount, the bacillus of anthrax failed to 
thrive, and that when it passed that proportion, the cultivation became 
exceedingly feeble, totally ceasing before two-thirds was reached. This 
is given as a matter of precaution to those who experiment with fatty 
broths, &c. It has, however, a value beyond this, viz. that with the 
decreasing vitality of the specific microbes, their virus is attenuated, and 
that, consequently, by using a certain amount of fatty matter in the pure 
cultures, the virus may be correspondingly attenuated. 


Collecting Microscopic Algz. 

[Take waxed paper (from cakes of soap, &e.), and punch holes slightly 
smaller than the largest covers; then wrap the paper about the slides in 
such a way as to bring the holes in the middle on each slide. On suspending 
the slides good mounts can be obtained. Surround it with a ring, place on 
another slip or coyer-glass, and it is ready for observation.’ ] 

Scientif. Enquirer, IL. (1888) p. 68. 


* St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., liv. (1888) p. 97, from Giorn. Internat. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 505 


Eyre&, J.—Pond Dredging and Collecting. 
[For more delicate work or for use in ponds, &e., comparatively free from weeds, 
a large-sized test-tube might be substituted for the bottle, and should be 
fastened to a short thin length of bamboo as follows :— Take a 6 in. length 
of caoutchoue tubing, and make a cross cut three-quarters through, at about 
an inch from one end; then another at right angles to the first along the 
other 5 inches; the result is a short piece of tube with a 5 in. slip of gutta- 
percha. The tube is slipped over the end of the rod, and the free end of 
the flap is pushed between the rod and the tubing, the test-tube placed in 
the loop so formed, and the strip drawn tight and fastened off.’’] 
Sci.-Gossip, 1888, p. 69. 
RovussELet, C.—Pond Dredging and Collecting. 
[Hints on collecting Infusoria, Rotifera, and Polyzoa, the result of my expe- 
rience in this interesting pursuit.’’] 
Sci.-Gossip, 1888, pp. 54-5. 


(2) Preparing Objects. 


Demonstrating Nuclein and Plastin.*—Dr. H. Zacharias in discuss- 
ing the properties and mode of origin of nuclein and plastin, remarks that 
both substances are undissolved when the cells are treated with artificial 
gastric juice. Under the action of gastric juice, or of 0:2-0°3 per cent. 
hydrochloric acid, parts containing nuclein present a sharply defined 
appearance, while bodies which contain plastin but no tiuclein swell up 
and grow pale. Nuclein swells up in 10 per cent. salt solution, in 
solution of soda and in dilute caustic potash. Plastin, on the contrary, 
does not swell up in 10 per cent. salt solution, and is only soluble with 
difficulty in alkalies. Both are soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid, 
but in a mixture of 4 vols. HCl to 3 vols. H,O the nuclein only dis- 
appears. When fresh, bodies containing nuclein swell up in distilled 
water. Long preservation in spirit is detrimental to these reactions. 
Nuclein takes up pigments with avidity, but this property is in no way 
confined to parts containing nuclein. All the cell protoplasm becomes 
stained by the prolonged action of pigment. It cannot therefore be con- 
cluded that nuclein is present because the nucleus becomes stained, but 
if it do not, it may be inferred that it is absent or present in smal] quantity. 

Substances with the foregoing properties have hitherto only been 
demonstrated in the cell-nuclei; plastin, on the other hand, is a con- 
stituent of the whole cell-plasma. The existence of nuclein in bottom 
yeast, in Phycochromacez, milk, and yolk-corpuscles of animal ova 
appears to clash with the former statement. In the two last cases the 
substance in question differs in its reactions from nuclein. The author 
found it both in germinating and in bottom yeast. By extracting 
germinating yeast with ether alcohol, then soaking in water, and staining 
with Grenacher’s hematoxylin, the cell-nuclei are rendered evident. 
The action of the digestion-fluid failed to demonstrate the nucleus ; but 
in bottom yeast the nucleus was found to contain nuclein. Bottom 
yeast extracted with alcohol ether, digested, and then placed in a 0°3 per 
cent. salt solution for 24 hours, showed in the bright swollen-up plasma 
residue corpuscles of irregular shape, and with the characteristic bright- 
ness of nuclein, By adding pure strong hydrochlorie acid the corpuscles 
lose the brightness, the plasma becomes clearer, and then disappears 
along with the corpuscles. A 10 per cent. salt solution acting on 
digested material which has been extracted with alcohol-ether causes the 
corpuscles to swell up while the rest of the plasma remains well defined 


* Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 282-8, 297-304, 313-9, 329-37, 345-56, 361-72, 
377-88 (1 pl.). 


506 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


and unswollen. In Phycochromaces the nucleus was demonstrated in 
Tolypothriz, ZBgagropila, and Oscillaria sp.; it was best shown by 
digesting the fresh filament, then extracting with ether-alcohol and 
examining in a 0°38 per cent. salt solution. The author also treats of 
the resting and active condition of the nucleus, and the cells taking part 
in reproduction. 


Preparation of Nerve-cells and Peripheral Ganglia.*—Anna Kot- 
larewsky employed in her researches on the spinal ganglia, and on the 
Gasserian ganglion four different hardening methods. (1) Hardening 
in acids: 8 per cent. nitric acid; half per cent. chromic acid; 1 per 
cent. osmic acid; 1 per cent. picric acid, and Flemming’s mixture. 
The preparations were imbedded in celloidin, or paraffin. Next to 
freshly examined cells, the picric acid was found to produce the best 
effect. Flemming’s mixture had an unfavourable action on the shape of 
the cells. In all the preparations hardened in acids, the outline of the 
cells was sharp; the cell-body took stains well, but the nucleus only 
slightly, though the nucleoli were well coloured. (2) Hardening in 
acid salts (Miiller’s solution). (8) Hardening in neutral media (neutral 
acetate of lead and spirit): Cells inthe preparations treated with 10 per 
cent. solution of acetate of lead showed excellent fixation ; hardening in 
spirit was less favourable. (4) Hardening in alkaline media: Basie 
acetate of lead and ammoniacal chloride of silver (1 per cent.) were used. 
Both solutions penetrated only slowly, so that the superficial layers 
could be used. The depth to which the hardening medium had pene- 
trated was determined by treating the sections with hydric sulphide or 
bichromate of potash. 

The hardened objects were variously stained. (1) With metals: 
Osmice acid used for preparations hardened in Miiller’s fluid effected no 
remarkable differentiation of the nervous elements. After-treatment 
with ammoniacal silver solution (reduction being effected in an incu- 
bator) gave a better result. In this way good pictures were obtained 
in 24 hours ; the preparations, however, did not keep. (2) With nuclear 
stains: these affected the bodies of the nerve-cells more than the nuclei, 
the corpuscles in the latter behaving in a way similar to the cell-body. 
Gentian-violet and hematoxylin stained the granula of the body of the 
cell ; carmine in neutral solution did not. Merkel’s staining method gave 
favourable results for differentiating the chromophilous and chromo- 
phobous cells. (3) Dyes were used which do not stain the nucleus; 
eosin, fuchsin, nigrosin. Of these, nigrosin produced in the lead pre- 
parations interesting pictures, the dye having stained the protoplasm, 
a reticulated appearance was imparted to the cell-body. In the lead 
preparations, eosin stained the nucleus pretty dark, and the cell-body of 
the nerve-cells diffusely. Methylen-blue was examined by dissolving it 
in 0-7 per cent. salt solution, and injecting it into the spinal lymph-sac 
or abdominal cavity of a frog. Some time after the injection the ganglia 
were removed as quickly as possible, and examined in salt solution or 
glycerin. The cells were stained in about one or two hours. 


Methemoglobin Crystals.t—According to Dr. W. D. Halliburton 
the following is an easy way to obtain these crystals :-— 
Defibrinate a few cubic centimetres of the blood of a rat, guinea-pig, 


* MT. Naturf. Gesell. Bern, 1887, pp. 3-23. 
+ St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., liv. (1888) p. 96. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 507 


or squirrel, and add to it a few drops of amy] nitrite and shake violently 
for a minute or two, or until the nitrite assumes a chocolate colour. A 
drop of this is withdrawn with a pipette, and placed on a slide, the 
cover-glass being applied immediately. In a few moments the methe- 
moglobin crystals will begin to form. By sealing the edge of the cover- 
glass, the crystals will remain unchanged a very long time. 


Preparation of Brains and other Organs.*—Prof. M. Flesch pre- 
pares brains for permanent preservation in the dry condition in the 
following simple manner :— 

After having been hardened in spirit, the preparations are first 
placed in a mixture of equal parts of glycerin, alcohol, and water, 
and afterwards into pure glycerin. To both fluids sublimate is added 
in the proportion of 1 to 3000. Bone and cartilage may, without 
previous hardening, be placed in the first solution and then changed to 
the second. The time of the treatment depends on the size of the 
object. A human brain should lie about four weeks in spirit (if placed 
upon cotton-wool 10-12 cm. thick, it is not necessary to change the spirit, 
nor to turn the brain so often), then for three weeks in each of the two 
solutions. The rest of the treatment consists in removing the super- 
fluous glycerin by placing the specimens to drain upon a layer of 
blotting-paper supported on cotton-wool, and they are finally put up in a 
similar way and covered over with a glass-topped cardboard case. The 
cost of the method is small, since both solutions can be used repeatedly. 


Preparing Radule of small species of Gastropoda.j—Mr. C. HE. 
Beecher kills the organisms by boiling or immersion in alcohol, and then 
extracts the animals from their shells by drawing them out with a 
mounted needle or hook, and, in the larger species the head is cut off 
and the remainder of the animal rejected. In the minute species the 
shell may be removed with hydrochloric acid. Hither process may be 
employed upou shells which contain the dried remains of the animals. 

The specimens are then placed in a small porcelain crucible con- 
taining water in a sand-bath over a Bunsen burner. After boiling a 
short while, a small piece of caustic potash is added and the boiling 
continued until the tissues have become disintegrated. The boiling is 
then stopped to prevent the thin membrane upon which the lingual teeth 
are situated from being attacked. After removal from the burner, water 
is added, and the undissolved material allowed to precipitate. The 
fluid is then removed by means ofa pipette, or by decantation, and fresh 
water added, and this last procedure repeated until the potash and light 
flocculent material are eliminated. The residue is then washed in a 
flat-bottomed dish or large watch-crystal, and the radule removed on 
needles to a vessel containing a small amount of water. In case the 
radul are very small, the material is transferred drop by drop with a 
pipette, and examined under a 1-inch objective ; the Microscope should 
be furnished with an erector. The radule are thus easily detected and 
removed. | 

A drop of strong chromic acid is added to the specimens, and in from 
one to two minutes the teeth on the radule are stained a light yellow or 
amber colour. After washing out the chromic acid, the specimens are 
dehydrated in the usual way, and after removing. the alcohol with a 


* MT. Naturforsch. Gesell. Bern, 1887, pp. xiii—xiv, 
+ Journ. New York Micr. Soc., iv. (1888) pp. 7-11. 


