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Journal  of  tbe 

Ropal  microscopical  Society 

CONTAINING    ITS   TRANSACTIONS   AND    PROCEEDINGS 

AND 
A   SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

ZOOZL.OG-Y"       .A-HSTID       BOTANY 
(principally   Invertebrata    and   Cryptogamia) 

MICROSCOPY,     &cg- 


EDITED  ,BY 
R.    G.    HEBB,    M.A.    M.D.    F.R.C.P. 

Physician  to    Westminster  Hospital 

WITH   THE   ASSISTANCE  OF   THE    PUBLICATION    COMMITTEE    AND 

J.  ARTHUE  THOMSON,  M.A.  F.R.S.E. 

Regius  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen 

A.  N.  DISNEY,  M.A.  B.Sc.  CECIL  PRICE-JONES,  M.B.  Lond. 

FELLOWS    OF     THE    SOCIETY 

AND 

A.  B.  RENDLE,  M.A.  D.Sc.  F.L.S.        HAROLD  MOORE,  B.Sc. 

Assistant  in  Botany,  British  Museum  Woolwich  Arsenal 


Minimis  partibus,  per  totum  Naturae  campum,  certitudo  omnis  innititur 
quas  qui  fugit  pariter  Naturam  fugit. — Linnceus. 


FOR      THE      TEAR 
1905 


TO    BE   OBTAINED  AT   THE   SOCIETY'S   ROOMS, 

20    HANOVER   SQUARE,   LONDON,  W. 

of  Messrs.  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE,  14  Henrietta  Street,  London,  W.C. 
and  of  Messrs.  DULAU  &  CO.,  37  Soho  Square,  London,  W. 


X*  $ 


THE 


JUpl  <  JJftiq  as  capital  ^at^tg. 


Established  in  1839.     Incorporated  by  Royal  Charter  in  1866. 


The  Society  was  established  for  the  promotion  of  Microscopical  and 
Biological  Science  by  the  communication,  discussion,  and  publication  of  observa- 
tions and  discoveries  relating  to  (1)  improvements  in  the  construction  and 
mode  of  application  of  the  Microscope,  or  (2)  Biological  or  other  subjects  of 
Microscopical  Eesearch. 

It  consists  of  Ordinary,  Honorary,  and  Ex-officio  Fellows  of  either  sex. 

Ordinary  Fellows  are  elected  on  a  Certificate  of  Kecommendation 
signed  by  three  Ordinary  Fellows,  setting  forth  the  names,  residence,  and 
description  of  the  Candidate,  of  whom  the  first  proposer  must  have  personal 
knowledge.  The  certificate  is  read  at  two  General  Meetings,  and  the  Candidate 
balloted  "for  at  the  second  Meeting. 

The  Admission  Fee  is  21.  2s. ;  and  the  Annual  Subscription  21.  2s.,  pay- 
able on  election,  and  subsequently  in  advance  on  1st  January  annually.  The 
Annual  Subscriptions  may  be  compounded  for  at  any  time  for  31/.  10s.  Fellows 
elected  at  a  meeting  subsequent  to  that  in  February  are  only  called  upon  for 
a  proportionate  part  of  the  first  year's  subscription.  The  annual  Subscrip- 
tion of  Fellows  permanently  residing  abroad  is  1/.  lis.  6^.  or  a  reduction  of 
one-fourth. 

Honorary  Fellows  (limited  to  50),  consisting  of  persons  eminent  in 
Microscopical  or  Biological  Science,  are  elected  on  the  recommendation  of  five 
Ordinary  Fellows  and  the  approval  of  the  Council. 

Ex-officio  Fellows  (limited  to  100),  consisting  of  the  Presidents  for  the 
time  being  of  any  Societies  having  objects  in  whole  or  in  part  similar  to  those  of 
the  Society,  are  elected  on  the  recommendation  of  ten  Ordinary  Fellows  and  the 
approval  of  the  Council. 

The  Council,  in  whom  the  management  of  the  property  and  affairs  of 
the  Society  is  vested,  is  elected  annually,  and  is  composed  of  the  President, 
four  Vice-Presidents,  Treasurer,  two  Secretaries,  and  twelve  other  Ordinary 
Fellows. 

The  Meetings  are  held  on  the  third  Wednesday  in  each  month,  from 
October  to  June,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W.  (commencing  at  8  p.m.).  Visitors 
are  admitted  by  the  introduction  of  Fellows. 

The  Journal,  containing  the  Transactions  and  Proceedings  of  the 
Society,  and  a  Summary  of  Current  Besearches  relating  to  Zoology  and  Botany 
(principally  Invertebrata  and  Cryptogamia),  Microscopy,  <fec,  is  published 
bi-monthly,  and  is  forwarded  post-free  to  all  Ordinary  and  Ex-officio  Fellows 
residing  in  countries  within  the  Postal  Union. 

The  Library,  with  the  Instruments,  Apparatus,  and  Cabinet  of  Objects, 
is  open  for  the  use  of  Fellows  daily  (except  Saturdays),  from  10  a.m.  to  5  p.m. 
It  is  closed  for  four  weeks  during  August  and  September. 

Forms  of  proposal  for  Felloivship,  and  any  further  information,  may  be  obtained  by 
application  to  the  Secretaries,  or  Assistant-Secretary,  at  the  Library  of  the  Society, 
20  Hanover  Square,  W. 

a  2 


patron 

HIS    MAJESTY    THE    KING. 


* 


Past-frcstbents. 

Elected 

Sib  Richard  Owen,  K.C.B.  D.C.L.  M.D.  LL.D.  F.R.S.  1840-1 

♦John  Lindley,  Ph.D.  F.R.S 1842-3 

♦Thomas  Bell,  F.R.S 1844-5 

*James  Soott  Boweebank,  LL.D.  F.R.S. 1846-7 

•George  Bosk,  F.R.S 1848-9 

♦Arthur  Farre,  M.D.  F.R.S 1850-1 

•George  Jackson,  M.R.C.S 1852-3 

♦William  Benjamin  Carpenter,  C.B.  M.D.  LL.D.  F.R.S. . .      1854-5 

*George  Shadbolt 1856-7 

♦Edwin  Lankester,  M.D.  LL.D.  F.R.S 1858-9 

♦John  Thomas  Quekett,  F.R.S 1860 

♦Robert  James  Fakrants,  F.R.C.S 1861-2 

♦Charles  Brooke,  M.A.  F.R.S 1863-4 

♦James  Glaisher,  F.R.S 1865-6-7-8 

♦Rev.  Joseph  Bancroft  Reade,  M.A.  F.R.S 1869-70 

♦William  Kitchen  Parker,  F.R.S 1871-2 

♦Charles  Brooke,  M.A.  F.R.S 1873-4 

Henry  Clifton  Sorby,  LL.D.  F.R.S 1875-6-7 

♦Henry  James  Slack,  F.G.S 1878 

Lionel  S.  Beale,  M.B.  F.R.C.P.  F.R.S 1879-80 

♦Peter  Martin  Duncan,  M.B.  F.R.S 1881-2-3 

Rev.  William  Hy.  Dallinger,  M.A.  LL.D.  F.R.S...   1884-5-6-7 
♦Charles  Thos.  Hudson,  M.A.  LL.D.  (Cantab.),  F.R.S.    1888-9-90 

Robekt  Braithwaite,  M.D.  M.R.C.S 1891-2 

Albert  D.  Michael,  F.L.S 1893-4-5-6 

Edward  Milles  Nelson 1897-8-9 

William  Carruthers,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S 1900-1 

Henry  Woodward,  LL.D.  F.R.S.  F.G.S.  F.Z.S 1902-3 

*  Deceased. 


COUNCIL. 


Elected  1-Sth  January,  1905. 


prcstoent. 

Dukinfield  Henry  Scott,  M.A.  Ph.D.  F.R.S.  F.L.S. 

$ixc- presidents. 

*George  C.  Karop,  M.R.C.S. 
The  Right  Hon.  Sir  Ford  North,  P.C.  F.R.S. 
Henry  George  Plimmer,  M.R.C.S.  L.S.A.  F.L.S. 
Henry  Woodward,  LL.D.  F.R.S.  F.G.S.  F.Z.S. 

treasurer. 

J.  J.  Vezey. 

^Secretaries. 

Rev.  W.  H.  Dallinger,  LL.D.  D.Sc.  D.C.L.  F.R.S. 

F.L.S.  F.Z.S. 
R.  G.  Hebb,  M.A.  M.D.  F.R.C.P. 

(frbmarg  HUmbcrs  of  Council. 

Jas.  Mason  Allen. 

Wynne  E.  Baxter,  J.P.  F.G.S.  F.R.G.S. 

P.  T.  B.  Beale,  F.R.C.S. 

Conrad  Beck. 

Rev.  Edmund  Carr,  M.A.  F.R.Met.S. 
*A.  N.  Disney,  M.A.  B.Sc. 

J.  W.  H.  Eyre,  M.D.  F.R.S.  (Edin.). 
*A.  D.  Michael,  F.L.S. 
*E.  M.  Nelson. 

Thomas  H.  Powell. 

Julius  Rheinberg. 
*Charles  F.  Rousselet. 

*  Members  of  the  Publication  Committee. 


LIBRARIAN.  CURATOR. 

Percy  E.  Radley.         Charles  F.  Rousselet. 

ASSISTANT    SECRETARY. 

F.  A.  Parsons. 


CONTENTS. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  TEE  SOCIETY. 


PAQB 


I. — The  Theory  of  Highly  Magnified  Images.   By  J.  W.  Gordon.   (Figs.  1-24)  1 

II  — The   President's  Address  :     What   were  the   Carboniferous   Ferns  ?      By 

Dukinfield  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.     (Plates  I.  to  III. ;  Figs.  32,  33)      ..      ..     137 

III. — Micro-Metallography   with   Practical   Demonstration.      By   J.   E.  Stead, 

F.R.S.        .      ..      273 

IV — Methods   for   Detecting  the  more  Highly  Phospliorised  Portions  in  Iron 

and  Steel.     By  J.  E.  Stead,  F.R.S.     (Plates  V.  and  VI.)     284 

V. — On  the  Application  of  the  Undulatory  Theory  to  Optical  Problems.     By 

A.  E.  Conrady,  F.R.A.S.,  F.R.M.S.     (Figs.  74-78)        401 

VI. — Theories  of  Microscopical  Vision.      (Second  Paper.)     By  A.  E.  Conrady, 

.      F.R.A.S.,  F.R.M.S.    (Figs.  123-8)        541 

VII. — Notes  on  "Aragotite,"  a  Rare  California  Mineral.     By  Henry  G.  Hanks  ..     673 


NOTES. 

An  Experimental  Proof  of  Phase-Reversal   in  Diffraction-Spectra.     By  A.  E. 

Conrady,  F.R.A  S.,  F.R.M.S 150 

The  Influence  on  Images  of  Gratings  of  Phase-Differences  amongst  their  Spectra. 

By  Julius  Rheinberg.    (Plate  IV.)       152 

The  Tubercle  Bacillus.     By  Edward  M.  Nelson.     (Figs.  79-81) 412 

The  Ashe-Finlayson  "  Comparascope."     By  D.  Finlayson,  F.L.S.     (Fig.  82)      . .  414 

An  Optical  Paradox.     By  Lord  Rayleigh,  O.M.,  F.R.S.     (Fig.  83)        417 

New  Hot  Stage.    By  W.  S.  Lazarus-Barlow,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.   (Plate  VII.,  Fig.  84)  419 

The  Movements  of  Diatoms  and  other  Microscopic  Plants.     By  Daniel  D.  Jackson  554 

On  "  An  Optical  Paradox."     By  Dr.  G.  Johnstone  Stoney,  F.R.S.     (Fig.  129)    ..  557 

The  Optical  Convention.     (Figs.  130-7)       559 

Electrical  Warm-Stage.     By  Cecil  R.  C.  Lyster.     (Plate  VIII.,  Fig.  15S)     ..      ..  677 

OBITUABY. 

Ernst  Abbe         156 


V1'l  CONTENTS. 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

Relating  to  Zoology  and  Botany  (principally  Invertebrata  and 
Cryptogamia),  Microscopy,  &c,  including  Original  Communications 
from   Fellows   and  Others.*  33.  164,  290,  421,  574.  678 

ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 
<*•   Embryology. 

PAGE 

Castle,  VV.  E.,  &  G.  M.  Allen— Mendel's  Law  and  the  Heredity  of  Albinism       ••  33 

Schaper,  A. —  Radium  Effect  on  Development  of  Amphibia       ..     ' 34 

Kunstler,  J. — Abnormal  Eggs  in  Fowls        34 

Gruvel,  A. — Polymorphism  of  Spermatozoa  . .      ..              34 

Garbowski,  Tad. — Factors  of  Morphogenesis        34 

Marshall,  F.  H.  A. — (Estrous  Cycle  in  Ferret 34 

Lee,  T.  G. — Implantation  of  Ovum  in  the  Gopher       35 

Sakurai,  T. — Development  of  Pulmonary  Arteries  in  Roe-deer          35- 

Janosik,  J. — Development  of  Mammalian  Kidney       35 

Wintrebert,  P. — Regeneration  of  Tail-tissues  in  Anuran  Larvae     35 

Filatow,  D.  P. — Development  of  Amphibian  Excretory  System          36 

Neal,  H.  V. — Development  of  Ventral  Nerves  in  Selachii 36 

Sargent,  P.  E. — Torus  longitudinal is  of  Teleost  Brain       ..      "  36 

Bohl,  U. — Development  of  Body  Cavity  and  Gonads  in  Sahnonidse          37 

Harrison,  R.  G. — Relation  of  Nervous  System  to  Developing  Musculature       ..      ..  37 

Weissmann,  August — Evolution  Theory        1 64 

Jenkinson,  J.  W. — Maturation  and  Fertilisation  in  the  Axolotl        164 

Shattock,  S.  G. — Dermoid  Cysts  of  Ovary  and  Testis        165 

Loisel,  G. — Secretions  of  the  Genital  Organs         165 

Dubuisson,  H. — Absorption  of  Yolk  in  Viper  Embryos        165 

Strahl,  Hans — Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Placenta       166 

Broek,  A.  J.  P.  van  den — Placenta  of  Seal         ..      ..  166 

Strahl,  Hans — Involution  of  Uterine  Mucous  Meml/rane  in  Tarsius        166 

Bejsek,  J. — Implantation  of  Ovum  of  Spermophilus 166 

Ballowitz,  E. — Spermatozoa  of  Dixwglossus  Pictus     166 

Guenther,  Konrad— Significance  of  the  Nucleolus  in  the  Maturing  Ovum     ..      ..  16& 

Bayer,  Heinrich — Determination  of  Sex       ..              167 

Wilson,  E.  B. — Cytasters  and  Centrosomes  in  Artificial  Parthenogenesis         ..      ..  167 

Soulie,  A.,  &  C.  Bonne— Development  of  the  Venous  System  in  the  Mole         ..      ..  167 

Sund,  0. — Development  of  Olfactory  Organ  in  Spinax  Niger 167 

Moroff,  T. — Development  of  Gills  of  Fishes         167 

Borcea,  I. — Development  of  Kidney  in  Elasmobranchs         168 

Boeke,  J. — Development  of  Myocardium  in  Teleosts 168 

Petrunkevitch,  A. — Natural  and  Artificial  Parthenogenesis 290 

Smallwood,  W.  M.— Maturation  and  Fertilisation  of  Haminea  solitaria  (Say)     ..  292 

Baumgartner,  W.  J. — Individuality  of  the  Chromosomes 292 

Bouin,  P. — Telophase  in  Blastomeres  of  Salmonidse     293 

Montgomery,  T.  Yi.— Morphological  Superiority  of  the  Female  Sex 293 

Goggio,  Empedocle — Experiments  on  Tadpoles 293 

Ballowitz,  E. — Spermatozoa  of  Lamprey      294 

Voinov,  D.  N. — Function  of  Interstitial  Gland  of  Testis 294 

Swinnerton,  H.  H. — Shifting  of  Pectoral  Fin  during  Development 294 

Pittard,  E. — Influence  of  Castration  on  Size        294 

Kellicott,  W.  E. — Development  of  Vascular  System  of  Ceratodus 294 


*  In  order  to  make  the  Contents  complete,  the  papers  printed  in  the  '  Transactions* 
and  the  Notes  printed  in  the  'Proceedings'  are  included  here. 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PACK 

Meyburg,  H. — Stitdies  in  Bone  Development         294 

Imhof,  G. — Lumbar  Spinal  Cord  in  Birds 295 

Packard,  A.  S. — Notes  on  Opisfhenogenesis 295 

Loeb,  L. — Ovarian  Eggs  of  Guinea-pig 421 

Comes,  8. — Follicles  and  Egg-envelope*  of  Belone  acus         422 

Cerbuti,  A. — Nucleolar  Dissolution         422 

Brachet,  A. — Experimental  Researches  on  Egg  of  Rana  fusca 422 

Adolphi,  H. — Motion  of  Spermatozoa 422 

Roth,  A. — Structure  and  Movements  of  Spermatozoa 422 

Retzius,  G. — Accessory  Nuclear  Structures  in  Spermatozoa        423 

Oceanu,  P.,  &  A.  Babes — Influence  of  Ovariotomy  in  Goat        423 

Godlewski.  E. — Influence  of  Nervous  System  in  Regeneration 423 

Bauer,  A. — Regeneration  of  Limbs  in  Tadpoles  of  Frog      423 

Sabin,  C.  G. — Origin  of  Subclavian  Artery  in  Chick 423 

Greil,  Alfred — Origin  of  Lungs 423 

Spemann,  H. — Lens  Formation  in  Frog 424 

Williamson,  H.  C. — Early  Stages  of  Pleuronectes  cynoglossus 424 

Boveri,  Th. — Number  of  Chromosomes  ..              574 

Gurwitsch,  A. — Experiments  on  Cytoplasm  of  Amphibian  Ovum      574 

Yatsu,  Naohide — Formation  of  Centrosomes  in  Enuncleated  Egg-Fragments         . .  575 

Lubosch,  W. — Ovum  of  Lamprey 575 

Gerhardt,  Ulrich — Passage  of  the  Mammalian  Ovum  into  the  Fidlopian  Tube    ..  575 

Stricht,  O.  van  der — Vilellogenous  Layer  and  Mitochondria  in  Ova  of  Mammals  576 

Retzius,  G. — Spermatozoa  of  Invertebrates 576 

Perez,  Ch. — Phagocytic  Absorption  of  Spermatozoa 576 

Bra  us,  H. — Transplantation  of  Primordia 576 

Kellicott,  W.  E. — Development  of  Vascular  and  Respiratory  Systems  of  Ceratodus  576 

Lubosch,  W. — Development  of  Olfactory  Organ  of  Lamprey      577 

Retzius,  G. — Closure  of  Nasal  Apertures  in  Human  Embryo 577 

Greil.  A. — Sixth  Branchial  Pouches  in  Amphibians 577 

Forster,  Anton — Origin  of  Double  Monstrosities         678 

Hofbauer,  J.,  &  H.  Strahl — Studies  on  the  Placenta        ..  678 

PiESiNK,  A.  J. — Fcetal  Membranes 679 

Marechal,  J. — Development  of  Chromosomes  in  the  Selachian  Ovum        679 

Zeller,  the  late  E.  v. — Spermatophores  of  Newts     ..              679 

Wederhake — Corpuscle  of  Human  Sperm- Cells 679 

Raster,  H. — Development  of  Islands  of  Laugerhans  in  Human  Embryo 680 

Bussy,  L.  P.  de — Development  of  Megalobatraclais  maximus     680 

b.   Histolog-y. 

Rohde,  E. — The  Histology  of  the  Cell 38 

Maziarski,  Stanislas — Relations  betioeen  Nwleu*  and  Cytoplasm 38 

Disselhorst,  R. — Comparative  Histology  of  Ducts  and  Accessory  Glands  of  Male 

Gonads . .      . .  38 

Jeleniewski,  Zenon — Epithelium  of  the  Epididymis 38 

Koiransky,  Eugenie — Peculiar  Structures  in  Hepatic  Cells       39 

Petersen,  O. — Position  of  Glycogen  in  Liver  Cells     ..      . .              39 

Rennie,  J. — Islets  of  Langerhans  in  Teleostei       :-i9 

Loewenthal,  N. — Granular  Cells  in  Epidermis  of  Ammoccetes 39 

Scaffidi,  V. — Structure  of  Human  Hypophysis 40 

Flechsig,  P. — Research  Methods  on  Human  Brain      40 

Forster,  E. — Contraction  of  Smooth  Muscle  Cells        40 

Hoyer,  M.  H. — Lymph  Hearts  of  R ana         40 

Chatin,  Joannes — Comparative  Histology  of  Cartilaginous  Cells      41 

Auerbach,  L. — Intra- and  Extra-Cellular  Nerve  Nets  in  Vertebrates       168 

Harbison,  R.  G. — Peripheral  Nerves  of  Vertebrates 168 

Wiedelshiem,  R. — Cornu  Ammonis  in  Man 169 

Kamon,  K. — Olfactory  Buds  in  Vertebrates 169 

Sterzi,  G. — Structure  of  Hypophysis  in  Vertebrates     ..      ..              169 

Wolff,  Max — Fibrillar  Structure  in  Frog's  Liver      169 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAOI 

Deflandke,  C. — Adipogenic  Function  of  the  Mammalian  Liver         169 

Dekhiiyzen,  M.  C,  &  P.  Vermaat — Epithelium  of  Stomach     170 

Supino,  Felice — Peculiar  Osseous  Tissue  of  Sun  fish 170 

Friiit.MANN,  Franz— Minute  Structure  of  the  Suprarenals  in  Guinea-Pig        ..      ..  170 

Eggeling,  H. — Eyelids  of  Mammals       •     ..  170 

Ribaschkin,  W. — Studies  on  Neuroglia 295 

Ruffini,  A. — New  Nerve  Sheath  in  Sensory  Serves 296 

Stehzi,  A.  I. — Peripheral  Cell-Groups  in  Spinal  Cord  of  Reptiles 296 

Ballowitz,  E. — Olfactory  Cells  of  Lamprey 296 

Sanchez,  Domingo — Endocellular  Tubules     . .  296 

Esteuly,C.O. — Structure  and  Regeneration  of  Poison  Glands  of  Plethodon  oregonensis  297 

Mi  lon,  P. — Intranuclear  Fat  in  the  Supra-renah  of  Mammals 297 

Mateos,  Rivas,  &  others — Supra-renal  Capsules       297 

Giixmore,  Gertrude  A. — Heart  Muscle  of  Dog 297 

Schafer,  E.  A. — Hydraulic  Theory  of  Ciliary  Action 121 

Merk,  L. — Interconnections  of  Epidermal  Cells 424 

Scholtze,  Oskar — Regeneration  of  Nerves 424 

Takasu,  K. — Ganglion  Cells  of  Cerebellum  of  Pig        425 

Bokchert,  M. — Central  Nervous  System  of  Torpedo 425 

Meves,  Fr. — Structure  of  Red  Blood  Corpuscles  in  Amphibians         425 

Schafer,  E.  A.  —  Structure  of  Erythrocytes 425 

Hofbauer,  J. — Absorption  of  Fat  by  Chorionic  Villi 425 

Joseph,  H. — Crystalloids  in  Amphioxus 426 

Cohn,  L. — Tentacle  Apparatus  of  Dactyletra  calcarata        426 

Schmitter,  F. — Cytological  Changes  in  Kidney 426 

Kose,  W. — Chromaffin  Tissue  in  Birds   ..      .. 426 

Cosentino,  A. —  Elastic  Tissue  of  Prostate 426 

Goldschmidt,  R. — Chromidial  Apparatus  of  Actively  Functioning  Cells 578 

Bouin,  P. — Ergastoplasm  and  Mitochondria 578 

Nussbaum,  M.,  &  G.  Seiffert — Intra- Epithelial  Glands 578 

Browicz,  T.— Secretory  Function  of  Nucleus  of  Hepatic  Cells 578 

Bochenek,  A. — Nervous  System  of  Anodonta,  Distaplia,  and  Synapta 579 

Bykowski,  L.,  &  J.  Nusbaum — Study  of  Fierasfer      579 

Gurwitsch,  A. — Morphology  and  Biology  of  the  Cell 680 

Schlater,  G. — Spiral  Coiling  of  Nucleus  of  Smooth  Mutcle  Cells      680 

Mercier,  L. — Experimental  Phagocytosis      680 

Zarnik,  Boris — Cell  Migration  in  C* cum  and  Mid-gut  of  Amphioxus 6S0 

Leduc,  Stephane — Germination  and  Growth  of  Artificial  Cells       681 

Dogiel,  A.  S. — Nerve-endings  of  Nail  layer  in  Man 681 

Fusari,  Romeo — Nerve-endings        681 

Herrick,  C.  Judson — Central  gustatory  Paths  in  Brain  of  Bony  Fishes 681 

Hosch—  Eye  of  Protopterus  annectens      682 

Brotj ha — Lacteal  Secretion       . .              082 

Walker,  J.  W.  T. — Human  Anal  Glands      682 

Arnold,  J. — Glands  of  Frog 's  Skin        682 

Reis,  Karolina,  &  J.  Nusbaum — Minute  Structure  of  Gas-Gland  in  the  Swim- 
Bladder    683 

Illing,  G. — Fat-Cells  in  Glandulse  vesiculares  of  Cattle      H83 

Gerhartz,  H. — Structure  of  Seminal  Duct  in  Amphibia 683 

Mascha,  E.— Structure  of  Wing- Feathers       683 

c.  General. 

Radl,  Em. — Phototropism  in  Animals 41 

Bonhote,  J.  L. —  Coloration  in  Mammals  and  Birds 41 

Burdon-S Anderson,  Sir  John — Relation  of  Oxidation  to  Functional  Activity       . .  41 

Latzel,  R. — Outlines  of  Zoology      42 

Schnaudigel,  (). — Eyes  of  Vertebrates 42 

Blendinger,  W. — The  Mammalian  Cribrum         42 

True,  F.  W.  — Whalebone  Whales  of  Western  North  Atlantic     42 

Camerano,  L. — The  Roman  Mole    ..      ..     • 43 

Andrews,  C.  W.—New  Order  of  Ungulate  Mammals 43 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PACK 

Thomas,  Oldfield — Forest  Pig  of  Central  Africa      43 

Lonnbehg,  V,ikak— Material  for  the  Study  of  Ruminants 43 

Strong,  R.  M. — Iridescence  of  Pigeon's  Neck       44 

Eastman,  C.  R. — Fossil  Plumage 44 

Couvreir  &  Gautier — Respiratory  Rhythm  in  Cham xleon        44 

Camerano,  L. —  Variations  of  Toads       ..      .. 

Alcock,  A.—  Neio  Apodous  Amphibian  Jrom  India      44 

Ridewood,  W.  G. —  Cranial  Osteology  of  Fishes 45 

Eastman,  C.  R. — Edest  us  and  its  Relatives                   45 

Reighard,  Jacob — Natural  History  of  A mia  calva      45 

Locy,  W.  A. — New  Cranial  Nerve  in  Selachians 46 

Eigenmann,  Carl  H. — History  of  the  Eye  of  Amblyopsis 46 

Zarnik,  Boris — Segmental  Veins  in  Amphioxus 46 

Launoy,  L. — Experiments  on  Ciliary  Movements 46 

Deflandre,  C. — Adipogenic  Function  in  Vertebrates  and  in  Crustacea 47 

Daday,  Eugen  von — Microscopic  Fresh-water  Animals  from  Asia  Minor       ..      ..  47 

„             „         „        Fresh-water  Micro-fauna  of  Turkestan 47 

Walker,  J.  F. — Formation  of  a  Species        170 

Gorter,  A. —  Tlieory  of  Sleep 171 

Piollet,  P. — Nutritive  Arteries  of  Long  Bones 171 

EwART,  J.  Cossar — Multiple  Origin  of  Horses  and  Ponies         171 

Tokarski,  J. — Phylogeny  of  Mammalian  Tongue         172 

Sweet,  G. — Anatomy  of  Notoryctes  Typhlops        172 

Gerhardt,  Ulrich—  Copulatory  Organs  in  Mammals         172 

Millais,  J.  G. — British  Mammals 172 

Maooun,  John — Catalogue  of  Canadian  Birds 172 

Rosen,  Nils — Jaw-Muscles  of  Snakes  in  relation  to  the  Poison- Gland      173 

Buffa,  P. — Locomotion  of  Snakes 173 

Pasker,  G.  H.,  and  S.  A.  Starratt — Effect  of  Heat  on  Colour-Changes  of  Anolis 

Carolinensis 173 

Yung,  Emile — Influence  of  Food  on  Length  of  Intestine  in  Tadpoles       173 

Woodland,  W. — Monstrosity  of  Bladder  in  Frog 174 

Hubbard,  M.  E. — Correlated  Protective  Devices  in  Salamanders       174 

Supino,  F. — Skulls  of  Teleosts  in  Relation  to  Mode  of  Life 174 

Korotneff,  A. — Gills  and  Teeth  of  Comephorus 174 

Deineka,  D. — Structure  of  the  Swim-Bladder       174 

Jaeger,  A. — Swim-Bladder  of  Fishes 175 

Pellegrin,  J. — Inferior  Pharyngeal  Bones  in  Genus  Orestias 175 

Chapman,  F.,  &  G.  B.  Pritchard — Australian  Fossil  Fishes 175 

Hoeck,  P.  P.  C— Food-Fishes  of  North  Sea 175 

Gilbert,  Charles  H.,  &  Edwin  C.  Stares — Fishes  of  Panama  Bay       176 

Bigelow,  Henry  B.— Sense  of  Hearing  in  Goldfish    ..              176 

Parker,  G.H. — Maldive  Cephalochorda        176 

Kofoid,  C.  A. — River  Plankton 177 

Plymouth  Marine  Invertebrate  Fauna          177 

Goldschsiidt,  R. — Pelagic  Cephalochordates        297 

Allen,  B.  M. — Eye  of  Bdellostoma  stouti      298 

Gierse,  August — Nervous  System  of  Cyclothone  acclinidens      298 

Wolterstorff,  W. — Pairing  of  Rana  temporaria       299 

Merriam,  J.  C. — Types  of  Limb-Structure  in  Triassic  Ichthyosauria        299 

Moller,  W. — Ear-Bones  of  Vipera  and  Tropidonotus         299 

Folg,  F. — Epidermal  Organs  in  Lizards       300 

Kingsley,  J.  S. — Reptilian  Lower  Jaw          300 

Shufeldt,  R.   W. — Classification  of  Birds 300 

Lonnberg,  E. — Rudimentary  Upper  Canines  in  Elk 300 

Grosz,  S. — Perineal  Sac  in  Cavia  cobay a      300 

Matthew,  W.  D. — Arboreal  Ancestry  of  Mammalia            300 

Major,  C.  J.  Forsyth—  Orkney  Vole       '    ..      ..  301 

Vire,  Armand — Cave  Faunas 301 

Foote,  J.  S. —  Tube  Plan  of  Structure  of  the  Animal  Body        301 

Birge,  E.  A. — The  Thermocline  and  its  Biological  Significance         301 

Packard,  A.  S. — Origin  of  Markings  of  Organisms 302 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

t-xay 

Burckhardt,  Rudolph — Pre- Aristotelian  Zoology       302 

Deperet,  Charles— Evolut ion  of  Tertiary  Mammals 427 

Hilzhelmbk,  Dr. —  Variation  in  Tiger  s  Skull       ..  427 

Fawcett,  E. — Ossification  of  Pterygoid  in  Man ..  427 

Woodward,  Dr.  Arthur  Smith — Guide   to   Fossil   Mammals  and  Birds  in   the 

British  Museum       . .              427 

Leche,  W. — Brain  of  the  Chrysochloris 42* 

Suschkin,  P. — Comparative  Osteology  of  the  Accipitres       428 

Roux,  J. — Genera  of  Frogs       428 

Philippi,  E. — Arrhenoid  Changes  in  a  Fish 428 

Dantan,  L. — Ichthyological  Notes 428 

Mendelssohn,  M. — Action  of  Radium  on  Torpedo       428 

Cligny,  M.  A. — Geographical  Variation  in  Pleuronectids 429 

Guitel,  F. — Comparative  Description  of  Lepadoga*ter  bimaculatus  Pennant  and 

microcephalus  Brook       429 

Zarnik,  B. — Reproductive  Organs  of  Amphioxus 429 

Woodland,  W. — Phylogeny  of  Post-caval  Vein     429 

Henry,  C.  &  L.  Bastien — Causes  of  Senility        430 

Scourfield,  D.  J. — Fresh-water  Biological  Stations 430 

Crampton,  Cecil  B. — Intra-Organismal  Selection       579 

Kalt — Comparative  Anatomy  ami  Physiology  of  the  Eye 579 

Goette,  A. — Origin  of  Lungs 579 

Ballowitz,  E. — Hyperdactylism 580 

Boule,  Marcellin — Evolution  of  Mammals        580 

Konra'di,  D. — It  Rabies  Transmissible  from  Mother  to  Offspring  ? 580 

Miller,  W.  S. — Pancreatic  Bladder  in  Cat          580 

Perrier,  Remy — Male  Genital  Organs  in  Sloths 581 

Phisalix,  C. — Poison  in  Viper's  Eggs 581 

C'oker,  M.  E. — Gadow's  Hypothesis  of  Orthogenetic  Variation  in  Chelonia       ■      ..  581 

Schmidt,  H. — Minute  Structure  of  Gecko's  Foot 581 

Tornier,  Gustav — Air-Sacs  of  Chamseleons 581 

Borcea,  Joan — Persistent  Segmental  Canals  in  Centrina 582 

Gill,  Theodore — Habits  of  the  Sculpin        582 

Goldschmidt,  R. — Branchiostoma  elongatum  Sundevall     5S2 

Pfeffer,  G. — Zoogeographical  Relations  of  Smith  America        582 

Daday,  E.  von — Fresh-water  Microfauna  of  Paraguay       583 

Murkay,  James — Pelagic  Organisms  in  Scottish  Lakes       583 

Haeckel,  Ernst — Biology  at  Jena  during  the  Nineteenth  Century 583 

Taschenberg,  O. — Bibliotheca  Zoologica        583 

Lendenfeld,  R.  yon — Antarctic  Fauna         684 

Mayer,  Paul — Zoologischer  Jahresbericht      684 

Lord,  J.  U.— Fauna  of  Wells 684 

Anderson,  R.  J. — Persistence  of  Trade  Impressions 684 

Langelaan,  J.  W. — Form  of  Trunk- Myotome       685 

Stefano-aska,  M. — Curves  of  Growth 685 

Hrdlioka,  Ales — Brain  Weight  in  Vertebrates 685 

Herrera,  Alfonso  L. — Biological  Theories 685 

Schlaginhausen,  Otto — Ridges  on  the  Sole  and  Palm  in  Primates 685 

Deperet,  Charles — Evolution  of  Mammals 686 

Gaupp,  E. — Skull  of  Echidna  and  Reptiles 686 

Thomas,  Oldfield — New  Squirrel  from  Burma 686 

Bradley,  O.  Charnock— IVotes  on  Skull  of  a  Lion      686 

Kuster,  Ernst — Innervation  and  Development  of  Tactile  Feathers 686 

Fantham,  H.  B. — Hermaphroditism  in  Test udo  grzeca         687 

Loisel,  G. — Effect  of  Ovarian  Extract  of  Frog     687 

Favaro,  G. — Caudal  Hearts  and  Sinuses  in  Teleosts 687 

Clark,  Austin  H. — Habits  of  West  Indian  Whitebait        687 

Johnstone,  Jas. — Ceylonese  Fishes 687 

Cole,  F.  J. — Notes  on  Myxine 688 


CONTENTS.  xiii 
Tunicata. 

PAGE 

Ritter,  W.  E. — New  Type  of  Ascidian 47 

Bancroft,  Frank  W. — Estivation  of  Botrylloides  gascoi 47 

Dam  as,  D. — Studies  on  Tunicates 177 

Bancroft,  F.  W.,  &  C.  O.  Esterly — Physiological  Polarisation  in  Ascidian  Heart  177 

Jllin,  Ch. — Archiascidia  neapolitana 303 

Heinemann,  Philipp — Mesoderm  formation  and  the  Structure  of  the  Tail  in  Ascidian 

Larvue       303 

Fernandez,  M. — Tunicate  Blood  System        430 

Rttter,  W.  E. — Pelagic  Tunicates  of  the  San  Diego  Begion       430 

Hopkinson,  John — The  British  Tunicata      ..      ..       583 

Guthers,  S. — Fertilisation  in  Solitary  Ascidian* 688 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Mollusca. 

Boettger,  O. — Scientific  Value  of  Conchology      48 

Vigier,  P.,  &  Fr.  Vles — Myocardium  in  Primitive  Molluscs 303 

,.              .,               Histology  of  Molluscan  Heart-Muscle 304 

<*■•    Cephalopoda. 

Schweikart,  A. — Egg-Envelopes  in  Cephalopods  and  Chitons 304 

Chun,  C. — Notes  on  Anatomy  of  Cephalopoda        430 

Nopcsa,  F.  Baron— Symbiosis  of  Hydractinian  with  a  Cephalopod 584 

Marceatj,  F. — Muscles  of  the  Mantle  in  Cephalopods 688 

Hoyle,  W.  E. — Ceylonese  Cephalopods 688 

/3.  Gastropoda. 

Lee,  A.  Bolles — Spermatozoon  of  Helix  pomatia        48 

Casey,  Thomas  L. — Notes  on  the  Pleurotomidse "      .'      ..  48 

Baker,  F.  C. — Spire  Variation  in  Pyramidula  alternata 49 

Bohn,  G. —  Tidal  Sijnchronism  of  Littoral  Animals 49 

Raj  at,  M.  H. — Effect  of  Temperature  on  Growth  in  Physa  taslei     49 

Fujita,  T. — Germinal  Layers  in  Gastropods         178 

Smallwood,  W.  M.— Maturation  in  Nudibranchs         178 

Strebel,  H. — Magellan  Species  of  Trophon ..  17^ 

Straub,  W. — Physiological  Studies  on  Aplysia     394 

Heath,  H. — New  Genus  of  Selanogastres       394 

Wilson,  E.  B.— Germinal  Localisation  in  Patella  and  Dentalium    ..      ..      ..      ..  305 

Hanel,  Elise — Cephalopyge  trematoides       395 

Bonnevie,  Kristine — Maturation  in  Enteroxenos  ostergreni      431 

Heath,  Harold — Nervous  System  and  Subradular  Organ  in  Solenogastres      ..      ..  431 

Bohn,  G. — Tidal  Periodicity  in  Littorina  rudis 431 

Fleuke,  H.  J. — Anatomy  and  Phytogeny  of  Haliotis 431 

Abric,  P. — Nematoblasts  of  Eolids 432 

Dimon,  Abigail  Camp- Study  of  the  Mud  Snail .'      ..      "      "      "  534 

Potzsch,  O. — Development  of  Kidney  and  Heart  in  Planorbis..        .'.      .[      ..      ..  584 

Nierstrass,  H.  F.—Kruppomenia  and  the  Radulse  of  Solenogastres..      ..      ..      ..  584 

Heath,  Harold — Morphology  of  a  Solenogaster 585 

Totzacee,  R.  J. — Kidneys  and  Gonads  of  Haliotis     ..      .,      ..      "  585 

Gorka,  A. — Salivary  Secretion  of  Snail         "  535 

Smith,  Burnett — Senility  in  Gastropods      68() 

Willcox,  M.  A.— Habits  of  Tortoise-Shell  Limpet        ..      ..      ..      .'.      ..      "      "  689 

Heath,  H. — Breeding  Habits  of  Chitons                \'m  689 

Dall,  W.  H—  Land  and  Fresh-water  Shells  of  the  Bahamas      ..      ..      ..      ..      ..  690 


XIV  CONTENTS. 


y-  Scaphopoda. 


Distaso,  Arcanqelo—  Structure  of  Dentalium      690 

Boissevain,  Maria — Anatomy  and  Histology  of  Dentalium         ,.      ..  690 

5.    Lamellibranchiata. 

Davenport,  C.  B. —  Variations  in  Pecten      lit 

Hyde,  Ida  H. — Eye  of  Pecten  irradians       50 

Kostanecki,  K. — Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Mactra       305 

Vlks,  Fred — Locomotion  of  Nucula       306 

Herdman,  W.  A. — Gill  of  Pearl  Oyster 432 

Vles,  Fred — Neio  Sensory  Organ  in  Nucula       585 

Hornell.  James — Pearl  Oysters      586 

Glaser,  0.  C. — Growth  of  Oysters 690 

White,  C.  A. — Derivation  of  North  American  Tnionidx     690 

Kostanecki,  K. — Cytology  and  Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Eggs  of  Mactra  ..      ..  691 

Marceau,  F. — Adductor  Muscles  of  Mactra  and  Pecten       691 

Herdman,  W.  A. — Structure  of  the  Pearl  Oyster 691 

Arthropoda. 

Stamm,  R.  H. — Insertion  of  Muscles  on  the  Skeleton  of  Arthropods}  ..      ..  '  ..      ..  179 

a.  Insecta. 

Parker,  G.  H. — Phototropism  of  Vanessa  antiopa       50 

Krodel,  E.—  Influence  of  Low  Temperatures  on  Pupse       .      ..  50 

Villard,  J. — Pigment  of  Silk  of  Anthercea  yana-mai 51 

Dewitz,  J. — Metamorphosis  of  Insect  Larvse 51 

Hirschler,  Jan — Regeneration   of  the   Anterior   End   of  the  Body  in  Pupse  of 

Lepidoptera             51 

Muller,  J. — Two  New  Cave-Beetles        51 

Rohler,  Ernst — Antennary  Sense-Organs  of  Tryxalis  nasuta 51 

Floyd,  Rolfe — Nerve-Cells  of  Cockroach       52 

Froggatt,  W.  W. — Australian  Thysanoptera       52 

Cholodkovsky,  N. — Entomological  Notes      52 

Bueno,  J.  R.  De  La  Torre — Stridulation  in  Ranatra  fusca 52 

Handlirsch,  A. — Classification  of  Hexapoda       52 

Stitz,  H. — Genital  Apparatus  of  Trichoptera       53 

Enderlein,  Gunther — Studies  on  Lice 53 

Ward,  H.  B. — Dermatobia  hominis         53 

Radl.  Em. — Sense  of  Hearing  in  Insects        179 

Deegener,  P. — Development  of  the  Gut  in  Insects  during  Metamorphosis        ..      ..  179 

Dreyling,  L. —  Wax-glands  in  Meliponidse 179 

Hilzheimer,  Max — Hypopharynz  of  Hymenoptera      179 

Bordas,  L. — Accessory  Glands  of  the  Silk- Producing  Apparatus  in  Caterpillars   ..  180 

Pictet,  Arnold — Modifications  in  the  Development  of  Lepidoptera 180 

Cuenot,  L. — Is  there  a  Relation  between  Size  of  Eggs  and  Sex  in  Lepidoptera?     ..  180 

Felt,  E.  P.— Mosquitos  of  New  York  State 180 

Wesche,  W. — Some  Neiv  Sense- Organs  in  Diptera       180 

Boctan,  L.— Coffee  Beetle        181 

Dodd,  F.  P. — Maternal  Instinct  in  Rhynchota-       181 

Riley,  W.  A.  —Development  of  Head  Skeleton  in  Cockroach       181 

Voss,  F. — Thorax  of  Gryllus  Domesticus          ,  181 

Gross,  J. — Pahw'ris  Organ  in  Ephemerids 182 

Escherich,  K. — Monograph  on  Lepismatidse         182 

Aqren,  H. — CoUembola  of  Lapland 182 

Hoffmann.  R.  W. — Ventral  Tube  of  Tomoceros 182 

Stschelkanovzew,  J.  P. — Maturation  in  Viviparous  Aphides 30t> 

Silvestri,  F. — Primitive  Thysanuran 306 

Sykes,  Mark  L. — Protective  Resemblance  in'Insecta 306 


CONTENTS.  XV 

HACK 

Hallek,  B. — Structure  of  Tracheate  Syncerebrum       306 

Reitzenstein,  W.  v. — Structure  of  Ocelli  in  Periplaneta  and  Cloeon        HOT 

Poulton,  E.  B. — Inheritance  of  Acquired  Characters  in  Insecta        307 

Riley,  W.  A. — Development  of  Head  Skeleton  in  Blatta      307 

Neniukofp,  Dimitri — Digestion  in  Cockroach       HOT 

Sellards,  E.  H. — Palaeozoic  Cockroaches       307 

Silyestri,  F. — Oenogyna  l>aeticum 308 

Buonion,  E. — Stalked  Eggs  of  llhyosa  persuasoria       308 

Lea,  Arthur  M. — Ants' X est  Beetles 308 

Arrow,  G.  J. — Sound  Production  in  Lamellicorn  Beetles 308 

Lass,  M. — Structure  of  Female  Flea       308 

Enderlein,  Gcnther — New  Flightless  Fly 309 

Goeldi,  Emilio  A. — Mosquitoes  of  Para       309 

Ducke,  A. — Social  Wasps  of  Para           . .  309 

Hormizaki,  K.  yon — Synopsis  of  Families  of  Palsearctic  Lepidoptera 132 

Kitchin,  V.  P. —  Variation  in  Mel itasa  aurinia 43'2 

Phillips,  E.  F. — Structure  and  Development  of  the  Compound  Eye  of  the  Honey  Bee  433 

Merlin,  A.  A.  0.  Eliot— Foot  of  House-Fly        433 

Grunberg,  K. — New  (Estrid  Larva  from  Hippopotamus 433 

Silvestri,  F. — Metamorphosis  of  Lebia  scapularis       433 

Mollison,  Th. — Function  of  the  Follicular  Epithelium  in  Melolontha  vulgaris      . .  434 

Goding,  F.  W„  &  W.  W.  Fkoggatt — Monograph  of  Australian  Cicadidx       ..      ..  434 

Bordas.  L. — Salivary  Glands  in  Nepa  cinerea      434 

„       „        Glands  of  Hemiptera 434 

Vos8,  F. — Tltorax  of  Gryllus  domesticus 434 

Jaoobi,  A. — Species  of  Pceciloptera 435 

Kellogg,  V.  L.,  &  R.  G.  P>ell — Notes  on  Insect  Bionomics       586 

Handlirsch,  Anton — Phytogeny  of  Insects 586 

Balducci,  E. — Notes  on  Larvx  of  Arpyia  vinula          588 

Pictet,  Arnold — Influence  of  Nutrition  and  Humidity  on  Lepidoptera 588 

Chapman,  T.  A. — Pupal  Suspension  of  Thais       588 

Byatt,  Horace  A. — Numerical  Proportion  of  Mimic  to  Model 588 

Kellogg,  Vernon  L. — Experiments  on  Bombyx  mori 588 

„             „              Regeneration  in  Larval  Legs  of  Caterpillars         589 

Semichon,  L. —  Urate  Cells  in  Hymenoptera 589 

Passerini,  N. —  Luminosity  of  Luciola  italica       589 

Annandale,  Nelson — Aquatic  Gloio -Worm .'     ..  589 

Gross,  J. — Spermatogenesis  of  Sycromastes  marginatus       589 

McCracken,  Isabel — Inheritance  of  Dichromatism  in  Una  lapponica 590 

Boutan,  L. — Bamboo-Beetle  and  Coffee-Plant       590 

Enderlein,  Gunther — Sexual  Dimorphism  in  Rat  Louse 590 

Carpenter,  F.  W. — Reactions  of  the  Pomace  Fly         ■ 590 

Carpenter,  G.  H. — Injurious  Insects  in  Ireland 591 

Briggs,  Ella  M. — Life-Hi  story  of  Case  Bearers 591 

Enderlein,  Gunther — New  Genus  of  Diptera  from  Falkland  Islands 591 

Perez,  Ch. — Histolysis  of  Muscles  on  Larval  Muscidse        591 

Aldrich,  J.  M. — Catalogue  of  North  American  Diptera     591 

Roselle,  F.  du — Specific  Peculiarities  of  External  Genital  Organs  in  Sarcopsylla  591 

Enderlein,  Gunther — New  Flea  from  Armadillo       591 

Lutz,  Adolpho — Brazilian  Tabanidm 592 

Lauterborn,  R. — Chironomid  Larvae 592 

Phisalix,  C— Poison  in  Bees'  Eggs        691 

Kershaw,  J. — Habits  of  Gerydus  chinensis t591 

„             Butterfly  Destroyers  in  Southern  China         692 

Longstafp,  G.  B. — Notes  071  Butterflies  from  India  and  Ceylon        6^2 

Zander,  Enoch — Male  Genital  Apparatus  in  Bubalidx     692 

Sharp,  D.,  &  F.  G.  Smith — Notes  on  Coleoptera 692 

Boas,  J.  E.  V. — Cockchafer- Years 693 

Perazzo.  Umberto — Variations  in  Hydrophilus  piceus       693 

Austen,  E.  E. — Diptera,  etc.,  of  Uganda       693 

Needham,  J.  G.,  &  others — May  Flies  and  Midges  of  Neio  York     693 

Grassi,  B. — Neio  Chironomid 693 


XVI  (  ONTEXTS. 

PAGE 

Dell,  J.  A. — Structure  and  Life-History  of  Psychoda  sexpunctata 693 

Dotton,  J.  Everett,  &  others — Congo  Floor-Maggot        694 

Grunberg,  K. —  Culicidx  of  Cameroon  and  Togo 694 

Baker,  C.  F. — Fleas  and,  Disease 694 

Brunelli,  G. — ( 'vary  of  Termite* 694 

Annandale,  N. — Note*  on  Larva  of  a  Coreid  Bug       694 

Ris,  F. — Peculiar  Organ  in  Phryganids 694 

Hancock,  Joseph  L. — Habits  of  Striped  Meadow-Cricket 695 

GiLiiANDERS,  A.  T. — Notes  on  Arboreal  Insects      695 

Carpenter,  G.  H. — Injurious  Insects  in  Ireland         695 

5.  Arachnida. 

Lankester,  E.  Ray — Structure  and  Classification  of  Arachnida      .">3 

Ross,  P.  H.,  &  A.  D.  Milne— Tick  Fever  in  Uganda 53 

Warburton,  C,  &  N.  1).  F.  Pearce — Oribatid  Mites  from  the  Neighbourhood  of 

Cambridge        53 

Smith,  Frank  P.—  Spiders  of  the  Erigone  Group       182 

Baldwin,  W.,  &  W.  H.  Sutcliffe — Fossil  Scorpion  from  Lancashire     182 

Thon,  Karel — Secretion  in  Female  Gonads  of  Hydrachnids     ..      .        183 

Soar,  C.  D.—Two  New  British  Water-Mites         183 

Nordenskiolb,  Erik — Minute  Structure  of  the  Tick ..  183 

Pritchett,  Annie  H. — Auditory  and  Olfactory  Sense  of  Spiders 309 

Richters,  F. — Eggs  of  Tardigrada         310 

Imms,  A.  D. — Marine  Pseudoscorpion  from  the  Isle  of  Man         310 

Hodgson,  T.  V. — Pentanymphon  Antarcticum       ..      ..      310 

Cole,  Leon  J. —  Ten-legged  Pycnogoitids       310 

Loman,  J.  C.  C. — Decolopoda  of  Eights          311 

Berlese,  A. — Myrmeeophilous  Acari       311 

Laveran,  A.,  &  M.  Vallee — Ticks  as  Transmitters  of  Bovine  Diseases 435 

Trouessart,  E. — Fertilisation  in  Mites         435 

Kclczynski,  Vl. — Arachnological  Notes 435 

Thon,  K. — New  Breathing  Organ  in  Mites 435 

Rossikov,  K.  N. — Monograph  on  the  Kara-Kurt           592 

Hallez,  Paul — Parasitism  of  Larval  Phoxichilidium  on  Bougainvillia 592 

Passerini,  N. — Terrestrial  Mile  adapted  to  Marine  Life 592 

Jumbunathan,  N.  S. —  Habits  and 'Life-  History  of  a  Social  Spider 592 

Kraepelin,  K. — Geographical  Distribution  of  Scorpions 695 

Bordas,  L. — Poison-Glands  of  Latrodectus 696 

Banks,  Nathan — North  American  Spiders 696 

Hansen,  H.  J.,  &  W.  Sorensen — Classification  of  the  Tartar  ides      696 

Borner,  C. — Structure  of  Pedipalpi        696 

Loman,  J.  C.  C. — New  Pycnogonid 696 

Carpenter,  G.  H. — Ceylonese  Pantopoda      697 

e    Crustacea. 

Andrews,  E.  A. — Spermatozoa  of  Crayfish 54 

Brcntz,  L. — Phagocytic  Cells  in  Amphipods        54 

Kane,  W.  F.  de  Vismes — Distribution  of  Niphargus 54 

Abric,  P. — Development  of  Sacculina 54 

Gurney,  Robert — Fresh-  and  Brackish-water  Crustacea  of  East  Norfolk       . .      . .  54 

Yerkes,  R.  M. — Reactions  of  Duphnia  pulex  to  Light  and  Heat       55 

Zograf,  N.  von — Unpaired  Eye  and  Frontal  Organ  of  Branch iopods     55 

Hodgson,  T.  V. — New  Pycnogonid  from  the  South  Polar  Regions     55 

Moseley,  M. — Rudimentary  Gill  in  Astacus  Fluviatilis      183 

Ariola,  V. — Heteromorphism  in  Rock  Lobster      183 

Rodx,  J. — Fresh- water  Decapods  of  Celebes 183 

Stenta,  Mario — Mereicola  ovata  Keferstein 1 84 

Cole,  Leon  J.  — Pycnogonids  of  Bermuda .  1 84 

Bocvier,  E.  L.,  &  G.  Seurat — Commensal  Crab  on  a  Sea- Urchin 311 

McIntosh,  D.  C. —  Variations  in  Number  arid  Arrangement  of  Male  Genital  Apertures 

in  Nephrops  norvegicus 312 


CONTENTS.  XV11 

PACK 

MoIntosh,  D.  C. — Proportions  of  the  Sexes  in  Nephrops  norvegieus 312 

Coutiere,  H. — Scales  of  Pandalidas        312 

Illig,  G. — Luminosity  of  Gnathophausia       312 

Cuenot,  L. — Phagocytary  Organ  of  Decapods       312 

Gadzikiewicz,  W. — Minute  Structure  of  Heart  in  Decapoda      313 

Smith,  Geoffky — Life-History  of  Gnathia  maxillaris        313 

Genthe,  K.  W. — Notes  on  Alcippe  lampas 313 

Gruvel,  A. — Chilian  Cirripeds       314 

Coutieke,  H. — Notes  on  Crustacea 435 

Gadzikiewicz,  W. — Structure  of  Heart  in  Malacostraca 436 

Hoffendahl,  Kurt — Structure  and  Development  of  Poecilasma  aurantium     ..      ..  436 

Alcock,  A. — Indian  Ocean  Paguroids 436 

„         ,,      New  Species  of  Cymonomus        437 

Smallwood,  Mabel  E. — Life  of  Salt-  Marsh  Amphipod      437 

Brehm,  V.,  &  E.  Zedekbauer — Frcxh- water  Plankton  Crustacea     437 

Scourfield,  D.  J. — So-called  "  Olfactory  Setas"  of  Cladocera 437 

Baudouin,  Marcel — Fixation  of  Lernxenicus  Sardinse     437 

Thompson,  Millett  T. — Metamorphoses  of  Hermit  Crab 593 

Illig,  G. — New  Mysid  Genus 594 

Bouvier,  E.  L. — Atlantic  Penmidse  and  Stenopidse       594 

Holt,  E.  W.  L.,  &  W.  M.  Tattersall  — iVew  Schizopods 594 

Kacovitza,  E.  G. — New  Cave  Isopod 594 

Ramsch,  R. — Female  Gonads  of  Cypridina 594 

Ortmann,  A.  E. — Affinities  and  Distribution  of  Cambarus         697 

Andrews,  E.  A. — Sperm-receptacle  of  Cambarus 697 

Lenz,  H. — East 'African  Decapods  and  Stomatopods 698 

Calman,  W.  T. — Neio  Species  of  River-Crab  from  Yunnan        698 

Coutiere,  H. — Abyssal  Crabs 698 

„          „      Epipodites  of  Eucyphota         698 

Calman,  W.  T. — Ceylonese  Cumacea       698 

Mayer,  Paul — Ceylonese  Caprellidx      698 

Walker,  A.  O. — Ceylonese  Amphipods 698 

Artom,  Cesabe — Artemia  salina 698 

Chilton,  Charles — Distribution  of  Terrestrial  Isopods  Introduced  into  Australasia    699 

Richardson,  Harriet — New  Genus  of  Isopods 699 

Nowikofp,  M. — Sense-Organs  of  Limnadia  lenticularis       699 

Annulata. 

Linville,  H.  R. — Tube-formation  in  Annelids      55 

Johnston,  H.  P. — Fresh-water  Nereids 56 

Benham,  W.  B. — Genital  Ducts  in  Oligochxta      56 

,           „          New  Species  of  Genus  Phreodrilus 56 

Ladreyt,  F. —  Urns  of  Sipunculus  nudus       56 

Gerould,  J.  H. — Embryonic  Envelope  of  Sipunculids 56 

M'Intosh,  W.  C. — Notes  on  Polyrhxta 184 

Allen,  E.  J. — New  British  Sabellarian        184 

Fauvel,  P. — Alleged  Otocysts  of  Alciopidx 184 

Bretscher  K. — Xerophilous  Enchytrxidx  of  Switzerland 185 

Spiess,  C. — Digestive  Apparatus  of  Ardastoma      185 

Liyanow,  N. — Metamerism  of  Hirudinea       185 

Wilson,  E.  B. — Mosaic  Development  in  the  Annelid  Egg 314 

Schroder,  Ola y — Ventral  Sen*ory  Organs  of  Palolo  Worm       314 

Gravier,  Ch. — Polynoid  Commensal  of  lialanoglossus         314 

Gungl,  O. — Anatomy  and  Histology  of  Blood  Vessels  in  Lumbricus 315 

Pearl,  Raymond,  &  W.  N.  Fuller — Variation  and  Correlation  in  the  Earthworm  315 

Ikeda,  Iwaji — Gephyrea  of  Japan 315 

Stevens,  N.  M. — Ovogenesis  of  Sagitta °.15 

Foot,  K.,  &  E.  C.  Strobell — Maturation  in  Allolobophora  faztida 438 

Brasil,  L. — Phagocytary  Resorption  in  Seminal  Vesicles  of  Lumbricus 438 

Schepotieff,  A. — Setal  Pockets  in  Polychsets        438 

Dec.  20th,  1905  b 


XVlii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Moore,  J.  Percy — Neto  Species  of  Sea-Mouse       438 

Lignau,  N. — Regeneration  in  Protodrilus       438 

Lefevre,  George — Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Tlialassema  mellita       439 

Gravier,  Ch. — Sexual  Forms  in  Fresh-icater  Nereids ..  439 

KoLMBR,  W. — Crystals  in  Hirudo  and  Pontobdella       439 

Michaelsex,  W. —  01  igochaeta  of  Lake  Baikal      594 

Soulier,  Albert — Annelids  of  Cette      594 

Malaquin,  A. — Phenomena  of  Asexual  Reproduction  in  Salmacina  and  Filigrana  594 

Hekubel,  Marcel  A. — Integumentary  Structures  of  Sipunculids     595 

Skorikow,  A. — New  Species  of  Echiurus        595 

Arnesen,  Emily — Blood-vessels  of  Rhijnchobdellids 595 

Perez,  Ch.,  &  E.  Gendre — Oogenesis  of  BrancheMion       595 

Enders,  H.  E. — Commensals  in  Tubes  of  Chsetopterus 699 

Gemellt,  Agostino — Neurofibrils  in  Ganglion  Cells  of  Annelids       699 

Krawany,  J. — Central  Nervous  System  of  Annelids 700 

Lddwig,  H. — Gail-forming  Annelid  on  Ophiuroid       700 

F 'age,  Louis— Modifications  of  Segmental  Organs  in  Epitokous  Polychaets        ..      ..  Tod 

Mingazzini,  P. — Pelagic  Sipunculid       700 

Freudweiller,  H. —  Vascular  System  of  Oligochaeta 700 

Holmgren,  E. — Epithelial  and  Connective  Tissue  Cells  in  Hirudo 701 

Nematohelminth.es. 

Conte,  A.,  &  A.  Bonnet — New  Nematode  from  Helix        57 

Linstow,  Von — Descriptions  of  Nemotodes  and  Cestodes 57 

Mauval,  L.  de — Acanthocephala  of  Birds      185 

Schneider,  P. —  Oxyuris  Vermicularis  in  Peritoneal  Cavity       185 

Loeb,  L.,  &  A.  J.  Smith — Blood-Coagulating  Substance  in  Anchylostoma       ..  185 

Jammes,  L.,  &  H.  Mandoul — Alleged  Toxic  Action  of  Intestinal  Parasites     ..      ..  186 

Linstow,  Von — Notes  on  Nemotodes       186 

Leidy,  J.,  jun. — Researches  in  Helminthology  and  Parasitology         186  ■ 

Linstow,  O.  von — New  Helminths  from  West  Africa 186 

Cobb,  N.  A. — Freshwater  Nematodes  of  New  Zealand 316 

Man,  J.  G.  de — New  Free-living  Nematode  from  Patagonia       316 

Gemmill,  James  F. — Iehthyonema  grayi       316 

Jagerskiold,  L.  A. — New  Genus  of  Terrestrial  Nematode 440 

Shipley,  A.  E. — Notes  on  Nematodes     ,.  440 

Rauther,  Max — Structure  and  Relationships  of  Gordiidas         595 

Marval,  L.  de — Monograph  on  Acanthocephala  of  Birds 596 

Tretjakoff,  D. — Chromosomes  of  Ascaris 701 

Domaschko,  Adalbert — Gonad  Walls  in  Ascaris  megalocephala     701 

Linstow,  O.  v. — New  Species  of  Strongyloides      702 

Platyhelmiuthes. 

Kowalewski,  M. — New  Cestode  Genus 57 

Engler,  Kurt — Abnormal  Alimentary  System  in  Opisthorchis  felineus 57 

Johnston,  S.  J. — Australian  Entozoa 57 

Pratt,  Henry  S. — New  Distomes 58 

Lichtenheld,  G. — Echinococci  of  Domestic  Animals 1S6 

Patz,  S.  von — Dibothriocephalus  latus  in  Dogs 187 

Child,  CM. — Amitosis  in  Cestoda 187 

Bourquin,  J. — Cestodes  of  Mammals       187 

Rosseter,  T.  B. — Gonads  of  Taenia  sinuosa . .       - 187 

Fuhrmann,  O. — Neiv  Trematodes 187 

Stoipenbrink,  F. — Degeneration  of  Gonads  in  Starved  Planarians 187 

Sablssow,  H. — Nervous  System  of  Tricladidas  from  Baikal        188 

Wilhelmi,  J. — Excretory  System  of  Fresh-water  Triclads 188 

Sekera,  E. —  Viviparity  in  the  Eumesottominae     188 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

PAGE 

Coe,  W.  R. — Sexual  Phases  in  Geonemertes 317 

Walton,  L.  B. — Land  Planarian  from  Ohio         • 317 

Maclaren,  Norman — Two  Interesting  Trematodes       317 

Osbokn,  H.  L.— Habits  and  Structure  of  Cotylaspis  insignis      317 

Jammes,  L.,  &  H.  Mandoul — Bactericidal  Action  of  Cestodes 440 

Shipley,  A.  E. — Notes  on  Cestodes 440 

Szymanski,  M. — Neio  Bird  Tapeworm 440 

Zschokkl-,  F. — Arctic  Cestodes         440 

Linstow,  O.  v. — New  Helminths 441 

Coe,  W.  R. — Anatomy,  Development  and  Habits  of  Geonemertes  agricola 441 

„       „        North  American  Nemerteans 441 

Janicki,  C.  v. — Copulation  in  Cestodes           596 

Ijima,  Isao — New  Cestode  Larva  Parasitic  in  Man      .,.      ..  596 

Goldschmidt,  R. — Maturation,  Fertilisation,  and  Development  in  Zooganus  mirus  596 

Schubmann,  W. — Oogenesis  and  Development  of  Fasciola  hepatica 597 

Fredericq,  L. — Planaria  alpina  in  Belgium        597 

Luther,  Alex. — Eumesostominm 597 

Mattiesen,  E. — Development  of  Fresh-water  Dendrocada 597 

Bergendal,  D. — Structure  of  Car inoma        598 

Shipley,  A.  E.,  &  James  Hornell — Parasites  of  the  Pearl  Oyster 702 

Minckert,  W. — Histology  of  Cestodes 702 

Tosh,  J.  R. — Internal  Parasites  of  Salmon 702 

Fuhrmann,  O. — Bird  Cestodes  of  Eastern  Asia 702 

Marshall,  W.  S.,  &  N.  C.  Gilbert — New  Trematodes       703 

Maclaren,  N. — Structure  and  Affinities  of  Trematodes        703 

Laidlaw,  F.  F. — Ceylonese  Polyclad  Tur'bellaria 703 

Coe,  Wesley  R. — North  American  Nemerteans 703 


Incertae  Sedis. 

Calllery,  M.,  &  F.  Mesnil— New  Enteropneustan  Family       58 

Spengel,  J.  W. — New  Enteropneustan  Species  from  Naples        58 

Ritter,  W.  E.,  &  B.  M.  Dawis — Young  Stages  of  some  Enteropneusta     58 

Waters,  A.  W. — Bryozoa  from  Franz-Josef  Land       58 

Stiasny,  G. — Excretory  Apparatus  in  Eutoprocta        318 

Schepotieff,  A. — Position  of  Rhabdopleura 441 

Ritter,  W.  E.,  &  B.  M.  Davis — Notes  on  Young  Enter opneuita        442 

Dublin,  L.  I. — Germ-Cells  in  Pedicellina  americana 442 

Gravier,  Ch. — Ptychodera  erythrxa       598 


Rotifera. 

Piovanelli,  Sebastiano,  and  others — Three  New  Par asitic  Rotifers 188 

Murray,  James — New  Botifers  from  Scotland      318 

Bryozoa. 
Cumings,  E.  R. — Development  of  Fenestella 703 

Echinoderma. 

Hambach,  G. — Revision  of  the  Blastoids       58 

Klem,  Mary  J. — Revision  of  Paleeo zoic  Palasechinoidea 59 

Martensen,  Th. — Siamese  Sea-Urchins 189 

Pace,  S. — Species  of  Cucumaria  from  Plymouth 189 

Minckert,  \V. — New  Crinoid 189 

Herbst,  Curt — Artificial  Production  of  Vitelline  Membrane  in  Unfertilised  Ova  of 

Sea  Urchin       318 

b  2 


X  X  CONTENTS. 

I'AGE 

Bather,  F.  A. — New  Devonian  Ophiurid 319 

Monks,  Sarah  P. —  Variability  and  Antotomy  of  Phataria        442 

Doderlein,  L. — Sea-urchins  of  German  Deep-Sea  Expedition 443 

Meyer,  K. — The  Origin  of  the  Water -Vaxcidar  System  of  Eehinoderms 443 

Bell,  F.  Jeffrey — South  African  Eehinoderms 443 

Perrier,  Remy — Antarctic.  Holoihuroids                ..       444 

Kcehler,  K.,  &.  C.  Vaney — Deep  Sea  llolothuroids  of  Indian  Ocean       444 

Kellogg,  Vernon  L. — Regeneration  in  Liwkia  diplax              598 

Krahelska,  M. — Merogonic  Development  of  Sea-Vrchin  < >va     598 

Russo,  Ach.,  &  G.  Polara — Internal  Secretion  in  Gonads  of  Phyllophorus  urna  598 

Kcehler,  R.,  &  C.  Vaney — New  Holothurian  from  French  Coast      599 

Ostergren,  Hjalmar — Northern  Synaptids 599 

Edwards,  0.  L. — Species  of  Hohthuria 704 

Ostergren,  Hjalmar — Korean  Holothurians       704 

Grave,  Caswell—  Tentacle  Reflex  in  Holothurians      704 

Norman,  A.  M. — Note  on  Cucumaria  Montagui  Fleming    ..      ..              704 

Henderson,  E.  H. — Development  of  an  Asterid  with  Large  Yolked  Eggs 704 

Herdman,  W.  A.,  &  Jane  B.  Herdman — Ceylonese  Eehinoderms     705 

Minckert,  W. — Regeneration  and  Syzygy  in  Comatulidse 705 

Chadwick,  H.  C. — Ceylonese  Crinoids 705 

Ccelentera. 

Davenport,  Gertrude  Crotty — Reproduction  and  Variation  in  Sargartia  Incise  59 

Heicke,  A. — Anatomy  of  Madreporaria          59 

Kinkelin,  F. — Medusas  from  the  Devonian 59 

Jaderholm,  Elof — Antarctic  Hydroids         59 

Goto,  Seitaro — New  Leptomedusan      60 

Hargitt,  C. — Early  Development  of  Eudendrium        60 

Billard,  Ormand — Development  of  Hydranths  of    Campanularidse   and  Plumu- 

laridss       189 

Wagner,  G. — Movements  and  Reactions  of  Eydra       319 

Torrey,  H.  B. — Biological  Studies  on  Corymorpha 320 

Motz-Kossowska,  S. — Gymnoblastic  Hydroids  of  the  Western  Mediterranean        ..  320 

Hargitt,  Chas.  W. — Notes  on  Hydromedusse  from  Naples 320 

Torrey,  R.  B.,  &  J.  R.  Mery — Regeneration  and   Non-Sexual   Reproduction  in 

Sagartia 321 

McMurrich,  J.  Playfair — Chilian  Actiniae         321 

Carlgren,  O. — The.  Mesenteric  Musculature  of  Actiniaria          321 

Duerden,  J.  E. — Morphology  of  Coral  Polyps       322 

Stephens,  Jane — List  of  Irish  Ccelentera       444 

Hallez,  P. — Bougainvillia fruticosa  Allm. — a  Variety  of  B.  ramosa,  Van  Ben      ..  444 

Maas,  O. — Classification  of  Medusas        444 

Simpson,  J.  J. — New  Cavernu) 'arid  from  Ceylon 445 

Thomson,  J.  Arthur — Deep-Sea  Alcyonaria  from  Indian  Ocean       445 

Schneider,  K.  C. — Primitive  Germ-Cells  of  Ctenophora      445 

Bedot,  M. — History  of  Investigation  of  Hydroids        599 

Carlgren,  Oscar — Polyparium  ambulans  Korotneff 599 

Hartlaub,  Cl. — Magellan  and  Chilian  Hydroids       599 

Thomson,  J.  Arthur — Southern  Antipatharians 599 

Downing,  E.  R. — Spermatogenesis  of  Hydra         705 

Fenchel,  A. — Synonymy  of  Tubularia  larynx      705 

Thornely,  Laura  R. — Ceylonese  Hydroids 705 

Simpson,  J  as.  J. — New  Type  of  Siphonogorgid  Alcyonarian       706 

Schneider,  Alfred — Axis  of  Gorgonidas       706 

Porifera. 

Minchin,  E.  A. — Phylogeny  of  Hexactinellid  Sponges 189 

Pick,  F.  K. — Genus  Raspailia          190 

Ijima,  Isao — Studies  on  the  Hexactinellida 190 

Thielf,  J. — Chilian  Sponges 600 

Topsent,  E. — Studies  on  Dendroceratida       706 


CONTENTS.  XXI 


Protozoa. 

I'AGK 


Jennings,  H.  S. — Physical  Imitations  of  the  Activities  of  Amazbze     60 

Cash,  J. — British  Fresh-water  Rhizopods       01 

Jennings,  H.  S. — Asymmetry  and  Spiral  Swimming 01 

Kofoid,  C.  A. — New  Opalinid 61 

Balfour,  A. — Trypanosomes  in  Anglo-Egyptian  Soudan    ..      ..'      61 

Laveran,  A. — Effect  of  Human  and,  Ape  Serum  on  Trypanosoma 02 

Soulie,  H. — Hxmogregarine  in  Psammodromus  algirus       02 

Jennings,  H.  S. — Movement  and  Reactions  of  Amoebx         190 

Penard,  E. — Contractile  Vacuole  in  Amoeba 191 

Fowler,  G.  H. — Structure  of  Itadiolaria       191 

Zacharias,  Otto — Swarms  of  Volcox 191 

Foa,  Anna — Fission  in  Trichonympha 191 

„         „       Two  Flagellate  Parasites 191 

Lingard,  A. — Giant  Trypanosoma  in  Bovine  Blood     ..      191 

Laveran,  A. —  Trypanosomes  of  French  West  Africa 192 

Rogers,  L. — Trypanosomes  and  Leishman-Donovan  Bodies         192 

Thiroux,  M. — Trypanosomes  in  Paddas         192 

Laveran,  A. — Trypanosomes  and  Tsetse  in  French  Guinea        192 

Jennings,  H.  S. — Behaviour  of  Lower  Organisms         322 

Cash,  James — New  and  little-known  British  Fre*h~water  Rhizopods 323 

Schouteden,  H. — Longitudinal  Division  in  Opalina  ranarum 323 

Brumpt,  E. — Trypanosomes  and  Hxmogregarines  of  Teleosts     323 

Billet,  A. — Culture  of  a  Frog's  Try panosome  in  a  Leech 323 

Lebailly,  C. — Htemotiagellates  in  Teleosteans      323 

Brasil,  L. — Anisogamy  in  Gregarines 323 

Stebblns,  J.  H.,  jun. — Hxmosporidia  of  Rana      323 

Lister,  J.  J. — Dimorphism  in  the  Nummulites      445 

„        „        Dimorphism  in  English  Species  of  Nummulites 446 

Henderson,  W.  D. — Notes  on  Infusorians      446 

Keysselitz — Flagellata  in  Blood  of  Fresh-ivater  Fishes     446 

Crawley,  Howard — Movements  of  Gregarines      446 

Leger,  L. — Meiameric  Cytoplasm  in  Gregarine 446 

Brasil,  L. — Anisogamy  in  Monocystis 446 

Nuttall,  G. — Biology  of  Piroplasma  canis 447 

Jakimoff,  W.  L. — Trypanosomes  of  Nagana  and  Mai  de  Cader as     447 

Bentley,  C  A. — Leucocytozoan  of  the  Dog 447 

Crawley,  Howard — Coelosporidium  Blatiellas      447 

Fuhrmann,  O. — Diseases  of  Fishes 447 

Laveran,  A. — Pseudo-Hxmatozoa 447 

Penard,  E. — Genus  Amozba             000 

Castellani,  A. — Protozoa  in  Human  Fxces         000 

Hacker,  V. — Radiolarian  Skeleton        GOO 

Vassal,  J.  J.- -New  Hxmatozoon  in  a  Squirrel 601 

Perez,  Ch. — Microsporidian  in  Crabs 601 

Stebbing,  James,  Jun. — New  Blood  Parasite  of  Frog 601 

Lingard,  A. — Trypanosome  of  Dourine 001 

Caullery,  M.,  &  F.  Mesnil — Sexual  Reproduction  in  Actinomyxidia 001 

Thiroux,  M. — Trypanosoma  Paddx       601 

Schaudinn,  F.,  &  E.Hoffman — Spirochxta  pallida 002 

Robinson,  Thos. — Notes  on  Radiolaria 706 

Conn,  H.  W. — Fresh-water  Protozoa  of  Connecticut 707 

Kofoid,  C  A. — Craspedotella  an  Example  of  Convergence 707 

Nabarro,  D.,  &  E.  D.  W.  Greig — Human  and  Animal  Trypanosomiasis        ..      ..  707 

Fantham,  H.  B. — Neio  Species  of  Lankesterella 707 

Hickson,  S.  J. — Micro-Organisms  and  Disease     708 

Thiroux — Trypanosoma  duttoni      .. 708 


xxil  CONTENTS. 


BOTANY. 

GEN.EKAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including'  Cell-Contents. 

PAGE 

Kraemer,  H. — Nature  of  Colour  in  Plants    ..        63 

Hus,  H.  T.  A. — Spindle  Formation  in  the  Pollen-Mother-Cells  of  Cassia  tomentosa . .  193 

Denniston,  R.  H. — Structure  of  the  Starch- Grain       193 

Kohl,  F.  G.,  &  others — Structure  of  the  Cell  of  the  Cyanophycese 325 

Gerassimow,  J.  J. — On  the  Size  of  the  Nucleus 326 

Davis,  B.  M. — General  Cytology      448 

Gregoire,  V.,  &  J.  Berghs — Heterotype  Division       448 

Fischer,  Alfred — Cell-Structure  of  Vie  Cyanophycese 448 

King,  C.  A. — Cytology  of  Araiospora       448 

Am  an  d,  A.—"  Bios"  of  Wildiers 449 

Christman,  A.  H. — Sexual  Reproduction  in  the  Busts 449 

Strasburger,  E. — Cytological  Studies  and  Heredity 709 

Bernards,  C. — Kinetic  Centres  in  Plants       709 

Sypeens,  B. — Nuclear  Divisions  in  Endosperm     ..      -. 709 

Digby,  L. —  Cytology  of  Apospory 710 

Structure  and  Development. 

Vegetative. 

Col,  A. — Arrangement  of  the  Vascular  Bundles  in  the  Stem  and  Leaves  of  some 

Dicotyledons     . . 63 

Chrysler,  M.  A. — Development  of  the  Central  Cylinder  of  Aracex  and  Liliacex   ..  64 

Hill,  A.  W. — Structure  of  the  Sieve-  Tubes  of  Angiosperms         64 

Fritsch,  K. — Seedlings  of  Gesneriacese 65 

Jeffrey,  E.  C. — Fossil  Sequoia       65 

Coulter,  J.  M.,  &  M.  A.  Chrysler — Regeneration  in  Zamia 193 

Drabble,  E. — Anatomy  of  Palm  Roots 194 

Holm,  T. — Anatomy  of  Anemiopsis  californica 195 

Bessey,  C.  E. — Stomata  of  Holacantha 195 

Mayes,  Oscar — Course  of  Laticiferous  Tubes  in  Leaves     326 

Cooke,  E.,  &  Schiveley — Structure  and  Development  of  Epiphegus  virginiana       . .  326 

Guerin,  P. — Secretory  Apparatus  of  the  Dipterocarpex       326 

Mahen,  J.,  &  X.  Gillot — Pitcher-formation  in  Saxifrages        326 

Hodard,  C. — Anatomical  Investigations  on  Stem-galls 327 

Winkler,  Hans — Regeneration  in  Passion-Flower       327 

Schiller,  J. — Stipular  Formations 449 

Penhallow,  D.  P. — Anatomy  of  Catalpa  Hybrids       603 

Petersen,  H.  E. — Leaf-Nervation  in  some  Species  of  Bupleurum     603 

Cannon,  W.  A. —  Water-Conducting  Systems  of  some  Desert  Plants 603 

Harvey,  R.  J. — Axillary  Scales  of  Aquatic  Monocotyledons        710 

Reproductive. 

Lyon,  H.  L. — Embryogeny  of  Ginkgo 65 

Wieland,  G.  R. — Pro-embryo  of  the  Bennettitese 195 

Ferguson,  Margaret  C. — Life  History  of  Pinus        ..        196 

Kirkwood,  J.  E. — Comparative  Embryology  of  the  Cucurbitacese       197 

Coulter,  J.  M.,  &  W.  J.  G.  Land — Gametophyte  and  Embryo  of  Torreya  taxifolia  328 


CONTENTS,  XX111 

PAGE 

Winkler,  Hans — Parthenogenesis  in  Wikstrcemia  indicu 328 

Bibliography 329 

Gebber—  Structure  of  the  Flower  in  CruciJ 'era:     450 

Muller,  W. — Inflorescence  of  Boraginacex  and  Solan acex 450 

Lotscber,  P.  K. — Structure  and  Function  of  the  Antipodal  Cells       450 

Strasburger,  E. — Apogamy  in  Alchemilla 451 

Toumey,  J.  W. — Notes  on  the  Fruits  of  Opuntia 451 

Bibliography 452 

Thomson,  R.  B. — Megaspore  Membrane  in  Gymno*perms 604 

Roncati,  N. — Development  in  Ovule  and  Seed  of  Anona     ,.  604 

Frye,  T.  C,  &  E.  B.  Blodgett — Points  in  the  Life-History  of  Apocynum     ..      ..  604 
Riddle,  L.  C. — Development  of  the  Embryo-sac  and  Embryo  of  Batrachium  longi- 

rostris       605 

Johnson,  D.  S. — Seed- Development  in  the  Piperales 605 

Shattdck,  C.  H. — Morphological  Study  of  Ulmus  americanus 710 

Physiology. 

Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Moller,  A.,  &  F.  W.  Neger — Mycorhiza  of  Pines      65 

Nikolski,  M. — Nutrition  of  Fungi  by  Carbohydrates 66 

Pierce,  G.  J. — Artificial  Parasitism       66 

Charabot,  E.,  &  G.  Laloue — Distribution  of  Essential  Oil  in  an  Annual  Plant   ..  67 

Haberlandt,  G. — Sense-organs  of  Plants      67 

Raunklaer,  C. — Appreciation  of  Depth  in  Rhizomatous  Plants        67 

Kuster,  E. — Formation  of  Moots  and  Shoots  in  Cuttings 67 

Molliard,  Marin — Animal  Parasites  and  Floral  Teratology 68 

Milburn,  T. — Colour  Changes  in  Fungi  and  Bacteria         68 

Dauphin,  J. — Influence  of  Radium  on  the  Growth  of  Fungi       69 

Becquerel,  P. — Germination  of  Moss-Spores  and  the  Nutrition  of  their  Protonemas 

in  Artificial  Media         69 

Laurent,  J. — Carbon  Nutrition  of  Green  Plants  by  Organic  Substances 197 

Bergen,  J.  Y. — Relative  Transpiration  of  Old  and  New  Leaves  of  the  Myrtus  Type  198 
Kellicott,  W.  E. — Daily  Periodicity  of  Cell-division  and  of  Elongation  in  the  Root 

of  Allium 198 

Ursprung.  A. — Periodicity  of  Groioth  in  Thickness  in  the  Tropics 198 

Spalding.  Effie  S. — Mechanical  Adjustment  in  Cereus  giganteus  to  Varying  Quan- 
tities of  Stored  Water    329 

Gallaud,  J. — Study  of  Endotropic  Mycorhiza       329 

Schellenberg,  H.  C. — Hemicellulose  as  a  Reserve  Substance  in  European  Forest- 
Trees         330 

Tschirch,  A. — Heterorhizy  in  Dicotyledons 330 

Moore,  G.  T. — Soil  Inoculation  for  Leguminous  Plants      . .              452 

Snow,  L.  M. — Development  of  Root-Hairs        606 

Gins,  L. — Arrangement  of  Starch  in  the  Starch-Sheath  of  the  Perianth  of  Clivia  . .  607 

Dixon,  H.  H. — Supply  of  Water  to  Leaves  on  a  Dead  Branch 711 

Cannon,  W.  A. — Transpiration  of  Fouquieria  splendens 711 

Livingston,  B.  E. — Relation  of  transpiration  to  Growth  in  Wheat 712 

Gallaud,  I. — Endotropic  Mycorhiza      712 

Dauphin,  J. — Groivth  of  Fungi  in  Artificial  Media 713 

Irritability. 

Haynes,  Julia  A. — Geotropic  Response  in  Stems . .      ..      t 330 

Tischler,  G. — Distribution  of  Statoliths  in  Roots 331 

Teodoresco,  E.  C. — The  Effect  of  Low  Temperature  on  Zoospores  of  Algm       ..      ..  331 

Livingston,  B.  E. — Chemical  Stimulation  of  a  Green  Alga         332 

Neger,  F.  W. — Germination  of  Spores 332 

Stracke,  G.  J. — Immunity  of  Plants  to  their  oion  Poison 453 

Molisch,  Hans — Heliotropism  Induced  by  Radium 607 

Kinzel,  W. — Influence  of  Light  on  Sporogonium-formation  in  Liverworts        ..      . .  607 


XXIV  CONTENTS. 

I'AGE 

Pourievitch,  M.  K. — Influence  of  Temperature  on  Respiration        607 

Burns,  G.  P. — Traumatic  Curvature  in  Roots      607 

Aderhold— Effect  of  Leaf- Fungi  on  the  Productive  Power  of  the  Plant 608 

Kurzwelly,  Walther — Resistance  of  Dried  Plants  to  Poisonous  Substances         ..  608 

Schroter,  Alfred — Circulation  of  Protoplasm  in  the  Mucorini        713 

Latham,  Elizabeth — Stimulation  of  Sterigmatocystis        713 

Adams,  J. — Effect  of  Very  Low  Temperatures  on  Moist  Seeds 714 

Hensel.  Esther  P.—  Movements  of  Petals 714 

Chemical  Chang-es. 

Emerson,  J.  T. — Blackening  of  Baptisia  tinctoria      198 

Ward.  H.  Marshall — Action  of  Wood  on  Photographic  Plates 332 

Caldwell,  J.  S. — Effects  of  Toxic  Agents  upon  the  Action  of  Bromelin 608 

General. 

Arber,  E.  A.  Newell — Fossil  Flora  of  the  Culm  Measures  of  Devon      69 

Rendle.  A.  B. — Patagonian  Plants        69 

Merrill,  Elmer  D. — Philippine  Plants       70 

Illustrations  of  German  Orchids         70 

Britten,  J..  &  G.  S.  Boulger — British  and  Irish  Botanist*      ..      70 

Garry.  F.  N.  A. — Notes  on  the  Drawings  for  "English  Botany"      70 

Engler — Syllabus  der  Pflanzenfamilien         . .      . .'      71 

Blbliography      71 

Scott,  D.  H. — The  President's  Address :    What   were   the    Carboniferous   Ferns  ? 

(Plates  I.  to  III. ;  Figs.  32,  33) 137 

Scholl,  L.  H.,  &  others — Identification  of  Trees  in  Winter     199 

Cushman,  J.  A. — Localised  Stages  in  Common  Roadside  Plants 199 

Copel and.  E.  B.— Variation  of  California  Plants       199 

Livingston,  B.  E. — Relation  of  Soils  to  Vegetation      200 

Prain.  D.— Asiatic  Plants       200 

Stirling,  J. — Flora  of  the  Australian  Alps 200 

Bibliography 201 

Maiden,  J.  H. — Botany  of  Funafuti       333 

Morrison,  A. —  West  Australian  Droseras      333 

White,  C.  H. — Autophytography :  A  Process  of  Plant  Fossilisation 333 

Bibliography     " 333 

Wery,  Josephine — Experiments  on  the  Attraction  of  Bees  by  Flowers      453 

Ule.  E. —  Relation  between  Ants  and  Plants 453 

Perkins,  G.  H. — Fossil  Fruits  from  the  Tertiary  Lignites 453 

Harper,  Roland — Explorations  in  Georgia 454 

Engler,  A. — Botanical  Relationship  between  Tropical  Africa  and  America   ..      ..  609 

King  &  Gamble — Flora  of  the  Malayan  Peninsula 609 

Merrill,  Elmer  D. — Blanco's  Flora  de  Filipinos      609 

Cockayne,  L. — Botany  of  the  Southern  Islands  of  New  Zealand       610 

Berry,  E.  W. — Fossil  Grasses  and  Sedges     610 

Yokoyama,  M. — Japanese  Mesozoic  Plants 610 

Lotsy,  J.  P. — X-Generation  and  2X-  Generation 611 

Bibliography 611 

Baker,  J.  B. — Revised  Classification  of  Hoses       714 

Prain,  D. — Mansoniex,  a  new  Tribe  of  the  Natural  Order  Sterculiacex    ..      ,.      ..  715 


C  RYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 

Hieronymus,  G.— Ferns  of  Tropical  America       71 

Bibliography 72 

Ford,  S.  O. — Anatomy  of  Psilotum  triquetrum       201 


CONTENTS.  XXV 

PAGE 

Bruckmann.  H. — Prothallium  of  Ophioglossum  vulgatum 202 

8omerville,  A. — Polystichum 202 

Bibliography 202 

Bibliography      334 

Christensen,  C—  Index  Filicum 454 

Campbell,  D.  H. — Affinities  of  Ophioglossacese  and  Marsiliacese        454 

Calegari,  M. — Asplenium  Seelosii  Leybold 455 

Bibliography 455 

Christ,  H.—  Chinese  Ferns       611 

Bibliography 612 

Goebel,  K. —  Apospory  in  Asplenium  Dimorphum       716 

BRrcHMANN,  H.,  &  K.  Goebel — The  Rhizophores  of  Selaginella       716 

Bibliography 717 

Bryophyta. 

Camus,  F. — Sphagna  from  the  Environs  of  Paris         73 

Grout.  A.  J. — Easy  Identification  of  Hepaticse 73 

Macvicar,  B.  M. — Bare  Scottish  Hepaticse 73 

Douin,  I. — Cincinnulus  trichomanis        73 

Bibliography 74 

Roth,  G. — European  Mosses , 205 

Bibliography 205 

Bibliography      335 

Lampa,  E. — Researches  on  some  Liverworts 458 

Sablon,  Leclerc  i>u — Moss-Sporogonium  Compared  with  Fern-Plant 458 

Schiffner,  V. — Nematode  Galls  in  Mosses 459 

Stirton,  J. — New  and  Rare  Scottish  Mosses 459 

Macyicar,  S.  M. — Scottish  Hepaticse       459 

Evans,  A.  W. — Hepaticse  from  Florida 460 

Bibliography      • 460 

Braithwaite,  R. — British  Moss-flora 613 

Eyans,  A.  W. — Ceratolejeunea    ' 613 

Bibliography 613 

Bolleter,  E. — Fegatella  conica      718 

Goebel,  K. — On  the  Distribution  and  Mode  of  Life  of  Exormotheca         719 

Meylan,  C. — Mosses  of  the  Jura 719 

Bibliography 719 

Thallophyta. 
Alg-se. 

Oltmanns,  F. — Morphology  and  Biology  of  Algse 76 

Techet,  K. — Behaviour  of  Marine  Algse  in  Belation  to  Salinity        76 

Sauvageau,  C. — Sphacelariacese      76 

Wolfe,  J.  J. — Cytology  of  Nemalion  multifidum 77 

Adams,  J. —  Chantransia  Alarise      ..      ..              77 

Gepp,  A.  &  E.  S. — Rhipidosiphon  and  Callipsygma 77 

Davis,  B.  M. — Oogenesis  in  Vaucheria 78 

Fritsch,  F.  E. — GEdogonium 79 

Wesenberg-Ltjnd — Mgagropila  Sauteri        79 

Wille,  N. — Northern  Plankton       79 

Forti,  A. — Phytoplanhton  of  Asia  Minor      79 

Scherffel,  A. — Chrysomonadinese 80 

Bibliography 80 

Fritsch,  F.  E.— Plankton  of  Tliree  English  Rivers     209 

Lemmermann,  E. — Phytoplanhton  of  some  Plan  Lakes       209 

Ostenfbld,  C.  H. — Studies  on  Phytoplanhton       210 

Bessey,  C.  E.— Classification  of  Protophyta 210 

West,  G.  T. — Remarks  on  Glaeocapsa 210 


XXVI  CONTENTS. 


PA"JE 


Fritsch,  F.  E. — Reproduction  of  Anabsena 211 

Phillips,  O.  P. — Cyanophycese        211 

Eeinhard,  L. — Phytoplankton  of  Donjec        212 

Murray,  G. — Clement  sia  Markhamiana        212 

Cushman,  J.  A. — Division  in  Desmids  under  Pathologic  Conditions         212 

Gepp,  A.  &  E.  S. — Penicillus  and  Rhipocephalus 212 

Karsten,  G. — Microspores  of  Diatoms 213 

Cohere,  J. — Diatoms  of  the  Montagne  Noire,  Pyrenees       2i3 

Mueller,  Olga — Laminaria  bullata     214 

Berwick,  T. — Demonstration  of  Masked  Chlorophyll  in  Laminaria 214 

Warner,  F.  M.—Endocladia  muricata 214 

Toni,  G.  B.  de— Floridese        214 

Lea vitt,  Clara  K.  —  Callymenia  phyllophora       215 

Foslie,  M. — Lithothamnia  of  the  Adriatic  and  Morocco       215 

•Jonsson,  H. — Marine  Algse  of  East  Greenland      215 

„         „      Marine  Algse,  of  Jan  May  en 215 

Lemmermann,  E. — Algal  Flora  of  the  Sandwich  Islands 215 

Bibliography 216 

Chalon,  J. — Marine  Algse  of  North  and  West  France          33S 

Dorogostaisky,  V. — Algse  of  Lake  Baikal 339 

Gepp,  A.  &  E.  S. — Antarctic  Algse 339 

Bornet,  Ed. — Acrochastium  and  Chantransia       339 

Heydrich,  F. — A  New  Genus  of  Squamariacese 340 

Teodoresco,  E.  C. — Dunaliella,  anew  Genus  of  Polyblepharidese- 340 

Brand,  F. — Cladophoracese       340 

Paulsen,  O. — Plankton  Investigation  round  Iceland 340 

Fritsch,  F.  E. — Studies  on  Cyanophycese      341 

Bibliography 341 

Vickers,  A. — Marine  Algse.  of  Barbadoes       464 

Setchell,  W.  A. — Parasitic  Floridese  of  California 464 

Gepp,  A.  &  E.  S. — Leptosarca 464 

Howe,  M.  A. — New  CMorophycese 465 

Borgesen,  F. — Siphonocladus 465 

Collins,  F.  S. — Chlorochytrium       465 

Janse,  J.  M. — Polarity  and  Organ- Formation  in  Caiderpa  prolif era       465 

Cushman,  J.  A. — Zygospores  of  Desmids 466 

Morteo,  E. — Diatoms  of  the  Orba 466 

Edwards,  A.  M. — Trochiscia  moniliformis 466 

Schr,  J. — Algse  of  the  Weser  District      466 

Larsen,  E. — Fresh-water  Algse  of  East  Greenland       466 

Lemmermann,  E. — Fresh-water  Algse  of  the  East  Indies 467 

Serbinow,  J.  L. — Peromelia  glaiophila 467 

Trotter,  A. — Plankton  of  Lake  Laceno         467 

Bachmann,  H. — A  New  Chlamydomonas       467 

Serbinow,  J.  L. — Clilamydomonas '468 

Bibliography     46S 

Jackson,  D.  D. — The  Movements  of  Diatoms  and  other  Microscopic  Plants     ..      ..  554 

Mazza.  A. — Marine  Algology          ..      .. 615 

Gepp,  A.,  &  others — South  Orkney  Marine  Algse         ..      615 

Smith,  H.  M. — Seaweed  Industries 616 

Bosse,  A.  Weber  van — Dictyosphseria 616 

Edwards,  A.  M. — Diatoms  of  the  Territories        616 

Yatsu,  N. — Cytology  of  the  Forms  of  Stigeoclonium 616 

Bibliography 617 

Artani,  A. —  Cultivation  of  Green  Algse        720 

Pascher,  A. — Sexual  Reproduction  in  Stigeoclonium 721 

Molisch,  H. — Brown  Colouring  Matter  in  Algse 721 

Bergon,  P. — Spore  Formation  in  Biddulphia  mobiliensis 721 

Borgesen,  F.,  &  H.  Jonsson — Arctic  and  North  Atlantic  Marine  Algse 722 

Simmons,  H.  G. — Marine  Flora  of  the  North  Atlantic,  North  Pacific,  and  Polar  Sea  722 

Laing,  R.  M. — Ceramiacese  of  New  Zealand 722 


CONTENTS.  XXV11 

Enwald,  K.  H.,  &  K.  M.  Levander — Finland  Algse 723 

Hansgirg,  A. — The  Algse  of  Lower  Austria 723 

Migila,  W. — The  Algse  of  Germany       723 

Suhr,  J. — Algse  of  the  Weser  District      723 

Hardy,  A.  D.,  &  G.  8.  West — Desmids  from  Victoria       724 

Lemmermann.  E. — Marine  Phytoplankton 724 

BlRLIOGEAPHY 725 


Fungi. 

Trow.  A.  H. — Fertilisation' in  the  Saprolegniese 82 

Ruhland,  W. — Studies  on  the  Fertilisation  of  Albugo  Lepigoni  and  some  Perono- 

sporese       82 

Cuboni.  G.,  &  others — Vegetable  Pathology 82 

Saito,  K.,  &  C.  Wehrner — Fungi  Causing  Fermentation 83 

Eberhardt,  Albert — Contribution  to  the  Study  of  Cystopus  candidus 8  5 

Kuyper.  H.  P. — Perithecium  of  Monascus      84 

Kuhland,  W. — Disease  of  Oaks       84 

Schellenberg,  H.  C. — New  Sclerotinise         84 

Rick,  J. — Tropical  Hypocreacese 84 

„      ,.      Laboulbeniacese  from  the  Vorarlberg      85 

Grijns,  G. — Ascus  form  of  Aspergillus  fumigatus         85 

Chapman,  A.  C. — Wild  Yeast  Infection         85 

Klein,  E.,  &  Mervyn  Gordon — Origin  of  a  Rose-coloured  Yeast 85 

Henneberg,  W. — Study  of  Yeast 85 

Will,  H.,  &  others — Research  on  Yeast       86 

Jordi,  E.,  &  others — Studies  of  Uredinese 86 

Bubak,  Fr.,  &  C.  M.  Gibson — Infection  Experiments  with  Uredinese       87 

Dietel,  P. — Distribution  of  Uredinese  on  their  Host-Plants        87 

Emerson,  Julia  I. — Relationship  of  Macrophoma  and  Diplodia       88 

Osterwalder,  A. — Rotting  of  Cherries  by  Glceosporium      88 

Laueert,  K. — Leaf-disease  of  Ribes  alpinum        88 

„       Morphology  of  a  New  Cytospora 88 

Tubeuf,  V.,  &  Joh.  J.  Vanha — Disease  of  Potato        88 

Sohorler,  B. — Distribution  of  the  Musk  Fungus  (Moschuspilz) 89 

Jordi,  Ernst — Uromyces  on  Leguminosse       89 

Petri,  L. — Diagnostic  Value  of  the  Capillitium  of  Tylostoma 89 

Osterwalder,  A. — Fruit  Decay  caused  by  Fungi        89 

Sorauer,  P. — Injury  due  to  Frost  followed,  by  Fungi 89 

Bubak,  Fr. — Diseases  of  Sugar  Beet      90 

Vanha,  J. — Brown  Discoloration  of  Potato  Leaves       90 

Lagerheim,  G.  von — Disease  of  Figs 90 

Appel,  Otto,  &  H.  F.  Stkunk — Diseases  of  Cacao 90 

Lafar,  F. — Handbook  of  Technical  Mycology        90 

Crossland,  G,  &  J.  Needham — Fung  us  Flora  of  Hearth-rug 90 

Havsman,  W. — The  Detection  of  Arsenic  by  Growth  of  Penicillium 91 

Bibliography 91 

Istvanffi,  J.  von — The  Wintering  of  Peronospora  in  the  Vine 217 

Vuillemin,  P. — Membrane  of  Zygospore         218 

„         „         Hyphoids  and  Bacteroids 218 

Oddemans,  C.  A.  J.  A.,  &  C.  J.  Koning—  Tobacco  Disease  due  to  Sclerotinia ..      ..  218 

Salmon,  E.  S. — Two  Supposed  Species  of  Ovularia      218 

Prunet,  A. — Notes  on  the  Occurrence  of  Black  Rot       218 

Magnus,  P. — Mycological  Notes       219 

Salmon,  E.  S. — Further   Cidtural  Experiments  with  Biologic  forms  of  the  Erysi- 

phacex      219 

Henneberg,  W. —  Vitality  of  Yeast  in  Varying  Conditions 219 

Bonnier,  Gaston — Nuclear  Fusion  in  Yeast  Spores 219 

Ippolito,  G.  D.,  &  E.  Lasnier — Diseases  due  to  Cladosporium         220 

Oudemans,  C.  A.  J.  A. — Disease  of  Larch 220 


XXV111  CONTENTS. 


TAGF. 


VriLLEMiN,  P. — Isaria  forms  of  Penicillium 220 

Stoll,  O— Morphological  and  Bioloaical  Characteristic*  of  PenciUium  Species      ..  221 

Schellenberg,  D.  H.  C. — Busts  of  Pines       221 

Semadeni.  O. — Puccini fe  found  on  Umhelliferas       221 

Dietel,  P. — Notes  on  Uredospores  of  Uromyces  brevities  and  U.  punctatostriatus   ..  221 

Eriksson,  Jakob — On  tlie  Vegetative  Life  of  some  Uredineas     221 

Hennings.  P.,  &  others — Notes  on  Uredinese        222 

Ward.  Marshall — Becent  Besearches  on  the  Parasitism  of  Fungi 222 

Lindroth.  Ivar — Destruction  of  Birch  and  other  Wood  by  Polyporus  nigricans      ..  223 

Banker,  Howard  J. — Notes  on  the  Variability  of  Eypothele  repanda     223 

Falck,    Richard  —  Spore  Dispersion    in    the  Basidiomycetes,   and  the  Biological 

Value  of  the  Basidium 223 

Istvanffi,  Gv.  de—  Two  New  Pests  of  the  Vine  in  Hungary      224 

Guttman.  A. — Practical  Notes  on  the,  Beet  Disease      224 

Goethe.  Rudolf — Canker  of  Fruit  Trees      224 

Speschnew,  N.  N. — Fungal  Parasites  of  the  Tea  Plant      224 

Nechitsch,  A. — Mould  Ferments  from  India       225 

Halstf.ad,  B.  D..  &  J.  A.  Kelsey — Beport  on  Fungicides  225 

Lutz,  L. — Mycological  Notes 225 

Mafblanc.  A. —  Vegetable  Pathology       ••       ••  225 

Jungner.  J.  B. — Inter-relation  of  Pests  of  Cereals       •  •      •  •  225 

Ternetz.  Ch. — Assimilation  of  Atmospheric  Nitrogen  by  a  Turf  Fungus..      ..      ■■  226 

Hockauf.  J.,  &  H.  Rtetnyorth — Poisoning  by  Fungi  226 

Bubak,  Franz — Diseases  of  Sugar  Beet  in  Bohemia 226 

Fischer.  Ed. — Biological  Species  of  Parasitic  Fungi,  and  the  Development  of  Nero 

Forms       226 

Kindshoven,  J..  &  W.  Frfckmann — Diseases  of  Plants,  with  Methods  of  Prevention 

or  Cure 227 

Bibliography     227 

Bonnier,  Gaston — Biology  of  Saprolegniem 343 

Clausen.  P. — Development  of  Ascnmycetes 343 

Kuyper,  H.  G. — Development  of  Monascus 344 

Pegi.ion,  V. — Wliite  Milrlew  of  Euonymus 345 

Salmon,  E.  S. — Erysiphacex 345 

Wehrner.  0. — Aspergillus        ..      ..  345 

Clinton,  G.  P. — North  American  Ustilagineas      345 

Dietel,  P. — The  Genus  Phragmidium 346 

Mentemarttni,  Luigi.  &  others — Notes  on  Uredinese. 346 

Fischer,  Ed. — Swiss  Uredinese,        347 

Arthur.  J.  C. — Amphispores  of  Grass  and  Sedge  Busts      347 

Rolfs,  F.  M. — Potato  Disease's        348 

Appel.  O.,  &  others — Diseases  of  Trees        ..  348 

Butler,  E.  J. — Plant 'Diseases  in  India  during  1903 348 

Hollrfng.  M. — Plant  Diseases  during  the  year  1903 349 

Cooke,  M.  C.  &  others — Diseases  of  Cultivated  Plants 349 

Lt-stner,  G.,  &  others — Plant  Diseases       349 

Hiltner,  L.,  &  others — Diseases  of  Beet      ..       350 

Boudier,  M..  &  others — French  Mycology ..       ..  350 

Borquflot.  O.,  &  H.  Hertssey — Trehalose  in  Fungi 351 

Gfeguen.  F. — Effect  of  Turgescence  in  Fungi        351 

Oudemans,  C  A.  J.  A. — New  Parasitic  Fungi 351 

Atkinson,  G.  F. — Edible  and  Poisonous  Fungi 351 

Ferry,  Rene — Immunity  from  the  Poison  of  Fungi 352 

Lutz,  J. — Abnormalities  in  Fungi 352 

Lafar,  Franz,  &  others — Technical  Mycology 352 

BlBLTOGRAPHY        352 

Loewenthal,  W. — Chytridiacex     ..      ..      .■ 471 

Worontn.  M. — Monoblepharidex      471 

Molliard,  Marin.  &  others — Culture  Experiments  with  Morchella        471 

Wehmer,  C. — Fermentation  with  Mucor 472 

Mangin,  L.,  &  P.  Viala — Stearophora  radicicola        472 


CONTEXTS.  XXIX 

PAGE 

Magnos,  P. — Sclerotinia  Crataegi 473 

Maire,  Rene — Cytological  Researches*  on  some  Ascomycetes         47:-! 

Mabsee,  G. — Bi -nucleate  Cell*  in  Ascomycetes       473 

Johnson,  T. —  Willow  Canker ..      ..  474 

Salmon,  E.  S. — Specialisation  of  Parasitism  in  the  Erysiphacex       474 

Henneberg,  W. — Research  on  Yeast       474 

Lindau,  G. — Hyphomycetes  ..      ..  474 

Arthaud-Berthet,  J. — Agricultural  Microbiology      475 

Sydow,  P.,  &  others — Uredinese 475 

Duchaussoy,  H. — Dry-rot 475 

Heinisch,  W.,  &  J.  Zellner — Chemistry  of  Amanita  muscarius       475 

Lloyd,  C.  G. — Mycological  Notes 476 

Ruhland,  W. — Effects  of  Copper  on  Fungi 476 

Traverso,  G.  B. — Nomenclature  of  the  Organs  of  Pyrenomycetes  and  Deuteromycetes  476 

Saccardo,  P.  A. — Sylloge  Fungorum       476 

Guttenberg,  H.  Ritter  von — Physiological  Anatomy  of  Fungus  Galls 476 

Solereder,  H. —  Witches'  Brooms  of  Quernus  rubra  and  other  Woody  Plants  ..      ..  477 

Nestlek,  Anton — The  Fungus  of  Lolium  temulentum        477 

Rae,  Carleton,  &  others — British  Mycology       477 

Hohnel.  Franz  von — Mycology      477 

Smith,  Worthington  G. — Sowerby's  Drawings  of  Fungi 478 

Wize,  Casimir — Fungal  Parasites  of  Insects 478 

Zederbauer,  E. — Myxobacterise       478 

Lister,  A.  &  G. — Notes  on  Mycetozoa 478 

BlBL.OGRAPHY        479 

Peglion,  Vittorio — Vegetable  Pathology     617 

Gallaud,  I. — Delacroixia  coronata         617 

Wehmer,  C. — Mucor  Species  and  Alcohol       618 

Saito,  K. — Rhizopus  Oligosporus 618 

Thaxter,  Roland — A  New  Species  of  Wynnea 618 

Muscatello,  G. — Observations  on  Peziza  ammophila 618 

Aderhold,  R.,  &  \V.  Ruhland — Sclerotinise  of  Fruit  Trees       618 

Fischer,  Ed. — Sclerotium  Disease  of  the  Alder 619 

Cuboni,  G.,  &  L.  Petri — Disease  of  Olive  Trees  619 

Salmon,  E.  S. — Erysiphacex  of  Japan.     II.         619 

Aderhold,  R. — Infection  Experiments  with  Thielavia  basicola 619 

Saite,  K. — On  the  Occurrence  of  Saccharomyces  anomalus  in  the  Brewing  of  Sake  619 

Desoopfre,  Andre — The  Yeasts  of  Charente         620 

Hansen,  Emil  (Jhr. — Development  of  Yeast  in  the  Soil       620 

Klebahn,  H. — Research  on  Fungi  imperfecti        620 

Peglion,  Vittorio — Disease  caused  by  Pencillium  glaucum      621 

Frank — Phellomyces  sclerotiophorus       621 

Lindau,  G. — Hyphomycetes      621 

Uzel,  J. — Cercospora  beticola  Parasitic  on  Sugar  and  Fodder  Beet         622 

Holway,  E.  W.  D. — North  American  Uredinem 622 

Arthur,  J.  C. — Mexican  Rusts       622 

Kauffman,  Calvin  H. — Genus  Cortinarins 622 

Lloyd,  C.  G. — Mycological  Notes 622 

Loewenthal,  W. — Experiments  with  Parasitic  Fungi       623 

Sorauer,  P. — Handbook  of  Plant  Diseases 623 

Funguid  Diseases  on  the  Cotton  Phmt 623 

Morgan,  A.  P.,  &  others — American  Mycology 623 

Hollrung,  M. — Disease  of  Sugar  Beet 624 

Lafar,  F. — Technical  Mycology      624 

Carnoy  &  others — Fat  Bodies  in  Plant  Nuclei 624 

BlB'.IOGRvPHY 624 

Blakeslee,  A.  F. — Two  Conidia-bearing  Fungi 728 

Petri,  L. — Disease  of  Haricot  Beans 728 

Mdth,  F. —  Witches'  Broom  on  Bear  Trees 728 

Klebahn,  H. — Botrytis  Disease  of  Tulips  and  Lily  of  the  Valley      728 

Mirande,  Marcol — Biology  of  Entomophytes       728 


XXX  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Stager,  R.— Biology  of  Ergot 729 

Voglino,  P. — Phyilaciinia  Corylea..       72'.i 

Guilliebmond,  A. — Morphology  and  Cytology  of  Yeasts 729 

Hest,  J.  J.  van — Vacuoles  in  Yeast-Cells      729 

Fedebley,  Haery — Fusion  of  Ustilago  Conidia 7: 10 

1 1  i-x'KE,  Ludwig — Infection  of  Cereals  by  Smut  Spores        730 

MessalongO,  C. — Deformation  caused  by  an  JEcidlum        730 

Fischeb,  Ed.,  &  othebs — Vredinese        730 

MuBElLL,  W.  A. — Polyporaceze  of  North  America. — XL  A  synopsis  of  the  brovn 

pileate  species 731 

Lloyd,  C.  G. — Mycological  Notes 731 

Lindad,  G. — Hyphomycetes      732 

Hennings,  P.,  &  othees — Fungi  of  the  Mark  Brandenburg        732 

Morgan,  V.,  &  others — American  Mycology         7:52 

Ivibchnee,  Oskak — Diseases  of  Plants    ..               732 

Lawrence,  W.  L.,  &  others — Diseases  of  Cultivated  Plants     733 

1>at  r,  E. — Studies  in  My xobacteria         ..      .-  733 

Bibliography 734 

Lichens. 

Elenkin,  A. — Observations  on  Endosaprophytism  in  Heteromerous  Lichens    ..      ..  95 

Bibliography      95 

Mc Andrew,  James — Notes  on  Lichens 229 

West,  W.— Habitat  of  Lichens         230 

Schulte,  Fritz — Anatomy  of  the  Genus  Usnea 230 

Bibliography 230 

Elenkin,  A. — Theory  of  Endosaprophytism  in  Lichens       356 

Briosi,  G.,&  E.  Farneti — New  Lichen  Type       357 

Fink,  Bruce  —  How  to  Collect  and  Study  Lichens 357 

Britzelmayer,  Max — Notes  on  Lichens 357 

Bibliography 357 

Zopf,  W.,  &  others — Multi-nucleate  Condition  of  Lichen  Spores      481 

Britzelmayer,  Max — Lichenological  Notes 4S1 

Aecaxgeli,  Alceste — Studies  of  Dsnea         481 

Bibliography 481 

Picquenard — Lichens  of  Finisterre         627 

Schneider,  Albert — Classification  of  Lichens 627 

Lederer,  Michael — Lichen  Flora  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Amberg 627 

Hue,  L' Abbe — Lichen  Cephalodia 628 

Elenkin,  A. — Polymorphism  of  Evernia  furfur acea 628 

Sargent,  F.  Le  Boy — Lichenology  for  Beginners        628 

BlBLIOGEAPHY 629 

Schneidee,  Albeet — Chroolepus  Aureus  a  Lichen       735 

Dabbishire,  Otto  V. — Lichens  from  the  Antarctic       735 

Sargent,  J.  Le  Roy,  &  Bruce  Fink — Lichenology  for  Beginners 736 

Wolff,  Gertb.  P. — Development  of  Lichen  Fruits      736 

Bibliography 736 

Mycetozoa. 

Bibliography 358 

Schizophyta. 

Schizomycetes. 

Firth — Epidemic  or  Bacillary  Dysentery      96 

Selteb — Spore-production  by  Bacillus  Anthracis  and  other  Spore-bearing  Bacteria  96 

Delden,  A.  van — Bacteria  of  Flax"  Betting" 96 

Swellengeebel — Morphology  and  Biology  of  Bacillus  Zopfii 97 


CONTENTS.  XXXI 

PAQB 

Itersek,  Van,  jun. — Decomposition  of  Cellulose  by  Aerobic  Organisms 98 

Beijekinck,  M.  W.,  &  A.  van  Delden — Bacterium  that  obtains  its  Carbon  Food 

from  the  Air        98 

Milbtjrn,  T. — Variations  in  the  Colours  of  Moulds  and  Bacteria       98 

T.  Muto  (Tokio) — Bacillus  helixoides,  a  bacillus  that  forms  Colonies  with  Snail- 
like Movements        98 

Smith,  R.  Greig — Nutrition  of  Bacterium  Acacise       99 

Harrison,  F.  C. — Bacterial  Disease  of  Cauliflower     99 

Uyeda,  Y.— Tobacco  Wilt  Disease 100 

Bibliography 100 

Bonhoff — Identity  of  Loeffler's  Bacillus  typhosus  murium  with  the  Bacillus  para- 

typliosus  "  B."          ••      ••  221 

Smith,  R.  Greig — Bed  String  of  the  Sugar  Cane 231 

Chester,  F.  D. — Bacillus  subtilis  Group  of  Bacteria 232 

Ellermann,  V. — Bacillus  fusiformis 232 

Riemer — Septicaemia  affecting  Geese       <      ••       ••  233 

Kothman,  E.  A. — Glischroba'cterium  as  the  Cause  of  Mucous  Fermentation  of  Urine 

in  Man      234 

Neumann,  R.  O. —  Pathogenic  Capsulated  Streptococcus  from  the  Naso-pharynx     ..  234 

Smith,  R.  Greig — Variable  Galactan  Bacterium 235 

Betten court,  A.,  &  C.  Franca — Epidemic  Cerebrospinal  Meningitis  and  its  Specific 

Cause        235 

Leonard,  E.  L. — Bacterium  cyaneum:  a  new  Chromogenic  Organism      236 

Bibliography 237 

Scharz,  C. — Bacillus  hypothermos,  a  micro-organism  pathogenic  for  cold-blooded 

animals 358 

Tissier,  H. — Distribution  of  the  Microbes  in  the  Intestines  of  Infants       359 

Doerr,  R. — Spirillum  pyogenes  Mezincescu 360 

Mori,  N. — Micro-organism  causing  an  Epidemic  Disease  among  Cats      360 

Bruini,  G. — Thermophilic  Microflora  of  the  Human  Intestine 361 

Wheury,  W.  B. — Biology  of  the  Cholera  Spirillum     -161 

Sanfelice,  F. — Streptothrix  pseudo-tuberadosis 362 

Gorini,  C. — Bacillus  acidificans  presamigenes  casei 362 

Klein,  E. —  Vibrio  Cardii 362 

Woolley,  P.  G. — Bacillus  violaceus  Manilx         362 

Gaehtgens,  W. — Bacillus  jasmino-cyaneus  and  Bacillus  flavo-aromaticus       . .  362 

Michelski,  J. — Bacillus  conjunct  ivitidis  subtiliformis       363 

Adametz,  L.,  &  T.  Chszaszek — Formation  of  Volatile  alkaloids  byWacillus  nobilis  363 

Bibliography 365 

Nelson,  E.  M.—The  Tubercle  Bacillus  (Figs.  79-81) 412 

Smith,  R.  Greig — Bacterial  Origin  of  Macrozamia  Gum 482 

Petri,  L. — Besearches  on  the  Bacteria  found  in  the  Intestine  of  the  Larva  of  Mosca 

Olearia 483 

Jones.  Mabel — Micro-organism  showing  Bosette  Formation       483 

Lehman,  K.  B.,  &  H.  Curchod — Bacterial  Niveau  of  Beijerinck      4S4 

Harrison,  F.  C. — Comparative  Study  of  Sixty-six  Varieties  of  Gas-producing  Bac- 
teria found  in  Milk 485 

Waelsch,  L. — Bacillus  Involutus 485 

Morgan,  H.  de  R. — Micro-organisms  of  Meat  Poisoning 486 

Schreen,  V. — New  Microbe  of  Pulmonary  Phthisis       487 

Sanfelice,  F. — Tuberculosis  and  Pseudo-tuberculosis 487 

Hautefeuille — Benal  Tuberculosis  in  a  Carp     4S8 

Panek,  M.  K— "  Barszcz  "       489 

Delacroix,  G. — Bacterial  Infection  of  Cabbages 489 

Grips,  &  others — Swine  Septicaemia      490 

G ruber,  M. — Clostridium  Polymyxa  Prazmoicski         491 

Bibliography      .*.      491 

Omelianski,  W. — New  Colourless  Thiospirillum 629 

Schardinger,  F. — Bacillus  macerus,  an  Acetone-forming  Bacillus 630 

Veley,  L.  J. — Bacterial  Bods  of  Pelomrjxa  palustris 630 

Strong,  R.  P. — Virulence  and  Immunising  Powers  of  Micro-organisms 631 


XXX11  CONTENTS. 

I'AGE 

Lohnis,  F. — Bacillus  Freudenreichii      <i!il 

Mace,  M.  E. — Decomposition  of  Albuminoids  by  Cladothrix  Chromogenes        ..       ..  (J32 

Pekrone — Bacteriology  of  Apperulicitis ..               6H"2 

Rodella, A. — Micro-organisms  in  the  Intestines  of  Infants       632 

Maze,  P. — Micro-organisms  of  Cheese  Making      »>:!"> 

Furhmann,  F. —  Two  Varieties  of  Vibrio  aquitalis  fiuorescens 633 

Smith,  Th. — Differentiation  of  the  Human  and  Bovine  Tubercle  bacillus 1,34 

Smith,  R.  Greig — Origin  of  Natural  Immunity  towards  the  Putrefactive  Bacteria  736 

„          „          Bacteria  and  the  Gum  of  Hahea  Saligita      737 

„          „          Bacteria  and  the  Gum  of  Linseed  Mucilage 737 

Kraemer,  H. — Oligodynamic  Action  of  Copper  Foil  on  Intestinal  Bacteria     ..      ..  I'M 


CONTENTS.  XXX1U 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.  Instruments,  Accessories,  &c. 
(1)  Stands. 

PAGE 

Koristka,  F. — Koristka1  s  Large  Model  Microscope  (Figs.  25,  26) 101 

Fogan,  W. — Differential  Screw  Fine  Adjustment         102 

Ladd's  StwlenVs  Microscope  (Fig.  34) 238 

Portable  Microscope  (Fig.  35)      239 

Zeiss'  New  Laboratory  Stand  (Fig.  36)         240 

Reichert's   New   Large   Stand,   A  1,  with    Extra    Wide    Tube  and  New  Lateral 

Micrometer-screw  (Figs.  37.  38)      241 

„  Large  Stand.  No.  1  A,  fitted  with  Tip-up  Stage- Clips  (Fig.  39)     ..      ..  243 

„  New  Mineralogical  Stand  (Fig.  40) 245 

„  Large  Mineralogical  Stand  (Fig.  41)        247 

„  Microscope  for  Determining  Hardness  of  Substances  (Figs.  42,  43)      ..  247 

Stead,  J.  E — Engineer's  Metallurgical  Microscope  (Fig.  57) 364 

Swift's  New  Compound  Metallurgical  Microscope  (Fig.  58)      366 

Reichert's  Medium  Dissecting  Microscope  (Fig.  59) 366 

„         New  Microscope  for  Brain  Sections  {Fig.  60)     367 

Tafner's  New  Preparation  Stand  (Fig.  61) 368 

Imperial  Standard  Yard 368 

Finlatson,  D. — The  Ashe-Finlayson  Comparascope  (Fig.  82) 414 

Koristka's  Large  Model  Mineralogical  Microscope  (Fig.  85) 492 

Leitz'  Mineralogical  Stand  No.  I.  [  Fig.  86)  492 

„      Demonstration  Microscope  (Fig.  87) 495 

„      Mineralogical  Stand  No.  II.  (Fig.  88)        495 

„      Mechanical , Stage  (Fig.  89) 497 

Tuzson,  J.,  &  M.  Herrmann — Object-Stage,  with  Sliding  Measurement  Adjustment 

(Figs.  90,  91) 497 

Bibliography 499 

Old  Microscope  by  Shuttleworth  (Fig.  138)  ..        635 

Old  Microscope  by  W.  &  S.  Jones  ..      ..  635 

Pocket  Botanical  and  Universal  Microscope  (Fig.  139)      636 

Wilson  Screio- Parrel  Simple  Microscope  (Fig.  140) <  36 

Horizontal  Travelling  Microscope  (Fig.  141) 637 

Pillischer's  New  Modd  "  Kosmos"  (Fig.  142) 639 

Sommerfeldt,  E. — Microscope  specially  adapted  for  Mineralogical  Investigations  at 

High  Temperatures  639 

Hirschwald's  New  Microscope  Model  and  Planimeter-Ocular  (Figs.  144,145..      ..  640 

Vollbehr,  O. — Microphotoscope,  or  Military  Staff  Map  Loup 642 

Stcdnicka's  Pancratic  Preparation  Microscope 643 

Bibliography 644 

Henrici,  Jacob  F. — Note  on  a  Microscope  Presented  by  Linnteusto  Bernard  Jussieu 

(Fig.  159)        738 

Wilson's  Screw- Barrel  Simple  Microscope  (Fig.  160) 739 

Watson's  Praxis  and.  Bactil  Microscopes  (Figs.  161-4)        740 

Beck's  '■'Imperial"  Metallurgical  Microscope  (Fig.  165)      743 

„       Metallurgical  Microscope.  "  London  Model"  (Fig.  166) 745 

Ashe-Finlayson  Comparascope  (Figs.  167,  168) 745 

Voli.behr's  Microphotoscope  (Fig.  169) 748 

Reichert's  New  Microscope  Stands  with  Handles  (Figs.  170,  171) 748 

(2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Keeley,  F.  J. — Spencer  Objective 103 

Bibliography 103 

Dec.  20th,  1905  c 


XXXIV  CONTENTS. 

I'AUE 

Reichert's  Objectives  with  Borguet'a  Spring  Safety  Action  (Figs.  44,  45)       ..      ..  249 

Bibliography     249 

Reichert's   New   Erect  Image  Preparation  System  for  Preparation  Microscopes 

(Fig.  62) 368 

Meyer,  P. — New  Method  of  using  the  Plankton  Searcher  (Figs.  63,  64) 869 

Waslem,  G.  C.  van — Simple  Form  of  Index  Ocular 370 

Leitz'  New  Formula  Object-glass 499 

„      New  Objectives       500 

Malassez,  L. —  The  Notation  of  Microscopical  Objectives 500 

Chalmers,  S.  D. — Theory  of  Symmetrical  Optical  Objectives     501 

"  H." — Construction  of  Aplanatic  Combinations  of  Lenses  with  or  without  Achro- 
matism       501 

Leitz'  Camera  Ocular  (Fig.  92)      502 

Bibliography 502 

Stddnicka,  F.  K. — Tlie  Abbe  Condenser  used  as  an  Objective 644 

Strehl,  K. — Discrepancy  between  Diffraction   Theory  and  Geometrical  Optics  in 

Actual  Instances  of  Telescope  and  Microscope  Objectives 644 

Drysdale,  C.  V. — Direct  Determination  of  the  Curvature  of  Small  Lenses       ..      ..  751 


(3)   Illuminating1  and  other  Apparatus. 

Reichert's  Swing-out  Condenser  and  Iris  Diaphragm  (Figs.  46,  47)       249 

Ross,  H.  C.  — Electric   Warm-Stage,  for  Use  with  the  Microscope,  combined  with  a 

Nernst  Lamp  to  Illuminate  the  Microscope  (Figs.  48,  49)         250 

Improved  Methods  of  Working  with  the  Vertical  Illuminator 251 

C.Baker's  Electric  Lamp  for  the  Microscope  (Fig.  50)       252 

Pfeifper's  Hot-Air  Chamber  (Fig.  65) 371 

Reichert's  New  Achromatic  Condenser  (Fig.  66)         371 

Stead,  J.  E. — Hluminator  for  Opaque  Objects  (Fig.  67)      372 

Bibliography 372 

Lazarus-Barlow,  W.  S.— New  Hot  Stage  (Plate  VII. ;  Fig.  84)      ..      419 

Leitz'  Apparatus  for  Observation  of  Ultra-Microscopical  Particles  (Figs.  93  -95)     . .  502 

„      Universal  Projection  Apparatus  (Figs.  96-98) 504 

Beck,  R.  &  J. — New  Vertical  Illuminator  for  Metallurgical  Examinations  (Fig.  99)  506 

„  „  Monochromatic  Trough  (Fig.  100)       507 

Leitz'  Triple  Revolver  with  Large  Protection  Diaphragm  (Fig.  101)        507 

„      Thermometry  Stages  (Fig.  102) 507 

„      Drawing  Board  (Simple  Form)  (Figs.  103,  104)      508 

Holmes,  JZ.—Polariscope  ..      ••  509 

Walsem,  G.  C.  van — The  Micro-pantograph  as  a  Drawing  Apparatus  (Fig.  105)  509 

Koristka's  Illuminator  for  Opaque  Objects  (Fig.  106)         510 

Bausch  and  Lomb's  Improved  Form  of  Camera  Lucida  (Fig.  107) 511 

„  „        Adjustable  Drawing  Board  (Fig.  108)       512 

Bibliography 512 

Fischer,  A. — Locking  Arrangement  for  Microscopical  Demonstrations     645 

Paul,  R.  W.— Optical  Arc  Lamps  (Fig.  146)       646 

Locke's  High  Power  Jet  (Fig.  147)        _  ••  6^7 

Leppin  &  Masche's  Projection  Apparatus  with    Optical   Bench  Extension  (Figs. 

148-50) 647 

Eddjger's  Projection  and  Drawing  Apparatus  (Fig.  151)  ..      ..        650 

Tandler,  J. — Simple  Apparatus  for  Drawing  and  Photographing  Microscopical 

Sections 651 

Schott,  O. — New  Ultra-  Violet  Mercury  Lamp  {Uviol  Lamp) 751 

Beck's  Eyeshade  (Fig.  172)      752 

Abbe  Camera  Lucida  (Fig.  173)      "52 

Beck's  Parabolic  Illuminat or  (Fig.  174)        , 753 

„       Parabolic  Illuminator  with  Sorby's  Reflector  (Fig.  175) 753 

Bibliography 753 


CONTENTS.  XXXV 

(4)  Photomicrography.  pagb 

Photomicrography  with  the  Aid  of  Ultra-Violet  Light      103 

Jones,  Chapman — Three-  Colour  Photography       104 

Thompson,  J. — Photomicrography  and  Photomicrometry      106 

Bibliography ••  106 

Kohler,  A.,  &  M.  von  Rohr — Photomicrography  with   Ultra-violet  Light  (Figs. 

109-112) '..      ..      513 

Leitz'  "Universal"  Microphotographic  Apparatus  (Figs.  113-115) 518 

Bibliography     520 

J.  W.  Gordon's  Apparatus  for  Photomicrography  (Figs.  152, 153) C51 

Ries,  J. — A  Perfectly  Steady  Stand  for  Photomicrography         052 

Bibliography 052 

Beck's  Vertical  and  Horizontal  Photomicrographic  Camera  (Fig.  176) 753 

Taylor  &  Co's.  Focusing  Magnifier  (Fig.  177) 755 

Bibliography 755 

(5)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Gordon,  J.  W. — The  Tlieory  of  Highly  Magnified  Images  (Figs.  1-24) 1 

Gifford — Aperture  Table 106 

Mostyn,  C. — Resolution  of  Amphipleur a  Pellucida      107 

Biltz,  W. —  Pltramicroscopic  Observations  on  the  Decomposition  of  Sulphur  from 

Thiosulphuric  acid  and  of  Selenium  from  Selenic  acid 107 

Garnett,  J.  C.  Maxwell — Colours  in  Metal  Glasses  and  in  Metallic  Films  . .      ..  107 
Chabrie,  M.  C. — Construction-Principle  of  an  Optical  Apparatus  for  obtaining 

very  Large  Magnifications  \The  Diastoloscope~\  (Figs.  27-29) 108 

Bibliography 109 

Conrady,  A.  E. — An  Experimental  Proof  of  Phase-Reversal  in  Diffraction-Spectra  150 
Rheinberg,  J. — The  Influence  on  Images  of  Gratings  of  Phase-Differences  amongst 

their  Spectra  (Plate  IV.)       152 

Bibliography 253 

Conrady,  A.  E. — On  the  Application  of  the  Undidatory  Theory  to  Optical  Problems 

(Figs.  74-78) 401 

Rayleigh,  Lord — An  Optical  Paradox  (Fig.  83)        417 

Treoster,  C. — Dark  Field  Illumination        520 

Resolution  of  Grayson's  Bands      521 

Rheinberg,  J. — Doubling  of  Lines  in  the  Abbe  Experiments  not  due  to  the  Dia- 
phragms above  the  Objective   521 

Strehl,  K. — Limit  of  Visibility  of  Isolated  Elements  in  the  Microscope 521 

Wood,   R.    W. — Achromatisation   of  Approximately    Monochromatic    Interference 
Fringes  by  a  Highly  Dispersive  Medium,  and  the  consequent  Increase  in  the 

allowable  Path-difference        521 

Bibliography 522 

Conrady,  A.  E. — Theories  of  Microscopical  Vision — Second  Paper  (Figs.  123-8)  541 

Stoney,  G.  J.— On"  An  Optical  Paradox"  (Fig.  129)        557 

Ozapski's  Elements  of  the  Theory  of  Optical  Instruments 653 

Von  Rohr's  Image- Formation  in   Optical   Instruments  from   the   Standpoint   of 

Geometrical  Optics       654 

Strehl,  K. — Diffraction-Image  and  Absorption-Image       654 

Bibliography     ..      654 

Braun's  Methods  of  Identifying  Sub-microscopic  Structures ;   Allied  Investigations 

on  Double  Refraction      755 

Prytz-Kopenhagen,  K. — Microscopical  Determination  of  the  Position  of  a  Reflecting 

Surface  during  Optical  Contact 756 

Bibliography     ,,      ..      756 


(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Bibliography 110 

LiNN.a:us  and  the  Use  of  the  Microscope 253 

Kingsfobd,  T.  G. — Method  of  Constructing  small  Glass  Tanks  (Figs.  51,  52)..      ..  255 


XXXVI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Cheshire,  F.  J. — Hock  Crystal        255 

Legros,  V. — Photoqrammetric  Focimetry       255 

Rapeu,  C.  V.—  A  New  Spherometer  (Figs.  555-55)         255 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 258 

Gordon,  J.  W. — Uigh  Power  Microscopy       372 

Wilson,  C.  E.  A. — Elements  of  Applied  Microscopy 374 

Hyatt- Woolf,  C. —  optical  Dictionary 374 

Peiser,  J. — MicroscopisV  s  Screen 374 

"  Paterfamilias" — Comparison  of  British  and  Foreign  Students'  Microscopes       ..  523 

Bibliography 524 

The  Optical  Convention  (Figs.  130-7) 559 

Chance  Brothers,  Optical  Properties  of  Glasses  produced  by 654 

„             „         Cover-Glasses  of  thin  Glass  for  Microscopic  Preparations         ..  656 

Bausch,  Edward — Manipulation  of  the  Microscope 656 

Scales,  F.  Shillington — Elementary  Microscopy       656 


B,  Technique. 

(1)    Collecting  Objects,  including-  Culture  Processes. 

Marpman,  G. — Diagnostic  Media  for  the  Study  of  Bacteria      110 

Hewlett,  R.  T. — Detection  of  Bacillus  Enter iditis  Sporogenes  in  Water         ..      . .  110 

Bekxer,  O. — Plate  Culture  of  Anaerobic  Bacteria       110 

Fraenkel  &  Simmonds — Isolating  Bacillus  Typhosus  from  the  Blood  and  Organs 

after  Death       Ill 

Otto  &  Neumann — Bacteriological  Examination  of  Water  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  111 

(■reite — Isolating  Tetanus  Bacillus  from  the  Spleen Ill 

Hintf.rberg   &   Reitman — Varieties   in   the  Groivth   of  Bacillus  Pyocyaneus  on 

Nutrient  Agar 112 

Mdsgrave,  VV.  E.,  &  M.  T.  Clegg — Cultivation  and  Staining  of  Amcebse        ..      ..  112 

Bibliography 114 

Dwouetzky,  A. —  Cultivation  of  Tubercle  Bacilli  from  Bacterial  Mixtures      ..      ..  259 

Serkovvski,  S.  —  New  Levelling  Apparatus       259 

Hagemann — Simplification  of  the  Drigalski  Medium 259 

Gord  n,  M.  H. — Differentiation  of  Streptococci 259 

Sellards,  A.  W. — Anaerobic  Cultures  with  Phosphorus       259 

Lesage,  A. — Cultivation  of  the  Amaibie  of  Tropical  Dysentery       260 

Rost,  E.  R. — Cultivating  the  Bacillus  of  Leprosy 261 

Dibdin,  W.  J. — Flagella  of  Bacillus  Typhosus       374 

Gautie,  A. —  Quantitative  Estimation  of  the  Bacillus  Collin  Drinking  Water       . .  375 

Heller,  Otto — Rothberger's  Neutral  Bed  Reaction         375 

Perotti,  R. — Methods  for  isolating  the  Micro-organisms  of  Putrefaction 376 

Endo's  Method  for  Detecting  Typhoid  Bacilli        376 

Lipsuhutz,  B. — Simple  Medium  for  Cultivating  Gonococcus       377 

Wichmann,  H.,  &  H.  Zickes— New  Method  for  obtaining  Pure  Cultivation  of  Yeast  377 

Kloumann,  F. — Effect  of  Coffein  on  Typhoid  and  Coli  Cultures        377 

Petkowitsch,  D.  S. —  Fuchsin-Agar  as  a  Diagnostic  Medium  for  Typhoid  Bacteria  378 

Statham,  J.  C.  B. — Cultivation  of  the  Leishman  Body       378 

Parkes,  W.  C.  C,  &  F.  H.  Joseph — Use  of  Acid  Media  in  Isolation  of  the  Plague 

Bacillus 378 

Watkins-Pitchford,  H. — Bacteriology  of  Plague        378 

Burke,  J.  B. — Spontaneous  Action  of  Radio-active  Bodies  on  Gelatin  Media   ..      ..  524 

Omelianski,  W. — Formate  Broth  in  the  Differential  Diagnosis  of  Micro-organisms  657 

Bi  erger,  L. — Identification  of  Colonies  of  Pneumococcus 657 

Blecher,  C. — Apparatus  for  Dissolving  and  Filtering  large  Quantities  of  Gelatin 

and  Agar,  etc.         . .      . .  65S 

Rosenau,  M.  J. — Methods  for  Determining  the  Immunity  Unit  for  Standardising 

Diphtheria  Antitoxin      658 

Tarozzi,  G. — Method  for  Growing  Anaerobic  Organisms  under  Aerobic  Conditions  659 


CONTENTS.  XXXV11 

PAGE 

Marrassini,  A.,  &  R.  Schiff-Giokgini — Difference  of  Behaviour  of  Bacillus  typhosus 
and  B.  coli  communis  in  Media  containing  Sulphate  of  Copper  and  Red 

Prussiate  of  Potash         660 

Thiroux — Cultivating  Trypanosomes      757 

Lesage,  A. — Cultivation  of  Amcebze        757 

Kern,  F.—New  Bacteria  Filter  (Fig.  178) ..      ••  758 

Schouten,  S.  L. — Pure  Culture  from  Celh  Isolated  under  the  Microscope  (Fig.  179)  758 

Cache,  A. — Method  for  Collecting  the  Gas  of  Fermentation         761 


(2)  Preparing-  Objects. 

Fuhrmann,  F. — Preparing  Suprarenal  Bodies  of  Guinea-Pigs 262 

Bibliography     262 

Sanzo,  L. — Apparatus  for  the  Automatic  Fixation  of  Embryos  (Fig.  68) 379 

Dublin,  L.  I. — Preparing  Germ  Cells  of  Pedicellina  Americana        380 

Andrews,  E.  A. — Removing  Avian  Blastoderms 380 

Jones,  C.  Pbice — Examination  of  Bone  Marrow 380 

Myers,  B.  D. — Fixation  of  Tissues  by  Injection  into  the  Arteries      380 

Bibliography 381 

Eosenau,  M.  J.— Blood  Spreader  (Figs.  116,  117)       525 

Phillips,  E.  F. — Preparing  and  Staining  Eye  of  Honey  Bee     525 

Osterhout,  W.  J.  V. — Imbedding  with  Incomplete  Dehydration       526 

„  „  Fixat ion  in  Vacuo  (Fig.  118) 527 

Tellyesniczky,  K.  V. — Fixing  and  Staining  Nuclei  . .      . .      660 

Schlater,  G. — Fixation  and  Staining  Muscle  Fibres 660 

Marcus,  H. — Demonstrating  Blood  Formation  in  Osseous  Fishes      660 

Scheben,  L. — Examination  of  the  Spermatozoa  of  Ascaris  megalocephala         ..      . .  761 

Nowikoff,  M. — Methods  of  Examining  the  Eyes  and  Frontal  Organs  of  Branchiopods  761 
Stromson,  F.  A. — Investigating  the  Anatomy  and  Development  of  the  Venous  System 

of  Chelonia       762 

Charlier,  A. — Demonstrating  the  Structure  of  Gutta-percha  Plants . .      ..      ..      ..  762 

Fischer,  G. — Demonstrating  the  Structure  of  the  Respiratory  Tract  of  Birds  ..      ..  762 

Pavlow,  W. — Creosote  as  a  Dehydrating  Medium  for  Imbedding  in  Paraffin  ..      . .  763 

Konascko,  P. — Injection  of  Fine  Vessels        763 

Downing,  E.  B. — Demonstrating  the  Spermatogenesis  of  Hydra         764 

Jj6decker,  C.  F. — Decalcification  of  Dental  Enamel 764 

Marshall,  W.  S.,  &  P.  H.  Dernehl — Demonstrating  the  Blastoderm  of  Polistes 

pallipes 765 

Glaser,  O.  C. — Preparing  Fasciolaria  tulipa  and  its  Larval  Excretion  Organs     . .  765 

Jaderholm,  G.  A. — Demonstrating  Neurofibrils 765 

Ruzicka,  Vl. — Demonstrating  the  Structure  of  Red  Corpuscles 7»5 

Korff,  K.  von — Demonstrating  Teeth  of  Mammalian  Embryos 765 

(3)  ^Cutting,  including:  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 

New  Imbedding  Bath  (Fig.  30)       114 

Plowman,  A.  B. — Celloidin  Method  for  Hard  Plant  Tissues       262 

Small  wood,  A.  M. — Preparing  and  Staining  the  Eggs  of  Haminea  Solitaria..      ..  263 

Reed,  H.  S. — Demonstrating  Enzyme-secreting  Cells  ,       ..  264 

Bibliography 264 

Fihrmann,  F. —  Paraffin  Imbedding  Bath  (Figs.  69,  70) 381 

Reichert's  Medium  Microtome  (Fig.  71)  ..      382 

Pi  rone,  R. —  Use  of  Iodine  after  Fixation  in  Sublimate     383 

York,  H.  H. — Agar-Agar  and  Paraffin  Method  for  Imbedding  Plant  Tissues  ..      ..  527 

Harman,  N.  B. — Accessory  for  Freezing  Microtomes 528 

Osterhout,  W.  J.  V. — Simple  Freezing  Microtome  ((ugs.  119,  120)         528 

Leitz'  New  Microscope  (Figs.  154-7) 661 

Arndt's  Double  Saw 664 

Reichert's  Microtome  with  Handle  (Fig.  18<>)     766 

Flatter's  Microtome  (Fig.  181)      766 

Siding,  A. — Preventing  Rolling  of  Paraffin  Sections    ..      .,      769 


XXXV111  CONTENTS. 


(4.)    Staining  and  Injecting.  paob 

Giemsa — New  Method  of  Making  Romanowski's  Chromatin  Stain 115 

J.  Q.  T. — Staining  and  Preserving  Algx        115 

Marino,  F. — Staining  Protozoa       264 

Bonhoff — Differential  Staining  of  Bacillus  Typhosus  in  Sections 265 

Bibliography 265 

Sdrinko,  O.  V. — Method  of  Differentiating  the  Cortical  from  the  Medullary  Portions 

of  Adrenals      384 

Joseph,  F.  H. — Fugent :  a  New  Stain 384 

Savill,  T.  D. — Staining  Arteries 384 

London,  E.  S. — Demonstrating  the  Finer  Structure  of  the  Nervous  System     ..      . .  384 

Bonhoff,  H. — Differential  Staining  of  Typhoid  Bacilli  in  Sections 385 

Thesing,  E. — Spore  Staining 385 

Scagliosi — New  Method  of  Spore  Staining 385 

Ruffini,  A. — Method  of  Staining  Sensory  Nerve  Sheaths     385 

Fischer,  A. — New  Method  for  Staining  Glycogen 385 

Whitney — Pyronin  Methyl-Green 386 

Blumenthal,  J.  M. — Methods  of  Staining  the  Diphtheria  Bacillus 386 

Fasoli,  G. — Staining  Negri's  Bodies  in  Hydrophobia          ..      .. 386 

Peter,  K.—New  Yolk  Stain ..      ..  386 

Foa,  P. — Demonstrating  Fatty  Infiltration  in  Tissue 387 

Bibliography 387 

Mendoza,  A. — Staining  the  Tubercle  Bacillus  with  Eosin 529 

McWeeney,  E.  J. — Staining  the  SpirochxtsB  of  Syphilis 529 

Curtis,  &  P.  Lemoult— Affinity  of  Artificial  Colouring  Matters  for  Connective  Tissue  530 

Halphen,  G.,  &  A.  Riche — Tlieory  of  Histological  Staining     530 

Miller,  E.  F. — Multiplex  Slide-holding  Device  for  Staining  Sections      530 

Leszczynski,  R. — Differential  Stain  for  Gonococcus 664 

Managetta,  G.  Beck  von — Persio-acetic  Acid  as  a  Stain  for  Vegetable  Tisstie     . .  664 

Nabias,  B.  de — New  Method  of  Rapid  Staining  Nervous  Tissue  ivith  Gold  Chloride  664 

Skrobansky — Method  of  Contrast  Staining  with  Bleu-de-Lyon  and  Picric  Acid      . .  665 

Mendoza,  A. — Staining  Tubercle  Bacillus ( JG5 

Buerger,  L.  —  Neio  Method  of  Capsule  Staining 665 

Deflandre,  C. — Demonstrating  Fat  in  the  Animal  Liver 665 

Dogiel,  A.  S. — Staining  Nerve  Endings  in  Skin  of  Mammals 666 

Pugh,  W.  T.  G. — Examination  of  Cultures  and  Smears  from  Throat  and  Nose      . .  666 

Bethe,  A. — Staining  Nerve  Fibrils         666 

Sanzo,  L. — Use  of  Electrolysis  for  the  Metallic  Impregnation  and  Staining  of  Tissues  666 

Burton,  J. — Easy  Method  of  Staining  and  Mounting  Algx  and  Fungi 769 

Neumayer,  L. — Apparatus  for  Staining  simultaneously  Numerous  Sections  (Fig.  182)  770 

Gemelli,  A. — Demonstrating  the  Neurofibrils  in  Ganglion  Cells    ..          771 

Melissinos,  K. — Apparatus  for  the  Simultaneous  Staining  of  Several  Sections  fixed 

to  Cover-slips  or  Slides  (Fig.  183) 771 

Merton,  H. — Examination  of  the  Retina  of  the  Nautilus  and  certain  Dibranchiate 

Cephalopods 772 

Ruzic'ka,  Vl. —  Theory  of  Vital  Staining        773 


(5)  Mounting-,  including-  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  etc. 

Shattock,  S.  G.,  &  C.  F.  Selous — Two   Methods  for  Comparing  Normal  with 

Abnormal  Tissues  under  the  Microscope       116 

Collins,  J.  R. — Hanging-Drop  Preparations        117 

Horder,  E. — All-  Metal 'Cover-Glass  Holder  ("Fig.  31) 117 

Bibliography      118 

Powell.  J.  G.  R. — Copal  as  a  Mounting  Medium        387 

Walsem,  G.  C.  van — Method  for  Removing  Small  Quantities  of  Centrifuged  Deposit  387 

Osterhout,  W.  J.  V. — Imbedding  Microscopic  Algx 530 

„  „  Rapid  Method  of  Mounting  in  Aqueous  Media  (Fig.  121)  ..  532 

„  „  Simple  Slide-holder 532 


CONTENTS.  XXXIX 

PAGE 

Merlin,  A.  A.  C.  E. — Modification  of  the  Rousselet  Live-box  (Fig.  122) 532 

Mair,  \V. — Method  for  Freeing  Paraffin  from  Cedar-wood  Oil ..  533 

Fowler,  E.  S.  G. — Method  for  Preserving  Bacterial  Cultures  for  Class  Purposes    ..  533 

Bibliography     533 

Cristina,  D. — Method  for  Mounting  Celloidin  Sections        774 

Fiorentini,  P.,  &  M.  .Signer— Method  of  Staining  and  Permanently  Preserving 

Urinary  Sediment 774 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Bohm  &  Oppel's  Microscopical  Technique ilS 

Bibliography 118 

Schlapfer,  V. — Modification  of  Cornet's  Forceps  (Fig.  72)      38S 

Marx,  H.,  &  E.  Ehnkooth — Simple  Method  for  Distinguishing  between  Human  and 

Animal  Blood 388 

Fleischmann,  A. — Apparatus  for  making  Wax  Plates  for  Reconstruction  Models   ..  389 

Bies,  J. — Needle  for  obtaining  Blood  for  Examination  (Fig.  73)         389 

Breuil,  P. — Examining  Caoutchouc  by  the  Aid  of  the  Microscope     389 

Bibliography 389 

Lee,  A.  Bolles — Microtomists'  Vade  Mecum        667 

Bibliography 667 

Parker,  F.  St.  John — Keeping  Polyzoa       774 


Metallography,  etc. 

Turner — Hardness  of  Metals 118 

Fremont,  C. — Possible  non-brittleness  of  Steel  under  certain  conditions 119 

Bose,  T.  K. — Certain  Pro/ >erti*s  of  Alloys  of  Silver  and  Cadmium 119 

Stead,  J.  E. — Sulphides  and  Silicates  of  Manganese  in  Steel      265 

Bibliography 266 

Stead,  J.  E. — Micro-Metallography  with  Practical  Demonstration 273 

„         „        Methods  for  Detecting  the  more  Highly  Phosphorised  Portions  in  Iron 

and  Steel  (Plates  V.  and  VI.) 284 

Wedding,  K.  H. — The  Defects  in  Ingot-Iron  Castings         390 

Smeaton,  W.  C. — Notes  on  the  Etching  of  Steel  Sections      390 

Hopkinson,  B. — The  Effects  of  Momentary  Stresses  in  Metals     391 

Kosenhain,  W. — Further  Observations  on  Slip-Bands  in  Metallic  Fractures.     Pre- 
liminary Note 391 

Crocker,  E.  G. — Iffects  of  Stress  upon  Metals      391 

Kourbatoff,  M. — Metallography  of  Quenched  Steels 392 

Lejeune,  P. —  The  Cooling  of  Steel  in  Quenching 392 

Guillet,  L. — Aluminium  Steels      392 

Bibliography 392 

Glazebrook,  K.  T.,  &  H.  le  Chatelier — International   Committee  for  Investi- 
gating the  Constituents  of  Steel 534 

Guillet,  L. — Cobalt  Steels       534 

„         „       Classification  of  Ternary  Steels       535 

Sauveur,  A. — Metallography  Applied  to  Foundry  Work      535 

Osmund,  F.,  &  G.  Cartaud — Scientific  Development  of  the  Art  of  Polishing   ..      ..  .r>:{5 

Breuil,  P. — Special  Constituent  Obtained  by  Quenching  Aluminium  Bronze   . .      ..  536 

Bibliography 536 

Hall,  E.  H. —  Thermal  and  Electrical  Effects  in  Soft  Iron         668 

Braune,  H. — Influence  of  Nitrogen  on  Iron  and  Steel         668 

Lecarme,  J.,  &  H.  le  Chatelier — Brittleness  of  Cemented  Mild  Steels 669 

Chatelier,  H.  le — Technique  of  Microscopic  Metallography     669 

Guillet,  L. — Alloys  of  Copper  and  Aluminium 670 

Heyn,  E. — Constitution  of  Iron-Carbon  Alloys      670 

Sauveur,  A. — Metallography  applied  to  Foundry  Work      671 


xl  CONTENTS. 

rxaz 
Honda,  K.,  &  S.  Shimizo — On  the   Magnetisation   and  the  Magnetic  Change  oj 
Length  in  Ferromagnetic  Metals  and  Alloys  at  Temperatures  ranging  from 

-186°  C.  to  +1200°  C 671 

Bibliography     672 

Hanks,  H.  Or.— Notes  on  il  Aragotite,"  a  Rare  California  Mineral 673 

Saniter,  E.  H. — Etching  of  High  Carbon  Steel 775 

Hadfield,  R.  A. — Metallography  of  Iron  and  Steel      775 

„  „  Experiments   relating   to   the    Effect  on   Mechanical  and   other 

Properties  of  Iron  and   its  Alloys  produced  by  Liquid  Air 

Temperatures 775 

Carpenter,  H.  C.  H. —  The  Types  of  Structure  and  the  Critical  Ranges  on  Heating 
„  ,.  and  Cooling  of  High  Speed  Tool  Steels    under  Varying 

Thermal  Treatment       776 

Rogers,  F. — Heat  Treatment  and  Fatigue  of  Steel       776 

Hopkinson,  B.,  &  F.  Rogers — The  Elastic  Properties  of  Steel  at  High  Tempera- 
tures    776 

Sauveur,  A. — Metallography  Applied  to  Foundry  Practice         777 

Gutllet,  L. — Special  Steels      777 

Dejean — Induction  Galvanometer  for  the  Study  of  Freezing  and  Critical  Points    ..  Ill 

Mellor,  J.  W. — The  Crystallisation  of  Iron  and  Steel         777 

Bibliography 778 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  SOCIETY. 


Meeting,  December  21,  1904 120 

January  18,  1905        131 

February  15,   , 267 

„        Marcti  15,        „  270 

April  19,  „ 394 

„         May  17,  , 397 

„        June  21.  „  537 

„         October  18,      „  779 

„        November  15,  „  , 781 


General  Index  to  Volume 785 


JOURNAL 

OF   THE 

ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY 

FEBRUARY,    1905. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE   SOCIETY. 


I. — TJie  Tlieory  of  Highly  Magnified  Images. 

On  the  Diffraction  of  an  Object-Glass  with  Circular  Aperture.  By  Sir 
George  B.  Airy.     Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  v.  p.  283. 

The  Theoretical  Limits  of  the  Besolving-Power  of  the  Microscope.  By 
Professor  Helmholtz.  Poggendorjfs  Annalen,  1874,  Jubelband,  p.  569  ; 
Wissenschaftliche  Abhancll  ungen ,  vol.  ii.  p.  185. 

On  the  Theory  of  Optical  linages,  with  special  reference  to  the  Microscope. 
By  Lord  Bayleigh.  Philosophical  Magazine,  5th  scries,  vol.  xlii. 
p.  167  ;  Journ.  B.M.S.,  1903, p.  447. 

On  the  Theory  of  Optical  Linages,  with  special  reference  to  the  Microscope. 
Supplementary  paper.  By  Loi'd  Bayleigh.  Journ.  B.M.S.,  1903, 
p.  474. 

By  J.  W.  Gordon. 

(Read  December  21st,  1904.) 

Synopsis. — For  the  convenience  of  readers  who  may  like  to 
have  the  theory  of  high  magnification  in  a  very  compendious  form, 
the  following  synopsis  of  this  paper  is  submitted  : 

I.  The  image  formed  by  any  aperture  of  a  luminous  point  is 
an  illuminated  area,  the  shape  and  dimensions  of  which  depend 
upon  the  form  and  size  of  the  aperture  (Airy,  p.  5). 

II.  The  focussed  image  of  such  a  point  is  an  antipoint,  the 
shape  of  which  is  derived  from  the  shape  of  the  aperture  by  a  rule 
of  inverse  resemblance,  so  that  the  antipoint  is  narrow  across  any 
diameter  across  which  the  aperture  is  broad,  and  vice  versa.  Tins 
rule  of  inversion  results,  in  the  case  of  a  symmetrical  aperture,  in 
an  approximate  reproduction  by  the  disc  of  the  antipoint  of  the 
form  of  the  aperture  turned  through  an  angle  of  90'  (Airy,  p.  5). 

III.  In  the  case  of  a  circular  aperture,  transmitting  a  beam  in 
which  the  light  arrives  at  the  aperture  in  the  form  of  plane  wave- 

Feb.  15th,  1905  B 


2  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

fronts,  the  form  of  the  antipoint  is  a  circular  disc  surrounded  by- 
rings,  the  disc  having  a  radius  estimated  by  Sir  George  Airy  at 

2^  (Ail'V'  r'  5)' 

IV.  In  the  case  of  a  circular  antipoint  the  light  amplitudes 
vary  in  successive  zones  according  to  a  numerical  law  illustrated 
by  fig.  2,  on  p.  6  (Airy,  p.  6). 

V.  The  law  of  diffraction  from  spherical  wave-fronts  is  such 
that,  if  F  be  the  radius  of  curvature  of  the  wave-front  where  it 
passes  the  aperture,  and  6  be  the  angle  to  the  axis  of  collimation 
of  the  axis  along  which  a  beam  of  parallel  light  passing  the  same 
aperture  would  be  diffracted,  the  diffracted  cone  will  come  to  focus 
in  the  focal  plane  at  a  point  distant  by  sin  0.F  from  the  axis  of 
collimation  (Helmholtz,  p.  10). 

VI.  The  dimensions  of  the  antipoint  depend  only  upon  the 
divergence  angle  of  the  focussed  beam,  and  are  in  no  way  deter- 
mined by  the  magnitude  of  the  aperture  causing  diffraction  (Helm- 
holtz, p.  11). 

VII.  If  any  optical  system  yields  a  correct — that  is  to  say,  a 
flat  and  aplanatic — image  of  a  plane  object,  the  law  of  magnification 
in  that  system  will  be  that  the  conjugate  images  will  be  propor- 
tioned to  one  another  inversely  in  the  ratio  of  the  sines  of  the 
divergence  angles  of  the  beams  by  which  they  are  severally  formed. 
Thus  the  law  of  relative  magnitudes  is  the  same  for  conjugate  images 
as  for  conjugate  antipoints  (Helmholtz,  p.  12),  and,  therefore, 

VIII.  The  state  of  resolution  of  a  correct  image  cannot  be 
either  improved  or  impaired  by  mere  change  of  scale  brought  about 
by  eye-piece  magnification  or  otherwise,  but  depends  only  upon 
the  angle  under  which  incident  light  is  received  from  the  object 
(Helmholtz,  p.  12). 

IX.  If  two  beams  of  light,  although  originating  in  independent 
light  sources,  follow  very  closely  adjacent  and  nearly  parallel  paths, 
so  that  they  interpenetrate  one  another,  they  will  modify  one 
another  where  they  interpenetrate,  and  may  thereby  become  attuned 
to  one  another  almost  as  if  they  had  had  a  common  origin,  and  so 
as  to  be  capable  of  exhibiting  all  the  phenomena  of  interference 
(Eayleigh,  p.  16). 

X.  The  limit  of  resolving  power  is  not  simply  a  question  of 
the  propinquity  of  luminous  objects,  but  depends  in  a  material 
degree  upon  the  phase  relations  of  the  light  by  which  they  are 
severally  rendered  visible  (Eayleigh,  p.  17). 

XI.  A  dark  bar  on  a  bright  field  may  theoretically  be  visible 
as  a  boundary  between  adjacent  luminous  areas  if  it  has  a  breadth 
of  -^  X  and,  under  favourable  conditions  of  illumination,  even  if 
its  breadth  be  less  than  this  (Eayleigh,  p.  18). 

XII.  Is  the  antipoint  itself  polyphasal  ?  The  black  and  white 
dot  phenomena  discussed  in  the  light  of  this  hypothesis  (p.  19). 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.  3 

The  theory  of  the  formation  of  the  image  in  a  Microscope  as  at 
present  developed  is  to  be  found,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  in  the 
papers  above  enumerated.  Having  regard  to  the  great  interest  and 
importance  of  the  subject,  one  must  consider  this  a  singularly  meagre 
list,  and  it  is,  no  doubt,  incomplete,  since  I  have  depended  ex- 
clusively on  my  own  reading,  which  is  but  fragmentary.  I  shall 
no  doubt  be  asked  why  I  have  omitted  to  notice  the  many  papers 
which  have  been  written  in  recent  years  upon  the  so-called 
Abbe  theory.  The  answer  to  that  question  is  very  simple,  but  I 
must  preface  it  by  protesting  once  more  against  the  use  in  this 
connection  of  Professor  Abbe's  name.  Something  of  discourtesy 
is  involved  in  thus  making  a  distinguished  man  responsible  for 
an  hypothesis  which  he  never  fully  formulated,  and  has  of  late 
explicitly  disavowed.  Lord  Eayleigh  has  proposed  the  name 
"  spectrum  theory  "  (Journ.  E.M.S.,  1903,  p.  450)  for  one  of  its  many 
forms,  but  this  term  has  not  in  fact  become  current,  and  if  it  had 
it  could  hardly  express  the  whole  confused  body  of  mutually  in- 
compatible speculations  winch  go  under  the  name  of  the  Abbe 
theory.  For  tins  is  a  case  in  which  quot  homines  tot  scntcntice.  It 
seems  impracticable  therefore  to  break  away  from  the  accepted 
nomenclature,  and  I  employ  it  under  protest  and  with  a  sincere 
■apology  to  Professor  Abbe  whose  name  is  thus  misused. 

Mention  has  just  been  made  of  the  confused  variety  of  theories 
which  go  by  this  generic  name.  But  they  all  have  one  point  in 
•common.  That  is  to  say,  they  all  set  out  to  explain  the  image  of  the 
object  seen  in  the  view  plane  of  the  instrument  by  the  image  of  some- 
thing else  seen  in  another  plane,  usually  by  the  image  of  the  source 
of  light  seen  wherever  its  image  may  happen  to  fall  in  the  tube  of  the 
instrument,  or  by  the  image  of  a  theoretical  source  of  light  seen  in 
the  principal  focal  plane  of  the  objective.  JSTow  quite  apart  from 
the  obvious  criticism  that  this  image  of  the  source  of  light  itself 
stands  in  need  of  explanation  and  of  the  same  explanation  as  that 
which  the  image  in  the  view  plane  demands,  there  is  another  and  even 
'more  fatal  objection  to  any  theory  which  proceeds  upon  these  lines. 
For  the  calculations  necessary  to  connect  these  two  disconjugate 
images  one  with  the  other  cannot  be  made,  the  reason  being  that 
the  conditions  of  aplanatism  in  the  one  plane  imply  a  want  of 
aplanatism  in  the  other  plane.  Thus,  if  we  assume  an  objective  to 
be  so  corrected  as  to  yield  a  flat  and  aplanatic  image  in  the  view 
plane  of  a  flat  object  on  the  stage,  that  assumption  implies  two 
things  about  the  lengths  of  the  optical  paths :  (1)  that  all  paths 
from  the  aperture  to  a  given  point  in  the  image  are  equal,  the 
aperture  being,  for  this  purpose,  taken  to  coincide  with  a  plane 
wave-front,  coming  to  focus  in  that  point ;  and  (2)  that  all  points 
in  the  object  are  equidistant  optically  from  their  conjugate  points 
in  the  image.  The  first  of  these  follows  immediately  from  the  well- 
known  theorem  concerning  the  equality  of  optical  paths  between 

b  -1 


4  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

a  point  and  its  image.  The  second  is  a  corollary,  easily  deducible 
from  the  first,  which  establishes  the  equality  of  all  optical  paths 
between  a  flat  object  and  its  flat  image  formed  according  to  the 
sine  law.* 

Both  may  be  comprised  in  the  one  proposition,  namely,  that  in 
a  fully  corrected  system  all  paths  between  the  aperture  and  the 
focal  plane  are  equal.  Now  it  is  obvious  that  this  proposition  can- 
not lie  true  for  two  discon jugate  focal  planes.  The  following 
diagram  will  make  this  clear.  Here  let  Sx  S2  S3  be  the  aperture, 
and  let  Px  P2  be  central  points  in  two  disconjugate  focal  planes. 
Then  if  the  system  be  aplanatic  for  the  point  P2,  all  optical  dis- 
tances between  the  aperture  Sx . .  S3  and  the  point  P2  will  be  equal 
to  one  another. 

In  like  manner,  if  we  assume  that  the  system  is  aplanatic  also 


Fig.  1. 


for  the  point  P1}  we  shall  have  all  paths  between  the  aperture 
Si .  .  S3  and  the  point  Pi  equal  to  one  another,  and  therefore  the 
path  S3.  .Pi  is  optically  equal  to  the  path  S2.  .Pi.  Let  S3..PX 
be  extended  to  P3  and  make  Px .  .  P3  =  Px . .  P2.  Wherefore  the 
path  S3 . . .  P3  =  the  path  S2 . .  .  P2,  and  therefore  P3  is  a  point  in 
the  image  formed  by  the  aperture  Sa .  .  S3  of  a  plane  surface  con- 
jugate to  the  surface  in  which  P2  and  P3  lie.  But  by  construction 
this  last-named  surface  is  not  a  plane  but  a  sphere  having  its 
centre  at  P^  and  the  optical  system  occupying  the  aperture  Si.  .S3 
is  not  corrected  to  give  a  flat  image  in  this  region.  If  we  make 
the  necessary  correction  to  yield  a  flat  field  it  is  clear  that  we 
shall  incidentally  render  the  point  Pi  non-aplanatic,  and  it  follows 
therefore  that  no  optical  system  can  be  fully  corrected  so  as  to  be 

*  This  second  proposition  does  not  appear  ;to  be  so  generally  understood  as  the 
first.  A  regular  proof  of  it  is  given  in  a  note — Note  I. — in  the  appendix  to  a  p.iper 
on  the  Helmholtz  Tlieorv  of  the  Microscope,  which  I  had  the  honour  of  laying  before 
the  Society  in  1903  (Journ.  E.M.S.,  1903,  p.  420). 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  W,  Gordon.  5 

uplanatic  and  yield  a  flat  image  in  two  planes  not  conjugate  to  one 
another.  Now  it  is  manifestly  impossible  to  compute  the  light 
phase  in  a  region  where  the  optical  system  is  non-aplanatic,  for  in 
that  case  the  phase  is  wholly  indeterminate,  and  hence  it  is  im- 
possible to  make  the  image  formation  in  the  plane  through  P2 
dependent  upon  that  in  the  plane  through  Px,  or  vice  versa. 

Coming  now  to  what  has  been  accomplished  in  the  way  of 
constructing  a  theory  of  the  image  formed  by  a  Microscope,  the 
fundamental  proposition  is  worked  out  in  Sir  Geo.  Airy's  paper, 
and  may  be  formulated  thus  : — 

I.  The  image  formed  by  any  aperture  of  a  luminous  point  is 
■an  illuminated  area,  the  shape  and  dimensions  of  which  depend 
upon  the  form  and  size  of  the  aperture. 

II.  The  focussed  image  of  such  a  point  is  an  antipoint,  the 
shape  of  which  is  derived  from  the  shape  of  the  aperture  by  a  rule 
of  inverse  resemblance,  so  that  the  antipoint  is  narrow  across  any 
diameter  across  which  the  aperture  is  broad,  and  vice  versa.  This 
rule  of  inversion  results,  in  the  case  of  a  symmetrical  aperture,  in 
an  approximate  reproduction  by  the  disc  of  the  antipoint  of  the 
form  of  the  aperture  turned  through  an  angle  of  90°. 

III.  In  the  case  of  a  circular  aperture,  transmitting  a  beam  in 
which  the  light  arrives  at  the  aperture  in  the  form  of  plane  wave' 
fronts,  the  form  of  the  antipoint  is  a  circular  disc  surrounded  by 

1*2  A, 

rings,  the  disc  having  a  radius  of  „-.       ,  and  the  dark  rings  sur- 

°  °  2  sin  u  ° 

rounding  it  being  situated  at  radial  distances  which  tend  to  become 
equal  to  0    .     -  for  the  nth  dark  ring.     In  these  expressions  X  = 

_j  S1H  '10 

the  wave-length,  u  =  the  divergence  angle  of  the  focussed  beam, 
and  n  is  any  integer.    The  inner  rings  have,  as  here  shown  in  the 

case  of  the  first  ring,  a  somewhat  greater  radius  than^ — = —  .* 

°'  °  2  sin.  u 

IV.  Sir  Geo.  Airy  calculates  and  gives  in  the  form  of  a  table 
the  comparative  amplitudes  of  the  light  undulation  at  selected 
zones  in  the  circular  antipoint.  Plotted  down,  his  amplitudes  are 
proportional  to  the  ordinates  of  the  curve  in  fig.  2,  where  the 
calculated  results  are  shown  by  the  points  of  intersection  of  the 
curve  with  the  scale  rulings.  The  intermediate  values  are  deter- 
mined graphically  by  carrying  a  continuous  curve  through  the 
calculated  points. 

This  curve,  and  the  table  given  by  Sir  Geo.  Airy  in  the  paper 
cited,  are  open  to  the  criticism  that  they  express  only  the  semi- 

*  This  is  the  accepted  description  of  the  antipoint  formed  by  a  circular  aperture, 
and  is  given  here  upon  the  authority  of  Sir  Geo.  Airy.  The  present  writer  submits 
considerations  bearing  upon  it  in  a  note  subjoined  to  this  paper  (below,  p.  25). 


6  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

amplitude,  and  consequently  show  negative  values  for  the  cal- 
culated amplitude  in  certain  parts  of  the  light  curve.  For  the 
mere  determination  of  relative  magnitudes  this  is  unimportant, 
since  semi-amplitudes  must  have  the  same  proportions  inter  se  that 
the  corresponding  amplitudes  have.  But  when  we  go  further  and 
ask  what  is  the  resulting  amplitude  if  two  adjacent  and  isophasal 
antipoints  encroach  the  one  upon  the  other,  it  then  becomes  im- 
portant to  realise  that  the  negative  values  in  Airy's  curve  do  not 


i   n 

n-<» 

/ 

\ 

0  8 

/ 

\ 

0-7 

j 

1 

\ 

O-fi 

r-          I 

/ 

V 

fl-A 

1            1 

/ 

\ 

0-4- 

| 

/ 

\ 

0-3 

/ 

\ 

CVS 

1 

/ 

\ 

1 

0-1 

f 

0 

0-  I 

_^ 

0-2 

i 

0-3 

"1 

0-* 

-3  A 

2  siu  u 


-2  A 

2  sin  u 


-K 


0 


Fig.  2. 


2  sin  u 


2\ 

2  sin  u 


3A 

2  sin  a 


count  against  the  positive.  The  coincident  amplitudes  have  then 
to  be  compounded  according  to  the  relative  retardation  of  the  one 
as  compared  with  the  other ;  whether  expressed  as  positive  or  nega- 
tive quantities  on  Airy's  curve  makes  no  difference  for  this  purpose. 
The  following  diagram  will  make  this  clear.  Here,  in  fig.  3,  we  have 
the  full  amplitude  curve  of  the  "  false  disc,"  and  it  will  be  observed, 
that  at  every  point  it  has  a  positive  and  a  negative  half,  each  equal 
in  point  of  mere  magnitude  to  the  other.  Hence  the  full  ordinate 
is  in  this  curve  proportional  at  every  point  to  Airy's  ordinate,  but  on 
the  other  hand  no  one  has  either  a  positive  or  a  negative  value,  and 
any  two  may  be  compounded  indifferently  either  by  addition  or  by 
subtraction.  This  corresponds  to  nature,  for,  in  fact,  two  ordinates 
are  to  be  compounded  by  addition  when  they  have  a  phase  difference 
of  n  X,  n  being  any  integer,  and  [are  to  be  compounded  by  sub- 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     Bg  J.  W.  Gordon.  7 

traction  of  the  lesser  from  the  greater  when  they  have  a  phase 

9  1 

difference  of ^—      X.     The  general  expression  of  which  these 

two  are  particular  examples,  and  by  which  any  two  amplitudes  At 
and  A2  having  a  phase  difference  ***'    7r  may  be  compounded  is : 

A. 


<f> 


•    (1) 


A(1  +  2)  =  A:  4-  cos  ^  2  7r  A2  . 
or,  more  generally  still,  if  we  assume  that  both  the  components  At 


Fig.  3. 


and  A2  are  affected  with  retardation  relatively  to  the  phase  of  the 
resulting   disturbance,  we  may  write  these   retardations    ?~    2  tt 

/v 

and  — 2  2  7r  respectively.      Then  the  two  amplitudes  in  question 

A. 

may  be  compounded  thus 

A(1  +  2)  —  <  Aj  cos  ^  2  7r  +  A2  cos  ^  2  7T  >   .      .     (2) 

Sir  Geo.  Airy's  table  contains  the  constants  A1;  A2,  etc.,  required 
in  this  equation,  and  clearly  its  calculated  value  would  be  largely 


8  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

affected  if  certain  of  the  constants  employed  were  affected  with  a 
negative  sign  and  others  not.  For  this  purpose,  therefore,  the 
emendation  of  Sir  George  Airy's  table  is  of  importance. 

Of  the  antipoint  formed  by  a  star  in  the  image  plane  ot  a 
telescope,  Sir  Geo.  Airy's  theory  affords  a  sufficient  explanation 
subject  only  to  very  small  corrections,  and  that,  in  truth,  is  all 
that  its  author  set  himself  to  explain.  But  as  it  stands  in  the 
'Philosophical  Transactions,'  the  theory  is  not  directly  applic- 
able to   the   image  formed   by  a  Microscope,  and   this   for   two 

reasons :  .      .  .         ,    , 

1.  The  Microscope  receives  upon  its  objective  not  plane  but 

spherical  wave-fronts  of  incident  light ;  and 

2  The  object  on  the  stage  of  the  Microscope,  even  when  very 
minute,  is  not  infinites imally  small,  like  the  disc  of  a  star  seen  in 
the  heavens,  but  is  always  of  finite  dimensions  and  usually  ot 

sensible  magnitude. 

In  order  to  adapt  the  Airy  theory  to  the  case  ot  the  Micro- 
scope both  these  new  conditions  must  be  investigated— that  is  to 
say  the  law  of  diffraction  from  spherical  wave-fronts  must  be 
ascertained  and  substituted  for  the  law  of  diffraction  from  plane 
wave-fronts  as  the  basis  of  the  theory,  and  the  diffraction  fringe 
formed  about  a  small  finite  area  must  be  substituted  for  the  anti- 
point  curve  as  the  boundary  region  between  light  and  dark  areas. 

So  the  problem  stood  when,  in  1874,  Prof.    Helmholtz;  con- 
tributed his  paper  to  '  Poggendorff's  Annalen.'     The  paper  was  a 
composite,  put  together  confessedly  under  great  pressure  ot  time 
and  apparently  comprising,  to  judge  by  internal  evidence,   three 
constituent    fragments    tumbled    together   without    sufficient   or 
effectual  editing.     It  is  proper  to  recall  these  circumstances  when 
discussing  Helmholtz'    paper,    for    they  explain   its   limitations; 
they  explain,  for  example,  how  it  should  have  come  about  that 
Prof   Helmholtz,  while  he  solved  the  first  half  of  the  problem, 
and  showed  how  to  adapt   Airy's   theory  to   an   instrument   re- 
ceiving spherical  wave-fronts,  left  the  second  half  unattached,  and 
incautiously  assumed  that  the  diffraction  fringe  of  the  smallest 
visible  luminous  area  would  be  indistinguishable  from  the  section 
of    an  antipoint.      Such  shortcomings  are  the  results  ot  precipi- 
tation, which   betrayed    even  the    great    Helmholtz  into  serious 

l°But  it  is  his  solution  of  the  first  part  of  the  problem  which 
concerns  us,  and  this  is  so  elegant  that,  formidable  as  the  problem 
itself  looks,  the  solution  can  be  stated  in  a  few  words  if  we  confine 
ourselves  to  results,  referring  the  reader  to  other  sources  ot 
information  for  the  demonstration. 

•  There  is  another  point  affecting  the  form  of  the  curve  discussed  in  Note  I. 
(below,  p.  30  (6)  ),  in  respect  of  which  it  may  turn  out  that  Sir  Geo.  Airy  «  resulta 
require  correction. 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.  9 

Let  e  in  fig.  4  be  a  point  on  the  stage  of  a  Microscope.  Let 
P  be  the  principal  plane  of  the  objective.  Let  A  be  an  aperture 
which  limits  the  diameter  of  the  transmitted  beam,  and  let  rj  be 
the  point  in  the  image  plane  conjugate  to  e. 

The  question  is  to  find  an  expression  for  the  diameter  of  any 
given  zone  in  the  antipoint  formed  about  ij  by  the  aperture  A. 


Fig.  4. 


Helmholtz'  solution  of  the  problem  may  be  stated  thus  : 
Let  A  in  the  following  diagram  (fig.  5)  be  the  given  aperture, 
liaving  rectilinear  boundaries;  a.  .   a,  the  axis  of  collimation,  and 
rj  the  "point  upon  that  axis  to  which  the  transmitted  wave-front 


converges 


Also  let  al.  .  ,a1}  intersecting  the  axis  a. .  .a  at  an  angle  6,  be 
the  axis  along  which  the  diffracted  beam  in  question  would  be 


Fig.  5  . 

deflected  if  the  wave-fronts  passing  the  aperture  were  not  spheri- 
cal but  plane  wave-fronts.     Then,  by  the  known  law  of  diffraction, 

sin  6  =  y>  the  symbol  </>  being  used  to  express  in  terms  of  X  the 

retardation  of  the  most  retarded  ray  in  the  diffracted  beam.  Now 
it  is  plain  that  the  axis  alt .  .ax  will  intersect  the  perpendicular 
plane  through  r) — which  may  be  called  the  focal  plane — at  a  point 
rji  so  situated  that  its  axial  distance 

7}  .   .   .  r)i  =  tan  0  (e  .  .  .  rj)  .      .      .      ,   (3) 


10  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

In  like  manner  the  aperture  A  may  be  expressed  in  terms  of 
the  divergence  angle  u  thus 

A  =  2  tan  u  (c  .  .  .  rj)       .      .      .      .   (4) 

and  dividing  (3)  by  (4)  we  obtain  for  a  parallel  beam  of  light  the 
following  equation  between  the  diameter  of  the  aperture  and  the 
diameter  of  the  unfocussed  antipoint — 

V  •  •  •  Vi         tan  0  /"">\ 

—     —  .  a  .  .  .  V-*/ 

A  2  tan  u 

V.  Helmholtz  deduces  for  the  case  of  the  spherical  wave-front 
focussed  upon  rj  a  law  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  in  that 
case  the  expression  (5)  becomes 

p_=  jin0 (6) 

A       2  sin  u 

where  p  is  written  for  the  radius  of  the  antipoint,  or  rather  of 

that  zone  in  the  antipoint  which  is  formed  by  the  focussing  of  those 

diffracted  beams  which  have  the  retardation  =  <f>,  and  is,  therefore, 

a  general  expression  for  (77  .  .  .  rjx). 

This  last  expression  can  be  further  simplified.     For  in  the  case 

of  an  aperture  with  straight  parallel  edges,  the  value  of  6  in  a 

plane  perpendicular  to  the  edge  is  known  to  be,  as  above  stated, 

such  that  , 

sin  0  -  ?., 
A 

whence  <b  s*r\ 

p  =  h— £ — » CO 

2  sin  u 

and  this  in  the  case  of  a  circular  aperture  becomes 

P-l"2  5-*- (8)* 

2  sin  u 

When  p  is  the  radius  of  what  is  commonly  called  the  false  disc 
the  phase  value  <f>  is  equal  to  one  complete  cycle  of  phase  change, 
and  may  therefore  be  expressed  by  one  wave  length.  Thus  we 
obtain  the  well-known  expressions 

P  —  s— • —     or  p  =  1*2        .    -, 
2  sin  u  2  sin  u 


according  as  the  aperture  is  limited  by  a  rectilinear  or  by  a  circular 
boundary. 

1 -2  \ 

*  The  expression  -    is  very  approximately  correct,  if  we  adopt  Sir  Geo. 

2  sin  u 
Airy's  equation  for  the  antipoint  light  curve,  for  the  inner  zone3  (say  those 
within  the  boundary  of  the  false  disc)  of  the  circular  antipoint— with  which  alone 
we  shall  be  concerned  in  the  present  paper.  In  the  outer  zones  the  circular  anti- 
poirt  tends  to  conform  to  the  dimensions  of  the  rectilinear  antipoint,  that  is  to  say,. 
A 
2  sin  u 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  W.  Gordon. 


11 


From    this   result   several  very  important  inferences  may  be 


drawn.    Thus,  since  the  expression 


is  independent  of  the 


2  sin  u 
dimensions  of  the   aperture,  we  may  infer  that — 

VI.  The  dimensions  of  the  antipoint  depend  only  upon  the 
divergence  angle  of  the  focussed  beam,  and  are  in  no  way  determined 
by  the  magnitude  of  the  aperture  causing  diffraction.  This  sounds 
surprising,  for  we  know  that  the  sine  of  the  diffraction  angle  is 
inversely  proportional  to  the  diameter  of  the  aperture,  and  are  apt 
to  assume  that  the  dimensions  of  the  antipoint  will  vary  in  a 
similar  fashion.  But  a  little  reflection  suggests  that  the  divergence 
angle  must  have  more  to  do  with  the  diameter  of  the  antipoint  than 
has  the  breadth  of  the  aperture,  for,  the  divergence  angle  remain- 
ing unchanged,  the  distance  of  the  aperture  must  be  proportional  to 
its  diameter.     Fig.  6  illustrates  this  relation. 

Here,  whether  we  take  the  aperture  to  be  A1}  A2  or  A3,  it  is 


Fig.  U. 

plain  that  the  sine  of  the  diffraction  angle  multiplied  by  the  dis- 
tance   of    the   aperture    from    the    point   rj    will   be   a   constant 

quantity  =  •— ? —  ;   in  other   words,    the   antipoint  will  be  un- 
2  sin  u 

changed  whatever  change  may  take  place  in  the  length    of  the 

beam,  provided  that  its  divergence  angle  remains  unchanged. 

From  this  principle  Helmholtz  deduces  a  very  elegant  result. 

Since  the  antipoint  depends  only  upon  the  divergence  angle  of  the 

focussed  beam,  it  can  make  no  difference  to  it,  and  no  difference 

therefore  to  the  state  of  resolution  of  the  image  at  what  point  in 

the  system  the  diaphragm  is  placed,  by  which  the  beam  is  defined 

and  diffraction  caused.      Therefore  the  actual  dimensions  of  the 

antipoint  will    be   determined    by   that  aperture   which    has  the 

smallest  optical  projection  upon  the  principal  plane  of  the  entire 

optical  system.     Furthermore,  it  is  clear  that  there  can  only  be  one 

such  aperture,  and  therefore,  whether  we  consider  the  beam  to  be 

transmitted  upward  towards  the  ocular  and  out  through  the  eye- 


12  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

lens,  or  downwards  towards  the  objective  and  out  through  the  front 
lens,  in  either  case  we  shall  have  to  deal  with  the  same  limiting 
aperture,  and  both  the  actual  antipoint  in  the  real  image  and  the 
theoretical  antipoint  produced  in  the  object  by  Reverted  beam 
will  depend  simply  on  the  divergence  angles  in  the  front  and  back 
of  the  instrument  respectively. 

We  thus  see  that  a  simple  numerical  relation  can  be  established 
between  conjugate  antipoiuts,  but  for  the  fuR  significance  oi  this 
proposition  we  must  consider  it  in  the  light  of  another,  which  also 
we  owe  to  Helmholtz  and  find  in  this  paper,  and  which  connects 
conjugate  images  by  the  same  law.  For  Helmholtz  shows  that  i 
any  Optical  system-no  matter  how  simple  or  how  complicated 
-yields  a  correct  (i.e.  a  flat  and  aplanatic)  image  ot  a  plane  object, 
the  law  of  magnification  in  that  system  will  be— 

YII    The  conjugate  images  will  be  proportioned  to  one  another 
inversely  in  the  ratio  of  the  sines  of  the  divergence  angles  ol  the 


Fir,.  7. 

beams  by  which  they  are  severally  formed.     Diagrammatically,  if 
in  fig.  7  e  be  an  object  (or  an  image)  and  77  its  conjugate  image 

sin  ue 


€  "  sin  «t) 


(9) 


It  is  evident  that  a  similar  rule  with  regard  to  antipoints  can 
be  deduced  from  equation  (8).  For ,  putting  p,  and  pv  tor  the 
diameters  of  the  conjugate  antipoints,  we  have 

<p  1    0 £_ 

P<:-=  -1"-2  2~Sin  ^     alld    **  =   ^         2lK  UV 


Pv 


sin  Ue 


=  m  by  equation  (9) 


sm  uv 
From  this  proposition  several   important  conclusions  can  at 

•once  be  drawn. 

In  the  first  place  we  perceive  that—  _ 

VIII  The  state  of  resolutidn  of  a  correct  image  cannot  be 
either  improved  or  impaired  by  mere  change  of  scale,  whether 
effected  by  eye-piece  magnification  or  otherwise.  It  you  magnity 
the  irna^e  you  magnify  the  antipoint  in  the  same  proportion,  and 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     Bg  J.  W.  Gordon.  13. 

therefore  there  is  no  improved  delineation  of  detail.  If  you 
diminish  the  scale  of  the  image  you  diminish  the  scale  of  the 
antipoint  in  the  like  ratio,  and  the  details  are  therefore  as  sharply 
defined  in  the  small  scale  picture  as  in  the  large.  One  scale  may 
be  more  conveniently  visible  than  the  other,  but  intrinsically  the 
picture  remains  throughout  all  changes  of  scale  self-identical. 
This  is  the  first  great  practical  conclusion  which  Helmholtz  has. 
established,  and  not  for  the  Microscope  alone  but  for  all  optical 
instruments  which  have  aplanatic  foci  and  flat  fields. 

But  it  may  be  asked  why  then  do  not  all  Microscopes,  equally 
well  corrected  for  spherical  and  chromatic  aberrations,  give  equally 
perfect  images  ?  If  scale  has  nothing  to  do  with  resolution,  why 
should  an  objective  of  wide  angle  possess  higher  resolving  power 
than  a  low  powered  objective  ? 

The  answer  to  that  question  is  really  very  simple,  but  is  not  easy 
to  be  expressed.  Perhaps  the  clearest  way  to  state  it  is  to  postu- 
late that  the  object  seen  by  the  aid  of  any  optical  instrument  is  not 
in  strict  truth  the  thing  itself,  but  a  simulacrum  of  the  thing  itself 
produced  by  the  instrument*  If  this  seems  to  be  an  artificial  view 
of  the  case  let  it  be  considered  that  this  is  manifestly  so  when  the 
optical  instrument  is  a  coloured  medium — say  a  piece  of  ruby  glass.. 
We  know  that  in  such  a  case  the  object  seen  is  a  profoundly  modi- 
fied presentment  of  the  object  as  it  exists.  Less  obviously,  but 
quite  as  truly,  the  appearance  of  an  object  seen  through  an  aperture 
is  profoundly  modified  by  the  diffraction  to  which  the  aperture 
gives  rise.  Every  point  upon  the  object  is  thereby  converted  into 
an  antipoint  for  presentation  to  the  eye,  and  so  in  place  of  the 
object  as  it  is,  delineated,  as  we  may  say,  by  points  of  light  vary- 
ing infinitely  in  colour  and  intensity,  we  have  the  object  repro- 
duced by  means  of  antipoints,  which  not  only  vary  in  colour  and 
intensity,  but  which  also  encroach  upon  one  another,  and  so  blur 
and  complicate  the  whole  result  by  their  reciprocal  interaction. 

"We  are  now  in  a  position  to  answer  the  question,  why  does  a 
beam  of  wide  angle  yield  a  better  image  than  that  yielded  by  a 
narrow  angled  beam  ?  The  beam  of  light  received  by  the  aperture 
of  the  instrument  from  any  point  upon  the  object  may  under  this 
point  of  view  be  regarded  as  an  instrument — a  pencil,  say — by 
which  the  supposed  point  is  depicted  in  the  optical  field.  If,  now, 
this  pencil  reproduces  a  point  by  a  coarse  antipoint,  it  will  obviously 
delineate  a  less  perfect  representation  of  the  original  than  if  it  uses 
a  fine  antipoint  for  that  purpose.  Now  as  the  diameter  of  the  anti- 
point  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  sine  of  the  divergence-angle 
— 1/sin  u — it  is  clear  that  the  beam  having  the  larger  angle  will, 
ceteris  paribus,  yield  the  more  exact    picture.     The  difference  is 

*  This  idea  has  been  much  insisted  upon  by  Dr.  Johnstone  Stonev  in  several  papers 
on  the  theory  of  the  Microscope.     £ee  the  Phil.  Mag.,  5th  ser.,  vol.  klii.,  p.  426,  et  seq 


14  Transact  ions  of  the  Society. 

precisely  like  the  difference  between  drawing  an  object  with  a  fine- 
pointed  pencil  and  with  a  stick  of  charcoal.  The  finer  antipoint 
will  obviously  yield  the  better  resolved  picture. 

This  way  of  viewing  the  matter  led  Helmholtz  to  enter  upon 
some  very  interesting  speculations  concerning  the  ultimate  limit  of 

1  *2  \ 
resolving  power.  For  it  is  evident  that  the  expression      r-    ,  which 
°  sin  u 

expresses  the  diameter  of  the  false  disc  of  an  antipoint  produced 

by    a   circular   aperture,    cannot   be    infmitesimally   small.     The 

value  of  the  wave-length   \  will   be  somewhere  in  the    region 

of  5oooo  mcn>  an(i  sm  u  cannot  be  greater  than  1.     If  then  we 

1*2 

write  2  p  =  1  •  2  X  =       —     inch,  we  shall  have  the  smallest  anti- 

50,000 
point  that  can  by  any  possibility  be  obtained  with  green  light  of 
the  wave-length  mentioned.  "What,  then,  must  be  the  minimum 
separation  of  two  bright  objects  which  are  by  means  of  such  an 
antipoint  to  be  separately  delineated  ?  This  is  the  much  discussed 
and  profoundly  interesting  problem  of  the  limit  of  resolving  power. 
Professor  Helmholtz,  although  he  approached  this  problem,  as 
we  have  seen,  by  a  series  of  most  masterly  attacks  upon  what  may 
be  called  its  outworks,  did  not  drive  his  attack  home  or  succeed  in 
capturing  the  citadel  itself.  It  is  not  difficult  to  realise  what  re- 
mained to  be  done.  The  form,  dimensions  and  illumination  of  the 
antipoint  being  taken  to  be  known,  it  becomes  in  the  next  place 
necessary  to  consider  how  the  overlapping  of  adjacent  antipoints  will 
affect  the  appearance  of  the  field  in  which  they  lie.  This,  clearly, 
is  a  problem  of  great  complexity,  for  antipoints  may  overlap  in  all 
imaginable  degrees,  from  complete  coincidence,  as  one  extreme  case, 
to  complete  separation  as  the  opposite  extreme.  Moreover,  any 
number  of  antipoints  may  overlap,  and  with  varying  degrees  of 
encroachment  upon  the  common  area,  thus  giving  rise  to  still 
further  complexity.  Helmholtz  did  not  essay  the  regular  solution 
of  this  problem  ;  it  appears,  indeed,  from  a  postscript  appended  to 
his  paper,  that  the  necessary  time  was  not  at  his  command.  But 
he  thought  that  the  extreme  case  could  be  very  simply  stated,  and 
in  effect  he  stated  it  as  follows.  Let  Ax  A2  in  the  following 
diagram  (fig.  8)  be  two  adjacent  antipoints  winch  encroach  upon 
one  another.  What  is  the  smallest  distance  between  their  centres 
at  which  they  can  be  discerned  as  separate  objects  ?  The  figure 
shows  pairs  of  antipoints.  The  members  of  the  first  pair  may  be 
assumed  to  be  indistinguishably  merged  in  one  another.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  third  pair  may  be  taken  to  be  unmistakably  distinct. 
If  we  assume  the  second  pair  to  be  at  the  limit  of  resolving-power, 
what  will  be  the  calculated  distance  of  their  centre  points  from 
one  another?  This  would  be  the  exact  statement  of  the  problem 
of  the  resolving  limit  as  Helmholtz  conceived  it.    But  putting  aside 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  W.  Gordon. 


15 


refinements,  he  selects  a  case  well,  as  lie  supposed,  within  that 
limit,  and  propounds  it  thus.    Taking  a  median  section  of  the  paired 


Fig.  8. 

antipoints,  as  shown  by  the  section  lines  in  the  figure,  he  first 
draws  their  light  intensity  curves  calculated  by  Sir  George  Airy's 
formula,  next  he  adds  together  the  ordinates  of  the  overlapping 
parts  of  the  curves,  and  so  obtains  the  total  light  intensity  curves 
•■shown  by  broken  lines  in  fig.   9.*     When  the  distance  between 


Fig.  9. 

the  two  centres  =  p  or  <  p,  the  total  curve  will  show,  as  in  the 

first  and  second  pairs  of  the  figure,  no  more  than  one  maximum, 

whereas  the  widely  separated  members  of  the  third  group  will  yield 

two  maxima  as  shown.     Hence  Helmholtz  concluded  that  a  centre 

to  centre  distance  =  p  would  be  too  small  for  the  representation  of 

the  .two  adjacent  points  as  separate  objects.     This  rule  would  of 

1  *2  \ 
course  ^ive  a  limit  of  c  =  —  =—  in  the  case  of  a  circular  aperture 

2  sin  u  L 

if  we  write  c  for  the  centre  to  centre  distance  now  under  discussion, 

*  The  curves  shown  are  actually  reduced  copies  of  Airy's  Amplitude  curve.  The 
resulting  inaccuracy  is  not  conspicuous,  and  will  not,  it  is  hoped,  occasion  the  reader 
any  difficulty. 


1G  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

but  Helmholtz,  not  putting  this  forward  as  an  exact  solution,  did 
not  in  fact  state  it  with  so  much  precision.  He  was  content  to  say, 
using  a  merely  approximative  figure,  the  limit  of  resolving  power 

must  necessarily  be  >  c  =        .        .     This  is  the  well-known  limit 

2  sm  u 

which  on  his  authority  and  that  of  Prof.  Abbe  has  been  adopted 
by  almost  all  subsequent  writers  upon  die  Microscope  as  the  ulti- 
mate and  necessary  limit  beyond  which  its  performance  can  never 
go.  It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  both  Helmholtz  and  Abbe 
should  have  fixed  upon  this  expression.  It  is  not,  as  has  just  been 
shown,  the  true  result  of  Helmholtz'  theory,  but  a  figure  arbitrarily 
selected  as  lying  within  the  true  limit,  and  Abbe  was  led  to  it  by 
considering  the  rather  fanciful  question  as  to  how  a  picture  could 
be  formed  of  an  object  illuminated  by  a  beam  of  light  having  a 
divergence  angle  =  0.  It  is  a  mere  coincidence,  but  a  very  strange 
one,  that  two  such  widely  different  attempts  to  solve  the  problem 
should  both  lead  to  the  same  result,  and  that  an  erroneous  result. 
It  is  perhaps  less  surprising  that  the  error  so  authenticated  should 
have  passed  undetected  and  even  unchallenged  until  1896. 

In  the  last-named  year  Lord  Eayleigh  published  a  paper  in 
which  the  whole  subject  was  reviewed,  the  inadequacy  of  Prof. 
Abbe's  treatment  of  it  was  pointed  out,  and  a  very  pertinent 
inquiry  started  as  to  whether  Helmholtz'  method  of  obtaining  the 
values  of  his  total  light  curves  (see  fig.  9  above)  took  due  account 
of  the  phase  relations  of  contiguous  antipoints.  So  long  as  we 
concern  ourselves  only  with  light  intensities  (ignoring  the  light 
amplitudes)  no  question  of  phase  relation  and  resulting  inter- 
ference can  arise  ;  and  it  is  commonly  assumed  by  physicists  that 
unless  two  beams  of  light  originate  in  the  same  incandescent 
particle  they  must  be  independent  as  to  phase,  and  cannot,  there- 
fore, exhibit  the  phenomena  of  regular  interference.  This  is  only 
very  imperfectly  true,  and  Lord  Piayleigh  in  this  paper  showed 
that — 

IX.  If  two  beams  of  light,  although  originating  in  independent 
sources  of  light,  follow  very  closely  adjacent  and  nearly  parallel 
paths,  so  that  they  interpenetrate  one  another,  they  will  modify  one 
another  where  they  interpenetrate,  and  may  thereby  become  attuned 
to  one  another  almost  as  if  they  had  had  a  common  origin,  and  so  as 
to  be  capable  of  exhibiting  all  the  phenomena  of  interference.*  It 
now  appears  that  the  results  of  overlapping  must  be  more  complex 
than  Helmholtz  had  assumed,  and  Lord  Eayleigh  illustrates  this 
fact  by  taking  three  typical  cases.     He  assumes  (1)  that  the  over- 

*  This  interference  of  light  beams  from  independent  sources  would  seem  to  have 
been  illustrated  by  a  very  elegant  experiment  devised  by  Dr.  Johnstone  Stoney.  and 
demonstrated  by  him  at  a  Meeting  of  the  British  Association.  See  Rep.  B.A., 
1901,  p.  574. 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.  17 

lapping  antipoints  are  attuned  and  to  the  same  phase ;  (2)  that 

they  are   attuned,  but  with    a   phase  difference    A  <f>  =  - ;   and 

A 

(3)  that  they  are  independent  as  to  phase.  The  result  of  con- 
sidering case  (2)  is  very  remarkable,  for  it  then  appears  that,  how- 
ever close  the  centres  may  be,  the  antipoints  will  be  seen,  if  at  all, 
as  separate  objects.  If  they  were  to  coincide  exactly  it  is  obvious 
that  the  light  of  the  one  would  quench  that  of  the  other,  and 
if  they  were  separately  of  equal  brightness  the  one  to  the  other 
they  would  become  invisible.  In  any  case,  if  the  centres  be 
separated  by  a  distance,  how  small  soever,  the  middle  point 
between  those  centres  must  be  a  point  of  darkness  and,  there- 
fore, a  dark  boundary  must  separate  the  two  illuminated  areas. 
Here  then  we  have  an  unlimited  resolving  power.  It  thus  appears 
that — 

X.  The  limit  of  resolving  power  is  not  simply  a  question  of 
the  propinquity  of  luminous  objects,  but  depends  in  a  material 
degree  upon  the  phase  relations  of  the  light  by  which  they  are 
severally  rendered  visible,  and  from  this  it  follows  as  a  practical 
inference  that  the  expedient  of  controlling  the  phase  relations 
of  adjacent  antipoints — if  we  can  find  the  means  of  applying  it — 
will  give  us  command  of  a  resolving  power  beyond  the  Helmholtz 
limit,  and  possibly  beyond  any  limit  that  can  be  assigned.  To 
this  point  we  shall  have  occasion  to  recur  upon  a  later  page  in 
this  paper. 

There  is  still  another  point  in  respect  of  which  Helmholtz' 
result  invites  criticism.  As  already  stated,  the  limit  which  he 
named  was  not  put  forward  as  an  exact  or  calculated  limit,  but  as 
a  result  of  which  actual  practice  must  always  and  necessarily  fall 
short,  and  fall  short  by  a  considerable  measure.  He  took  the  anti- 
point  as  the  extreme  case  of  a  very  small  surface,  and  argued  that 
if  two  antipoints  could  not  be  separated  from  one  another,  the  two 
finite  surfaces  on  the  confines  of  which  these  antipoints  lay  must 
in  like  manner  be  inextricably  fused  together.  There  is  here  a 
very  singular  oversight,  the  nature  of  which  may  be  exhibited  by  a 
diagram.  In  fig.  9  {ante,  p.  15)  any  one  of  the  six  curves  shown 
represents  the  light  amplitude  curve  of  an  antipoint,  but  that  of  a 
luminous  area  in  which  antipoints  stand  side  by  side  and  close  to  one 
another,  overlapping  as  completely  as  may  be,  will  be  represented 
by  the  curve  of  the  following  figure  (fig.  10).  It  is  clear  that 
the  full  brightness  of  the  luminous  area  is  not  developed  at  its 

very  edge,  but  at  a  distance  =    _    .      -  measured  inward  from  the 
J      °  '  2  sin  u 

edge.     Moreover,  the  light  intensity  here,  even  if  the  antipoints 

have  no  determinate  phase  relation   inter  se,  will  be  double  the 

intensity  at  the  true  focus  of  a  single  antipoint,  and  if,  therefore,  we 

Feb.  15th,  1905  c 


18 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


have  in  place  of  the  two  antipoints  postulated  by  Helmholtz  two 

luminous  areas  having  each  a  transverse  diameter  at  least  =  . 

°  sin  u 

these    areas    may  be   clearly   distinguishable,  even   though  their 

X 
adjacent  edjres  are  separated  by  a  distance  •<  0 

J  °  l  J  2  sin  u 

The  problem  of  resolving  power  which  thus  emerges,  when  the 
case  is  considered  of  two  small  luminous  areas  uf  finite  dimen- 
sions, having  each  a  diameter  of  not  less  than  measured  away 
'           °                                                          sin  u  J 

from  the  bounding  edge,  engaged  the  attention  of  Lord  Eayleigh  in 
1903,  and  one  particular  case  of  it  was  treated  in  a  paper  which  he 

communicated  to  this  Society, 
being  the  last  of  the  paper.s 
enumerated  at  the  head  of  this 
article.  Lord  Eayleigh  assumes 
two  such  areas  separated  by  a 
dark  bar,  and  calculates  by  the 
method  of  his  former  paper 
what  in  that  case  would  be  the 
minimum  breadth  of  such  a 
dark  bar,  which  would  visibly 
separate  the  field  into  two 
luminous  areas. 

XL  The  result  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  reciprocal  phase 
relation  of  the  adjacent  lumi- 
nous edges.  If  these  have  a 
constant  phase  difference  A  (</>) 
=  ^  X  the  bar  will  be  a  visible 
boundary,  however  narrow. 
But  if  the  phase  difference 
A  (</>)  =  0,  that  is  to  say,  if  the  same  wave-front  extends  beneath 
the  bar  and  illuminates  both  the  separated  areas — the  worst  case 
— then  the  bar  must  have  a  minimum  breadth  =  fe  X.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  is  no  phase  relation,  and  therefore  no 
regular  interference,  the  bar  will  still  be  visible,  although  it  has 
a  breadth  no  greater  than  ^  X.  Here,  at  last,  we  begin  to  get 
into  touch  with  fact.  The  conditions  which  Lord  Eayleigh  stipu- 
lates for  in  this  paper  are  such  conditions  as  may  possibly  arise  in 
practice.  Luminous  areas  and  dark  bars  of  the  small  but  finite 
dimensions  named  are  objects  which  the  microscopist  is  actually 
concerned  at  times  to  see,  whereas  a  luminous  point — the  word 
"  point  "  being  used  in  a  mathematical  sense — is  a  figment  of  the 
scientific  imagination  and  a  single  antipoint  is  what  no  man  has 
seen  or  ever  will  see. 


Fig.  10. 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.  19 

But  Lord  Rayleigh's  results,  although  eminently  suggestive  and 
■stimulating  to  further  investigation  of  this  profoundly  interesting 
•subject,  are  by  no  means  exhaustive.  The  dark  bar  is  not  the 
essential  and  ultimate  element  of  the  microscopic  picture.  The 
black  dot  is  even  more  familiar  and  more  profoundly  important  to 
the  microscopist.  He  would  like  to  know  how  small  it  may  lie 
and  yet  remain  visible,  and  he  would  like  to  know  also  how  its 
appearance  is  modified  by  the  laws  of  antipoint  structure.  The 
investigation  of  the  case  of  the  dark  bar  has  yielded  results  so 
striking  and  so  full  of  promise  that  he  grows  naturally  impatient  to 
have  the  case  of  the  black  dot  similarly  examined.  The  dark  bar  has 
only  one  finite  dimension,  the  black  dot  two  finite  dimensions,  and 
therefore  it  offers  a  problem  of  considerably  increased  complexity 
for  solution.  But  on  the  other  hand  the  solution  is  of  higher  value 
in  at  least  an  equal  measure,  for  whereas  the  dark  bar  is  an  element 
in  certain  pictures  only,  the  black  dot  is  an  element  in  all,  and  the 
most  significant  element  of  some  of  the  pictures  which  have  the 
highest  significance  for  microscopists  and  for  humanity. 

The  problems  connected  with  the  black  dot  constitute  thus  at 
the  present  time  the  great  terra  incognita  of  the  theory  of  the 
Microscope.  But  exploration  in  this  region,  promising  as  it  is  of 
results  of  the  most  profound  significance  and  of  the  greatest  prac- 
tical importance,  will  certainly  miscarry  if  it  proceeds  upon  a  false 
postulate,  and  in  this  connection  there  is  a  question  concerning  the 
structure  of  the  antipoint  which  has  apparently  escaped  attention 
down  to  the  present  time,  but  which  must  needs  be  asked  and 
answered  as  a  preliminary  to  any  secure  advance. 

In  all  these  investigations,  thus  far  discussed,  it  has  been 
tacitly  assumed  that  the  antipoint  is  itself  monophasal.  But  this 
has  never  been  proved  and  it  does  not  stand  to  reason.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  the  successive  zones  of  the  antipoint  differ  not  only 
by  a  gradual  change  of  light  intensity  but  also  by  a  gradual  change 
of  phase,  and  if  this  be  so  it  will  have  a  most  pronounced  effect 
upon  the  phenomena  of  overlapping  antipoints.  The  discussion  of 
this  question  from  the  theoretical  standpoint  involves  too  much 
detail  to  be  incorporated  here,  and  is  therefore  relegated  to  a  note.* 
But  the  experimental  proof  may  well  be  noticed  in  this  place. 

Let  it  be  assumed,  then,  that  the  structure  of  a  given  antipoint 
involves  not  only  a  variation  of  light  intensity  according  to  Airy's 
law  but  also  a  gradual  change  of  phase  resulting  in  a  retardation 
equal  to  ^A,  between  the  centre  of  the  false  disc  and  its  boundary. 
Such  an  antipoint  may  be  represented  diagrammatically  by  fig.  11, 
where  the  false  disc  of  the  antipoint  is  arbitrarily  cut  up  into  five 
concentric  zones,  and  the  symbol  cf>  by  its  inclination  indicates  the 
corresponding  change  of  phase.     It  is  clear  at  once  that  two  such 

*  See  Note  on  p.  25  below. 

C  2 


2d 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


antipoints,  placed  so  as  to  overlap  one  another,  would  yield  total 
amplitude  curves  very  unlike  those  which  we  have  been  consider- 
ing, so  that  all  the  results  so  tar  reached  must  be  considered 
precarious  if  this  new  hypothesis  be  entertained.  There  are 
also    certain    phenomena   highly  characteristic  of  this  graduated 

antipoint  of  which  the  monophasal  anti- 
point  affords  no  kind  of  explanation.  To 
these  we  may  now  proceed. 

It  is  necessary  for  this  purpose  to 
investigate  the  law  according  to  which  a 
polyphasal  surface  such  as  that  of  fig.  11 
must  be  propagated,  and  for  this  purpose 
we  may  provisionally*  have  recourse  to 
the  well-known  principle  of  Huyghens. 
Let  E. .  .E  of  fig.  12  be  such  a  surface, 
and  let  the  derived  surface  r...v  be 
drawn  parallel  to  it  and  at  a  distance 
=  X  from  it.  Then  the  surface  r .  .  .  r  will 
exactly  reproduce  the  surface  E .  . .  E  as  shown,  the  final  phase  in 
every  ray  being  equal  to  the  initial  phase  +  \.  If  we  trace  another 
surface,  r*  . .  .ri}  midway  between  these  two,  we  shall  have  a  third 
surface  in  which  the  phase  on  any  given  ray  is  intermediate  between 
the  initial  and  the  final  phases.  Similarly,  if  we  select  a  fourth 
plane,  r{. .  ,ry  intermediate  between  the  last  named  and  E. .  .E,  w$ 


Fig.  11. 


<0- 


^Nsf^tfr 


i 

!    "1* 


* 


Fig.  12. 


shall  there  find  the  phase  value  intermediate  between  the  initial 
and  halfway  phases.  It  will  be  clear  without  formal  proof  that 
the  lines  <£ .  .  <£ .  .  <£  of  the  diagram  indicate  monophasal  surfaces,  the 
existence  of  which  in  the  position  so  delineated  is  implied  by  the 
existence  in  the  initial  plane  of  a  polyphasal  surface,  having  the 
postulated  graduation  of  phase  values  in  its  various  zones. 

We   thus"  see  that  a  surface  having  this  structure,  itself  the 

*  "Provisionally,"  because  the  polyphasal  surface  cannot  be  propagated  strictly 
according  to  Huyghens'  law,  i.e.  not  with  the  velocity  of  light ;  but  for  short 
distances  the  assumption  is  allowable.  \ 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  W.  Gordon. 


21 


result  of  diffraction  from  a  wave-front,  will  in  its  turn  give  rise 
by  further  diffraction  to  a  inonophasal  surface  or  true  wave-front, 
a  wave-front  which,  in  the  case  supposed,  would  have  a  conical 
form.  It  will  be  interesting  to  consider  what  are  the  phenomena 
to  which  such  a  conical  wave-front  would  give  rise. 

Let  P  of  fig.  13  be  such  a  conical  wave-front,   and  suppose, 
first,  that  the  observer's  eye  is  focussed  on  the  plane  p,  situated  a 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


little  below  the  apex  of  the  cone.  It  is  clear  that  the  conical 
wave-front,  optically  projected  backward  on  to  the  focal  plane,  will 
in  that  case  produce  a  nebulous  light  in  the  middle  of  the  field 
fading  off  towards  the  outer  edge,  where  the  illuminated  zones  are 
largest,  and  forming  a  strongly  marked  boundary  at  the  inner 
edge,  where  a  dark  spot  occupies  the  actual  centre  of  the  field. 
It  may  be  observed  that  this  nebula  is,  in  fact,  an  expanded 
antipoint.  Fig.  14  is  actually  drawn  from  such  a  nebula  with  the 
black  dot  at  its  centre. 

Next  suppose  the  focal  plane  to  be  carried  up  to  the  position 
p2  shown  in  fig.  15.  The  part  of  the  cone  above  the  focal  plane 
will  be  optically  projected  down  upon  it,  and  the  part  below 
will  be  propagated  up  to  it,  with  the  result  that  the  nebula  will 


pz 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  16. 


be  diminished  in  extent,  enhanced  in  brightness,  and  its  centre 
occupied  by  a  strong  point  of  concentrated  light.  The  black 
dot  has  changed  into  a  white  dot.  Fig.  16  is  a  drawing  of  a  white 
dot  produced  in  this  way. 

Finally,  assume  the  focal  plane  to  be  carried  up  to  the 
position  jh  of  fig-  17.  Here  the  nebula  becomes  still  larger, 
and,  being  more  diffused,  weaker  towards  its  outer  edge.  The 
inner  edge  will,  however,  still  be  strong,  and  will  clearly  mark  off 
■a  black  dot  in  the  centre,  so  that  we  have  returned,  not  indeed 
in  the  structure  of  the  image,  but  almost  exactly  in  point  of 
appearance,  to  the  condition  of  things  illustrated  by  fig.  14. 


22  Trait  surf  ions  of  the  Society. 

Very  interesting  results  emerge  if  we  consider  what  will  happen 
if  some  part  of  the  conical  wave-front  be  blotted  out.  For 
example,  we  may  suppose  the  apex  to  be  cut  off  by  an  opaque 


X7 


\ 


V 


/ 


/    \       / 

1    V  I      \ 

'         V        /  V 


fc T-PS 


Fig.  17.  Fig.  18. 

object  introduced  into  that  part  of  the  field,  as  in  fig.  18.  In  that 
case  it  is  plain  that  we  shall  not  have  a  bright  dot  at  the  level  of 
p2,  but  a  projection,  having  reduced  diameter,  of  the  opaque  object 
surrounded  by  a  nebula  of  diminished  breadth.  This  will  sud- 
denly change  into  a  bright  dot  when  the  plane  p5  is  passed,  to  be 
again  reversed  into  a  black  dot  as  before  at  the  level  of  j)x. 

The  microscopist  will  recognise  in  these  descriptions  a  close 
resemblance  to  certain  phenomena  very  familiar  in  high  power 
microscopy,  where  objects  come  into  view  having  dimensions  com- 
mensurable with  the  dimensions  of  the  antipoint,  but  for  practical 
application  the  theory  must  be  so  extended  as  to  include  the 
common  case  in  which  we  have  to  deal  with  sources  of  illumination 
of  finite  extent  and  in  which  the  individual  antipoint  is  merged^ 
and  the  boundaries  between  light  and  dark  areas  are  traced  by 
diffraction  fringes.  The  great  problem  then  may  be  formulated 
thus  :  What  is  the  structure  of  a  diffraction  fringe  if  we  assume 
that  the  antipoint,  instead  of  being  monophasal,  has  the  phase 
structure  of  fig.  11,  in  which  successive  zones  exhibit  successive 
phases  in  a  regular  series  ? 

The  mathematical  solution  of  this  problem  is  too  intricate  to 
be  developed  here,  and  therefore  my  own  contribution  to  it  is 
embodied  in  a  note.  The  result  of  the  note  is  a  rough  approxima- 
tion only  to  the  desired  solution.  It  may  even  be  that  the  problem 
is  not  susceptible  of  a  complete  solution,  but  if  it  be  I  must  leave 
the  task  of  solving  it  to  other  and  abler  hands.  For  immediate 
purposes  the  broad  result  suffices  that  in  a  diffraction  fringe,  as  in 
the  antipoint,  we  have  a  polyphasal  surface  which  may  be  divided 
into  zones  parallel  to  the  true  boundary,  and  when  so  divided  will 
exhibit  the  successive  phases  in  due  serial  order.  A  typical  diffrac- 
tion fringe  is  represented  diagrammatically  in  fig.  19,  and  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  fringe  extends  for  a  distance  equal  to  the  radius 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  W.  Gordon. 


23 


of  the  antipoint  on  each  side  of  the  true  boundary,  and  that  whereas 
the  light  intensity  curve  shows  an  uninterrupted  progression  from 
edge  to  edge  of  the  fringe,  it  is  not  so  with  the  phase  change.     On 


-e- 


§  dp  0  §  §  <b 

,.  1  I  I 


Fig.  19. 

the  contrary  the  phase,  proceeding  by  an  uninterrupted  change, 
leaches  at  the  point  A,  which  stands  vertically  over  the  boundary, 
its  permanent  value ;  then,  continuing  the  change  as  far  as  the 
point  B,  the  phase  there  attains  its  highest  value,  and  from  that 
point  by  a  retrogressive  change  it  falls  back  until  at  the  brighter 
edge  of  the  fringe  it  reaches  once  more  the  permanent  value, 
which  it  retains  over  the  rest  of  the  illuminated  area.  The  result 
is,  as  shown  at  wf  in  the  figure,  a  wave-front  having  a  recurved 
or  corrugated  form.  Thus  the  two  parts  wfx  and  wf2  will  be  propa- 
gated in  different  directions,  one  towards  the  left  the  other  towards 
the  right  of  the  diagram,  and  we  shall  have  two  conical  wave-fronts, 
the  one  expanding  while  the  other  contracts,  each  in  its  turn  form- 
ing a  ring  about  the  other — the  one  giving  rise  to  a  broad  ring  and 
large  bright  dot  focus,  the  other  to  a  narrow  ring  and  exquisitely 


Fig.  20. 


small  focal  bright  dot.  Fig.  20  is  a  drawing  depicting  these  pheno- 
mena, and  they  are  this  evening  demonstrated  by  means  of  a 
suitable  telescope  and  artificial  star. 


24  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

In  this  connection  it  is  of  interest  to  examine  in  the  light  of  the 
foregoing  deductions  the  actual  appearance  of  such  a  microscopic 
object  as  the  photograph  of  Pleurosiyma  anyulatum,  contributed  by 
Mr.  F.  E.  Ives  to  the  Society's  Journal,  and  appearing  at  p.  529  of 
the  volume  for  1902.  In  the  photograph  of  a  somewhat  deeply 
curved  valve  the  focal  plane  lies  at  varying  distances  above  and 
below  the  object  itself,  which  is  accordingly  shown  in  parts  as  a 
black  dot  picture  and  in  other  parts  as  a  white  dot  picture,  and  the 
development  of  the  one  picture  out  of  the  other  can  be  traced  in 
strict  accordance  with  the  theory.  The  critical  test  of  measure- 
ments in  depth  cannot  of  course  be  applied  to  a  mere  photograph, 
but  the  appearances  of  the  dot  in  the  different  parts  of  the  field 
correspond  so  strikingly  to  what  has  been  above  described  in  con- 
nection with  the  theoretical  behaviour  of  a  conical  wave-front,  that 
even  without  precise  verification  these  correspondences  can  hardly 
fail  of  receiving  the  attention  of  microscopists. 

All  this  is  but  preliminary  to  the  attack  upon  the  problems 
of  visibility,  resolution  and  interpretation  of  the  black  dot  in  the 
microscopic  image,  but  those  problems  are  too  large  to  be  discussed 
at  the  end  of  a  long  paper,  and,  moreover,  as  they  have  not  been 
in  any  way  illustrated  by  my  authorities  they  do  not  properly  fall 
to  be  discussed  in  this  place.  Only  one  thing  remains  to  round 
off  the  present  theme,  and  that  may  be  dealt  with  in  a  few  words. 

Lord  Eayleigh  has  shown,  as  is  above  stated  (p.  18),  that 
resolving  power  can  be  improved  by  giving  a  certain  gradation  of 
phase  to  the  illumination  of  the  microscopic  field.  We  now  see 
that  the  diffraction  fringe  affords  us  the  means  of  producing  such 
a  gradation  of  phase,  and  we  may  accordingly  conclude  that  if  we 
employ  a  fringe  of  suitable  breadth  for  the  illumination  of  the 
stage  we  shall  obtain  better  resolution  than  if  it  be  flooded  with 
focal  light.  Experiment  fully  justifies  this  expectation.  The 
following  may  be  taken  as  an  example. 

Take  a  test  object  exhibiting  features  which  lie  at  the  limit  of 
the  resolving  power  of  the  objective,  and  adjust  the  instrument  so 
as  to  secure  the  best  obtainable  image  of  those  details.  Next, 
arrange  somewhere  between  the  lamp  and  the  condenser  a  piece  of 
card  or  other  opaque  object  having  a  keen  edge,  so  that  it  can  be 
gradually  introduced  into  the  margin  of  the  illuminating  beam 
from  the  lamp.  Now  observe  the  image  while  the  card  is  so 
brought  slowly  and  cautiously  into  the  beam.  You  will  see  its 
diffraction  fringe  steal  across  the  field  of  the  Microscope,  and  as  it 
does  so  it  will  give  the  most  astonishing  crispness  to  the  details  of 
the  image.  Of  course  such  a  diffractor  introduced  from  one  side  of 
the  apparatus  is  very  astigmatic,  and  tends  to  produce  distorsion  by 
strengthening  the  shadows  which  lie  parallel  to  its  edge  out  of 
proportion  to  those  which  lie  at  right  angles  to  it.  But  for  the 
purpose  of  demonstration  this  is  actually  an  advantage,  and  for 


Highly  Magnified  linages.     By  J.  W.  Gordon. 


25 


practical  use  a  more  serviceable  form  of  diffractor  could  easily  be 
devised.  Indeed,  diffractors  which  really  work  upon  this  principle 
are  already  in  extensive  use  in  the  form  of  spot-lens  apparatus  for 
producing  oblique  illumination.  But  the  art  and  science  of  oblique 
illumination  must  be  classed  among  the  matters  which  are  at 
present  ill  understood  for  want  of  a  sound  and  comprehensive 
optical  theory  of  the  Microscope. 


Note. — It  may,  I  trust,  be  open  tome,  without  breach  of  that  respect 
which  is  due — and  of  which  I  am  most  deeply  sensible — to  Sir  George 
Airy,  and  to  the  other  distinguished  men  Avho  have  adopted  his  calcula- 
tion, to  suggest  that  some  closer  approximation  to  the  true  value  of  the 
light  amplitude  curve  of  the  antipoint  is  desirable  than  his  method  of 
solving  the  problem  affords.  The  difficulty  may  be  illustrated  in  this 
way.  Let  the  cone  A  A  77  in  fig.  21  represent  the 
principal  or  dioptric  beam,  and  the  other  cone 
Ax  Ax  -qx  one  of  the  diffracted  beams  transmitted 
by  the  same  aperture.  Now,  according  to  Sir 
George  Airy's  way  of  viewing  the  matter,  these  two 
cones  have  a  common  middle  point  at  C,  where,  of 
course,  the  undulation  in  both  cones  is  in  very 
nearly  the  same  phase.  Also,  the  surface  A  C  A  is 
monophasal — a  wave-front  focussing  on  the  point 
77  in  the  focal  plane.  The  surface  Ax  C  A:  is,  on 
the  other  hand,  polyphasal,  and  focussed  in  the 
point  77^  Airy  determines  the  light  amplitude  at  77 
by  integrating  over  the  surface  A  C  A,  and  in  like 
manner  he  determines  the  amplitude  at  rjx  by  in- 
tegrating over  the  surface  Ax  C  A:. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  resultant  light  phase 
at  the  point  P  in  the  diagram.  This  point  is  one 
point  among  many  common  to  both  cones,  and  here,  therefore,  the 
phase  must  be  to  a  large  degree  common  to  them  both.  But  it  is  quite 
■obvious  that  such  is  not  the  case  upon  Airy's  method  of  calculating. 
For,  considered  as  a  part  of  the  diffracted  cone  Ax  At  77^  the  retardation 
of  its  phase  is  determined  in  relation  to  the  contemporary  phase  in  the 
wave-front  A  C  A  by  the  distance  C  P.  But,  considered  as  a  part  of  the 
dioptric  cone  A  C  A,  its  retardation  is  determined  by  the  shorter  distance 
A  P,  and  the  phase  difference  of  these  paths  may,  by  slightly  varying 
the  position  of  the  point  P,  be  made  to  run  through  the  complete  cycle 
of  possible  values,  while  the  phase  value  at  P  throughout  its  movement 
remains  substantially  constant.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  Sir  George 
Airy's  two  results — that  is  to  say,  the  calculation  of  amplitude  at  the 
focal  point,  and  that  of  amplitude  at  the  point  rj^ — are  incompatible  with 
one  another,  and  some  more  consistent  mode  of  reckoning  the  light 
amplitudes  in  different  parts  of  the  antipoint  is  desirable. 

The  criticism  suggests  the  alternative  mode  of  computation.  It  is 
plain  that  all  the  diffracted  light  which  escapes  from  the  dioptric  beam 
and  lights  up  the  disc  of  the  antipoint  must  pass  through  the  bounding 


Fig.  21. 


26 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


surface  of  the  cone  A  At?.  It  seems,  therefore,  an  obvious  plan  to. 
compute  diffraction,  not  from  the  internal  surfaces  AC  A  and  AjCA,,. 
but  from  the  external  surface  A  A  v.  Upon  this,  which  is  believed  to  he 
a  new  problem,  the  following  suggestions  are  offered  with  great  humility, 
and  in  the  hope  that  the  problem  itself,  having  been  suggested  for  dis- 
cussion, will  receive  the  attention  of  some  mathematician  better  qualified 
than  the  present  writer  to  deal  with  it. 

In  the  following  diagram  (fig.  22)  let  A. .  .A  represent  the  wave- 
front  occupying  the  aperture,  and  let  A  At?  be  the  dioptric  beam.  Also 
let  the  dark  wedge  cut  out  of  the  cone  A  A  v  be  a  part  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  cone  directed  towards  the  point  t^  taken  anywhere  upon  the- 
focal  plane. 

It  is  manifest  that  we  need  not  for  the  purpose  of  reckoning  the- 
illumination  at  vi  consider  the  radiation  from  other  parts  of  the  conical 


1 

,  "\ 

II 

<x\ 

5" 

1 

<- 

-p 

-4 

Fig.  22. 


Fio.  23. 


surface  which  are  directed  towards  other  parts  of  the  focal  plane.  Thi& 
follows  at  once  from  the  symmetry  of  the  figure.  Furthermore,  let  p 
be  the  radial  distance  in  the  focal  plane  of  the  point  nx  from  the  true- 
focus  v,  and  let  E  =  the  semidiameter  of  the  aperture.  Let  F  =  the 
optical  distance  from  the  aperture  to  the  focal  point  v.  Also,  let  S  S  be  an 
element  of  surface  taken  anywhere  upon  the  radiant  wedge,  and  from  the 
centre  point  of  8  S  draw  the  straight  line  joining  that  point  to  the  point  t/,  . 
Lastly,  to  complete  the  diagram,  from  the  point  t^  draw  a  perpen- 
dicular upon  the  conical  surface,  and  let  the  angle  between  these  two 
lines,  drawn  from  the  point  nx  to  the  conical  surface,  be  a.  Also,  let 
the  distance,  measured  on  the  surface  of  the  cone,  between  the  point 
where  the  perpendicular  meets  the  conical  surface  and  the  central  point 
of  8  S,  be  called  D.  It  will  be  convenient  to  show  these  last  mentioned 
magnitudes  by  another  diagram  (fig.  23),   in  which  the  angle  a  may 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.  27 

be  depicted  in  the  plane  of  the  page.  Writing  u  for  the  divergence 
angle  of  the  beam  A  A  rj  we  have  at  once — 

Distance  of  the  middle  point  of  8  S  from  -q  =  D  +  sin  u  p. 

Length  of  perpendicular  from  ^  upon  the  cone  =  cos  u  p. 

D  =  tan  a  cos  u  p. 

Distance  from  8  S  to  ^  =  sec  a  cos  u  p. 

The  point  at  which  the  perpendicular  from  yjx  meets  the  surface  of 
the  cone  may  conveniently  receive  a  name,  since  it  must  be  frequently 
referred  to  in  the  following  discussion.  Since  it  is  the  point  from 
which  the  normal  to  the  surface  of  the  cone  issues  which  passes  through 
■q1  in  the  focal  plane,  I  propose  to  call  it  the  normal  point. 

In  reckoning  the  value  at  the  point  rjl  of  the  light  radiated  from 
the  small  surface  8  S,  there  are  seven  matters  to  be  taken  into  account, 
namely  — 

1.  The  area  of  8  S. 

2.  The  projection  along  the  axis  8  S  . .  .  rjl  of  this  area. 

3.  The  amplitude  of  the  undulation  in  8  S. 

4.  A  coefficient  of  condensation  (or  diffusion  as  the  case  may  be) 
representing  the  change  in  light  density  involved  in  passing  from 
SS  to  t)x. 

5.  A  coefficient  of  efficiency,  depending  upon  the  polyphasal  character 
of  the  diffracted  beam. 

6.  A  coefficient  of  economy,  expressing  the  fact  that  the  original 
impulse  in  which  the  diffracted  rays  take  their  rise  is  itself  travelling 
along  the  radiant  surface,  so  that  it  is  able  to  originate  impulses  which 
reach  the  point  ^  simultaneously  from  more  points  than  one  on  the 
edge  of  the  beam. 

7.  The  phase  in  which  the  light  arrives  at  i^. 

If  we  write  \f/  for  the  amplitude  of  the  light  undulation  at  -qu  and  <f». 
for  its  phase,  we  shall  have — 

dxf,  =  {(1)  X  (2)  X  (3)  X  (4)  x  (5)  X  (6)}  d  D  and  <f>  =  (7) 

To  facilitate  the  writing  out  of  these  values,  let  the  following 
symbols  be  adopted  with  reference  to  Fig.  23  : 

s  =  sin  u ;  c  =  cos  u  :  n  =      ;  N=  J<n?  4-  i 

cp 

r  =  the  radius  of  the  cone  at  the  level  of  8  S. 

Moreover,  I  propose  to  substitute  for  the  integral  ij/  a  finite  series, 
having  Af=  kAD  =  kA,  where  k  represents  the  above  coefficient  of 
d  D  in  the  expression  for  d  if/  suitably  modified  to  meet  the  change  in- 
volved in  the  substitution  of  a  short  segment  of  one  wave-length  of  the 
edge  of  the  beam  for  the  infinitesimal  increment  of  D.     Then— 

1 .  The  area  of  8  S  =  m  .  8  r  .  A,  m  being  a  constant  to  be  determined 
by  observation. 

2.  The  projection  of  (1)  =  (1)  cos  a  =  (1)   — . 

8  R 

3.  The  amplitude  =  Mr  =      -  M0  ;  if  M0  =  the  amplitude  in  the- 

o  r 

aperture  A  A. 


28 


Tkhi suctions  of  the  Society. 


5.  Efficiency    factor. 


Condensation  factor  =   r  =  !-  > — --^  p)  =  s  {nc  +  s). 

P  P 

The   following  diagram  (fig.  24)   will  aid 

the  determination  of  this  coefficient. 
Here  Dx  .  .  D2  =  A.  measured  on  the 
edge  of  the  beam  AAi/.  Dn  is  the 
middle  point  of  the  segment,  and 
Dn  .  .  rji  is  the  axis  passing  through 
the  points  D«  and  rjl.  Therefore, 
cx  .  .  £.,  is  the  projection  along 
this   axis    of  D1  .  .  1)2  =  cos  a  X.    In 


D2. 


take 


such  that    D., 


=  J)1  .  .  D2.      Then  Dx  .  .  £3   will   be 

a  monophasal  surface,  since  every 
point  in  this  surface  is  distant  from 
the  corresponding  point  in  Dl  .  .  D2 
by  a  length,  measured  along  the  axis 
Dn  .  .  •>?!,  equal  to  the  distance  be- 
tween that  corresponding  point  and  D. 
Therefore,  every  point  in  D:  .  .  t3 
is  isophasal  with  D1.  Moreover,  e1  .  .c4, 
drawn  parallel  to  Dj  .  .  t3,  is  also  a 
plane  wave-front.  It  follows  that 
el  .  .  e2  represents  a  polyphasal  sur- 
face,   and  that    the    phase    range    in 

ci  •  •  e2  =  (1  —  sm  a)  -  ^i  ancl  accord- 
ing to  the  well  known  expression  for  the  efficiency  of  a  polyphasal 
radiant  surface — 


(5) 


_  2  sin  {(1  —  sin  a)  ir]  _  sin  {(1  —  sin  a)  tt} 
(1  —  sin  a)  2  ir  (1  —  sin  a)  -k 


=  sm  { — = —  7rl 

IN         (  (N  -  j 


(N  -  n)  7T 

We  have  so  far  brought  into  the  reckoning  the  phase  changes  due  to 
the  finite  length  of  the  small  surface  8  S,  but  not  those  due  to  its  finite 
breadth.  It  is,  however,  obvious  that  the  breadth  of  8  S  will  not  be 
uniform,  and  not  sensibly  uniform,  as  we  pass  upward  from  the  normal 
point  towards  the  aperture  A  .  .  A,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  case  of  an 
extremely  short  beam.  In  any  ordinary  case  it  will  vary,  and  will  vary 
very  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  the  length  of  D  (=  n  c  p).  We  may 
therefore  say,  without  sensible  error,  that  the  angle  subtended  at  the 
point  ■)]1  by  the  radiant  wedge  is  for  practical  purposes  invariable.  Let 
this  angle  =2/3.  Then  from  a  horizontal  line,  equal  to  the  breadth  of 
■8  S,  through  the  point  D„,  the  extreme  difference  of  optical  paths  to  -q^ 
will  be  (sec  /?  —  1)  n  c  p,  and  the  corresponding  phase  range  (sec  (3—1) 

n  £  2  ir.     Let  this  angle  be  written  n  0,  and  we  shall  obtain  for  the 
whole  impulse  emitted  from  8  S  when  resolved  along  the  Dn  .  .  rjx  axis. 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  W.  Gordon.  29 

,-s  ■    IN  —  n     )        N  sin  n  0 

v  J  IN         f(N  —  «.)ir        »0 

where  #  is  a  small  angle  that  cannot  be  mathematically  determined,  but 
must  be  ascertained  by  observation. 

6.  The  Economy  factor.  If  every  point  upon  the  surface  ct  .  .  e2 
received  its  light  from  a  separate  ray  in  the  principal  beam,  the  efficiency 
would  be  fully  represented  by  the  expression  just  found  for  (5).  But  we 
are  integrating  over  a  single  element  of  the  light  cone,  and  the  original 
impulse  is  travelling  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
diffracted  light  which  it  gives  off.  Thus  the  light  source  is,  so  to  speak, 
economised,  and  a  light  source  of  shorter  length  than  A  suffices  to  yield  all 
the  diffracted  light  which  we  have  derived  from  Dx  . .  D2.  Thus  since  the 
phase  range  in  the  surface  cx  .  .  e2  is  only  (1  —  sin  a)  2  7r,  it  is  evident 
that  the  effective  length  of  edge  is  (1  —  sin  a)  A.     Therefore 

(6)  =  1  —  sin  a  =  — — — . 

v  '  N 

We  may  now  collect  these  various  results  into  one  expression,  as. 
follows  : 

.    ,         m  .  d  r  .  A     d  R  M0        ,        .     . 

A^=  ^ •V''(ne  +  ,) 

v    •     l(N  -  ri)ir  [         N  N  -  n     sin  n  6 

X  Sm\       X      "1   (N -»»)„■•      X   -•"    0      ' 

=  m  .  d E  .  A  .  M0 .  •  .  \nc  +  s  .  I  sin  .  &-*>*  .  **"!L 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  expression  m  d  R  A  M0  denotes  the 
radiation  upon  the  focal  point  from  a  small  surface  A  SA  (equal  in  area 
to  the  topmost  segment  of  the  radiant  wedge)  in  the  wave-front  which 
passes  the  aperture  A  . .  A.  It  may,  therefore,  be  fitly  taken  for  the  unit 
of  radiation  for  the  given  system,  and  expressed  by  the  symbol  Mx. 

Accordingly  the  last  expression  may  be  written — 

„.-  /nc-\-s      1       .     (N  —  n)-7r     sin  n0\  .   ^. 

A^  =  s.M1^    ^—.-.snP    -N   ;     .-    Q      )      .     (10) 

The  successive  terms  of  this  series  are  to  be  taken  upon  the  principle 
of  assigning  one  term  to  every  segment  of  one  wave-length  measured 
from  the  normal  point  along  the  edge  of  the  beam  facing  the  point  j/1s 
and  therefore  the  values  of  n  must  be  so  chosen  that— 

1  3  5 

J)1  =  nx  c  p  =     A  ;    1)2  =  n2  c p  =  '-X;  D3  =  w3 cp  =  '  A,  etc. 

AAA 

It  is  plain  that  if  n  be  taken  very  small  N  =  1  nearly,  and,  therefore, 

Is  - ■  n 
sin — == —  it  tends  to  =  0  as  n  approaches  0.     Also  if  n  becomes  very 

X ji 

large,  N  —  n  tends  to  become  =  0,  so  that  in  that  case  also  sin  —       - 

approximates  to  0. 


30  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

The  successive  values  of  (10)  obtained  by  giving  successive  values 
to  n  in  that  expression  are  not  capable  of  being  simply  added  together, 
for  here  the  undulation  is  resolved  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the 
DM  .  .  vi  axis  ;  which  varies  in  position  with  the  change  of  n.  It  is 
desirable,  therefore,  to  obtain  a  resolution  of  these  impulses  in  certain 
specified  directions,  and  we  may,  for  this  purpose,  select  rectangular 
axes  coinciding  with  the  line  through  the  normal  point  and  the  point  yjl 
and  with  the  edge  ray  through  8  S  respectively.  So  resolved,  A  if/  will 
obviously  yield  two  resultants,  as  follows,  if  we  write  x  and  y  for  these 
two  axes  in  the  order  named. 

Aif/X  =  sin  ttAif;  A  if/,,  =  cos  a  A  if/, 
that  is  to  say,  in  place  of  (10)  we  obtain  two  equations  as  follows— 

xf/x  =  2  (A  V*  )  =  s  .  Mx  2  (    -J?--  •  ^  ^  .  smv — ^J—  . 

,       _, , .  .  N  ,,  _,  /nc  4-  s      1        •  CN  —  n)ir    sin  n  6\  I 

or,  more  compendiously, 

A^=^A</,;     A^=_A</r. 

If  the  conclusions  now  reached  are  sound,  it  would  seem  to  follow 
that  much  misunderstanding  exists  as  to  the  distribution  of  light  in  the 
antipoint.  It  is,  therefore,  proper  to  say  that  these  results  are  not  put 
forward  as  being  more  than  an  approximation  to  the  actual  facts.  To  a 
certain  extent  the  mode  of  computation  now  proposed  is  open  to  the 
same  objection  as  that  advanced  against  Sir  Geo.  Airy's  method,  namely, 
that  it  yields  discrepant  results  in  the  region  in  which  beams  going  to 
different  points  in  the  focal  plane  interpenetrate  one  another.  But  it 
will  hereafter  appear  that  a  correction  can  be  applied  upon  the  present 
plan  which  gets  rid  of  that  difficulty,  and  yields  a  strictly  coherent 
result.  Furthermore,  the  ultimate  test  is  experimental,  and  to  me  it 
appears  that  observation  strikingly  confirms  the  results  to  which  these 
calculations  point,  and  is  as  strikingly  at  variance  with  Sir  Geo.  Airy's 
curve.  How  far  these  impressions  may  be  due  to  imperfect  observations, 
I  cannot  presume  to  say.  Some  of  the  results  which  have  emboldened 
me  to  submit  the  present  hypothesis  to  public  criticism  are  described  in 
the  foregoing  paper,  and  some  of  these  will  be  exhibited  at  the  meeting 
of  the  Society  by  means  of  the  apparatus  with  which  I  have  observed 
them.  Assuming,  for  present  purposes,  the  approximate  accuracy  of  the 
above  expressions  for  if/x  and  xj/,,,  the  following  seem  to  be  legitimate 
inferences  and  matters  of  interest. 

(«)  The  value  of  if/  is  ^  =  0  at  the  focal  point.  This  establishes  a 
broad  distinction  between  the  direct  and  the  diffracted  light — ^the  light 
that  comes  to  focus  within  the  cone  and  the  light  that  strays  outside  it. 

(&)  The  periodic  factor- — —  will  cause  certain  regions  in  the 
radiant  wedge  to  be  wholly  ineffective,  and  will  limit  the  effective  part 


Highly  Magnified  Images.     By  J.  IV.  Gordon.  31 

to  a  comparatively  short  length  of  the  edge  of  the  beam.  It  is  readily 
•deducibie  from  this  that  the  fringe  will  exhibit  bright  and  dark  bands 
■consecutively,  and  that  the  falling  off  in  brightness  of  the  outer  bands 
will  be  very  rapid.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  the  dark  bands  will 
sink  to  zero  illumination,  as  in  Airy's  curve. 

(c)  The  form  of  (11)  shows  that  the  fringe  must  be  a  wave-front. 
For,  recurring  to  Fig.  23,  suppose  the  triangle  8  S  ^  P,  to  be  shifted 
up  a  distance  =  A  along  the  edge  of  the  beam.  Then,  since  the  middle 
point  Dn  of  every  successive  wave-length  segment  emits  light  in  the 
same  phase  the  series  of  (11)  will  be  unchanged,  except  by  the  loss  of  a 
few  wholly  insignificant  terms  at  the  far  end  of  the  series,  representing 
light  from  segments  immediately  below  the  aperture,  where  sin  a  is 
sensibly  =  1  and  where  consequently  n  is  sensibly  =  N,  and  therefore 
A  ^  is  sensibly  =  0.  It  follows  that  in  this  new  position  of  -qx  the 
values  of  \px  and  tyg  are  severally  identical  with  what  they  were  in  the 
original  position.  The  same  result  would  have  appeared  had  we  moved 
it  2  A,  or  10  A,  or  n  A,  n  being  any  integer  not  immoderately  large,  that 
is  to  say,  so  large  as  to  bring  rjx  within  a  few  wave-lengths  of  the 
aperture  A  .  .  A.  Furthermore,  if  we  take  intermediate  positions  on 
the  ray  joining  all  these  positions  of  ^  we  shall  have  corresponding 
intermediate  values  for  the  light  phase,  and  in  any  given  position  the 
phase  will,  of  course,  change  in  time  with  the  contemporary  change  in 
the  generating  edge  ray  of  the  beam.  Therefore,  along  this  supposed 
ray  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  beam,  we  have  a  regular  succession  of 
undulations  moving  forward  with  the  velocity  of  light.  Similarly  with 
•every  other  ray  drawn  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  beam.  We  thus  see 
that  through  a  conical  surface  drawn  normal  to  the  edge  of  the  cone  we 
have  a  system  of  rays  normal  to  tnat  conical  surface  along  which  light 
undulations  pass  with  the  velocity  of  light.  This  seems  to  import  that 
the  disturbance  set  up  in  the  region  immediately  surrounding  a  focussed 
beam  takes  the  form  of  a  conical  wave-front,  and  from  that  it  follows 
by  a  reversal  of  the  reasoning  on  p.  20  (see  fig.  12),  that  in  the  focal 
plane  itself  the  antipoint  will  exhibit  a  zonal  arrangement  of  phases, 
the  light-phase  being  most  retarded  at  the  focal  point.  The  phenomena 
resulting  from  that  arrangement  when  the  fringe  has  slipped  off  the 
beam  and  forms  an  antipoint,  are  worked  out  above  in  connection  with 
figs.  13  to  20,  and  their  experimental  verification  is  there  attempted. 

Here  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  if  we  now  substitute  this  system 
of  conical  wave-fronts  surrounding  the  true  cone  of  the  focussed  beam 
for  the  complicated  system  of  interpenetrating  beams  given  off  in  many 
different  directions  by  the  radiant  outer  surface  of  the  cone,  we  obtain 
a  clear  and  perfectly  coherent  geometrical  conception  of  the  simple 
diffraction  fringe  from  which  the  antipoint  is  eventually  formed. 

(d)  This  last  case  leads  naturally  to  the  next.  So  far  we  have  con 
sidered  only  antipoints  and  the  simple  cones  which  give  rise  to  them. 
More  complicated  cases  arise  in  practice  when  light  is  radiated  from 
surfaces  of  finite  magnitude.  Upon  this  subject  I  have  very  little  to 
offer,  for  as  yet  I  have  hardly  broken  ground  in  that  direction.  But 
one  conclusion  of  great  importance  seems  obvious.  It  is  that  the 
diffraction  fringe  upon  the  edge  of  a  luminous  area  will  have  a  regular 


;>2  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

gradual  distribution  of  phases  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  boundary, 
ruing  from  a  phase  equal  to  the  external  phase  of  the  individual  anti- 
point  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  diffraction  fringe  to  a  value  which  is  the 
average  of  the  phases  in  one  half  of  the  antipoint  over  the  boundary 
itself.  This  is  obvious,  for  the  light  on  the  outermost  edge  is  unmixed, 
and  the  light  at  every  point  on  the  boundary  is  the  summed  light  of 
one  half  of  the  antipoint.  Proceeding  inward  from  the  boundary  we 
find  the  phase  still  increasing,  for  the  region  near  the  boundary  is 
lighted  up  by  something  more  than  half  the  antipoint,  and  the  addi- 
tional light  consists  in  more  than  the  total  average  proportion  of  the 
light  of  the  innermost  zones  of  the  antipoint.  But  when  we  get  to  a 
point  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  antipoint  within  the  true  boundary,  we 
reach  a  region  where  the  light  on  every  point  is  the  integral  of  all  the 
light  from  a  single  antipoint.  Here,  then,  the  light  phase  must  haw 
returned  to  the  phase  on  the  boundary,  since  the  average  phase  of  the  com- 
plete antipoint  must  be  the  same  as  the  average  of  the  semi-antipoint, 
seeing  that  one  half  of  every  zone  enters  into  the  semi-antipoint, 
and  the  proportional  value  of  every  zone  in  relation  to  the  whole  illu- 
mination is  therefore  the  same  in  both  cases.  This  consideration  points, 
to  the  existence  of  a  doubly  conical  wave-front  with  unequal  surfaces,. 
and  yields  at  once  a  forecast  of  certain  very  striking  phenomena  which 
are,  as  the  foregoing  paper  shows,  very  strikingly  verified  by  experiments 
(See  above,  p.  23.) 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY      AND       BOTANY 

(principally  invertebrata  and  cryptogamia), 

MICEOSCOPY,  Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 
a.  Embryology.! 

Mendel's  Law  and  the  Heredity  of  Albinism.}:  -  -  W.  E.  Castle 
and  G.  M.  Allen  find  that  complete  albinism,  without  a  recorded  ex- 
ception, behaves  as  a  recessive  character  in  heredity.  Partial  albinism 
is  a  mosaic  condition,  in  which  the  dominant  pigment-forming  character 
and  the  recessive  albino  character  are  visible  in  different  parts  of  the 
same  individual. 

Albinism  apparently  complete  may  in  reality  conceal  traces  of  the 
pigment-forming  character,  either  in  an  active  or  in  a  latent  condition. 
Albinos  that  are  thus  constituted  are  in  reality  mosaics  of  the  con- 
trasted characters,  but  with  the  pigment-forming  character  (ordinarily 
dominant)  occurring  in  a  condition  of  partial  or  complete  latency. 
When  bred  to  other  albinos  they  uniformly  produce  albinos,  hence  they 
may  for  convenience  be  distinguished  as  impure  recessives.  In  guinea- 
pigs  and  rabbits  the  impurity  of  recessive  individuals  is,  in  certain  cases 
at  least,  visible  ;  in  mice  it  apparently  is  not. 

Cross-breeding  is  able  to  bring  into  activity  latent  characters  or 
latent  elements  of  a  complex  character.  This  is  probably  the  true  ex- 
planation of  many  cases  of  reversion.  Conversely,  it  is  able  to  cause 
one  or  another  element  of  a  complex  character  to  become  latent  and  to 
remain  so  under  close  breeding.  This  probably  explains  how  races  of 
black  or  yellow  mice  may  be  obtained  by  crossing  wild  grey  mice  with 
albinos. 

The  Mendelian  doctrine  of  gametic  purity  is  fully  substantiated  by 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of  this  part  of 
the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  to 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are  either  new  or  have 
not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so  called  r 
but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and  allied  subjects. 

t  Mark  Anniv.  Vol..  190:;,  pp.  S79-98. 

Feb.  loth,  1905  D 


34-  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

experiments  in  breeding  mice,  guinea-pigs,  and  rabbits,  but  with  the 
important  qualification  stated  in  the  preceding  paragraph — a  qualifica- 
tion which  really  enhances  the  practical  utility  of  Mendel's  doctrine  in 
its  everyday  application  by  breeders. 