508 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


pipette, absorbent paper, and partial evaporation, oil of cloves is added, 
and the specimen mounted in balsam. ‘l'he lingual membranes will 
be found more or less coiled, and usually attached to the jaws. It is 
desirable to have the membrane flattened out, with the dentiferous side 
uppermost, and dissociated from the jaws. Some species have a large 
strong jaw, which, if left with the lingual membrane, will raise the cover 
so far above the denticles as to prevent the use of high powers. It is 
therefore necessary to unfold the radula and remove the jaw. Having 
provided a clean glass slide on the turntable, the specimen is taken from 
the clove oil and centered on the slide. The radula is then easily 
unrolled with needles under a Microscope provided with an erector, and 
the jaw removed. Replaced on the turntable, a thin cover-glass is 
imposed and centered. This should be done before the balsam is added, 
as it prevents the specimen from again becoming coiled or displaced. A 
drop of balsam in benzol is put adjacent to the edge of the cover, and 
the slide held an instant over a gas-burner or spirit-lamp, which will 
cause the balsam to flow under the cover. <A spring clip is then put on 
to fix the cover down. The slide is next removed to an oven and left 
until the balsam has hardened, so that the portion outside the cover can 
be scraped off. The slide is then cleaned by washing in strong spirit, 
and dried with soft tissue paper. The cover-glasses should be of known 
thickness. Many radule require a 1/10 in. objective. The con- 
vexity of the object, combined with the thickness of the cover, 
necessitates the use of very thin glass. For the Rissoiide the author 
usually employs glass of 0-004 in. thickness. 

Some good preparations were obtained by using nitrate of silver 
instead of chromic acid as a staining reagent, but the specimens require 
boiling in the silver solution, and this additional step further compli- 
cates the process and makes it less possible to retain small specimens. 
Besides, too much action of the silver renders the objects opaque. 


Preparation of Cypridine.*—Dr. A. Garbini examined fresh teased- 
out tissue in sea water. Maceration was effected in a small quantity of 
one-third spirit. The best fixative was found to be a watery solution of 
sublimate. In this the animals were left for 5 to 7 minutes, and then 
transferred to distilled water, and afterwards. to 75 per cent. alcohol, 
with a trace of tincture of iodine, and finally to pure 75 per cent. 
alcohol. Good results were obtained from Mayer’s fluid (Kleinenberg’s 
mixture with sulphuric acid), but the epithelium of the digestive tract 
was less well fixed. The preparations were imbedded in paraffin by 
Giesbrecht’s method. 


Preparing Ova of Ascaris megalocephala.t—Prof. HE. van Beneden, 
in his further researches on the ova of Ascaris megalocephala, treated the 
fresh ova with glacial acetic acid or with an equal mixture of crystal- 
lizable acetic acid and absolute alcohol. After twenty minutes, when 
fixing had taken place, the acid was replaced by a third part of glycerin 
in water, and by aqueous solution of malachite-green, or of vesuvin, or of 
both together. The staining soon takes place, and if it be allowed to go 
too far can be readily washed out. If glycerin be rapidly substituted 
after five or ten minutes, the ova although stained will go on segmenting, 
and even form normal embryos. 


* Bull. Soc. Entomol. Ital., xix. (1887) pp. 35-51 (5 pls.). 
+ Bull. Acad, R. Sci, Belg., xiv. (1887) pp. 215-24 (2 pls.). Supra, p. 423. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 509 


Mode of Investigating Echinorhynchi.*—Dr. R. Koehler finds that 
the tissues of Echinorhynchi can be well fixed by the employment of a 
sublimate solution acidified to saturation by acetic acid (Roulle’s liquid). 
This reagent has the advantage over osmic acid of not producing after- 
coloration, and as animals generally die in it without contraction it is 
additionally useful. The fixation of the internal organs is complete ten 
minutes or a quarter of an hour after immersion. He did not find any 
difficulty, such as was experienced by Saeftigen, in staining the tissues, 
though the coloration is a little slower than usual. Any want of success 
is due to trying staining en masse, for the cuticle is diificult to penetrate ; 
there is no difficulty with sections. Kleinenberg’s hematoxylin is to be 
recommended. Anilin dyes, such as coccéinin and “rouge de Bordeaux 
R,” give very fine stains, and the latter was found good for all kinds of 
tissues, and in very weak solutions, applied for some hours, gave good 
colorations to pieces of Echinorhynchus heruca. With E. gigas colora- 
tion en masse is easy if the cuticle be removed, as can easily be done. 


Preparing the Nervous System of Opheliacee.{—Dr. W. Kiiken- 
thal places the Annelida to be examined in a mixture of chloral hydrate 
and sea water (1:1000), or adds a little spirit to the sea water. The 
animals are thus benumbed without contraction or laceration, and after- 
wards killed in 70 per cent. spirit or sublimate. Lang’s mixture hot or 
cold, 1 per cent. chromic acid, osmic acid, picrosulphuric acid, Miiller’s 
fluid, iodine alcohol, and Merkel’s fluid were used for the same purpose. 

The author’s method for producing nerve-preparations is as follows :— 
(1) The fresh animals were cut up along their back, placed in a basin, 
and covered over with 10 per cent. nitric acid, which was allowed to 
act for ten or twelve days. They were then well washed with distilled 
water, and then immersed for fifteen minutes in a 1 per cent. solution 
of gold chloride, to which one drop of hydrochloric acid was added. 
They were again washed in distilled water and placed in 5 per cent. 
formic acid for twenty-four hours. Then frequent washing with distilled 
water, removal of the intestinal tract and of the muscles by means of a 
fine brush and a stream of water. Then spirit, turpentine, Canada 
balsam. (2) The animals were slowly killed in sea water plus a little 
Merkel’s solution, spread out in a basin, and covered over with pure 
Merkel’s fluid. After twenty-four hours they were washed and trans- 
ferred to weak spirit, stained with Grenacher’s borax-carmine, then de- 
colorised with hydrochloric acid alcohol, and after absolute alcohol and 
turpentine, mounted in Canada balsam. (3) (According to the author 
very suitable for material long in spirit). The animals were cut up 
and spread out in a basin and immersed in 1 per cent. osmic acid for 
twelve to eighteen hours. They were then washed, stained with hema- 
toxylin, and mounted in Canada balsam. The simplest and best method 
for cutting is as follows:—The animals hardened in 70 per cent. spirit 
are stained with Grenacher’s borax-carmine, then treated successively 
with acidulated acohol, absolute alcohol, chloroform, and finally imbedded 
in paraffin. The sections are stuck on with collodium-clove oil, followed 
by turpentine oil, to which a few drops of picrie acid are added. Then 
methyl-green, turpentine oil, pure turpentine, Canada balsam. The 
nuclei are red, the plasma and intercellular substance green, the nervous 


* Journ. de l’Anat. et de Physiol., xxiii. (1887) pp. 614-5. 
+ Jenaisvh. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xx. (1887) pp. 511-80 (3 pls.). 


510 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


tissue yellow and well defined. Animals preserved in spirit may be 
placed for twelve to eighteen hours in 1 per cent. osmic acid, and after 
being well washed stained with hematoxylin. 


Preparation of Echinodermata.*—Dr. O. Hamann preserves the 
organs of Echinodermata in Flemming’s chromo-osmium acetic acid. 
For preserving and decalcifying small animals chromic acid was used ; 
animals preserved in strong spirit were afterwards decalcified by immer- 
sion in a 0°3 per cent. solution. After having been washed for twelve 
hours they were stained with hematoxylin. For examining the anal 
blood-lacune, the sea urchin is well hardened in spirit, the anal parts 
are decalcified in 1: 400 chromic acid, and stained with a neutral carmine 
solution. Decalcification in hydrochloric acid or in chromo-nitric acid 
is less satisfactory, as the tissues are more affected. ‘The pedicellaria 
can be cut without being decalcified, and after being carefully washed, 
stained with carmine or logwood. 

For examining the glandular organ, the so-called heart, treatment 
with the anilin dyes (safranin, methyl-green, anilin-green) was found to 
be advantageous. Excellent preparations of organs of Spherechinus 
granularis, hardened in a 1/2 per cent. chromic acid, were obtained by 
staining the sections with Schiefferdecker’s anilin-green, absolute alcohol, 
bergamot oil or xylol, parafiin, xylol, xylol-balsam. The author prefers 
xylol to turpentine, chloroform, and oil of cloves. 


Methods of Fixing and Preserving Animal Tissues.t—The pre- 
sent systems of fixation may be resolved, says Dr. N. Kultschizky, 
into three :—(1) The chromic acid salts of potassium and ammonia and 
mixtures of those with other salts (Miiller’s and Erlicki’s fluids) fix 
histological objects well, but this method, according to Prof. Flemming, 
is net suitable for examining the process of karyokinesis. Prof. Virchow 
has, however, recently stated that the deficiencies of chromic acid salts 
may be obviated if they be dissolved in spirit in the dark. (2) The 
second group of fixatives consists of chromic acid, osmic acid, picric 
acid, acetic acid, &c., and includes the mixtures of Flemming, Kleinen- 
berg, Fol, and others. This group, particularly the Flemming’s 
mixture, is especially valuable for demonstrating the division of the 
nucleus. Chromic acid, it must be remembered, almost always pro- 
duces an insoluble precipitate of albumen, and consequently is decep- 
tive, from calling into existence a tissue-like structure and for forming 
insoluble and impermeable combinations, as, for example, in objects 
with a muscular tissue. (3) The best fixative of all is alcohol, but, 
as it has a great attraction for the watery element of albumen, it pro- 
duces considerable alteration in the form of objects. 

Hence, as none of the three foregoing methods are perfect, the 
author has found it advisable to pursue the following course, which in- 
cludes the least defective points of all three. 

The fixative is prepared by mixing excess of finely powdered bichro- 
mate of potash and sulphate of copper in weak spirit (50°), and 
allowing them to stand in complete darkness for twenty-four hours. 
A greenish-yellow fluid is hereby obtained, and this, before being used, 
is acidulated with acetic acid (five or six drops to 100 cem.). 

The object to be fixed is placed in the fluid prepared as above for twelve 


* Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxi. (1887) pp. 87-266 (13 pls. and 2 figs.). 
t Zeitschr, f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. (1887) pp. 345-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 511 


to twenty-four hours, according to its size and the degree of hardness 
required. The whole transaction must be carried out in the dark, other- 
wise the salts will be precipitated. The objects are then placed in strong 
spirit for twelve to twenty-four hours, after which they may be sectioned 
in any of the usual ways. With regard to the preservation of material 
the author rejects aleohol and chromic acid and its salts on account of 
the changes induced by these reagents, and advises ether, xylol, toluol, 
or any substance which does not act upon albuminous matter. 