Radium  Effect  on  Development  of  Amphibia.*  —  A.  Schaper  has 
proved  experimentally  that  radium  rays  have  a  definite  inhibitory  effect 
upon  cell-division  in  the  frog,  etc.,  also  on  embryonic  differentiation, 
growth,  and  regenerative  processes.  These  effects  are  observable  only 
after  a  longer  or  shorter  latent  period.  On  frog  larvae  radium  emana- 
tions had  an  injurious  and  finally  fatal  effect. 

Abnormal  Eggs  in  Fowls.f — J.  Kunstler  discusses  eggs  with  two 
separate  shells,  eggs  with  a  double  shell,  double  eggs,  eggs  without  yolk, 
dwarf  eggs,  and  so  on.  A  frequent  factor  is  a  lack  of  tone  in  the 
oviduct,  the  usual  movements  are  disturbed,  the  egg  returns  on  its  path. 
Foreign  bodies  may  ascend  from  the  cloaca  and  become  surrounded  by 
a  shell.     A  mass  of  albumen  may  be  enveloped  in  a  shell  ;  and  so  on. 

Polymorphism  of  Spermatozoa.} — A.  Gravel  brings  together  some 
of  the  cases  of  dimorphic  spermatozoa, — in  Paludina  vivipara,  Notom- 
mata  sieboldii,  Asellus  aquaticus,  Pygccra  bucephala,  Staphylimbs,  Cybister 
roeselii.  In  Ascaris  rnegalocephala  there  are  said  to  be  four  forms  of 
spermatozoa,  but  only  one  form  is  capable  of  fertilisation.  Gravel  has 
studied  the  spermatozoa  of  Balanus  perforatus  in  which  giant  forms 
occasionally  occur,  apparently  in  individuals  separated  widely  from  one 
another.  These  giant  spermatozoa  may  be  adapted  to  cross-fertilisation 
at  a  distance  ;  being  stronger,  they  can  move  more  rapidly,  and  further. 

Factors  of  Morphogenesis. § — Tad.  Garbowski  discusses  Trichoplax 
adhcerens  and  other  Mesozoa,  the  processes  of  gastrulation  and  ceeloni- 
formation,  and  the  scope  of  physiological  morphology. 

He  rejects  the  homology  of  the  germ-layers,  the  gastraea -theory,  the 
ccelom-theory,  and  much  more.  He  insists  that  a  scientific  interpreta- 
tion of  the  pedigrees  of  animals  must  be  based  on  an  observational 
and  experimental  study  of  the  formative  processes  which  actually  occur 
in  morphogenesis. 

(Estrous  Cycle  in  Ferret.||  — F.  H.  A.  Marshall  finds  that  the  female 
ferret  is  moncestrous,  and  may  have  one,  two,  or  three  sexual  seasons 
within  a  year.  The  "  heat "  periods,  however,  are  usually  restricted  to 
the  spring  and  summer  months.  During  the  oestrous  cycle  the  non- 
pregnant uterus  experiences  in  succession  periods  of  rest,  of  growth,  of 
degeneration,  and  of  recuperation.  The  changes  occurring  during  these 
periods  afford  proof  of  the  homology  between  the  menstrual  cycle  of 
the  primates  and  the  oestrum  of  the  lower  mammals.  Ovulation  occurs 
probably  at  the  commencement  of  the  oestrous  period,  but  only  as  a 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  326-37. 

t  Mem.  Soc.  Sci.  Bordeaux,  ser.  6,  iifc  (1903)  pp.  65-72  (7  figs.). 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  273-9. 

§   Morpbologische  Studien,  Als  Beitrag  zur  Methodologie  zoologischer  Probleme. 
4 to.     Jena  (1903)  vii.  and  189  pp.,  6  pis. 

|!  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlviii.  (1904)  pp.  323-45  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  35 

result  of  sexual  intercourse.  Since  coition  and  ovulation  take  place 
lifter  the  pro-oestrum,  it  is  clear  that  the  degeneration  stages  of  the  pro- 
■cestrum  cannot  be  of  the  nature  of  an  undoing,  in  consequence  of  the 
absence  of  a  fertilised  ovum,  of  preparations  made  during  the  earlier 
growth  stages. 

Implantation  of  Ovum  in  the  Gopher.*  —  T.  G.  Lee  gives  an 
account  of  the  fixation  of  the  ovum  in  this  rodent  (Spermophilus 
tridecemlineatus),  which  differs  from  its  relatives,  and,  further,  from 
any  other  mammals  yet  described  in  the  nature  and  history  of  the 
temporary  "fixation-mass  "  formed  by  the  trophoblast. 

Development  of  Pulmonary  Arteries  in  Roe-deer. f  —  T.  Sakurai 
finds  that  the  pulmonary  arteries  arise  first  from  both  pulmonary  arches 
as  in  man,  but  gradually  the  left  passes  over  to  the  right  pulmonary 
arch  approaching  the  right  artery.  The  portion  of  the  right  pulmonary 
arch  between  the  angle  of  division  of  the  arches  and  the  origin  of 
the  left  pulmonary  artery  forms  the  common  origin  of  both  pulmonary 
arteries. 

Development  of  Mammalian  Kidney .% — J.  Janosik  has  investigated 
certain  early  stages  of  the  urogenital  system  in  the  pouched  marmot. 
He  finds  the  first  certain  appearance  in  embryos  with  ten  distinct  and 
one  incipient  mesoblastic  somites.  It  arises  opposite  the  seventh  somite 
proximally  as  a  grouping  of  somatopleure  and  splanchnopleure  cells 
against  the  somites ;  the  ccelome  is  slightly  indented  into  this  group. 
The  section  situated  between  the  twelfth  and  fifteenth  or  sixteenth 
somites  in  embryos  showing  these,  is  regarded  as  transitional  to  the 
mesonephros.  The  origin  of  this  division  of  the  mesonephros  takes 
place  as  follows.  The  middle  plates  detach  themselves  both  from  the 
mesoblastic  somites  and  from  the  ccelomic  epithelium,  and  from  them 
there  arises  a  cellular  strand  which  falls  into  separate  cell  masses  not 
segmentary  arranged.  In  these  cell  masses  a  lumen  arises,  which  is 
transformed  into  a  vesicle  from  which  a  small  canal  grows  out.  On  the 
median  end  of  each  of  these  canals  a  glomerulus  is  formed,  while  the 
lateral  end  opens  into  the  Wolffian  duct.  Thus  connections  arise  similar 
to  those  known  to  occur  in  birds. 

Regeneration  of  Tail-tissues  in  Anuran  Larvae. § — P.  Wintrebert 
gives  the  results  of  experiments  on  the  larva  of  Alytes.  He  finds  that 
regeneration  of  the  tail  depends  upon  the  reconstitution  of  the  sup- 
porting apparatus,  more  especially  the  axis  of  central  support  round 
which  the  embryonic  mesenchyme  can  be  organised.  The  median 
"  lophiodermic  raphe "  of  the  limbs  constitutes  a  sufficient  apparatus 
of  support  to  admit  of  the  regeneration  of  the  cord.  The  connective 
fibrous  neural  and  aortic  canals  are  powerless,  with  the  organs  they 
inclose,  to  supply  the  place  of  the  missing  cord  or  to  regenerate  it. 
They  may  in  fact  by  their  re-union  oppose  its  extension  and  thus  limit 

*  Mark  Anuiv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  417-35  (2  pis.}, 
t  Anat.  Anzei-.,  xxv.(1904)  pp.  321-6. 
t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxiv.  pp.  214-34  (2  pis.). 
§  Comptee  Rendus.  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  432-4. 

D   2 


36  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  regeneration  of  the  tail.  It  is  hence  suggested  that  in  animals  the- 
absence  of  regeneration  in  an  organ  may  be  caused  by  the  stoppage 
of  development  of  the  supporting  tissue  due  to  the  fibrous  growth  of 
the  cicatrix. 

Development  of  Amphibian  Excretory  System.*—!).  P.  Filatow 
discusses  the  development,  structure,  and  functions  of  the  pronephrie 
glomus,  and  the  development  of  the  mesonephric  tubules.  He  explains 
certain  differences  in  the  first  stages  of  the  tubules  in  Urodela  and 
Anura,  referring  particularly  to  the  process  of  separating  the  connecting 
group  of  cells  from  the  lateral  plate,  and  the  mode  of  approach  of  the 
group  to  the  duct.  In  the  Anura  the  group  is  first  detached  before- 
approaching  the  duct,  while  in  Urodela  the  process  of  separation  is  pro- 
longed, with  the  result  that  a  different  formation  appears.  He  thinks- 
that  this  explanation  may  account  for  peculiarities  of  the  tubule  forma- 
tion in  other  animal  groups. 

Development  of  Ventral  Nerves  in  Selachii.t  —  H.  V.  Neal  dis- 
cusses the  spinal  ventral  nerves  in  the  spiny  dogfish  {Squalus  acanthias). 
Positive  conclusions  in  regard  to  some  important  questions  have  been 
reached.  (1)  The  neuraxones  of  the  spinal  ventral  nerves  of  Selachians 
develop  like  those  of  the  Amniota  as.  processes  of  neuroblast  cells.  In 
their  growth  they  are  secondarily  surrounded  by  sheath-cells.  (2)  Me- 
dullary cells,  but  not  those  that  form  the  neuraxones,  migrate  into  the 
ventral  nerves  in  the  early  stages  of  development.  (3)  The  migrant 
medullary  cells  form  the  neurilemma  sheaths,  but  take  no  part  in  the 
formation  of  the  neuraxones  or  ganglia  of  the  ventral  nerves.  (4)  The 
epineurium  and  perineurium  sheaths  are  in  chief  part  added  to  the 
embryonic  nerve  from  the  adjacent  mesenchyme. 

In  his  summary  the  author  states  that  neuroblasts  and  spongioblasts 
are  undifferentiated  in  the  early  stages  of  the  ventral  nerve  ;  the  first 
neuraxones  are  formed  before  the  migration  of  the  cells  Avhich  produce 
them  ;  the  "  germinative  cells  "  of  this  are  simply  mitotic  cells  •  no 
neuroblasts  migrate  from  the  wall  of  the  neural  tube  ;  their  migration 
is  entirely  within  the  wall,  and  is  the  passive  result  of  the  multiplica- 
tion of  cells  near  the  lumen  of  the  tube  ;  neuraxones  of  spinal  ventral 
nerves  are  formed  exclusively  by  medullary  cells  ;  the  cells  of  ventral 
nerves  are  not  concerned  with  the  formation  of  neuraxones  ;  they  form 
the  neurilemma  and  possibly  also  the  connective-tissue  sheaths  of  the 
nerves,  to  which  mesenchymatous  cells  probably  also  contribute ;  the 
cells  of  the  forming  ventral  nerve  are  migrant  medullary  elements,  to 
which  are  subsequently  added  cells  from  the  adjacent  mesenchyme  ;  the 
first  connection  of  ventral  nerve  and  myotome  is  not  an  intimate  neuro- 
muscular attachment ;  there  is  no  primary  cellular  connection  such  as 
has  been  postulated  by  Sedgwick. 

Torus  longitudinalis  of  Teleost  Brain4 — P.  E. "Sargent  discusses 
this  archaic  portion  of  the  mesencephalic  roof  formed  in  the  Teleosts 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  33-47. 

t  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  291-31:;  (3  pis.). 

;  Tom.  cit.,  pp  399-416  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  37 

from  the  mesial  and  primitive  portion  of  the  tectum  opticum,  con- 
stricted off,  and,  as  it  were,  left  behind  in  the  enormous  development 
of  the  tectum  in  this  aberrant  group. 

In  its  early  development  in  the  ganoids  it  is  the  result  of  purely 
mechanical  causes,  the  rapid  growth  in  the  adult  of  the  "nucleus 
magnocellularis  "  producing  a  downward  bending  of  the  mesencephalic 
roof  on  either  side  of  the  median  plane. 

Mechanical  causes  are  still  plainly  operative  in  the  Siluridre,  but  in 
other  Teleosts  the  torus  appears,  at  an  early  stage  of  ontogenetic 
development,  as  the  result  of  phylogenetic  causes.  Though  the  torus 
longitudinalis  is  a  structure  which  first  attains  an  independent  and 
definite  form  in  the  Teleosts,  and  in  that  group  only,  its  essential 
elements  are  perhaps  the  most  archaic  of  the  mesencephalic  roof.  The 
structure  and  functions  are  also  discussed. 

Development  of  Body  Cavity  and  Gonads  in  Salmonidae.* — U.  Bold 
has  studied  this  in  trout  and  salmon  embryos.  He  finds  that  its  first 
appearance  in  the  trout  is  on  the  25th  day  after  fertilisation.  It  arises 
as  a  cleavage  between  somato-  and  splanchnopleure  in  the  region  of  the 
lateral  head  plate.  On  the  28th  day  the  body  cavity  has  increased  in 
the  cranial,  and  especially  in  the  caudal  direction  ;  its  development  is 
closely  connected  with  that  of  the  gut.  At  :58  days,  growth  in  length 
has  ceased,  whilst  lateral  development,  coincident  with  yolk  absorption, 
has  considerably  increased.  In  salmon  embryos  of  40  days  (twenty 
segments)  the  body  cavity  of  the  tail  is  completely  separate  from  that 
of  the  yolk-sac.  Later  the  yolk-sac  body  cavity  in  the  region  of  the 
14th  to  18th  trunk  segments  is  drawn  into  the  trunk  body  cavity  ;  the 
yolk-sac,  which  has  collapsed  from  the  18th  segment  onwards,  forms  for 
a  time  a  long  mesenteric  formation,  through  which  the  ventral  body 
partition  is  joined  to  the  ectoderm.     Later  it  is  completely  absorbed. 

In  trout  the  first  genital  cells  were  not  found  before  the  25th,  and 
in  salmon  the  31st  day.  There  are  two  stages  of  development  of  the 
genital  organs.  The  first,  that  of  the  genital  ridge,  was  observed  in 
the  salmon  on  the  60th  day.  The  second,  that  of  the  genital  fold, 
arises  from  the  ridge,  and  may  be  recognised  in  the  salmon  on  the 
85th  day.  In  its  anterior  part  it  never  extends  beyond  the  4th,  and 
in  its  posterior  or  caudal,  never  beyond  the  38th.  Three  kinds  of  cells 
arise  from  ccelome  >cells,  viz.  indifferent,  follicle,  and  genital  cells. 

Relation  of  Nervous  System  to  Developing  Musculature.f  — 
R.  G.  Harrison  has  investigated  this  subject  experimentally.  The 
spinal  cord  of  embryos  of  Rana  was  removed  before  histological  dif- 
ferentiation in  either  muscular  or  nervous  tissue  had  begun.  This  did 
not  hinder  the  differentiation  of  the  contractile  substance  in  the  normal 
manner,  nor  the  grouping  of  the  individual  fibres  into  muscles.  Larvse 
were  reared  under  continued  narcosis  of  acetone-chloroform,  which  stops 
all  voluntary  movements,  including  those  of  respiration,  while  the  heart- 
beat is  scarcely  affected.  The  functions  are  rapidly  restored  by  removal 
from  the  drug.     Larvas  reared  in  this  way  and  imbedded  side  by  side 

*  Morphol.  Jahrb.,  xxxii.  (1904)  pp.  505-86  (1  pi.). 
t  Amer.  Journ.  Anat.,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  197-220. 


38  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

with  normally  retired  forms  showed  no  marked  contrast  in  the  muscular 
tissue.     The  significance  of  these  results  is  discussed. 

b.  Histology. 

The  Histology  of  the  Cell.*  —  E.  Rohde  discusses  very  fully  the 
insufficiency  of  present  cell  theory,  the  independence  of  the  nucleus, 
the  relation  of  the  nucleus  and  cell  body  of  the  Metazoa  (and  Infusoria) 
to  the  central  body  (Biitschli)  of  bacteria,  and  other  cell  problems.  A 
brief  enumeration  of  some  of  his  points  on  the  first  head  may  be  given. 
Embryonic  syncytia  occur  and  frequently  play  a  great  part  in  histo- 
genesis. Especially  instructive  in  the  genesis  of  different  tissue  is  the 
fact  that  cells  clearly  formed  but  undifferentiated  blend  into  a  syncytium 
from  which  diverse  tissues  are  developed.  An  illustration  of  this  is 
found  in  the  development  of  the  oesophagus  of  Ascuris.  The  (esophagus 
consists  of  a  thoroughly  uniform  fundamental  substance  wdiich  simul- 
taneously generates  first  a  thick  cuticle  ;  secondly,  powerful  supporting 
fibres  of  different  systems  ;  thirdly,  well  developed  muscle  fibrils,  which 
are  said  to  be  diagonally  striped.  Proof  of  another  kind  is  found  in 
the  fact  that  many  formations  regarded  as  cells  are  the  product  of 
several  quite  different  cells,  e.g.  Tubularian  egg-cells,  according  to 
Doflein.  Labbe  regarded  the  ovum  in  this  case  as  a  plasmodium,  which 
arose  by  the  blending  of  several  oocytes.  Schneider  observed  the  same 
in  Synapta. 

Relations  between  Nucleus  and  Cytoplasm.f — Stanislas  Maziarski 
describes  three  kinds  of  more  or  less  pseudopodium-like  processes  which 
extend  towards  the  base  of  the  cell  from  the  nucleus  into  the  cytoplasm 
in  the  hepato-pancreatic  tubules  of  various  marine  Isopods  {Hymothoa, 
Nerocile,  Anilocra).  The  prolongations  may  absorb  substances  from 
the  cytoplasm,  or  may  conduct  products  from  the  nucleoplasm  to  the 
cytoplasm.  In  any  case,  they  point  to  close  inter-relations  between 
the  two. 

Comparative  Histology  of  Ducts  and  Accessory  Glands  of  Male 
Gonads.:}: — R.  Disselhorst  is  the  author  of  the  fourth  part  of  Oppel's 
treatise  on  the  comparative  histology  of  Vertebrates.  He  deals  with 
the  minute  structure  of  the  ducts  and  accessory  glands  of  the  male 
reproductive  system.  Fifteen  sections  deal  with  these  in  fishes,  am- 
phibians, reptiles,  birds,  and  the  chief  orders  of  mammals.  Two  final 
sections  sum  up  results,  and  give  a  short  sketch  of  the  history  of  the 
subjects.  Then  there  are  some  physiological  notes.  This  part  main- 
tains the  high  standard  of  its  predecessors,  for  which  the  editor  was 
responsible. 

Epithelium  of  the  Epididymis.§  —  Zenon  Jeleniewski  has  studied' 
this  in  cat,  dog,  mouse,  rat,  guinea-pig,  and  hedgehog.     The  epithelium 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.  Ixxviii.  (1904)  pp.  1-148  (7  pis.). 

+  Bull.  Internal  Acad.  Sci.  Craeovie,  1-904,  pp.  345-66  (2  pis.). 

*  Lehrbueh  der  vergleicbenden  mikroskopiscb.cn  Anatumie  der  "Wirbeltiere. 
Herausgegeben  von  Prof.  Albert  Oppel.  Vierter  Teil.  Ausfiihrapparat  und  Anhangs- 
driisen  tier  in'annlichen  Ge.schlecbtsorgane.  Prof.  K.  Disselborst.  Jena  (1904) 
x.  and  432  pp.,  435  figs,  and  7  pis. 

§  Anat.  Anzeig.  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  630-40  (8  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AXD    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  39 

of  the  beginning  of  the  epididymis — the  vasa  efferentia  and  coni 
vasculosi — consist  of  ciliated  cells,  which  from  time  to  time  secrete 
and  lose  their  ciliary  apparatus,  regaining  it  after  the  secretory  process 
is  over.  These  cells  contain  " diplosomes"  which  are  quite  distinct 
from  the  centrosomes  visible  at  the  poles  of  the  achromatin-spindle  of 
dividing  cells.  The  secretory  activity  leads  to  the  gradual  disintegration 
of  the  cells,  which  are  then  replaced.  Many  other  histological  details 
are  communicated  ;  we  have  simply  noted  the  salient  points. 

Peculiar  Structures  in  Hepatic  Cells.* — Eugenie  Koiransky  gives 
a  detailed  account  of  peculiar  rod-like  or  strand-like  structures  observed 
within  the  cells  of  the  liver  in  frog,  newt,  and  salamander.  They  are 
often  substantial,  and  proceed  from  the  nucleus  towards  the  periphery 
of  the  cell,  which  they  often  reach.  It  is  maintained  that  there  is  in 
secretion  a  shunting  and  migration  of  chromophilous  substance  towards 
the  capillaries  along  protoplasmic  strands,  controlled  by  the  kinetic 
potencies  of  the  protoplasm,  and  that  this  is  followed  by  a  granular 
disruption,  a  chemical  change,  and  a  final  solution  of  the  substance  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  capillaries. 

Position  of  Glycogen  in  Liver  Cells.f —  0.  Petersen  points  out 
that  great  care  needs  to  be  exercised  in  explaining  alcohol-fixed  pre- 
parations with  reference  to  the  position  of  glycogen  within  the  cells. 
For  this  the  method  of  freezing  sections  is  more  reliable.  In  cases  of 
lateral  penetration  of  alcohol  the  glycogen  lies  on  the  same  side  of  all 
the  cells,  viz.  remote  from  the  side  of  penetration,  as  if  pushed  in  front 
of  the  alcohol. 

Islets  of  Langerhans  in  Teleostei. :|: —  J.  Rennie  has  investigated 
the  pancreas  of  a  large  number  of  bony  fishes,  and  finds  that  these 
islets  are  a  common  character  in  the  group.  In  a  number  of  species 
there  is  an  encapsuled  islet  ("principal  islet")  of  relatively  large  size, 
of  constant  occurrence,  and  with  definite  relations,  whose  association 
with  the  pancreas  is  frequently  extremely  slight.  In  some  forms  it  was 
the  only  body  of  this  nature  found.  The  smaller  islets  which  do  not 
appear  to  be  constant  in  number,  probably  originated  as  accessory 
bodies,  but  are  now  established  as  definite  organs.  It  is  concluded  that 
these  islets  are  blood  glands,  whose  relation  with  the  pancreas  is 
secondary.  This  has  been  brought  about  in  Teleostei  mainly  by  the 
tendency  of  the  diffuse  pancreas  to  envelop  or  invade  other  tissues. 
In  the  case  of  these  so-called  islets  in  the  compact  pancreas  of  Teleostei, 
and  also  of  higher  animals,  the  closer  relation  is  due  to  the  common 
embryonic  origin  of  the  two  tissues.  The  primitive  condition  is  that 
'  exhibited  by  Teleostei  with  diffuse  pancreas,  where  the  islets  are  both 
morphologically  and  functionally  separate. 

Granular  Cells  in  Epidermis  of  AmmocoBtes.§  —  N.  Loewenthal 
makes  some  notes  on  these  cells.     He  describes  the  thread-like  continua- 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  435-56  (6  figs.). 

+  Op.  cit.,  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  72-5. 

t  Quart.  Journ.  Mior.  Sci.,xlviii.  (1901)  pp.  379-40;")  (3  pis.). 

§  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  81-94. 


40  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

tions  which  are  directed  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  epidermis.  They 
can  he  traced  within  the  cell  up  to  the  granular  zone.  In  favourable 
cases  there  can  be  distinguished  on  the  cud  part  of  the  continuation 
a  spindle-shaped  enlargement  and  delicate  wavy  threads  ("terminal 
thread-apparatus"),  which  pass  through  the  granular  part  of  the  cell. 
lie  also  describes  amitotic  divisions  and  constrictions  in  the  nuclei  of 
these  cells. 

Structure  of  Human  Hypophysis.*  —  V.  Scaffidi  finds  that  the 
human  hypophysis  exhibits  two  fundamental  kinds  of  cell  which  are 
sharply  distinguished  from  one  another,  viz.  one  stainable  with  I  )range  G. 
and  the  other  with  Acid  fuchsin.  The  cyanophile  cells  of  Schonemann 
are  to  be  regarded  as  fuchsinophile  elements  in  an  advanced  phase  of 
elimination  of  plasma  granules.  The  nuclear  masses  and  the  isolated 
nuclei  (the  definite  characters  according  to  which  they  are  recognisable 
as  belonging  to  the  fuchsinophile  cells)  must  be  regarded  as  an  ex- 
pression of  the  last  phase  of  this  elimination  process.  Probably  the 
other  nuclei  which  are  surrounded  by  narrow  fringes  of  protoplasm  (to 
which  the  qualities  of  the  above  do  not  belong)  may  be  considered  as 
fuchsinophile  cells  in  a  stage  of  reconstruction.  Two  forms  of  cell 
colourable  with  Orange  G  are  distinguishable,  to  which  two  different 
functional  phases  can  be  ascribed.  Both  the  fundamental  types 
(Orange  (1  and  Acid  fuchsin)  have  probably  the  function  of  elaborating 
definite  substances  which  together  represent  the  secretion  of  the  gland. 

Research  Methods  on  Human  Brain.f — P.  Flechsig  gives  a  con- 
cluding paper  containing  critical  observations  on  research  methods  on 
the  cerebral  cortex. 

Contraction  of  Smooth  Muscle  Cells. £  —  E.  Forster  states  that 
these  cells  contract  in  such  a  way  as  to  coil  up  spirally.  This  is  true 
for  smooth  muscle  cells,  for  heart  muscle,  and  for  the  diagonally  striped 
cells  of  amphibia.  The  nucleus  shares  passively  in  this  spiral  con- 
traction, so  that  it  is  rod-like  when  the  cell  is  passive  and  wound  spirally 
as  the  cell  contracts.  The  extent  of  contraction  of  the  cell  may  be 
known  from  the  degree  of  the  nuclear  spiral.  The  "  Stauchung" 
*'  Faltehmg"  "  Schlangelung"  of  the  nucleus  spoken  of  by  various 
authors,  and  the  "  nuclein-spiral "  described,  is  nothing  other  than  the 
spiral  contraction  here  explained. 

Lymph  Hearts  of  Rana.§ — M.  H.  Hover  finds  that  the  lymph 
hearts,  like  the  blood  hearts,  are  very  perfectly  developed  organs,  in 
which  the  entrance  and  exit  is  exactly  regulated  by  a  system  of  valves. 
The  circumstance  that  there  are  several  lymph  hearts  on  each  side  has 
probably  its  explanation  in  the  phylogenetic  development  of  the  Anura. 
The  larvse  are  provided  on  each  side  with  several  lymph  hearts,  and 
Weliky  has  shown  that  the  Urodela  possess  a  large  number  of  these 
segmentally  arranged . 

*  Arch  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxiv.  (1904)  pp.  235-57  (1  pi.). 
+  Her  Sachs.  Gus.  Leipzig,  lvi.  (1904)  pp.  177-248. 
J  Anat.  Auzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  338-55. 

*  Bull.  Intern.  Aca>l.  Sci.  Cracovie,  v.  (1904;  pp.  22S-37. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  41 

Comparative  Histology  of  Cartilaginous  Cells.* — Joannes  Chatin 
has  a  brief  note  on  the  extraordinary  polymorphism  of  cartilage  cells, 
which  are  usually  described  as  ovoid  or  spheroidal  except  in  rare  cases. 
The  fact  is  that  it  is  a  very  variable  element,  occurring  in  spheroidal, 
"cylindrical,  claviform,  ovoid,  angular,  multiloba te,  branched,  stellate,  and 
•other  shapes,  all  connected  by  intermediate  phases. 


c. 


General. 


Phototropism  in  Animals.f — Em.  Radl  has  made  many  experiments, 
especially  with  Arthropods,  on  the  wide-spread  phenomenon  of  photo- 
tropism. Many  animals,  from  Ccelentera  to  Molluscs,  orientate  their 
body  in  relation  to  the  direction  of  light;  many  move  actively  to  or 
from  the  light,  orientating  themselves  meanwhile.  It  is  a  primitive 
reflex,  and  though  it  is  not  definitely  proved,  the  author  says,  in 
Protozoa,  it  occurs  familiarly  in  unicellular  plants.  Many  interesting 
subjects  are  discussed — the  behaviour  of  animals  on  a  rotating  turn- 
table, the  compensatory  head-movements  of  insects,  nystagmus  in  insects, 
and  the  flight  of  moths  and  the  like  into  the  flame.  The  phototropic 
phenomena  are  considered  in  relation  to  other  tropisms,  and  in  connec- 
tion with  the  general  problem  of  orientation.  Kadi's  general  position  is 
that,  under  the  influence  of  external  and  internal  forces,  working,  so  to 
speak,  in  opposed  couples,  the  organism  comes  to  assume  a  position  of 
static  and  also  physiological  equilibrium  in  reference  to  the  direction  of 
the  light. 

Coloration  in  Mammals  and  Birds.J — J-  L.  Bonhote  seeks  to  show 
that  the  colour  of  a  bird  or  mammal  is  primarily  due  to  "  activity  of 
nutrition  and  function."  This  he  terms  "  vigour,"  which  is  dependent 
on  (a)  climate,  containing  two  factors,  temperature  and  food,  and  (b)  the 
rise  and  fall  of  sexual  activity.  AVhere  conditions  for  high  vigour  exist, 
the  majority  of  the  animals  will  be  brightly  coloured.  Tlie  individual 
vigour  of  various  species  and  groups  will  differ,  and  one  animal  may  be 
able  to  maintain  a  full  vigour  under  conditions  which  would  be  im- 
possible to  another.  This  will  account  for  some  of  the  Polar  animals 
becoming  strongly  coloured,  e.g.  musk  ox,  raven,  penguin.  Shortly 
before  the  moult  in  many  animals  the  colour  of  the  pelage  fades, 
beginning  along  certain  definite  areas  and  from  certain  centres,  termed 
"  pcecilomeres  ;"  this  bleaching  is  physiological,  and  the  patches  so  pro- 
duced thus  owe  their  inception  to  internal  rather  than  external  causes. 

Relation  of  Oxidation  to  Functional  Activity.§ — Sir  John  Burdon- 
S.niderson  opened  a  discussion  on  this  subject  at  the  British  Association 
Meeting  at  Cambridge.  He  particularly  contrasted  the  chemical  pro- 
cesses of  gland  function  and  muscle  function.  Whereas  the  former  is 
not  in  any  marked  degree  katabolic,  the  dominant  process  in  the  oxida- 
tion which  is  inseparably  associated  with  the  performance  of  muscular 
•function  is  katabolic.     Oxygen  seems  to  play  two  parts  in  metabolic 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  489-91. 

t  UntersuclmngenuberdenPhototropisimisderTiere.  8vo.  Leipzig (1 903)  1S8  pp. 

!  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.)  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  185-7. 

$  Nature,  lxx.  (1904)  pp.  590-3. 


42  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

processes,  one  of  which  is  prominent  in  muscle,  and  is  responsible  for 
the  final  oxidation  of  explosive  material,  while  the  other,  which  is  more 
accentuated  in  glands,  is  akin  to  a  building-up  process,  as  it  is  involved 
in  the  elaboration  of  new  material. 

Outlines  of  Zoology.* — R.  Latzel  has  prepared  a  fourth  revised 
edition  of  a  class-hook  which  has  had  wide  and  prolonged  favour  in 
Germany,  Graher's  "  Leitfaden  der  Zoologie."  It  is  a  terse  and  accurate 
synopsis  of  the  general  characters  of  the  various  classes  of  animals, 
somewhat  too  all-embracing  and  informative  to  be  educationally  inspiring, 
but  of  service,  doubtless,  as  an  index  reritm  in  association  with  more 
vital  studies.  It  is  very  copiously  illustrated,  and  the  coloured  plates 
are  admirable. 

Eyes  of  Vertebrates.! — 0.  Schnaudigel  takes  an  interesting  com- 
parative survey  of  the  eyes  throughout  the  Vertebrate  series — discussing, 
for  instance,  peculiar  cases  like  eyes  of  cave  animals  and  deep-sea  fishes, 
and  indicating  the  chief  structural  differences  observed  in  a  comparison 
of  lenses,  accommodation-apparatus,  and  retina  in  various  types. 

The  Mammalian  Cribrum.J — W.  Blendinger  has  investigated  this 
structure  in  a  series  of  Mammals.  In  origin  it  consists  of  lateral,  more 
or  less  vertical  folds,  the  cribral  sacs.  On  the  embryonic  cribrum  there 
arise  three  main  side  sacs,  pro-,  meso-,  and  metacribrum,  the  entrance  to 
which  is  perpendicular  to  the  main  axis  of  the  nasal  canal.  In  later 
stages  of  growth  two  intermediary  sacs  are  added,  the  epi-  and  para-- 
cribrum.  The  growth  of  all  the  five  continues  in  a  lateral  and  dorso- 
ventral  direction  ;  the  posterior  end  of  the  entrance  to  each  is  flanked 
by  an  olfactory  torus.  These  are  termed  endoturbinal  tori ;  the  corre- 
sponding sacs  are  distinguished  as  pro-,  epi-,  etc.,  turbinals.  The  form 
of  the  sacs  is,  in  varying  degrees  in  different  species,  further  complicated 
by  homologous  side  pockets,  bursa-dorsalis,  -externa,  and  -ventral is, 
which  again  form  secondary  niches.  Between  all  the  side  spaces  arise 
cartilaginous  and  ossifying  partitions,  the  endo-  and  ecto-turbinal 
lamella?.  The  sinus  maxillaris  is  a  product  of  the  procribrum,  the  other 
pneumatic  hollows  arise  partly  out  of  the  procribrum  and  partly  from  the 
other  cribral  sacs.  The  paper  is  accompanied  by  historical  and  critical 
observations  by  Dr.  A.  Fleischmann. 

Whalebone  Whales  of  Western  North  Atlantic.§  —  V.  W.  True 
discusses  these  in  a  memoir,  the  size  of  which  is  worthy  of  the  subject. 
The  conclusions  reached  are  :— (1)  that  the  species  in  the  Western  North 
Atlantic  are  the  same  as  those  in  the  Eastern  North  Atlantic  ;  (2)  that 
these  are  the  Bowhead,  or  Greenland  Right  whale  {Baloma  mystketus), 
the  Black  whale  (B.  glacial  is),  the  Humpback  (Megaptera  nodosa),  the 
Sulphurbottom  (Balc&noptera  musculus),  the  common  Finback  (B. 
physalus),  the  Little  Piked  whale  (B.  acato-rostrata),  and  probably  the 
Pollack  whale  (B.  borealis)  ;  (3)  that  the  range  of  the  Humpback  extends 

*  Graber's  Leitfaden  der  Zoologie  fur  hohere  Lehranstalten.  Bearheitet  von, 
Dr.  Robert  Latzel.  4th  revised  edition,  Svo.  Leipzig  (1901)  232  pp.,  474  figs.,. 
4  coloured  plates,  and  a  map  of  distribution. 

+  Ber.  Senckenbert:.  Nat.  Ges.  1903,  pp.  187-202. 

*  Morpbol.  Jahrb.,  xxxii   (1904)  pp.  451-504  (2  pis). 

§  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  xxxiii.  (1904)  pp.  1-332  (50  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  43 

south  ward  at  least  as  far  as  18°  North  Lat.  ;  and  (4)  that  the  probability 
of  the  identity  of  the  North  Pacific  species  writh  those  of  the  North 
Atlantic  is  strengthened  by  the  evidence  collected. 

As  evidence  is  strengthened  regarding  the  specific  identity  of  the 
whales  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific,  the  belief  that  the  same 
species  of  large  whales  range  all  over  the  globe  is  also  strengthened.  It 
is  well  known  that  whales  closely  resembling  Megaptera  nodosa,  B.  acuto- 
rostrata,  B.  musculm  and  B.  physalus — to  mention  no  others — occur  in 
the  South  Atlantic  and  the  Antarctic  seas,  and  also,  the  second  and  last, 
at  least,  about  New  Zealand.  But  even  if  it  should  be  proved  that  the 
species  of  large  whalebone  whales  are  cosmopolitan,  it  does  not  follow 
that  the  individuals  constituting  these  several  species  range  throughout 
the  globe.  The  probabilities  are  much  against  such  world-wide  move- 
ments, and  in  the  case  of  the  Plight  whale  it  appears  to  have  been 
demonstrated  by  Maury  that  individuals  do  not  cross  the  equator.  The 
memoir  is  sumptuously  illustrated. 

The  Roman  Mole.* — L.  Camerano  has  made  an  elaborate  compari- 
son between  the  Roman  mole  {Talpa  romana  Oldfield  Thomas),  the 
common  mole  Talpa  europtm,  and  T.  ectca  Savi.  His  detailed  measure- 
ments of  many  parts  illustrate  minutiose  taxonomic  work.  He  has  no- 
doubt  that  T.  romana  is  a  very  distinct  species.  The  common  mole 
occurs  in  various  parts  of  Italy,  but  does  not  differ  from  that  of  other 
countries.  Variations  with  fused  eyelids  occur ;  this  is  normal  in 
T.  cceca,  and  the  taxonomic  value  of  T.  cc&ca  requires  further  study. 

New  Order  of  Ungulate  Mammals.f —  C.  W.  Andrews  has  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  remarkable  genus  Arsinoitherium  (from  the 
Eocene  of  Egypt)  must  be  referred  to  a  new  sub-division  of  the 
TJngulata  of  equal  value  with  the  Amblypoda  and  Proboscidea,  to  both 
of  which  a  certain  degree  of  relationship  may  exist.  For  this  new  order 
the  name  Barypoda  is  proposed,  in  allusion  to  the  massive  character  of 
the  limbs.  For  another  genus  Barytherium,  it  seems  safest  to  erect  a 
sub-division  of  the  Amblypoda,  the  Barytheria,  equivalent  in  value  to 
the  Dinocerata. 

Forest  Pig  of  Central  Africa. £  —  Oldfield  Thomas  notes  that 
R.  Meinertzhagen  has  procured  two  skulls  and  some  portions  of  skin 
of  the  "forest  pig"  reported  by  Sir  Henry  Stanley  and  Sir  Harry 
Johnston.  The  trophies  show  that  the  animal  represents  a  most  in- 
teresting new  genus  connecting  the  aberrant  wart-hog  {Phaco  cheer  us) 
with  the  more  ordinary  Suidae,  such  as  Sus  and  Potamochmrus.  It  may 
be  regarded  as  an  early  stage  in  the  specialisation  of  the  wart-hog.  The 
name  proposed  is  Hylochozrus  meinertzluujenl. 

Material  for  the  Study  of  Ruminants. § — Einar  Lonnberg  makes 
a  contribution  to  the  comparative  anatomy  of  the  wild  ruminants, — 
the  black-buck  of  India  (Antilope  cervicapra),  Cephalopus  ogilbyi,  C.  me- 
lanorhocus,  and  C.  silvicultor,  Boselaphus  tragocamelus,  and  Anoa.     In 

*  Mem.  R.  Acad.  Sci.  Torino,  liv.  (1904)  pp.  81-128  (1  pi.). 

t  Geol.  Mag.,  5th  decade,  i.  (1903)  pp.  481-2. 

X  Nature,  lxx.  (1904)  p.  577. 

§  Nova  Acta  R.  Soc.  Sci.  Upsala,  xx.  (1904)  Sect.  ii.  Art.  2,  pp.  1-61  (2  pis.). 


44  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

some  instances  the  adaptations  of  the  intestinal  canal  to  the  <liet,  and 
certain  features  of  the  ontogenetic  development  of  some  of  the  organs 

are  brought  to  light. 

Iridescence  of  Pigeon's  Neck.*  R.  M.  Strong  has  made  a  careful 
analysis  of  the  metallic  colours  or  iridescence  of  the  sides  of  the  neck 
of  the  grey  domestic  pigeon.  The  phenomenon  is  confined  to  the 
dorsal  surfaces  of  the  distal  portions  of  the  feathers  ;  it  is  not  due  to 
diffraction,  and  Gadow's  refraction-prism  hypothesis  is  untenable.  The 
metallic  colours  are  probably  thin-plate  interference  colours  or  Xewton's 
rings  effects,  which  are  produced  where  spherical  pigment  granules  come 
in  contact  with  the  outer  transparent  layer.  The  pigment  also  has  the 
very  important  function  of  absorbing  light  not  reflected  to  the  eye  as 
metallic  colour.  The  colours  seen  without  a  Microscope  are  mixtures 
of  colours  from  innumerable  small  points. 

Fossil  Plumage. t — C  R.  Eastman  comments  on  the  many  chances 
against  the  preservation  of  feathers  or  their  impressions.  Yet  we  know 
the  plumage  of  Archceojoteryx,  Hesperornis,  and  Palceospiza.  Moreover, 
from  the  Upper  Eocene  limestone  of  Monte  Bolca  in  the  Veronese — a 
marine  horizon — a  few  feathers  have  been  obtained,  and  Eastman  de- 
scribes a  small  fossil  Carinate  feather  recently  accpiired  by  the  Museum 
of  Comparative  Zoology  at  Cambridge.  It  is  possible  to  distinguish 
each  separate  barb  and  even  the  barbules. 

Respiratory  Rhythm  in  Chameleon. J  —  MM.  Couvreurand  (lautier 
have  analysed  the  respiratory  mechanism  in  Chamcdeo  vulgaris  with 
the  following  result.  The  flank  movements  correspond  to  the  respira- 
tion ;  they  are  slow,  being  one  per  minute  at  20°  C.  There  are  three 
pauses  in  the  respiratory  movement.  After  full  inspiration  there  is  a 
short  pause,  then  a  half  expiration  followed  by  a  long  •  pause  of  half  a 
minute  or  over,  then  the  end  of  expiration,  between  which  and  the  next 
inspiration  there  is  another  pause.  Raising  the  temperature  effects  a 
shortening  of  the  pauses.  It  is  not  known  whether  the  pauses  are 
effected  by  the  closing  of  the  glottis  or  are  independent  of  it. 

Variations  of  Toads. § — L.  Camerano  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
the  variations  in  Bufo  viridis  Laur.,  B.  mauritanicus  Schlegel,  and 
B.  regularis  Reuss.  His  memoir  is  an  illustration  of  elaborate  ';  somato- 
metry "  work. 

New  Apodous  Amphibian  from  India. ||- — A.  Alcock  describes 
Herpele  fuller i  sp.  n.  from  Cachar,  in  the  province  of  Assam.  Three 
other  species  are  known,  one  of  which  occurs  in  Panama  and  another 
in  West  Africa.  This  raises  a  problem  in  distribution,  and  the  author 
seeks  for  some  light  in  comparing  the  distribution  of  the  Cajciliidaa  in 
general  with  that  of  certain  sublittoral  genera  of  hermit-crabs.  The 
facts  suggest  the  hypothesis  of  a  "Tethyan  Sea"  or  chain  of  arehi- 

*  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  263-77  (1  pi.). 

+  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  669-72  (1  fig.). 

t  Ann.  Soc.  Linn.  T.von,  1.  (1904)  pp.  159-60. 

§  Mem.  R.  Aocad.  Sci.  Torino,  liv.  (1904)  pp.  183-280. 

||  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xiv.  (1894)  pp.  267-73  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  45 

pelagoes  that  may  have  extended,  under  uniform  conditions,  north  of 
the  Equator,  from  Panama  eastwards,  by  way  of  Africa,  into  South  - 
East  Asia.  Of  this  sea  the  hermit-crabs  in  question  might  be  supposed 
to  be  part  of  the  residual  littoral  or  sub-littoral  fauna,  while  Herpele 
might  be  one  of  the  relics  of  the  land-fauna  of  its  southern  coasts. 

Cranial  Osteology  of  Fishes.*  —  W.  CI.  Ridewood  describes  the 
skull  in  the  families  Mormyridse,  Notopteridae,  and  Hyodontidae.  He 
considers  that  these  families,  though  more  closely  related  inter  se  than 
is  any  one  of  them  with  any  other  family  of  Malacopterygian  fishes, 
are  not  more  intimately  related  with  one  another  than  was  previously 
assumed  to  be  the  case.  As  far  as  cranial  characters  are  concerned, 
they  afford  no  basis  for  a  phylogenetic  arrangement.  The  three  families 
must  remain,  as  hitherto,  the  terminals  of  a  radiating  system. 

Edestus  and  its  Relatives.! — C.  R.  Eastman  refers  to  the  uncer- 
tainty as  to  the  nature  of  Edestus  fossils,  some  authorities  referring 
them  to  the  jaws,  and  others  to  the  external  armature  of  an  Elasmo- 
branch.  He  has  been  able  to  show  that  the  fused  segments  of  Edestus, 
Campyloprion,  and  Helicoprion  are  veritable  teeth  corresponding  to  the 
symphysial  series  of  Gampodus,  which  are  enormously  enlarged  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  Cestracion  and  other  recent  sharks  ;  and  also  that 
these  four  Carboniferous  and  Permian  genera  together  constitute  a 
remarkable  series,  in  which  the  progress  of  evolution  is  readily  traceable. 
Beginning  with  Campodus,  he  shows  in  the  species  of  Edestus  and 
Campytoprion  the  progressive  stages  by  which  the  typical  orodont 
dentition  of  the  Lower  Carboniferous  passed  into  the  excessively 
modified  spirals  of  Helicoprion  before  the  close  of  the  Palaeozoic. 

Natural  History  of  Amia  calva.J — Jacob  Reighard  has  made  a 
careful  study  of  the  habits — especially  the  breeding  habits — of  this  fish. 
The  sexes  differ  in  colour  ;  about  three  times  as  many  males  as  females 
come  to  the  spawning  ground  ;  the  nests  are  built,  mostly  at  night,  by 
the  males  :  each  nest  is  the  property  of  an  individual  male,  who  guards 
and  defends  it. 

Spawning  usually  occurs  at  night ;  sexual  excitation  of  the  female 
is  produced  by  the  biting  and  rubbing,  of  the  male  ;  the  male  may  get 
two  females  to  spawn  in  the  same  nest ;  the  larvae  leave  the  nest  in  a 
swarm  with  the  male  and  appear  to  follow  him  by  scent.  The  larvae 
are  black  until  they  are  30  to  40  mm.  in  length,  and  a  school  of  black 
larvae  when  separated  from  the  male  begins  to  circle  and  continues  to 
do  so  as  a  whole  or  in  fragments  until  re-united  with  the  male.  "When 
about  ?•()  to  40  mm.  long  the  black  larvae  begin  to  show  orange  and 
green  colours.  The  schools  of  bright-coloured  larvae  move  more  rapidly 
in  the  water,  do  not  circle  in  search  of  the  male,  and  are  not  closely 
guarded.  Schools  of  larvae  of  greater  length  than  100  mm.  have  not 
been  observed  ;  the  schools  probably  disperse  when  the  larvae  are  about 
this  size. 

*  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.)  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  188-217  (4  pis.) 
t  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  279-89  (1  pl.).j 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  57-109   1  pi.  aud  1  fig.). 


46  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

New  Cranial  Nerve  in  Selachians.*  —  W.  A.  Locy  returns  to  a 
nerve  which  he  discovered  in  1899,  and  gives  fresh  details  as  to  its 
history.  In  arises  in  young  embryos  of  Squalus  and  other  Selachians 
on  the  dorsal  summit  of  the  forebrain  on  each  side  of  the  neuropore, 
in  close  connexion  with  elements  of  the  disappearing  neural  crest.  Its 
fibres  are  formed  slightly  before  those  of  the  olfactory  nerve,  and 
proceed  to  the  olfactory  epithelium.  Pinkus  has  observed  a  similar 
nerve  in  Protopterus,  and  Allis  in  Anita.  Even  if  it  be  one  of  the 
olfactory  bundles  in  an  unusual  position,  its  separateness  in  origin  and 
differences  from  all  other  olfactory  radices  would  still  justify  the  term 
"  new  nerve."  It  has  been  looked  for  in  vain  in  amphibians  and 
Tcleosts. 

History  of  the  Eye  of  Amblyopsis.f — Carl  H.  Eigenmann  dis- 
cusses the  whole  story  of  the  eyes  of  this  blind  fish.  "  In  Amblyopsis, 
which  carries  its  young  in  its  gill  cavity,  we  are  undoubtedly  dealing  with 
an  animal  in  which  the  eyes  are  useless  in  the  young  as  well  as  in  the 
adult,  and  in  which  they  became  totally  useless  in  the  young  at  the  same 
time  that  they  became  totally  useless  in  the  adult,  that  is,  at  the  time 
when  the  species  took  up  permanent  quarters  in  the  caves.  Do  the  eyes 
in  this  case  repeat  the  phylogenic  history  of  the  eye,  or  have  the  eyes 
in  the  embryo  degenerated  in  proportion  to  their  degeneration  in  the 
adult  ?  The  question  is  whether  a  perfect  or  better  eye  is  produced  to 
be  finally  metamorphosed  into  the  condition  found  in  the  adult,  or 
whether  the  development  of  the  eye  is  direct." 

Eigenmann's  results  show  that  the  foundations  of  the  eye  are 
normally  laid  in  the  embryo,  but  that  the  superstructure,  instead  of  con- 
tinuing the  plan  with  new  material,  completes  it  out  of  the  material 
provided  for  the  foundations,  and  that,  in  fact,  not  even  all  of  this  (lens) 
material  enters  into  the  structure  of  the  adult  eye.  "  The  development 
of  the  foundations  of  the  eye  are  phylogenic,  the  stages  beyond  the 
foundations  are  direct." 

Segmental  Veins  in  Amphioxus.J— Boris  Zarnik  refers  to  Burc- 
hardt's  discovery  (1000)  of  the  ductus  Cuvieri  in  the  lancelet,  and  points 
out  that  behind  this  there  are  several  variable  vessels,  which  display  a 
metameric  arrangement.  These  are  transverse  segmental  veins,  and  the 
ductus  Cuvieri  may  be  regarded  as  a  specialisation  of  one  of  these.  They 
are  very  variable,  and  must  be  regarded  as  rudimentary  structures.  In 
this  respect,  as  in  many  others,  Amphioxus  is  intermediate  between  the 
Craniota  and  the  Annelids.  The  author  gives  an  account  of  the  general 
circulatory  system  of  the  lancelet. 

Experiments  on  Ciliary  Movements.? — L.  Launoy  finds  that  the 
local  application  of  a  solution  of  chlorhydrate  of  amylein  has  a  tonic 
action  upon  the  vibratile  cilia  of  the  pharyngeal  membrane  of  the  frog. 
It  is,  however,  temporary,  and  is  succeeded  by  an  adynamic  state. 

*  Mark  Armiv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  39-55  (2  pis.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  167-204  (4  pis.). 

*  Anat.  Anzeig..  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  G09-30  (1  pi.  nnd  7  figs.) 
§  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxix.  (1904)  pp.  162-5. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  47 

Adipogenic  Function  in  Vertebrates  and  in  Crustacea.*  —  C. 
Deflandre  finds  that  in  Astacus  there  is  abundance  of  adipo-hepatic 
reserves  in  March,  April  and  May,  it  is  lessened  by  October  and 
November,  and  absent  from  December  to  February.  There  are  seasonal 
variations  also  in  crabs.  In  Amphioxus  the  hepatic  function  of  the 
•caecum  is  indicated  by  the  green  coloration  of  its  walls  and  the  presence 
of  fine  fatty  granules  in  the  cells.  In  fishes  the  function  is  greatly 
developed,  but  is  seasonal.  In  the  carp  fatty  reserves  are  stored  in- 
creasingly from  February  to  April  ;  from  this  time  they  decrease,  and  are 
exhausted  in  December.  In  reptiles  there  is  but  slight  development 
of  this  function.  In  land  birds  it  is  not  usual,  save  in  cases  of  over- 
feeding and  at  the  breeding  season.  Aquatic  birds  are  always  rich  in 
fatty  material. 

Microscopic  Fresh-water  Animals  from  Asia  Minor.f — Eugen  von 
Daday  gives  an  annotated  list  of  forty-three  small  fresh-water  animals 
from  Asia  Minor,  including  Mastigocerca  heterostyla  sp.  n.,  PedaUon 
mirum,  Onychocamptus  heteropus  g.  et  sp.  n.,  and  Limnkythera  dubiosa 
sp.  n.     Seven  forms  in  his  list  are  known  only  from  Asia  Minor. 

Fresh-water  Micro-fauna  of  Turkestan.} — E.  v.  Daday  gives  a  very 
full  account  of  the  Protozoa,  Ccelentera,  Nematohelminthes,  Rotifera, 
Entomostraca,  etc.,  of  this  region.  Cosmopolitan  forms,  he  finds,  occur 
in  greatest  numbers,  though  many  of  these  have  not  yet  been  observed 
in  other  Asiatic  regions.  It  may  reasonably  be  maintained  that  the 
micro-fauna  of  Turkestan  is  a  duplicate  of  the  European. 

Tunicata. 

New  Type  of  Ascidian.§ — W.  E.  Hitter  discusses  the  structure  of 
•Herdmania  claviformis  g.  et  sp.  n.,  from  the  coast  of  California — a 
unique  type  requiring  a  family  for  itself  (Herdmaniidas).  The  colony  is 
composed  of  crowded  but  entirely  free  zooids,  arising  by  budding  from 
short,  much-branched,  closely  interwoven  stolons.  The  body  of  the 
zooid  is  large,  long  and  narrow,  consisting  of  three  regions — thoracic, 
digestive,  and  cardiogenital.  There  is  a  peculiar  grouping  of  the  nu- 
merous branchial  tentacles.  The  oviduct  serves  as  a  uterus,  in  which  the 
embryos  go  through  their  development  to  nearly  the  period  of  meta- 
morphosis. Quite  unique  is  the  presence  of  two  epicardiac  tubes,  separate 
throughout  their  length.  The  new  type  seems  to  be  a  divergent  offshoot 
from  the  Polyclinid  branch. 

^Estivation  of  Botrylloides  gascoi.|| — Frank  W.  Bancroft  studied 
at  Xaples  the  hitherto  unobserved  partial  dying-down  of  the  compound 
Ascidian  Botrylloides  yascoi.  In  a  colony  kept  in  an  aquarium  a  yellow 
lobe  containing  no  zooids  was  developed  ;  later  on  all  the  zooids  de- 
generated, and  finally  all  the  colony,  except  the  yellow  lobe,  died.     The 

*  Journ.  de  l'Anat.  et  Phys.,  xl.  (1904)  pp.  305-3G. 

t  SB.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  oxii.  (1903)  pp.  139-G7  (2  pis). 

;  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xix.  (1904)  pp.  409-553  (4  pis.). 

§  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  237-61  (2  pis.). 

||   Tom.  cit.,  pp.  147-66  (1  pi.;. 


48  SUMMARY    OP    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

ampullae  kept  np  a  circulation  in  the  isolated  lobe  for  about  two  weeks, 
after  which  buds  re-appeared  in  it.  An  examination  of  half  the  colony 
showed  that  there  were  small  isolated  buds,  probably  produced  by  the 
zooids  which  had  degenerated,  scattered  all  through  the  colony.  The 
colony  gradually  recovered  its  former  condition,  except  that  it  always 
retained  its  yellow  colour,  which  is  characteristic  of  Botrylloides  luteum 
von  Drasche.  Therefore  this  species  is  a  seasonal  variation  of  B,  f/ascoi. 
During  rejuvenescence  the  colony  differed  from  the  normal  colony  in 
various  ways,  which  are  particularly  described.  The  cause  of  these 
deviations  from  the  normal  seems  to  be  the  inadequacy  of  the  food 
supply.  This  case  of  aestivation  is  in  general  similar  to  the  hibernation 
described  in  various  Ascidians. 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Mollusca. 

Scientific  Value  of  Conchology.* — 0.  Boettger  supports  the  claims 
of  the  study  of  molluscan  shells.  He  speaks  of  the  problem  of  their 
coloration,  suggesting  that  the  pigmentation  (often  hidden  more  or  less 
completely  from  sight)  is  an  organised  way  of  dealing  with  guanin-like 
waste-products.  He  refers  to  the  modifications  of  shell-form  in  different 
localities  and  conditions,  to  the  varied  protective  values  of  the  shell,  to 
phenomena  of  variation  and  convergence,  and  so  on.  The  study  of 
shells  is  rich  in  data  of  biological  interest. 

■y.  Gastropoda."! 

Spermatozoon  of  Helix  pomatia.t  —  A.  Bolles  Lee  has  made  a 
detailed  study  of  this  spermatozoon.  The  head  consists  of  two  portions, 
an  exosome  and  an  endosome,  the  former  partially  enveloping  the  latter, 
and  containing  all  the  nuclein.  The  tail  or  bodv  consists  of  an  axis 
cylinder  and  a  tubular  membrane,  the  exolemma  surrounding  it.  Platner's 
spiral  fibre  is  an  illusion. 

The  axis  cylinder  consists  of  two  fibres  wound  together  and  im- 
bedded in  a  granular  substance,  the  whole  being  enveloped  in  a  structure- 
less membrane,  the  endolemmn.  The  exolemma  is  not  cytoplasmic,  it  is 
a  delicate  membrane  provided  internally  with  a  spiral  thickening. 

The  neck  is  an  articulation,  adapted  to  allow  the  ready  separation  of 
the  head.  Neither  in  the  neck  nor  elsewhere  is  there  any  centrosome.  and 
there  is  no  distinct  Mittehtiirlc  or  "  segment  moyen,"  such  as  is  seen  in 
Urodela. 

Notes  on  the  Pleurotomidas.J — Thomas  L.  Casey  discusses  this  large 
family,  basing  his  study  on  a  review  of  over  600  species,  living  and 
fossil.  He  discusses  the  vexed  question  of  genera,  and  compromises 
by  dividing  the  family  into  eight  more  or  less  definitely  limited  and 
definable  "  tribal  groups,"  and  regarding  most  of  the  subdivisions  under- 
these  tribal  headings  as  true  genera  until  their  values  can  be  determined 
more  accurately. 

*  Ber.  Senckenberg.  Nat.  Ges.,  1903,  pp.  177-86. 

t  La  Cellule,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  79-117  (1  pi.). 

X  Trans.  Acad.  Sci.  St.  Louis,  xiv.  (1904)  pp.  12:>-70. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  49 

Spire  Variation  in  Pyramidula  alternata.* — F.C.  Baker  has  tried 
to  ascertain  the  amount  of  variation  in  the  spire  of  this  species  from 
several  localities.  One  of  the  most  noticeable  features  in  the  curves 
submitted  is  their  tendency  to  assume  a  multimodal  form,  which  is 
indicative  of  great  variability.  The  Western  specimens  have  a  higher 
shell,  on  the  average,  than  the  Eastern  forms,  and  a  much  larger  amount 
of  variation  in  spire  elevation. 

Tidal  Synchronism  of  Littoral  Animals.t  —  0.  Bonn  gives  the 
results  of  observations  on  Littorina  and  other  shore  animals.  The  peri- 
winkle has  two  ways  of  orientating  itself,  one  corresponding  to  the 
period  of  maximum  wetness,  and  the  other  to  maximum  dryness.  This 
may  be  seen  on  other  shore  animals,  and  the  duration  and  extent  vary 
according  to  the  habitat,  whether  supra-littoral  zone  (e.g.  L.  ruclis)  or 
lower  down.  The  habit  is  persisted  in,  even  in  aquaria,  where  a  shadow 
may  produce  the  effect.  The  animal  takes  its  bearings  in  relation  to  a 
certain  direction,  which  the  author  terms  the  line  of  luminous  force. 
In  other  words,  it  is  due  to  a  light  effect  on  more  or  less  hydrated 
protoplasm. 

Effect  of  Temperature  on  Growth  in  Physa  taslei.f — M.  H.  Rajat 
finds  that  in  a  brook  at  Saint-Clair  near  Lyon,  there  is  a  difference  of 
6°  C.  between  the  temperatures  at  its  source  and  at  its  junction  with 
the  Rhone.  In  it  Physa  taslei  is  abundant ;  in  the  region  of  the  lower 
temperature  they  are  larger  both  in  length  and  diameter,  and  in  the 
Rhone  itself,  they  are  two-thirds  larger  than  those  at  the  source  of  the 
brook. 

5.  Lamellibranchiata. 

Variations  in  PectenJ — C.  B.  Davenport  makes  a  comparison  of 
Pectens  from  the  east  and  the  west  coasts  of  the  United  States.  He 
procured  a  large  collection  of  Pectens  from  Dunedin,  on  the  Gulf  Coast. 
15  miles  west  of  Tampa,  Florida  (Pecten  gibbus  var.  dislocatus)  ;  and 
he  obtained  another  collection  from  San  Diego,  California  {Pecten 
vmtricosus).  The  Tampa  and  San  Diego  Pectens  appear  to  be  closely 
related,  and  environmental  factors  being  the  same,  the  variability 
should  be  the  same.  Any  considerable  difference  of  variability  is 
probably  due  to  a  difference  in  the  action  of  the  environment.  It  turns 
out  that  in  all  proportions  measured,  the  San  Diego  Pectens  show 
themselves  from  50  p.c.  to  100  p.c.  more  variable  than  those  of  Tampa. 
The  conclusion  arrived  at  is  that  the  greater  variability  of  the  individuals 
from  San  Diego  is  due  to  the  more  varied  present  environment,  which 
tends  to  make  some  shells  deviate  in  one  way  and  others  in  another, 
and  to  the  past  rapid  changes  in  the  physiographical  conditions  which 
have  favoured  the  more  responsive,  adjustable  individuals,  and  so  have 
given  rise  to  a  race  of  which  the  individuals  are  easily  modified  by  the 
diverse  environments  offered.     The  geographic  history  has  given  San 

*  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  f.61-8  (4  fi^s.). 
+  (  omptes  Rendus,  exxxix.  (1904)  pp.  646-S. 
t  Ann.  Soc.  Linu,  Lyon,  1.  (1904)  pp.  131-:;. 
§  Mark  Anniv.  VoL,  1903,  pp.  121-:56  (1  pi.). 

Feb.  loth,  1905  v. 


50  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Diego  a  plastic  race ;  the  diversity  of  the  present  environments  of  San 
Diego  lias  determined  the  excessive  variability  of  that  race 

Eye  of  Pecten  irradians.* — Ida  H.  Hyde  finds  that  the  nerve  dis- 
tribution in  this  eye  has  been  in  several  respects  misunderstood.  The 
rods  have  been  inadequately  described  ;  the  "  retinophorse  "  are  not  the 
visual  sensory  cells  -whose  peripheral  fibres  form  the  basal  optic  nerve, 
I  mi  are  the  supporting  cells  of  the  median  layer  of  the  retina  ;  the 
inner  ganglionic  cells  do  not  connect  with  the  side  branch  of  the  optic 
nerve,  but  are  the  nerve-cells  of  the  bipolar  nerve  elements ;  the  outer 
ganglionic  cells  form  a  single  layer,  whose  inner  fibres  are  disposed  in 
a  special  reticular  structure  in  the  retina,  and  whose  outer  fibres  make 
direct  connection  with  the  side  branch  of  the  optic  nerve  ;  the  existence 
of  the  large  marginal  ganglionic  cells  and  their  relations  to  the  bipolar 
and  optic  nerve  were  not  known  to  other  investigators  of  the  eye  of 
Pecten  ;  the  visual  apparatus  of  the  retina  is  composed  of  afferent  and 
efferent  neurons,  and  the  rods  are  true  peripheral  visual  neurons. 

Arthropoda. 
a.  Insecta. 

Phototropism  of  Vanessa  antiopa.f  —  G-.  H.  Parker  has  made  an 
interesting  study  of  the  behaviour  of  the  mourning-cloak  butterfly  in 
relation  to  light.  In  bright  sunlight  the  insect  comes  to  rest  with  the 
head  away  from  the  source  of  light,  when  the  surface  on  which  it 
settles  is  not  perpendicular  or  very  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  direction 
of  the  sun's  rays.  Otherwise,  it  settles  without  reference  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  rays.  This  negative  phototropism  is  seen  only  in  intense 
sunlight  and  after  the  butterfly  has  been  on  the  wing,  i.e.  after  a 
certain  state  of  metabolism  has  been  established  ;  for  V.  antiopa  creeps 
and  flies  toward  a  source  of  light,  that  is,  it  is  positively  phototropic  in 
its  locomotor  responses.  Both  negative  and  positive  phototropism  in 
this  species  is  independent  of  the  "  heat-rays  "  of  sunlight. 

The  position  assumed  in  negative  phototropism  exposes  the  colour 
patterns  of  the  wings  to  fullest  illumination,  and  probably  has  to  do 
with  bringing  the  sexes  together  during  the  breeding  season. 

When  both  eyes  are  painted  black  all  phototropic  responses  cease 
and  the  insect  flies  upward.  Butterflies  with  normal  eyes,  liberated  in 
a  perfectly  dark  room,  come  to  rest  near  the  ceiling.  This  upward 
flight  in  both  cases  is  due  to  negative  geotropism,  not  to  phototropic 
activity. 

The  butterfly  remains  in  flight  near  the  ground  because  it  reacts 
positively  to  large  patches  of  bright  sunlight  rather  than  to  small  ones, 
even  though  the  latter,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sun,  may  be  much  more 
intense.  Its  retreat  at  night  and  emergence  in  the  morning  are  mainly 
due  to  temperature  changes. 

Influence  of  Low  Temperatures  on  Pupse.i — E.  Krodel  subjected 
pnpa3  of  Lycazna  corydon  and  L.  damon  to  extreme  cold  (  —  14°  R.). 

*  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  471-S2  (1  pi.). 

♦  Tom.  cit.  pp.  453-69(1  pi.). 

t  Alls.  Zeitschr.  Entom.,  ix.  (1004)  pp.  4!)-:);"),  103-10,  134-7  (21  figs.).  See 
Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xi.  (1904)  pp.  493-4. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  51 

Pupai  were  taken  5  to  6  hours  after  pupation,  and  subjected  three 
times  a  day  for  six  consecutive  days  to  half-hour  periods  of  cold.  The 
results  were  aberrations  exactly  like  the  natural  aberrations,  e.g.  in  the 
occasional  absence  of  the  eye-marking  on  the  under  sides  of  the  wings. 
The  upper  surfaces  were  not  affected. 

Pigment  of  Silk  of  Antheroea  yana-mai.* — J.  Villard  states  that 
the  green  colour  of  the  silk  of  this  insect  is  not  chlorophyll  as  had 
been  alleged.  In  common  with  the  latter,  its  spectrum  has  a  band  of 
absorption  in  the  red,  which,  however,  is  given  by  a  blue  element  which 
can  be  extracted  by  boiling  alcohol. 

Metamorphosis  of  Insect  Larvae.f  —  J.  Dewitz  reports  on  many 
new  experiments  which  he  has  made  confirmatory  of  his  thesis,  that  in 
the  colour-changes  and  form-changes  associated  with  metamorphosis  an 
enzyme  in  the  vascular  fluids  plays  a  very  important  role. 

Regeneration  of  the  Anterior  End  of  the  Body  in  Pupae  of 
Lepidoptera.* — Jan  Hirschler  has  made  some  remarkable  experiments 
with  pupa3  of  Thais  polyxena,  Bombyx  lanestris,  Satumia  pavonia,  and 
Samia  promethea.  He  removed  the  head,  neck,  and  the  most  anterior 
pirt  of  the  thorax.  Much  of  the  content  of  the  pupa  flowed  out,  and 
this  was  covered  with  melted  paraffin,  so  that  the  wound  was  closed  to 
the  outer  world. 

The  wound  closed  itself  from  within  by  an  accumulation  of  finely 
granular  debris  of  fatty,  muscular,  and  other  elements.  A  second  pro- 
tection, a  special  scar-tissue,  was  thereafter  formed,  mainly  from  the 
epithelial  layer  of  the  tracheae  Thirdly,  the  hypodermis  grew  round 
to  the  centre  of  the  wound. 

Thereafter  the  hypodermis  formed  by  an  evagination,  a  sensory 
organ  in  the  form  of  a  papilla  or  club,  or  fork  or  rosette. 

The  gut  and  the  glands  remained  blind  ;  no  stoinodamm  was  formed, 
nor  any  brain.  The  first  of  the  remaining  ganglia  sent  branches  into 
the  new  structure.  There  was  abundant  regeneration  of  muscle. 
Noteworthy,  throughout,  Avas  the  almost  complete  absence  of  mitotic 
division. 

Two  New  Cave-Beetles. § — J.  Midler  describes  Apholeuonus  pubes- 
cens  and  A.  taxi,  two  new  species  from  Dalmatian  caves.  They  stand 
somewhat  apart  from  the  previously  reported  A.  /nidus  described  by 
Apfelbeck,  and  the  author  thinks  they  require  a  sub-genus,  which  he 
calls  Hcvplotropidius . 

Antennary  Sense-Organs  of  Tryxalis  nasuta.||—  Ernst  Rohler  finds 
that  the  large  broad  antennas  of  this  Orthopteron  have  very  numerous 
s.'iisory  structures,  etc.  There  are  sensory  cones  lying  in  pits  (Schenck's 
smsilla  cmloconica),  and  short  hairs  projecting  on  the  surface  (Schenck's 
sensilla  basiconica).  There  are  also  long  pointed  seta3  whose  sensory 
character  was  not  demonstrated.  The  peculiar  broadening  of  tin' 
antenna'  affords  room  for  the  many  hundreds  of  sensory  structures,  and 
the  male  has  far  more  than  the  female. 

*  Coniptes  Rendu?,  cxxxix.  (1004)  pp.  165-6. 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii   (1!)04)  pp.  1U6-S2. 

t  Anat.  Anzei^r ,  xxv.  (1904)  pp  417-H5  (5  figs.). 

§  SB.  Akad.  wiss.  Wien,  cxii.  (1003)  pp.  77-00  (1  pi.  aud  4  figs.). 

||  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1904)  pp.  188-02(4  figs.). 

E    -1 


52  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Nerve-Cells  of  Cockroach.* — Rolfe  Floyd  has  used  various  methods 
in  studying  the  nerve-cells  in  the  thoracic  ganglia  of  Pcriphnvta  orien- 
talis,  and  finds  that  they  possess  no  evident  cell-walls,  that  their  nuclei, 
though  exhibiting  a  reticulum,  with  enlarged  nodal  points  and  irregular 
amorphous  deposits,  after  must  fixing  reagents,  are  homogeneous  in 
appearance  in  the  fresh  condition,  and  after  fixation  in  formalin  vapour. 
They  contain  nucleoli  and  an  entire  nuclear  membrane  ;  the  cytoplasm 
contains  a  fine  anastomosing  reticulum,  whose  interstices  show  no 
structure  or  staining  affinities  in  the  fresh  condition.  There  are,  how- 
ever, one  or  more  substances,  presumably  existing  in  the  cytolymph  in 
the  normal  living  cell,  that  may  change  in  character  and  form  deposits 
upon  the  cyto-reticulum  under  the  influence  of  fixing  reagents,  post- 
mortem changes,  arsenical  poisoning,  etc.  The  deposit,  or  rather  the 
material  from  which  it  is  derived,  is  reduced  by  prolonged  nervous 
activity  ;  it  in  some  way  represents  the  potential  energy  of  the  cell ;  it 
seems  to  correspond  with  the  chromophilic  substance  of  the  nerve-cells 
of  higher  animals. 

Australian  Thysanoptera.t. — TV.  TV.  Froggatt  explains  that  the  three 
species  of  Idolothrips  described  by  Halliday,  viz.  7".  spectrum,  I.  marginata, 
and  /.  lacertina,  are  the  two  sexes,  and  a  smaller  and  more  variable  form 
of  the  male,  all  of  the  same  species.  The  characters  of  egg,  larva 
{several  stages),  pupa  and  imago  are  given,  together  with  notes  on  habits 
of  this  form,  I.  spectrum. 

Entomological  Notes.J — N.  Cholodkovsky  gives  an  account  of  the 
histology  of  the  yellow  spots  and  the  knob-shaped  hairs  of  the  cater- 
pillar of  Acronycta  aim.  Each  hair  is  connected  with  two  cells,  one  of 
which,  the  trichogen,  is  plainly  glandular  in  character.  Notes  are  also 
given  on  the  dark  blue  neck-stripes  of  the  caterpillar  of  Gastropaclm 
pini,  and  on  the  wax-making  glands  of  Chermes. 

Stridulation  in  Ranatra  fusca.§  —  J.  R.  De  La  Torre  Bueno  has 
repeatedly  observed  that  this  member  of  the  Hemiptera  cryptocerata  pro- 
duces a  chirping  noise  when  taken  out  of  the  water.  This  is  due  to  the 
movement  of  the  anterior  coxae  in  the  deep  and  elongated  joint-surfaces 
on  the  lower  surface  of  the  prothorax. 

Classification  of  Hexapoda.||  —  A.  Handlirsch  proposes  a  new 
classification  of  the  Insecta,  claiming  that  the  groups  proposed  are  not 
artificial  and  arbitrary,  based  on  external  similarity,  but  phylogenetic 
concepts.  Thus  his  sub-classes  are  not  co-extensive  with  the  old  Orders. 
The  following  are  his  Classes  : — 

I.  Collembola  (Lubbock),  2  Orders. 
II.  Campodeoidea  (=  Archinsecta  Haeckel),  2  Orders. 
III.  Thysanura  (Latr.),  2  Orders. 
IV.  Pterygogenea  (Brauer),  11  Sub-classes,  embracing  28  Orders. 

*  Mark  Anuiv.  Vol..  1903,  pp.  339-58  (4  pis.). 

J-  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  New  South  Wales  (1901)  pp.  54-7  (1  pi.). 

t  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xix.  (11)04)  pp.  55i-(30  (1  pi.). 

§  Canad.  Kntomol.,xxxv.(1903)  pp.  235-7.    See  Zool.  Zentralbl.  xi.  (1901)  p.  592. 

j|  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1904)  pp.  733-59. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  53 

Genital  Apparatus  of  Trichoptera.*  —  H.  Stitz  supplements  the 
work  of  Zander  on  the  male  genital  organs  of  Trichoptera  in  a  few 
points,  and  reviews  the  conditions  in  the  female  of  Limnophilus  Mpunc- 
tatus,  Phryganea  striata,  and  Molanna  angustata.  From  these  he  con- 
cludes that  all  the  parts  of  the  female  genital  apparatus  of  the  Micro- 
lepidoptera  are  found  in  the  Trichoptera,  but  in  other  positions  and 
variously  modified.  The  Trichoptera  in  the  structure  of  these  organs 
approach  the  Neuroptera. 

Studies  on  Lice.f — Giinther  Enderlein  gives  a  description  of  the 
external  structure  of  lice.  He  shows  that  the  Anoplura  must  remain  as 
one  of  the  five  sub-orders  of  Rhynchota.  Four  families  are  recognised 
• — Pediculidas,  Hsematopinidas,  Echinophthiriidge,  and  Haematomyzidse. 
An  analytic  key  to  the  families,  sub-families,  and  genera  is  supplied,  and 
four  new  genera  are  described.  Finally,  the  author  has  some  remarks  to 
make  on  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  orders  of  Insecta. 

Dermatobia  hominis.f — H.  B.  Ward  gives  a  full  account  of  the 
structure,  development,  and  distribution  of  the  larva  of  this  cestrid 
or  bot-fly,  which  sometimes  occurs  as  a  parasite  in  man.  It  occurs 
commonly  in  the  skin  of  cattle,  pigs,  and  dogs,  less  frequently  in  man, 
rarely  in  the  mule.  It  is  also  recorded  from  agouti,  jaguar,  various 
monkeys,  the  toucan,  and  an  ant-thrush.  In  some  regions  it  is  a 
veritable  plague  to  cattle.  Its  presence  in  man  is  accompanied  with 
excruciating  pains,  especially  at  times  when  the  larva  is  moving.  In  no 
case  on  record  has  the  adult  been  developed  from  any  larva  taken  from 
human  flesh.  It  occurs  in  Brazil,  Colombia,  Mexico,  Costa  Rica, 
approaching  close  to  the  borders  of  the  United  States. 

3.  Arachnida. 

Structure  and  Classification  of  Arachnida.§  —  E.  Ray  Lankester 
gives  a  reprint  of  his  article  on  the  Arachnida  from  the  tenth  edition 
of  the  '  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.1 

Tick  Fever  in  Uganda. || — P.  H.  Ross  and  A.  D.  Milne  give  some 
notes  on  fever  cases  due  to  tick-bite,  which  seems  to  transfer  a  spirillum 
to  the  blood.  The  tick  has  been  identified  by  F.  V.  Theobald  as 
Omithodorus  savignyi  (Audouin)  var.  cceca  Neumann,  supposed  by 
some  to  be  the  same  as  Argas  moubata  (Murray).  Their  habitat  is  in 
the  old  and  dirty  thatch  of  native  huts,  in  cracks  of  mud  walls  and 
floors,  in  which  they  hide  during  the  day,  coining  out  to  feed  at  night. 

Oribatid  Mites  from  the  Neighbourhood  of  Cambridge. f — 
< '.  Warburton  and  N.  D.  F.  Pearce  give  a  list  and  note  that  in  four 
winter  months  specimens  of  forty-seven  out  of  the  hundred  known 
British  species  were  taken  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cambridge,  and 
that  every  one  of  the  fifteen  British  genera  is  locally  represented. 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  277-314  (3  pis.). 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1904)  pp.  121-47  (15  figs.). 

X  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  483-513  (2  pis  ). 

§  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlviii.  (1904)  pp.  165-2G9. 

]|  Brit.  Med.  Journ.  (1904)  pp.  1453-4. 

If  Proc.  Cambridge  Phil.  Soc.  xii.  (1904)  pp.  427-9. 


~)4  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

*.  Crustacea. 

Spermatozoa  of  Crayfish.* — E.  A.  Andrews  gives  ;i  clear  and  ad- 
mirably illustrated  account  of  the  remarkable  spermatozoa  of  Cambarus 
affirm.  He  describes  the  well-known  "  vesicle  "  which  takes  up  about 
one  half  of  the  bulk  of  the  sperm.  It  is  set  in  the  body  of  the  sperm 
somewhat  as  a  very  small  inverted  cup  might  be  held  in  the  hollow  of 
one's  closed  hand.  This  vesicle  is  evidently  a  new  formation  that  comes 
to  lie  in  the  cup-shaped  nucleus.  It  is  inferred  that  the  nucleus  becomes 
like  a  hollowed  hand  holding  the  vesicle  like  an  inverted  bowl  on  the 
palm,  and  enveloping  all  but  the  bottom  of  the  bowl  by  long,  spirally 
coiled  prolongations  of  the  palm,  the  4  to  7  "arms1'  of  the  sperm. 

Study  of  the  spiral  uncoiling  of  the  "  arms  "  shows  that  there  are 
at  least  two  kinds  of  sperm  among  spermatozoa  from  the  same  male. 
Some  show  the  arms  unwinding  from  right  to  left  and  others  from  left 
to  right.  The  author  has  some  remarks  on  the  spermatozoa  of  Astacus. 
He  notes  finally  that  the  form  of  the  sperm  at  any  stage  seems 
dependent  upon  osmotic  pressure. 

Phagocytic  Cells  in  Amphipods.f — L.  Rruntz  finds  that  in  Gam- 
mar  us  pulex  and  Talitrus  loeusta  there  are  three  kinds  of  phagocytes, 
viz.  pericardial  nephrocytes,  cells  of  the  hepatic  artery  capillary  net, 
and  young  blood-cells  which  are  mechanically  arrested  in  the  adipose 
tissue.  These  last  are  the  "  little  cells  "  of  the  fatty  tissue  described  by 
Kowalevsky. 

Distribution  of  Niphargus.J — W.  F.  de  Vismes  Kane  reports  the 
occurrence  of  the  blind  Niphargus  Jcochianus  Bate  in  the  open  waters 
of  Lough  Mask.  It  may  have  come  from  subterranean  channels  and 
reservoirs  which  communicate  with  the  lough.  The  author  also  reports 
the  occurrence  of  N.  subterraneus  Leach  from  five  out  of  eight  wells 
examined  in  the  vicinity  of  Lynsted  in  Kent. 

Development  of  Sacculina.§ — P.  Abric  gives  some  interesting  facts 
regarding  the  early  development  of  this  form.  The  division  of  the 
vitellus  is  total  at  first,  and  the  egg  is  divided  into  two  parts.  The 
second  plane  is  perpendicular  to  the  first,  and  up  to  stage  six  the 
segmentation  is  symmetrical.  After  this,  however,  in  a  very  large  pro- 
portion of  cases  there  are  irregularities  of  segmentation,  dependent  on 
two  causes  :  (1)  cells  which  in  a  normal  case  arise  in  pairs  of  the  same 
age  do  not  arise  at  the  same  time,  so  that  an  uneven  number  results ; 
(2)  precocious  division  of  cells  may  occur  before  the  preceding  pair 
have  reached  equilibrium,  thus  establishing  irregular  equilibrium.  It  is 
an  interesting  illustration  of  the  indetermination  of  blastomeres,  since 
whatever  the  mode  of  segmentation,  all  the  eggs  give  rise  to  nauplii. 

Fresh-  and  Brackish-water  Crustacea  of  East  Norfolk.  || — Robert 
Gurney  gives  an  annotated  list  of  the  Crustaceans,  except  Ostracods,  of 
the  Broads  district.     He  has,  inter  alia,  notes  on  the  seasonal  distri- 

*  Auat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  456-G3  (7  figs.). 

t  Coraptes  Rendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  368-70. 

X  Aim.  Nat.  Hist.,  xiv.  (1904)  pp.  274-83(1  pi.). 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  430-2. 

1|  Trans.  Norfolk  and  Norwich  Nat.  Soc,  vii.  (1904)  pp.  037-60. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  55 

bution  of  Cladocera.  The  species  increase  rapidly  in  number  from 
February  onwards,  and  reach  a  maximum  in  September.  The  number 
is  maintained  in  October,  which  is  the  time  of  the  maximum  sexual 
-activity,  but  suddenly  decreases  thereafter. 

Reactions  of  Daphnia  pulex  to  Light  and  Heat.* — R.  M.  Yerkes 
finds  that  this  water-flea  is  strongly  positively  phototactic  to  all  inten- 
sities from  0  to  100  candle-power.  There  is  no  evidence  of  preference 
for  a  certain  intensity.  The  heat  accompanying  the  light  from  a 
16  candle-power  incandescent  lamp  does  not  seem  to  have  any  influence 
upon  the  direction  or  rate  of  movement. 

Heat  in  the  absence  of  light  has  a  directive  influence  upon  the 
movements  ;  the  animal  is  negatively  thermotactic  at  a  temperature  of 
about  28°  C.  In  a  trough  containing  water  of  28°  C.  at  one  end  and 
25°  at  the  other,  the  animals  migrated  towards  the  region  of  lowest 
temperature.  The  fact  that  in  the  case  of  Daphnia  phototactic  reactions 
cannot  be  changed  from  positive  to  negative  or  the  reverse  by  changes 
in  temperature,  indicates  that  light  does  not  act  upon  the  organism  in 
the  same  way  as  heat  does. 

Unpaired  Eye   and  Frontal   Organ   of  Branchiopods.f  —  N.  von 

Zograf  takes  a  comparative  survey  of  the  structure  and  development  ol 
these  organs  in  various  Branchiopods.  The  median  eye,  especially  in 
its  central  vesicle,  is  a  very  ancient  structure  with  great  uniformity  of 
development.  The  frontal  organs  are  primitive  retrogressive  structures, 
which  probably  formed  originally  a  peripheral  sensory  apparatus.  The 
"  Nackenorgan  "  has  no  phylogenetic  significance  :  it  is  a  typical  gland, 
probably  assisting  adhesion.  Zograf  concludes  that  the  median  eye  and 
the  frontal  organs  were  possessed  by  the  Prot- Arthropods,  and  thence 
transferred  to  Crustacea  and  Gigantostraca. 

New  Pycnogonid  from  the  South  Polar  Regions. J — T.  V.  Hodgson 
■describes  Pentanymphon  antarctic  am  g.  et  sp.  n.,  secured  by  the  '  Dis- 
covery '  during  her  stay  in  winter-quarters  in  McMurdo  Bay.  It  seems 
to  be  fairly  common.  The  only  feature  of  importance  which  separates 
it  from  the  genus  Nymphon  is  the  presence  of  a  fifth  pair  of  legs,  a 
character  which  separates  it  from  all  Pycnogonids  hitherto  known.  It 
is  noted  that  the  Scottish  Antarctic  Expedition  obtained  several  speci- 
mens of  a  ten-legged  Pycnogonid  from  the  Weddell  Sea,  which  may 
prove  to  be  identical  with  this  species. 

Annulata. 

Tube-formation  in  Annelids. § — H.  R,  Linville,  in  an  interesting 
paper,  gives  an  account  of  the  habits  of  Ampliitrite  ornata  and  Diopatra 
cuprea,  with  especial  reference  to  the  formation  of  the  tubes.  The  con- 
sideration of  minute  adaptations  of  structure  to  function  is  the  point  of 
the  paper. 

*  Mark  Anniv.  Vol..  1903,  pp.  359-77. 

t  Das  unpaare  Auge,  die  Frontal  organe  und  das  Nackenorgan  einiyer  Bran- 
chiopoden.  4ro.  Berlin  (1904)  44  pp.,  3  pis.  and  3  figs.  See  Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xi. 
(1904)  pp.  729-34.  %  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xiv.  (1904)  pp.  458-62  (1  pi.). 

§  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  225-35. 


56  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Fresh-water  Nereids.* — H.  P.  Johnston  gives  an  account  of  three 
undescribed  species  of  fresh-water  Polychsets,  all  belonging  to  the  family 
Nereidse.  All  three  species  live  in  perfectly  fresh  (drinkable)  water — 
Nereis  lemnicola  sp.  n.,  from  Lake  Merced  (invaded  by  salt  water  in  late 
Quaternary  times,  but  now  part  of  the  water  system  by  which  San 
Francisco  is  supplied);  Lycastis  hawaiiensis  sp.  n.,  from  a  spring  near 
Honolulu  ;  and  Lycastoides  alticola  g.et.  sp.  n.,  from  the  Sierra  Laguna, 
Lower  California,  an  elevated  habitat. 

The  possibility  of  a  marine  animal  establish ing  itself  in  fresh-water 
is  determined  by  four  essential  factors,  two  of  which  are  intrinsic  and  two 
extrinsic  : — 

1.  The  possession  of  euryhalinism,  i.e.,  the  power  of  enduring  con- 
siderable alterations  in  the  salinity  and  specific  gravity  of  the  medium. 

'1.  The  presence  of  a  suitable  fresh-water  habitat,  accessible  from  the 
sea,  with  intermediate  brackish -water  areas. 

3.  The  possibility  of  obtaining  food  in  the  new  habitat. 

4.  The  capability  of  breeding  in  the  new  environment. 

Genital  Ducts  in  Oligochaeta.t —  YV.  B.  Benham  describes  a  new 
species,  Haplotaiis  heterogyne,  which  is  provided  with  only  a  single  pair 
of  ovaries  and  oviducts,  and  whose  sperm-ducts  and  nephridia  appear 
to  be  structurally  almost  identical.  While  the  sperm-funnel  is  ana- 
tomically quite  different  from  the  nephridial  funnel  of  the  neighbour- 
ing segments,  the  sperm-duct  is  practically  indistinguishable  from  a 
nephridial  tube,  and  it  originates  from  the  funnel  at  the  extreme  ventral 
margin,  in  the  position  in  which  a  nephridial  funnel,  if  it  were  present, 
would  lie.  In  other  words,  the  duct  does  not  issue  from  the  centre  of 
the  funnel  as  in  the  sperm-ducts  of  other  Oligochajta.  It  is  suggested 
that  here  is  a  composite  organ,  such  as  Goodrich  has  described  in  several 
Polychaeta,  and  termed  by  Lankester  "  nephromixium."  It  would  appear 
that  the  sperm-ducts  are  not  absolutely  homologous  throughout  the 
Oligochreta. 

New  Species  of  Genus  Phreodrilus.J — W.  B.  Benham  describes  three 
new  species  of  this  genus  of  Oligochasta  from  New  Zealand.  Their 
characters  are  such  as  to  support  the  view  of  Michaelsen,  who  includes 
in  this  genus  the  Hesperodrili  of  Beddard. 

Urns  of  Sipunculus  nudus.§ — F.  Ladreyt  finds  that  these  "organites" 
arise  from  the  connective  tissue  of  Poli's  tubes  and  the  covering  endo- 
thelium. They  are  not  phagocytes,  for  no  part  of  the  material  collected 
by  their  cilia  is  to  be  found  within  the  urn.  It  is  thrown  into  the 
ccelome.  Their  morphology  and  physiology  exclude  the  hypothesis  that 
they  are  Protozoan  or  Mesozoan  parasites. 

Embryonic  Envelope  of  Sipunculids.|| — J.  H.  Gerould  seeks  to  show 
that  the  serosa  of  Sipunculus  represents  the  remains  of  a  degenerating 

*  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1003,  pp.  205-23  (2  pis.). 

t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci..  xlviii.  (1904)  pp.  299-322  (3  pis.). 

t  Tom.  cit..  pp.  271-98  (3  pis.) 

§  Comptes  Eendus,  exxxix.  (1904)  pp.  370-1. 

||  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  437-52  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  5? 

prototroch  equivalent  to  that  of  Phascolosoma.  This  iu  turn  is  homo- 
logous with  the  prototroch  of  mesotrochal  Annelids,  which  clearly 
represents  the  most  primitive  conditions.  The  author  compares  the  early 
development  of  Sipunculus  and  Phascolosoma,  and  suggests  that  the 
differences  in  the  structure  and  fate  of  the  prototroch  in  the  two  forms 
appear  to  be  the  immediate  result  of  the  presence  or  absence  of  yolk. 
"Reasons  are  presented  for  believing  that  the  ancestors  of  Sipunculus  were 
provided  with  a  yolk-laden  prototroch,  like  that  which  Phascolosoma  now 
presents. 

Nematohelminth.es. 

New  Nematode  from  Helix.* — A.  Conte  and  A.  Bonnet  describe  a 
new  species,  Angiostoma  helicis,  from  the  seminal  vesicles  and  genital 
ducts  of  Helix  aspersa.  They  found  it  in  most  of  the  specimens  examined. 
The  male  is  small  and  agile.  The  form  is  viviparous,  and  cannot  live 
or  reproduce  except  in  the  body  of  host. 

Descriptions  of  Nemotodes  and  Cestodes.f — Yon  Linstow  gives 
some  notes  on  a  number  of  parasites  from  a  variety  of  hosts.  There  are 
two  new  species  of  Filaria,  one  of  Oxyuris,  and  one  of  Bothriomonus. 

Platyhelminthes. 

New  Cestode  Genus.J  —  M.  Kowalewski  describes  T atria  beremis 
g.  et  sp.  n.,  from  the  intestine  of  a  grebe  (Podiceps  quritus).  It  is  a  new 
representative  of  the  sub-family  Acoleinaj,  and  it  is  very  different  from 
Acoleus,  which  comes  nearest  to  it.  The  proglottides  have  lateral 
appendages  ;  the  rostellum  is  armed  on  its  apex  with  a  crown  of  a  few 
large  hooks,  and  on  its  surface  with  many  rings  of  little  hooks.  The 
genital  organs  are  unpaired ;  the  testes  number  about  seven  ;  there  are  two 
seminal  vesicles  ;  the  male  genital  openings  are  regularly  alternate  ;  the 
receptaculum  seminis  is  in  the  middle  line  of  the  proglottis  ;  the  external 
end  of  its  vaginal  canal  enters  into  the  next  posterior  proglottis,  and 
joins  there  with  the  receptaculum  seminis  of  this  proglottis — thus  forming 
a  means  for  spermatozoa  passing  from  one  proglottis  to  another. 

Abnormal  Alimentary  System  in  Opisthorchis  felineus.§—  Kurt 
Engler  describes  a  variation  in  this  Trematode.  The  gut  is  single  for 
about  a  third  of  its  length,  and  lies  to  the  left  side,  then  it  divides  into 
two  forks  to  right  and  left.  It  seems  as  if  the  normal  right  half  had 
been  suppressed.  Peculiarities  in  the  position  of  other  organs  have 
followed  as  secondary  results. 

Australian  Entozoa.|| — S.  J.  Johnston  gives  an  account  of  five 
species  of  Holostomidaj,  parasites  of  Australian  birds,  all  of  which  are 
described  as  new. 

*  Ann.  Soc.  Linn.  Lyon,  1.  (1903)  pp.  63-8. 

t  Arch,  fur  Naturgeschichte,  i.  (1904)  p.  297-309  (1  pi.). 

X  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie  (1904)  pp.  307-9  (2  pis.). 

$  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1904)  pp.  1S6-S  (1  n>.). 

||  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  New  South  "Wales,  1904,  pp.  108-16  (3  pis.). 


•58  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

New  Distomes.* — Henry  S.  Pratt  institutes  a  new  genus,  Renifer 
(=  Styphlodera),  for  small  distomes  from  the  mouth  and  air-passages  of 
North  American  snakes  and  from  the  intestines  of  turtles.  He  describes 
three  new  species.  From  the  frog  he  obtained  a  new  genus,  Ostiolum, 
with  affinities  with  the  genus  Hcematolcechus  of  Looss. 

Incertae  Sedis. 

New  Enteropneustan  Family.! — M.  Caullery  and  F.  Mesnil  give  a 
detailed  account  of  a  form  of  which  they  had  previously  given  some 
notes  under  the  name  of  Balanocephalus  kaehleri.  It  appears,  however, 
to  be  the  representative  of  a  new  family,  Protobalanidte,  whose  characters 
are  stated  thus  : — The  ccelome  preserves  the  embryonic  arrangement  of 
a  cavity  for  the  gland,  a  pair  of  cavities  with  mesentery  for  the  collar, 
and  another  pair  with  equally  persistent  mesentery  for  the  trunk.  There 
are  no  lateral  septa  in  the  trunk,  no  perihamial  cavities,  and  no  peri- 
pharyngeal cavities  in  the  collar.  Other  characters  are  as  in  Harri- 
maniidae.  The  type  species  is  re-named  Protobalanus  Inrhleri.  Its 
dimensions  are  4  to  6  cm.  by  1  to  1*5  mm.  wide.  Habitat,  Anse  St. 
Martin,  in  the  English  Channel,  in  the  littoral  zone. 

New  Enteropneustan  Species  from  Naples.! — J-  W.  Spengel  gives 
a  description  of  the  anatomy  of  the  several  regions  of  a  new  form, 
Glossobalanus  elongatus  sp.  n.,  from  the  Gulf  of  Naples,  including  a 
discussion  on  the  post- branchial  gut  of  the  Ptychoderidae. 

Young  Stages  of  some  Enteropneusta.§  —  W.  E.  Bitter  and 
B.  M.  Dawis  describe  a  Tornaria,  possibly  of  Balanoglossus  occidental  is 
Ritter,  from  the  Californian  coast.  They  pay  particular  attention  to 
the  habits  and  reactions.  Another  Tornaria  (T.  hubbardi)  is  described, 
which  is  equally  noteworthy  in  having  before  metamorphosis  five  pairs 
of  gill-sacs,  though  still  without  pore  and  tongue.  The  authors  also  note 
that  Dolichoglossus  pussillus  Ritter  has  no  Tornaria. 

Bryozoa  from  Franz-Josef  Land.|| — A.  W.  Waters  gives  an  account 
of  the  Cyclostomata,  Ctenostomata,  and  Endoprocta  collected  by  the 
Jackson-Harmsworth  expedition,  1896-97. 

Echinoderma. 

Revision  of  the  Blastoids.H—  G-.  Hambach  offers  a  re-classification 
based  mainly  on  the  construction  of  the  summit  openings.  Next  the 
development  of  the  deltoids  is  considered,  also  the  aspect  of  the  outer 
surface.  He  recognises  two  orders  :  I.  Regulares,  including  Pentremidrc 
( J'eiitreiii/tes,  Cribloblastus,  Saccoblastus,  Clavablastus,  Mesoblastus, 
Cidwoblastus,  Globoblaslus,  Codonites),  and  Codasteridas  (Codaster)\ 
II.  Irregulares,  including  Olivanidaj  (Olivanites)  and  Eleutheroblastidse 

*  Mark  Anniv.  Vol..  1903,  pp   23-38  (1  pi). 
+  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  227-56.. 
%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  315-62  (3  pis.). 

§  Univ.  California  Publications:  Zoology,  i.  (1904)  pp.  171-210  (4  pis.). 

||  .lourn.  Linn  Soc,  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  161-84  (3  pie.). 
«J  Trans.  Acad.  Bci.  St.  Louis,  xiii.  (1903;  pp.  1-67  (6  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  59 

(Eleutlieroblastus).      Numerous   new   species   are    described    from    the 
author's  very  large  collection. 

Revision  of  Palaeozoic  Palseechinoidea.* — Mary  J.  Klem  lays 
emphasis  on  the  amount  of  variation,  e.g.  in  the  different  parts  of  the 
corona.  "  Deviations  from  the  pentamerous  arrangement  are  the  rule 
rather  than  the  exception."  Many  alleged  new  species  are  merely 
variations.  The  sub-class  is  divided  into  three  orders  :  Cystocidaroida, 
Bothriocidaroida,  and  Perischoechinoida.  Twelve  doubtful  genera  are 
left  unclassified.  A  synopsis  of  all  the  known  species  is  given,  and  the 
author  has  notes  on  the  development  of  the  test-plates  individually 
and  of  the  various  areas  of  the  test. 

Ccelentera. 

Reproduction  and  Variation  in  Sagartia  luciae.f — Gertrude  Crotty 
Davenport  gives  a  full  account  of  her  observations  on  this  sea-anemone. 
Longitudinal  division  is  very  common,  and  may  take  place  in  a  few 
hours.  Basal  fragmentation  is  probably  common  in  nature.  A  piece 
cut  off  will  produce  a  normal  individual  with  tentacles  in  from  four  to 
seven  days.  By  longitudinal  division  the  stripes  are  apportioned  to  the 
two  daughter  individuals,  8-4,  5-7,  9-3,  and  so  on.  The  individuals 
are  always  tending  by  means  of  regeneration  in  the  direction  of  twelve 
stripes  and  forty-eightrmesenteries.  Triglyphic  forms  occur  and  are  apt 
to  possess  more  than  twelve  stripes.  By  division  of  the  twelve-striped 
condition  or  by  division  before  the  twelve-striped  condition  is  attained, 
the  mass  of  individuals  may  fall  short  of  twelve  stripes. 

Anatomy  of  Madreporaria.J  — A.  Heicke  has  investigated  some 
points  in  the  anatomy  of  Rhodanca  lagrenm  and  Ccrloria  sinensis,  both 
from  Singapore.  In  the  former  the  polyps  are  of  the  actinian  type. 
On  the  tentacles  are  tactile  sense-buds.  The  mesenteries  of  each  polyp 
bear  both  types  of  sex-cells.  The  characters  of  the  archenteron  are 
analogous  to  those  of  the  Alcyonaria,  especially  those  of  the  more 
highly  differentiated  genera  of  the  Alcyonacea.  The  development  of 
the  asexual  yonng  individuals  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  polyp  from 
the  fertilised  egg.  In  C.  sinensis  the  directive  mesenteries  are  absent, 
and  the  number  of  mesenteries  present  is  not  uniform.  This  is  related 
to  the  irregular  processes  of  division,  which  also  interfere  with  the  usual 
multiple-of-six  arrangement. 

Medusae  from  the  Devonian. §  —  F.  Kinkelin  describes  from  the 
middle  Devonian  Orthoceras-beds  near  Laurenburg  on  the  Lahn,  a 
fossil  Medusa,  one  of  the  Discomedusas,  referable  to  Walcott's  genus 
liroolcsella.  He  names  it  Brooksella  rhenana  sp.  n.,  and  signalises  it  as 
the  first  medusa  from  Devonian  strata. 

Antarctic  Hydroids.|j — Elof  Jiiderholm  makes  a  preliminary  note 
on  the  collection  made  by  the  Swedish  Antarctic  expedition  (1901-8). 

*  Trans.  Acad.  Sci.  St.  Louis,  xiv.  (1904)  pp.  1-98  (6  pis.). 
+  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  137-46(1  pi.). 
X  Arch,  fur  Naturgeschichte,  i.  (1904)  pp.  253-96  (1  pi.). 
§  Ber.  Senckenberg  Nat.  Gcs.,  1903,  pp.  89-96  (1  pi.). 
||  Arch.  Zool.  Expe'r.,  iii.  (1904)  Notes  et  Revue,  pp.  i-xiv. 


GO  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

He  gives  diagnoses  of  seventeen  new  species  of  Myriothela,  Etu/endrium,. 
Balecium  (2),  Lafoeina,  Gampanularia  (2),  Obelia,  Thyroseyphus,  Ser~ 
tuhi rella  (3),  Selaginopsis  (2),  Schizotrichia  (2),  and  Plumularia. 

New  Leptomedusan.*  — Seitaro  Goto  describes  a  new  craspedote 
medusa,  Olindioides  for  mom.  g.  et  sp.  n.,  from  Misaki,  related  closely  to- 
Gonionema  and  Halicalyx,  more  distantly  to  the  fresh-water  genera 
Limnocodium  and  Limnocnida,  and  differing  from  its  nearest  relative 
Olindias  miilleri  in  many  striking  points,  e.g.  in  having  six  radial  canals 
instead  of  fonr.  In  the  meantime  the  sub-family  Olindiadae  must  rest 
under  the  Eucopidae  among  the  Leptomedusan. 

Early  Development  of  Eudendrium.f — C.  Hargitt  gives  an  account 
of  the  oogenesis  and  early  development  of  E.  ramosum,  together  with 
notes  on  two  or  three  other  species.  The  ova  arise  in  these  hydroids 
by  differentiation  of  cells  of  the  entoderm  or  of  the  ectoderm  or  of 
both.  They  appear  in  the  region  of  the  hydranth  or  lower  in  the 
ccenosarc  of  the  stem.  No  evidence  as  to  the  process  of  fertilisation 
was  found.  Further,  in  maturation  no  trace  of  polar  cells  could  witli 
certainty  be  recognised.  The  nucleus  disappears,  probably  by  frag- 
mentation and  gradual  dissolution.  Later  it  shows  but  slight  trace  of 
chromatin  granules,  and  subsequently  becomes  more  transparent,  com- 
pletely losing  its  chromophilous  properties.  After  fertilisation  its  early 
reorganisation  into  one  or  more  nuclear  centres  constitutes  the  initial 
impulse  of  development.  With  the  massing  of  deutoplasm  in  the  centre 
of  the  egg  the  cytoplasm  is  forced  into  a  peripheral  layer.  Nuclear 
activity,  slightly  involving  the  cytoplasm,  takes  place  ;  the  deutoplasm 
divides  into  a  series  of  yolk-balls  within  some  of  which  bodies,  sug- 
gestive of  nuclei,  are  present.  During  the  whole  period  the  egg  remains 
a  syncytium.  Especially  in  the  earlier  stages  of  this  period  the  nuclei 
differ  greatly  both  in  size  and  shape.  Nests  of  nuclei  often  showed 
evidences  of  having  resulted  from  the  amitotic  division  of  a  larger 
nucleus.  Other  evidences  of  amitosis  were  present.  The  paper  con- 
tains also  an  account  of  the  formation  of  ecto-  and  endoderm,  and  also 
the  life-history  of  the  planula. 

Protozoa. 

Physical  Imitations  of  the  Activities  of  Amoeban 4 — H.  S.Jennings 
reviews  the  experiments  made  by  Biitschli,  Rhumbler,  and  others.  The 
imitations  show  that  a  drop  of  a  certain  emulsion  may,  through  physical 
factors,  exhibit  locomotion,  may  move  toward  certain  agents  and  away 
from  others,  and  may  exhibit  "  choice  "  in  the  taking  in  of  certain  sub- 
stances and  the  rejection  of  others.  But  they  do  not  show  specifically 
through  what  physical  factors  the  activities  are,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
brought  about  in  Amoeba?  or  in  any  similar  organisms. 

Few  of  the  experimental  imitations  of  the  activities  of  Amoeban 
stand  before  a  critical  comparison- with  what  actually  takes  place  in  the 
living  animal.     Such  comparison  shows  in  almost  every  case  that  the 

*  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  1-92  (3  pis.). 
t  Zool.  Jnhrb.,  xx.  pp.  257-73  (3  pis.). 
I  Amer.  Nat...  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  625-42. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  61 

Factors  at  work  in  the  imitations  are  essentially  different  from  those 
■acting  in  the  Amoebai.  In  particular,  almost  all  the  imitations  based 
on  local  changes  in  surface-tension  break  down  completely.  The  surface- 
tension  theory  is  shorn  of  the  trophies  of  its  prowess — its  supposed  full 
explanation  of  most  of  the  activities  of  Amcebas — and  bears  instead  the 
record  of  a  complete  defeat. 

British  Fresh-water  Rhizopods.* — J.  Cash  describes  a  number  of 
new  and  little-known  forms,  from  Cheshire  and  Epping  Forest.  Testa- 
ceous forms  occur  in  considerable  abundance  in  wet  Sphagnum,  and 
amongst  the  rootlets  of  such  mosses  as  Philanotis  fontanel  and  Anla- 
co milium palustre.  Thelgenera  represented  are  Difflugia,  Nebela,  Hyalo- 
sphenia,  Quadrula ;  the  Euglyphina  occur  also  in  great  variety.  A 
remarkable  naked  reticulate  Rhizopod,  Penardia  g.  n.,  is  described. 

Asymmetry  and  Spiral  Swimming.f — H.  S.  Jennings  discusses  the 
unsymmetrical  or  spiral  type  of  structure  seen  in  Infusorians  and  in  the 
Rattulidas  among  Rotifers.  It  is  characteristic  of  animals  which  swim 
in  spirals,  and  is  to  be  considered  as  an  adaptation  to  the  spiral  course. 
The  spiral  course  is  the  simplest  device  for  permitting  an  organism  to 
make  progress  in  a  given  direction  through  the  free  water,  without  having 
the  parts  of  the  body  elaborately  adjusted  so  as  to  balance  each  other 
accurately.  Not  having  such  elaborate  adjustment,  small  organisms 
would  swim  in  circles,  were  it  not  for  their  revolution  on  the  long  axis 
•of  the  body.  This  converts  the  circle  into  a  spiral  course,  permitting 
progress  to  be  made.  In  such  spiral  course  the  organism  maintains  its 
body  in  a  definite  relation  to  the  axis  of  the  spiral,  the  same  surface 
always  facing  outward,  the  opposite  surface  facing  the  axis  of  the  spiral. 
Many  organisms  which  swim  in  this  manner  have  the  body  structurally 
adapted  to  this  movement,  the  form  approximating  in  some  degree  to  a 
segment  of  a  spiral.  In  these  unsymmetrical  organisms  moving  in 
spirals,  the  method  of  reaction  to  most  stimuli  is  closely  correlated  with 
the  unsymmetrical  form. 

New  Opalinid.J — C.  A.  Kofoid  describes  the  structure  of  Protophyra 
ovicola  g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  newciliate  Infusorian,  obviously  an  Opalinid,  from 
the  broad  sac  of  Littorina  rudis.  Its  single  contractile  vacuole,  posterior 
to  a  spherical  macronucleus,  and  the  absence  of  special  structures  such 
as  the  hooks  of  internal  rods  of  Hoplitophrya,  stamp  this  new  genus  as 
one  of  the  least  specialised  members  of  the  Opalinidas.  There  is  a  micro- 
nucleus,  which  is  known  to  occur  in  but  a  single  other  species  of  the 
family,  viz.  Anolophrya  branrhiarum.  The  specialisation  of  the  new 
genus  lies  in  its  fine  ciliation,  the  marginal  zone  of  cilia,  and  the  adaptive 
form  of  the  animal. 

Trypanosomes  in  Anglo-Egyptian  Soudan.§ — A.  Balfour  gives  some 
notes  regarding  the  occurrence  of  trypanosomes  in  the  blood  of  a  donkey. 

*  Journ.  Linn.  Soc,  (Zool.)  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  218-25  (1  pi.). 

t  Mark  Anniv.  Vol.,  1903,  pp.  315-37  (10  tigs.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  111-120  (1  pi.). 

§  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1904.  pp.  1455-6. 


fi2  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  species  is  probably  T.  brucei.  An  account  is  also  given  of  the  dis- 
covery of  similar  parasites,  not  yet  particularly  identified,  in  cattle  from 
Kodok. 

Effect  of  Human  and  Ape  Serum  on  Trypanosoma.* — A.  Laveran 
finds  that  not  only  are  Cynocephali  immune  to  Trypanosomes,  but  their 
serum  gives  positive  results  when  inoculated  on  infected  rats  and  mice. 
The  trypanosomes  disappear  from  the  blood  under  strong  inoculation. 
Normal  human  serum  has  also  a  killing  effect,  in  fact  it  is  stronger 
against  T.  evansi,  T.  brucei,  and  T.  equinvm  than  ape's  serum. 

Hsemogregarine  in  Psammodromus  algirus.f  — H.  Soulie  describes 
a  new  species  from  the  blood  of  this  reptile.  He  found  one  individual 
in  every  three  infected,  but  without  injurious  effect.  When  young  the 
parasite  is  an  elliptical  body,  little  less  than  the  nucleus  of  the  red 
corpuscle  ;  the  adult  is  generally  reniform.  In  rare  instances  it  was 
found  free  in  the  plasma.     This  species  he  names  H.  psammodromi. 

*  Coniptes  Eendus,  exxxix.  (1904)  pp.  177-9. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  371-3. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  63: 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including-  Cell-Contents. 

Nature  of  Colour  in  Plants.* — H.  Kraemer  gives  an  account  of 
the  behaviour  of  the  colouring  substances,  extracted  from  very  various 
plant  organs,  towards  chemical  reagents.  The  plastid  colours  were 
extracted  by  placing  the  fresh  material  in  05  p.c.  alcohol,  and  allowing 
it  to  macerate  in  the  dark  for  a  day  or  two.  For  complete  separation 
xylol  and  other  solvents  were  subsequently  used.  The  author  gives  a 
list  of  the  plants  examined,  indicating  the  part  used,  the  nature  of  the 
solvent,  and  the  colour  of  the  solution.  He  also  gives  a  series  of  tables 
indicating  the  colour  changes  produced  in  the  solution  by  the  addition 
of  various  reagents,  acid,  alkaline  and  neutral.  The  pigment  giving 
the  yellow  colour  in  roots,  flowers  and  fruits  the  author  calls  chromo- 
phyl ;  it  is  contained  in  a  chromoplastid  which  varies  much  in  shape, 
and  usually  contains  proteid  substances.  In  the  inner  protected  parts  of 
leaf-buds  there  is  a  yellow  principle  which  the  author  calls  etiophyl,  and 
which  is  contained  in  an  organised  body  (etioplast),  which  does  not 
seem  to  contain  either  starch  or  proteid.  The  blue,  purple  and  red 
colour  substances  in  flowers  are  dissolved  in  the  cell-sap,  and  are  usually 
distinguished  from  the  plastid  colours  by  being  insoluble  in  ether,  xylol, 
benzol,  chloroform,  carbon  disulphide  and  similar  solvents,  but  soluble 
in  water  or  alcohol.  Similar  cell-sap  colour  substances  are  found  in 
spring,  and  also  in  autumn,  leaves.  The  author  regards  the  chromo- 
plastids  of  both  flowers  and  fruits,  as  having  the  special  function  of 
manufacturing  or  storing  nitrogenous  food-materials,  for  the  use  of  the 
developing  embryo  or  seed,  more  especially  as  protein  grains  are  usually 
found  in  them.  The  same  applies  to  the  chromoplasts  in  roots,  e.g. 
carrot,  where  the  proteids  of  the  plastid  are  utilised  by  the  plant  of  the 
second  year.  The  cell-sap  colours,  like  other  unorganised  cell-contents, 
such  as  alkaloids,  volatile  oils,  etc.,  are  regarded  as  incident  to  physio- 
logical activity,  and  of  secondary  importance  in  the  attraction  of  insects 
for  the  fertilisation  of  the  flower  and  dispersal  of  the  seed. 

Structure  and  Development. 
Vegetative. 

Arrangement  of  the  Vascular  Bundles  in  the  Stem  and  Leaves 
of  some  Dicotyledons.f — A.  Col  gives  a  detailed  account  of  his  work 
on  the  course  and  arrangement  of  the  vascular  tissue  in  Dicotyledons.. 

*  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  xliii.  (1904)  pp.  257-77. 

t  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  (Botany),  Ber.  8,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  1-28S  (40  tigs,  in  text). 


64  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Primarily  it  comprises  an  investigation  of  the  anomalies  of  the  vascular 
system  in  Campanulacese  as  far  as  concerns  the  aerial  organs.  In  the 
light  of  the  general  results  obtained  the  author  proceeds  to  a  considera- 
tion of  anomalous  vascular  structure  in  Dicotyledons  in  general.  The 
following  is  a  brief  resume  of  his  conclusions.  In  most  cases  abnormal 
vascular  tissues  represent  a  part  of  the  course  of  normal  bundles. 
Plants  showing  these  anomalies  form  a  series  in  which  the  normal 
course  of  the  bundles  gets  shorter  and  shorter,  till  finally  it  becomes 
an  abnormal  bundle.  The  number  of  plants  having  such  bundles  is 
very  restricted.  Leaf-trace  bundles  in  their  course  through  the  stem 
always  diminish  in  volume  from  above  downwards,  whether  they  are 
isolated  or  united  sympodially.  All,  or  nearly  all  the  fibro-vascular 
formations  of  the  stem  supply  appendicular  organs.  "We  must  regard 
these  formations  and  part  of  those  of  the  main  root,  as  formed  by  the 
bundles  which  descend  from  the  foliar  appendages  of  the  stem  (and 
flowers).  Rapidity  of  growth  modifies  this  theoretical  process  of  dif- 
ferentiation, which  does  not  affect  older  secondary  formations. 

Development  of  the  Central  Cylinder  of  Aracese  and  Liliacese.* 
M.  A.  Chrysler  comes  to  the  following  conclusions  from  the  study  of  a 
number  of  examples  from  these  two  families.  The  members  of  both 
families  have  primitively  a  collateral  tubular  central  cylinder,  or  ecto- 
phloic  siphonostele,  derived  from  a  protostele  and  interrupted  by  gaps 
above  the  points  of  exit  of  the  foliar  traces.  Through  these  gaps  the 
external  and  internal  phlceotermas  communicate.  The  intrastelar  paren- 
chyma is  to  be  regarded  as  having  the  same  origin  as  the  cortex,  i.e. 
both  cortex  and  medulla  are  parts  of  the  fundamental  or  ground  tissue. 
This  primitive  condition  becomes  altered  :  (1)  by  degeneration  of  either 
the  internal  phlceoterma,  or  both  internal  and  external  phlceotermas  ; 
or  (2)  by  the  assumption  of  a  medullary  course  by  some  vascular  strands 
with  which  leaf-traces  are  connected  ;  hence  the  scattered  arrangement 
of  bundles  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  cenogenetic  character.  The  amphi- 
vasal  concentric  strands  are  not  a  palingenetic  feature,  for  they  are 
derived  from  collateral  strands,  and  do  not  occur  in  the  base  of  the 
seedling  nor  in  the  leaves  of  floral  axes.  Anatomical  evidence  favours 
the  derivation  of  monocotyledons  from  dicotyledonous  ancestors. 

Structure  of  the  Sieve-Tubes  of  Angiosperms.t — A.  W.  Hill  finds 
that  the  sieve-plates  on  the  end  walls  are  pierced  by  relatively  thick 
slime  strings,  each  of  which  is  enclosed  by  callus.  In  the  sieve  areas 
of  the  radial  and  tangential  walls  the  slime  strings  are  much  smaller 
than  in  the  transverse  sieve-plates,  and  three  to  six  strings  are  enclosed 
in  one  rod  of  callus.  The  author  also  finds  numerous  very  short  con- 
necting threads  between  the  sieve-tubes  and  the  companion  cells,  which 
during  winter  may  be  covered  with  callus  on  the  side  towards  the  sieve- 
tube.  Study  of  the  development  in  the  sieve  areas  shows  that  groups 
of  fine  threads  occur  in  the  pit  membranes  in  the  lateral  walls  of  the 
youngest  sieve-tubes.  The  threads  are  converted  into  slime,  while  the 
surrounding   cellulose   membrane   becomes   changed    into   callus,    thus 

*  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  161-84  (4  pie.). 

t  Rep.  Brit.  Assoc.  Meeting  Soutbport,  1903(1904)  p.  8.r>4. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  65 

forming  the  rod  with  its  contained  slime  strings.  In  the  transverse 
plates  the  action  has  gone  further,  and  a  single  large  slime  string  is 
developed  within  the  callus  rod. 

Seedlings  of  Gesneriaceae.*  —  K.  Fritsch  gives  an  account  of  the 
structure  and  anatomy  of  the  seedlings  of  a  number  of  genera  of  this 
family,  including  Streptocarpus,  Ramondia,  Achimeiies,  and  others.  The 
author  has  also  made  a  comparative  study  of  the  seedling  and  the  adult 
plant.  In  a  more  general  section  of  the  book  he  gives  a  review  of  the 
morphology  of  the  genus  Streptocarpus,  and  a  comparison  with  other 
members  of  the  group  to  which  it  belongs. 

Fossil  Sequoia.t — E.  C.  Jeffrey  gives  a  description  of  the  structure 
■of  the  wood  of  a  fossil  Sequoia  from  the  Auriferous  Miocene  Gravels 
■of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  While  showing  structural  features 
which  unite  it  with  the  living  Sequoias,  it  has  others  which  suggest  the 
Abietineae,  such  as  the  paucity  of  resin-cells  present  only  on  the  outer 
face  of  the  svftnmer  wood,  the  highly  developed  medullary  rays,  and 
the  traumatic  resin-canals  running  both  in  the  horizontal  and  vertical 
planes.  The  fragment  is  described  as  a  new  species,  S.  PenhaUoivii, 
•apparently  most  nearly  allied  to  S.  gigantea,  of  which  it  has  the 
geographical  distribution. 

Reproductive. 

Embryogeny  of  Ginkgo.!  —  H.  L.  Lyon  gives  an  account  of  his 
detailed  study  of  the  embryogeny  of  this  isolated  gymnospermous  type, 
The  mass  of  tissue  which  fills  the  egg  after  free  nuclear  division  is 
termed  the  protocorm.  The  cells  in  the  micropylar  two-thirds  of  this 
spherical  structure  divide  little  or  not  at  all,  but  those  at  the  antipodal 
end  form  a  small-celled  meristem,  which  passes  over  directly  into  the 
meristem  of  the  blastema  or  metacormal  bud.  The  blastema  pushes 
into  the  endosperm  as  a  broad  blunt  cylinder,  the  protocormal  tissue 
being  forced  back  through  the  neck  of  the  archegonium.  Two  "  growth- 
foci," — stem  and  root — are  organised  very  close  together  in  the  axis  of 
the  metacormal  bud,  and  later  the  primordia  of  the  two  cotyledons  in 
the  marginal  region  of  the  broad  apical  meristem.  Hence  much  of 
the  original  protocormal  tissue  is  not  involved  in  the  organisation  of 
the  embryo, — this  is  described  as  a  rudimentary  suspensor.  Usually 
there  are  two  cotyledons,  but  three  were  quite  common.  The  author 
■also  describes  the  anatomy  of  the  embryo. 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Mycorhiza  of  Pines.§  —  A.  Moller  has  conducted  a  research  on 
seedling  pines  of  one  and  two  years'  growth.     The  latter  part  of  the 

*  Die  Keimpflanzeu  der  Gesneriaceen.  By  Dr.  Karl  Fritsch.  8vo,  iv.  and 
188  pp.,  38  figs,  in  text.     Fischer,  Jena. 

t  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  321-32  (2  pis.). 

J  Minn.  Bot.  Studies,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  275-90  ( 14  pis.).  See  also  Bot.  Gazette, 
xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  390-1. 

§  Zeitschr.  Forst.  Jagdw.  xxxv.  (1903)  pp.257  and  321.  See  also  Centralbl. 
B»kt..  xi.  (1903)  pp.  348-50. 

Feb.  loth,  1905  f 


i'ii  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

study  was  mainly  occupied  with  an  account  of  the  root  fungi.  These- 
were  present  on  the  roots  of  the  one-year  seedlings,  the  hyphae  filling 
the  cells  of  the  cortex,  recognisable  externally  by  the  darkening  of  the 
rootlets  and  by  a  slight  increase  in  thickness.  This  endotropic  fungus 
was  thrown  off  with  the  development  of  the  periderm.  The  root  then 
becomes  enveloped  with  the  ectotropic  mycorhiza.  The  tips  of  the 
main  roots  are  free  from  the  fungus.  The  writer  discusses  the  probable 
species  of  fungus  that  provides  the  mycorhiza.  He  does  not  think  it 
can  arise  from  Mucorini.  He  also  deals  with  the  subject  of  nitrogen 
assimilation  by  the  plant. 

In  connection  with  the  same  subject,  F.  TV.  Neger  *  has  reviewed! 
Stahl's  experiments  with  plants  in  sterilised  ground — with  regard  to  the 
competition  for  nitrogen  that  is  supposed  to  be  aided  by  the  presence  of 
mycorhiza.  Stahl  held  that  plants  which  were  always  independent  of 
mycorhiza  would  grow  better  when  no  hyphae  were  present  to  exhaust 
the  nitrogen  of  the  soil.  Neger  finds  that  the  more  successful  growth 
in  sterilised  soil  must  have  been  clue  to  favourable  chemico-physical 
conditions,  and  not  to  the  absence  of  fungus  hyphae. 

Nutrition  of  Fungi  by  Carbohydrates.f  —  M.  Nikolski  gives  a. 
historic  review  of  previous  work  on  this  subject,  and  then  states  the  pro- 
blems he  tried  to  solve,  viz.  the  behaviour  of  filamentous  fungi  with 
regard  to  carbohydrates  as  nutriment.  He  experimented  with  Amylo- 
mypes,  and  states  his  methods  of  culture  and  examination.  A  long  list 
of  experiments  follows,  and  the  general  results  are  summed  up.  Maltose 
was  assimilated  with  much  rapidity.  Glucose  and  saccharose  came  next, 
and  a  long  way  behind  galactose,  fructose  and  rafinose. 

Inulin  proved  to  be  the  best  medium  as  regards  nutrition.  Various 
changes  are  due  to  the  age  of  the  fungus,  and  periodicity  of  growth 
is  noted  depending  on  the  different  carbohydrates. 

The  final  portion  of  the  work  deals  with  the  formation  of  nitro- 
genous substances  by  the  fungus,  which  is  correlated  with  its  development. 
After  the  maximum  of  growth  is  reached,  nitrogen  formation  ceases. 

Artificial  Parasitism4 — G.  J.  Pierce  has  succeeded  in  growing  a 
pea-plant  on  a  plant  of  Vicia  Faba.  The  radicles  of  young  seedlings 
were  inserted  into  holes  cut  into  the  stem  of  strong  young  bean-plants, 
and  fixed  in  place  by  a  mould  of  plaster  of  Paris.  The  pea-plants, 
though  smaller  in  size  than  usual,  blossomed  and  formed  seeds  capable 
of  germination.  Comparing  the  sizes  and  weights  of  the  seeds  with 
the  sizes  of  the  plants,  the  author  found  that  the  individual  seeds  were 
much  less  reduced  in  size  and  weight  by  the  enforced  semi-parasitism 
of  the  parents  than  were  the  vegetative  parts.  Seeds  of  plants  grown  in 
this  artificial  manner  were  successfully  germinated  in  sphagnum  moss. 
and  transferred  to  bean-plants.  They  formed  healthy  plants,  but  some- 
what smaller  than  those  of  the  previous  season.  There  was  no  true 
union  between  the  root  of  the  pea  and  the  tissue  of  the  "host."  The 
roots  grew  downward  through  nodes  and  internodes,  but  did  not  in  any 

*  Nnturw.  Zeitschr.  Land,  mid  Forstw..  i.  (1<K)3)  p.  372.  See  al.-o  Centraibl.  Bakt., 
xi.  (1903)  p.  ::;  f  <  eutralbJ.  Bakt  .  xii.  (I'.i04)  pp.  E54-£>,  656-75. 

X  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  214-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  67 

case  reach  the  level  of  the  soil.     They  branched  much  less  freely  than 
normal  soil  roots. 

Distribution  of  Essential  Oil  in  an  Annual  Plant.* — E.  Charabot 
and  G.  Laloue  find  that  a  gain  in  the  amount  of  essential  oil  in  the 
inflorescence  is  balanced  by  a  loss  in  the  green  organs,  and  vice  versa. 
Their  results  suggest  that  the  essence  is  first  carried  from  the  leaves  to 
the  flower,  acting  as  a  carrier  for  the  carbohydrates  which  are  to  nourish 
that  organ.  After  fertilisation,  when  the  storage  of  carbohydrates  is 
completed  and  the  influx  of  nutriment  into  the  flower  ceases,  the 
essential  oil  seems  to  return  to  the  green  organs.  As  regards  distribu- 
tion among  the  different  plant-members,  the  authors  find  that  the  root 
contains  no  essential  oil,  the  stem  only  a  small  amount,  while  the  leaf 
and  inflorescence  are  the  richest. 

Sense-organs  of  Plants.! — G.  Haberlandt  describes  the  various  types, 
of  structure,  bristles,  hairs  and  papilla?  which  serve  for  the  perception 
of  mechanical  stimulus,  and  also  gives  an  account  of  the  statolith 
theory,  in  which  both  he  and  Nemec  found  an  explanation  of  the  sensi- 
tiveness of  plants  to  the  force  of  gravity.  He  also  discusses  his  recent 
theory  of  the  mechanism  by  which  plants  perceive  the  direction  of 
incident  light.  The  epidermal  cells  act  as  the  sense-organs.  When 
light  strikes  a  leaf  at  right  angles  to  the  surface,  it  results  from  the 
plano-convex  form  of  the  epidermal  cells,  that  the  inner  wall  of  each 
cell  is  illuminated  more  brightly  in  the  centre  than  at  the  periphery. 
If  the  light  strikes  the  leaf  obliquely,  the  bright  patches  on  the  inner 
cell  walls  are  no  longer  central.  This  change,  it  is  suggested,  con- 
stitutes a  stimulus  calling  forth  a  curvature  of  the  leaf-stalk  by  which 
the  leaf  is  brought  again  to  its  normal  position  at  right  angles  to  the 
incident  light ;  the  leaf  moves  when  the  bright  patch  is  not  central, 
and  comes  to  rest  when  each  of  its  epidermal  cells  is  centrally  illu- 
minated. 

Appreciation  of  Depth  in  Rhizomatous  Plants. :j: — C.  Raunklaer 
finds  as  the  result  of  experiments  with  Polygonatum  multiflorum,  that 
when  placed  at  a  certain  level  in  the  soil  the  rhizome  is  transversely 
geotropic,  while  at  every  other  depth  its  geotropism  changes,  so  that  it 
becomes  more  and  more  positively  geotropic  as  we  approach  the  surface, 
and  more  negatively  geotropic  at  increasingly  lower  levels.  Thus  the 
rhizome  responds  to  changes  in  the  direction  of  its  growth,  so  as  to 
maintain  itself  at  a  definite  depth  which  is  favourable  to  its  develop- 
ment. That  whicli  indicates  to  the  plant  the  depth  at  which  the 
rhizome  is  buried  is  the  distance  which  separates  it  from  the  level  at 
which  the  aerial  shoot  reaches  the  light. 

Formation  of  Roots  and  Shoots  in  Cutting's. §  —  E.  Kiister  de- 
scribes experiments  which  suggest  that  the  polarity  shown  in  cuttings 

*  Comptcs  Eendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  92S  -9. 

+  Die  Sinnesorgane  der  Pflanzen.  By  G.  Haberlandt.  46  pp.,  Earth,  Leipzig, 
1904.     See  also  Nature,  lxxi.  (1904)  pp.  123-4. 

t  Oversiirt.  k.  Dansk.  Vidensk.  Selsk.  Forhandl,.  1904,  pp.  329-49  (5  figs,  in  text). 

§  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,xxii.  (1904)  pp.  167-70(1  pi.1);  Jahrb.  wiss.  Bot,  xL 
(1904)  pp.  279-302  (4  rigs.).     See  also  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxviii.  (1904)  p.  390. 


08  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

of  roots  and  shoots  is  due  to  external  conditions.  Roots  of  dandelion, 
which  under  uniform  conditions  of  moisture,  form  roots  at  the  lower 
and  shoots  at  the  upper  end,  gave  an  opposite  result  when  the  upper 
<md  was  placed  in  water  the  lower  end  projecting  into  the  air  ;  shoots 
then  developed  on  the  exposed  end  and  none  on  that  in  the  water.  When 
cuttings  of  the  stems  of  Ribes  aureum  were  placed  with  their  basal  ends 
in  water  and  their  apical  ends  in  moist  air,  roots  were  formed  only  on 
their  apical  ends.  Similar  results  were  obtained  with  Salix  vitellina, 
showing  a  marked  tendency  for  the  roots  to  appear  only  where  there  is 
a  sufficient  supply  of  air.  When  cuttings  were  rotated  horizontally, 
the  centrifugal  force  acted  as  a  check  on  development,  the  inhibition 
being  in  proportion  to  the  force ;  thus,  if  the  apical  end  describe  the 
greater  circle,  the  buds  there  are  inhibited  more  than  those  at  the 
opposite  end.     In  this  way  the  usual  polarity  may  be  reversed. 

Animal  Parasites  and  Floral  Teratology.* — Marin  Molliard  con- 
siders that  the  virescence  of  the  flower  which  is  frequently  met  with  in 
TrifoUum  repens  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  larva  of  a  Ritgnophora 
(probably  Hylastinus  obscurus)  which  lives  in  the  stem  of  the  plant,  in 
which  it  bores  a  long  gallery.  He  found  this  larva  in  fifty  virescent 
specimens  collected  in  two  localities  near  Paris,  whereas  it  was  absent 
from  normal  plants  growing  near.  Similarly  virescent  individuals  of 
TrifoUum  pratense  contained  the  same  insect.  The  larva  forms  the 
galleries  especially  in  the  pith,  whence  it  penetrates  between  the  vascular 
bundles  to  reach  the  cortical  tissue.  One  result  is  that  many  of  the 
wood-vessels  become  clogged  by  a  gummy  substance,  which  will  ob- 
viously interfere  with  the  circulation  of  the  sap.  Similar  facts  have 
been  noted  in  other  plants.  Thus,  in  a  specimen  of  Melilotus  arvensis 
with  strikingly  virescent  flowers,  the  author  found  a  larva  of  one  of 
the  Curculionidas,  while  neighbouring  normal  individuals  showed  no 
trace  of  the  insect.  The  author  suggests  that  the  abnormal  develop- 
ment of  the  flower  is  a  traumatic  action,  resulting  from  a  profound 
modification  of  the  conditions  of  nutrition  caused  by  the  mining  opera- 
tions of  the  insect,  which  acts  at  some  distance  from  the  flower. 

Colour  Changes  '  in  Fungi  and  Bacteria.f  —  T.  Milburn  has 
experimented  with  Hypocrea  rufa,  H.  gelatinosa,  Aspergillus  niger,  and 
Bacillus  ruber-balticus.  He  tested  the  influence  of  culture  media, 
osmotic  pressure,  light,  temperature,  etc.,  on  the  development  of  the 
pigments.  He  finds  that  with  increasing  osmotic  pressure  pigment- 
formation  in  the  conidia  of  Hypocrea  rufa  is  white,  and  that  conidial 
formation  is  retarded  :  that  acid  media  induce  the  formation  of  green 
conidia ;  while  in  alkaline  media  yellow  conidia  are  formed.  Well 
nourished  mycelium  fails  to  produce  conidia,  while  a  supply  of  oxygen 
or  lowered  nutrition  induces  conidial  formation.  Aspergillus  niger 
forms  a  yellow  as  well  as  a  black  pigment.  It  is  sensitive  to  light,  and 
from  yellow  becomes  grey  or  black.  Bacillus  ruber-balticus  is  influenced 
by  the  nature  of  the  culture  media  to  produce  violet  or  orange 
•colorations. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  930-2. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  129-38;  257-76  (2  pis.  and  G  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  69 

Influence  of  Radium  on  the  Growth  of  Fungi.* — J.  Dauphin 
found  that  growth  was  retarded  by  Becquerel  rays  in  cultures  of  Morti- 
erella,  Mucor,  Piptocephalis,  and  Thamnkllum.  Spores  of  Mortierella 
would  not  germinate  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  radium  tube,  but 
germinated  when  radium  was  removed.  Further,  he  observed  that  the 
growth  of  hypha3  is  arrested  and  processes  are  formed  on  the  filaments  ; 
the  plasma  withdraws  from  the  influence  of  the  rays ;  septation  of  the 
hyphaj  takes  place  ;  and  the  fungus  becomes  encysted.  On  removal  of 
the  rays,  normal  growth  recommences. 

Germination  of  Moss-Spores  and  the  Nutrition  of  their  Proto- 
nemas  in  Artificial  Media.j — P.  Becquerel  has  made  a  series  of  'experi- 
ments  on  the  germination  of  the  spores  of  Atrichum  and  Hypnum,  and 
the  development  of  the  protonemas  in  sterilised  mineral  solutions.  The 
spores  began  to  germinate  three  months  after  sowing,  and  the  results 
show  that  the  protonemas  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  nutrition 
behave  in  the  same  way  as  the  green  algse  cultivated  in  similar  media 
by  M.  Charpentier.  Ten  elements  suffice  for  their  nutrition,  namely, 
nitrogen,  in  a  mineral  form,  iron,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  magnesium, 
carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  and  sometimes  calcium  or  potassium. 
Hypnum  is  distinguished  from  Atrichum  by  the  fact  that  it  can  ap- 
parently do  without  potassium  altogether. 

■ 

General. 

Fossil  Flora  of  the  Culm  Measures  of  Devon.J— E.  A.  Newell 
Arber  gives  a  list  of  determinations  from  the  Bideford  district  of  the 
plant  remains  from  the  carboniferous  rocks  which  form  part  of  the  large 
area  extending  through  the  Western  counties,  and  generally  known  as 
the  Culm  Measures.  The  list  comprises  thirty  species,  representing  the 
groups  Equisetales,  Sphenophyllales,  Cycadofilices,  Filicales,  Lycopodi- 
ales,  and  Cordaitales.  It  includes  records  new  to  Devonshire,  and  also 
the  first  British  record  of  Neuropteris  Schlehani,  a  frond  of  common 
occurrence  in  the  Coal  Measures  of  the  Continent,  and  a  leaf  new  to 
Britain  which  somewhat  recalls  Dawson's  genus,  3fegaIopteris,  chiefly 
known  from  the  Coal  Measures  of  Canada  and  the  United  States.  The 
author  also  discusses  the  age  of  the  beds  in  question. 

Patagonian  Plants.§ — A.  B.  Rendle  gives  an  account  of  a  collection 
by  Hesketh  Prichard,  made  on  his  expedition  to  the  mountain  forests 
of  Western  Patagonia  in  search  of  the  Mylodon.  The  plants  were 
collected  at  the  western  end  of  Lake  Argentino,  where  the  lake  is 
broken  into  numerous  fiords  by  the  forest-clad  foot-hills  of  the  Andes. 
They  represent  in  part  a  pampas  flora,  in  part  the  flora  of  the  open 
mountain  slopes,  and  in  part  the  mountain  forest  flora.  Prichard 
was  much  impressed  with  the  dense  primaeval  forests  occupying  many 
thousands  of  square  miles,  and  appearing  from  a  distance  to  rim  the 

*  Comptes  Eendus,  cxxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  154-6.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904) 
P-  4'2.  f  Op.  cit.,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  745-7. 

+  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxxiv.  (1904)  pp.  95-9. 
§  Journ.  Bot.,  xlii.  (1904)  pp.  321-34,  367-78  (1  pi.). 


70  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

slopes  and  spurs  of  the  Cordillera  with  an  impenetrable  mass  of  black- 
ness. The  most  common  tree  is  the  Antarctic  beech,  which  is  often 
draped  with  the  long  trailing  shoots  of  the  parasitic  loranth,  Myzo- 
deiulron.  The  flora  of  this  district  comprises  a  number  of  characteristic 
Patagonian  plants,  to  which  may  be  added  the  new  species  found  by 
JVichard,  together  with  a  Chilian  or  Andine,  and  a  Southern,  Fuegian 
and  Antarctic  element.  There  are  also  several  familiar  northern 
plants  of  arctic  and  alpine  or  temperate  distribution,  such  as  Phlmm 
alpinum,  Poa  pratensis,  Potent  ilia  anserina,  and  Sonchus  asper. 

Philippine  Plants.* — Elmer  D.  Merrill  continues  his  study  of  the 
flora  of  these  islands.  The  present  pamphlet  contains  descriptions  of  a 
new  Freycimtia,  and  several  new  Screw-Pines ;  one  of  the  latter,  Pandanns 
luzonensis,  from  the  island  of  Luzon,  is  about  8  metres  high.  Also  a 
new  Artocarpus  from  the  same  island,  reaching  30  metres  in  height, 
several  new  figs,  a  new  Dlschklia,  and  various  other  novelties  in  different 
orders.  The  author  also  gives  a  systematic  account  of  the  species  of 
Terminalia  (eleven  in  number)  found  in  the  islands. 

Illustrations  of  German  Orchids.! — The  firm  of  Friedlander  has 
issued  in  an  attractive  form  a  volume  on  the  wild  orchids  of  Germany. 
There  are  sixty  coloured  plates  by  Walter  Miiller,  and  accompanying 
descriptions  by  F.  Kranzlin.  The  plates  give  excellent  life-size  repre- 
sentations of  the  plant,  together  with  enlarged  figures  of  the  flower 
and  its  parts,  the  latter  carefully  drawn  and  showing  well  the  details. 
The  descriptions  are  intelligibly  written,  and  reference  is  made  to  points 
of  interest  on  pollination,  distribution,  variation,  etc.  As  our  British 
orchid  flora  is  wholly  continental,  the  book  appeals  almost  equally  to 
the  British  plant-lover,  and  is  worth  buying  for  the  plates  alone. 

British  and  Irish  Botanists.:}:—  The  conclusion  of  the  second 
supplement  of  this  useful  list  by  J.  Britten  and  G.  S.  Boulger  includes 
the  years  1898-1002,  and  entries  from  Milne-Readhead  to  Thomas 
Young.  Besides  the  names  of  those  more  or  less  concerned  in  the 
advancement  of  Botany,  who  have  died  in  the  stated  interval,  there 
are  a  few  omissions  from  previous  lists. 

Notes  on  the  Drawings  for  "  English  Botany."§ — F.  N.  A.  Garry 
has  concluded  his  enumeration  of  the  notes  on  the  original  drawings 
for  Sowerby's  "  English  Botany."  These  drawings,  upwards  of  2500  in 
number,  including  the  Cryptogams,  and  the  corresponding  herbarium  of 
British  plants,  many  of  which  were  used  for  the  figures,  were  bought  in 
1859  by  the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum  ;  and  three  years  later  the 
drawings  of  the  first  four  volumes  of  the  '  Supplement.'  The  original 
work  appeared  in  thirty-six  volumes  between  the  years  1790  and  1S14  ; 
the  descriptions  were  written  by  Sir  James  Edward  Smith,  and  the 

*  New  and  Noteworthy  Philippine  Plants.  II.  Department  of  the  Interior, 
Bureau  of  (lovernment  Laboratories.     Manila  (1904)  47  pp.,  3  pis. 

t  Abbildungenderin  Deutschland  u.  den  angrenzenden  gebieten  vorkommenden 
Grundformen  der  Orchideen-Arten.  By  Walter  Miiller  and  F.  Kranzlin.  60  plates, 
with  test.      Friedlander,  Berlin.  1904. 

X  Journ.  But.,  xlii.  (1904)  pp.  378-85. 

§  Op.  cit..  xlii.,  xliii.  (1903,  4)  Supplement,  p.  276. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  71 

'coloured  plates  were  drawn  mainly  by  James  Sowerby.  Four  complete 
volumes  of  a  supplement,  and  part  of  a  fifth,  were  published  between 
1831  and  1865,  with  illustrations  by  J.  De  Carle  Sowerby,  James 
'Sowerby's  eldest  son,  partly  in  collaboration  with  J.  W.  Salter,  with 
descriptions  by  various  botanists. 

The  drawings  are  in  nearly  every  instance  annotated  by  the  artist 
and  by  the  writer  of  the  descriptions,  and  the  author  has  transcribed  all 
•such  notes  as  are  of  any  value  or  interest  with  regard  to  the  drawings  or 
the  specimens  figured.  He  has  also  carefully  collated  the  specimens  in 
Sowerby's  herbarium.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  forty-eight  of  the 
plants  figured  were  collected  in  Battersea  Fields,  and  thirty-three  in 
other  London  localities,  such  as  St.  George's  Fields,  Tothill  Fields, 
Lambeth,  and  Camberwell. 

Syllabus  der  Pflanzenfamilien.* — The  fourth  edition  of  Engler's 
Syllabus,  following  closely  on  the  third,  shows  but  few  alterations.  The 
most  important  are  those  affecting  the  lower  plants.  Recent  work  on 
Dictyota  finds  acknowledgment  in  the  inclusion  of  the  Dictyotales 
under  the  section  Phaaophyceas.  There  is  no  alteration  in  the  general 
plan  of  arrangement. 

Hayata,  B. — Composite  Formosanae. 

[A  systematic  list  of  the  cornpositse  known  from  the  island,  comprising  thirty- 
nine  genera.]  Journ.  Coll.  Set.  Imp.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xviii. 

Art.  S  (1904)  pp.  45  (2  pis.) 

-Mil li rex,  J. — A  review  of  Californian  Polemoniaceae. 

[A   systematic   account,  including  six  genera  and  about  150   species,  with 
descriptions  of  the  species  and  their  distribution  within  the  area.] 

University  of  California  Publication*,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  1-71  (11  pis.). 


CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 

Ferns  of  Tropical  America.t — Gr.  Hieronymus  gives  a  systematic 
account  of  the  numerous  Pteridophyta  collected  by  F.  C.  Lehmann  and 
■others  in  Guatemala,  Columbia,  Ecuador,  etc.  The  collections  made 
by  A.  Stubel  in  the  Andes  are  also  quoted  in  some  cases,  but  will  soon 
appear  as  a  whole  in  a  separate  publication.  The  author  has  been 
occupied  for  some  years  on  the  work,  and  has  contrived  to  obtain  a 
sight  of  all  the  original  specimens  of  Swartz  and  more  recent  authors. 
The  present  section  of  the  paper  includes  315  species,  many  of  which 
are  new,  comprises  an  abundance  of  critical  notes,  and  extends  from 
Trichoma nes  to  Elaphoglossum.  The  genera  are  accepted  as  defined  in 
Engler  and  Prantl's  "  Pflanzenfamilien."  The  author  rejects  the  usually 
accepted  principle  that  the  first  species  described  under  a  new  genus  is 
the  type  of  that  genus.  For  instance,  eight  of  the  twelve  species 
which  Richard  put  in  his  Xepltr  odium  have  had  to  be  separated  off  and 
placed  in  six  other  genera,  the  type  species  among  them.     The  remain- 

*  Syllabus  der  Pflanzenfamilien.     By  A.  Kngler.     4th  ed.,  Svo,  xxx.  and  237  pp. 
Borntraeger,  Berlin,  1904. 

t  Engler's  Bot.  Jahrb.,  xxxiv.  (1904)  pp.  417-5G0. 


72  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

ing  four  species  constitute  a  relative  majority  which,  according  to  the 
author,  are  entitled  to  retain  the  name  Nephroilium. 

Anonymous — Rare  Ohio  Grape  Ferns.  American  Botanist,  vi.  (1904)  p.  35. 

Bernatsky,  J. — Die  Fame  des  Deliblater  Sandes  und  ihre  pflanzengeographische 
Erklarung.  (The  Ferns  of  the  Deliblat  Sand,  and  their  explanation  from  a 
botanico-geographical  point  of  view.) 

Ann.  Mus.  Nation.  Hungarici,  1904,  pp.  313-19. 
Briquet.  J. — Note  sur  deux  rares  Fougeres  duJura  savoisien:  Polypodium  serratum, 
Aspidium  angulare.     (Note  on  two  rare  ferns  of  the  Savoy  Jura.) 

Arch.  Flore  Jurats.,  v.  (1904)  pp.  41-3. 

Christ,  H. — Primitiae  Florae  Costaricensis.  III.  Filices  et  Lycopodiaceas.  (First- 
fruits  of  the  Flora  of  Ccsta  Rica.     III.  Kerns  and  Lycopods.) 

[Continuation.]  Bull.  Herb.  Boissier,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  1089-1104. 

Druery,  C.  T.— Devonshire  Ferns. 

[List  of  15  species;  conditions  under  which  they  grow.] 

Gard.  Chron.,  xxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  233-4. 
Eastman,  H. — New  England  Ferns  and  their  common  allies. 

[An  illustrated  non-technical  field  book.]  Boston,  1904,  160  pp. 

Ford,  S.  O. — The  anatomy  of  Psilotum  triquetrum. 

[Anatomical  details,  with  some  deductions  as  to  the  affinities  of  the  genus- 
with  the  Sphenophyllales  and  other  fossil  plants.] 

Ann.  Bot.,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  589-605  (1  pi.). 

Goeze,  E. — Die  Baumfarne.     (Tree-ferns.) 

Wiener  III.  Gart.  Zeit.,  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  3S2-90,  420-7, 

Hill,  T.  G. — On  the  presence  of  a  Parichnos  in  recent  plants. 

[The  Parichnos  of  Lepidodendron,  etc.,  may  be  represented  by  the  degenerated 
mucilage-canals  found  at  the  base  of  the  sporophylls  of  Isoetes  hystrix,  etc. 

Ann.  Bot.,  xviii.  (1904)  p.  654. 

Lang,  W.  H.— On  a  prothallus  provisionally  referred  to  Psilotum. 

[Description  of  the  structure  of  a  specimen  found  imbedded  among  the  roota 
covering  the  stem  of  a  tree-fern  in  Perak.] 

Tom.  cit,  pp.  571-7  (1  pi.). 
Ma  kino,  T. — Observations  on  the  Flora  of  Japan. 

[Contains  descriptions  of  7  ferns,  Woodsia  and  Isoetes,  with  a  new  species  and 
a  new  variety.]  Tokyo  Bot.  Mag.,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  129-138. 

Nicolai,  W. — Bilder  aus  der  Heimat  der  Baumfarne.  (Pictures  from  the  home  of 
tree-ferns.)  Gartenivelt,  ix.  (1904)  pp.  25-26  (4  pis.) 

Porter,  T.  C. — Catalogue  of  the  Bryophyta  and  Pteridophyta  of  Pennsylvania. 

Boston,  1904,  66  pp 

Robinson,  J.  F. — Lastraea  Thelypteris  Presl.  in  East  Yorkshire. 

Naturalist,  1904.  p.  34& 
Robinson,  C.  B. — The  Ferns  of  Northern  Cape  Breton. 

[On  this  island  occur  about  26  species  of  ferns,  some  of  which  are  rare  on  the 
Nova  Scotia  peninsula.]  Torreya,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  136-8.. 

Sommier,  S. — A  proposito  di  un  esamplare  di  Osmunda  regalis  proveniente  dalle 
foreste  del  Caucaso.  (Concerning  a  specimen  of  O.  regalis  brought  from  the  forests 
of  the  Caucasus.) 

[A  specimen  with  a  huge  trunk  of  great  age,  but  surpassed  in  size  by  some 
that  were  growing  till  recently  in  the  Italian  island  of  Giglio.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  1904,  p.  305. 
Underwood,  L.  M. — The  early  writers  on  Ferns  and  their  Collections.   III.  W.  J. 
Hooker,  1785-1865. 

[A  short  critical  account  of  the  influence  exerted  by  Sir  William  Hooker,  and 
some  of  his  contemporaries,  upon  the  systematic  study  of  ferns ;  with  a 
chronological  tabic  showing  the  longevity  and  period  of  publication  of  the 
chief  fern  authorities  of  last  century.] 

Torreya,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  145-50., 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  73 

Waters,  C.  E. — Asplenium  ebeneum  proliferum. 

[A  further  note  on  this  rare  and  neglected  form.]. 

Rhodora,  vi.  (1904)  p.  210. 
Zeiller,  R. — L'Hymenophyllum  tunbridgense  au   Mondarrain  (Basses-Pyrenees.) 
(Hymenophyllum  tunbridgense  on  the  Mondarrain.) 

[This  spedes  has  been  re-found  in  Jan.  1904  in  the  same  locality  as  indicated 
by  Darracq  in  1846,  and  often  since  then  denied.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Bot,  France,  li.  (1904)  p.  259. 

Bryophyta. 

Sphagna  from  the  Environs  of  Paris.*  —  F.  Camus  has  worked 
out  the  various  species  of  Sphagnum  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris. 
He  gives  a  synoptical  table  of  the  characteristics  of  18  species  which 
either  do  or  should  exist  in  that  region.  Then  follows  an  account  of 
16  species  found  by  himself  or  otherwise  authenticated,  with  their 
localities.  The  delimitation,  grouping  and  nomenclature  of  the  species 
is  based  on  the  works  of  Russow  and  of  Warnstorf. 

The  same  author  records  the  occurrence  of  Sphagnum  Russowii 
Warnst.  in  the  forest  of  Marly  near  Paris,  where  it  is  very  rare  and 
apparently  in  process  of  extinction.  He  considers  that  this  species  and 
S.  Girgensohnii  Russ.,  found  in  the  forest  of  Montmorency,  are  two 
survivors  of  an  epoch  in  which  the  climate  was  much  less  cold  than  at 
present. 

Easy  Identification  of  Hepaticae.f  —  A.  J.  Grout  publishes  a  pre- 
liminary paper  on  the  identification  of  hepaticas  by  means  of  a  hand- 
lens,  and  gives  some  similar  keys  to  the  families,  genera,  and  some 
twenty  to  thirty  of  the  species  found  in  the  eastern  United  States. 
These  keys  are  applicable  to  the  plants  in  the  fresh  state.  He  adds 
some  elementary  information  as  to  the  external  structure  of  hepatics, 
and  appeals  for  data  as  to  the  time  of  maturity  of  the  spores  in  the 
different  species. 

Rare  Scottish  Hepaticse.J — S.  M.  Macvicar  publishes  critical  notes 
on  the  following  species  which  appeared  in  his  '  Census  of  Scottish 
Hepaticre '  in  a  previous  number  of  the  same  journal :  MarsupeUa 
olivacea  Spruce  (which  proves  to  be  a  variety  of  Gymnomitrmm  adustum 
Nees),  M.  Sprucei  (Limpr.),  M.  erythrorhiza  (Limpr.),  M.  sphacelata 
(Gries.),  M.  Jorgmsenii  Schiffn.,  Lophozia  Wenzelii  (Nees),  L.  long  idem 
(Lindb.),  Plagiochila  exigua  Tayl.  This  last  species  is  shown  to  be 
synonymous  with  P.  tridenticulata  Tayl.,  and  with  Hooker's  Junger- 
mannia  spinulosa  var.  tridenticulata. 

Cincinnulus  trichomanis.§  —  I.  Douin  has  had  opportunities  of 
studying  this  not  uncommon  hepatic,  the  morphology  of  which  has 
hitherto  been  incorrectly  described.  The  sporogonium  is  developed  in 
a  curious  subterranean  fleshy  pouch,  the  perigynium.  Douin  gives  a 
more  thorough  and  detailed  account  of  this  pouch  than  has  yet  been 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  1.  (1903)  pp.  165-8,  239-52,  272-289. 
t  Bryologist.  vii.  (1904)  pp.  89-98.  figs,  in  text, 
t  Ann.  Scot.  Nat.  Hist.,  1904.  pp.  234-6. 
§  Rev.  Bryol..  xxxi.  (1904)  pp.  10.5-16,  tigs. 


74  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

forthcoming,  and  of  its  development  from  a  very  short  lateral  branch, 
which  bears  a  few  archegonia  at  its  extremity,  and  after  their  fertilisa- 
tion resumes  growth  at  its  base,  and  by  very  unequal  and  lop-sided 
development  gradually  is  converted  into  a  deep  sac  imbedded  in  the 
ground,  the  archegonia  being  now  situated  at  the  bottom  of  the  sac 
and  pointing  upwards  instead  of  downwards.  Further  details  are 
'given  ;  and  it  is  shown  that  authors  are  in  error  about  the  inflorescence. 
This  he  finds  to  be  variable — paroicous,  synoicous,  or  monoicous.  He 
describes  some  stages  in  the  development  of  the  sporogonium  ;  and 
compares  the  species  I  with  Calypogeia  ericetorum  and  other  marsupioid 
genera,  and  adds  some  notes  on  Cincinnulus  argutus. 

Salle,  E. — Premiere  liste  des  Mousses  recoltees  aux  environs  de  Vire  (Calvados). 
(First  list  of  mosses  collected  in  the  environs  of  Vire.) 
[List  with  localities  of  114  species  and  varieties.] 

Bull.  Acad.  Int.  Geogr.  Bot.,  xii.  (1903)  pp.  153-60. 
BEfluisoT,  A. — Notizie  preliminari  sulla  briogeografia  dell' Arcipelago  toscano. 
(Preliminary  notes  on  the  bryo-geography  of  the  Tuscan  Archipelasro.) 

Iiendic.  Congres.  Bot.  Palermo,  1904,  pp.  96-102. 
Blind,  C. — Les  Sphaignes  de  la  region  jurassienne.    (Sphagna  of  the  Jura  region  ) 

Bull.  Soc.  Nat.  de  I'Ain,  i.  (1903)  [1904]  pp.  36-41. 
■Camus,  F. — Muscinees  recuilliesen  Corse  en  mai  et  juin,  1901.  (Muscineie  collected 
in  Corsica  in  May  and  June,  1901.) 

[The  author  raises  the  previous  total  record,  274,  to  389  species, 
comprising  290  mosses,  S  sphagna,  and  91  hepatics. 
Cephalozia  Columbte  is  new  to  science.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  xlviii.  (1901)  pp.  151-74. 

,,        .,      Le  Harpanthus  Flotowianus  Nees  ab.  Esenb.  en  France.     (Harpantliw 
Flotowianus  in  France.) 

[An  hepatic  new  to  France,  recently  found  in  an  old  collection 
made  by  Puget  in  Savoy.  1850-70.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  148-51. 

„        „      Muscinees  rares   ou  nouvelles  pour    la  region    bretonne-vendeenne. 
(Muscineae  new  or  rare  in  the  legion  Brittany-Vendee.) 
[Includes  15  species  new  to  the  region.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Set.  Nat.  Ouest,  Nantes,  1903,  pp.  297-326. 
Chtjdeatj,  R.,  and  Doi'ix. — Pyramidula  algeriensis  sp.  n. 

[Gathered  near  Constantine.]  Chartres,  1904,  3  pp.,  1  fig. 

Cozzi,  C. — Gli  Sfagni  nell'agro  Abbiatense.     (Sphagnacese  of  the  Abbiate  plain. 

Boll,  del  Natural,  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  25-6. 

Cufino,   L.— Pugillus  crypt ogamarum   canadensium.      (A   handful  of  Canadian 
cryptogams.) 

[List  of  12  mosses,  4  hepatics,  and  1G  lichens  gathered  by  A.  Hill  in  Western 
Canada.]  Malpighia,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  559-02. 

Depallieke,  Cl. — Essai  sur  les  Muscinees  de  l'Ain.     (Essay  on  the  Musciuese  of 
Ain.) 

[Contains  about  300  species.]  Bull.  Soc.  Sci.  Nat.  Arch,  de  l'Ain, 

i.  (1904)  pp.  4-29. 

D i smi e  it,  G. — Observations  sur  l'inflorescence  du  Bryum  pallescens  Schles.    (<  >bser- 
vations  on  the  inflorescence  of  B.  pallescens.) 

Compt.  Bend.  Congr.  Soc.  Sav.  Paris,  1903,  5  pp. 

„  ,.  Premieres  recherches  bryologiques  dans  le  departement  de  la  Haute- 
Marne.  (First  bryologies!  researches  in  the  department  of 
Haute-Marne.) 

[Records  163  mosses.  1  sphagnum,  and  29  hepaticse,  with 
localities.  The  soil  is  chiefly  calcareous.  The  department 
had  scarcely  been  explored  for  mosses  before.]. 

Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  li.  (1904)  pp.  260-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.'  75 

D18MIER,  G, — Le  Lejeunea  Rossettiana  Mass.  dans  le  Dauphine.     (Lejeunea  Rossei~ 
tiana  in  Dauphiny.) 

[This  hepatic,  very  rare  in  France,  has  been  found  on  the 
Col  de  Saulee  at  about  1100  metres.] 

Op.  tit.,  1.  (1903)  pp.  289-90. 
Dixon,  H.  N. — Campylopus  atrovirens  De  Not.  c.  fr.     A  correction. 

[Calls  attention  to  the  little-known  fruit  of  this  moss,  which  was  discovered 
more  than  thirty  years  ago  in  the  Pyrenees.] 

Rev.  Bryol.,  xxxi.  (1904)  p.  12:;. 

Glowacki,  J.— Beitrag zur  Laubmoosflora  von  Gmiind  in  Karnten.     (Contribution 
to  the  moss-flora  <>t  Gmiind  in  Carinthia.) 

Jahrb.  Naturh.  Mus.  Karnten.  Elagenfurt.,  xxvii.  (1904)  pp.  93-128. 

Hekzog,  Th. — Die  Laubmoose  Badens.     Eine  bryogeographische  Skizze.     (A  bryo- 
geographic  sketch  of  the  mosses  of  Baden. ) 

[Continuation.]  Bull.  Herb.  Boissier,  iv.  (1904),  pp.  1137-54,  1241-50. 

Hillier— De  la  dispersion  de  l'Hypnum  aduncum  dans  la  region  jurassienne.    (On 
the  distribution  of  H.  aduncum  in  the  Jura.) 

Arch.  Flor.  Jurass.,  1903,  p.  101. 
Howe,  M.  A. — Exogenous  origin  of  Antheridia  in  Anthoceros. 

[An  expression  of  doubt  as  to  whether  the  bodies  so  described  by  E.  Lampa, 
in  Vest.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  liii.  (1903)  pp.  436-8,  may  not  rather  be  tubers.] 

Torreya,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  175-6 
Ingham,  W. — Yorkshire  Mosses  and  Hepatics. 

[Occurrence  of  Campylopus  atrovirens  var.  muticus  Milde,  Dicranum  scoparium 
var.  orthophyllum  Brid.,  Weisia  calcarea  var.  mutica  Boul.,  Nardia  minor 
Nees,  in  Yorkshire.]  Naturalist,  1904,  p.  286. 

Matousohek,  F. — Beitrage  zur  Moosflora  von  Ober-Oesterreich.     I  Teil.     (Con- 
tributions to  the  moss- flora  of  Upper  Austria.     Part  I.) 
[Critical  enumeration  of  old  and  new  finds.] 

62  Jahresb.  d.  Mus.  Francisco-Carolinum.  Linz.,  1904,  pp.  1-22. 

Painter,  W.  H. — Mosses  and  Hepatics  of  Llanwrtyd,  Breconshire. 
[A  list  of  99  mosses  and  11  hepatics.] 

Journ.  of  Bot.,  xlii.  (1904)  pp.  335-7. 
Paris,  E.  G. — Muscinees  de  l'Afrique  occidentale  francaise.     (Musciuese  of  French 
West  Africa.) 

[Contains  26  mosses  and  2  hepatics,  including  descriptions  of 
16  new  mosses.]  Rev.  Bryol.,  xxxi.  (1904)  pp.  117-23. 

„        „        Index  Bryologicus.  2nd  ed.,  ii.  (1904)  fasc.  5-6,  pp.  257-375. 

Porter,  T.  C. — Catalogue  of  the  Bryophyta  and  Pteridophyta  of  Pennsylvania. 

Boston,  1904,  66  pp. 
■Podpera,  J. — Ein  Beitrag   zur  Laubmoosflora  Bohmens.    (A  contribution  to  the 
Bohemian  moss-flora.) 

[List  of  84  mosses,  with  descriptions  of  three  new  varieties.] 

Verh.  h.  h.  tool.  bot.  Ges.  Wien,  liv.  (1904)  pp.  507-15. 
„  „        Vysledky  bryologickeho  vyzkumu  Moravy  za  rok  1903-4.     (Result.-, 

of  the  bryological  exploration  of  Moravia  in  the  years  1903-4.) 
Jahrb.  Naturh.  Klubs  in  Prossnitz  in  Miihren,  1904,  30  pp. 
Roth,  G. — Die  Europaischen  Laubmoose.     (The  Mosses  of  Europe.) 

Band  ii.  Lief  10  (Leipzig,  1904)  pp.  513-640,  pis.  xli.-l. 

Sommier,  S. — Alcunepiante  recentemente  racolte  all'  Elba,  non  ancora  indicate  per 
quest'  isola.  (Some  plants  recently  gathered  in  Elba,  not  yet  recorded  for  this 
island.) 

[Among  the  new  records  are  Tesellina  pyramidata  and  Rictia  papillosa.'] 

Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital,  1904,  pp.  304-5. 
Stephani,  F. — Species  hepaticarum.     (Species  of  hepatics.) 
[Monograph  of  1'lagiochila,  continued.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boissier.  iv.  (1904)  pp.  1197-1214 


76  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Waknbtorf,  C. — Laubmoose.     (Mosses.) 

Kryptogamenflora  der  Mark  Brandenlturg.  Abt.  I.,  Band  ii., 

pp.  241-432,  Leipzig,  1904  (fi^a.)- 

Yoshinaga,  J. — Hepaticae  and  Fungi  around   the  Marine  Biological  Station  at 
Misaki. 

[List  including  12  liepatics.]  Bot.  Mag.  Tokyo,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  216-217. 

Thallophyta. 

Algae. 

Morphology  and  Biology  of  Algae.*  —  F.  Oltmanns  publishes  the 
first  volume  of  his  great  work  under  the  above  title.  This  volume 
consists  of  a  treatment  of  the  separate  families  under  nine  different 
groups  :  I.  Chrysornonadineae.  II.  Heterocontas.  III.  Cryptomona- 
dineae.  IV.  Euglenaceas.  V.  Dinoflagellata.  VI.  Acontae.  VII.  Chloro- 
phyceae.  VIII.  Phaaophyceas.  IX.  Rhodophyceae.  The  author  omits 
Cyanophyceas,  as  he  holds  that  that  group  is  too  closely  related  to- 
Bacteria  to  be  considered  apart  from  such  genera  as  Cladoihrix,  Beggiatoa, 
etc.  On  the  other  hand  he  includes  Charales  and  the  coloured  Flagellata  j 
the  latter  group  being  in  his  opinion  an  essential  part  of  any  treatment 
of  algaa,  since  the  Flagellata  are  becoming  more  and  more  regarded  as. 
the  ancestors  of  the  algaa.  Bangiales  are  inserted  between  Phasophyceae 
and  Rhodophyceas.  The  arrangement  of  the  Orders  is  in  some  cases 
different  from  that  usually  accepted.  The  treatment  of  Rhodophyceae 
is  divided  into  two  sections  :  (1)  Structure  of  the  vegetative  organs  ^ 
and  (2)  Reproduction.  The  different  Orders  are  dealt  with  separately 
from  these  two  points  of  view.  The  book  is  well  illustrated  by  new 
and  old  figures. 