Isolating Lower Alge.*—The isolation of some Chytridiacem, 
Saprolegniz, and monads from different waters is easily effected by 
catching them with the aid of pollen-grains, fern-spores, or fungi spores 
which are disseminated in the water and then allowing them to develope 
until they fructify. For this purpose, says Dr. W. Zopf, the pollen- 
grains of Conifer are very suitable. By this method Lagenidium 
pygmxum, Rhizophidium pollinis, and Olpidium luaurians can be isolated 
with almost unfailing certainty. Under favourable circumstances algze 
with sporangia can often be obtained in 15 to 30 hours after depositing 
the pollen-grains. 


Curtis, C.—The Tapeworm: methods of preparation. 

[Reports finding in Trans. Linn. Soc., II. 1794, a paper by A. Carlisle, which 
presents the same methods and elucidates the same fact regarding the valves” 
as the paper of J. M. Stedman, ante, p. 148.] 

The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 102-4. 
Entomologists, Young, Microscopic Work for. 
[‘* A few simple directions to the beginner who wants to know how to mount 
the hard parts of common insects.” j 
Scientif. News, I. (1888) p. 316. 
LatHAm, V. A.—To prepare the Head of a Flea. Mounting Tongues of Flies. 
Scientif. Enquirer, IL. (1888) pp. 10 and 13. 
<3 ss Preparing Sections of Buds. 

(“Take a small piece of a twig—say, linden—having a bud at its upper end; 
fix well in section-cutter, wet with alcohol, cut with a sharp knife into thin 
slices, keep flooding the knife with strong alcohol to keep the sections floating, 
and to keep them from falling apart. Do not let a drop of water touch the 
section, or it will cause it to fall to pieces. Now place in alcohol faintly 
coloured with iodine-green; let them remain for several hours until the 
colour disappears from the alcohol. Again put them into alcohol, this time 
coloured a little more deeply with eosin in place of green. Let them remain 
there till they are all pink. Then wash in two alcohols of 95 per cent., drop 
into clove oil for a few moments only, and mount in Canada balsam. They 


are thus very instructive.”] 
Scientif. Enquirer, III. (1888) p. 69. 


ScHWERDOFF.— Untersuchungsmethode friihzeitiger Studien der Entwickelung von 
Saugetiereiern. (Method of investigation for the earlier stages of the develop- 
ment of mammalian ova.) 

Arbeit. Versamml. Russ. Aerzte Moskau, I. (1887) 1/2 p. (Russian). 

Van Ginson, J.—A resumé of recent Technical Methods for the Nervous System. 

Journ. Nerv. and Met. Diseases, XLV. (1887) p. 310. 


(3) Cutting, including Imbedding. 


Imbedding Plant Tissues.—We referred at p. 680 of the last volume 
to Dr. S. Schénland’s method of imbedding delicate plant tissues in 
paraffin, so that unshrunken serial sections may be cut by the ribbon 
method. The author then described the results which can be attained 
as almost incredible. In serial sections of leaves one can not infrequently 


* Abh. Naturf. Gesellsch. Halle, xvii. (1887) 31 pp. (2 pls.). 


512 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


obtain four to six sections through the same stoma, and it is easy to get 
several sections through the apical cell of a fern root when the imbedding 
is properly done. 

Dr. Schonland now writes * that since the publication of his former 
article he has had the opportunity of gaining more experience in the use 
of the method, leading him to modify it slightly. In the first place he 
now uses absolute alcohol where he formerly only used the strong 
methylated spirit of commerce, Further, he now leaves specimens to be 
imbedded for 24 hours in pure oil of cloves (after they have sunk), 
24 hours in pure turpentine, 24 hours in turpentine saturated with 
paraffin, and 24 hours in melted paraffin. Although much more time is 
thus required, the results are more reliable, and he can now imbed by 
his method without previous staining in borax-carmine, and thus consider- 
able time and trouble are saved. 

He adds that sections fixed to the slide with collodion stain very well 
with Bismarck brown, and can then easily be photographed. Bismarck 
brown j stains all cell-walls. If Kleinenberg’s hematoxylin is used in 
addition, the cellulose walls turn blue, while all other walls retain their 
yellow colour, and thus a nice double stain is effected. If sections of 
young tissues are treated in this way, the process of lignification in 
vessels can be easily traced; and if the hematoxylin is allowed to act a 
sufficient time on the sections, the structure of the protoplasm will be 
brought out. 


Celloidin-paraffin Methods of Imbedding.t{—Prof. J. A. Ryder calls 
attention to Kultschizky’s method for imbedding in celloidin and paraffin, 
which method was noticed in this Journal, 1887, p. 845. He finds that 
it works admirably with specimens of injected spleen. The sections can 
be cut with a dry knife on any paraffin microtome. With the author’s 
automatic microtome it is easy to cut sections 1/2000 in. in thickness 
with the greatest ease, since a ribbon forms more easily than even in 
the case of ordinary paraffin imbedding. The section-stretcher may be 
dispensed with entirely, so that for consecutive or embryological work 
the method is highly to be recommended. The author has modified the 
original method by substituting chloroform for origanum oil, as the 
latter is objectionable because it is disagreeable in odour, inflammable, 
darkens in a short time, and causes the object to shrink slightly. Beyond 
the substitution of chloroform for origanum oil there is no alteration in 
the details of the process. 

In order to fasten the block containing the object in the holder, a 
heated wire is used, and to make the sections form a ribbon nicely, the 
hard paraffin used for the final imbedding may be mixed with soft 
paraffin or paraffin gum, melting at 45° C. This method enables thinner 
sections to be cut than with the usual wet celloidin process. 

The sections may be mounted direct from the chloroform, but the 
operator must not allow the chloroform to evaporate before the section 
is covered with balsam. Another method of clearing the section is that 
proposed by Weigert, who uses a mixture of equal parts of xylol and 


* Bot. Gazette, xiii. (1888) p. 61. 

+ The solution of Bismarck brown is prepared by saturating 1 part of absolute 
aleohol with Bismarck brown and adding 2 parts of distilled water. A solution in 
70 per cent. alcohol, as often used by zoologists, does not stain lignified cell-walls 
very readily, and the solution in water hitherto used by botanists is said not to keep 
very well. ¢ Queen’s Micr. Bulletin, iv. (1887) pp. 43-4. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 5138 


pure carbolic acid. This liquid may be applied to sections on the slide 
by means of a camel’s hair pencil, and will clear other sections instantly 
without in the least attacking the celloidin. 


Pharmacognostic Microtome and Technique.*—Dr. E. Vinassa has 
recently made several improvements in the microtome adopted for 
pharmacological work and described in this Journal, 1886, p. 887. 

In the first place the general construction has been so altered that it 


Fig. 93. 


Fic. 94. 


is now much broader, and therefore allows more play for the manipula- 
tion of the knife and object-carriers. The object-clamp has also been 
rendered firmer by a new device. This consists of a plate moved up and 
down by a long screw, and adjusted so that it supports the object-carrier 
while it in nowise impedes the play of the carrier about its various axes. 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. (1887) pp. 295-308 (3 figs.). 
1888. 2N 


514 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


A further inconvenience, namely the too complicated arrangement for 
altering the horizontal position of the carrier, has been obviated. 

The knife-handle now, instead of being flat, is made round so that it 
can be fixed in any position quite easily by means of the screw F (fig. 93). 
The handle passes through an iron block d, and is tightened up by 
means of the winged screws. The exact shape of the knife fitted with 
a handle for sharpening is shown in fig. 94. For cutting hard objects 
such as dense wood and bark, the author advises the knife to be ground 
like a plane. 

After alluding to the advantage of using Jung’s section-stretcher in 
connection with his microtome, the author passes on to the treatment of 
vegetable preparations. In a former communication the author advised 
the imbedding of roots, barks, and wood in glycerin jelly. But as the 
vacuum apparatus necessary for this procedure is not always available, 
he now occasionally resorts to the older methods of softening the pre- 
parations in spirit, glycerin, and water, and this is specially adapted to 
hard close-grained objects. Woods are always placed in glycerin and 
water, and can then be cut with an unwetted knife without tearing. If 
afterwards the sections are placed in glycerin to which some caustic 
soda has been added they are easily unrolled. 

With regard to fruit and seeds of a hard consistence and structure, 
such as Strychnos potatorum, S. nux vomica, Coffea arabica, and the 
kernel of Phenix dactylifera, preparations easy to be cut can be obtained 
in two or three days by softening the objects in dilute caustic soda or 
potash. But as any further microchemical examination is useless owing 
to the destruction of the alkaloids by the caustic alkalies it is preferable 
to soften the seeds by means of steam. This is done in a wide funnel into 
which a piece of wire gauze is placed as a sort of filter, and upon this 
the seeds. The funnel should be lined with filter paper to carry off the 
condensation water, and the funnel supported on a tripod in a water- 
bath. In 30 to 60 minutes the objects will be found sufficiently softened 
to cut quite regular sections from. 

Some objects, such as almonds and cocoa-beans, crumble away under 
the action of the knife, and therefore require to be imbedded as they 
cannot be fixed directly in the jaws of the object-carrier. Glycerin 
gelatin is unsuitable for this purpose as the mass does not offer sufficient 
resistance, and although parafiin is usually unsuitable owing to its com- 
plicated manipulation it gives fair results by the following procedure. 
The seeds should be slightly warmed in order to drive off as much 
moisture as possible, and quickly immersed in paraffin only heated a few 
degrees above its setting point. They are then left to cool until a thick 
coating has developed upon them. In this way the paraffin will be found 
to have filled up all the chinks and crannies in the seeds, and not only offer 
sufficient resistance to the knife, but will also invest the sections with a 
sheath sufficiently strong to prevent their crumbling away. The paraffin 
is then dissolved out with benzin, ether, or chloroform, and the prepara- 
tions mounted in glycerin jelly or in Canada balsam according to the 
special idiosyncrasies of the seeds. 

Small seeds and fruits, such as those of the Solanacee and Umbelli- 
fers, should be imbedded in a paraffin of a high melting-point. Glycerin 
jelly, to which a little sublimate is added, is recommended for mounting 
permanently. Air-bubbles are easily got rid off by slightly warming 
the slide and then pressing on the cover-glass with a lead roller, 3 cm 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. O15 


long and 1 em. in diameter. In a few hours the expressed jelly may be 
scraped off with a knife, the last traces being removed with lukewarm 
water. The slide is then cleared up with spirit and ringed round with 
some cement. Glycerin jelly not only possesses the clarifying property 
of glycerin, but all the other advantages of this medium. 


HarNSELL, P.—La Méthode de V’inclusion du Globe Oculaire dans la paraffine et 
dans la celloidine. (Method of imbedding the eye in paraffin and celloidin.) 
Bull, Clin. Nat. Ophthalm. Hop. Quinze- Vingt, TV. (1886) p. 154. 