Behaviour  of  Marine  Algae  in  Relation  to  Salinity.! — K.  Techet 
continues  the  publication  of  his  observations  on  this  subject.  He  says 
that  the  individual  power  of  accommodation  to  changes  of  salinity  in 
marine  alga?  is  very  large,  and  he  gives  instances  of  extremes  in  which 
various  species  could  live.  Cladophora  trichotoma  can  bear  water  vary- 
ing between  1  ■  8  p.c.  and  8 "  5  p.c.  When  the  salinity  was  raised  to 
13  "2  p.c,  the  plant  produced  plentiful  swarm-spores  and  perished. 
Other  algae  of  which  statistics  are  given  are  :  Ghcetomorpha  aerea,  Ecto- 
carpus  sp.,  and  Peyssonellia  Bubyi.  As  examples  of  the  power  of 
certain  algae  to  accommodate  themselves  to  varied  salinity,  the  author 
mentions  the  small  rock-pools  along  the  coast,  where  algae  are  subjected 
to  the  access  of  sea  or  rain-water,  as  well  as  to  considerable  concentra- 
tion on  hot,  dry  days,  at  neap  tides.  The  inhabitants  of  such  pools 
consist  mainly  of  Cyanophyceae. 

Sphacelariaceae.J  —  C.  Sauvageau  publishes  the  second  fascicle  of 
his  remarks  on  the  Sphacelariaceae,  some  of  the  separate  parts  of  which 

*  Morphologie  und  Biologie  der  Algen,  i.,  pp.  vi.,  733,  3  coloured  and  473  plain 
figs,  in  text.     G.  Fischer.  Jena.  1904. 

+  Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  liv.(1904)  pp.  367-73. 

t  Remarques  sur  les  Sphacelariacese.  fasc.  ii.  (1904).  Republished  from  Journal 
de  Botanique,  1902-1904. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  77 

have  already  appeared  in  the  "Journal  de  Botanique."  In  the  present 
volume  he  continues  his  treatment  of  Halopteris,  and  deals  with  Phlceo- 
taulon  and  Ptilopoyon.  He  includes  twelve  species  in  the  genus  Halo- 
pteris,  and  for  the  convenience  of  students  he  draws  up  two  keys,  one 
for  naming  fertile  and  the  other  sterile  specimens.  Several  species 
hitherto  known  under  other  generic  names  are  here  placed  in  this  genus. 
Phlccocaulon  contains  three  species,  and  the  author  shows  the  charac- 
teristics which  distinguish  it  from  the  genera  Chmtopteris  and  Halopteris. 
Ptilopogon  is  only  begun,  and  one  species  is  described,  P.  botryocladus 
Reinke.  The  work  is  to  be  continued.  A  bibliographical  index  is 
given  of  the  memoirs  quoted. 

Cytology  of  Nemalion  multifidum.*  —  J.  J.  Wolfe  fills  with  this 
paper  a  gap  in  our  knowledge  of  the  cytology  of  Florideas.  He  divides 
his  paper  into  four  sections  :  A.  Methods.  B.  The  cell.  C.  Matura- 
tion and  sexual  reproduction.  D.  Mitosis.  Under  the  cell  he  treats 
of  (a)  the  structure  of  the  chromatophore  ;  (b)  division  of  the  chroma- 
tophore.  The  third  section  is  divided  into  (a)  oogenesis  ;  (b)  spermato- 
genesis ;  (c)  fertilisation  and  development  of  the  cystocarp.  The  fourth 
section  consists  of  (a)  the  nucleolus;  (b)  reduction.  The  chromato- 
phore is  present  in  all  cells  of  the  plant,  except  the  mature  antheridium 
and  the  two  sperm-cells  to  which  it  gives  rise.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
hollow  ellipsoid,  from  which  processes  radiate  to  the  periphery  of  the 
cell  and  there  flatten  out  to  form  a  clathrate  membrane.  The  sex- 
organs  cannot  be  regarded  as  unicellular  structures,  and  the  reasons 
for  this  are  detailed.  In  the  nucleus  the  entire  chromatin  content  is 
stored  in  the  nucleolus,  and,  in  the  prophases  of  division,  passes  to  the 
nuclear  wall  along  delicate  fibrilhc.  The  spindle  is  intra-nuclear,  and 
centrosomes  are  distinctly  visible  at  the  poles  at  metaphase.  The  author 
concludes  that  Nemalion  presents  the  essentials  of  an  antithetic  alter- 
nation of  generations,  and  that  the  cystocarp  is  therefore  the  homologue 
-of  the  sporophyte  in  higher  plants.  This  conclusion  he  bases  on  the 
fact  that  approximately  sixteen  chromosomes  are  present  in  the  divisions 
of  the  cells  of  the  cystocarp  up  to  the  period  of  spore-formation,  and 
approximately  eight  in  those  of  the  thallus  ;  the  reduction  division 
being  immediately  associated  with  the  production  of  the  carpospores. 

Chantransia  Alarise.t— This  species,  which  has  hitherto  only  been 
recorded  from  Iceland  and  the  Faeroes,  has  now  been  found  by 
J.  Adams  at  Portrush,  co.  Antrim,  growing  on  the  lamina  of  Alaria 
esculenta.  It  differs  from  the  type  in  being  somewhat  smaller  and  in 
having  alternate  and  not  opposite  monosporangia.  Neither  antheridia 
nor  cystocarps  were  observed.  Hairs  were  not  found  terminating  the 
filaments,  though  they  may  have  been  present  earlier  in  the  year. 

Rhipidosiphon  and  Callipsygma.J — A.  and  E.  S.  Gepp  give  an 
account  of  these  two  rare  monotypic  genera,  both  of  which  have  been 
placed  in  Codiacere.  In  the  original  description  of  Rhipidosiphon  javensis 
by  Montague,  the  plant  is  described  as  being  fan-shaped,  with  dicho- 

*  Ann.  Bot..  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  607-27  (1  fig.  in  text),  2  pis. 

t  Journ.  Bot.  xlii.  (1904)  pp.  351-2.  %  Tom.  cit..  pp.  363-6  (1  pi.). 


78  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

tomous  and  anastomosing  filaments.  Up  to  the  present  time  it  has 
never  been  recorded  again.  The  authors  of  the  present  paper  have 
however  found  it  among  the  material  collected  in  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  by  the  Siboga  expedition,  and  have  been  able  to  prove  that  the 
supposed  anastomosis  of  the  filaments  does  not  exist.  The  anastomosis 
figured  and  described  by  Montagne  takes  place — not  indeed  between 
the  filaments,  but  between  the  lines  of  calcareous  cement,  which  fills 
the  grooves  between  contiguous  filaments.  Montagne  made  his  draw- 
ings and  observations  from  calcified  specimens,  and  mistook  the  dark 
lines  of  calcification  for  the  filaments  of  the  thallus ;  these  latter 
appearing  in  a  calcified  plant  almost  transparent  by  contrast  with  the 
opaque  connecting  lines  of  calcium  carbonate.  The  presence  of  anasto- 
mosis between  the  filaments  having  been  disproved,  the  genus  cannot 
be  maintained.  Rhipidosiphon  is  nothing  but  a  simple  Udotea,  and  \i 
here  placed  in  that  genus  under  the  name  of  U.  javensis.  Gallipsy^ma 
has  only  been  found  once,  at  Port  Phillip,  Victoria ;  and  half  of  the 
original  plant  is  preserved  at  Lund,  while  half  is  in  the  British  Museum. 
It  is  here  figured  for  the  first  time,  and  further  details  are  added  to  our 
knowledge  of  its  structure.  The  stipe  is  two-edged,  uncalcified,  and 
throws  out  at  the  margins  coinplanate  rachides,  which  grow  out  each 
into  a  terminal  flabellum.  The  whole  plant  is  complanate  and  uncal- 
cified, and  bears  no  resemblance  to  Rhipocephalus,  with  which  genus  it 
has  been  compared.  The  plant  appears  to  be  transversely  septate,  but  a 
careful  examination  under  high  magnification  shows  that  the  septa  are 
perforated,  and  are  in  fact  nothing  but  thick  rings  of  cellulose  which 
have  grown  inwards  from  the  sides,  similar  to  the  plugs  or  stoppers  in 
Godwin  and  other  allied  genera.  Figures  are  given  of  the  two  genera 
described. 

Oogenesis  in  Vaucheria.* — B.  M.  Davis  has  made  a  minute  study 
of  this  phenomenon  in  Vaucheria  geminata  var.  racemosa,  and  comes  to 
the  following  conclusions.  The  number  of  nuclei  in  the  young  oogonium 
ranges  from  twenty  to  fifty.  There  are  no  mitoses  in  the  oogonium. 
It  becomes  separated  from  the  parent  filament  by  a  cross  wall,  and  is 
multinucleate  at  the  time  the  cross  wall  is  formed.  Even  before  this 
wall  is  complete,  a  process  of  nuclear  degeneration  is  evident,  and  it 
continues  until  only  one  nucleus  remains  in  the  oogonium.  The 
degenerating  nuclei  are  found  chiefly  in  the  periplasm.  They  become 
exceedingly  small,  the  nuclear  membrane  disappearing  first,  and  finally 
nothing  remains  but  granular  matter,  apparently  nucleolar  in  nature. 
There  is  apparently  no  ccenocentrum  in  the  e^  of  Vaucheria,  but  the 
surviving  nucleus  lies  at  the  centre  of  the  oogonium.  The  e^  nucleus 
grows  rapidly  until  it  is  three  or  four  times  the  size  of  the  nuclei  in  the 
young  oogonium,  and  there  is  a  marked  increase  of  chromatin.  After 
fertilisation  the  nucleus  of  the  sperm  passes  to  the  centre  of  the  egg 
and  increases  in  size,  at  the  side  of  the  female  nucleus.  The  two  fuse 
slowly  when  both  are  of  approximately  the  same  size.  The  process  of 
oogenesis  in  Vaucheria  agrees  in  a  striking  manner  with  that  in  Sapro 
lecjnia  and  the  Peronospomles.     The  paper  ends  with  a  discussion  of  the 

*  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxviii.  (1004)  pp.  81-98  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  79 

evolutionary  processes   affecting   multinucleate   organs   in   the  Phyco- 
mycetes  and  possible  algal  relatives. 

(Edogonium.*  —  F.  E.  Fritsch  continues  his  algological  notes,  the 
latest  being  a  description  of  the  structure  of  a  young  (Edogomum  which 
he  has  had  under  observation  for  two  years.  The  lowest  (attaching-) 
cell  could  scarcely  be  called  hemispherical.  In  a  large  proportion  of 
young  plants  the  lower  surface  of  the  basal  cell  was  more  or  less  com- 
pletely enveloped  by  a  hyaline  substance,  of  a  mucilaginous  nature  ; 
and  this  served  to  attach  the  filaments  to  the  substratum.  The  apical 
cell  was  provided  with  a  longer  or  shorter  cap  of  cell-wall  substance 
with  square  corners,  so  that  the  apex  of  the  filament  had  a  rectangular 
appearance.  It  fitted  tightly  over  the  filament,  which  was  V-shaped  at 
the  apex.  This  abnormal  cap  is  attributed  by  the  author  to  the  growth 
of  the  plants  under  unfavourable  conditions.  The  theories  of  Will© 
and  Hirn  regarding  the  mode  of  origin,  etc.,  of  the  cap  of  CEdogonium, 
are  discussed,  the  author  agreeing  with  the  views  held  by  "Wille.  The 
cell-contents  of  Fritsch's  plants  point  also  to  abnormality  of  condition. 

Jlgagropila  Sauteri.f — Wesenberg-Lund  has  studied  the  growth 
of  this  alga  in  the  lake  of  Soro  in  Denmark,  where  it  is  very  common. 
Every  spring  the  large  spherical  bodies  are  seen  floating  on  the  surface 
of  the  water.  The  bottom  of  the  lake  at  a  depth  of  about  4  metres 
is  covered  with  a  dense  layer  of  small  individuals,  10-20  mm.  long, 
which  forms  coherent  strata  on  stones  and  other  bodies.  In  shallower 
water  (1-1*5  m.)  this  layer  does  not  occur,  but  spherical  bodies  are 
found  lying  loosely  on  the  bottom  ;  and  these  bodies  rise  in  spring 
to  the  surface.  The  rising  is  caused  by  the  assimilation,  the  bubbles  of 
air  not  being  able  to  escape  from  the  central  parts  of  the  densely 
aggregated  filaments  of  the  sphere. 

Northern  Plankton.^  — N.  Wille  undertakes  the  working  out  of 
those  species  of  Schizophyceas  which  form  part  of  the  plankton  in 
latitudes  above  50°  N.  lat.  A  large  work  on  the  plankton  of  these 
regions  is  in  course  of  publication,  divided  into  twenty-one  parts,  each 
of  which  will  appear  as  it  is  ready.  Each  species  will  be  fully  described, 
with  a  figure  of  the  habit  and  possibly  of  the  structure  as  well.  The 
part  dealing  with  the  Schizophyceae  contains  also  keys  to  the  genera 
and  species,  with  lists  of  synonymy  and  interesting  remarks  on  dis- 
tribution. The  systematic  treatment  is  preceded  by  an  introduction 
dealing  with  the  structure  and  life-history  of  the  group.  The  author 
remarks  that  the  number  of  species  diminishes  from  the  equator  north- 
wards and  southwards,  until  in  the  polar  seas  not  one  indigenous  species 
would  probably  be  found. 

Phyto-plankton  of  Asia  Minor.§ — A.  Forti  has  examined  thephyto- 
plankton  of  three  lakes  in  Anatolia,  and  publishes  his  results.  The  first 
lake  is  Abullonia-Gol,  which  is  so  shallow  as  to  allow  a  boatman  to 

*  Ann.  Bot.,  xviii.  H904)  pp.  648-53  (1  fig.  in  text). 

+  Acad.  Eoy.  Sci.  Danernark,  Bull.,1903,  i>]»  167-201  (J  map). 

t  Nordisches  Plankton,  Kiel,  pt.  xx.  (1904)  'I'd  pp. 

§  Nuov.  Notar.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  1-14. 


80  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

touch  the  bottom  in  many  places  with  his  oar.  From  this  lake  the 
author  records  35  species  of  Mastigophoras,  Peridinieae,  Bacillarieas, 
Chlorophycese,  and  Myxophycea?.  Some  of  these  had  not  been  pre- 
viously recorded  from  that  locality.  From  Lake  Izsnik-Gol,  or  the 
Lake  of  Nicea,  26  species  are  enumerated,  including  a  new  variety, 
recta,  of  Anabcena  spiroides  Kleb.  From  the  Lake  of  Sapandia,  which 
had  never  been  examined  for  phyto-plankton,  the  author  records  2H 
species  as  the  result  of  5  days'  haul.  As  a  result  of  the  examination 
•of  these  lakes  A.  Forti  holds  that  a  lake  of  which  the  area  does  not 
correspond  to  an  adequate  depth,  fails  to  show  a  true  and  proper  limno- 
plankton.  He  also  considers  that  his  results  strengthen  Ostwald's 
theory  of  the  gradual  diminution  of  plankton  from  the  pole  to  the 
equator. 

Chrysomonadinese.* — A.  Scherffel  contributes  three  interesting  notes 
to  our  knowledge  of  this  order.  The  first  is  on  those  species  which 
possess  the  power  of  taking  up  animal  organisms  for  nourishment, 
though  possessing  chromatophores.  The  number  of  these  species  is 
larger  than  had  been  supposed.  The  author  has  himself  watched  a  fine 
group  of  twenty-one  well  developed  Chrysamcebce,  which  contained 
various  bacteria  and  other  extraneous  bodies ;  and  one  of  them  was 
observed  in  the  act  of  annexing  to  itself  a  fair-sized  Navicala.  The 
second  note  deals  with  a  form  of  MaUomonas  with  two  cilia,  closely 
allied  to  M.  acaroides  Perty.  The  author  suggests  that  this  may  perhaps 
explain  Stein's  assertion  that  he  had  seen  M.  acaroides  with  two  cilia. 
The  question  as  to  a  connection  between  MaUomonas  and  Synura  is 
still  doubtful,  and  the  views  of  various  authors  on  the  point  are  dis- 
cussed. The  third  note  is  entitled  "The  eye-points  (Augenpwikte)  of 
Synura  and  Syncrypta"  The  two  genera  are  regarded  as  quite  distinct, 
though  closely  allied.  One  main  difference  is  the  common  gelatinous 
envelope  in  Syncrypta,  which  encloses  the  whole  colony.  This  does 
not  occur  in  Synura.  The  so-called  "  Auyenpunhte "  of  both  genera 
may  be  nothing  but  pigment-drops. 

Bachmanx,  H. — Botanische  Exkursionen  im  Golfe  von  Neapel. 

Jahresber.  Hohern.  Lehranst.  Luzern,  1903-4,  53  pp.  (illus.). 

Bolochontzew — Phytoplankton  der  Seen  im  Zreise  Rostow.  (Phytoplankton  of 
lakes  in  the  district  of  Rostow.)  Zemlewevenje,  1904. 

Cushman,  J.  A. — Desmids  from  Newfoundland. 

[A  list  of  20  species  from  Rose  au  Rue,  including  two  novelties — Euastrum 
Allenii  and  Micrasterias  con/erta  var.  nov.  Novx-terrx.~\ 

Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxi.  (1904)  pp.  5S1-4. 

F kitsch,  K. — Botanische  Section  des  naturwissen  schaftlichen  Vereins  fur  Steier- 
mark  in  Graz.  (Botanical  section  of  the  Natural  Science  Society  of  Styria  in 
Graz.) 

[Records  the  finding  of  (Edogonium  undulatum  in  ponds  near  Wandschuh,  by 
Graz.]  Oexterr.  bot.  Zeitschr.,  liv.  (1904)  p.  191. 

Heeking,  W. — Ueber  einige  Siisswasseralgen  Schleswig-Holsteins.  (On  some  fresh- 
water alg?e  of  Schleewig-Holstein.) 

MM.  Altona  Mus.,  1904,  pp.  1-32  (25  figs.). 

*  Rer.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxii.  (1904)  pp.  439-44. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  81 

Howe,  M.  A. — Collections  of  marine  algae  from  Florida  and  the  Bahamas. 

[A  short  report  of  the  work  done  by  the  author  while  collecting  ana 
studying  the  marine  algae  of  that  region.  The  specimens  are 
represented  bv  616  collection  numbers.] 

Journ.  New  York  Bot.  Garden,  v.  (1904)  pp.  164-6. 

„        „        Bemarks  on  some  West  Indian  Marine  Algae. 

[The  author  enumerates  a  few  of  the  genera  found  by  him  during 
his  recent  stay  in  the  Bahamas  and  Florida,  and  he  adds 
some  interesting  remarks  on  Rhipocephalus  oblongus.  A  new 
species  of  Halimeda  is  mentioned,  which  is  to  be  describedi 
shortly.]  Torreya,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  126-7- 

Htams.  Isabel  F.,  &  E.  H.  Richards — Notes  on  Oscillaria  prolifica. 
[Third  paper.    Colouring  matters.] 

Technology  Quarterly,  xvii.  (1904)  pp.  270-6. 

Kohl.  F.  G.— TJeber  die  Organisation  und  Physiologie  der  Cyanophyceen-Zelle  und 
die  mitotische  Theilung  ihres  Kernes.  (On  the  organisation  and  physiology  of 
the  Cyanophycea  cell  and  the  mitotic  division  of  its  nucleus.) 

1903,  210  pp.  (10  pis.). 

Kuckuck,  P. — Neue  Untersuchungen  iiber  Nemoderma  Schousboe.  (New  investiga- 
tion on  Nemoderma.)  Wiss.  Meeresunt.  Biol.  Anst.  Abth.  Helgoland, 

v.  (1904)  pp.  117-50. 

Morteo,  E. — Contributo  alia  conoscenza  delle  alghe  di  acqua  dolce  in  Liguria. 
(Contribution  to  a  knowledge  of  the  fresh-water  algaB  of  Liguria.) 
[A  list,  with  critical  and  topographical  notes] 

Malpighia,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  3S9-466 

Pavillakd,  J. — Sur  les  auxospores  de  deux  Diatomees  pelagiques.  (On  the  auxo- 
spores  of  two  pelagic  diatoms.) 

[A  note,  in  which  the  auxospores  of  Rhizosolenia  Stolterfortliii  and  Hemiaulus 
t         chinensis  are  described.]  Comptes  Bendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  615-7. 

Peragallo,  M. — Premiere  note  sur  les  Diatomees  marines  de  Monaco.  (First  note 
on  the  marine  diatoms  of  Monaco.)  Bull.  Muse'e  Oceanogr.  Monaco* 

1904,  16  pp..  8  figs 

Petit,  P. — Diatomees  recoltees  en  Cochinchine.  (Diatoms  collected  in  Cochin- 
China.) 

[Contains  four  lists  of  species — from  Tonkin,  Annam  (fresh-water  and  marine), 
and  Ceylon  respectively.  The  new  species  described  are:  Snrirella 
Boisiana,  S.  cochinchinensis,  S.  touranemis,  and  Achnanfhes  orientalis. 

Nuov.  Notar.,  xv.  (1904)  pp.  161-8  (1  pi.). 

Leinsch,  P.  F. — Die  Zusammensetznng  des  "  Passatstanbes  ''  anf  dem  sudlichen 
atlantischen  Ozean.  (The  composition  of  atmospheric  dust  in  the  South  Atlantic 
Ocean.)  Flora,  xciii.  (1904)  pp.  533-6. 

Tempere,  J. — Liste  des  Diatomees  contenues  dang  le  depot  calcaire  bitumineux 
tertiaire  de  Senda'i,  Japon.  (List  of  diatoms  contained  in  the  layer  of  tertiary 
calcareous  bitumen  at  Senda'i,  Japan.)  Microg.  Prep.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  175-89. 

Zacharias,  O. — TJeber verticale Wanderungen  des  Zooplanktons  in  den  baltischen 
Seen.  (On  the  vertical  wanderings  of  zuoplankton  in  the  Baltic 
lakes.)  Biol.  Centralis. .  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  637-8. 

„  „         Deber   Griin-,  Gelb-  und  Bothfarbung  der  Gewasser   durch   die 

anwesenheit  mikroskopischer  Organismen.  (Ou  the  green, 
yellow  ami  red  colouring  of  water  through  the  presence  of 
microscopic  organisms.) 

.  Forsch.  Ber.  Biol.  Stat.  Pirn,  190:?.  pp.  296-303. 


Feb.  15th,  1905  g 


82  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Fungi. 

.  Fertilisation  in  the  Saprolegnieae.* — A.  H.  Trow  has  published 
further  observations  on  the  cytology  and  fertilisation  of  Achlya polyandry 
and  A.  De  Baryana.  He  goes  over  the  whole  group,  noting  the  point. -i 
that  have  been  successfully  investigated  by  various  workers,  and  re- 
affirms the  correctness  of  his  own  conclusions  as  to  fertilisation  in 
certain  members  of  this  family.  He  finds  in  Achyla  polyandra  that  at 
an  early  stage  of  the  oosphere  after  "  balling  "  has  taken  place  only  one 
nucleus  is  present,  at  a  later  stage  two  nuclei,  and  still  later  again  one. 
He  has  observed  again  and  again  the  order  1-2-1,  which  of  itself,  he 
holds,  proves  the  process  of  fertilisation  of  the  oosphere.  Further,  he 
found  and  figured  a  fertilisation  tube  in  open  communication  with  the 
oosphere.  He  made  similar  observations  in  A.  De  Baryana.  In  the 
oogonium  and  antheridium  of  this  species,  on  first  formation,  there  are 
a  number  of  nuclei  which  undergo  a  first  and  second  mitosis.  During 
the  latter  division  the  chromosomes  are  reduced  from  eight  to  four,  and 
centrosomes  and  astrospheres  are  observed  for  the  first  time  in  the 
oogonial  nuclei.  "  Balling  "  of  the  different  oospheres  takes  place  after 
the  degeneration  of  the  supernumerary  nuclei,  and  the  oospheres  seem 
to  be  uninucleate  until  the  entrance  of  the  male  nucleus  from  the  ferti- 
lisation tube  of  the  antheridium.  The  male  nucleus  acquires  a  centro- 
some  and  astrosphere  after  passing  into  the  oosphere.  During  maturation 
of  the  oospore  the  wall  thickens  and  granules  of  reserve-material  collect 
in  the  protoplasm.  At  this  stage  fusion  of  the  two  nuclei  takes  place, 
centrosomes  and  astrospheres  having  disappeared  from  both  nuclei. 
Here,  as  in  A.  polyandra,  Trow  finds  the  recurrence  of  the  formula 
1-2-1,  indicating  the  succession  of  nuclei,  and  again  proving  fusion 
and  consequently  fertilisation. 

Studies  on  the  Fertilisation  of  Albugo  Lepigoni  and  some 
Peronosporeae.t — W.  Ruhland  finds  that  Albugo  Lepigoni  is  the  species 
of  the  genus  in  which  there  is  the  greatest  reduction  of  nuclei,  as  only 
one  of  the  originally  large  number  passes  from  the  periplasm  to  the 
oosphere.  In  the  other  species  there  is  copulation  between  a  number 
of  male  and  female  nuclei,  or,  where  one  alone  persists,  there  are  at 
first  a  large  number  in  the  oosphere.  This  phenomenon  bespeaks  a 
close  connection  between  A.  Lepigoni  and  other  Peronosporeas,  although 
the  formation  of  chained  conidia  marks  a  wide  difference  between  the 
genera. 

Vegetable  Pathology 4  —Under  this  title  G.  Cuboni  gives  an 
account  of  a  disease  of  wheat  caused  by  Sclerospora  macrospora.  This 
fungus  has  been  included  among  the  Peronosporeas,  but  according  to 
the  observations  of  Cuboni  and  others,  the  hyphas  are  intra-cellular,  they 
never  form  haustoria,  and  they  never  produce  conidiophores.  The 
author  tried  in  every  possible  way  to  induce  the  growth  of  conidio- 
phores, without  success.     The  wheat   is   invariably  attacked  after  an 

*  Ann.  Bot.,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  541-69  (3  pis.). 

t  Jalub.  wiss.  Bot...  xxxix.  (1904)  p.  135.  See  also  Bot.  (entralbl.,  xcvi.  (1904) 
p.  340-1.  +  Atti  Reale  Accad.  Lincei,  ccci.  (1904)  pp.  5K-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  83 

inundation  of  the  river,  when  the  host-plant  has  been  under  water  for 
:some  time.  The  disease  is  made  noticeable  by  the  whitened  aspect  of 
the  leaves  ;  closer  examination  shows  the  development  of  the  fungus 
•chiefly  along  the  veins.  The  best  way  to  demonstrate  its  presence  is 
to  soak  the  leaf  for  a  time  in  iodide  of  potassium,  when  the  mycelium 
will  be  found  to  be  coloured  a  deep  brown.  The  author  is  doubtful 
if  this  fungus  really  belongs  to  the  genus  Scleros'pora  or  to  the  Perono- 
'sporese. 

Gr.  DTppolito  and  G.  B.  Traverso  *  have  also  studied  the  same 
fungus  in  its  effect  on  Zea  Mays.  They  found  that  the  plants  attacked 
produced  almost  exclusively  male  flowers.  The  morphology  of  the 
•deformed  flowers  is  described. 

Fungi  Causing  Fermentation. f  —  In  the  Province  of  Che-Kiang 
in  China,  an  alcoholic  drink  is  made  from  fermented  rice,  and  the 
ferment  in  portable  form  consists  of  cakes  made  from  wheat-meal. 
K.  Saito  undertook  the  examination  of  these  cakes,  and  found  that  the 
particles  of  wheat  were  penetrated  through  and  through  by  the  mycelia 
•of  various  fungi,  PeniciUium  glaucum,  Aspergillus  glaucus,  Asp.  flavus, 
Mucor  racemosus,  Monilia  sp.,  etc.  He  found  also  in  great  abundance 
a  species  of  Rhizopus,  which  he  has  described  and  figured,  and  which 
he  names  Rhizopus  chinensis.  Still  another  species  was  cultivated  and 
"diagnosed,  Rhizopus  Tritici. 

The  moistened  rice  forms  a  favourable  medium  for  the  growth  of 
these  fungi ;  fermentation  follows,  and  a  yellow  liquid  is  formed  with 
■an  agreeable  odour. 

C.  Wehrner  %  describes  Mucor  javanic  us,  also  a  powerful  fermenting 
•agent ;  and  though  yeast-cells  are  formed,  he  considers  that  the 
mycelium  (and  not  the  yeast)  causes  the  fermentation.  He  describes  the 
•action  of  other  Mucor s. 

Contribution  to  the  Study  of  Cystopus  candidus.§  —  Albert 
Eberhardt  has  made  a  biological  study  of  this  fungus.  He  divides  his 
work  into  two  parts  :  (1)  the  morphological  and  histological  alterations 
•caused  in  the  host-plants  ;  and  (2)  specialisation  of  the  parasite. 

Cystopus  candidus  is  to  be  found  on  a  large  number  of  genera  of 
the  Cruciferre.  Eberhardt  describes  the  effect  of  the  parasite  on  many 
•of  these,  causing  various  forms  of  hypertrophy,  deformations  of  all 
parts  of  the  plant,  except  the  roots  and  the  ovules,  though  occasionally 
oospores  are  found  in  the  ovules  of  Lepidium  sativum.  The  floral 
leaves  persist,  but  atrophy  ensues  both  of  the  ovules  and  of  the  pollen  : 
the  latter  usually  is  undeveloped,  the  former  are  small  and  depressed. 
The  normal  branching  is  interfered  with  ;  the  branches  are  short  or 
merely  rudimentary.  A  violet  coloration  is  produced  in  almost  all  the 
•cells  adjoining  those  invaded  by  the  fungus.  A  similar  colour  is  pro- 
duced in  the  healthy  plant  in  the  parts  exposed  to  excessive  light.  The 
writer  describes  many  histological  changes  induced  by  the  fungus,  and 

*  Stazione  sperimentali  agrarie,  xxxvi.  (1903)  pp.  975-7  (3  pis.).     See  also  Ann. 
-Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  p.  463. 

t  Centntlbl.  Bukt.,xiii.  (1904)  pp.  153-61  (2  pis.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  277-80  (2  figs.). 

§  Op.  cit.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  235-49,  426-39,  614-31,  714-24  (I  pi.). 

G    2 


M4  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

then  gives  an  account  of  his  research  on  the  specialisation  of  the- 
parasite.  The  results  obtained  are  not  absolutely  conclusive  ;  they 
point  to  the  existence  of  but  one  species  of  C.  Candidas  on  all  the 
different  hosts,  though  possibly  there  may  be  two  biological  species,  but 
successful  inoculation  varied  with  the  age  and  condition  of  the  host, 
and  these  factors  rather  tended  to  confuse  the  issue.  In  any  case, 
( 'ystopus  is  not  so  specialised  in  its  parasitism  as  the  species  of  Uredine» 
have  been  proved  to  be. 

Perithecium  of  Monascus.* — H.  P.  Kuyper  has  studied  the  species 
Monascus  purpureas  and  M.  Barkeri,  and  publishes  his  results  in  two 
different  papers.  In  neither  species  does  he  find  pollinodium  and 
ascogonium  in  open  communication.  In  the  ascogonium  of  M.  pur- 
pureas a  number  of  free  cells  are  formed,  originally  bi-nucleate  :  the 
two  nuclei  fuse,  and  the  resultant  nucleus  divides  again  into  many 
smaller  nuclei.  In  these  free  cells  a  varying  number  of  spores  are 
b>rmed.  Each  spore  contains  at  first  one  nucleus,  which  divides  later, 
so  that  the  mature  spore  is  multi-nucleate.  The  development  of  M. 
Barkeri  is  somewhat  different :  the  ascogonium  contains  a  number  of 
nuclei  which  fuse  in  pairs  ;  the  free  cells  are  then  formed,  each  contain- 
ing one  of  these  fused  nuclei.  Spore-formation  follows  as  in  M.  pur- 
pur  eus.  The  writer  looks  on  the  free  cells  as  asci,  and  he  therefore 
places  Monascus  in  a  new  order,  the  Endascinese.  He  discusses  the 
bearing  of  these  phenomena  on  the  phylogeny  of  the  Ascomycetes. 

Disease  of  Oaks.f  —  W.  Ruhland  gives  an  account  of  a  parasitic 
fungus  that  has  wrought  great  damage  not  only  on  oaks,  but  also  on 
other  trees.  It  attacks  the  stems  and  branches,  which  it  encircles  and 
so  destroys  completely  the  parts  above  the  diseased  area.  The  conidial 
form  of  the  fungus  alone  was  detected  on  the  tree,  but  on  the  dead 
branches  the  perfect  fruit  form  developed.  Ruhland  describes  it  as  a 
new  species,  Dothidea  noxia  ;  the  conidial  condition  as  Fusicoccum 
noxium. 

New  Sclerotinise.^— H.  C.  Schellenberg  records  numerous  cases  of 
disease  due  to  sclerotia  hitherto  unrecorded.  The  fruits  of  Sorbas  Aria 
were  mummified  by  a  sclerotium  which  produced  small  yellowish  apo- 
thecia.  Fruits  of  Sorbus  Chanuemespihts  and  of  Mespilus  tjermanica 
were  attacked  and  sclerotia  formed  :  the  apothecium  has  not  been  dis- 
covered. A  Sclerotinia  discovered  on  the  base  of  the  stalk  and  the 
lower  leaves  of  barley  produced  after  two  years  straw-coloured  apo- 
thecia,  Sclerotinia  Hordei  sp.  n.  Plants  of  wheat  were  found  to  be 
attacked  by  a  similar  sclerotium  ;  and  the  author  also  describes  a 
similar  disease  on  walnuts.  Infection  takes  place  shortly  after  flowering. 
The  hyphse  penetrate  the  young  fruit  and  very  soon  destroy  it.  The 
apothecia  are  unknown. 

Tropical  Hypocreaceae.§ — J.  Rick  describes  three  different  Hypo- 
creaceai  that  he  found  growing  on  Arundinarieae.  Dussiella  tuberiformis 
forms  a  stroma  on  the  leaf,  where  it  seems  to  be  epiphytic.     A  large 

*  K.  Akad.  Wett-nsch.  Amsterdam,  xiii.  (1904)  p.  46 ;  Inaug.  Diss.  Utrecht  (1904), 
148  pp.,  1  pi.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  386-7. 
+  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  250-3. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  735-6.  §  Ann.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  402-6  (3  figa.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  85 

part  of  the  stroma  was  sterile.  At  the  same  place  he  found  Ascopoly- 
jporus  villosm,  the  stroma  of  which  resemhles  a  young  Polyporus. 
The  third  genus  on  the  same  host  was  MollerieUa  sp.  n.  The  stromata 
are  harder  than  in  Dussiella.  The  spores  are  at  first  very  long  and 
septate  ;  they  leave  the  ascus  in  this  condition  or  they  remain  till  fully 
ripe,  when  the  component  cells  fall  apart  and  become  rounded  off.  The 
asci  containing  the  mature  spores  seem  thus  to  be  quite  different  from 
those  of  the  earlier  stages.  Rick  discusses  the  relation  of  the  different 
genera  of  Hypocreaceaj  to  each  other. 

Laboulbeniaceee  from  the  Vorarlberg.* —  Josef  Rick  describes  a 
minute  fungus  that  grew  on  a  species  of  ant,  Myrmka  Imvinodis.  It 
consisted  of  a  flask-shaped  one-celled  male  cell,  sterile  appendages  and 
a  rounded  gelatinous  female  cell.  At  maturity  the  trichogyne  disappears, 
leaving  the  perithecium  and  the  ascus  with  several  fusiform  spores. 
The  fungus  is  closely  connected  with  Laboulbenia.  The  animals  do 
•not  suffer  from  the  parasite. 

Ascus  form  of  Aspergillus  fumigatus.j  —  Gr.  Grijns  found  the 
perfect  fruit  of  this  fungus  in  a  culture  of  the  conidial  form.  It  con- 
sisted of  small  irregular  balls  that  lay  on  the  surface  of  the  nutritive 
medium.  The  envelope  is  composed  of  hyphas,  of  which  the  short 
thread-like  cells  are  changed  into  thick-walled  cells.  The  asci  are  ovate 
and  thin-walled,  the  spores  red  with  a  central  band.  The  red  colouring 
matter  does  not  appear  until  the  spores  are  almost  mature. 

Wild  Yeast  Infection.  J — A.  C.  Chapman,  in  a  paper  read  before 
the  Institute  of  Brewing,  recounts  the  danger  of  allowing  wild  yeasts, 
that  is  yeasts  other  than  those  cultivated,  to  enter  the  brewing  vats. 
Few  of  these  yeasts  are  Saccharomycetes  ;  they  are  rather  the  yeast  forms 
of  other  fungi.  Some  of  these  exercise  a  very  deleterious  influence  on 
the  teste  or  odour  of  the  beer,  though  many  of  them  are  harmless  and 
may  be  neglected.  To  secure  immunity  from  them,  care  must  be  taken 
•that  excessive  cleanliness  prevails  in  the  chambers,  and  possibly  that 
the  entering  air  should  be  filtered,  but  it  is  rare  that  mischief  has 
ensued  from  air-borne  yeasts.  Heat  sterilisation  has  been  found  to  be 
largely  effectual  in  getting  rid  of  undesirable  growths.  The  author 
gives  instances  of  cases  of  infection  that  have  occurred,  and  the  means 
taken  to  destroy  the  invading  yeasts. 

Origin  of  a  Rose-coloured  Yeast.§ — E.  Klein  and  Mervyn  Gordon 
found  that  the  spores  of  Puccinia  sucevolens  grew  as  yeast  spores  in 
favourable  media.  The  colour  of  the  culture  was  a  coral-red.  It 
developed  also  in  milk,  but  only  on  the  surface  of  the  cream.  The 
yeast  was  not  found  to  be  pathogenic. 

Study  of  Yeast. || — W.  Henneberg  has  published  results  of  his 
research  on  the  life-duration  of  different  yeasts.     He  took  into  con- 

*  Oesterr.  bot.  Zeitscbr.  Hi.  (1903)  pp.  159-64  (1  fig.).  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt. 
xi.  (1903)  p.  236. 

+  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xi  (1903)  pp.  330-2  (6  figs.). 

I  Journ.  Inst.  Brewing,  x.  (1904)  pp.  382-402  (6  pis.). 
§  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  Orig.,  xxxv.  (.1903)  pp.  138-9. 

II  Wocuenschr.  Braueri.,  xxi.  (1901)  pp.  260,  288. 299,  310.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol,, 
ii.  (1904)  pp.  474-7. 


86  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

sideration  the  influence  of  different  temperatures,  and  also  the  influence- 
of  air  and  humidity.  He  studied  the  effect  induced  by  the  combined 
growth  of  other  organisms  such  as  moulds,  bacteria,  etc.,  on  the  life  of 
the  yeast,  and  also  on  the  odour.  The  results  show  great  variety  of 
effect  on  the  yeast  plant. 

In  another  paper*  the  same  author  describes  the  behaviour  of 
certain  yeast  races  at  a  low  temperature.  He  notes  the  effect  on  the 
oell  wall  and  on  the  various  contents  of  the  cell,  glycogen,  enzymes,  etc. 

Research  on  Yeast.f — H.  Will  finds  that  wild  yeasts  have  a  greater 
persistence  than  the  cultivated  forms.  He  gives  an  account  of  the 
conditions,  temperature,  light,  etc.,  that  influence  the  vitality  of  the 
yeast  cells. 

P.  MazeJ  gives  an  account  of  some  new  races  of  the  yeasts  of 
lactose.  These  are  to  be  found  chiefly  in  soft  cheese.  He  gives  a  long 
account  of  their  behaviour  in  different  media,  and  discusses  their 
relation  to  the  cheese.  He  thinks  that  probably  they  contribute  to- 
the  aroma. 

Janssens  and  Mertens  §  have  worked  at  one  form,  a  rose-coloured 
Torula,  which  forms  an  abundant  coating  over  beer-wort-  It  develops, 
better  in  the  light  than  in  the  dark,  and  does  not  induce  fermentation. 
The  nucleus  of  the  Torula  cell  divides  amitotically  and  very  irregularly.. 

J.  Warschawsky  ||  relates  the  history  of  the  various  discoveries  made 
recently  on  the  fermentation  process  and  on  the  enzymes  that  cause  the 
fermentation,  and  he  gives  the  results  of  his  study  as  to  the  conditions, 
under  which  the  zymase  is  formed  and  stored  up  in  the  yeast  cell. 

Studies  of  Uredinese.^f — E.  Jordi  describes  a  series  of  experiments, 
with  the  rust  Uromyces  Pisi.  He  finds  that  there  are  two  sharply 
differentiated  biological  forms.  The  iEcidium  form  of  each  is  on 
Euphorbia ;  the  uredo-  and  teleutospore  forms  are  on  the  two  host- 
plants,  Lathyrns  pratensis  and  Vicia  Cracca.  There  is  very  little 
morphological  distinction  between  the  spores  of  the  two  fungi. 

P.  Cruchet**has  tested  the  Uredinese  found  on  Labiatae.     He  finds 
biological   forms   there   also.      Spores  that   infected  Mentha  silvestris 
refused  to  grow  on  M.  aquatica  and  M.  arvensis,  and  vice  versa.     He- 
finds  that  JEcidium  BruneUcc  forms  teleutospores  on  Molinia,  and  that 
Puccinia  Stachydis  has  no  iEcidia,  and  is  therefore  a  Brachypuccinia. 

Otto  Schneider  ff  describes  three  species  of  Melampsora  growing  on 
Salix.  He  made  inoculation  experiments  with  all  of  them,  and  gives, 
the  various  results. 

*  Zeitschr.  Spiritesind.,  xxvii.  (1904)  pp.  96-239.      See  also  Ann.   Mycol.,  ii.. 
(1904^  pp.  477-9. 

t  Zeitschr.  Gesamt.  Brauw.,  xxvii.  (1904)  pp.  269-71.    See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt., 
xii.'(1904)  pp.  311-2. 

X  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xvii.  (1904)  p.  11.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xii.  (1904). 
pp.  312-4. 

§  La  Cellule,  xx.,  fasc.  2,  pp.  353-68  (2  pis.).  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiid 
(1904)  pp.  314-5. 

||  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  400-7.  IT  Op.  cit.,  pp.  64-72. 

••  Torn,  cit.,  pp.  95-6.  tt  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  222-4. 


ZOOLOGY,  AND  BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  87 

Ed.  Fischer*  gives  a  list  of  Uredineae  found  in  Switzerland  in  19<);J>, 
■with  a  description  of  one  new  species.  He  has  also  found  by  experi- 
ment that  JEcidium  Linos yridis  produces  its  teleutospores  on  Car  ex 
humilis. 

In  "Notes  on  Uredineas  III."  E.  W.  D.  Holwey f  gives  a  detailed 
account  of  some  plants  of  Puccinia  atrofusca  first  described  as  a 
i  Womyces.  He  describes  the  amphispores  of  the  species,  thick-walled 
and  echinulate,  with  two  equatorial  germ-spores. 

V.  Brizi  %  describes  a  disease  of  Cichorium  Endivia,  the  leaves  of 
which  were  covered  with  brown  pustules.  The  mischief  was  caused  by 
Puccinia  Prenanthidis. 

J.  C.  Arthur  §  has  proved  by  experiment  that  the  ^Ecidium  of 
Oxalis  cymosa  is  synonymous  with  Puccinia  Sorghii,  the  rust  of  Zea 
Mays.  He  gives  further  notes  on  the  occurrence  of  iEcidia  on  various 
species  of  Oxalis. 

Infection  Experiments  with  Uredinea3.||  —  Fr.  Bubak  gives  us  a 
long  account  of  these,  and  the  results  arrived  at.  He  experimented 
with  the  rusts  found  on  Adorn  moschatellina,  and  determined  three 
different  forms  :  an  iEcidiurn  of  Puccinia  aryentata,  with  perennial 
mycelium  ;  a  Micropuccinia — Puce.  Adoxa — also  with  perennial  my- 
celium ;  and  Puccinia  albescens.  Many  of  the  experiments  gave  only 
negative  results.  He  established  that  Melampsorella  Symphyti  was 
connected  with  an  J3cidium  on  Abies  pectinata,  which  is  different  from 
all  those  hitherto  described  on  firs. 

C.  M.  C4ibsonf  has  carried  out  a  number  of  experiments,  having  for 
their  object  the  testing  of  the  behaviour  of  the  rust  hyphaa  after  enter- 
ing a  leaf.  As  a  rule  she  chose  plants  that  would  not  readily  be  infected 
by  the  rust  spores  which  she  used  for  experiment.  The  spore  usually 
germinates,  and  the  tube  enters  or  attempts  to  enter  the  stoma,  but  if 
the  host  be  unfavourable  srreat  differences  of  development  take  place  : 
the  hyphas  penetrate  no  farther  than  the  opening  or  persist  until  they 
reach  the  spongy  tissue.  In  two  or  four  days  the  hyphge  were  dead, 
probably  poisoned  by  some  substance  in  the  plant  cells.  The  writer  also 
gives  details  of  inoculation  with  rusts  on  similar  hosts  that  had  been 
previously  immune  to  attack.  She  describes  the  conditions  under  which 
they  became  liable  to  infection,  and  the  action  of  the  rust  spores  on 
these  plants. 

Distribution  of  Uredineae  on  their  Host  Plants.** — P.  Dietel 
repeats  Klebahn's  statement  that,  as  far  as  our  present  knowledge  goes, 
no  rule  can  be  formulated  as  to  the  selection  of  host  plants  by  the 
hetercecious  rusts.  He  then  examines  the  matter,  and  endeavours  to 
trace  some  general  law  of  selection.  He  finds,  for  instance,  that  in  the 
evolution  of  the  species,  that  is,  in  its  selection  of  new  hosts,  a  more 

*  Ber.  Schweiz.  bot.  Ges.,  xiv.(1904)  p.  17.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,xcvi.  (1904) 
pp.  385-6.  f  Journ.  MyooL,  x.  (1904)  p.  '228. 

I  Agric.  Moderna,  x.  (1904)  pp.  32-3.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiii.  (1904)  p.  471 . 
§  Bjt.  Gazette,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  64-7.      See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcvi.  (1904) 

P-  547.  ||  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  411-26. 

II  New  Phytol.,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  184-91  (2  pis.). 
•*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xi.  (1904)  pp.  218-34 


88  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

highly  developed  host  than  the  one  on  which  it  already  grows  is  selected 
by  the  parasite,  and  one  of  a  more  recent  geological  formation.  He 
divides  the  Uredinere  roughly  into  two  groups,  the  Melampsoraceae 
and  the  Pucciniacese,  the  latter — the  more  recent  in  time — growing 
almost  exclusively  on  Angiosperms.  Three  factors  are  important  in 
influencing  the  selection  by  the  parasite  of  new  hosts  :  (1)  the  tendency 
of  the  fungus  to  enlarge  the  circle  of  hosts  ;  (2)  a  corresponding  con- 
dition of  the  protoplasm  of  both  plants,  so  that  the  host  may  receive  the 
parasite  ;  and  (3)  the  geological  age  of  the  host  plants.  The  writer 
goes  on  to  discuss  the  different  genera  of  rusts,  their  probable  age,  and 
the  course  of  their  development  on  the  different  hosts.  Some  of  these 
genera  are  confined  to  one  family  of  host  plants,  others  have  attacked  a 
large  number.  The  effect  of  temperature  is  also  considered  of  great 
importance  in  these  changes. 

Relationship  of  Macrophoma  and  Diplodia.* — The  pycnidia  of 
these  two  fungi  were  found  growing  in  very  close  proximity  on  flower- 
bud  spathes  of  Cocos.  Julia  I.  Emerson  has  proved,  by  a  series  of 
cultures,  that  they  are  developmental  forms  of  one  fungus,  and  that  the 
colourless  Macrophoma  spores  are  immature  stages  of  brown  two-celled 
spores  of  Diplodia  epicocos.  The  cultures  were  commenced  on  agar, 
and  continued  on  potato  and  coco-nut  pith  or  bread. 

Rotting  of  Cherries  by  Gloeosporium.f — A  disease  of  apples  caused  by 
a  species  of  Glmosporium  has  been  known  for  some  time.  A.  Osterwalder 
describes  the  effect  produced  on  cherries  by  Glmosporium  laeticolor.  The 
fungus  appears  on  the  fruits  as  small  white  pustules,  which  eventually 
cause  brown  spots,  and  the  wrinkling  and  shrivelling  of  the  cherry. 
The  writer  finds  that  the  fungus  can  only  penetrate  the  host  through  a 
wound,  but  once  entrance  has  been  gained  it  spreads  rapidly  through  the 
flesh  of  the  cherry.  Systematic  notes  are  given  on  several  allied  species 
of  Glaosporium. 

Leaf-disease  of  Ribes  alpinum.J — R.  Laubert  finds  that  this  disease 
is  caused  by  Glmosporium  variabih  sp.  n.  The  leaves  are  irregularly 
marked  with  round  dark-coloured  spots,  on  which  the  fungus  is  found 
growing.     Occasionally  the  fungus  fruits  on  the  green  parts  of  the  leaf. 

Morphology  of  a  New  Cytospora.§ — R.  Laubert  found  a  new 
species  of  Cytosptora  on  half-dead  gooseberry  branches.  The  spores  in 
the  mass  have  a  golden  yellow  colour.  The  perfect  fruit  form,  probably 
a  Valsa,  was  not  found.     A  diagnosis  of  the  fungus  is  given. 

Disease  of  Potato.|| — V.  Tubeuf  gives  an  account  of  early-blight  or 
eaf-spot  disease  which  is  caused  by  a  Hyphomycetous  fungus,  Macro- 
sporium  =  Alter naria  Solani.  On  the  same  spots  there  appeared  a 
C  'ladosporium  and  a  Sporidesmium.     Joh.  J.  Vanhalf  has  made  culture 

*  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club.,  xxxi.  (1904)  pp.  551-4  (1  pi.). 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xi.  (1903)  pp.  225-6  (1  pi.). 

J  Naturw.  Zeitschr.  Land  und  Forstw.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  56-8.  See  also  Ann. 
My  col.,  ii.  ( 1 904 )  pp.  463-4. 

§  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  407-11  (1  pi.). 

]|  Naturw.    Zeitschr.  Land,  und  Forstw.,  ii.  (1904)   pp.  264-9.     See  also  Ann. 
Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  p.  465. 
'  U  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  113-27.      See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  465-6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  89 

-experiments  with  the  two  latter  fungi,  and  finds  they  are  stages  of  one 
plant.  He  describes  the  different  forms  of  fructification,  macrospores, 
pycnidia  and  conidia.  The  resting  stage  is  characterised  by  the  appear- 
ance of  pycnidia  and  of  small  sclerotia-like,  dark  coloured  clumps  of 
hyphae  without  any  fructification. 

Distribution  of  the  Musk  fungus  (Moschuspilz).* — B.  Schorler 
recounts  the  history  of  the  various  appearances  of  this  fungus — a  hypho- 
mycete — in  conjunction  with  other  fungi,  green  algae  in  various  waters, 
usually  where  impurities  have  been  added  from  factories,  etc.  Schorler 
considers  it  to  be  a  form  of  Nectria  aquceductum.  It  requires  a  certain 
amount  of  oxygen  for  its  development,  and  thus  it  appears  most  generally 
where  purification  of  the  water  has  commenced  by  the  renewed  growth 
of  green  algae. 

Uromyces  on  Leguminosae.f — Ernst  Jordi  has  made  many  experi- 
ments on  the  forms  of  Uromyces  to  be  found  on  various  Papilionaceae. 
For  Uromyces  Fabce  he  distinguishes  four  biological  forms  confined  to 
different  hosts  :  (1)  on  Vicia  Faba  and  Pisum  sativum  ;  (2)  on  Vicia 
Cracca,  Pis  urn  sativum  and  Vicia  hirsuta  ;  (3)  on  Lathy  r  us  montatius  ; 
and  (4)  on  Lathyrus  vermis.  He  confirms  the  opinion  of  Plowright  that 
Uromyces  Ervi  grows  only  on  Vicia  hirsuta.  Other  experiments  were 
conducted  with  U.  Hedysari  obscuri,  U.  Pisi  and  U.  Astrayali.  The 
latter  he  proved  to  be  hetercecious  ;  the  aacidia  grow  on  Euphorbia 
Cyparissias.  He  found  also  that  U.  Astrayali  includes  three  distinct 
species.     Diagnoses  of  the  various  species  are  given. 

Diagnostic  Value  of  the  Capillitium  of  Tylostoma.J — L.  Petri  has 
examined  and  compared  a  large  number  of  authentic  specimens,  and 
points  out  the  characters  of  the  capillitium  that  may  prove  of  service  in 
diagnosing  the  species.  These  characters  are  the  colour  of  the  filaments, 
their  dimensions,  articulation,  and  thickness  of  wall.  An  account  is 
given  of  each  species,  and  lists  are  drawn  out  recording  in  tabular  form 
the  facts  noted.  The  capillitium  of  nearly  all  the  species  examined  is 
•figured. 

Fruit  Decay  caused  by  Fungi.§ — A.  Osterwalder  gives  an  account 
of  the  various  filamentous  fungi  that  attack  stored  fruit  and  quickly 
induce  rottenness.  In  addition  to  the  well  known  forms  of  PeiiiciUium, 
Monilia,  etc.,  he  finds  Fusarium  putrefaciens,  hitherto  undescribed. 
The  fruit  perishes  from  the  inside  outwards,  the  tissue  is  dried  up,  and  has 
a  bitter  taste.  The  writer  describes  fully  the  different  cases  of  rotten- 
ness caused  by  other  fungi,  and  he  gives  details  of  cultures  with 
Fusarium. 

Injury  due  to  Frost  followed  by  Fungi.|| — P.  Sorauer  enumerates 
a  number  of  fungus  forms,  Clodesporium,  Alternaria,  Ascochyta,  etc.,  that 
are  to  be  found  everywhere,  but  that  do  not  attack  plants  unless  they 

•  Abhandl.  Naturw.  Ges.  Iaie  in  Dresden,  1903,  Heft  i.     Seealso  Centralbl.  Bakt., 
xi.  (1903)  pp.  352-4. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xi.  (1904)  pp.  763-95  (37  figs.). 

I  Ann.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  412-38. 

§  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  207-13,  330-8  (2  pis.). 

II  Landw.  Jahrb.,  xxxii.  (1903)  pp.  1-68.     See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xi.  (1903) 
ipp.  362-3. 


90  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

are  previously  injured  ;  the  injury  in  most  cases  being  due  to  frost. 
He  notes  the  localities  and  soils  most  favourable  to  such  attacks.  He 
advises  early  sowing  as  a  preventive,  and  the  selection  of  good  strains  of 
seeds. 

Diseases  of  Sugar  Beet.*  —  Fr.  Bubak  found  in  addition  to 
Cercospora  Beta,  another  fungus  on  the  leaves,  Ramularia  Beta.  The 
latter  is  entirely  colourless,  and  forms  its  spores  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaf.  The  author  thinks  that  probably  the  Ramularia  is  closely  con- 
nected with  Phyllosticta  Beta1.  The  two  genera  are  often  found  on  the 
same  host  plant,  and  are  probably  both  stages  of  a  pyrenomycete. 

Brown  Discoloration  of  Potato  Leaves.f — J.  Vanha  has  worked 
out  the  attack  and  subsequent  destruction  of  potato  leaves  by  a  fungus 
which  he  describes  under  the  name  Sporidesmivm  solani-varians.  The 
fungus  can  live  as  a  saprophyte,  but  when  it  attacks  the  living  host  it 
causes  brown  spots,  which  increase  quickly  and  destroy  the  whole  leaf. 

Disease  of  Figs. J — G.  von  Lagerheim  finds  that  the  fungus  which 
attacks  figs  is  Sterigmatocystis  Ficuum.  It  forms  in  the  interior  of' 
the  fruit  small,  black,  dusty  masses.  Dates  have  also  been  attacked  by 
the  same  fungus.  The  author  gives  the  growth  properties  of  the  spores 
in  different  media. 

Diseases  of  Cacao.§ — Otto  Appel  and  H.  F.  Strunk  examined  some 
plants  of  Cacao  from  Victoria,  Kamerun,  that  had  been  killed  by  some 
obscure  disease.  On  the  branches  they  found  a  form  of  Diplodina,  and, 
on  the  fruit,  species  of  fungi  belonging  to  four  different  genera,  all  of' 
which  they  consider  to  be  new.  The  material  with  which  they  worked 
was  preserved  in  spirits  or  formalin.  It  could  not  certainly  be  stated 
that  these  fungi  were  harmful  to  the  plant.  They  have  been  described 
by  the  writers  for  the  information  and  help  of  Cacao  planters  and  others. 

Handbook  of  Technical  Mycology. ||  —  F.  Lafar,  with  the  help  of 
forty-five  other  workers,  is  issuing  a  new  and  revised  handbook.  The 
first  part  deals  with  the  general  history,  anatomy  and  classification  of 
the  Schizomycetes.  It  is  written  by  Migula.  The  second  part,  by 
Lindau,  deals  in  a  similar  manner  with  the  Eumycetes ;  he  discusses, 
the  form,  membrane,  plasma,  nuclei,  etc. 

Fungus  Flora  of  Hearth-rug. f  —  C.  Crossland  and  J.  Needham 
observed  the  different  fungi  that  made  their  appearance  on  an  old  rug 
made  of  jute,  wool,  and  cotton.  They  noted  seventeen  species  in  all,, 
which  grew  in  succession  on  the  cloth.  Only  two  out  of  the  seventeen 
were  humus  species,  the  others  had  been  observed  commonly  or  exclu- 
sively on  similar  habitats.     One  new  species  was  determined,  Libertella 

*  Zeitschr.  Zuckerind.  in  Bohnien,  xxviii.  (1904)  p.  342.  See  also  Centralbl. 
Bakt.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  468-9. 

t  Naturw.  Zeitschr.  Land  und  Forstw.,  1904,  p.  113.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt., 
xii.  (1904)  pp.  321-2. 

X  Separattrijck  Svensk"  Farmacoutisk  Tidskr.,  1903,  No.  18,  6  pp.  See  also 
Centralbl.  Bakt..  xii.  (1904)  p.  466. 

§  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xi.  (1904)  pp.  551-7  (13  figs.). 

||  Handbuch  der  tecknischen  Mykologie.  Lief.  i.  (Jena,  1904).  See  also  13ot . 
Centralbl.,  xcvi.  (1904)  pp.  354-5.  f  Naturalist,  Dec.  1904,  pp.  359-63. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  91 

fusispora,  which  probably  will  be  met  with  on  twigs.     The  rug  was 
watched  until  it  was  completely  decayed. 

The  Detection  of  Arsenic  by  Growth  of  Penicillium.* — W. 
Hangman  recapitulates  the  well-known  facts  as  to  detection  of  minute 
quantities  of  arsenical  compounds  by  cultures  of  Penicillium  brevicaule 
on  the  suspected  substance,  when  a  strong  odour  of  garlic  is  given  off 
by  the  fungus.  The  author  finds  that  a  member  of  the  Actinia?, 
Aiptasia  diaph&na  possesses  the  same  property,  especially  when  it  is 
grown  in  symbiosis  with  yellow  algal  cells. 

Barbier— Agaricinees  rares,  critiques  ou  nouvelles  de  la  Cote-d'Or. 
[Critical  notes  on  many  species  of  the  larger  fungi.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  de  France,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  89-134  (1  pi.). 
Brzezi^ski,  J. — Einige  Bemerkungen  fiber  die  Krebs  und  die  Gummikrankheit  der 
Obstbaume,  and  Erwiderung  by  Aderhold. 

[A  correspondence  between  the  two  scientists  as  to  the  cause  of  canker  iu  fruit 
trees.]  Centralbl.  Baht.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  632-40. 

Bubak,  Fr. — Neue  order  Kritische  Pilze. 

[The  fungi  described  here  for  the  first  time  were  collected  in  Bohemia.    There 
is  one  new  genus,  Diplozythia — probably  the  pycnidial  form  of  Ophiobolus. 

Ann.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  395-401  (21  figs.). 

Bucholtz,  Feodor — Bemerkung  fiber  das  Vorkommen  des  Mutterkornes  in  dem 

Ostseeprovinzen  Russlands. 

[Notes  on  the  occurrence  of  species  of  Claviceps,  with  a  list  of  the  host-plants.} 

Correspondenzbbttt  den  Naturf.-Ver.  Riga,  xlvii.  (1904)  pp.  57-64. 

See  also  Centralbl.  Baht.,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  551. 

Carleton,  M.  A. — Investigations  of  Rusts. 

[Additions  are  made  to  the  life-liistorv  of  some  thirteen  species  of  Uredinese.] 

U.S.  Dept.  Agric.  Bull.,  lxiii.  (1904)  27  pp.  (2  pis.). 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  552. 
Chrzaszez,  T. — Zur  Kenntniss  des  Hefewachstums  in  Mineralischer  Nahrlosung. 
[The  influence  of  mineral  salts  on  the  growth  of  yeast.] 

Centralbl.  Bald.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  144-9. 

Cohn,  Erich  —  Ein   Beitrag  zum  Vergleich  der  Kleinscben   Hefe  mit   anderen 
pathogenen  Sprosspilzen. 

[The  writer  insists  on  the  distinction  between  Klem's  yeast  and  other  organisms 
with  which  it  has  been  confounded.] 

Centralbl.  Bakt.,  Orig.,  xxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  369-79. 

Crossland,  Charles — Fungus  Foray  at  Rokeby. 

[An  account  of  fungi  collected  at  Rokeby,  in  Yorkshire.] 

Naturalist,  1904,  pp.  329-42. 

Cupino,  L.  —  Un  secondo  contributo  alia  Flora  Micologica  della  Provincia  di 
Napoli. 

[There  are  recorded  57  species.     One  of  them,  Phyllosticta 
Mimusopis,  is  new.] 

Malpighia,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  546-52. 

„        „        Fungi  magnagutiani. 

[A  list  of  tungi  collected  by  Count  Magnaguti  in  the  districts  of 
Manuta  and  Faenza.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  553-8. 

„        „        Pugillus  cryptogomarum  canadensium. 

[A  list  of  cryptogamic  plants  collected  in  Western  Canada  by 
Albert  Hill,  including  a  number  of  lichens. 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  559-62. 


*  Beitr.  Phys.  und  Path.,  v.  (1904)  p.  397.     See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904). 
pp.  471-2. 


92  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Delacboix,  Geo  bobs — Sur  quelques  Champignons  parasites  des  Cafeier. 

[Notes  on  six  different  parasitic  fungi  that  attack  the 
coffee-plant.]    Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xx.  (1904) 

pp.  142-51  (1  pi.). 
See  also  Dot.  Centralbl,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  553. 
„  .,  Rapport  sur  une  maladie  des  asperges  dans  les  environs 

de  Pithiviers. 

[An  account  of    disease    caused  by   llhizoctonia 
violacea^]        Bull.  Mensuel  Office  renseignements 

ngricoles,  19o3,  6  pp. 
See  also  Centralbl.  BakL,  xiii.  (1904)  p.  46o. 

Ellis,  J.  B.,  &  W.  A.  Kellebman — A  new  Phyllachora  from  Mexico. 
[The  fungus  occurred  on  a  shrub  of  the  family  Rhaninaceae. 

Journ.  Mycol,  x.  (1904)  pp.  231-2  (5  figs.). 

Faibman,  C.  E. — Some  new  Fungi  from  Western  New  York. 
[Diagnoses  of  seven  new  species  of  microfungi.] 

Journ.  Mycol,  x.  (1904)  pp.  229-31. 

F  ebb  a  bis,  Teodobo — Enumerazione  dei  funghi  della  Valsesia,  raccolti  dalCh.  Cav. 
Ab.  Antonio  Carestia  (serie  Terza),  con  Tav.  ix. 

[The  species  included  in  this  list  are  nearly  all  microfungi ;  a  few  of  them  are 
new  to  science.]  Malphigia,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  484-503  (1  pi.). 

Hansen,  Chb.  Ebiil— Grundlinien  zur  Systematik  der  Saccharomyceten. 

[The  writer  recognises  six  genera  of  Saecharomycetes,  which  he  describes,  with 
a  note  of  the  species  belonging  to  each  genus.l 

Centralbl.  BaM.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  529-38. 
Heck — Vom  Tannenkrebs. 

[The  writer  discusses  the  attack  of  JEcidium  elalinum  causing  Witches'  Brooms 
on  pines.]  Forstwiss.  Centralbl.  (1903)  Sept.-Oct. 

See  also  Centralbl.  Bukt.,  xii.  (1904)  p.  319. 

Hennebebg,  W. — Abnorme  Zellformen  von  Brennereihefen. 

[The  formation  of  the  peculiar  form  described  depended  on  the  concentration 
of  the  culture  medium.]  Centralbl  BakL,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  150-3  (1  pi.). 

Hehnings,  P. — Die  Galtung  Aschersonia  Mont. 

[Murril  has  wrongly  appropriated  the  name  Aschersonia  to  a  genus  of  Poly- 
poracese.     Montague  created  it  for  a  genus  of  Nectrioidese.] 

Festschrift  zu  P.  Ascherson's  70  Gtburtttage,  vii.  (1904)  pp.  68-72. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  386. 

Heblitzska — Sull  isolamento  di  un   corpo   glicolitico  dal  Saccharomyces  cere- 
visiae. 

['lhe  author  names  the  ferment  that  he  has  isolated  "  Plasmozvme."] 

Giorn.  B.  Accad.  Med.  Torino,  1903,  Nos.  2,  3. 

See  also  Centralbl  Bakt.,  xi.  (1904)  pp.  412-3. 

He st,  J.  J.  van — Quantitative  Bestimmung  der  Hefenernte  aus  der  Stickstoff- 
aufnahme  der  Hefe  und  die  Beziehung  zwischen  Alkohol- 
bildung  und  Stickstoffaufnahme. 

Wochenschr.  Brauerei,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  1-3. 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol,  ii.  (1904)  p.  479. 

„  „  Beitrage  zur  kenntniss  wilder  Hefen. 

Zeitschr.  Gesamte  Brauwesen,  xxvi.  (1903)  pp.  808-14. 
fcfee  also  Ann.  Mycol,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  479-80. 

Hebzog,  R. — Zur  Biologie  der  Hefe. 

[An  account  of  the  development  of  the  yeast-cell,  and  the  rate  of  increase.] 

Zeitschr.  physiol.  Chemie,  xxxvii.  (1903)  p.  396. 
See  also  Centralbl  Bakt.,  xi.  (1903)  pp.  228-9. 

Hollbtjng,  M. — Bericht  der  Versuchstatipn  fur  Pflanzenkrankheiten  in  Halle. 

[Peronospore  Schachtii  and  Bhizoctonia  violacea  are  recorded  as  diseases  of 
beet.]  Zeittchr.  der  Deutsch.  Zuckerind.,  1904,  p.  465. 

See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiii.  (1904)  p.  467. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  93 

Holwat,  E.  W.  D. — Mexican  TJredineae. 

[Diagnosis  of  new  species]  Ann.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  391-4 . 

Ingham,  "W. — Badhamia  rubiginosa  Rost.  var.  globosa  n.  var. 

[This  species  was  first  published  in  the  Journal  of  Botany  in  1904.  The  writer 
has  now  found  it  among  gatherings  from  Yorkshire  and  North  Wales  as 
far  back  as  1878.]  Naturalist,  1904,  p.  362 . 

I  wa noff,  K.  S. — TJeber  die  Wirkung  einiger  Metallsalze  and  einatomiger  Alkohole 
anf  die  Entwickelnng  von  Schimmelpilzen. 

[Poisonous  effect  of  metals  and  alcohols  on  filamentous  funsri.l 

Centralbl.  Bald.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  139-44. 

K  eegan,  P.  G.— The  Chemistry  of  some  common  Plants. 
[Includes  the  chemistry  of  the  common  mushroom.] 

Naturalist,  1904,  pp.  345-6. 

Kellerman,  W.  A.,  &  P.  L.  Richer — New  genera  of  Fungi  published  since  the 
year  1900. 
[The  list  continued  from  the  previous  issues  of  the  Journal.] 

Jonrn.  Mycol,  x.  (1904)  pp.  229-50. 

Kratjs,  Alfre d. — Zur  Farbung  der  Hypbomyceten  im  Horngewebe. 
[Methods  for  detecting  the  presence  of  the  fungus  in  hair,  etc.] 

Centralbl  Bakt.,  Orig..  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  153-5. 

Laubert,  K. — Beitrag  zur  Kenntniss  des  Gloeosporium  der  roten  Johannisbeere. 

[Different  species  of  Glmosporium  attack  the  red  and  black  currants.  These 
are  described  by  Laubert.] 

Centralbl  Bald.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  82-5  (1  fig.). 

Leschisch,  Marie  —  Garung  nnd  Atmung  verschiedener   Hefearten   im   Boll- 
kulturen. 

[Fermentation  and  respiration  of  various  species  of  veash] 

Op.  cit.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  649-56;  xiii.  pp.  22-8  (3  figs.). 

Linhart — Die  Peronospora-recte  Pseudoperonospora-Krankheit  der  Melonen  nnd 
Gurbien  in  TJngarn. 

[The  author  recounts  the  cases  of  the  occurrence  of  this  fungus  in  Hungary, 
Russia,  and  Austria.]  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenhr.,  xiv.  (1904)  pp.  143-5. 

Lindner,  P. — Der  Nachweis  von  Bierhefe  in  Presshefe  mittles  der  biologischen 
Analyse  und  die  Einfiihrung  eines  bestimmten  Hefetypus  in  der 
Preshefefabrikation. 

Zeitschr.  Spiritusind.,  xxvii.  (1904)  p.  156. 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  480-1. 

„        „       Zur  Einfiihrung  von  Presshefe  vom  sparrigen  Typus. 

Tom.  cit,  p.  225.     See  also  Ann.  Mycol,  ii.  (1904)  p.  481. 

Ltndau,  G. — Beitrag  zur  Kentniss  eines  im  Wasser  lebenden  Discomyceten. 
[Description  of  Hu mar ia  oocardi.  a  water  Discomycete.] 
Festschrift  zu  P.  Ascher son's  70  Geburtstage,  xl.  (1904^  pp.  482-6. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcvi.  (1901)  p.  3S7. 

M'Alpine,  D. — Two  new  Fungi  parasitic  on  Scale-Insects. 

[The  species  are  Microcera  tasmanica  and  M.myrtilaspis,  both  new  to  science.] 

Dep.  Affric.  Mel.  Victoria  Bull,  xiv.  May,  1904. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcvi.  (1904")  p.  56. 

Magnus,  P. — Einage  Fragen  betreffend  die  Nomenclatur  der  Pilze  mit  mehreren 
Fruchtformen. 

[The  writer  discusses  the  rules  that  ought  to  govern  the  naming  of  fungi  that 
have  several  fruit  forms.] 

Festschrift  zu  P.  Ascherson's  70  Geburtstag'.  pp.  431-8. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  389. 

M  a  s  s  e  e,  G  e  o  r  g  e — A  Monograph  of  the  genns  Inocybe. 

[The  writer  lavs  special  stress  on  microscopic  characters — cystidia,  spores,  etc.) . 

Ann.  Bot.,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  459-502  (1  pi.). 


9-4  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Meisenheimkr,  Jako b — Neue  Versuche  mit  Hefepreszsaft. 

[On  the  nature  of  the  zymase  contained  in  the  expressed  juice  of  yeast.] 

Zeitschr.  physiol.  Chemie,  xxxvii.  (1903)  p.  518. 
See  also  Cenlralbl  Baht.,  xi.  (1903)  pp.  229-30. 

Morgan,  A.  P. — Pyrenomycetes  scarcely  known  in  North  America. 

[Diognoses  of  several  new  forms.]  Journ.  Mycol.,  x.  (1904)  pp.  226-8. 

Mu brill,  W.  A. — The  Polyporaceae  of  North  America.  IX.  Ionotus,  Sesia,  and 
Monotypic  Genera 

[The   new  genera   proposed   by   Murrill   are   Lactiporus,    Trichaptum,   and 
Pogonomyces.]  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxi.  (1904)  pp.  593-610. 

Oudemans,  C.  A.  J.  A. — Contributions  a  la  Flore  mycologique  des  Pays-Bas  XX. 
[A  number  of  fungi  are  described  for  the  first  time,  and  the  names  of  others 
corrected.]  Nederlandsch.  Kruidhundig.  Archie/.,  serie  3,  Deel  2 

(1904)  pp.  1077-1133  (pis.  xi.-xiii.) 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  390. 

Pantanelli,  E. — Zur  Xenntniss  der  Turgorregulationen  bei  Schimmelpilzen. 

[A  description  of  methods  and  results  in  determining  the  turgescence  of  the 
cells  of  filamentous  fungi.]  Jahrb.  Wins.  Bot.,  xl.  (1904)  pp.  303-67. 

Rettgeb,  Leo  F. — A  contribution  to  the  study  of  pathogenic  yeasts. 
[An  account  of  a  yeast  that  was  the  cause  of  an  abscess.] 

Cenlralbl.  Baht.,  Orig.,  xxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  519-28  (2  pis.). 

Rick,  J. — Fungi  austro-americani  exs.  Fasc.  1. 

[Descriptions  of  the  species  included  in  the  fascicle.     There  is  one  newgenu.s, 
Pseudohydnum.']  Ann.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  406-10. 

Rostrup,  E. — Norske  Ascomyceten. 

[A  list  of  Norwegian  fungi ;  23  new  species  are  described.] 

Videnfk.  Selshab.  Shrifter.  I.  Math.  Naturv.  Kl,  No.  4  (1904)  44  pp. 

See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  p.  460. 

Salmon,  E.  S. — On  the  identity  of  Ovulariopsis  Pat.  and  Har.  with  the  conidial 
stage  of  Phyllactinia  Ler. 

[The  author  has  established  the  identity  in  a  number  of  species.] 

Ann.  Mycol,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  438-44(1  pi.) 

Saccaedo,  D. — Aggiunte  alia  micologia  romana. 

[A  list  of  100  species,  of  which  a  number  are  new.] 

Stazione  speriment.  agar.ital.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  53-81. 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol,  ii.  (1904)  p.  460. 

Semadeni,  O. — Beitrage  zur  Xenntniss  der  TJmbelliferen  bewohnenden  Puccinien. 
[A  very  large  number  of  experiments  and  the  results  obtained  are  given.] 

Centralbl.  Baht.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp  73-81,  214-21, 338-52, 439-48. 
Wehkneb,  G. — Der  Aspergillus  des  Tokelau. 

[A  new  species,  Aspergillus  Tohelau,  that  causes  a  skin  disease. 

Centralbl.  Baht.,  Orig.,  xxxv.  (1904)  pp.  140-6  (9  figs.). 

Wendeb,  N.,  &  Lewin,  D. — Studien  uber  die  Triebkraft  der  Hefe.  (Studieson 
the  expansive  power  of  yeast.) 

Oesterr.  Brennereizeit.,  ii.  (1904)  Nos.  7-9,  11-13. 
See  also  Centralbl.  Baht,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  458-9. 
Wi  ehmann,  H. — Notiz  zur  Lebensdauer  der  Xulturhefe.  (Notes  on  the  duration  of 
vitality  in  yeasts.)      Allg.  Zeitschr.  Bierbraueri  u.  Metefabrih.,  xxxii.  (1904)  No.  6. 

See  also  Centralbl  Bakt.,  xiii.  (1904)  p.  458. 

Zehntner,  L. — Eapport  over  de  "Werkzaamheden  in  Maart  en  April  1904.  (Xorte 
Mededeelingen  van  net  Procistation  voor  Cacoa.  II.  Semarang-Soerabia.  Van 
Dorp  and  Co.  (1904)  20  pp.)     (An  account  of  fungus  diseases  of  Cacoa  in  Java.) 

Bot.  Centralbl,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  409. 
Zimmerman,  A.  —  TJntersuchungen   uber   tropische  Pflanzenkrankheiten  (Erste 
Mitteilung).     (An  account  of  various  fungi  causing  diseases  of  plants  in  East 
Africa  ) 

Ber.  Land.  Forttw.  in  Deutsch-Ostafrika,  Bd.  ii.  Heft.  1.  pp.  11-36 
(2  pis).     See  also  Centralbl  Buht.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  315-6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  95 

Lichens. 

Observations  on  Endosaprophytism  in  Heteromerous  Lichens.* 
-A.  Elenkin  has  been  following  out  his  researches  on  this  subject  in 
Lichens  of  the  genera  Lecidea,  Acarospora,  and  Endocarpon.  He  traces 
the  "  nekrale  zone  "  which  consists  of  dead  and  living  gonidia  in  the 
various  Lichens  examined.  He  finds  cases  where  tbe  fungus  pierces 
the  living  algal  cell.  Mostly  the  hypha;  penetrate  the  disorganised  or 
empty  sheaths  of  algae.  He  finds  also  occasionally  hyphae  in  unaltered 
gonidia.  The  author  is  unwilling  to  consider  these  hyphaa  as  haustoria  ; 
he  thinks  that  these  outgrowths  induce  the  destruction  of  the  gonidia 
•the  cell-wall  of  which  has  been  gradually  destroyed  by  a  ferment. 

In  a  previous  paper  f  more  particularly  devoted  to  the  subject  of 
haustoria  in  the  gonidial  cells,  he  discusses  the  matter,  and  arrives  at 
.."the  same  conclusion.     He  found  Lecidea  atro-brunnea  a  suitable  Lichen 
for  study.     Both  papers  are  in  Russian. 

•Elenkin,  A. — Notes  Lichenologiques.     Le  detriment  occasione  par  les  lichens  a 
des  arbres  a  feoilles  acicnlaires. 

[The  writer  thinks  that  the  trees  are  killed  by  the  enveloping 
foliaceous  lichens.] 

Extrait  der  Bull.  Jard.  Imp.  bot.  St.  Petersbourg, 
iii.  (1903)  6  pp.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl, 
xcvi.  (1904)  p.  409. 

„        „         Notice  preliminaire  snr  la  recolte  des  lichens  pendant  le  voyage 
dans  la  Russie  centrale  en  1903. 

[The  writer  collected  300  species  during  his  journey.] 

Op.  cit.,  iv.  (1904)  10  pp.      See  also 
Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xcvi.  (1904)  pp.  409-10. 

„        „        Pilocarpon  lencoblepharnm  (Nyl.)  Wain.,  comme  representant  des 
lichens  epiphylles  dans  le  Caucase.     (Russian.) 

[The  species  grows  in  Europe  on  the  branches  and  needles  of 
Pines.     In  the  Caucasus  it  grew  on  the  leaves  of  the  Box.] 
Op.  cit.,  iii.  (1903)  8  pp.     See  also 
Bot.  Centralbl,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  410. 

■„         „        La  distribution  des  Lichens  aux  Saian.     (Russian.) 

[The  writer  gives  the  forms  that  are  to  be  found  at  different 
elevations.]  S.  A.  T.  XXX  V.  der  Mittheilungen  der 

St.  Petersburger  naturforschende 
Gesetlscha/t,  1904,  8  pp. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  409. 
,,        „        Les  especes  remplacantes  (II.)    (Russian.) 

[An  account*  of  the  forms  in  Siberia  that  replace  the  forms 
common  in  Europe.] 
Bull.  Jard.  Imp.  Bot.  St.  Petersbourg,  iii.  (1904)  13  pp.  (2  pi.) 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  409. 

„        „        Lichenes  Florae  Rossiae  et  regionum  confinium  orientalium.     Fasci- 
culus II. 

[An  account  of  50  lichens  belonging  to  various  genera,  with 
critical  notes  on  many  of  the  species.] 

Acta  Petrop.,  xxiv.  Fasc.  i.  (1901)  p.  1-118. 
'Fink,  Bruce — Further  notes  on  Cladoniae  iii.  and  iv. 

[The  writer  deals  in  tlie  two  papers  with  CI  furcata  and  CI.  verticillata.~\ 

Bryologist,  vii.  (1904)  pp.  53-8  (1  pi. and  2  figs.);  pp.  84-8  (1  pi.) 


•  Bull.  Jard.  Imp.  Bot.  St.  Petersburg,  iv.  (1904)  No.  2,  15  pp.,  4  figs,  and  2  pla. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcvi.  (1904)  pp.  392-3. 

t  S.A.  Mitth.  St.  Petersburgen  Naturf.  Ges.,  xxxiv.  (1903)  8  pp. 


96  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Schizophyta. 
Schizomycetes. 

Epidemic  or  Bacillary  Dysentery.* — Firth  finds  that  the  so-called 
dysentery  bacilli  obtained  from  dysenteric  excreta  are  of  two  types,  the 
non-pathogenic  and  the  pathogenic.  The  cultural  features  of  the  non- 
pathogenic type  is  its  ability  to  split  up  maltose,  galactose  and  mannite, 
forming  acid  but  not  producing  gas,  and  also  to  produce  indol.  The 
pathogenic  type  does  not  possess  these  characters. 

The  non-pathogenic  type  should  not  be  termed  B.  dysenterioe  ;  it 
belongs  to  a  variety  known  as  B.  typhosus  simulam,  and  differs  from 
B.  typhosus  in  not  agglutinating  with  enteric  serum,  and  its  ability  to 
produce  indol. 

•  The  non-pathogenic  "  pseudo-dysentery  "  bacilli  occur  commonly  in 
sewage  and  in  most  dysentery  dejecta  during  the  later  stages  of  the 
disease,  after  the  acute  symptoms  have  passed  ;  the  true  B.  dysenterice 
are  present  chiefly  during  the  early  acute  stages  of  the  affection.  The 
causative  agent  in  the  various  cases  of  dysentery,  among  which  the 
author  includes  the  typical  acute  dysentery  of  camps,  ileo-colitis,  and  the 
infective  diarrhoeas  of  infants  and  adults,  is  an  organism  belonging  to. 
the  pathogenic  type  of  B.  dy  sen  term.  The  toxic  substances  elaborated 
by  or  contained  in  the  bodies  of  these  bacilli  have  a  selective  affinity 
for  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  caecum  and  colon.  He  finds  that, 
although  the  subcutaneous  inoculation  of  these  bacilli  and  the  toxic 
substances  into  rabbits  produce  symptoms  and  intestinal  lesions  cha- 
racteristic of  epidemic  dysentery  in  man,  yet  it  is  not  possible  by  ordinary 
ingestion  or  by  direct  introduction  into  various  parts  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  to  produce  intestinal  lesions  or  general  infection  in  these  animals. 
He  suggests  that  the  epithelial  lining  of  the  intestinal  tract  of  the 
rabbit  has  a  high  refractiveness  to  these  bacilli.  They  produce  dysen- 
teric lesions  in  the  monkey  when  administered  with  food. 

Spore-production  by  Bacillus  Anthracis  and  other  Spore-bearing 
Bacteria.f — Selter  finds  that  the  most  suitable  media  for  the  production 
of  spores  with  aerobes  are  broth,  agar,  and  these  with  the  addition  of 
2  p.c.  lactose.  He  finds  that  an  addition  of  5  p.c.  glycerin  to  the 
medium  has  a  inhibiting  influence  on  spore-production,  as  also  to  a  less 
extent  has  2  p.c.  glucose.  Several  repeated  cultivations  on  glycerin- 
agar  created  an  asporogenous  strain  of  the  organism.  Spore-formation 
is  affected  by  deficiency  of  nourishment,  but  only  if  the  bacilli  are  at 
the  height  of  their  development ;  the  greater  the  supply  of  oxygen 
the  better  for  the  spore-formation.  Spore- formation  of  anaerobes  is 
favoured  by  the  addition  of  glucose  or  glycerin. 

Bacteria  of  Flax  "  Retting." {  —  The  object  of  flax  retting  is  to 
dissolve  and  soften  the  rind  of  the  flax  stalks,  so  that  the  bast  bundles 
can  be  easily  separated  from  the  wood  ;  it  consists  in  the  removal  of  the- 

*  Trans.  Path.  Soc,  lv.  (1904)  pp.  340-74. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  IteAbt.  Orig.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  p.  388. 
X  K.  Akad.  Wetenscbappen,  vi.  (1904)  pp.  462-80. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  97 

pectose,  a  compound  of  lime  with  a  substance  which  is  chemically 
closely  related  to  cellulose,  and  which  together  with  cellulose  composes 
the  cell-walls. 

A.  van  Delden  finds  that  the  removal  of  pectose  is  effected  by 
various  micro-organisms,  among  which  are  the  aerobic  bacteria  B.  me- 
sentericus,  B.  subtilis,  and  their  allies,  certain  moulds,  and  especially  an 
anaerobic  bacterium  to  which  he  gives  the  name  of  Granulobacter 
pectinovorum,  and  the  nearly  related  Granulobacter  urocephalum. 

These  organisms  secrete  a  special  enzyme  "  pectosinase,"  which 
converts  the  pectose  into  pectine,  and  the  pectine  into  various  sugars, 
which  undergo  fermentation  with  the  production  of  H,  C02,  and 
butyric  acid. 

Granulobacter  pectinovorum  is  a  long  slender  rod,  which  later  be- 
comes swollen  at  one  end  by  an  oval  spore ;  grown  in  dilute  malt 
extract  anaerobically,  it  produces  fermentation  without  the  formation 
of  butyric  acid ;  with  starch,  inulin,  mannite,  erythrite  and  glycerin, 
fermentation  could  not  be  produced  ;  with  pepton  and  with  dilute 
broth  or  albumen  as  a  source  of  nitrogen,  fermentation  occurred  in 
glucose,  laevoluse,  galactose,  milk-sugar,  and  maltose,  with  a  slight  pro- 
duction of  butyric  acid  ;  with  ammonium  salts  as  a  source  of  nitrogen, 
fermentation  cannot  be  produced  with  any  of  these  sugars  ;  proteids 
and  gelatin  are  peptonised.  Cellulose  is  quite  unaffected  by  this 
organism,  hence  the  flax  fibre  remains  quite  unchanged  in  the  process 
of  "  retting." 

Morphology  and  Biology  of  Bacillus  Zopfii.* — Swellengrebel  has 
isolated  this  organism  from  milk  ;  he  regards  it  as  being  associated 
with  putrefactive  processes.  It  is  a  very  motile  rod  2  •  5  //.  long  with 
numerous  flagella ;  stains  by  ordinary  dyes  and  by  the  methods  of 
Gram  and  Claudius.  He  is  satisfied  that  spores  are  formed,  having 
followed  the  phases  of  their  development  on  agar  plates.  On  gelatin 
plates  the  colonies  have  opaque  white  centres,  with  radiating  offshoots 
of  smaller  transparent  yellowish  colonies.  He  never  observed  lique- 
faction of  the  gelatin  ;  he  only  obtained  a  growth  in  a  gelatin  stab  at 
a  temperature  of  22°  C.  On  agar  he  distinguishes  two  forms  of  colonies, 
the  one  small,  greyish  white,  with  fine  offshoots  and  surrounded  by  a 
transparent  zone,  as  is  described  by  Lehman  and  Neumann  ;  the  other 
resembling  this,  but  of  a  denser  appearance.  Growth  in  bouillon  varies 
according  to  the  temperature  ;  at  room  temperature  it  forms  a  sediment, 
the  liquid  is  not  clouded,  and  there  is  no  pellicle  ;  at  26°  C.  a  pellicle 
is  formed,  but  he  never  found  the  medium  clouded  ;  the  reaction  is 
alkaline  ;  growth  is  equally  good  at  30°  C.  On  potato  it  forms  a 
greyish-white  film.  In  milk  it  produces  no  coagulation  and  no  change 
in  reaction.  In  glucose  and  lactose  broths  it  grew  well :  after  5  davs 
he  noted  acid-production  in  both,  especially  with  glucose  ;  the  broth 
was  clouded  and  had  a  foetid  odour  ;  he  never  observed  any  production 
of  gas.  The  power  to  form  indol  is  variable  ;  a  7 -day  old  culture  at 
26°  C.  in  pepton  solution  (2  p.c.)  gave  a  strong  positive  reaction.     He 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xviii.  (1904)  p.  712. 
Feb.  15th,  1905  H 


08  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

classes  the  organism  with  l'>.  vulgare  and  B.  Zen  kit,  and  givea  the  dis- 
tinguishing  characters. 

Decomposition  of  Cellulose  by  Aerobic  Organisms.* — Van  Itersen 
Jnr.,  finds  that  cellulose  can  be  made  to  dissolve  by  the  action  of 
denitrifying  non-sporing  aerobic  bacteria  if  the  supply  of  air  is  limited. 
Cellulose  may  be  attacked,  also,  when  the  air  supply  is  not  limited,  by 
certain  widely  distributed  aerobic  non-sporing  bacteria,  among  which  is 
the  brown  pigmented  Bacillus  f err ugineus.  The  destruction  is  especially 
strong  in  symbiosis  with  a  yellow  micrococcus,  which  is  itself  inert.  He 
finds  that  the  destruction  of  cellulose  by  moulds  is  due  to  an  enzyme,  to 
which  he  gives  the  name  of  "  cellulase."  He  considers  that  one  of  the 
origins  of  the  colour  of  humus  is  the  pigment  formed  from  cellulose  by 
bacteria  and  moulds. 

Bacterium  that  obtains  its  Carbon  Food  from  the  Air.f— M.  W. 
Beijerinck  and  A.  van  Delden  describe  an  organism  which  they  have 
named  Bacillus  Oligocarbophilus  ;  it  obtains  its  carbon  food  from  certain 
as  yet  undetermined  carbon  compounds  of  the  air.  Cultures  on  solid 
media  and  nutrient  solutions  containing  soluble  organic  substances  have 
failed,  whereas  pure  cultures  can  readily  be  obtained  on  media  not  con- 
taining soluble  carbon  compounds.  It  was  isolated  by  them  from  garden 
soil,  inoculated  in  an  alkaline  mineral  fluid  medium,  after  2—3  weeks 
incubation  at  23-25°  C. ;  it  appeared  as  a  white  or  slightly  rose-coloured 
dry  film,  macroscopically  resembling  Mycoderma ;  it  consists  of  thin, 
short  rods,  0 •  5-1  jx  long;  it  grows  slightly  or  not  at  all  on  ordinary 
media  ;  it  grows  well  on  silica  plates  ;  it  does  not  nitrify. 

Variations  in  the  Colours  of  Moulds  and  Bacteria4— T.  Milbum 
finds  that  the  colours  of  the  conidia  of  Hypocrea  rufa  and  Hypocrea 
gelatinosa  depend  on  the  reaction  of  the  medium  ;  with  an  acid  reaction 
green  spores  are  produced,  yellow  spores  being  formed  on  an  alkaline 
medium.  He  finds  that  a  well  nourished  mycelium  has  no  fructification 
in  the  dark,  but  by  an  addition  of  excess  of  acid,  or  with  a  less  nourish- 
ing medium,  the  formation  of  conidia  commences.  Aspergillus  niger 
forms,  besides  the  well  known  black  colouring  matter,  a  more  or  less 
abundant  yellow  pigment,  which  the  author  has  also  observed  in  the 
black  spores  ;  this  yellow  colour  is  very  sensitive  to  light,  and  becomes 
grey  and  black  after  exposure  for  a  few  hours.  Bacillus  ruber  balticus 
also  has  its  pigment  production  influenced  by  the  reaction  of  the 
medium,  producing  a  violet  coloration  with  an  acid  medium,  and  an 
orange-red  colour  when  the  medium  is  alkaline. 

Bacillus  helixoides,  a  bacillus  that  forms  Colonies  with  Snail- 
like Movements.§ — T.  Muto  (Tokio)  isolated  this  organism  from  his  own 
saliva.  Two  forms  of  the  bacillus  occur  in  the  same  colony.  Those 
at  the  peripheral  moving  parts  of  the  colony  are  oval  truncated  rods, 
2-4-5  fx  long  and  about  0mG4  jx  broad,  existing  singly  or  two  or  three 

♦  K.  Akad.  Wetenscbappen,  v.  (1903)  pp.  G85-703. 

t  Tom.  cit..  pp.  398-413. 

%  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  257-75.  ; 

§  Op.  cit.,  l,e  Abt,  Orig,..  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  321-5. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  99 

together,  and  occasionally  forming  threads.  Those  in  the  central  station- 
ary part  of  the  colony  are  only  abont  a  quarter  as  long,  and  resemble  oval 
uocci ;  they  exist  usually  in  pairs.  The  organism  probably  does  not 
form  spores,  since  it  is  killed  after  15  minutes'  heating  at  G0°  C.  It 
stains  with  the  ordinary  aniline  dyes,  but  not  by  Gram's  method. 
B.  Helixoides  is  actively  motile  ;  but  the  bacilli  in  the  water  of  con- 
densation in  an  agar  culture  and  in  milk  are  non-motile,  very  adhering, 
and  form  threads  ;  if  these  are  transferred  to  salt  solution,  they  at  once 
exhibit  active  movement.  They  possess  8-10  flagella.  This  bacillus  is 
a  facultative  aerobe.  It  grows  best  at  about  30°  C.  Agar  stab  cultures 
produce  no  gas.  Gelatin  is  not  liquefied.  The  colonies  are  distinguished 
according  to  their  movement  as  snail-like,  tendril-forming,  and  cloud- 
like colonies  Detailed  account  is  given  of  the  cultural  characteristics 
on  various  media  ;  growth  being  especially  bad  in  broth,  pepton-water, 
and  milk.  Indol  reation  was  not  observed.  It  is  not  pathogenic  for 
mice,  rats,  rabbits,  guinea-pigs,  dogs,  or  pigeons. 

Nutrition  of  Bacterium  Acacise.* — R.  Greig  Smith,  who  has  already 
shown  that  when  Bad.  acacia,  and  Bad.  metarabinum  are  sown  on 
saccharose-potato-tannin-agar,  luxuriant  slimes  are  produced,  from  which 
arabin  and  metarabin  can  be  obtained,  now  records  observations  on  the 
nutrition  of  Bad.  acacm.  This  organism  can  produce  gum  readily  in  the 
presence  of  suitable  nutrients  ;  the  best  sources  of  carbon  being  levulose 
and  saccharose.  When  subcultivated  on  sugar-free  media,  the  power  of 
forming  gum  is  temporarily  lost.  Amides  are  the  best  nitrogenous 
nutrients.  Some  salts,  such  as  alkaline  citrate  and  succinate,  are 
favourable.  Sumach  tannin  assists  the  formation  of  slime  on  agar 
media.  The  optimum  temperature  is  17°  C.  Gum  acacia  has  not  a 
cellulose  origin,  but  is  formed  from  levulose  and  maltose.  The  flux 
produced  by  inoculating  peach-trees  with  Bad.  acacm  is  a  metarabin 
gum.  The  host-plant  can  convert  Bad.  acacm  into  Bad.  metarabinum, 
proving  that  the  latter  is  a  variety  of  the  former  producing  an  insoluble 
gum.  This  explains  the  uniformity  of  the  gums  from  certain  species 
of  trees. 

Bacterial  Disease  of  Cauliflower.!  —  F.  C.  Harrison  describes  a 
disease  of  the  cauliflower  and  allied  plants,  due  to  the  action  of  Bacillus 
oleracece.  The  bacillus  varies  considerably  in  length  (1-4  /*)  according 
to  the  medium  on  which  it  is  cultivated  and  to  the  host  on  which  it  is 
found.  The  ends  are  always  rounded  :  it  is  usually  single,  but  short 
chains  occasionally  occur.  It  possesses  7-18  peritrichous  flagella.  It 
does  not  form  spores,  is  easily  stained,  but  not  by  Gram's  method. 
It  grows  well  on  most  artificial  media,  the  optimum  temperature  being 
about  30°  C.  It  is  a  potential  anaerobe,  but  grows  better  in  the 
presence  of  oxygen.  It  produces  acid  ;  ammonia  ;  hydrogen  sulphide  ; 
a  characteristic  odour  ;  and  enzymes.  Of  these  latter  the  most  interest- 
ing is  a  cytase  which  has  the  power  of  destroying  the  cell-wall  of  various 
plants. 

*  Proc.  I. inn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  217-52  (2  pis.). 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2le  Abt.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  46-55,  185-98  (6  pis.). 

H  -2 


100  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Tobacco  Wilt  Disease.* — Y.  Uyeda,  who  has  studied  the  tobacco  wilt 
disease,  states  that  it  is  caused  by  bacteria  which  enter  by  the  roots,  the 
stomata,  or  through  wounds.  The  bacillus  is  found  in  the  affected  parts 
in  almost  pure  culture.  The  bacillus  is  0*6-0  '9  //.wide  and  1-1*2  /* 
long.  It  usually  has  8  flagella.  It  grows  best  at  32°  C,  and  is  a 
potential  anaerobe.  On  gelatin  the  growth  is  slow,  and  the  pellicles,  white 
at  first,  gradually  become  black.  In  about  five  weeks  the  medium  is 
liquefied.  In  glucose  agar  or  glucose  broth  it  produces  gas,  a  little  acid, 
and  a  rancid  odour.  It  saponifies  milk,  and  on  potato  produces  a  yellow 
pigment,  which  gradually  turns  brown.  On  agar  the  colonies  are  round 
and  dirty  white,  while  just  beyond  the  medium  is  stained  brown. 

Gradwohl,  R.  B.  H. — Importance  de  l'Examen  bacteriologique  pratique  sur 
les  Cadavres.  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  767-73. 

Kuntze,  W. — Beitrage  zur  Morphologic  und  Physiologic  der  Bakterien.  (Contri- 
butions to  the  morphology  and  pbsiology  of  Bacteria  as  exemplified  in  the  case  of 
B.  denitrificans  agilis  (Ampola  and  Garino)  and  B.  oxalaticus  (Zopf). 

Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2,c  Abt.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  1-12  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.). 


Centralb.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  327-9  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


101 


MICROSCOPY. 


A.   Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 
(1)  Stands. 

Koristka's  large  Model   Microscope. f — F.  Koristka's  large  model 
Microscope,  IV.  a  (fig.  25)  has  a  rectangular  ebonite  stage,  88  X  85  mm., 


Fig.  25. 

and  an  Abbe  condenser  of  N.A.  1"2.     The  substage  apparatus  is  raised 
and  lowered  by  means  of  rack  and  pinion  movement,  and  is  supplied 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives;  (3)  Illu- 
minating and  other  Apparatus;  (4)  Photomicrography;  (5)  Microscopical  Optics 
and  Manipulation  ;  (6)  Miscellaneous. 

X  F.  Koristka's  Special  Catalogue,  Milan,  November,  1904. 


102 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 


with  an  iris  diaphragm.  The  stage  can  be  fixed  at  any  angle  by  means 
of  a  clamping  handle,  and  the  draw-tube  is  marked  with  millimetre 
divisions.  Instead  of  a  rectangular,  the  instrument  can  be  supplied  with 
a  circular  stage  of  95  mm.  diameter  (fig.  20),  the  rotation  axis  of  which 


Fig.  26. 


can  be  centred  on  the  optic  axis  of  the  instrument  by  means  of  two  bind- 
ing screws.  By  means  of  these  covers  there  is  afforded  a  displacement 
of  6  mm.  in  every  direction,  so  that  this  stage  may  be  made  to  work  as  a 
travelling  stage. 

Differential  Screw  Fine  Adjustment.*  —  W.  Forgan  had  three 
"  two  speed  "  differential  fine  adjustments  made  upon  Ashe's  plan.||  In 
the  first,  the  quicker  motion  was  3^  inch,  and  the  slower  5^5-  inch  for 
each  revolution  ;  in  the  second,  the  slowest  motion  was  j^Vo'  and  in  the 
third,  •j-J-j  for  a  revolution.     As  some  slight  hesitancy  was  observed 

*  Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Soc,  1903-4,  p.  47. 

||  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  ser.  2,  viii.  (1901)  p.  131 ;  Journ.  R.M.S.,  1902 
p.  232,  figs.  40-2. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  103 

when  the  motion  was  reversed,  notwithstanding  that  the  opposing  spring 
was  a  strong  one,  a  "  single  speed  "  lever  motion  was  tried,  the  ratio  of 
the  arms  of  the  lever  being  8  to  1,  the  fine  adjustment  screw  having 
100  threads  to  the  inch,  with  an  opposing  spring  strong  enough  to 
require  7  lb.  to  move  it.  This  was  found  to  require  a  weight  of  only 
£  oz.  to  turn  the  head  of  the  fine  adjustment  screw,  and  to  work  in  a 
perfectly  satisfactory  manner. 

(2)  Eye-pieces  and  [Objectives. 

Spencer  Objective.*— F.  J.  Keeley  describes  a  Microscope  objec- 
tive of  I  inch  focus  made  in  1860  by  Charles  A.  Spencer.  It  was 
recently  necessary  to  take  apart  the  back  system  for  re-balsaming,  when 
it  was  found  to  consist  of  five  lenses,  three  of  which  were  convex  and 
two  concave.  One  of  these  proved,  on  examination  with  polarized  light, 
to  be  fluorite.  This  objective  is  historically  interesting  as  illustrating 
the  complex  nature  of  the  corrections  adopted  by  Spencer  at  so  early  a 
date,  as  well  as  confirming  the  previous  reports  that  he  had  appreciated 
the  possibilities  connected  with  the  use  of  fluorite  in  securing  superior 
colour  corrections,  and  employed  it  for  the  purpose  twenty  years  before  it 
came  into  use  abroad.  The  objective  has  an  aperture  of  142  to  \^2 
degrees,  according  to  position  of  the  collar  adjustment,  which  acts  by 
the  movement  of  the  back  systems,  and  it  is  unusually  well  corrected 
for  colour.  It  resolves  Pleurosigma  angulatum  sharply  into  dots  with 
central  light  from  mirror,  and  with  oblique  illumination  resolves  mark- 
ings 76,000  to  the  inch. 

H. — Construction  of  aplanatic  combinations  of  lenses,  with  or  without  achromatism. 

English  Mechanic,  lxxx.  (1904)  pp.  252-3,  321-2,  340,  406-8. 
Merlin,  A.  A.  C. — Microscopical  high  powers  and  deep  eye-pieces. 

[The  writer  says  that  if  a  given  objective  capable  of  affording  a  really  clear, 
brilliant,  and  well-contrasted  image  under  a  x  12  ocular  when  a  large  solid 
illuminating  cone  is  used,  it  may  be  employed,  if  necessary,  in  conjunction 
with  the  deepest  eye-pieces,  so  as  to  give  results  just  as  satisfactory  as  would 
be  attainable  with  a  higher  power  objective  of  equal  N.A.  combined  with 
a  shallow  eye-piece.  Tom.  cit.,  p.  455. 

Vill agio— Ditto.  Tom.  cit.,  p.  3S4. 

(4)  Photomicrography. 

Photomicrography  with  the  Aid  of  Ultra-Violet  Light.f — Text- 
books of  science,  as  a  rule,  explain  microscopic  vision  with  the  aid  of 
rays.  This  elementary  explanation  does  not  fix  any  limit  to  the  possible 
magnification,  but  as  long  as  we  have  not  to  deal  with  dimensions  which 
are  comparable  to  the  wave-length  of  light,  it  does  not  bring  us  into 
conflict  with  observed  facts.  But  we  reach  the  limit  of  resolution  when 
the  distances  between  the  lines  of  the  object  are  less  than  half  a  wave- 
length of  the  light  with  which  we  illuminate  the  object.  The  theory 
which  Helmholtz  advanced  for  self-luminous  objects,  and  Abbe,  about 
the  same  time,  for  illuminated  objects,  regards  the  microscopic  images 
as  diffraction  phenomena  ;  and  this  theory,  some  points  of  which  Dr. 
Glazebrook  has  recently  cleared  up,  also  indicates  the  way  in  which 

*  Proo.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Philadelphia,  lvi.  (1904)  p.  475. 
t  Engineering,  lxxviii.  (1904)  p.  700. 


104  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

further  resolution  may  be  procured.     "We  ought  to  work  with  light  of 

very  small  wave-length.     Since  the  wave-length  is  determined  by  the 

y 
quotient  A  =  -  the  velocity  of  light  divided  by  the  number  of  vibra- 
tions, two  ways  seem  to  be  open  in  order  to  obtain  a  smaller  A.  We 
may  either  decrease  the  velocity  of  the  light,  or  increase  the  number  of 
vibrations.  The  first  can  be  accomplished  by  immersing  the  object  in 
a  liquid  of  high  refractive  index — glycerin,  balsam,  salt  solution,  etc. 
The  method  is  applied  to  a  certain  extent,  but  does  not  carry  us  much 
further.  The  second  method  illuminates  the  object,  not  with  ordinary 
white  light,  but  with  violet  vibrations  of  higher  frequency.  It  was 
first  proposed  by  Amici,  and  is  also  used.  But  the  intensity  of  the 
violet  light  is  very  feeble,  or,  rather,  the  eye  is  not  very  sensitive  to 
violet  rays.  In  photomicrography  the  second  objection  does  not  count, 
but  the  feeble  intensity  remains  a  drawback.  A.  Kohler,  of  Jena,  has 
therefore  tried  ultra-violet  light,  notably  the  rays  given  out  by  electric 
sparks  passing  between  cadmium  electrodes.  These  rays,  of  wave-length 
275  p  fj.,  have  a  high  intensity.  Dr.  Kohler  described  his  new  camera- 
microscope,  which  has  been  constructed  by  the  Zeiss  Glas  Werke,  of 
Jena,  before  the  Breslau  meeting  of  the  Naturforscher-Versammlung. 
The  lenses  of  this  Microscope  are  made  of  crystal  and  of  fused  quartz  ; 
they  need  only  be  corrected  for  spherical  aberration,  because  no  chro- 
matic aberration  has  to  be  guarded  against  when  monochromatic  light 
is  used.  As  the  ultra-violet  light  is  invisible,  however,  an  artificial  eye 
has  to  be  combined  with  the  Microscope  for  focussing  and  adjusting. 
This  artificial  eye  consists  of  optical  parts  made  of  crystal,  and  of  a 
retina  made  of  fluorescent  glass,  which  responds  to  ultra-violet  rays. 
The  observer  examines  through  a  lens  the  image  thrown  on  this  artificial 
retina.  The  instrument  can,  indeed,  also  be  used  for  subjective  vision 
by  ultra-violet  rays,  and  for  this  purpose  magnesium  light,  of  wave- 
length 280  /a  /*,  is  still  more  suitable  than  the  cadmium  light.  But  the 
fluorescent  light  is  injurious  to  the  eye,  and  the  finest  detail  can  only 
be  studied  by  photography.  Yet  the  fluorescence  helps  in  bringing  out 
further  detail.  Dr.  Kohler  also  immerses  his  specimens — so  far,  mostly 
organic  tissues — in  a  mixture  of  glycerin  and  water,  or  in  salt  solution, 
of  which  physiologists  make  large  use.  The  ultra-violet  rays  at  once 
show  differences  in  the  structure,  which,  hitherto,  staining  had  alone 
revealed.  Thus  the  horny  portions  of  the  epidermis,  the  membranes 
of  plant  cells,  and  other  parts,  are  more  or  less  impermeable  to  ultra- 
violet rays,  so  that  other  advantages  are  realised  in  addition  to  the 
increased  resolution.  It  would  not  be  surprising  if  ultra-violet  illu- 
mination should  also  render  good  service  in  metallography. 

Three-Colour  Photography.* — Chapman  Jones  gives  the  following 
resume  of  two  processes  of  colour  photography. 

Kdniff^s  Three-Colour  Process.- — This  process,  only  recently  pub- 
lished, has  attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention,  and  deservedly  so,  for  it 
not  only  illustrates  a  new  principle  as  applied  to  the  purpose  of  colour 
photography,  but  has  been  worked'  out  by  its  author  to  a  successful 

*  Knowledge,  i.  (1904)  pp.  285-6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  105 

issue.  Whether  or  not  it  will  be  found  to  fulfil  the  conditions  necessary 
to  establish  itself  as  a  standard  or  commercial  process,  only  time  can 
prove.  It  is  a  triple  film  method,  but  differs  from  those  previously 
proposed,  in  that  each  colour  is  printed  out  by  light. 

Many  of  the  organic  dye-stuffs  yield  on  reduction  colourless  or 
leuco-derivatives,  which  can  be  oxidised  to  reproduce  the  original  colour 
■with  more  or  less  facility,  and  exposure  to  light  generally  facilitates  this 
oxidation.  By  choosing  a  dye  of  a  suitable  colour,  and  one  that  yields 
a  leuco-derivative  of  sufficient  stability  to  withstand  the  necessary 
operations  and  yet  is  sensitive  enough  for  practical  printing  purposes, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  colour  may  be  obtained  directly  by  exposure  to 
light  under  the  negative,  and  the  necessity  for  a  relief  produced  by  the 
chromated  gelatin  process,  or  any  similar  indirect  method  of  getting 
-the  required  distribution  of  the  colour,  is  obviated. 

These  leuco-derivatives  were  found  to  be  useless  by  themselves  or  in 
an  inert  film,  as  they  then  gave  only  poor  and  flat  images,  but  the 
presence  of  a  nitric  acid  ester  was  discovered  to  overcome  this  difficulty. 
Pyroxylin  being  an  ester  of  nitric  acid  a  collodion  film  is  employed, 
and  mannite  nitrate  is  very  suitable  for  further  augmenting  the  sensi- 
tiveness. The  removal  of  the  excess  of  the  leuco-derivative  after 
exposure  was  at  first  a  difficulty,  as  ordinary  solvents  and  acids  were 
found  useless  for  the  purpose.  But  monochloracetic  acid  is  effective, 
and  it  is  used  as  a  10  p.c.  solution. 

The  process  consists  in  coating  a  suitably  surfaced  paper  with  a 
1|  p.c.  collodion,  to  which  the  leuco-derivative  and  other  desirable 
materials  have  been  added,  exposing  under  the  appropriate  negative 
until  the  colour  is  sufficiently  intense,  fixing  in  the  chloracetic  acid 
solution,  washing,  and  dipping  into  a  gelatin  solution  that  contains 
•chrome  alum,  and  drying.  The  print  is  again  dipped  into  the  gelatin 
solution  and  dried  to  effectively  protect  the  collodion  film  during  the 
application  of  the  collodion  that  is  to  furnish  the  second  colour.  This 
routine  is  repeated  for  the  second  colour,  and  again  for  the  third,  and 
the  print  is  finally  varnished. 

The  method  of  judging  when  each  colour  is  correctly  printed  is  not 
very  clear,  as  it  seems  impossible  to  adjust  the  depth  of  tint  of  the 
films  that  are  sealed  up  by  the  subsequent  coatings.  The  process  is 
apparently  rather  tedious,  as  there  are  three  collodion  films,  six  gelatin 
coatings,  and  a  final  coating  of  varnish  to  dry.  The  obvious  objection 
to  the  number  of  films  because  of  their  combined  thickness  is  probably 
invalid,  as  the  collodion  and  the  gelatin  solution  used  are  weak,  and  the 
films  they  give  correspondingly  thin.  A  real  difficulty  I  should  have 
expected  to  be  due  to  the  action  of  the  chloracetic  acid  on  the  gelatin 
films  under  the  collodion  film  that  is  being  subjected  to  the  fixing 
operation,  but  doubtless  this  possibility  has  received  attention. 

Lumiere's  Starch  Method  of  Three-Coloiir  Photography. — This  process, 
which  was  described  about  six  months  ago,  contrasts  very  emphatically 
with  Konig's  method  in  the  simplicity  of  the  necessary  manipulation. 
No  colour-screens  or  filters  are  needed,  there  are  no  films  to  stain,  no 
-colours  to  produce  of  the  correct  intensity  to  match  one  another,  no 
separate  negatives  with  subsequent  printings,  but  merely  one  exposure, 


106  SUMMARY   OF   CUBRENT   RESEABCHES   RELATING  TO 

ordinary  development,  and  then,  instead  of  fixing,  the  silver  image  i& 
dissolved  ont  and  the  remaining  silver  salt  reduced  to  the  metallic  state. 
But  if  the  work  of  the  photographer  himself  is  simple,  it  is  because  of 
the  complex  character  of  the  prepared  plate  ;  and  presumably  it  is  the 
difficulties  of  manufacture  that  have  led  to  the  delay  in  putting  the 
prepared  plates  on  the  market.  The  plates  are  made  by  selecting  starch 
granules  of  from  15  to  20  thousandths  of  a  millimetre  in  diameter,, 
staining  quantities  of  them  red,  green,  and  violet  respectively,  drying 
them,  mixing  them  so  that  neither  colour  predominates,  but  that  the 
whole  presents  a  neutral  grey  tint,  and  spreading  the  mixture  on  glass 
one  layer  thick.  The  interstices  are  filled  in  with  a  fine  black  powder,, 
and  the  layer  is  fixed  and  protected  by  a  coat  of  varnish.  On  this  is 
put  a  film  of  suitably  colour-sensitised  emulsion.  Exposure  is  given 
through  the  glass,  and  the  subsequent  treatment  of  the  plate  is  as 
described  above.  The  dyed  starch  granules  form  an  irregularly  grained 
three-colour  screen,  which  serves  the  double  purpose  of  taking  and 
viewing. 

It  is  easy  to  describe  such  a  process,  but  besides  the  obvious  me- 
chanical difficulty  of  preparing  the  plates,  there  must  be  many  com- 
promises made  before  the  result  can  be  passably  satisfactory.  The  best 
three  colours  for  the  exposure  are  not  the  best  three  for  viewing  the 
picture,  but  in  this  case  they  have  to  be  the  same.  If  the  stained 
starch  granules  are  mixed  to  the  most  neutral  tint  possible,  it  appears 
that  a  perfectly  orthochromatised  sensitive  film  would  be  necessary. 
The  imperfections  of  the  film  in  this  matter  must  be  neutralised  as  far 
as  possible.  Indeed,  the  difficulties  of  which  the  photographer  is 
relieved  have  to  be  overcome  by  the  manufacturer,  and  in  this  particular 
case  they  are  so  many  and  complex  that  if  it  had  not  been  stated  that 
results  have  been  obtained  in  the  manner  described,  we  might  very  well 
doubt  the  possibility  of  it. 

Photomicrography  and  Photomicrometry.* — J.  Thompson  employed 
a  fixed  magnifying  power  (say  lOOOdiams.)  for  photographing  the  object 
to  be  measured.  This  is  obtained  by  using  an  oil  immersion  TV  with  a 
certain  eye-piece,  a  fixed  tube  length,  and  screen  distance.  A  sheet  of 
paper  is  ruled  in  squares.  This  is  photographed  by  an  ordinary  camera, 
and  reduced  until  the  squares  measure  1  mm.  on  the  negative.  This. 
negative  is  printed  on  the  same  positive  as  the  photomicrograph  ;  a 
direct  measurement  can  therefore  be  made,  because  each  mm.  represents 
a  micron  magnified  1000  times.  Other  fixed  magnifying  powers  are 
treated  in  a  similar  manner. 

Mathet,  L. — Sur  la  reproduction  desobjetsdifficiles  par  la  photomicrograpbie.    (A 
series  of  articles  on  the  photomicrography  of  difficult  objects.) 

Bev.  Sci.  Photographiques,  i.  (1904)  pp.  18-22,  48-53,  117-22, 

176-80,  231-4  (23  figs.). 

(5)  Microscopical   Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Aperture  Table. — It  will  be  noticed  that  the  limii-fer  resolving  power 
for  white  light  in  the  aperture  table,  printed  npon  the  fly-leaf  of  this 

*  Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Soc,  iv.  (1903-4)  p.  44  (pis.  iii.-vi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  107 

Journal,  has  been  altered.  Mr.  Gifford's  measure  of  A  for  white  light, 
viz.  0*5607  /a  has  been  substituted  for  that  hitherto  used,  viz.  0  *  5261)  //. 
(line  E).  In  the  calculation  the  new  metrical  conversion  table  "  for 
same  temperature"  was  employed. 

Resolution  of  Amphipleura  Pellucida.*  — C.  Mostyn  has  resolved 
the  transverse  striae  on  the  Amphipleura  pellucida  with  a  water  immersion 
-j1^  N.A.  1*18,  by  means  of  superstate  illumination,  simply  obtained  by 
reflecting  sunlight  with  the  mirror  turned  up  above  the  stage.  The 
author  is  able  to  obtain  an  "  ink-black "  ground  by  this  means,  and 
observes  that  light  from  an  §-in.  paraffin  wick  is  not  sufficiently  powerful 
for  this  kind  of  superstage  illumination. 

Ultramicroscopic  Observations  on  the  Decomposition  of  Sulphur 
from  Thiosulphuric  acid  and  of  Selenium  from  Selenic  acid.j — The 
investigations  of  Siedentopf  and  Zsigmondy  with  ultra-microscopical 
particles  suggested  to  W.  Biltz  that,  although  the  measurements  of 
so-called  "molecular  dimensions"  are  somewhat  beyond  the  limits  of 
resolution,  yet  the  observer's  methods  might  be  usefully  applied  to  the 
investigation  of  certain  cases  of  chemical  composition  and  decomposition. 
He  considers  that  (1)  the  ultramicroscope  draws  a  sharp  distinction 
between  completely  homogeneous  (or  "  optically  empty  ")  solutions  and 
those  which  appear  turbid  through  a  more  or  less  fine  suspension  of 
minute  particles  :  the  diagnosis  of  so-called  colloidal  solutions  being 
thereby  simplified  ;  (2)  that  it  lends  itself  to  a  more  accurate  study  of 
certain  processes  by  which  a  heterogeneous  medium  is  formed  out  of  one 
originally  homogeneous.  He  has  examined  the  decomposition  of  thio- 
sulphuric acid  into  sulphurous  acid  and  sulphur  (H2S203  =  H2S03  -f  S), 
and  the  conversion  of  selenic  and  sulphurous  acids  into  selenium  and 
sulphuric  acid  (H2Se03  +  2H2S03  =  H,0  +  Se  +  2H2S04).  Great  diffi- 
culty was  experienced  in  freeing  the  reagents,  especially  distilled  water, 
from  dust,  but  eventually  success  was  attained.  It  was  found  that  india- 
rubber  couplings  had  to  be  avoided  owing  to  partial  solution.  Experi- 
ments were  also  performed  with  proper  mixtures  of  sodium  thiosulphate 
and  oxalic  acid.  Observations  were  made  at  suitable  time-intervals,  and 
several  tables  are  given  recording  the  growth  of  the  particles  and  their 
colour-changes.  In  some  cases  the  growth  seems  to  be  continuous,  in 
others  discontinuous. 

Colours  in  Metal  Glasses  and  in  Metallic  Films.f — J.  C.  Maxwell 
Garnett  seeks  to  explain  the  phenomena  observed  by  Siedentopf  and 
Zsigmondy  by  proving  that  the  metal  particles  observed  in  gold  glass 
are  spherical  in  shape  when  the  diameters  are  less  than  10"5  cm.  The 
fact  that  such  particles  are  spherical  throws  light  on  the  manner  in 
which  metals  crystallise  out  of  solution,  the  particles  taking  first  a 
spherical  form  under  the  influence  of  surface  tension,  and  later,  when 
they  become  too  large  for  the  forces  of  surface  tension  to  overcome  the 

*  Knowledge,  i.  (1904)  p.  307.     An  interesting  question  arises  from  this  note, 
How  does  light  of  an  obliquity  greater  than  the  critical  angle  get  into  the  slide  ? — Ed. 
t  Nachrichten  Konigl.  Gesell.  wiss.  zu  Gottingen,  (1904)  pp.  300-10. 
X  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxxiii.  (1904)  pp.  443-5. 


108  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

crystallic  forces,  becoming  amenable  to  the  latter.  He  also  shows  that 
every  transparent  medium  containing  metal  spherules,  so  that  the 
average  distance  between  two  neighbouring  spheres  is  considerably  less 
than  a  wave-length  of  light,  has  a  perfectly  definite  colour  by  trans- 
mitted light  depending  only  on  the  optical  constants  of  the  metal  of 
which  the  spheres  are  made,  on  the  refractive  index  of  the  substance  in 
which  they  are  imbedded,  and  on  the  quantity  of  metal,  but  not  on  the 
size  or  distance  apart  of  the  spheres.  It  results  that  the  presence  of 
metal  spheres  accounts  for  the  optical  properties  of  gold  ruby  glass,  and 
that  the  irregularities  in  the  effects  of  colour  and  polarisation,  sometimes 
exhibited  by  gold  glasses,  are  due  either  to  excessive  distance  between 
adjacent  gold  particles  or  to  excessive  size  of  such  particles — the  latter, 
however,  involving  the  former.  The  author  found  that  this  regular 
colour  can  be  produced  in  a  colourless  metal  glass  containing  the  metal 
in  solution  (which  is  the  state  in  the  manufacture  of  gold  or  copper 
ruby  glass  before  the  second  heating)  by  the  /3-radiation  from  radium. 
The  author  also  investigates  the  optical  property  of  media  built  up  out 
of  metal  spheres  so  that  the  volume  of  metal  may  have  any  value 
between  zero  and  unity,  instead  of  remaining  very  small  as  in  metal 
glasses.  He  thus  arrives  at  an  explanation  of  the  changes  in  colour  of 
gold  and  silver  films  observed  by  G.  T.  Beilby,  and  of  potassium  and 
sodium  films  deposited  on  the  insides  of  exhausted  glass  bulbs. 

Construction-Principle  of  an  Optical  Apparatus  for  obtaining 
very  Large  Magnifications  [The  Diastoloscope].* — M.  C.  Chabrie 
has  investigated  the  question  whether,  instead  of  the  ordinary  mode  of 
obtaining  an  image  geometrically  like  the  object,  it  would  not  be  more 
advantageous  to  produce  images,  deformed  but  highly  enlarged,  and 
then  afterwards,  by  an  inverse  geometrical  construction  made  on  paper 
to  a  suitably  selected  scale,  reconstruct  the  objects  in  their  true  pro- 
portions. His  method  depends  upon  the  effect  of  viewing  an  object 
(a  disc)  through  a  crystal  in  the  shape  of  a  right  cone  with  an  accurately 
circular  base.  The  cone-axis  is  arranged  perpendicularly  to  the  plane  of 
the  object  (fig.  27).  The  image  projected  on  a  screen  is  found  to  be  an 
annulus,  whose  centre  is  the  point  where  the  cone-axis  meets  the  screen. 
The  point  on  the  image  immediately  under  the  apex  of  the  cone  is  re- 
fracted into  the  outer  circumference  of  the  annulus,  and  other  points  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  that  point  are  projected  into  the  inner  neighbour- 
hood of  that  outer  circumference.  The  magnification  will  be  the  ratio  of 
the  image-circumference  to  the  object-circumference.  As  the  magnifica- 
tion of  the  centre  point  of  the  object- becomes  infinite,  it  will  be  readily 
understood  that  points  near  it  will  be  very  highly  enlarged.  It  will  also 
result  that  points  on  same  concentric  circumference  of  the  image  will 
have  equal  magnification,  and  that,  therefore,  if  a  region  of  the  object 
between  two  points  is  to  be  examined,  the  object  must  be  moved  so  as  to 
bring  these  points  on  to  the  same  circumference  in  the  image.  The 
object  may  of  course  be  considered  as  composed  of  concentric,  equi- 
distant zones,  whose  common  centre  is  the  intersection  of  the  cone-axis 

+-  Complee  Rendus,  exxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  265-8,  349-51,  5G0-3,  656  (14  figs.). 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 


109 


with  the  object-plane  ;  let  these  be  numbered,  mentally,  1,  2,  3,  4,  from 
the  centre  (fig.  28).  In  the  same  way  let  the  image  be  similarly  divided 
into  the  same  number  of  concentric  and  equi-distant  zones,  1,  2,  3,  4, 
towards  the  centre  (fig.  29)  :  then  the  zones  bearing  the  same  number 
will  correspond.  If,  also,  object  and  image  be  divided  up  by  radii  at 
equal  angular  distance,  then  the  object-intersection  of  a  zone  of  a 
certain  number  with  a  radius  of  any  number  will  correspond  to  the 
image-intersection  of  zone  and  radius  of  similar  numbers.  If  the  image 
be  received  on  a  glass  plate  engraved  with  such  a  system  of  circles  and 
radii,  the  object  can  then  be  reconstructed.  The  author  shows  that  the 
scale  of  magnification  is  a  hyperbola,  which  can  be  easily  drawn  and 
used  as  a  scale  of  reference.     He  recommends  that  the  image  be  viewed 


Fig.  27. 


Fig.  28. 


Fig.  29. 


through  a  second  cone  of  the  same  material  of  more  obtuse  vertical 
angle  than  the  first  cone :  these  two  cones  are  mounted  in  sliding- 
tubes  so  that  the  distance  between  them  may  be  varied  ;  and  the  whole 
is  applied  to  a  Microscope  in  place  of  the  usual  ocular.  The  Microscope, 
having  an  objective  in  the  usual  way,  is  introduced  into  the  bottom  of 
a  camera,  and  arranged  so  that  the  objective  image  is  sharply  focussed 
on  a  ground  glass  plate.  This  image  could  be  photographed.  The 
diastoloscope  is  then  applied.  The  author  hopes  to  realise  magnifica- 
tions of  5000-6000  diameters.  He  gives  some  specimens  of  his  results 
with  diatoms. 

F.  R.  M.  S.— Amphipleura  Lindheimeri. 

[The  writer  states  that  he  has  counted  76,000  transverse  and  65,000  longitudinal 
stri?e  to  the  inch  upon  this  diatom  in  a  Watson's  styrax  slide. 

English  Mechanic,  Ixxx.  (1904)  p.  455. 

Hunter,  J.—"  Cross"  formula.  Proc.  Scot.  Micr.  Soc,  iv.  (1903-4)  pp.  49-51. 


110  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 
CzAr ski,  Siegfried— Grundziige   der  Theorie  der  optischen  Instrumente  nach. 
Abbe.     Second  edition,  edited  by  O.  Eppeustein  and  M.  von  l!<ihr,  490  pp..  17*> 
tigs.  J.  A.  Barth,  Leipzig,  1904. 

Z  e  i  s  s,  Cab  i- — Die  Bilderzeugung  in  optischen  Instrument  en,  vom  Standpunkte  der 
geometrischen  Optik.  By  the  Scientific  Staff  of  Carl  Zeiss's  Works.  Edited  by 
M.  von  Rohr,  55S  pp.,  133  figs.  J.  Springer,  Berlin,  1904. 

B.  Technique.* 
(1)  ^Collecting  Objects,  including1  Culture   Processes. 

Diagnostic  Media  for  the  Study  of  Bacteria.f — G.  Marpman 
describes  the  uses  and  methods  of  preparing  various  media  for  differ- 
entiating bacteria  according  to  the  products  formed  by  the  growth  of 
the  rganism.  The  production  of  acids  or  alkalies  is  indicated  by 
using  lacmus  gelatin  or  chalk  gelatin ;  reducing  action  is  detected  by 
lacmus  gelatin  or  "  Rhodan-Eisen "  gelatin  ;  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
by  lead  gelatin  ;  sulphur  and  sulphates  by  gelatin  containing  nitro- 
prusside  of  sodium  ;  carbonic  acid  by  chloride  of  calcium  gelatin  ;  the 
formation  of  aldehyde  is  demonstrated  by  "  Malachit  Sulfit "  gelatin  ; 
the  presence  of  agglutinins  is  shown  by  safranin  gelatin  ;  and  silver 
gelatin,  poured  into  specially  devised  yellow  glass  petri  dishes,  is  used 
to  detect  the  formation  of  toxins,  antitoxins,  agglutinins,  coagulins,  etc. 

Detection  of  Bacillus  Enteriditis  Sporogenes  in  Water.! — E.  T. 
Hewlett  recommends  the  following  method.  Into  boiling  tubes,  40  c.cm. 
of  milk  are  introduced  ;  the  same  are  plugged  and  sterilised.  At  the 
time  of  using,  the  tubes  are  boiled  in  a  water-bath  for  a  few  minutes 
to  expel  air,  and  60  c.cm.  of  the  water  to  be  examined  are  added.  The 
wool  plugs  are  now  replaced  by  a  cover  of  two  thicknesses  of  sterile 
filter-paper  kept  in  place  by  a  rubber  band,  and  the  tubes  are  then 
heated  at  80°  C.  for  10-15  minutes,  and  incubated  anaerobically  at 
37°  C.  in  a  Bullock's  apparatus,  or  in  a  stoppered  museum  jar  of 
suitable  size  containing  alkalin  pyrogallic  solution.  By  using  a  dozen 
tubes,  700  c.cm.  of  the  water  can  thus  be  examined. 

Plate  Culture  of  Anaerobic  Bacteria. § — The  apparatus  described 
by  O.  Berner  consists  of  a  flat  vial  with  parallel  faces,  to  one  side  of 
which  is  fused  a  glass  cock.  The  nutrient  medium,  to  which  has 
been  added  some  methylen-blue  to  indicate  the  absence  of  oxygen,  is 
poured  into  the  vial,  the  neck  of  which  is  closed  by  a  wool  plug,  and 
the  whole  is  boiled  in  a  vessel  of  water  until  the  bine  colour  begins  to 
disappear.  The  wool  plug  is  now  replaced  by  a  perforated  rubber 
stopper,  provided  with  a  short  glass  tube  and  rubber  tubing.  Hydrogen 
is  then  passed  into  the  apparatus  until  the  blue  colour  has  entirely  dis- 
appeared ;  the  vial  is  taken  out  of  the  water,  the  neck  now  closed  with 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses; (2)  Preparing  Objects;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting  ;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  &c.  ; 
{(>)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Zeits.hr.  angew.  Mikr..  x.  (1904)  pp.  169-74. 

J  Trans.  Path.  .Soc.,lv.  (1904)  p.  123. 

§  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  478-S0    1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  1 1  1 

qi  solid  rubber  cork,  and  the  glass  cock  turned,  and  the  whole  set  aside 
to  cool,  and  if  solid  medium  to  solidify.  When  the  medium  is  inocu- 
lated the  vial  is  held  neck  downwards,  the  rubber  cork  is  removed, 
hydrogen  is  conducted  through  the  glass  cock ;  and  after  inoculation, 
it  is  corked  again  without  any  air  having  been  let  in. 

Isolating  Bacillus  Typhosus  from  the  Blood  and  Organs  after 
Death.* — By  the  method  devised  by  Fraenkel  and  Simmonds  the  spleen 
is  incubated  for  24  hours,  and  the  bacilli  can  then  be  readily  shown 
histologically.  For  cultivation  from  the  blood,  10-25  c.cm.  are  dis- 
tributed on  four  to  six  plates  of  glycerin  agar.  This  medium  is  pre- 
ferred to  Loeffler's  serum,  as  it  is  transparent,  is  not  liquefied,  and 
keeps  well. 

Bacteriological  Examination  of  Water  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.t 
Otto  and  Neumann,  during  a  voyage  from  Europe  to  Brazil,  made  a 
number  of  examinations  of  sea  water  taken  at  different  depths  and  at 
different  distances  from  the  land.  They  found  that  the  numbers  of 
organisms  were  less  in  the  high  sea  than  nearer  to  shore  ;  their  results 
in  mid-ocean  at  a  depth  of  5  metres  show  a  maximum  of  120  and  a 
mean  of  only  60  germs  per  cubic  centimetre.  The  fact  that  the  numbers 
were  often  less  at  the  surface  and  slightly  below  it  than  at  a  depth  of 
50  metres,  they  attribute  to  the  disinfecting  action  of  the  sun's  rays. 
The  greater  numbers  found  at  certain  depths  may  be  explained  by  the 
presence  of  deep  currents.  Their  plates  showed  Coli-like  bacilli,  Fluores- 
centes,  Proteus-like  liquefying  organisms,  sometimes  white  and  yellowish 
non-liquefying  colonies  of  rods  ;  occasional  vibrios  and  moulds. 

They  devised  a  special  collecting  apparatus  that  would  act  at  definite 
depths  and  under  the  varying  conditions  of  the  sea,  and  the  rate  of 
travelling  of  the  ship.  This  consists  of  a  copper  cylinder  firmly  bound 
to  a  rope  line  at  the  end  of  which  is  a  30  kilogrm.  lead  weight ;  the 
cylinder  is  provided  above  and  below  with  a  G-holed  brass  plate,  which 
is  closed  by  means  of  rubber  plates  held  fast  by  screws.  At  the  side 
there  is  an  opening  by  which  the  collected  water  can  be  let  off.  When 
the  apparatus  is  lowered  into  the  depth,  the  rubber  plates  will  be  raised 
and  the  water  rushes  in  through  the  cylinder  ;  on  raising  by  pulling  on 
the  line,  the  resulting  enormous  pressure  forces  down  the  rubber  plates 
and  closes  the  openings  of  entry  and  exit,  and  the  water  has  been 
collected  at  the  desireddepth.  To  determine  the  exact  depth  at  which 
the  sample  was  collected,  an  inverted  testrtube  lined  with  chromate  of 
silver  was  fixed  to  the  line  ;  the  red  of  the  chromate  is  changed  to 
white  from  below  upwards,  according  to  the  height  to  which  the  sea 
water  has  entered  the  tube,  and  this  is  dependent  on  the  pressure 
existing  at  the  depth.  With  this  instrument  a  scale  of  true  depths 
was  made. 

Isolating  Tetanus  Bacillus  from  the  Spleen. $ — Creite  states  that 
broth   cultures,    inoculated  with   portions   of  the   excised  wound  and 

*  Centralbt.  Bakt.,  Ref.  1"  AM,  xxxv.(1904)  p.  654. 

t  Op.  cit.,  '2,e  Abt..  xiii.(1904)  pp.  4S1-9. 

X  Op.  cit.,  P  Abt.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  312-14). 


112  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

incubated  anaerobically,  showed  the  presence  of  typical  Tetanus  bacilli 
with  spores  after  48  hours.  Portions  of  the  spleen,  taken  at  the 
autopsy,  were  inoculated  into  a  guinea-pig,  which  died  with  symptoms 
of  Tetanus  (coverslip  preparations  from  the  local  lesion  showing  typical 
bacilli  with  spores).  Broth  cultures,  inoculated  from  the  local  lesion 
and  incubated  anaerobically,  showed  the  presence  of  Tetanus  bacilli 
associated  with  streptococci  and  staphylococci.  In  three  other  cases  of 
Tetanus  all  attempts  to  isolate  the  organism  from  the  spleen,  cerebral 
fluid,  heart  blood,  and  bone  marrow  gave  negative  results.  He  refers 
to  the  cases  of  Oetlingen  and  Zumpe,  Nicolaius  and  others,  where  the 
Tetanus  bacillus  was  isolated  from  the  organs  of  the  body. 

Varieties  in  the  Growth  of  Bacillus  Pyocyaneus  on  Nutrient 
Agar.* — Hinterberg  and  Reitman  find  that  there  are  differences  in  the 
growth  of  this  bacillus  on  nutrient  agar,  according  as  the  medium  con- 
tains more  or  less  water,  and  has  a  moist  or  dry  surface.  They  give 
details  of  their  methods  for  obtaining  nutrient  agar  of  various  con- 
centrations, and  the  technique  of  making  moist  or  dry  surfaces  to  the 
medium  in  the  Petri  dishes.  When  grown  on  weak  moist  agar,  they 
find  that  the  colonies  of  B.  pyocyaneus  are  smooth  and  shining,  almost, 
fluid,  of  a  blue-green  colour,  and  with  iridescent  margins  ;  they  spread 
over  the  entire  surface  of  the  medium ;  and  are  most  easily  removed 
by  the  platinum  needle. 

Grown  on  dry  and  concentrated  agar,  the  colonies  are  scanty,  of  a 
pale-green  colour,  often  appearing  as  if  etched  on  the  surface  ;  the- 
centre  of  the  colony  is  somewhat  gelatinous,  the  margins  slightly 
wrinkled  ;  they  hardly  extend  beyond  the  inoculated  surface,  and  are 
so  firmly  attached  to  the  medium  that  it  is  difficult  to  remove  the 
growth  with  a  platinum  needle.  Coverslip  preparations  were  made  and 
stained  by  Van  Ermengem's  method.  Those  made  from  the  moist  agar 
24  hours'  old  colonies,  showed  only  bacilli  with  polar  flagella.  Those 
from  the  dry  agar  colonies  of  the  same  age,  showed  a  spider-web  net- 
work of  very  fine  threads,  stretching  between  clumps  of  bacilli,  lying 
among  them  a  few  bacillary  bodies  with  indistinctly  outlined  capsules,. 
and  some  free  flagella. 

They  found  that  if  the  concentration  of  the  medium  is  carried 
too  far,  the  bacilli  cease  to  grow  well ;  they  are  smaller  and  stain  feebly  j 
and  it  was  harder  to  obtain  a  clean  preparation,  since  portions  of  the 
medium  were  always  taken  away  with  the  culture.  They  consider  that. 
the  network  of  threads,  which  are  seen  in  the  stained  preparations  made- 
from  cultures  grown  on  agar  of  high  concentration,  is  produced  by 
portions  of  stained  medium,  which  have  become  included  in  the  emul- 
sion made  on  the  coverslip.  The  bacilli  grown  on  the  moist  weak  agar 
can  readily  move  over  the  surface,  and,  moreover,  they  need  to  do  so,, 
and  they  accordingly  produce  motile  organs.  The  same  organism,  grown 
on  a  rich  medium  with  a  dry  surface,  can  move  less  easily,  but  finds 
sufficient  nourishment  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  and  grows  roots. 

Cultivation   and    Staining   of  Amoebae.! — W.  E.  Musgrave  and 
M.  T.  Clegg,  who  have  been  studying    the  subject  of  amoebiasis  for 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt,  l'e  Abt.  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  169-77. 

t  Publications  Bureau  Gov.  Lab., No.  18,  part  i.  Manila  (1904)  85  pp.,  35  figs. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC,  113 

some  years,  especially  in  relation  to  human  disease,  recommend  that 
after  the  administration  of  a  saline  cathartic,  the  examination  should 
be  made  from  the  fluid  portion  of  the  stools.  They  significantly  point 
■out  that  the  diagnosis  of  amoebae  should  never  be  made  unless  they  are 
in  a  motile  state,  for  even  with  typical  resting  or  encysted  forms 
mistakes  may  occur.  The  stock  medium  for  cultures  used  by  the  authors 
is  composed  of  agar  20  p.c,  sodium  chloride  0'3-0'5  p.c,  extract  of 
beef  ^0  •  3-0 '  5  p.c.  The  finished  medium  should  have  an  alkalinity  of 
1  p.c.  to  phenolphthalein.  This  is  obtained  by  starting  with  an  initial 
alkalinity  of  1'5  p.c. 

The  stock  medium  was  varied  by  diminishing  the  amount  of  salt 
and  beef  extract,  or  by  the  addition  of  a  minute  amount  of  peptone. 
Attempts  to  obtain  pure  cultures  were  always  negative  or  doubtful,  and 
the  authors'  results  were  obtained  from  symbiotic  cultures  of  amceba3  and 
bacteria.  Pure  bacterial  cultures  were  employed,  and  much  difference 
was  found  in  the  adaptability  of  particular  bacteria  for  the  purpose  in 
view.  The  medium,  made  into  plates  in  the  usual  way,  was  inoculated 
with  the  bacterial  culture  by  smearing  a  loopful  in  concentric  circles  on 
the  surface  of  the  agar,  and  then  depositing  some  of  the  amceba  culture 
in  the  middle  of  the  innermost  bacterial  circle.  In  from  24  to  72  hours 
the  protozoa  will  have  passed  one  or  more  rings,  and  from  such  locations 
may  be  taken  for  transplantings. 

Transplantation  of  a  single  amceba  is  effected  by  the  following  in- 
genious device.  Examine  the  surface  of  the  plate,  and  locate  an  isolated 
amceba  in  the  centre  of  the  field  of  a  low-power  lens.  Turn  on  a  dry 
high-power  lens,  and  lower  it  until  it  touches  the  surface  of  the  medium. 
Raise  quickly,  and  examine  with  low-power  lens  whether  the  amceba  is 
still  present,  or  has  been  picked  up  by  the  high-power  objective.  If 
it  has  been,  rub  the  aca  of  the  objective  gently  over  that  of  a  new 
plate.  In  this  way  symbiotic  cultures  from  a  single  amoeba  may  be 
obtained. 

Amoebae  show  marked  preference  for  certain  kinds  of  bacteria,  but 
this  selectiveness  may  be  due  possibly  to  environment.  The  authors 
had  most  success  with  the  colon  group. 

Amoebae  do  not  develop  below  the  surface  of  solid  media  unless  in 
association  with  a  liquefying  organism,  and  then  do  not  extend  beyond 
the  liquefied  area.  The  growth  and  spread  of  amoebae  over  the  surface 
of  plate  cultures  is  quite  rapid,  and  they  seem  to  follow  the  path  of  the 
bacteria.  In  relation  to  their  pathogenicity  the  authors  do  not  attach 
much  importance  to  the  size,  which  has  been  stated  by  various  writers  to 
vary  from  5  to  50  //..  The  optimum  temperature  of  the  amoeba?,  studied 
by  the  authors  and  obtained  from  different  sources,  is  room  temperature. 
Growth  was  much  less  luxuriant  at  incubator  and  ice-box  temperatures. 

For  staining;  living;  amoebae  the  authors  recommend  a  dilute  solution 
of  neutral  red,  which  should  be  run  under  the  cover  glass.  For  staining 
permanent  preparations  of  amoebae  from  cultures  they  praise  Wright's 
modification  of  the  Eomanowsky  method,  the  technique  being  the  same 
as  that  for  blood  films. 

The  authors  also  notice  the  following  procedures  :  (1)  Zorn's  method 
consists  in  mixing  a  few  cubic  centimetres  of  faeces  with  ?>  or  4  volumes 
of  a  solution  consisting  of  15  parts  of  1  p.c.  chromic  acid  and  3  parts  of 

Feb.  15th,  1005  I 


114 


SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


I  p.c.  osmic  acid.  After  shaking  for  10  minutes  the  mixture  is  centric 
fuged,  and  the  deposit  mixed  with  5  volumes  of  25  p.c.  Beale's  carmin 
solution.  After  half-an-hour  this  is  again  centrifuged,  and  the  deposit 
washed  in  a  weak  solution  of  the  same  carmin  and  mounted  on 
glycerin,  or  dehydrated  and  mounted  on  balsam.  (2)  Doflein's  methods. 
This  writer  suggests  fixation  of  the  material  in  one  of  the  following 
solutions :  A.  Saturated  aqueous  solution  of  sublimate  100  parts, 
alcohol  50  parts,  acetic  acid  5  parts.  B.  Picric  acid  2  parts,  alcohol 
50  parts,  acetic  acid  5  parts. 

Uoflein  makes  a  film  of  the  protozoa  on  a  slide,  or  handles  them  in 
bulk  imbedded  in  paraffin,  and  treated  as  sections. 

Stuler — New  methods  for  anaerobic  cultures  and  anaero-cultures. 

Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1*  Abt.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  298-307. 

(3).  Cutting-,  including-  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 

New  Imbedding  Bath.* — The   imbedding  bath  recently  brought 
out  by  the  Cambridge  Scientific  Instrument  Company  is  similar  to  the 


Fig.  30. 


gas-heated  baths  made  by  the  -same  I  firm,  in  which  a  gas  regulator  is 
operated  by   the  expansion  of   mercury,   so  as  to  maintain  a  constant 

*  Cambridge  Scientific  Instrument  Compony,  Special  Catalogue,  1904. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  115 

temperature.  A  further  advantage  of  the  apparatus  is  that  it  can  be 
used  with  gas  or  with  a  paraffin  lamp  as  desired.  In  the  illustration 
(fig.  30)  a  paraffin  lamp  is  seen  in  position.  A  damper,  which  risen 
with  the  increasing  temperature,  controls  the  heating  effect  of  the  lamp. 
The  device  by  means  of  which  the  damper  is  actuated  depends  on  the 
relative  expansion  of  two  metals,  aluminium  and  nickel  steel ;  their 
disposition  being  such  that  the  hotter  the  bath  becomes  the  higher  the 
damper  is  raised,  so  that  the  heat  supplied  to  the  bath  becomes  corre- 
spondingly less.  Very  close  regulation  of  temperature  is  claimed  for 
this  apparatus,  a  constancy  within  1°  C.  being  readily  maintained  with- 
out the  attention  of  the  operator  being  required.  The  temperature  to  be 
maintained  can  be  readily  adjusted  to  a  higher  or  lower  point  on  the 
scale  by  a  simple  setting  of  the  regulator.  The  bath  is  provided  with 
an  equipment  of  wax-pans,  bottles,  and  so  forth. 

(4)   Staining:  and  Injecting-. 

New  Method  of  Making  Romanowski's  Chromatin  Stain.* — 
Giemsa  uses  the  following  receipt:  Azur  ii.  eosin,  3*0  grm. ;  and 
Azur  ii.,  0*8  grm.,  are  placed  in  a  desiccator  over  sulphuric  acid  and 
well  dried,  thoroughly  pulverised,  sifted  througji  a  fine-meshed  silk 
sieve,  and  dissolved  by  shaking  up  with  glycerin,  250  grm.  (Merck 
chem.  rein),  at  60°  C.  Methyl-alcohol,  250  grm.  (Kahlbaum  1),  pre- 
viously warmed  to  60°  C,  is  then  added  to  the  mixture  and  well  shaken, 
allowed  to  stand  for  24  hours  at  room  temperature  and  then  filtered, 
and  the  solution  is  ready  for  use.  He  gives  the  following  directions 
for  using  the  stain  :  (a)  the  film  dried  in  air  is  fixed  in  ethyl-alcohol, 
or  for  2-3  minutes  in  methyl-alcohol,  and  dried  with  blotting-paper  ; 

(b)  dilute  the  staining  solution  by  shaking  up  1  drop  in  about  1  c.cm. 
of  distilled  water  (warming  the  water  to  30°-40°  C,  assists  the  stain)  ; 

(c)  cover  the  film  preparation  with  the  freshly  diluted  solution,  and 
stain  for  10-15  minutes ;  (d)  wash  in  running  water ;  (e)  dry  with 
blotting-paper  and  mount  in  Canada  balsam. 

Staining  and   Preserving   Algae.  — J.  Q.  T.  gives  the  following 
particulars  of  a  method  of  staining  and  preserving  algas,  which  he  has 
found  very  satisfactory.     The  reagents  required  are  made  up  as  follows  r 
Fixing  solution  :   chromic  acid,  1  oz. ;  glacial  acetic  acid,  4  oz.  ;  for- 
maldehyde  as   formalin    (Schering's),  4  oz.      Preserving  fluids :   best 
glycerin,  8  oz. ;   glycerin  jelly,   1  oz.      Chromo-acetic  acid  :   chromic 
acid,  1  grm.  ;  acetic  acid,  1  c.cm. ;  water,  100  c.cm.    Formalin  (4  p.c.) : 
Schering's  formalin,  10  c.cm. ;  water,  DO  c.cm.  (for  a  2  p.c.  solution 
take  half   the  quantity  of   formalin).      Stains  :  hasnialum  (Griibler) ; 
hgeniatoxylin   solution :    hematoxylin   cryst.   puriss.,    1    grm. ;    water, 
200  c.cm.     Iron  alum  solution  :  iron  alum,  3  grm.  ;  water,  100  c.cm. 
(The  iron  alum  should  be  in  pale  violet  crystals,  not  yellow  or  green, 
and   should   be  kept   in   an   air-tight   tube.)      Eosin   solution    (water 
soluble)  :  eosin,  1  grm. ;  water,  200  c.cm. 

*  Centralhl,  Bakt..  1'"  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  308-11. 
t  Knowledge,  i.  (1904)  pp.  305-0. 

I  2 


11G  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

The  material,  which  may  be  "fruiting"  or  sterile,  is  gathered  in 
jars  and  brought  home  in  water,  or  can  be  placed  directly  in  the  fixing 
solution  at  the  time  of  gathering,  this  last  l>eing  generally  preferable. 
If  fixed  in  the  chromo-acetic  mixture  it  will  require  about  12  hours 
for  thorough  fixation,  and  24  hours  in  the  formalin.  After  chromic- 
acid,  the  material  must  be  washed  in  running  water  or  frequent  changes 
for  at  least  one  hour,  or,  better,  for  three  hours.  The  following  simple 
little  piece  of  apparatus  is  very  useful  for  washing.  It  consists  of  a 
test-tube  fitted  with  a  cork,  through  which  two  pieces  of  glass  tube  pass. 
One  of  these  is  connected  to  a  water-tap  by  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing, 
which,  in  turn,  is  connected  to  a  piece  of  glass  tubing  passing  through 
a  cork  jammed  in  the  mouth  of  the  tap.  A  piece  of  thin  muslin  is 
tied  over  the  end  of  the  other  tube  inside  the  jar  to  prevent  the  escape 
of  specimens.     With  formalin  no  washing  is  necessary. 

The  material  being  fixed,  the  next  question  is  the  stain.  If  nuclei 
are  the  only  details  required,  hamialum  will  be  the  best  to  use.  It 
should  either  be  used  strong  for  5  minutes,  or  diluted  (1  c.cm.  to 
50  c.cm.  of  water)  for  24  hours.  The  staining  must  be  carefully 
watched  in  both  cases.  Overstating  may  be  remedied  by  water  acidu- 
lated (0*1  p.c.)  with  hydrochloric  acid,  but  the  method  is  somewhat 
risky.  The  other  methods  of  staining  are  as  follow  :  stain  with  iron 
alum  solution  for  3  hours,  wash  in  running  water  for  1  hour.  Stain 
in  hematoxylin  solution  for  G-12  hours.  Now  comes  the  delicate  part, 
for  the  tissues  are  much  overstained,  and  must  be  washed  in  the  iron 
;solution  till  the  details  are  brought  out,  examining  with  the  Microscope 
the  whole  time.  Immediately  the  details  are  out  (generally  in  about 
a  quarter  of  an  hour)  the  decolorisation  is  stopped  by  placing  the  object 
in  tap  or  rain  water.  Now  place  some  water  in  a  watch-glass  and  add 
5  p.c.  of  glycerin.  Transfer  the  algae  to  the  dilute  glycerin  and  cover 
it  with  an  inverted  watch-glass,  to  prevent  dust  without  checking 
•evaporation.  Leave  until  the  glycerin  is  thick  enough  for  mounting, 
mount  in  a  shallow  tin  cell  in  just  enough  glycerin  to  fill  the  cell  (this 
requires  some  practice),  seal  with  gold  size,  and  when  dry  ring  with 
Brunswick  black.  In  some  cases  a  contrast  stain  may  be  desired.  This 
can  be  obtained  by  placing  the  tissue  in  the  eosin  solution  for  30  seconds 
or  less,  previous  to  the  transference  to  the  5  p.c.  glycerin. 

(5)  ^Mounting-,  including'  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,   &c. 

Two  Methods  for  Comparing  Normal  with  Abnormal  Tissues 
under  the  Microscope.* — S.  G.  Shattock  and  C.  F.  Selous  exhibited 
sections  illustrating  the  above,  which  they  named  the  method  of  super- 
position and  that  of  the  composite  block.  The  methods  were  more 
particularly  adapted  for  class  purposes,  and  were  more  especially 
applicable  in  the  study  of  bone  marrow,  the  central  nervous  system, 
and  the  blood.  Ti.e  plan  of  superposition  consisted  in  mounting  a 
normal  section  directly  underneath  the  diseased,  that  is,  without  the 
intervention  of  a  second  cover-glass,  so  that  by  merely  altering  the  focus 
the  two  could  be  studied  in  rapid  succession.     The  sections  should  be 

*  Rep.  Path.  Soc.  Nov.  1, 1904.     See  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1904,  ii.  ]>.  1249. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


117 


cut  from  paraffin  blocks,  and  should  not  be  more  than  2  /*  in  thickness. 
Although  mounted  in  direct  apposition  there  was  quite  a  distinct  micro- 
scopic interval  between  them,  owing  to  the  intervention  of  a  thin  layer 
of  the  mounting  medium  ;  and  they  were  readily  studied  with  ^.  One 
section  was  fixed  to  the  slide,  and  the  other  to  the  cover-glass  ;  or  in  the 
case  of  blood  two  cover-glasses  were  mounted  in  apposition,  and  then 
mounted  to  the  slide.  By  a  composite  block  was  meant  a  block  com- 
pounded of  two  ;  a  broad  face  of  tissue  was  first  exposed  in  each  of  the 
two  blocks,  and  the  latter  were  then  cemented  together  in  paraffin  ; 
the  sections  were  afterwards  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  apposition, 
so  that  by  placing  the  section  with  the  line  of  junction  across  the  field 
of  the  microscope,  a  view  was  obtained  of  both  the  normal  and  abnormal 
tissues  at  the  same  time. 

Hanging-Drop  Preparations.*— J.  R.  Collins  describes  the  following 
simple  contrivance  for  making  a  hanging-drop  preparation.  A  small 
rubber  elastic  band  or  washer  of  appropriate  diameter  and  thickness  is 
smeared  with  vaseline  upon  one  side.  This  side  is  then  applied  to  the 
slide.  The  upper  surface  of  the  band  is  now  smeared  with  vaseline,  and 
the  cover-glass  with  hanging-drop  is  applied  to  it.  An  air-tight  cell  is 
thus  readily  made.  This  avoids  the  necessity  for  keeping  special  hollow- 
ground  slides,  and  is  more  convenient  than  the  clumsy  and  troublesome 
method  of  making  a  similar  cell  out  of  damped  blotting-paper. 

By  the  use  of  rubber  bands  of  different  sizes  the  cells  can  be  made 
of  any  width  and  depth  desired.  Rings  with  a  lumen  of  from  1-2  cm. 
in  diameter  and  of  2  mm.  in  thickness  are  very  convenient. 

Ail-Metal  5  Cover-Glass  Holder.f — E.  Horcler  has  devised  a  cover- 
glass  holder  (fig.  31)  which  has  the  following  advantages :  (1)  it  will 


0 

1     0 

ft  .. 

a. 

L 

5s 

J 

C  BAKER,  244,  High  Holborn,  London,  VV.C. 

Fig.  31. 


receive  cover-glasses  of  any  size  in  general  use  ;  (2)  being  made  entirely 
of  metal,  it  can  be  easily  washed  or  sterilised  ;  (3)  specimens  requiring 
heat  can  be  placed  in  an  oven  with  the  films  in  position  without  fear  of 
ruining  the  holder.  Directions  for  use  :  with  the  holder  between  finger 
and  thumb  of  left  hand,  pull  sliding  bar  with  the  right  until  the  opening 
is  a  little  wider  than  necessary.  Place  cover-glasses  on  base-plate,  bring 
sliding  bar  into  apposition  with  covers,  and  the  holder  is  prepared  for 
taking  a  spread.     A  small  projecting  pin  at  end  of  plate  secures  covers 

*  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1904,  ii.  p.  1635.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  759-60  (1  fig.). 


118  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

from  sliding  off.     The  groove  along  centre  of  base-plate  will  enable  the 
operator  to  remove  cover-glasses  easily  by  means  of  forceps. 

Treadle — Mounting  Volvox.  English  Mechanic,  lxxx.  (1904),  p.  300. 

Villa g io — Mounting  Algae.  Tom.  cit.,  p.  315. 

(6)2  Miscellaneous. 

Bdhm  and  Oppel's  Microscopical  Technique.*— This  well-known 
little  volume  on  microscopical  technique  contains  curt  and  compressed 
information  for  the  histological  investigation  of  animal  tissues  and 
organs,  and  its  value  is  increased  by  a  contribution  from  the  late 
G.  Born  on  reconstruction  methods.  Though  the  present  issue  has 
been  revised  and  added  to  by  A.  Bohm,  no  reference  is  made  to  the 
Jenner  or  Romanowsky  methods  of  staining,  both  procedures  being  in 
everyday  use  and  of  the  greatest  value. 

Darwin,  H.— Electric  Thermostat. 

[An  instrument  designed  and  constructed  for  the  special  object  of  main- 
taining the  prism  and  other  parts  of  the  spectrograpli  of  a  24-inch  refractor 
at  a  constant  temperature,  but  the  principle  of  the  apparatus  might  be 
adapted  for  other  kinds  of  thermostats.] 

tkSL  Mag.,  vii.  (1901)  pp.  408-14(1  pi.). 
Hesketh  Walker — Notes  on  marine  aquaria. 

English  Mechanic,  lxxx.  (1904)  p.  324. 
Huggins,  C.  H. — Acetylene  as  a  gas  for  bacteriological  laboratories. 

Centralbl.  Baht.,  lte  Abt.  Ong.,  xxxvii.  (iy04)  pp.  317-20% 

Kosenau,  M.  J. — Method  for  inoculating  animals  with  precise  amounts. 

Hyg.-Lab.,  U.S.  Mar.-Hosp.  Service  Bull.  19, 
Washington,  i904,  p.  7  (2  tigs.). 

Metallography,  etc.| 

Hardness  of  Metals.f— At  a  meeting  of  the  Birmingham  Metal- 
lurgical Society  of  the  Municipal  Technical  School,  Professor  Turner 
gave  a  lecture  on  the  hardness  of  metals.  The  lecturer  said  that 
hardness  was  a  property  of  great  importance  in  connection  with  the 
practical  application  of  metals  to  the  arts.  In  some  cases,  as  with  a  knife- 
blade,  the  continuance  of  a  good  cutting  edge  was  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance ;  while  in  other  instances,  as  with  castings  which  have  to  be 
machined,  softness  was  a  special  requisite.  The  relatively  small  differences 
in  hardness  which  resulted  in  success  or  failure  were  such  as  could  only 
be  measured  by  accurate  methods.  Hardness  might  be  defined  as  the 
resistance  offered  by  a  body  to  penetration  by  another  body.  As  the 
penetrating  substance  might  act  in  various  ways,  such  as  by  making  a 
sharp  cut,  an  indentation  of  considerable  size,  or  an  abrading  effect,  the 
measure  of  hardness  would  depend  upon  the  system  of  test  adopted,  and 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  test  was  made.  No  one  test  would  suit  all 
practical  requirements.  It  was  pointed  out  that  in  alloys  the  hardness 
differed  from  the  mean  of  the  constituents,  and  was  usually  higher 
than  that  with  pure  metals.  The  lecturer  then  gave  a  brief  historical 
account  of  fcue  developments  of  the  methods  for  determining  relative 
hardness.     Among  the  methods  specially  recommended  by  the  lecturer 

*  It.  Oldenbourg,  Munich  and  Berlin,  5th  ed.  (1904)  271  pp. 
t  English  Mechanic,  lxxx.  (1904)  p.  404. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  119 

were  the  Sclerometer,  using  a  weighted  diamond  point,  general  applica- 
tion, the  method  of  Brunei  for  mild  steel  and  similar  materials,  and 
the  drilling  test  of  Keep  for  cast  iron.  In  conclusion,  the  lecturer 
emphasised  the  necessity  for  greater  attention  to  the  quantitative  deter- 
mination of  the  relative  hardness  of  metallurgical  products  on  account 
of  the  enormous  differences  in  the  usefulness  and  length  and  life  of  tools, 
nails,  tires,  and  numberless  other  articles,  due  to  what  might  at  first 
■sight  appear  to  be  unimportant  differences  of  hardness. 

Possible  non-brittleness  of  Steel  under  certain  conditions.* — C. 
Fremont  points  out  that  the  general  opinion  as  to  all  steels  and  irons, 
whatever  their  quality,  becoming  brittle  in  consequence  of  a  permanent 
deformation  effected  statically  or  by  shock  between  200°  and  450°  C,  is 
only  a  hypothesis.  He  quotes  experiments  to  showr  that  Denain  steel, 
used  for  the  boilers  of  locomotives  on  the  West  of  France  Railway,  is  an 
exception.  Hence  he  concludes  that  the  usual  brittleness  is  not  an 
inherent  property  of  the  metals,  but  is  a  defect  capable  of  being  overcome 
by  suitable  conditions  of  manufacture. 

Certain  Properties  of  Alloys  of  Silver  and  Cadmium.f — The  varia- 
bility in  composition  of  silver-copper  alloys  has  always  been  a  difficulty 
in  questions  of  trial  plates  for  coinage  and  silversmiths'  work.  Samples 
taken  from  the  corners  and  centre  of  the  same  ingot  will,  even  under 
the  most  favourable  circumstances,  show  a  difference  in  composition  of 
1*2  per  1000,  or  sometimes  more.  T.  K.  Rose  has  found  that  trust- 
worthy and  convenient  trial-plates  can  be  made  of  silver  and  cadmium. 
His  investigations  included  a  study  of  the  microstructure  from  which 
he  concludes  :  (1)  That  evidence  is  afforded  of  the  existence  of  the 
compounds  AgCd3,  Ag2Cd3,  AgCd,  Ag3Cd2,  Ag2Cd,  and  Ag4Cd  ;  (2)  That 
the  alloys  containing  from  0-25  p.c.  of  silver  consist,  when  solid,  of 
crystals  of  AgCd3  set  in  a  matrix  of  cadmium.  Those  containing 
between  25  and  10  p.c.  of  silver  consist  of  the  compound  Ag2Cd3  set 
in  a  matrix  consisting  mainly  of  AgCd3.  The  alloy  containing  about 
50  p.c.  of  silver  consists  of  crystals  of  a  silver-rich  body  set  in  a  matrix 
consisting 'chiefly  of  AgCd3.  The  matrix  or  eutectic  solidifies  at  420°, 
or  nearly  300°  O.  below  the  freezing  point  of  the  crystals.  The  alloys 
containing  from  50-60  p.c.  of  silver  consists,  at  temperatures  above 
420°  C,  of  mixtures  of  two  different  solid  solutions,  one  of  which  is 
chiefly  composed  of  the  compound  AgCd,  and  the  other  of  Ag3Cd2. 
Traces  of  the  eutectic  freezing  at  420°  C.  are  still  visible.  When  more 
than  80  p.c.  of  silver  is  present,  the  alloys  consist  of  a  mixture  of  two 
bodies  at  temperatures  between  the  liquidus  and  solidus  curves,  but  these 
unite  to  form  a  single  solid  solution  at  points  on  the  solidus  curve  ; 
(3)  That  the  alloys  containing  over  80  p.c.  of  silver  do  not  undergo 
segregation  under  ordinary  conditions,  and  are  practically  homogeneous 
and  uniform  in  composition.  They  are  well  suited  as  a  material  for  the 
manufacture  of  trial-plates. 