REYNOLDS, R. N.—A new Planisher. 
» The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 104-5 (4 figs.). 


(4) Staining and Injecting. 


Staining Living Preparations.*—Prof. M. Flesch is of opinion 
that living objects do not become stained by the ordinary methods, or do 
so in a way quite different from hardened preparations. Cyanin, for 
example, produces in the tissue-elements of the living organism different 
forms from those in which the same dye has been employed after fixa- 
tion. What has stained in the dead preparation can never be similarly 
affected while alive. The parts which become stained show in many 
cases a great chemical activity, a lively power of reduction towards 
certain chemical compounds. One series of stains is only successful 
after previous treatment of the object with easily reducible metallic 
combinations. By control experiments it is seen that the staining ex- 
tends just as far as the metallic precipitate. The original constituents of 
the tissues are not stained, but chemical products which result from the 
treatment with hardening agents. These might be metal albuminates 
or decomposition products arising from the chemical processes at the 
death of the living tissue, induced by the reduction processes. The 
result of a stain can only be judged from the chemical processes arising 
during fixation. 


Staining Nerve-endings with Methylen-blue.t—Dr. C. Arnstein 
states that in frogs injected with methylen-blue the motor nerve-endings, 
Courvoisier’s fibres, and the cells of the sympathetic are stained. In 
the freshly cut-out retina there is usually no stain, but this appears 
after the air has acted upon it. As a fixative, besides the iodine pre- 
viously given, picrocarmine or picrate of ammonia may be used. The 
choice of the substance depends on whether a nuclear or diffuse stain 
isdesired. Fixation by the last two methods is more lasting than when 
effected with iodine, though with the latter the nerves are deeply stained. 
Mammals and birds die too quickly after the injection of the methylen- 
blue for the method to be practically available, yet these animals, after 
they have been killed with chloroform, can be successfully injected 
through the heart or some large vessel. The pigment is used in a 
concentrated form, and the injection is suspended directly the resistance 
becomes marked. The organs first stained blue quickly become pale, and 
no nerve-staining is seen at first, but this occurs directly there is access of 
air to the preparation. The gradually occurring colour may be followed 
under the Microscope, and when it has attained its maximum some drops 
of a fixative medium may be added. In this way very perfect nerve- 
endings from the cornea, iris, and retina of mammals and birds have been 


* MT. Naturforsch. Gesell. Bern, 1887, pp. xiv.—xv. 
{ Anat. Anzeig., ii. (1887) pp. 551-4. 
2Nn 2 


516 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


obtained. Staining may also be effected on the slide if a nerve-end 
apparatus be spread out and a dilute solution of methyl-blue be added. 
Staining the retina of fish, birds, and mammals is more successful by 
this method than by injection. In other parts this method gave less 
favourable results. 


Demonstrating Karyokinetic Figures.*—Dr. G. Martinotti and 
Dr. L. Resegotti proceed as follows to demonstrate karyokinetic figures. 

The tissues are fixed with absolute alcohol. The sections are stained 
by leaving them five minutes in an aqueous solution of safranin and 
the stain is differentiated by transfering them to a spirit and water 
solution of chromic acid. This solution is prepared by mixing one part 
(by volume) of a watery solution of chromic acid (1:1000) with nine 
parts of absolute alcohol. In this very dilute solution the sections are 
left for a half or one minute, agitated therein, and then dehydrated in 
absolute alcohol, cleared up in bergamot oil, and mounted in dammar. 
In this way the chromatin filaments and the true nucleoli are stained a 
lively red, the protoplasm and the intercellular substance remain un- 
coloured, the resting nuclei are faintly stained a pale red. 

The spirit and water solution of chromic acid should be prepared 
fresh every time. In some cases it is useful to employ a slightly 
stronger solution, that is, to mix two volumes of the watery solution of 
chromic acid (1:1000) with eight parts of absolute alcohol. At other 
times it is advantageous to dilute the watery solution of safranin with 
an equal volume of distilled water, and to leave the sections therein for 
five minutes, then keep them in the chromic acid solution until they have 
assumed a uniform rose tint. 

The authors in conclusion remark that safranin seems to have a special 
affinity for the chromatin of the nucleus, that they have been unable to 
convince themselves that anilin oil is detrimental to nuclei in motion, and 
that oil of cloves, as previously noted by Bizzozero, extracts the anilin 
dyes more quickly from nuclei in repose than from those in mitosis. 


Staining Membranes in Living Siphonew.j—Dr. F. Noll finds that 
in Caulerpa prolifera, some kinds of Bryopsis and Derbesia, and some 
Floridex, the membranes become thickened by deposition of new layers. 
If the original membrane be stained without damaging the plant, it is 
seen that on further growth new unstained lamelle are deposited upon 
the stained parts. ‘The author coloured the membrane with Berlin or 
Turnbull’s blue in the following way:—One part of sea water was 
diluted with two parts of sweet water, and in the mixture so much 
ferrocyanide of potash was dissolved as to give it the specific gravity of 
sea water. A second fluid consisted of two parts sea water and one 
part sweet water, and some drops of chloride of iron. This solution 
must be made fresh before each time of using. If Turnbull’s blue were 
used the solutions were ferrocyanide of potash and lactate of iron. The 
deposition of Berlin blue was effected by removing the plants from 
sea water to the cyanide solution (1-3 seconds) ; they were then washed 
in sea water, and immersed for 1/2—2 seconds in the iron solution. The 
plants were next again removed for a moment to the ferrocyanide 
solution, and afterwards washed in much sea water. Care was always 
taken that the cyanide should be in excess in order that the iron chloride 
should never come in contact with the plasma as iron chloride. By 


* Zeitachr. f. Wiss. Mikr., iv. (1887) pp. 326-9. 
+ Bot. Ztg., xlv. (1887) pp. 473-82. 


+ 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. ALG 


repeating the process a beautiful blue of any desired tone was easily 
imparted to the membrane. If the plant had not been damaged by the 
above treatment, the bluish colour disappeared in a few hours, the Berlin 
blue was decomposed, and the iron remained. By putting the plant in 
a solution of ferrocyanide of potash acidulated with hydrochloric acid, 
the blue could be restored to its original situation. 


Roux’s Colour-test for the detection of Gonococcus.*—Dr. E. C. 
Wendt’s researches on gonococcus were merely intended to find a 
diagnostic criterion for gonorrhea. He therefore examined other secre- 
tions as well, e.g. balanitis, otorrhea, conjunctivitis, &e. Gonococci 
were found in all cases of gonorrhcea, but in other cases, even in the 
normal urethra, there were found diplococci indistinguishable from the 
gonorrhea cocci. The criterion insisted on by Bumm, namely the 
intracellular arrangement of the gonococci about the nucleus, is found 
by the author to be not always correct, since it is not the case where 
blenorrhcea is passing away. The only certain characteristic, according 
to the author, is that from Roux’s test, which depends on the fact that 
the gonorrhcea bacteria are able to retain anilin to a slight extent. 


Acid Logwood Stain.t—An excellent acid logwood stain can, it is 
stated, be made as follows :—One part of a saturated solution of calcium 
chloride in proof spirit (alcohol of 50°) is added to eight parts of a 
similar solution of alum. Extract of logwood (the common commercial) 
is added to the mixture and agitated until it no longer dissolves freely. 
Let the container stand in a cool, quiet place for a few days, decant the 
clear liquid (which makes an excellent stain just as it is), and to every 
100 parts add 80 parts of a 1 percent. aqueous solution of acetic acid. 
Let stand for a day or two, and filter off into a glass-stoppered vial. 


Alcoholic Alum-Carmine Stain.j—Dr. W. C. Borden gives the 
following formula for producing a perfectly clear purplish-red fluid, 
superior to any aqueous alum-carmine stain in clearness and brilliancy of 
colouring. It will keep indefinitely, but a slight precipitate sometimes 
forms which should be filtered out. This does not indicate any decom- 
position of the stain, nor does it alter its staining character in any 
respect. Cochineal (whole insects), 1 dr.; saturated solution of alum, 
4 oz.; 95 per cent. alcohol, 4 oz. Pulverize the cochineal in a mortar, 
add the saturated solution of alum, and boil for fifteen minutes, adding 
distilled water occasionally during the boiling to make up for the water 
lost by evaporation. Cool and pour without filtering into a ten-ounce 
or larger bottle. Add the alcohol and let stand, with occasional shaking, 
for forty-eight hours. Filter and preserve in a close-stoppered bottle. 

The following stain made with carmine and without heat will give a 
fluid nearly identical with the first, except that no precipitate occurs, 
however long it be kept. Carmine, 30 er.; alum, 4 dr. ; distilled water, 
4 oz.; 95 percent. alcohol, 40z. Grind the carmine and alum together in a 
mortar, gradually adding the water. Add the spirit and pour without 
filtering into a ten-ounce bottle, cork tightly, and let stand for a week, 
shaking occasionally. Filter, and preserve in a close-stoppered bottle. 

For staining in bulk, pieces of tissue may be transferred directly from 
strong spirit to either fluid, and may remain from two days to two weeks. 


* Med. News, i. (1887) pp. 455-7. 
+ St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., liv. (1888) p. 165, 
} The Microscope, viii. (1888) pp. 83-5. 


518 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Tissues hardened in alcohol or in corrosive sublimate and spirit 
stain more rapidly than those hardened in Miiller’s fluid or chromic 
acid. In any case in which a fluid other than alcohol has been 
used for hardening, the reagent must be entirely removed by immersion 
in spirit. The length of time required for staining can only be learnt 
by experience, but’over-staining need not be feared. When the paraffin 
or celloidin methods are used, the best way is to immerse the slide, to 
which the section is stuck on in a wide-mouthed vessel filled with stain. 
Both stains give excellent results in photomicrography by lamplight, 
owing to the sharp nuclear definition and slight staining of the other 
tissue elements. 


Preparing Picrocarmine.*—The following, according to the ‘ Maga- 
zine of Pharmacy, is an improved method of preparing picrocarmine for 
microscopical purposes :— 

About half a gramme of carmine is dissolved in 100 ccm. of water 
containing 5 ccm, of a 1 per cent. solution of soda. The liquid is then 
boiled, filtered, and made up again to 100 ccm. by addition of distilled 
water. In order to neutralize the solution, it is mixed with an equal 
volume of water, and a 1 per cent. solution of picric acid is then added. 
This at first causes a turbidity to appear, but it subsequently disappears. 
If not, it indicates that the point of neutralization has been overstepped. 


Staining with Rosanilin Nitrate in watery Glycerin Solution.t— 
Dr. W. Flemming states that Bottcher has for a long time stained 
preparations previously treated with Muller’s fluid and alcohol with 
rosanilin nitrate in a watery glycerin solution; then passed through 
alcohol, cleared up in creosote, and mounted in dammar or balsam. 


New Injecting Mass.t—Dr. M. N. Miller has devised the following 
injecting mass :— 

First procure some thin, clear, colourless French gelatin in sheets 
about 3 in. by 8 in., with crossed markings. To 1 oz. of gelatin add 
10 oz. of water. Allow the gelatin to swell for one hour, and then 
place the vessel containing the whole in a kettle of boiling water, and 
allow it to remain until the gelatin melts thoroughly. Strain through 
previously moistened flannel into, preferably, a flask. While yet warm 
and fluid, pour about half of the gelatin into another glass vessel. Dis- 
solve in the one half two grains of dry common salt, and in the other 
half ten grains of nitrate of silver. Should the gelatin become stiffened 
by cooling, it must be warmed and so kept fluid. When all is dissolved, 
mix the two gelatin solutions and shake briskly for from three to five 
minutes. Add 10 grains of citric acid and keep the gelatin warm until 
the former dissolves. This is the injecting mass, and is ready for use. 
If filtered first through paper the solution will be clearer, but this is 
not absolutely essential. 

The colour of the injection mass in the mounted section is a beautiful 
purple, and perfectly translucent. The differentiation between arterioles, 
venules, and capillaries is perfect, and the larger the vessel, the darker 
the colour of the mass. The citric acid must be put in last, and metal 
vessels must not be used, as the silver salt would act upon them. The 
mass is not spoilt if partly darkened before use. 

* Scientif. News, i. (1888) p. 319. 


¢+ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxx. (1887). 
~ Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., ix. (1888) pp. 50-1. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 519 


FREEBORN, G. C.—-Notices of New Methods. II. 
[Celloidin-paraftin imbedding and carmine staining (Kultschizky). New 
staining medium (Plattner.)] 
Amer. Mon, Micr. Journ., 1X. (1888) pp. 52-3. 


Hvass, T.—Om nyare fargningsmethoder vid histologiska studier af nervvafnad. 
(On new staining methods in the histological study of nerve-tissue.) 
Hygeia, XLIX. (1887) p. 50. 


LEeNNox.—Beobachtungen iiber die Histologie der Netzhaut mittels der Weigert- 

schen Farbungsmethode. (Observations on the histology of the retina by means 

of the Weigert staining method.) Graefes Arch. f. Ophthalm., XX XII. (1887). 
LiNDNER, P.—Gefarbte Hefenpriparate. (Stained yeast preparations.) 

Wochenschr. f. Brauerei, 1887, p. 773. 


Souza, A. pE.—De la pyridine en histologie. (On pyridine in histology.) 
C.R. Soc. Biol., [V. (1887) No. 35. 


(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c. 


Medium of High Refractive Index.—Mr. Arthur E. Meates, who 
- has been for more than two years past experimenting upon Prof. Hamilton 
L. Smith’s,* and other media of high refractive indices, considers the 
following to be his most successful result :— 

Put into a 4-in. test-tube 714 grains of bromine, add 28? grains of 
sulphur, and warm gently until combined; then add 67 grains of freshly 
sublimed arsenic by very small portions at a time, otherwise the violent 
action which takes place between the bromine and arsenic will cause the 
mixture to boil over. After about 20 grains have been added this violent 
action ceases, and then the rest of the arsenic can be put in at once. 
When the whole of the arsenic is added, boil gently until it is completely 
dissolved, which will take about fifteen or twenty minutes. While boiling 
care must be taken that the vapours of bromide of arsenic (which can 
be seen mounting up the tube) do not escape. If properly made, thin 
films of the medium, when cold, will be of a pale-yellow colour. Its 
refractive index is high, considerably above that of phosphorus. It 
melts at about 200° Fahr. 

For mounting, the medium should be warmed till it is quite liquid, 
a small portion taken out on a glass dipping-rod, dropped on a warm 
slide, and, while soft, the cover with the diatoms pressed upon it. When 
cold, the superfluous medium may be scraped away and the mount 
ringed with copal or any other varnish that does not contain alcohol. 
Hitherto, it has shown no signs of deliquescence or crystallization, 
although put to most severe tests. 

The medium is practically orpiment dissolved in bromide of arsenic ; 
but this solution cannot be effected satisfactorily, except by combining 
the substances while in a nascent condition. It can, however, also be 
made by dissolving the proper proportions of sulphur and arsenic in a 
certain amount of bromide of arsenic. It differs from Prof. Smith’s 
medium, which is stated to be “realgar, the transparent sulphide of 
arsenic, dissolved in bromide of arsenic by aid of heat” ;* realgar being 
As.S., and orpiment As.§,. 


Wax Cells.t—Dr. Taylor in describing his method of making wax 
cells, says that much complaint has been made about these cells on 
account of their becoming “foggy.” This may occur if cells are 


* See this Journal, 1885, p. 1099. 
+ Report of Proceedings at Washington Microscopical Society. Cf. Engl. Mech., 
xlvii. (1888) p, 29. 


520 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


made from sheet wax, as in its preparation it is passed between rollers 
which are continually wet, and much moisture is absorbed. The best 
way of making wax cells is to melt common beeswax over a spirit-lamp ; 
add to it 5 per cent. of resin ; after the whole is melted, slightly lower 
the temperature, but not so much as to solidify the mass in any degree. 
Slides can then be placed on the turntable and cells ringed in a moment. 
A cell can be made and varnished in ten minutes. The wax rings may 
be covered with a mixture of glycerin and solution of gum-arabic, and 
the cover-glass then be put on and pressed down. The solution becomes 
hard very soon, and the cover-glass is firmly cemented. 


Shellac Cement.*— Mr. W. N. Seaman gives the following directions 
for making a strong and lasting cement for attaching metal to glass. 

Take 50 grm. of unbleached shellac, add to it 50 ccm. of commercial 
alcohol, and then cover the mixture with an equal quantity of kerosene 
oil, shake the mixture frequently for the first two or three days, and 
then set it away for a month, or until it separates into four layers as 
follows beginning at the top:—(1) Kerosene. (2) A layer of woolly- 
looking stuff. (8) Clear shellac. (4) Sediment. By means of a 
pipette or any other convenient way, draw off the shellac, and to each 
50 parts of it add one part of boiled linseed oil. 


Warp, R. H.—Instantaneous Mounting in Farrants’ Gum and Glycerin Medium. 
[Useful directions for mounting in this medium, which is too much neglected 
now-a-days. As the author says, “too much can scarcely be said in its 
favour for facility of use.’”’] 


13th Ann, Rep. Amer, Post. Micr. Club, 1888, pp. 13-14. 


(6) Miscellaneous. 


James's Teasing-Needle.j—Fig. 95 shows the form of a teasing 
needle which Dr. F. L. James has used for some time past in lieu of the 
old straight and curved needles, over which it 
possesses (it is claimed) many and manifest 
advantages. It may be held in the hand exactly 
as a pen-holder, and when two are used the 
curved portion may be laid flat on the material, 
thus holding it in place-while it is teased out by 
the aid of the other. The points may be made 
of heavy straight needles, the temper of which is drawn by holding for 
a moment in the lamp. A better material, however, is old umbrella 
wires drawn and filed down. The fig. gives about the proper curvature. 


Medico-legal Identification of Blood-stains.t—M. Ferry describes 
a method for the identification of blood-stains. While differing in an 
important particular from that of Ranvier, the method is not entirely 
new. It is as follows :— 

If the stain be upon woven fabric the fibres are to be teased out and 
put into a test-tube and covered with a solution of sodium chloride 
1:1000. After standing a while the fluid will become a brownish red. 
Examined by the spectroscope, if the stains were made by blood the 
hemoglobin lines will appear. The examination for blood-corpuscles 
may now proceed. For this purpose, to each ccm. of the saline solution 
add one minim of a saturated solution of chloral hydrate, and if blood 


Fic. 95. 


* Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., ix. (1888) pp. 53-4. 
7 St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., liv. (1888) pp. 167-8 (1 fig.). 
{ Ibid:, pp. 165-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 521 


be present a rose-red precipitate will be formed. Allow it to settle, and 
remove with a pipette a drop of the precipitate, and place on a cover- 
glass. Hold this for a moment over the flame of a spirit-lamp, and 
with a bit of absorbent paper take up the clear liquid which forms. A 
drop of fuchsin or magenta is now added and allowed to remain a few 
minutes, or long enough to stain the pellicle on the cover-glass. Wash 
in water and clear with acetic acid. If blood-corpuscles be present they 
will appear stained a bright red. 

Dr. F. L. James makes some suggestions as to carrying out the 
process. It very frequently happens that the authorities (or sometimes 
the attorneys for the defendant) will not allow a fabric to be cut or 
mutilated, for reasons which are obvious. In two such cases in which 
he carried out the examination, he proceeded as follows :—The saline 
solution (1:1000) was placed in a small glass saucer or watch-glass, and 
the cloth (a handkerchief in one instance, a linen cuff in the other) was 
folded across one of the spots. The surface was rubbed together some 
moments, and then carefully turned over so that the abraded surfaces 
rested face downward in the saucer, touching the fluid. Holding it 
firmly on the edges of the little vessel, a paper-knife was rubbed several 
times over the spot from the back. The brownish-red or iron-rust colour 
rapidly imparted itself to the fluid, and after letting the glass stand for 
a few hours a drop removed from the bottom disclosed the blood-cor- 
puscles under the Microscope. In cases where a very small piece of the 
stained material may be removed, the picking to pieces should be 
done in a watch-glass, and the saline solution poured over it. 

Microscopical Examination of Paper.*—Herr J. Wiesner publishes 
the results of a microscopical examination of the paper in the El-Faijim 
collection, made by the Arabs in the eighth and ninth centuries. He 
finds that it was not made, as has been usually supposed, from “raw” 
or unmanufactured cotton, but from linen rags, an invention which has 
usually been ascribed to the fourteenth century. The chief constituent 
of the paper is linen, among which are traces of cotton, hemp, and of 
several animal fibres. Well-preserved yarn-threads are of frequent 
occurrence. The invention of linen-paper is, therefore, neither Italian 
nor German, but Eastern. The paper was invariably “clayed,” the 
substance used being always starch-paste, and not in the rough state, 
but prepared starch, apparently from wheat. In the tenth and eleventh 
centuries buckwheat-starch was employed. The materials used for 
writing were apparently iron tannate, Indian ink, and carbon. 

The author further examined more than 500 Eastern and European 
papers, ranging from the ninth to the fifteenth century, not one of which 
was made from “raw” cotton; the greater number were made of linen, 
and ‘“clayed” with starch-paste ; the use of glue or resin for this purpose 
begins with the fourteenth century. 

Illustrations to Microscopical Publications.j—The editors of ‘'The 
Microscope’ write on this subject as follows :— 

“In looking over the various text-books and other publications 
dealing with microscopical subjects, one cannot fail to be impressed with 
the clear fine-cut appearance of the usual illustrations. To one not 
familiar with the subject, a study of many of these illustrations should 
lead him to the conclusion that microscopy, so far as observation goes, 

* Wiesner, J., ‘Die Mikroskopische Unters. d. Papieres, 1887, 82 pp., and 
15 figs. See Bot. Centralbl., xxxiii. (1888) p. 340. 

+ The Microscope, viii. (1888) p. 60-1. 


522 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


is not a difficult thing to master. And this, indeed, has been the case 
in our experience with students who have come to us for instruction in 
histology. The first rude awakening often comes to the beginner when 
he takes his text-book cut as a guide to lead him through the intricacy 
of his first mount. Everything looks so differently from what he ex- 
pected, and even the instructor, in attempting to point out the features 
so clearly displayed in the cut, will for some time meet with but feeble 
success. It may be urged that the difficulty is that the eye requires a 
special training to enable it to convey a correct impression under 
conditions to which it is not at all accustomed. This is very true; but 
is it the only reason for such complete (and not uncommon) failures to 
see anything at all? It seems to us that one cause of failure is to be 
looked for in the illustrations, and the reason is, generally, that they 
are too diagrammatic. We think that the better class of illustrations 
in question are very helpful to the advanced worker, not because they 
are true pictures—for they are not—but that he has learned to take 
something for granted, and to make just the proper allowances to enable 
him oftentimes to know exactly what the artist intended. No specimen, 
however well prepared, can show such clear differentiation of its com- 
ponent parts as the illustration which represents it. The latter has 
caught the general features, exaggerated them, and bothered not at all 
with the spirit of its subject. The aim, moreover, has been apparently 
to picture the specimen not as it looks, but as it is. For the benefit of 
the beginner this should be reversed; he must first learn to see the 
specimen as it looks, and then be taught to know it as it is. 

The difficulties at the root of the matter seem to be (1) the fact that 
the delineations are not confined to that which is seen at a single focus, 
but are deduced from a knowledge gained by a study of several focuses, 
and (2) the process employed. 

(1) It is this which makes complete tubules in a section where there 
are few, if any, and which fills up the indistinct spaces with ideal 
representations of that which, though not seen, is known to be there. 

(2) The process usually employed makes use of distinct lines, some- 
thing seldom seen in a specimen. A skilful artist could probably etch 
a tolerably correct picture, and he would do so by carefully toning down 
his lines to the proper degree. 

Photography and many new processes are coming into use, some of 
which, it is hoped, will prove more satisfactory. And yet we think that 
much better work could be done with the method now in vogue (drawing 
with the use of a camera lucida and photo-engraving the result) if the 
artist confined himself to drawing that only which he sees at one focus, 
and conserving that blending of parts which, though sometimes amounting 
to indistinctness, has at least the merit of being natural.” 


Leeuwenhoek’s Discovery of Micro-organisms.*—Herr J. F. Schill 
points out that 1674 and not 1675 should be taken as the date of 
Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of organisms. Attention is directed to a letter 
dated Sept. 7th, 1674, which appears in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ 
of Nov. 23rd, 1674, and which seems to confirm his contention. 

Collected Papers of T. R. Lewis.t—The ‘In Memoriam’ volume 
which contains the collected papers of the late Dr. T. R. Lewis should be 

* Zool. Anzeig., x. (1887) pp. 685-6. 


+ Published by the Lewis Memorial Committee. 4to, London, 1888, 732 pp., 
43 pls., and numerous woodcuts. : 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 523 


brought to the notice of microscopists, for it contains a number of 
valuable papers which have hitherto been very difficult of access, owing 
to their having been published in official Indian reports, or in Indian 
medical journals; we may cite the ‘Report on Bladder-worms, ‘The 
Microscopic Organisms found in the blood of Man and Animals, and. 
their relation to disease,’ the memorandum on the Comma-bacillus, and 
other reports on the agent or agents which produce cholera. 


Cole’s Microscopical Preparations.—We are naturally opposed in 
principle to free advertisements, but Mr. A. C. Cole has done such a large 
amount of valuable work in the extensive series of microscopical pre- 
parations that he has from time to time placed at the disposal of micro- 
scopists, that we cannot but call attention to the fact that though he has 
been obliged to discontinue the publication of his descriptions of prepara- 
tions he still continues to issue the preparations themselves in the same 
condition of exceilence as before. Any support given to Mr. Cole will 
be well directed in the interest of microscopy. 


Enock’s Insect Slides.— While Mr. F. Enock works in a more limited 
sphere than Mr. Cole his slides are, as is well known, quite unique of 
their kind as models of mounting, and Mr. Enock deserves a large 
measure of appreciation at the hands of microscopists. Mr. Enock 
supplies with his slides a description with figures illustrating the chief 
points, which, as we have before noticed in these pages, largely increases 
their value. 


ApaNn, H. P.—lLe Monde Invisible deévoilé. Révelations du Microscope. (The 
Invisible World revealed. Revelations of the Microscope.) 
New ed., 506 pp. and 24 pls., 8vo, Bruxelles, 1888. 
Brieaes, D. H.—Beautiful Micro-polariscope Objects. 
[Salicin and hippuric acid.]_ Journ. N. York Micr. Soc., TV. (1888) pp. 115-7. 
Brown, F. W.—A Course in Animal Histology. I. (concld.). Instruments and 
Reagents. II. Cells and Intercellular Substances. 
The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 57-8, 113-6 (4 figs.). 
Hoses, W. H.—0On the use of the Microscope in Petrography. 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., IX. (1888) pp. 70-4. 
James, F. L.—({Physicians and the Microscope.] 

(“If physicians would only try the experiment for a few times of consulting 
the Microscope in their doubtful cases of urinary disorders, we feel assured 
that they would never again attempt to treat these disorders without a com- 
petent microscopical examination. We feel further assured that when one 
becomes acquainted with the value of the Microscope in this particular 
direction, he would be impelled to apply the same instrument and methods 
to the diagnosis of other troubles. He who fails to do so deliberately throws 
away the most powerful aid to diagnosis yet discovered.’’] 

St. Lowis Med. and Surg. Journ., LIV. (1888) p. 96. 
LatHaAM, V. A.—The Microscope and how to use it. XIV. 

[Practical Notes on Histology. Special Methods for examination of the Spinal 
Cord, Brain, &e.] 

Journ. of Micr., I. (1888) pp. 102-6. 
3 A few good Objects for the Microscope. 
(Sections of laburnum wood, deal, and rhubarb; scales of the sulphur and 
cabbage butterflies ; goldfinch’s and lark’s feathers ; ; elder pith; and palates 
of molluses.] 

Scientif. Enquirer, IIL. (1888) p. 7. 

Manton, W. P.—Rudiments of Practical Embryology. II. Material 
The Microscope, VIII. (1888) pp. 58-60 (1 fig.), 110-3 (2 figs.). 
Mriuiuer, M. N.—Practical Microscopy: A Course of Normal Histology for Students 
and Practitioners of Medicine. xv. and 217 pp., 8vo, New York, 1887. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Muetine or 1llra Aprit, 1888, ar Krine’s Cottncr, Srranp, W.C., 
Pror. OC. Srewart, Vick-PResIDENT, IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 14th Mareh last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received 
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given 
to the donors. 


Baker, H., Essai sur ’ Histoire Naturelle du Polype; traduit par From 
M. P. Demours. viii. and 359 pp. and 22 pls. (Bibs Paris, 
UPA) oe Mr. Crisp. 


Brown, R., Brief Account of Microscopical Observations on the 
Particles contained in the Pollen of Plants. 16 pp. (8vo, 


London, 1828) .. » 
Bruguiere, i Geek Helminthologie, “ou les Vers Infusoires, &e. 
vili. and 83 pp. and 95 pls. (4to, Paris, 1791) .. .. » 


Biitschli, O., Studien iiber die ersten Entwicklungsvorgange der 

Hizelle, die Zelltheilung und die Conjugation der Infusorien. 

250 pp. and 15 pls. (4to, Frankfurt a. M.,1876)..  .. ” 
Ehrenberg, C. G., Mikrogeologische Studien ‘ber das kleinste 

Leben der Meeres-Tiefgriinde aller Zonen und dessen geolo- 


gischen Hinfluss. 266 pp. and 12 pls. (4to, Berlin, 1873). 35 
Gluge, G., Pathologische Histologie. ie pp. and 11 pls. (4to, 
Jena, IT) eg an at Sas > 


Haeckel, E., Das System der Medusen. Erster "Theil. x. and 

360 pp. ‘and 40 pls. (4to, Jena, 1879) .. .. db. OE » 
Hertwig, R., Zur Histologie der Radiolarien. Untersuchung iiber 

den Bau und die Entwicklung der Sphaerozoiden und 

Thalassicolliden. 91 pp. and 5 pls. (4to, Leipzig, 1876) . 9» 
Jurine, L., Histoire des Monocles, qui se trouvent aux environs 

de Geneve. xvi. and 258 pp. and 22 pls. Ce, Geneve, 

1820) Soul ace rome’ | etobects » 
Lardner, D., Optics. Handbook of Natural Philosophy. xvi. and 

432 pp. "and 289 figs. (8vo, London, 1856) .. . ” 
Laurent, P., Etudes Physiologiques sur les Animalcules des In- 

fusions. Végétales, comparés aux organes élémentaires des 


Végétaux. 2 vols. (4to, Nancy, 1854-58) .. a 
Leydig, F., Naturgeschichte der Daphniden (Crustacea Clado- 
cera). 252 pp. - and 10 pls. (4to, Tiibingen, 1860) ale “5 


Liljeborg, W., De Crustaceis ex Ordinibus Tribus: Cladocera, 
Ostracoda et Copepoda, in Scania occurrentibus. xv. and 


222 pp. and 26 pls. (8vo, Lund, 1853) . 9 
Pallas, P. S., Elenchus Zoophytorum. 451. pp. (8vo, Hage j 
Comitum, 1766) .. = 


Roumeguere, C., Cr yptogamie Ilustrée, ou Histoire des Familles 
Naturelles des Plantes Acotylédones d’Europe. Famille des 
Lichens. 73 pp. and 187 figs. (4to, Paris, 1868) Ac » 
» Famille des Champignons. 164 PP- and 567 
figs. (4to, Paris, 1870) .. ae ” 
Slides of Aulacodiscus orientalis and Biddulphia echinata D. sp. .- Mr. Kitton. 
Photomicrographs (12) . . . So ka se oe) eB asheanen: 


Mr. Crisp said that he had received a letter from the President, in 
which he expressed the great regret which he felt at being still obliged 
to remain at home, the accident to his knee necessitating his confinement 
to one floor of his house. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, a5) 


Mr. J. Mayall, jun., described a somewhat remarkable instrument 
from Mr. Crisp’s collection, which he thought most persons would at 
first sight be inclined to mistake for one of the old forms of reflecting 
telescope, but which was really a Microscope, dating probably from the 
commencement of the present century. It bore the name of Adams as 
the inventor, and seemed to be a combination of an ordinary compound 
Microscope and a projection Microscope, to be illuminated by a lamp, 
or possibly by sunlight, though he scarcely inclined to the idea that this 
was intended because the body had no movement in azimuth, but only 
in altitude. The apparatus belonging to it was of an elaborate kind, 
comprising various arrangements for carrying objectives of different 
foci, also a spring stage and a very complicated stage on which opaque 
objects could be viewed. There was a circular ground-glass screen for 
receiving projection images, which fitted in a slot in the body-tube. 
The instrument was evidently intended as a type of a first-class Micro- 
scope of its day, both from the complexity of the design, and from the 
care and finish bestowed on the workmanship. He had not yet been 
able to meet with any description or figure of it. 


Mr. C. Curties exhibited two photomicrographs by Dr. Roderick Zeiss, 
of Jena, viz. :— 

Amphipleura pellucida x 2000 partly resolved into beads, taken with 
an apochromatic 3-0 mm. N.A. 1°40 oil-immersion objective. 

Pleurosigma angulatum x 4900 taken with an apochromatic 2:0 mm. 
N.A. 1°30 oil-immersion objective. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., considered these photomicrographs would bear 
comparison with any they had yet seen. It would be remembered that 
about a year ago they received some from Dr. Van Heurck, of Antwerp, 
and Dr. Millar at the time called attention to the one of P. angulatum 
in comparison with a transparent photograph by Nachet, of Paris, which 
had been in the possession of the Society since 1867. In the case of 
these now exhibited there was distinct progress shown; in that of 
Pleurosigma angulatum the features were beautifully defined and the 
curious diffraction effects were well shown. The object itself was not 
a difficult thing to photograph, but, with a power as high as that used 
(x 4900), to make a good picture was not an easy matter. The photo- 
graph of Amphipleura pellucida showed the striations partly resolved 
into beads, but in this case the resolution did not come out so clearly as 
in the photograph by Dr. Van Heurck; whether this beaded appearance 
was real or whether it was the effect of improper illumination, as Mr. 
Nelson alleged it to be, was a question which he must leave to others 
to decide. During a visit to Antwerp, Dr. Van Heurck showed it to 
him by means of the electric light ; therefore he had no doubt as to its 
being seen. But it was worth mentioning that Dr. Zeiss used an 
electric arc lamp in his experiments, and this method of illumination 
was so unsteady—never two moments alike—and it altered the image so 
frequently, that he doubted very much the possibility of getting the 
finest effects by means of it. On the other hand, Dr. Zeiss had every 
possible appliance at his command which could contribute to success. 
He had concrete floors in his atelier, so as to ensure freedom from 
vibration ; and he had also the pick of the fine lenses produced at his 
works, so that if he could not produce good photographs, it was difficult 
to say who could. 


526 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Mr. Ingpen asked if Mr. Mayall considered that the appearance of 
beading was due simply to the intermittence of the are light and nothing 
else ? 

Mr. Mayall could not say exactly to what it was due, but he thought 
unsteadiness in the light was not the sole cause, because he had seen it 
with the incandescent electric lamp—which was what Dr. Van Heurck 
used—and this was one of the steadiest lights known. He had also 
seen it with the oxyhydrogen light, and with sunlight he had seen it 
very well indeed. Whether it was a false impression or not was another 
matter. 


Mr. Crisp said that at the last meeting Prof. Stewart referred to 
some slides said to be mounted in “ Suffolk,” and that Mr. Suffolk, who 
was present, whilst disclaiming all knowledge of the matter, thought it 
might possibly be something which he had at some time or other recom- 
mended. Since then they had received a letter from Mr. J. W. Gooch, 
giving the explanation that an old friend of his who lived in the county 
of Suffolk invented this medium, but would never divulge the secret 
of its composition, and when any one pressed him as to what the slides 
were mounted in, he used to reply that “they were mounted in Suffolk.” 
Hence the term came to be applied as if it was the name of the medium. 


Mr. Crisp referred to Prof. Riicker’s suggestions in ‘ Nature,’ with 
reference to the use of the term “micromillimetre,” and reported that the 
Council, after some consideration of the subject, had ultimately deter- 
mined to recommend the abandonment of “ micromillimetre,” and the 
use of the term “ micron” to indicate the 1/1000th part of a millimetre 
(supra, p. 502). 


Mr. A. Meates’s paper “On a new Mounting Medinm of High Refrac- 
tive Index” was read by Mr. Ingpen, who said that Mr. Meates would be 
pleased to correspond with any Fellow who might be interested in the 
subject, or he would be glad to assist them in mounting any difficult 
diatoms in this medium (supra, p. 519). 


Mr. Crisp read a letter from Mr. Julien Deby, explaining the process 
of obtaining photomicrographs employed by Messrs. Truan y Luard 
and O. Witt, who stated that when an amplification of 500 diameters 
was required, the best results were obtained by making a negative of 
100 diameters with a low power, which could then be enlarged to 
500 on by an ordinary photographic copying process. (Ante, 

. 295. 
i Mr. T. C. White said he had already tried that plan, but it required 
the original photograph to be so remarkably sharp that very few persons 
were likely to succeed in doing it to their satisfaction. 

Mr. Crisp inquired whether any one present had any experience of 
the advantage to be obtained by photographing an object x 100 and 
then enlarging it x 5? 

Mr. T. C. White said he would himself much rather take it with the 
higher magnification at once. 

The Chairman asked if taking it upon the larger scale would not 
inyolve an inconvenient loss of light. 

Mr. T. C. White said they certainly would lose light, but that only 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 527 


meant that a longer exposure would be required to get the same effect. 
He had not done anything himself with a greater amplification than 
x 200, but up to that magnification he had not found a want of light 
to present any difficulty, in fact, he thought the mistake most often 
made was that of having too much light thrown into the objective. In 
practice he found it frequently necessary to cut off some of the light in 
order to prevent the details of the picture from being blurred by too 
much glare. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said he had made a great many experiments in 
this direction with high powers from x 200 up to x 1000 cr more, and 
he might say that his experience went to show that the difficulty of 
getting good results with high magnifications direct from the object was 
considerable, especially where a long exposure was required. In such 
cases the risk of vibration was so great that very few photographs taken 
in that way were successful. Even Dr. Woodward, who had such pre- 
cautions taken as concrete floors to his workroom, frequently experienced 
the difficulty arising from this cause. Mr. Mayall also referred to 
instances of the improper use of the condenser, which was either not 
placed correctly, or not centered, or the light was not properly focused ; 
whereas to produce good results the object must be evenly illuminated. 

The Chairman said that few persons were so well able to give an 
authoritative opinion on this subject as Mr. Mayall, so that they were 
much interested to hear the remarks which had fallen from him, As 
regarded high-power work, there could be no doubt that the centering 
of the condenser was a very important consideration, but he thought it 
was possible that where an object was photographed under a low power 
there might be some advantage indirectly gained by an unequal illumina- 
tion, and that appearances would result which might help them in some 
way to form an estimate of the real form. It might in reality be an 
imperfection, but it might, notwithstanding, have some practical utility. 

Mr. Mayall said doubtless every kind of illumination might be said 
to contribute more or Jess to the accurate interpretation of images seen 
in the Microscope. In cases, however, where an unequal illumination 
was thought desirable, there were recognized methods of obtaining such 
illumination. There were central stops, and a great variety of movable 
stops, that could be used at pleasure either alone or in combination with 
diaphragms of different sizes; the employment of such means was most 
important to enable the observer to interpret structure, especially, too, 
as he could record exactly the method employed, so that his results could 
be repeated by himself or others. But the unequal illumination which 
he observed in a great many photomicrographs submitted to the Society 
was due to imperfect adjustment of the condenser, imperfect adjustment 
due in most cases to want of training in the skilful employment of the 
Microscope and accessory apparatus. Such unequal illumination of the 
field of the Microscope was, for the most part, not an effect deliberately 
sought for by the microscopist, but was obtained hap-hazard, without 
any systematic manipulation capable of being recorded and repeated. 
It was this unskilful microscopy which he hoped to see remedied; for 
when it came to be combined with inferior technical photography, which 
he regretted to say was far too often the case, then the results were by 
no means admirable. It should surely be an essential part of the train- 
ing of a microscopist to be able to centre and otherwise adjust his con- 
denser and regulate the illumination; such matters were the A BC of 


528 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


microscopy. If, further, it were desired to apply photography to the 
Microscope, the microscopist should either master the technicalities of 
photography, or call in trained assistance in that department. He 
thought it was hardly treating the Society fairly to submit to their notice 
photomicrographs which showed neither skilful manipulation with the 
Microscope nor passably good photography. Several of the photomicro- 
graphs recently received from America seemed to him extremely defec- 
tive ; they evidenced utter want of training in the management of the 
Microscope, selection of the object, &c., while as to the photography, it 
was simply beneath criticism ; the negatives were all over-exposed or 
under-exposed, over-developed or under-developed. He must, however, 
admit that the prints were well burnished ; that was their one redeeming 
point. 

Mr. T. ©. White said he could quite endorse Mr. Mayall’s opinion 
as to the necessity for strictly centering the condenser ; if this was not 
done, they would get half the field in shade and the other half in light. 
It must be properly centered and then moved back until they got an 
equal illumination all over, and this was equally necessary, whether 
they worked with high powers or low. It was also quite a matter of 
common experience that most of the photographs they saw were like 
those which had been handed round, some being very much under- 
exposed, and some over-exposed. 

Mr. J. D. Hardy said there were two considerations of importance in 
the suggestions made for improving a photograph by taking it first with 
a low power and afterwards enlarging it. In photographing a Floscule 
under a high power he should want more time and more light, but by 
using a low power first he took much less time over the process, and 
thus got a perfect image; whereas if a longer time had been required, 
the Floscule might have moved meanwhile, and so spoilt the result. Also 
the effects of vibration in taking a large image would be reduced so 
much by taking a low-power image first, that he thought a great advan- 
tage would be gained on that account. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said that, as regarded the subject of the original 
communication, he thought there was both truth and untruth in the 
recommendation. Where a power of x 100 was enough to show the 
structure of the object, then he would say do as the authors recommended ; 
but if it needed a power of x 500 to reveal the structure, then it was 
of no use whatever to photograph with x 100 and afterwards enlarge 
to x 500. 


Mr. Crisp called attention to Galland-Mason’s “ Microphotoscope,” 
and read extracts from the inventor’s patent specification. (Ante, p. 281.) 


Mr. Kitton’s communication was read describing a new species of 
Biddulphia (B. echinata) from Fiji, specimens of which were shown 
under Microscopes in the room. (Supra, p. 466.) 


Dr. R. H. Ward’s report on his examination of Fasoldt’s plates of 
ruled lines was read, in which he showed that the maker himself was 
in reality unable to see more lines to the inch than the Abbe theory 
allowed should be visible. (Ante, p. 298.) 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 529 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 


Mr. Bolton :—Dendrosoma radians. 

Mr. Crisp :—Adams’s large Microscope. 

Mr. Kitton :—Biddulphia echinata n. sp. 

Mr. A. Meates :—Navicula rhomboides mounted in new medium. 

Mr. J. B. Shearer :—Photomicrographs of various microscopic objects. 
Dr. R. Zeiss:—Photomicrographs of Amphipleura pellucida and 


Pleurosigma angulatum. 


New Fellows.——The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. Thomas W. Cave, M.R.C.V.S., John Dimsdale, John H. Mummery, 
M.R.C.S., George Pearce, William H. Pratt, Adolf Schulze, A. Norman 
Tate, F.LC., F.C.S., Frederick W. Thompson, and Rey. H. Armstrong 
Hall. Prof. G. Govi, Prof. Sven Lovén, and Prof. R. Virchow were 


elected Honorary Fellows. 


Meetine or 9TH May, 1888, at Kine’s Cottece, Stranp, W.C., 
Tur Presipent (Dr. C. T. Hopson) 1n tHe CuHarr. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 11th April last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received 
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given 
to the donors. : 

Cross, C. F., E. J. Bevan, & C. M. King, Report on Indian Fibres From 
and Fibrous Substances. vi. and 71 pp. and 5 pls. (8vo, 
London, 1887) .. EP Ae bit k= BiG AAO po? . Ore eict The Authors. 


The President said that on the occasion of his taking the chair for 
the first time, he desired, before beginning the business of the evening, 
to thank the Fellows very heartily for the honour which they had done 
him in electing him their President. He confessed that when he heard 
the news it filled him with a kind of fearful joy, because Dr. Dallinger’s 
great services during the four years he had held the office had been so 
conspicuous as to add a distinction to the position which made it difficult 
to approach, much less to emulate. But whatever, under the circum- 
stances, his own failings and shortcomings might prove to be, he could 
assure them that he should not fail in trying to do his best. 


Mr. Crisp exhibited a form of camera lucida by M. Dumaige, of 
Paris, fitted in a box with a cover, which, when closed, kept the prism 
and mirror free from dust. Also, by the same maker, an adapter with 
spiral springs for rapidly changing objectives, and a portable Microscope 
in ae the foot and stage were in one piece (supra, pp. 476, 487, and 
488). 


Dr. Kibbler exhibited and described a new stand and camera, which, 
he believed, would be found very useful for photomicrography. It had 
been made to his design by Mr. Bailey, his idea being that it was best 


1888. 20 


530 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


not to take negatives upon a large plate, but on a quarter-plate first and 
afterwards to enlarge the pictures from the original negatives. Speci- 
mens of such enlargements were also exhibited enlarged about nine 
times from the originals. The great advantage of this method was in 
the amount of light gained for the purpose of focusing. If a good 
sharp picture was produced, the gelatin plate would admit of consider- 
able enlargement up to the point where the grain began to show. This 
quarter-plate size was also the proper one for lantern slides, which were 
so much in request at the present time for purposes of demonstration. 
In the ordinary forms of stand the diaphragm plate is placed immediately 
below the stage; but, for photographic purposes, this was, in his ex- 
perience, entirely useless, because it only cut off the edge of the field 
without either improving definition or correcting spherical aberration. 
In practice, he had found that by removing the diaphragm plate a 
certain distance from the object it then ceased to cut off the field and 
began to reduce the light and to improve the penetration and definition. 
Opticians, he knew, were inclined to doubt whether this arrangement 
would do what he claimed for it; but he could only say that, with a good 
light he could easily show that such was the fact. In cases where high 
powers were used this answered very well; but it would not work, how- 
ever, with low powers unless the diaphragm plate was removed to a 
distance too great to be convenient in practice. He had now, therefore, 
devised the plan of introducing a short 15 in. condenser behind the 
stage, and about 3 in. in front of the diaphragm plate, in this way throw- 
ing it out of focus. The effect of this was that the same improvement 
in penetration and definition was obtained, but on a much shorter dis- 
tance. The use of the diaphragm was of the utmost importance in 
photography where the most perfect focusing and definition were 
required. Attention was also called to a method of clamping the object 
in position when the focus had been obtained; also to a plan for 
obtaining a fine-adjustment by means of a tangent screw. 

Mr. Beck said he did not usually like criticizing matters of that 
sort, because he was one of those who had great doubts as to the value 
of photographic images produced by the Microscope. Photography 
might produce what was seen by the eye; but in many cases they were 
frightful distortions. If they looked at the photograph shown of the 
proboscis of the blow-fly, they would see that it showed every hair as 
being double, an effect which he considered was due to the removal of 
the diaphragm having caused distortion by diffraction. If a diaphragm 
was of any use at all it was to cut off certain rays which caused indis- 
tinctness of focus, or to cut off the central rays, so that the circumferen- 
tial rays could be used alone, and the object in photography should be 
to get rid of all those inaccuracies which a diaphragm, when it was 
properly used, would get rid of. He did not wish to criticize the 
apparatus before them, which seemed to be beautifully made, except that 
he thought there was rather an inconvenient distance to stretch out in 
order to reach the focusing screw. 

Mr. Teasdale said he had practised photography more or less for the 
last thirty years, and had never found it necessary to pay the slightest 
regard to the diaphragm, although he might have occasionally used a 
temporary one. In the case of photomicrography, the place for it was 
certainly behind the lens. The chief difficulty in focusing was due to 
want of light. Focusing should always be done with as much light as 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 531 


possible, and then having used the whole aperture, the light should 
afterwards be reduced to sharpen the object. To insure success, ex- 
tremely accurate focusing was necessary, and to obtain this it was well 
to put a plate on with some object mounted upon it—say, some diatoms. 
This was easily obtained by pouring a little water containing diatoms 
upon the glass and letting it evaporate, when the diatoms would be left 
adhering to the glass ; then focus and get an acrial image. He quite agreed 
as to the value of the quarter-plate size. It was undoubtedly the most 
useful for lantern plates and for enlargements, and he entirely concurred 
as to the benefit to be obtained from taking negatives first on a smaller 
scale and enlarging afterwards; but he had very decided opinions as to 
the uselessness of diaphragms behind the object. 

Dr. Kibbler said as regarded the hairs he could only say that the 
image of the object when seen on the ground glass appeared very much 
worse than in the photograph, each hair showing as if composed of three 
_or four. The photograph was not taken with a small diaphragm. It 
had an exposure of ten minutes with an ordinary paraffin lamp. If he had 
a good light he could demonstrate to any one in the room the use of the 
diaphragm plate in improving the image when used in the way he had 
described. With small objects like blood-discs diffraction images 
appeared, 


Mr. Crisp said that since their last meeting various London and 
provincial papers had published a most astounding piece of rubbish in 
reference to an alleged “new glass just made in Sweden.” Many of the 
Fellows and others had forwarded cuttings to the Society (supra, p. 499). 

Mr. Crisp also called attention to the fact that the 14th (1888) 
edition of Heather’s ‘Mathematical Instruments’ had been issued, with 
the description of the Microscope which was given in the first edition 
unaltered and uncorrected. In particular, it is made to appear that the 
“amplifying lens” of bygone days is, with the eye-lens, field-lens, and 
objective, an essential part of a compound Microscope, while a whole 
page is devoted to the reflecting Microscope, none of which have been 
made since 1840 (supra, p. 501). 


Mr. Mills’s note on “ A Sponge with Stelliform Spicules” was read 
by Prof. Bell. 


Mr. Crisp referred to some comments which had recently been made 
in America upon the advantages of the method of tilting the stage of the 
Microscope as a means of obtaining a very economical and simple fine- 
adjustment. This idea was not by any means new, as might be seen by 
an examination of the various Microscopes upon the table, in each of 
which it had been carried out in a different way (supra, p. 478). 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said his main objection to this form of fine- 
adjustment was that for high powers it was not possible to properly use 
a condenser. Focusing by tilting the stage not only involved the move- 
ment of the object in relation to the objective, but also in relation to the 
substage condenser. Under such circumstances he thought it was hardly 
possible to carry on a delicate microscopical investigation satisfactorily. 

Mr. Beck said that to allow the stage to move in any direction except 
parallel to its plane, at once destroyed all delicate effects. Let them 
take such an object as a Podura scale, and they would find that if they 


582 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


moved the stage in any degree, however slightly, which was not parallel, 
the appearance of it would be materially altered. Anything which 
interfered with the parallel position of the stage must be destructive of 
true definition. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said he agreed very much with Mr. Beck in the 
remarks which he had made; but he thought if they took objection to 
the movement upon the ground stated, they must take objection also to 
the ‘‘ Bausch and Lomb” fine-adjustment, where the body-tube was hung 
on two parallel pieces of clock-spring, and which he assumed was a 
movement in are, although it did not alter the relation of the object to 
the condenser. 

Mr. Beck said that the movement was a parallel movement and not 
a tilting movement. The Bausch and Lomb arrangement was not the 
same thing at all as the other, because the same parallelism was main- 
tained, whereas in the tilting pattern they had the optical axis thrown 
out of line perpendicular to the object. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said that as he understood it, the Bausch and 
Lomb movement compelled them to see a different portion of the surface 
of the object with every change of the focal adjustment. 

Mr. Beck repeated that although this was so, parallelism was main- 
tained. Some discussion took place as to whether the movement of the 
tube was not in reality in arc; but it was ultimately conceded that Mr. 
Beck’s view was correct. 


Dr. A.C. Stokes’s paper on “ New Infusoria Flagellata from American 
Fresh Waters,” containing descriptions of twenty new species, was read 
by Prof. Bell (post). 


Messrs. H. W. Burrows, ©. D. Sherborn, and G. Bailey’s paper on 
“The Foraminifera of the Red Chalk” was also read by Prof. Bell (ante, 
p. 383). 


Mr. Karop called attention to the recent investigations by Dr. W. 
Pfeffer, on what he termed the “ chemotaxic ” movements of Bacteria, 
Flagellata, and Volvocinee, meaning by “chemotaxis” the phenomenon 
exhibited by these organisms in the presence of certain substances which 
attracted or dispersed them according to the nature of the stimulant 
material. A given substance may act upon one organism, but not upon 
another—e. g dextrin excites Bacterium termo to an extraordinary degree, 
but not Spirillum. 


Prof. Bell called attention to a paper recently published by Mr. 
Wray, giving an account of the structure of a feather. 


».The following Instruments, Objects, &c, were exhibited :— 
Mr. Bailey :—Photomicroscope. 
Mr. Bolton :—Mastigocerca elongata and M. rattus. 
Mr. Crisp:—Dumaige’s Portable Microscope, Objective Adapter, 
and Camera Lucida. 
Mr. H. Mills :—Heteromeyenia radiospiculata n.sp. 


New Fellows:—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 


Messrs. William Cash, F.G.S., Henry C. Corke, Thomas W. Johnson, 
M.D., and William Penman, Assoc. M.I.C.E. 


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