*  Comptes  Renrius,  exxxix.  (1900)  pp.  1032-3.  \ 

t  lVoc.  Roy.  Soc.,lxxiv.  (1904)  pp.  218-30  (8  figs.).    J 


120 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  21st  of  Decembee,  1904,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
G.  C.  Karop,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.,  m  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  16th  of  November,  1904,  were 
read  and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  Chairman. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society  since  the  last  Meeting,. 
exclusive  of  exchanges  and  reprints,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of  the 
Society  were  voted  to  the  donors  : 

George  C.  Whipple,  Eeport  of  the  Commission  on  Additional  Water  I 

Supply  for  the  City  of  New  York.    Appendix  VI.  Chemistry  and>  The  Author. 
Biology.    (No  date)        J 

Records  of  the  Egyptian  Government  School  of  Medicine.     Vol.  II.  \  mj,    n-     / 
Edited  by  the  Director.     (4 to,  Cairo,  1904)         j  i  ne  director 


The  Chairman  said  that,  in  consideration  of  the  atmospheric  condi- 
tions existing  that  evening,  and  the  consequent  difficulty  which  the 
Fellows  might  experience  in  reaching  their  homes,  the  Council  had 
decided  that  any  discussion  which  might  arise  on  the  paper  to  be  read, 
should  not  be  protracted  beyond  half -past  nine. 


Mr.  A.  E.  Conrady  read  a  short  paper  on  an  experiment  shown  in 
the  room  by  means  of  Abbe's  Demonstration  Microscope,  which  proved 
by  a  change  in  the  apparent -position  of  the  lines  of  a  grating  brought 
about  by  changing  from  direct  to  dark-ground  illumination,  that  two. 
successive  spectra  from  that  grating  were  opposed  to  each  other  in 
phase,  as  he  had  predicted  theoretically  in  his  paper  read  at  the 
November  meeting  of  the  Society.  He  thought  this  conclusively 
showed  that  correctly  worked  out  deductions  from  the  undulatory  theory 
could  always  be  depended  upon  to  be  borne  out  by  experiment. 

Mr.  Rheinberg  said  he  was  profoundly  impressed  by  the  way  in 
which  the  points  referred  to  had  been  brought  out  in  this  paper.  He 
'.oil  been  present  when  the  experiment  proposed  by  Mr.  Conrady  was. 
made,  and  it  wTas  quite  startling  to  see  how  exactly  his  prediction  had 
been  verified,  and  how  by  the  mere  shifting  of  a  diaphragm  they  could 
make  the  image  of  one  set  of  alternate  black  and  white  lines  shift  its. 
position,  whilst  another  nearly  similar  set — in  view  at  the  same  time— 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  121 

retained  its  position  unchanged.  He  did  not  think  it  would  be  possible 
to  account  for  this  in  any  other  way  than  by  differences  of  phase  in  the 
spectra  of  the  two  sets  of  lines.  He  thought  Mr.  Conrady  was  to  be 
congratulated  on  having  so  successfully  worked  out  an  important  point 
in  the  theory  of  microscopic  vision. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  then,  upon  the  motion  of  the 
Chairman,  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Conrady  for  his  paper,  and  for 
his  experimental  proof  of  the  correctness  of  his  theory. 


Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon  then  gave  a  summary  of  his  paper  "  On  the 
Theory  of  Highly  Magnified  Images,"  and  illustrated  his  remarks  by 
diagrams  shown  upon  the  screen. 

The  Chairman  expressed  the  thanks  of  the  Meeting  to  Mr.  Gordon 
for  his  communication,  and  in  asking  for  remarks  on  the  subject, 
reminded  intending  speakers  of  the  time  limit  previously  mentioned. 

Mr.  Rheinberg,  after  premising  that  he  had  had  an  opportunity  of 
studying  an  advance  proof  of  Mr.  Gordon's  paper,  and  having  obtained 
the  Chairman's  permission  to  read  his  remarks  thereon,  said  :  It  appears  to 
me  that  advance  in  the  domain  of  microscopic  optics  depends  upon 
simplification  of  existing  theories,  and  upon  a  ready  willingness  to 
recognise  that  a  subject  such  as  this  may  be  regarded  from  many 
standpoints  which,  when  carefully  examined,  mutually  aid  each  other. 
Reviews  of  the  subject,  such  as  Dr.  R.  T.  Glazebrook's  Presidential 
Address  before  the  Physical  Society  of  London,  this  year,  in  which 
various  theories  are  carefully  compared  in  simple  language,  cannot  fail 
to  assist  in  progress  and  be  helpful  to  the  student.  Similarly  refreshing 
and  helpful  are  papers  like  the  masterly  one  brought  before  the  Society 
at  the  last  meeting  by  Mr.  A.  E.  Conrady,  in  which,  working  on  the 
lines  of  a  well-established  theory,  certain  matters  are  cleared  up,  ex- 
plained, and  simplified  in  a  plain,  straightforward  manner,  with  in- 
teresting new  points,  readily  demonstrable  experimentally,  following  as. 
a  consequence.  But  the  paper  read  this  evening  cannot  be  classed  with 
these.  To  him  it  appeared  throughout  as  a  complication,  and  even 
inadvertent  perversion,  alike  of  the  many  well-known  facts  which  it 
discusses  and  sets  itself  to  explain,  and  of  the  new  ideas  which  it. 
propounds. 

He  would  do  no  more  than  refer  to  a  few  examples. 

The  well-known  and  famous  Abbe  theory  is  dismissed  as  incorrect 
and  useless  in  a  proposition  which  is  quite  irrelevant.  He  said  the 
Abbe  theory  advisedly,  for  it  stands  beyond  doubt  that  that  theory 
includes  the  deduction  of  effects  in  the  view  plane  from  those  in  the 
region  of  the  upper  focal  plane  of  the  objective.  Far  from  being  dis- 
avowed, the  fact  is  so  apparent  from  any  of  Professor  Abbe's  papers  on 
the  subject,  that  it  would  seem  almost  superfluous  to  mention  that  he 
knew  it  besides  from  a  personal  conversation  with  that  distinguished 
man  of  science  in  1902.  Mr.  Gordon's  disproof  has  so  little  to  do 
with  the  question  at  issue,  as  in  itself  to  show  that  he  has  entirely 
failed  to  understand  the  elements  of  that  theory. 

The  main  point  of  Mr.  Gordon's  paper  appears  to  be  a  speculation 


122  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

about  antipoints  not  being  in  the  same  phase  over  their  whole  area,  and 
some  deductions  arising  therefrom.  Now  Mr.  Gordon's  "antipoints" 
are  bnt  another  name  for  the  false  discs,  or  spurious  discs,  or  diffraction 
discs,  with  their  attendant  rings,  of  other  writers,  and  that  phase 
changes  occur  in  connection  with  these  has  been  known  as  long  ago 
as  1835,  as  may  be  seen  from  Schwerd's  book,  "  Die  Beugungser- 
scheinungen,"  published  in  that  year.  Mr.  Gordon,  it  is  true,  refers 
to  antipoints  in  connection  with  illuminated  points,  as  well  as  self- 
luminous  points,  but  as  the  factors  which  determine  the  change  of 
phase  are  the  same  in  both  instances,  this  will  not  affect  the  question. 

The  analysis  of  the  image  into  antipoints  which  overlap,  and  in 
which  the  overlapping  parts  bear  a  phase  relationship  to  one  another, 
which  has  to  be  taken  into  account,  seems  a  perfectly  legitimate  pro- 
ceeding (provided  we  deal  with  an  object  of  no  thickness,  or  with  the 
plane  surface  of  an  object,  and  know  the  phase  and  amplitude  of  every 
point  on  that  surface).  But  here  comes  the  interesting  part.  The 
recognition  of  this  matter  is  an  admission  that  the  image  of  one  point 
of  an  object  may  be  modified  by  the  light  which  arrives  at  some  neigh- 
bouring, or  more  or  less  distant  point  of  the  object,  because  these 
points,  to  begin  with,  bear  some  phase  relationship  to  each  other — one 
of  the  facts  assumed  ab  initio  by  the  Abbe  theory,  which  has  been 
subject  to  so  much  debate. 

Having  come  to  recognise  this,  we  find  some  unusual  deductions 
drawn  therefrom.  Because  Lord  Rayleigh  has  defined  the  conditions 
under  which  an  isolated  luminous  point,  an  isolated  luminous  line,  or 
an  isolated  dark  bar  will  be  visible,  showing  that  in  the  latter  case  there 
would  be  some  difference,  according  to  whether  the  surface  on  each 
side  of  the  bar  were  in  a  state  of  phase  relation  or  not,  therefore  Mr. 
Gordon  jumps  at  the  conclusion  that  he  can  now  so  manipulate  matters 
as  to  get  a  greater  resolving  power  than  heretofore.  The  factors  on 
which  the  resolving  power  depend,  viz.  the  minimum  size  of  the  dif- 
fraction disc  or  antipoint  (due  to  the  aperture  of  the  objective)  are  for- 
gotten entirely  ;  the  fact  that  Lord  Kayleigh  dealt  with  isolated,  not 
periodic  structure,  in  the  investigations  to  which  he  refers,  is  ignored, 
and  it  is  likewise  overlooked  that  Lord  Rayleigh  carefully  pointed  out 
that  the  apparent  width  of  lines  or  dots  seen  under  such  conditions  is 
illusory,  and  bears  no  relation  to  the  real  width  ;  in  short,  Mr.  Gordon 
falls  into  the  mistake  of  confounding  the  problem  of  resolving  power 
with  results  analogous  to  those  by  which  Dr.  H.  Siedentopf  rendered 
ultra-microscopic  particles  visible  before  this  Society  last  year. 

And  from  this  we  pass  to  a  consideration  of  conical  wave-fronts. 
Now  a  wave-front,  so  all  text-books  tell  us,  must  satisfy  three  conditions. 
It  is  a  surface  the  points  of  which  are  in  the  same  phase,  the  wave- 
motion  having  arrived  there  from  the  same  source  in  the  same  time — 
or,  in  other  words,  the  optical  path-length  between  the  source  and  every 
point  of  the  wave-front  must  be  the  same.  Perhaps  Mr.  Gordon 
will  kindly  show  how  the  conical  wave-front  and  the  doubly  conical 
wave-front  which  is  suggested  later  on  comply  with  these  conditions. 
The  fact,  of  course,  is  that  since  in  the  Microscope  we  have  only  to 
■deal  with  spherical   refracting   surfaces,   a   conical  wave-front   cannot 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  123 

possibly  be  produced,  and  becomes  an  absurdity.  But  supposing  for  a 
moment  we  really  had  a  conical  wave-front,  let  us  see  how  Mr.  Gordon 
employs  it  in  the  solution  of  problems.  For  this  purpose  the  well-known 
principle  of  Huyghens  is  invoked,  the  principle  which  shows  how  you 
may  arrive  at  the  state  of  the  light  on  lone  surface,  if  you  have  a  wave- 
front  travelling  towards  it,  by  regarding  every  point  on  the  wave-front 
as  a  new  source,  or  centre,  from  which  rays  start  forward  in  all  directions, 
and  then  examining  what  the  resultant  phase  is,  on  points  of  the  new 
surface,  of  rays  which  have  arrived  there  from  every  point  of  the  known 
wave-front.  But  how  does  Mr.  Gordon  apply  these  rules  ?  He  does  not 
apply  them  at  all,  but  simply  transfers  the  result  which  they  give,  in  the 
case  of  a  spherical  wave-front,  to  that  of  the  supposed  conical  wave-front. 
That  is,  he  alters  the  conditions  entirely  on  which  the  result  depends,  but 
nevertheless  applies  the  result. 

While  Mr.  Gordon  realises  certain  portions  of  the  work  of  well-known 
physicists — sometimes  portions  which  have  got  neglected  or  overlooked, 
and  which  it  is  a  real  benefit  to  have  brought  into  prominence — he  so 
•entirely  fails  to  grasp  other  and  contingent  matters  explained  by  the 
same  authors,  interspersing  it  with  deductions  that  have  never  been 
made,  and  improving  upon  it  by  laws  of  his  own,  which  disregard 
elementary  optical  principles,  that  the  final  result  is  an  almost  unexampled 
confusion. 

Mr.  Beck  said  he  must  protest  against  the  kind  of  paper  which  had 
just  been  read  by  Mr.  Rheinberg,  which  might  have  been  suitable  in  a 
debating  society  in  order  to  amuse  the  members,  but  in  their  own  Society 
their  object  was  to  arrive  at  scientific  truth,  and  not  to  be  entertained  by 
a  dissertation  upon  what  Mr.  Gordon  did,  or  did  not  do,  or  ought  to  have 
done.  It  appeared  to  him  that  the  question  before  them  was  drifting 
into  partisan  lines,  and  if  it  were  allowed  to  do  that  they  would  never 
get  any  further  towards  truth  in  this  direction.  The  paper  of  Mr.  Gordon 
was  a  very  interesting  resume  of  the  work  of  Professor  Airy  and  others, 
and  he  thought  the  question  of  phase  relation  was  an  extremely  interesting 
one,  as  under  all  circumstances  where  they  had  two  spurious  discs  they 
probably  had  a  dark  line  of  some  size  between  the  two  portions.  As  far 
as  he  was  aware,  this  observation  was  quite  new.  It  was  also  extremely 
interesting  to  be  told  of  two  wave-fronts  being  propogated  in  opposite 
directions. 

Mr.  Beck  then  referred  to  an  optical  apparatus  exhibited  in  the  room 
to  show  the  effect  produced  by  the  interposition  of  a  grating.  The  object 
was  one  of  Grayson's  rulings,  the  lines  of  which  were  almost  invisible 
until  the  grating  was  introduced,  the  effect  of  this  always  being  to  make 
them  more  black  and  white — although  he  would  not  like  to  say  that  he 
could  see  a  finer  band  of  lines  with  it  than  he  could  without  it. 

Mr.  Conrady  said  he  quite  agreed  with  Mr.  Beck  that  personalities 
should  be  kept  out  of  scientific  discussions,  but  he  thought  that  such 
considerations  must  not  prevent  them  from  inquiring  into  the  validity 
and  accuracy  of  the  statements  contained  in  papers  under  discussion. 
Having  also  had  an  opportunity  of  reading  Mr.  Gordon's  paper  in  advance, 
he  had  prepared  the  following  remarks  upon  it. 

When  a  new  theory  is  being  proposed,  one  naturally  looks  first  and 


124  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

foremost  for  the  proofs  offered  in  support  of  the  innovation,  and  one 
expects  these  proofs  to  be  the  more  ample  and  convincing  the  better 
established  the  views  happen  to  be  which  are  to  be  swept  aside. 

Now  Sir  George  Airy's  paper  on  the  diffraction  of  object-glasses* 
which  helped  to  win  for  him  the  Copley  Medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1831,  takes  high  rank  among  the  classical  papers  on  optical  subjects,  and 
has  been  universally  accepted  as  an  exhaustive  and  final  treatise  on  the 
spurious  disc.  Yet  it  is  chiefly  by  trying  to  prove  that  Sir  George  Airy 
had  failed  to  fully  grasp  the  problem  he  attacked,  that  Mr.  Gordon  seeks 
to  establish  his  own  ideas  about  the  spurious  disc. 

Mr.  Gordon  finds  fault  with  the  principal  result  of  Airy's  paper, 
namely,  the  interesting  phase  relation  between  the  central  disc  and  the 
rings,  which  is  brought  to  light  in  Airy's  table  of  simultaneous  ampli- 
tudes, and  which,  owing  to  the  method  by  which  the  table  was  computed, 
cannot  be  wrong  unless  the  numerical  values  of  the  amplitudes  themselves 
were  utterly  wrong.  Now  it  so  happens  that  this  remarkable  fact,  viz. 
that  the  whole  of  the  central  disc  and  the  even-numbered  rings  are  at. 
any  instant  in  a  uniform  phase  exactly  opposed  to  that  of  the  odd- 
numbered  rings,  is  the  one  easily  demonstrated  peculiarity  of  the  spurious 
disc,  for  it  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  symmetry  of  a  circular 
aperture  with  regard  to  a  diameter,  and  comes  about  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  the  exactly  similar  phase  relation  which  I  proved  to  exist  in 
the  case  of  diffraction  spectra,  in  a  paper  which  I  contributed  last  month. 

The  only  argument  in  support  of  Mr.  Gordon's  objection  to  Airy's 
result  consists  in  a  wholly  inadmissible  suggestion  that  amplitudes  had  no. 
positive  or  negative  signs.  For  those  who  have  not  sufficient  faith  in  the 
great  Astronomer-Royal  to  accept  his  conclusions,  it  may  be  pointed  out 
that  the  painstaking  pioneer  in  the  study  of  diffraction  phenomena, 
Schwerd,  arrived  at  precisely  the  same  results  quite  independently  of 
Airy.  Mr.  Gordon  tries  to  put  his  contention  into  mathematical  form 
by  two  equations  purporting  to  yield  the  result  of  the  combination  of  two 
amplitudes.  Both  these  formulas  are  irreconciliable  with  the  undulatory 
theory,  and  can  easily  be  shown  to  be  erroneous.     Taking  the  first — 


A(x  +  2)  =  Aj  4-  cos  ^  2  7T  .  A2. 


*9 
A. 


This  is  impossible,  for  purely  mathematical  reasons,  because  it  is  not 
symmetrical  with  regard  to  Aj  and  A2.  For  it  is  purely  arbitrary  which 
amplitude  we  are  to  designate  as  At  and  which  as  A2 ;  the  exchange  of 
Aj  and  A2  should,  therefore,  yield  the  same  result.  But  Mr.  Gordon's 
formula  yields  two  different  results  by  this  perfectly  legitimate  exchange  ; 
for  instance,  if  the  phase  difference  should  happen  to  be  00°,  the  second 
term  of  the  formula  becomes  zero,  and  we  obtain  the  surprising  result 
that  one  of  the  amplitudes  vanishes,  leaving  the  other  in  sole  and  un- 
disturbed existence  ;  and  the  absurdity  becomes  more  manifest  when  we 
exchange  AT  and  A2,  as  we  then  find  that  the  combined  effect  must  be 
equal  to  either  amplitude,  although  they  are  assumed  to  be  different. 

The  second  formula  may  be  proved  to  be  wrong  by  similar  reasoning  j 
for  instance,  if  the  two  phase  angles  are  both  equal  to  ±  !)0°,  the  result- 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY.  125 

ing  amplitude  becomes  zero,  which  is  manifestly  absurd  in  the  case  of 
two  unequal  amplitudes. 

The  correct  substitute  for  these  two  formulas  is,  adopting  Mr.  Gordon's 
symbols, 

/  2  IT 

A(i  +  2)  =  V  Al2  +  A22  +  2  Al  A2  C0S  X  ^  "  ^ 

an  equation  which  possesses  the  necessary  symmetry  with  regard  to  the 
quantities  applying  to  the  two  combining  waves,  which  satisfies  common 
sense  inasmuch  as  it  shows  that  both  waves  invariably  contribute  to 
the  result,  and  which  fully  explains  every  possible  case  in  accordance 
with  experience. 

The  phase  angle  -r-  <£  of  the  resulting  wave,  which  Mr.  Gordon 

A 

does  not  even  attempt  to  deduce,  is  obtained  quite  definitely  from  thu 
two  equations — 

A(i  +  2)  cos  — ^  <f>  =  Ax  cos  ^>i  +  A2  cos  ~'.<f>2. 

AAA 

•>    _  •>    _  2    7T 

A(i  +  2)  sin  ^—  <£  =  Ax  sin  l_  ^  -f  A2  sin  —  <f>2. 

Seeing  that  these  three  equations  contain  the  complete  and  only 
possible  solution  of  this  simplest  problem  in  the  study  of  interferences, 
and  that  they  are,  therefore,  to  be  found  in  the  earliest  chapters  of 
any  book  on  the  mathematical  treatment  of  such  problems,  it  is  highly 
significant  that  they  should  be  unknown  to  Mr.  Gordon,  and  that  he 
should  have  found  it  necessary  to  invent  those  absurd  and  incomplete 
substitutes.  It  seems  hardly  worth  while  to  examine  any  further  attempts 
at  mathematical  proofs  from  one  so  ill-prepared  for  such  tasks,  but  1  will 
follow  him  a  little  further. 

Having,  in  the  face  of  Airy's  results,  derived  conclusions  to  his  liking 
from  the  assumption  of  a  "  polyphasal  antipoint,"  he  attempts  to  prove 
the  existence  of  such  "  antipoints  "  in  an  appended  note.  And  here  he 
•entirely  brushes  aside  the  well-established  principles  of  the  undulatory 
theory,  and  calmly  suggests  that  Airy  should  have  integrated  not  over 
the  aperture  which  passes  the  light,  but  over  a  small  portion  of  the  cone 
which  encloses  the  wave-train  converging  towards  the  focus.  Surely  a 
more  startling  proposition  has  never  been  made.  We  have  energy  in 
the  form  of  light  being  transmitted  in  converging  waves  towards  a  focus, 
and  we  are  to  disregard  nearly  the  whole  of  that  energy  and  of  those 
waves,  and  are  to  confine  our  attention  to  a  narrow  strip  down  the  side 
of  a  cone — which  is  indeed  "  polyphasal  "  with  a  vengeance,  but  which 
conveys  only  an  infinitesimal  fraction  of  the  total  energy. 

It  need  hardly  be  stated  that  even  a  correctly  worked  out  result  based 
on  such  assumptions  would  be  entirely  worthless,  but  the  mathematical 
expressions  which  follow  have  not  even  that  merit,  for,  from  what  has 
just  been  pointed  out,  it  is  clear  that  the  correct  result  of  the  proposed 
integration  must  necessarily  be  an  infinitesimally  small  amplitude,  whilst 


126  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

Mr.    Gordon,  by  a   succession   of   mysterious   operations,   succeeds  in 
arriving  at  the  finite  result  which  he  covets. 

The  proofs  offered  in  support  of  the  new  ideas  being  thus  found  to 
be  absolutely  worthless  and  absurd,  all  the  conclusions  drawn  from 
assumptions  proved  to  be  false  necessarily  fall  to  the  ground.  It  may 
only  be  added  that  the  black  and  white  dot  phenomenon  which  Mr. 
CJordon  tries  to  claim  as  an  experimental  proof  of  his  strange  proposition 
does  not  at  all  call  for  "  conical  wave-fronts  "  and  "  polyphasal  anti- 
points  "  in  explanation.  For  on  the  basis  of  the  usual  theory  it  follows 
at  once,  that  when  we  go  either  within  or  beyond  the  true  focus,  the 
wavelets  from  different  zones  of  the  object-glass  will  arrive  with  a 
difference  of  phase  in  the  new  image  plane,  and  will  therefore  interfere  ; 
and  there  must  be  a  point  on  either  side  of  the  true  focus  where  this 
interference  is  complete,  and  results  in  a  dark  centre  of  the  spurious. 

disc.  .        . 

Unfortunately,  there  are  many  statements  in  this  paper  which  cannot 
be  allowed  to  pass  unchallenged. 

First  of  all,  we  find  a  repetition  of  the  absolutely  unfounded  assertion 
that  Professor  Abbe  had  disavowed  the  theory  of  microscopical  images 
which  bears  his  name,*  and  the  reiteration  is  the  more  disingenuous 
because  Professor  Abbe  is  unfortunately  now  unable  to  defend  himself  ; 
and  it  is  rendered  more  offensive  than  before  by  being  advanced  in  the 
form  of  a  protest  against  an  alleged  misuse  of  Professor  Abbe's  name  in 
connection  with  his  world-famous  theory. 

The  few  statements  by  which  Mr.  Gordon  tries  to  discredit  the  Abbe 
theory  only  prove  once  more  how  completely  he  has  misunderstood  that 
theory  which  apparently  he  has  not  studied  in  the  only  full  and  authentic 
account,  viz.  that  in  Dippel's  handbook.  Incidentally,  Mr.  Gordon 
refers  to  his  "  proof  of  the  sine  condition,"  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is 
no  proof  at  all ;  a  postulate  is  put  forward  which,  far  from  being  "  almost 
axiomatic,"  is  indeed  manifestly  absurd  ;  a  wholly  arbitrary  diagram— 
which  has  no  ostensible  relation  to  any  lens  system— is  then  drawn  which, 
by  construction,  implies  a  sine  relation,  and  having  thus  drawn  this 
diagram,  Mr.  Gordon  proves  that  it  does  indeed  follow  a  sine  law.  Any- 
thing whatever  may  be  prqved  by  this  method. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  neither  this  alleged  proof,  nor  the  claim  that 
the  sine  condition  secured  an  extended  and  flat  field,  can  be  substantiated  ; 
all  the  valid  proofs  imply,  directly  or  indirectly,  the  principle  of  the 
minimum  optical  path  (this  was,  I  believe,  first  pointed  out  by  Lord 
Rayleigh),  and  are  in  consequence  limited  to  an  element  of  surface  m  the 
optical  axis.  That  objectives  which  fulfil  the  sine  condition  generally 
have  a  sufficiently  large  field  within  which  the  definition  is  satisfactory, 

*  The  following  sentence  from  the  passage  in  Carpenter-Dallinger  (pp.  64-G5. 
of  the  eighth  edition),  on  which  Mr.  Gordon  relies,  should  alone  sufiice  to  show 
that  Abbe,  far  from  disavowing  bis  theory,  claimed  it  as  universally  applicable  :- 
>•  Theoretical  considerations  have  led  me  to  the  conclusion  that  there  must  always  be 
the  same  conditions  of  delineation  as  long  as  the  objects  are  depicted  by  means  of  trans- 
mitted or  reflected  light,  whether  the  objects  are  of  coarse  or  of  very  fine  structure. 
Further  experiments  .  .  .  have  enabled  me  to  observe  the  diffraction-effect  and  its 
influence  on  the  ima?e,  viewing  gratings  of  not  more  than  forty  lines  per  inch. 
(The  italics  are  taken  from  the  original.) 


PROCEEDINGS   OF  THE   SOCIETY.  12  7 

is  entirely  clue  to  the  small  influence  near  the  optical  axis  of  the  disturb- 
ing factors  which  eventually,  beyond  a  certain  limited  field,  assume  such 
proportions  as  to  destroy  all  semblance  of  definition,  no  matter  how 
rigorously  the  sine  condition  may  be  fulfilled,  and  the  sine  condition  has 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  a  flat  field,  which  is,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
impossible  of  attainment  in  Microscope  objectives  of  considerable  N.A., 
as  the  essential  Petzval  condition  cannot  possibly  be  fulfilled  in  these. 

Helmholtz  next  comes  hi  for  his  share  of  "criticism." 

This  most  careful  and  philosophical  physicist  is  accused  of  precipi- 
tation, and  the  suggestion — of  course  utterly  unfounded — is  made  against 
him  that  he  has  left  half  his  work  undone.  And  the  now  well-known 
postscript  to  his  paper,*  which  is  really  devoted  to  a  very  flattering 
reference  to  Professor  Abbe's  theories,  is  cited  in  proof,  although  it 
begins  with  the  statement  that  Helmholtz's  paper  had  been  completely- 
worked  out  and  made  ready  for  the  printer  when  he  became  acquainted 
with  Abbe's  researches. 

On  pages  16  and  17  of  Mr.  Gordon's  paper  an  attempt  is  made  to 
prove  that  Lord  Rayleigh  supported  at  least  some  of  the  novel  notions. 
More  particularly,  Lord  Eayleigh's  statement  as  to  the  resolution  of 
two  very  close  lines  under  a  certain  kind  of  oblique  illumination  is  cited. 
Here  Mr.  Gordon  overlooks  that  the  illumination  called  for  is  that  there 
must  be  a  difference  of  phase  of  \  A  between  the  light  reaching  the  two 
lines  from  the  distant  source.  Evidently  this  condition  can  only  be 
realised  when  the  two  lines  are  at  least  \  A  apart,  in  which  case  it  calls 
for  grazing  incidence  ;  this  case  of  abnormal  resolution,  imperfect 
though  it  is,  and  restricted,  moreover,  to  an  isolated  pair  of  lines — 
rather  a  rare  object — therefore  breaks  down  at  the  very  point  where  it 
might  occasionally  be  of  value,  i.e.  at  the  universally  accepted  limit  of 
resolution  ;  and  Lord  Rayleigh  himself  is  evidently  aware  of  this,  for  he 
has  often  since  that  demonstration  expressed  his  faith  in  the  approximate 
correctness  of  the  accepted  limit  of  resolution.  The  visibility  of  single 
bright  or  black  lines  or  dots  is  a  matter  apart  altogether,  as  Lord  Rayleigh 
invariably  points  out ;  it  is  a  question  of  contrast  rather  than  of  resolu- 
tion, and  such  small  black  or  white  dots  or  lines  cease  to  be  visible 
wherever  a  number  of  them  are  clustered  together  at  distances  within 
the  accepted  limit  of  resolution. 

It  is  difficult  to  see  how  science  is  to  profit  by  these  absolutely  un- 
founded attacks  on  its  foremost  exponents,  and  by  these  strange  mis- 
interpretations of  their  writings.  It  seems  to  me  that  Mr.  Gordon's 
views  will  result  in  misleading  a  large  majority  of  microscopists  who  are 
not  sufficiently  acquainted  with  optics  and  mathematics  to  be  able  to 
detect  the  weak  points  by  their  own  unaided  scrutiny.  And  it  is  to 
such  microscopists  that  I  suggest  that  they  should  put  to  themselves  the 
following  question  : — If  the  accepted  limits  of  resolution  be  false,  and  if 
Mr.  Gordon  should  have  really  discovered  means  of  evading  them,  why 
does  he  not  convince  us  by  the  simple  and  straightforward  process  <  if 

*  A  translation  of  this  postscript  will  be  found  in  the  report  of  the  discussion  on 
Mr.  Gorduii's  second  paper  in  Part  2  of  the  Journal  of  the  It. M.S.  for  1903. 


128  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

showing  us,  say,  a  normal  specimen  of  Pleurosigma  angulatum  plainly 
resolved  with  an  object-glass  of  N.A.  less  than  •;'),  or  a  normal  specimen 
of  Amphipletira  peUucida  similarly  resolved  with  a  dry  objective  under 
• !)  N.A.,  or  indeed  any  test  object  resolved  under  conditions  under  which 
it  could  not  be  resolved  according  to  the  accepted  theories  ? 

Mr.  Gordon  having  been  invited  to  reply,  said  :  Mr.  Conrady  has 
been  good  enough  to  furnish  me  with  a  copy  of  his  criticism  of  my  paper. 
To  a  considerable  extent  these  remarks,  like  those  read  by  Mr.  Rheinberg, 
consist  of  oracular  utterances  on  the  subject  of  my  incompetence,  and 
with  these  I  do  not  propose  to  occupy  your  time.  They  express,  no 
doubt  correctly,  the  opinions  of  these  gentlemen,  and,  as  they  do  not 
purport  to  express  more,  they  do  not  properly  admit  of  an  answer. 

Mr.  Conrady,  however,  does  not  confine  himself  to  inarticulate 
•criticism.  He  puts  forward  specific  objections  to  certain  of  my  points, 
and,  with  a  singular  lack  of  caution,  selects  for  the  object  of  his  prin- 
cipal attack  equation  No.  2,  which  appears  on  page  7  of  my  paper,  and 
■expresses  a  resultant  amplitude  as  follows — 

A(i  +  2)  =  (ax  cos  ^  2  7T  +  A2  cos  ^-2  2  7T  J 

Mr.  Conrady  thinks  that  I  ought  to  have  compounded  these  two 
amplitudes  according  to  a  different  rule,  and  one  which,  oddly  enough, 
does  not  yield  a  true  resultant  amplitude  at  all.  When  undulation  trains 
combine  which  have  originated  in  independent  sources  of  light  and  have 
no  fixed  phase  relation  inter  se,  it  is  impossible  to  calculate  their  actual 
resultant,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  actual  components  are  in  such  a 
case  unknown.  The  best  we  can  do  is  to  calculate  an  average  resultant, 
and  for  this  purpose  the  equation  has  been  devised  which  Mr.  Conrady 
has  selected  and  recommended  as  an  alternative  to  that  which  I  have 
above  set  out.  The  case,  however,  with  which  I  was  dealing  is  a  case  of 
undulations  which  have  a  fixed  and  permanent  phase  relation  between 
themselves,  and  what  I  wanted  to  get  at  is,  not  an  average,  but  an  actual 
resultant.  In  the  case  contemplated  the  actual  resultant  can  be  computed, 
and  by  the  ordinary  equations  applicable  to  the  composition  of  co-planar 
forces. 

Now  Mr.  Conrady,  in  fact,  does  himself  less  than  justice  by  this 
erratic  criticism.  The  formula  which  he  speaks  of  as  having  been  in- 
vented by  me,  is  very  far  indeed  from  having  been  newly  devised,  and 
on  the  contrary  has  been  employed  before,  and  invariably,  by  other 
writers  attacking  the  same  problem.  If  we  assume,  instead  of  two  im- 
pulses, an  indefinite  'number,  say  n,  the  above  equation  is  written  in  the 
following  form : 

A(i  +  2  +  . .  +  n)  =  2(  Ax  cos -1  2  7T  +  A2  cos  ^2  2  tt  +  .  .  .  +  An  cos-—  2  - ) 

\  A  A  A  ' 

If  now  we  assume  that  all  the  several  impulses  A15  A2,  etc.,  are  equal 
to  one  another,  then  we  may  for  these  individual  symbols  substitute  a 
common  factor  which  may  be  written  c. 

Again,  if  we  find  it  convenient  to  take  our  impulses  in  pairs  and  for 


PEOCEEDINGS    OF    THE    SOCIETY.  129 

the  sum  of  n  single  components  to  substitute  the  sum  of  one  half  of  n 
pairs  of  components,  in  that  case  this  common  factor  will  become  2c. 

Yet  once  again,  if  for  the  phase  angle  ^'l  2  ir,  we  write  the  arbitrary 

A 

symbol  /?„ ,  the  above  equation  will  become 

Aa  +  o  +  , . .  n)  =  s  (2  c  cos  /?„) 

Now,  turning  to  page  (HO  of  the  last  volume  of  the  Society's 
Journal,  I  find  a  table  incorporated  in  Mr.  Conrady's  paper  there 
printed  on  "Theories  of  Microscopic  Vision,"  and  in  column  :J>  of  that 
table  I  find  the  successive  values  of  this  expression  2  (2  c  cos/??(), 
tabulated  for  a  series  of  values  of  the  angle  fi„ ,  and  put  forward  as 
being  the  compound  amplitude  A^i  +  2  +  . .  +«> 

Mr.  Conrady  in  the  paper  to  which  I  am  referring  makes  all  the 
assumptions  above  enumerated,  together  with  a  further  assumption 
which  involves,  as  an  item  in  his  equation,  an  additional  factor,  sin  a. 
This  sin  a  causes  great  embarrassment  to  Mr.  Conrady,  and  eventually 
he  disburdens  himself  of  it  by  arbitrarily  treating  sin  a  as  being  =  1. 
Whether  in  the  circumstances  in  which  he  found  himself  that  was  a 
legitimate  way  of  eliminating  a  troublesome  factor  is  a  question  which 
it  is  not  here  necessary  to  discuss,  but  column  3  of  the  table  referred 
to  shows  conclusively  that  the  equation  which  Mr.  Conrady  now  attacks 
with  so  much  warmth  is  not  a  thing  of  my  devising. 

With  reference  to  one  other  point  upon  which  Mr.  Conrady  has  dealt 
with  a  matter  of  fact,  I  desire  to  point  out  that  he  has  fallen  into  an  error. 
It  is  not  correct  to  say  that  Lord  Rayleigh's  results  apply  only  to  one, 
and  that  an  exceptional,  case.  Lord  Rayleigh  dealt  with  three  cases,  one 
of  them  being  a  case  in  which  there  was  no  determinate  phase  relation 
between  the  overlapping  antipoints.  Even  in  that  case  the  black  bar 
limit  of  resolution  is  ^  of  a  wave-length,  not  a  half  wave-length,  as 
previously  supposed.  Where  the  phase  relation  is  favourable,  this 
limit  comes  down  to  ^  °f  a  wave-length,  and  where  specially  favourable 
the  limit  is  evanescent.     This  is  quite  accurately  stated  in  my  paper. 

I  do  not  propose  to  follow  Mr.  Conrady  in  detail  through  his  criti- 
cism, since  a  controversy  on  those  lines  would  not  only  be  tedious  but 
would  fall  much  below  the  level  of  scientific  discussion.  I  will  notice 
oidy  one  other  point,  and  that  because  it  is  barbed  by  a  charge  of  dis- 
ingennousness  which  Mr.  Conrady  thinks  fit  to  bring  forward.  This 
relates  to  Professor  Abbe's  disclaimer  of  the  Abbe  theory.  In  a  passage 
now  well  known,  and  which  appears  in  Carpenter's  book  on  the  Micro- 
scope, Professor  Abbe  wrote  :  "  I  no  longer  maintain  in  principle  the 
distinction  between  the  absorption  image  [or  direct  dioptrical  image] 
and  the  diffraction  image,  nor  do  I  hold  that  the  microscopical  image 
of  an  object  consists  of  two  superimposed  images  of  different  origin  or 
different  mode  of  production. 

"This  distinction,  which  in  fact  I  made  in  my  first  paper  of  1873, 
arose  from  the  limited  experimental  character  of  my  first  researches, 
and  the  want  of  a  more  exhaustive  theoretical  consideration  at  that 
period,"  etc. 

Feb.  15th,  1005  k 


L30  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

Now  this  is  as  precise  and  full  a  disclaimer  as  can  be  framed,  but 
Mr.  Conrady  says  that  it  does  not  mean  what  it  appears  to  say.  ELequoto  a 
the  context  to  show  thai  Professor  Abbe  really  intended  something 
else  to  be  understood.  Whether  this  be  so  or  not  I  decline  to  con- 
jecture. 1  never  have  undertaken  to  explain,  and  do  not  propose  under- 
taking to  explain,  what  Professor  Abbe  may  have  meant.  At  least  the 
language  which  he  there  employs  makes  it  proper  to  await  some  further 
utterance  on  his  part  before  attributing  to  him  any  precise  views 
upon  the  subject  covered  by  his  original  statement.  For  that  reason 
I  have  always  been  careful  when  criticising  expositions  of  the  Abbe 
theory  put  forward  by  other  writers  to  abstain  from  attributing  the 
views  thus  brought  into  discussion  to  Professor  Abbe  himself,  and  it  is 
for  thus  distinguishing  between  the  master  and  the  disciple  that  I  am 
blamed.  Xow  I  can  quite  understand  that  a  distinction  of  that  sort 
may  be  distasteful  to  those  whom  it  affects.  I  do  not  forget  the  old 
adage  that  comparisons  are  odious,  and  I  can  imagine  that  on  some 
such  ground  as  that,  possibly  on  grounds  that  do  not  occur  to  my  mind, 
complaint  might  be  made  of  my  disputing  the  authenticity  of  various 
Abbe  theories  which  I  have  from  time  to  time  criticised.  But  to  say 
that  it  is  disingenuous  must  be  a  blunder  :  the  point  is  badly  taken. 

The  Chairman  said  that  feeling  upon  this  subject  seemed  to  be  getting 
very  acute,  but  whatever  individual  opinion  might  be  held,  there  was  no 
doubt  they  were  all  much  indebted  to  Mr.  Gordon  for  his  very  interest- 
ing paper.  

The  Chairman  reminded  the  Fellows  present  that  their  Annual 
Meeting  would  be  held  on  January  18,  when  they  would  be  asked  to 
elect  Officers  and  Council  for  the  ensuing  year;  and  the  list  of  those 
proposed  by  the  Council  was  read  by  the  Secretary. 

The  Fellows  were  then  asked  to  elect  one  of  their  number  to  act  as 
Auditor  of  the  Society's  accounts  for  the  year  in  conjunction  with  the 
Auditor  appointed  by  the  Council. 

Mr.  C.  L.  Curties  Avas  then  proposed,  seconded,  and  unanimously 
elected  Auditor  on  behalf  of  the  Fellows  of  the  Society. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited  : — 
Mr.  A.  E.  Conrady  : — Experimental  proof  of  phase-reversal  in  the 
second  spectrum  from  a  grating  of  broad  slits. 

Mr,  Julius  Rheinberg  : — Photographs  taken  with  the  Abbe  Demon- 
stration Microscope,  illustrating  the  influence  on  the  images  of  gratings 
of  phase  difference  amongst  their  spectra,  in  accordance  with  the  results 
of  Mr.  A.  E.  Conrady. 


PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    SOCIETY.  L31 


ANNIVERSARY  MEETING, 

Held  on  the  18th  of  Januaky,  1905,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
D.  H.  Scott,  Esq.,  Ph.D.  F.R.S.,  etc.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  21st  of  December,  1904,  were 
read  and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 


Mr.  G.  E.  Mainland  and  Mr.  G.  H.  J.  Rogers  were- appointed  by 
the  President  as  Scrutineers  of  the  ballot  for  election  of  Officers  and 
Council  for  the  ensuing  year. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Library,  exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints,  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 

the  Society  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 
Herbert  S.  Jennings,  Contributions  to  the  Behaviour  of  Lower)         Tl  p  Author 

Organisms / 

An  Adams'  Lucernal  Microscope  bv  W.  and  S.  Jones \    T.   n^   m„.mm„„ 

An  Old  Portable  Microscope J  r 


The  President  said  that  amongst  the  deaths  which  would  be  re- 
ferred to  that  evening,  there  was  one  of  quite  recent  occurrence  which 
the  Fellows  of  the  Society  would  hear  of  with  very  painful  interest — - 
that  of  Professor  Abbe,  of  Jena.  There  was  perhaps  no  one  whose  loss 
would  be  more  felt  by  a  Society  such  as  their  own,  than  Professor  Abbe, 
whose  name  was  familiar  to  everyone  acquainted  with  the  Microscope  ; 
and  even  those  who,  like  himself,  were  not  able  to  follow  the  details  of 
Professor  Abbe's  work,  could  not  fail  to  recognise  the  very  remarkable 
services  which  he  had  rendered  to  optical  science.  He  had  been  an 
Honorary  Fellow  of  their  Society  since  1878,  and  the  Council  had 
proposed  that  a  vote  of  condolence  should  be  passed  by  the  Society 
and  forwarded  to  his  family.  This  proposition  was  then  put  to  the 
Meeting,  and  unanimously  carried. 


The  Report  of  the  Council  for  the  year  1904  was  then  read  by  the 
Secretary. 

REPORT   OF   THE   COUNCIL    FOR    1904. 
FELLOWS. 

Ordinary. — During  the  year  1904,  17  new  Fellows  have  been  elected 
and  3  re-instated,  whilst  10  have  died,  14  have  resigned,  and  :3  have  been 
removed. 

Honorary. — The  following  were  elected   Honorary  Fellows  at  the 


132  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

Meeting  in  June  last:  G.  Bonney,  J.  Bran,  Yves  Delage,  S.  Ramon  y 
Cajal,  B.  Renault,  J.  J.  H.  Teall,  Silvanus  P.  Thompson,  and  M.  Treub. 

The  Council  regrets  to  have  to  announce  the  death  of  Professor 
Renault,  which  occurred  within  four  months  of  his  election  as  an 
Honorary  Fellow. 

The  number  of  Honorary  Fellows  is  now  40. 

The  list  of  Fellows  now  contains  the  names  of  415  Ordinary, 
1  Corresponding,  40  Honorary,  and  82  Ex-Officio  Fellows,  beintr  a  total 
of  538. 

FINANCE. 

The  amount  received  for  Subscriptions  during  the  past  year  is  some- 
what less*  than  that  in  the  previous  account.  This  is  principally  due  to 
the  fact  that  many  Fellows  have  not  yet  paid  their  Subscription. 

It  is,  however,  necessary  to  point  out  that  the  number  of  new  Fellows 
elected  during  the  past  few  years  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  loss  by 
deaths  and  resignations. 

Fellows  are  therefore  urged  to  do  their  best  to  enlist  new  members, 
as  it  is  only  by  this  means  that  the  financial  position  of  the  "Society 
can  be  maintained  satisfactorily. 

During  the  year  a  bequest  was  made  to  the  Society  by  Mr.  E.  Dadswell, 
but  the  amount  not  having  been  yet  received,  will  be  included  in  next 
year's  account. 

The  sum  of  £200  on  deposit  at  the  end  of  last  year  has  been  invested 
during  the  year,  together  with  the  entrance  and  compounding  fees 
received  in  1903. 

JOUKNAL. 

The  papers,  twelve  in  number,  which  are  embodied  in  the  Trans- 
actions have  been  fully  up  to  the  standard  of  previous  years.  Two 
of  them  were  read  by  the  late  Professor  J.  D.  Everett,  F.R.S.,  and  were 
probably  the  last  delivered  by  this  distinguished  mathematician  and 
physicist.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  six  short  but  valuable  com- 
munications are  published  in  the  "Notes,"  a  feature  introduced  by 
the  late  Editor,  Mr.  A.  W.  Bennett,  which,  judging  from  the  nature 
of  the  articles  and  their  gradual  increase  in  number  from  year  to  year, 
seems  to  supply  a  want. 

The  Summary  of  Current  Researches  relating  to  Zoology,  Botany, 
Microscopy,  and  Metallography  is  continued  on  the  same  lines  as  hereto- 
fore ;  and  the  Council  takes  this  opportunity  of  again  thanking  the 
Editorial  Staff,  which  has  laboured  long  and  unremittingly  on  behalf  of 
the  Society  and  its  Journal. 

LIKRARY. 

During  the  past  year  the  Library  has  been  maintained  in  as  efficient 
a  manner  as  the  available  funds  will  permit.  It  has  not  yet  been  found 
possible  to  undertake  a  printed  catalogue.  The  want  of  this  desi- 
deratum is  the  cause  of  much  inconvenience  to  Fellows  who  consult 
the  collection  of  Books  and  Journals,  and  the  usefulness  of  the 
Library  is  greatly  restricted  in  consequence. 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY.  133 

INSTRUMENTS   AND   APPARATUS. 

The  Instruments  and  Apparatus  in  the  Society's  Collection  continue 
to  be  in  good  condition. 

During  the  past  twelve  months  the  following  additions  have  been 
made  : — 

Feb.  17. — An  Old  Microscope,  by  Bate,  being  a  late  form  of  Ellis's 
Aquatic  Microscope,  'described  by  Adams  in  1787.  Presented  by  Mr. 
Ed.  B.  Stringer. 

April  20. — A  Tank  Microscope,  by  Thos.  Ross.  Presented  by  the 
Committee  of  the  Quekett  Microscopical  Club. 

May  18. — A  Students1  Microscope,  by  Ladd.  Presented  by  Mr. 
Wynne  E.  Baxter. 

Oct.  11). — Additional  portions  of  Adams's  Lucernal  Microscope  (the 
major  portions  having  been  presented  in  Feb.  1903).  Presented  by 
Mr.  Frank  Orfeur. 

Xov.  16. — A  Cuff  Xew  Constructed  Double  Microscope,  by  Dollond. 
Presented  by  Mr.  Chas.  Lees  Curties. 

A  Jones's  most  Improved  Compound  Microscope,  by  Banks.  Pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Chas.  Lees  Curties. 

The  numerous  additions  of  late  years  to  the  Society's  Collection  of 
Old  Microscopes  have  completely  rilled  the  available  space  in  the 
Cabinets  ;  and  owing  to  the  overcrowding  none  are  suitably  or  worthily 
displayed.  Moreover,  the  Cabinets  do  not  contain  by  any  means  the 
whole  of  the  Society's  Collection,  for  a  number  of  instruments  still 
remain  packed  away  in  cases,  and  are  therefore  never  on  view. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  may  be  gathered  that  a  printed  Catalogue 
and  an  additional  Cabinet  are  not  only  desirable  but  necessary.  The 
Council,  however,  does  not,  at  the  present  juncture,  feel  justified  in 
sanctioning  the  expense,  especially  as  on  the  last  occasion  when  a 
Library  Catalogue  was  printed,  though  some  of  the  Fellows  warmly 
appreciated  it,  the  majority  appeared  to  be  indifferent,  and  the  sales  of 
it  were  merely  nominal.  The  Council  is  therefore  desirous  of  obtaining 
from  Fellows  some  expression  of  opinion  on  the  subject,  and  of  learning 
what  support  they  might  expect  to  receive  if  it  were  possible  later  on 
to  entertain  the  proposal  to  print  a  new  edition  of  the  Catalogue. 

The  Council  would  also  suggest  that  the  need  for  such  a  Catalogue 
and  a  Museum  Cabinet  might  afford  fitting  objects  for  private  generosity 
on  the  part  of  those  Fellows  who  feel  keenly  their  necessity. 

The  MS.  of  the  Catalogue  has  been  compiled  at  much  cost  of  time 
and  labour  by  the  Hon.  Librarian,  and  the  Instruments  are  most  care- 
fully kept  by  the  Hon.  Curator ;  it  would  therefore  be  a  great  en- 
couragement to  both  these  Officers  if  their  special  requirements  were 
provided  for  by  the  generosity  of  Fellows. 


The  Treasurer  then  read  the  cash  statement  for  the  year  190-i, 
which  had  been  duly  audited  and  certified  as  correct  by  Messrs.  J.  M. 
Allen  and  C.  L.  Curties. 

He  did  not  think  that  the  financial  statement  called  for  any  special 


134 


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PROCEEDINGS  OF   THE    SOCIETY.  135 

remark,  but  it  would  no  doubt  be  noticed  that  the  amount  received  as 
subscriptions  was  rather  less  than  that  of  the  preceding  year,  possibly 
because  he  had  then  been  rather  more  pressing  for  payment  of  arrears. 
The  investments  had  been  somewhat  increased,  and  the  balance  in  hand 
was  about  the  same.  He  should,  however,  like  to  call  attention  to  the 
fact  mentioned  in  the  Report,  that  the  losses  by  death  and  other  causes 
had  not  been  made  up  by  the  number  of  New  Fellows  added  to  the 
Society  during  the  year,  and  as  it  was  of  great  importance  to  keep  up 
numbers,  he  hoped  the  Fellows  would  do  their  utmost  during  the 
present  year  to  induce  as  many  persons  as  possible  to  join  the  Society. 

The  adoption  of  the  Report  and  Balance  Sheet  having  been  moved 
by  Mr.  Horace  Beck  and  seconded  by  Mr.  Rheinberg,  was  put  to  the 
Meeting  by  the  President,  and  carried  unanimously. 


The  Scrutineers  having  handed  in  the  result  of  the  Ballot,  the 
President  declared  the  following  gentlemen  to  have  been  unanimously 
elected  Officers  and  Council  of  the  Society  for  the  ensuing  year. 

President— Dukinfield  Henry  Scott,  M.A.  Ph.D.  F.R.S.  F.L.S. 

Vice-Presidents— George  C.  Karop,  M.R.C.S. ;  The  Risrht  Hon.  Sir 
Ford  North,  P.O.  F.R.ST;  Henry  George  Plimmer,  F.L.S. ;  Henry 
Woodward,  LL.D.  F.R.S.  F.G.S.  F.Z.S. 

Treasurer — J.  J.  Vezey. 

Secretaries— Rev.  W.  H.  Dallinger,  LL.D.  D.Sc.  D.C.L.  F.R.S.  F.L.S. 
F.Z.S. ;  R.  G.  Hebb,  M.A.  M.D.  F.R.C.P. 

Other  Members  of  Council—  Jas.  Mason  Allen  ;  Wynne  E.  Baxter, 
J.P.  F.G.S.  F.R.G.S. ;  P.  T.  B.  Beale,  F.R.C.S. ;  Conrad  Beck  ;  Rev. 
Edmund  Carr,  M.A.  F.R.Met.S. ;  A.  N.  Disney,  M.A.  B.Sc. ;  J.  W. 
H.  Eyre,  M.D.  F.R.S.  (Edin.)  ;  A.  D.  Michael,  F.L.S. ;  E.  M.  Nelson  ; 
Thomas  H.  Powell ;  Julius  Rheinberg  ;  Charles  F.  Rousselet. 

Librarian — Percy  E.  Radley. 

( 'urator — Charles  F.  Rousselet. 


The   Chair   having   been   taken  pro  tern,    by  Dr.   Woodward,    the- 
President  read   his   Annual   Address — the   subject   of   which  was  an. 
inquiry  as  to  "What  were  the  Carboniferous   Ferns."     At  the  com- 
mencement of  his  remarks  the  President  referred  to  the  recent  death  of' 
Professor  B.  Renault,  the  illustrious  Palajobotanist,  who  was  only  elected 
an  Honorary  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  June  1904.     The  Address,  which 
was  illustrated  by  a  number  of  lantern  slides,  as  well  as  by  some  actual 
sections,  shown  on  the  screen,  will  be  printed  in  a  future  number  of  the 
Journal. 

Mr.  A.  D.  Michael  said  the  Fellows  present  had  already  by  their 
applause  expressed  their  appreciation  of  the  excellence  of  the  Address 
from  their  President  to  which  they  had  listened  ;  Dr.  Scott  was  not 
merely  familiar  with  the  group  of  organisms  which  he  had  described, 
but  was  regarded  as  a  well-known  and  eminent  authority  on  the  subject 
he  had  brought  before  them.  The  subject  was  intensely  interesting 
and  had  been  handled  in  a  masterly  manner,  and  his  only  regret  was 


i:;i;  proceedings  of  the  society. 

bhal  bhey  would  be  unable  to  reproduce  in  the  Journal  i he  very  beautiful 
illustrations  which  had  been  shown  on  the  screen.  He  had  greal 
pleasure  in  moving  that  their  best  thanks  be  given  to  the  President  for 
ins  extremely  able  and  interesting  Address,  and  that  he  should  be  asked 
to  allow  it  to  be  printed  and  circulated  in  the  usual  way. 

This  motion  having  been  seconded  by  Mr.  Vezey,  was  put  to  the 
Meeting  by  Dr.  Woodward,  and  carried  unanimously. 

The  President  expressed  his  thanks  to  the  Society  for  having  received 
his  Address  so  favourably.  The  subject  was  one  of  very  great  interest 
to  those  who  were  engaged  in  it,  although  it  involved  a  certain  amount 
of  technicality  which  rendered  it  a  little  difficult  to  present  in  generally 
intelligible  form  to  an  audience  not  wholly  botanical.  He  called  atten- 
tion to  a  number  of  models  exhibited  in  the  room  by  Mr.  Smedley,  and 
to  specimens  kindly  lent  by  Professor  F.  W.  Oliver  in  further  illustration 
of  the  subject. 

A  vote  of  thanks  to  the  Honorary  Officers  and  Council  for  their 
services  during  the  year  was  proposed  by  Mr.  Oonrady,  seconded  by 
Mr.  Marks,  and  unanimously  carried. 

This  was  responded  to  by  the  Treasurer,  who  referred  to  the  great 
amount  of  work  which  devolved  upon  the  Secretary,  Librarian,  and 
Curator,  on  whose  behalf  as  well  as  his  own  he  thanked  the  Fellows  for 
this  token  of  their  appreciation. 

A  vote  of  thanks  to  the  Auditors  and  Scrutineers,  was  then  moved 
by  Mr.  Marshall,  seconded  by  Mr.  Gardner,  and  carried  unanimously. 


New    Fellows. — The  following  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows  : — 
Messrs.  John  Rowland  Jones,  and  William  John  Yandenbergh. 


The  following-  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited  : — 

The  President,  in  illustration  of  his  Address : — A  number  of  lantern 
slides  and  actual  sections  of  fossil  plants  shown  on  the  screen. 

Professor  F.  W.  Oliver  : — The  following  fossil  plants,  in  illustration  of 
the  President's  Address  : — Alethopteris  lonchitica,  Asterotheca  Miltoni,  in 
fructification  ;  Dactylotheca  plumosa,  barren  foliage  (this  is  the  form 
usually  described  as  Sphenopteris  ornata)  ;  Diplotmema  JacquoUi  Zeiller  ; 
Xeiirupteris  heterophylla  (?  foliage  of  a  Medullosa) ;  Sphenopteris  affinis  ; 
S.  Aschmborni. 

Mr.  H.  E.  H.  Smedley,  in  illustration  of  the  President's  Address  : — 
The  following  models  : — Palaeozoic  ferns — Crossotheca,  pinnule  ;  Dacty- 
lotheca, pinnule  showing  fructification  ;  Ptychocarpus  unities,  pinnule 
showing  synangia  ;  Scolecopteris  polymorphs,  pinnule  ;  ditto,  part  of 
pinnule,  transverse  section  passing  through  synangium ;  Sturiella, 
pinnule  showing  synangia  ;  ditto,  part  of  pinnule,  transverse  section 
passing  through  synangium ;  Zygopteris,  fructification  •  Palaeozoic  seeds ; 
Lagenostoma,  longitudinal  section  ;  Pachytesta,  longitudinal  section  ; 
Stephanospermum,  longitudinal  section. 


JOURN.  R.  M1CR.  SOC.  1905.     PI.  I. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  1.     Sphenopteris  obtusiloba. 
Fig.  2.      Pecopteris  abbreviata, 


JOUKNAL 

OF   THE 

ROYAL   MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY. 

APRIL,    1905. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


II. — Tlie  President's  Address  :    What  were  the  Carboniferous  Ferns  ? 
By  Dukixfield  H.  Scott,  F.E.S. 

(Bead  January  18,  1905.) 
Plates  I.  to  III. 

The  Flora  of  the  Carboniferous  Period,  as  commonly  portrayed,  is 
characterised  by  the  presence  of  five  great  groups  of  vascular 
plants  :  the  Equisetales  (Horse-tails) ;  the  Lycopods  (Club-mosses)  ; 
the  Sphenophylls  (intermediate  in  some  respects  between  the  two 
former  groups) ;  the  Ferns ;  these  four  classes  have  been  widely 
accepted  as  cryptogamic,  spore- bearing  plants,  though  other  views 
have  been  held,  from  time  to  time,  as  to  the  position  of  some 
of  their  members.  The  fifth  group  was  that  of  the  Cordaite?e, 
highly  organised,  seed-bearing  trees,  to  some  extent  combining  the 
characters  of  the  Conifers  and  Cycads  of  the  recent  Flora,  and 
allied  to  that  isolated  species  the  Maidenhair- tree  (Ginkgo  biloba) 
of  China  and  Japan. 

Of  all  these  groups  that  of  the  Ferns,  commonly  so-called,  is 
by  far  the  most  important  in  number  of  species,  amounting  to 
about  half  of  the  total  known  Flora.  Thus  Brongniart,  in  1849, 
estimated  the  whole  Pala?ozoic  Flora  then  known  at  500  species,  of 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  I. 

Fig.  1.  Sphenopteris  ohtusiloba.     Portion  of  frond,  probably  of  one  of  the  Pteridc- 
sperniese.     From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  W.  Hemingway. 
„    2.  Pecopteris  abbreviala.     Portion  of  frond  of  a  Marattiaceous  Fern.     From  a 
photograph  by  Mr.  W.  Hemingway. 

April  19th,  1905  L 


138  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

which  he  allotted  250  to  the  Ferns.*  Mr.  Kidston,  in  a  more 
recent  enumeration — confined  to  the  British  Carboniferous  Flora — 
out  of  a  total  of  about  330  species,  refers  about  100  to  the  Ferns  ;f 
the  same  proportion  is  approximately  preserved  in  other  lists. 
Such  estimates  are  necessarily  very  rough,  for  a  fossil  "  species  "  is 
something  very  different  from  what  we  understand  by  a  species 
(however  we  may  define  it)  in  recent  taxonomy  ;  still,  as  we  are 
only  concerned  with  relative  numbers,  the  proportion  given  is  near 
enough  for  our  purpose. 

If,  then,  the  "  Ferns  "  of  the  Carboniferous  were  really  Ferns,  in 
the  true  sense  of  the  word,  their  numbers  would  suffice  to  establish 
the  truth  of  Brongniart's  description  of  the  Palaeozoic  epoch  as  the 
"  Eeign  of  the  Acrogens,"$  for,  of  the  remaining  groups,  the  Equi- 
setales  and  Sphenophylls  were  no  doubt  cryptogamic,  and  the  same 
holds  good  for  a  large  part,  at  any  rate,  of  the  Lycopods,  in  spite  of 
recent  discoveries  of  seed-like  organs  in  some  of  them. 

The  question  I  propose  to  consider  this  evening  is  the  real 
nature  of  the  Carboniferous  fossil  plants  commonly  described  as 
"  Ferns."  The  great  majority  of  the  specimens  in  question  are 
preserved  in  the  form  of  the  beautiful  impressions  of  "  Fern-fronds  " 
familiar  to  all  who  have  looked  through  collections  of  Coal-measure 
plants  ;  the  characters  on  which  such  specimens  are  referred  to  the 
Ferns  are  necessarily  derived  from  the  form  and  venation  of  the 
frond,  and  it  is  on  similar  features  that  their  classification  has  been 
founded.  A  few  examples  of  these  fronds  may  be  given,  taken 
from  four  of  the  largest  among  the  numerous  genera  under  which 
they  have  been  grouped,  namely,  Sphenoptcris,  Pecopteris,  Ncurop- 
teris,  and  Alcthopteris.  In  all  four,  as  well  as  in  most  of  the  other 
genera,  the  fronds  were  highly  compound,  the  rachis  branching 
repeatedly  in  a  pinnate  manner.  In  Sphenoptcris  (pi.  I.  fig.  1)  the 
pinnules  or  leaflets  are  usually  small  and  lobed,  and  are  contracted 
at  the  base,  as  are  also  their  segments.  The  venation  is  acute-angled 
throughout.  The  habit  of  the  very  numerous  species  resembles 
that  of  members  of  the  genera  Asplenium  and  Davallia  among 
recent  Ferns. 

In  Pecopteris  (pi.  I.  fig.  2),  on  the  other  hand,  the  pinnules  have 
almost  parallel  margins,  and  are  attached  to  the  rachis  by  the  whole 
width  of  their  base — a  distinct  midrib  is  present,  and  the  lateral 
veins  spring  from  it  at  a  wide  angle.  The  habit  is  most  nearly 
represented  at  the  present  day  among  the  Cyatheaceaj,  or  Tree- 
ferns. 

In  Neuropteris  (pi.  II.  fig.  3)  the  leaves,  often  of  gigantic  size, 

*  "  Tableau  des  Genres  de  Vege'taux  Fossiles,"  in  Dictionnaire  Universel  d'Hist. 
Nat.  Paris,  1849. 

t  "  Divisions  of  British  Carboniferous  Rocks,  as  determined  by  Fossil  Flora," 
Proc.  R.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xii.  (1893-4). 

X  A  name  in  use  at  that  time  for  the  Vascular  Cryptogams,  or  Pteridophyta. 


The  President's  Address.     By  Divkinfield  H.  Scott.         139 

have  large,  ovate,  or  oblong  pinnules,  somewhat  cordate  at  the  base, 
and  often  attached  to  the  rachis  by  a  short  stalk.  The  midrib  is 
distinct  to  near  the  end  of  the  pinnule,  where  it  breaks  up  into 
small  veins ;  the  angles  between  the  veins  are  acute  throughout. 
The  leaves  are  often  much  like  those  of  an  Osmunda,  but  in  some 
cases  bear  peculiar  leaflets  on  the  main  rachis,  differing  from  the 
•ordinary  pinnules. 

Alethoptcris,  also  a  genus  of  very  large,  repeatedly-pinnate 
fronds,  is  characterised  by  the  broad  decurrent  base  of  the  thick 
oblong  pinnules,  the  margins  of  which  are  strongly  incurved 
towards  the  lower  surface.  There  is  a  midrib  throughout,  and  the 
angles  between  the  veins  are  wide.  There  is  a  resemblance  to 
species  of  Pteris  in  some  points,  while  the  general  appearance  of  the 
enormous  fronds  may  have  been  like  that  of  Angiopteris,  among  the 
Marattiaeese. 

Now  in  all  these  cases — and  the  same  holds  good  for  the  many 
other  genera  commonly  considered  as  Ferns — there  is  no  doubt  as 
to  the  thoroughly  Fern-like  nature  of  the  fronds.  That,  however, 
is  not  enough.  There  are  some  plants,  even  among  Dicotyledons 
of  the  present  day,  with  foliage  simulating  that  of  Ferns,  while  in 
the  family  of  Cycads,  which  is  more  to  the  point  here,  there  is 
the  often-quoted  case  of  Stangeria,  which,  when  first  brought  to 
Europe  from  South-East  Africa,  was  actually  placed  by  botanists  in 
Lomaria,  a  well-known  genus  of  Ferns,*  until  its  cones  appeared  and 
revealed  its  true  nature. 

Other  evidence  than  frond-characters  had  to  be  sought  in  order 
to  show  what  the  Carboniferous  "  Ferns  "  really  were.  If  we  ask 
what  we  mean  botanically  by  a  Fern,  the  answer  must  be,  that  above 
everything  else  we  mean  a  plant  with  a  certain  type  of  reproduction 
and  life-history.  To  take  a  common  example :  in  the  Male  Fern, 
familiar  to  everyone,  we  find  that  the  asexual  sporangia,  containing 
the  spores,  are  borne  in  definite  clusters,  or  sori,  on  the  back  of  the 
frond,  and  that  each  sporangium  has  a  ring,  or  annulus,  of  enlarged 
cells,  by  which  its  opening  is  effected  when  the  spores  are  to  be 
shed.  The  spores  germinate,  under  suitable  conditions,  and  each 
produces  a  small  green  organism,  the  prothallus,  on  which  the 
sexual  organs  are  borne  ;  fertilisation  takes  place  by  means  of  the 
actively  swimming  male  cells,  or  spermatozoids,  and  an  embryo  is 
the  result,  which  grows  up  into  a  new  Fern-plant,  producing  spores 
in  its  turn — and  so  the  cycle  is  completed. 

In  the  case  of  fossil  plants  we  can  rarely  expect  to  find  traces 
of  a  delicate  structure  such  as  a  Fern-prothallus,  but  we  can  and  do 
find  evidence  as  to  the  nature  of  the  sporangia.  In  a  certain 
number  of  the  Carboniferous  plants  called  Ferns  the  asexual  organs 
have  been  found,  and  have  proved  to  be  true  Fern-fructifications. 

*  Under  the  names  Lomaria  coriacea,  L.  erioput  Kuntze,  and  L.  lagopus  T.  Moore. 

L   2 


140  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Our  knowledge  of  these  is  due  to  the  work  of  many  investigators, 
among  whom  the  late  Dr.  Stur,  of  Vienna,  and  my  friends,  Professor 
Zeiller,  of  Paris,  and  Mr.  Kidston,  of  Stirling,  must  be  specially 
mentioned. 

On  fronds  of  the  genus  Pccopteris,  in  particular,  we  find  very 
characteristic  fructifications,  with  the  sporangia  ranged  in  definite 
sori,  the  members  of  which  are  often  more  or  less  fused  together, 
and  are  usually  without  a  typical  annulus.  Such  fructifications 
are  characteristic  of  the  small  tropical  family  Marattiacea?  among 
recent  Ferns,  a  group  which  evidently  played  a  much  more  im- 
portant part  in  Palaeozoic  times.  The  modern  Marattiacese  are 
often  large  handsome  Ferns,  but  not  so  large  as  their  ancient  allies, 
which  attained  the  stature  of  trees.  The  anatomy  of  their  tall 
stems  is  known  in  many  cases  (the  numerous  species  of  Psaronius), 
and  proves  to  have  been  extremely  complex,  entirely  Fern-like  in 
character,  and  resembling  that  of  recent  members  of  the  Order 
Marattiacese.  Thus  the  anatomical  evidence  strongly  supports 
the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  reproductive  organs,  and  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  in  many,  at  least,  of  the  species  of  Pccopteris, 
we  have  to  do  with  true  Ferns,  referable  to  a  definite  living  family. 
Among  the  fructifications  the  type  with  circular  sori,  now  only 
represented  in  the  genus  Kaulfussia,  was  common  in  the  Car- 
boniferous Marattiacere,  as  in  the  groups  Asterotheca,  Scolccopteris, 
and  Ptychocarpus  (fig.  32),  genera  founded  on  reproductive  cha- 
racters, and  distinguished  in  part  by  the  degree  in  which  the 
sporangia  of  a  sorus  were  united  to  one  another.  Among  the 
Pccopteris  fronds  there  were  others  which  bore  fructifications  less 
clearly  Marattiaceous,  but  in  none  of  them  is  there  anything  to 
oppose  the  inclusion  of  the  plants  among  the  Ferns.  In  the  case 
of  Scnftcnbcrgia  the  sporangia  recall  those  of  the  recent  Schizre- 
acere,  of  which  the  Climbing  Ferns  (Zygodium)  are  familiar  ex- 
amples. The  fructification  known  as  Oligoearpia,  resembling  that 
of  Gleicheniaceous  Ferns,  occurs  on  fronds  both  of  the  Pccopteris 
and  the  Splicnoptcris  type.  At  least  eleven  genera  of  fructifications 
have  been  referred  to  the  fronds  of  different  species  of  Sphcnop)tcris. 
Some  of  these  were  no  doubt  really  the  reproductive  organs  of 
Ferns,  as  Oligoearpia  and  Coryneptcris ;  others,  as  Umatoptcris,  are 
doubtful ;  while  some,  as  Crossotheca  and  Calymmatotheca,  were  in 
all  probability  of  a  totally  different  nature. 

Good  examples  of  typical  Fern-fructification  are  often  met  with 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  II. 

Fig.  3.  Neuropteris  heterophylla.     Portion  of  frond,  slightly  enlarged. 
„    4.  Seed  of  the  same  plant,  showing  two  characteristic  pinnules,  attached  to  the 
stalk  bearing  the  seed,      x  2  diam.     Figs.  3  and  4  from  photographs 
kindly  supplied  by  Mr.  R.  Kidston,  F.R.S. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.  1905.     PI.  II. 


Fig'  3. 


!•'!..        1. 


Fig.  3.      Neuropteris  heterophylla.   frond. 
Fig.  4.  Ditto  Ditto  seed. 


The  President's  Address.     By  Duhinfield  H.  Scott.        141 

in  the  petrifactions  from  the  English  Coal-measures.  In  one 
form,  very  common  in  certain  localities,  the  sporangia,  which  occur 
in  crowded  sori  on  Sphenopteroid  leaflets,  have  a  most  distinct 
annulus,  suggesting  that  of  an  ordinary  Polypodiaceous  Fern,  but 
usually  two  cells  in  width  (pi.  III.  fig.  7). 


Fig.  32.  —  Ptychocarpus  unitus,  showing  Marattiaceous  fructification. 
A,  Part  of  lower  surface  of  fertile  leaflet,  showing  numerous  sori  or 
synangia.  B,  Synangia  in  side-view.  A  and  B  x  about  6.  After 
Graud'Eury.  C,  Transverse  section  of  a  synangium,  showing  seven 
sporangia  united  in  a  riug.  a,  vascular  strand  ;  b,  cellular  tissue  of 
central  column  to  which  the  sporangia  are  attached  ;  c,  tissue  lining 
sporangia  ;  e,  /,  enveloping  tissue,  x  about  60  diam.  After  Renault. 
From  the  Upper  Coal-measures  of  France. 


Another  interesting  indication  of  the  presence  of  true  Ferns 
in  the  Carboniferous  Flora  is  afforded  by  the  case  of  a  petrified 
sporangium,  in  which  the  spores  are  preserved  at  various  stages  of 
.germination,  agreeing  closely  with  the  corresponding  stages  of 
development  in  recent  Ferns,  among  which  germination  within  the 
sporangium  is  by  no  means  uncommon.     In  this  instance,  then,  we 


142  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

have  a  real  case  of  the  preservation  of  Carboniferous  Fern-prothalli„ 
though  their  career  was  cut  short  early.* 

The  proportion  of  Carboniferous  "Fern-fronds,"  however,  in 
which  there  is  any  evidence  of  Fern-fructification,  is  not,  after  all,, 
very  large.  Out  of  147  species  of  such  fronds  enumerated  in 
Mr.  Kidston's  list  above  referred  to,  there  are  only  27  which 
we  can  attribute  with  any  certainty  to  true  Ferns,  on  the  ground 
of  fructification.  Of  the  remaining  120,  75  are  still  altogether 
doubtful,  while  in  45  the  probability,  for  reasons  to  be  stated 
immediately,  is  all  on  the  side  of  an  affinity  with  seed-bearing 
plants. 

In  the  case  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  fronds  in  question,  no 
fructification  had  been  found  until  within  the  last  few  years.  Out 
of  the  twenty  principal  frond-genera,f  there  is  only  one,  Pecopteris, 
which  consistently  gives  evidence  of  Fern  affinities  by  its  repro- 
ductive characters.  In  the  great  genus  Sphcnoptcris  a  fraction  only 
of  the  species  is  known  to  have  borne  the  fructification  of  Ferns. 
In  a  few  other  genera,  notably  Bhacoptcris  and  Palceoptcris,  repro- 
ductive organs  have  been  found,  and  regarded  as  those  of  Ferns, 
but  their  real  nature  is  dubious.  In  fourteen  entire  genera,  in- 
cluding some  of  the  largest  and  best  known,  as  Alethoptcris  and 
Neuroptcris,  referred,  to  above,  there  has  never  been  any  evidence 
worth  consideration  of  a  fructification  which  could  be  referred 
to  Ferns.  Yet  in  cases  where  such  fructification  occurs — as  in  the 
species  of  Pecopteris — it  is  not  uncommon,  being  found,  according 
to  Mr.  Hemingway,  an  experienced  collector,  in  about  25  p.c.  of 
the  specimens,  so  that  its  constant  absence  from  the  fronds  of  a 
common  species  affords  a  strong  presumption  that  the  reproduction 
was  not  of  the  ordinary  Fern-type.  On  these  negative  grounds,  the 
Austrian  palrcobotanist  Stur,  in  1883,  definitely  expressed  his 
opinion  that  these  fronds,  which  had  never  been  found  with  any 
Filicinean  fructification,  could  not  belong  to  the  Ferns,  and  con- 
sequently excluded  the  genera  Neuroptcris,  Alcthopterisfidontoptcrisy 
and  others,  as  non-ferns,  from  consideration  in  his  memoir.J  Stur's 
opinion  has  been  amply  justified  by  the  event,  but  negative  evidence 
by  itself  can  lead  to  no  more  than  negative  conclusions. 

It  was  from  anatomical  data  that  the  first  positive  indication  of 
the  real  nature  of  these  quasi-ferns  was  obtained.     Three  months 
ago  I  had  the  honour  of  bringing  before  the  Society  one  of  the 
most  important  cases   of  this  kind,   that  of  Lyginodendron  old- 

*  Scott,  "  Germinating  Spores  in  a  Fossil  Fern  Sporangium,"  New  PhytologUt,. 
iii.  January  1904. 

t  Adiantites,  Alethopteris,  Callipteridium,  CaUipteris,  Cardiopiteris,  Diplotmema, 
Eremopteris,  Linopteris.  Lomatopteris,  Lonchopteris,  Mariopteris,  Megalopteris,  Neur- 
opteris,  Odontopteris,  Palxopteris,  Palmatopteris,  Pecopteris,  Bhacopteris,  Spheno- 
pteris,  Txniopteris. 

X  "  Zur  Morphologie  und  Systenialik  der  Culm-  and  Carbonforme,"  SB.  d.  K.K. 
Akad.  d.  Wiss.  zu  Wien,  Bd.  lxxxviii.  (1S83)  p.  608. 


The  President's  Address.     By  Dukinficld  H.  Scott.  143 

hamium*  in  which  the  anatomical  structure  showed  that  the  plant 
was  something  else  than  a  true  Fern,  long  before  any  satisfactory 
evidence  as  to  the  fructification  was  obtained.  The  anatomical 
characters  indicated  a  position  intermediate  between  the  Ferns  and 
the  Cycads,  a  family  of  naked-seeded  Phanerogams  which  still 
retains  some  Fern-like  traits.  In  this  ease  of  Lyginodendron  we 
further  found  that  the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  vegetative 
structure  had  since  been  more  than  confirmed  by  the  observation,  due 
originally  to  Professor  F.  W.  Oliver,  that  a  previously  unassigned 
seed,  Lagenostoma  Lomaxi,  presents  structural  features  identical 
with  those  of  the  Lyginodendron,  with  which  it  occurs  in  constant 
association,  while  they  are  unknown  in  any  other  plant.  The 
evidence  from  structure,  combined  with  that  from  association, 
appears  to  leave  no  doubt  that  in  this  case  a  species  with  perfectly 
typical  Fern-foliage,  of  the  Sphenopteris  type,  was  nevertheless  a 
seed-bearing  plant.  The  seeds  of  Lyginodendron  are  not  rudimen- 
tary, but  highly  differentiated,  and  almost  on  the  same  level  of 
organisation  as  those  of  living  Cycads.f 

There  are  other  species  of  Lagenostoma  so  closely  allied  to  the 
seed  now  referred  to  Lyginodendron  oldhamium,  that  it  is  certain 
that  they  too  must  have  belonged  to  members  of  the  same  Fern- 
like family.  We  will  take  two  examples,  both  from  the  Lower 
Coal  Measures  of  Scotland,  about  to  be  fully  described  by 
Mr.  Newell  Arber.J  The  seeds  in  question,  to  which  the  names 
Lagenostoma  Sinelairi  and  L.  Kidstoni  have  been  given,  are  only 
known  as  yet  in  the  form  of  casts,  but  they  agree  in  important 
characters  with  the  species  in  which  the  structure  is  preserved. 
In  Lagenostoma  Sinelairi,  the  seed,  like  that  of  Lyginodendron 
oldhamium,  is  enclosed  in  a  husk  or  cupule.  These  organs  are 
borne  on  the  branches  of  a  naked  rachis,  which  can  scarcely  be 
interpreted  otherwise  than  as  the  reduced,  fertile  frond  of  some 
Fern-like  plant. 

In  the  other  species,  L.  Kidstoni,  there  is  no  decisive  evidence 
for  the  presence  of  a  cupule ;  the  characters  of  the  seed,  which  is 
conspicuously  lobed  at  the  micropylar  end,  show  it  to  be  a  true 
Lagenostoma.  The  seeds  occur  in  great  numbers  on  the  surface  of 
a  large  slab,  which  is  traversed  in  all  directions  by  a  branched 
rachis,  to  the  finer  ramifications  of  which  the  seeds  appear  to  have 
been  attached.  Everything  indicates  that  both  these  seeds  were 
borne  on  a  frond  of  the  Spihcnopteris  type,  modified,  as  is  so  often 
the  case  among  the  Ferns  themselves,  in  relation  to  its  function  as 
the  bearer  of  reproductive  organs. 

*  Journ.  R.  Micr.  Roc,  Dec.  1004,  Proceedings,  p.  725. 

t  Oliver   and   Scott,   "On   the  Structure  of  the  Palasozoic  Seed   Lagenostoma 
Lomaxi,"  Phil.  Trans.  K.S.(B)  exevii.  (1904)  p.  193. 
%  In  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  1905. 


144  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

In  connection  with  the  fossils  just  described,  we  may  recall 
the  old  observation  of  Stur*  that  Sphenopteris  Stangeri,  a  species 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  foliage  of  Lyginodcndron  old- 
hamium,  possessed  fertile  fronds  with  a  naked  rachis  bearing 
cupule-like  organs  ;  these  may  either  have  once  contained  the  seeds, 
as  in  our  species,  or  may  have  enveloped  the  unknown  pollen-sacs. 

From  the  evidence  afforded  by  Lyginodendron  and  supported 
by  the  other  cases  mentioned,  the  conclusion  must  be  drawn  that 
in  certain  species  with  the  foliage  of  Sphenopteris  the  fructification 
was  not  that  of  a  Fern  but  of  a  seed-plant  with  Gymnospermous 
affinities. 

In  other  species  of  Sphenopteris  (S.  elegans,  S.  Li?ikii,  S.  dissecta) 
we  know  that  the  stem  on  which  the  fronds  were  borne  was  a 
Heterangium ;  this  type  of  stem,  occurring  in  a  petrified  condition, 
has  been  thoroughly  investigated  anatomically,  and  has  so  much 
in  common  with  the  structure  of  Lyginodcndron  as  to  leave  no 
doubt  of  its  near  affinity  with  that  genus. 

On  the  whole  of  the  evidence,  then,  we  find  that  under  the 
name  Sphenopteris  a  heterogeneous  assemblage  is  collected,  includ- 
ing a  certain  number  of  true  Ferns,  as  shown  by  their  fructification, 
but  including  also  a  considerable  group  of  plants  which  had 
already  entered  the  ranks  of  the  Spermophyta. 

We  will  now  pass  on  to  a  different  family — that  of  the  Neur- 
opteridese,  including  Ncuroptcris,  Alcthopteris,  Odontoptcris  and 
other  genera,  among  which  are  many  of  the  most  familiar  "  Fern- 
fronds  "  of  the  Coal  flora.  From  the  work  of  the  late  illustrious 
paheobotanist,  M.  B.  Renault,  of  Paris,  we  know  that  the  fronds  of 
both  Alcthopteris  and  Ncuroptcris  belonged  to  the  petioles  named 
Mycloxylon,  which  are  often  found  in  the  petrified  state,  and  show 
a   structure   remarkably  like  that  of  the  leaf-stalk  of  a  Cycad. 

*  "  Culmflora,"  Abhandl.  d.  K.K.  Geol.  Reiclisanstalt.  Bd.  viii.  1875-7. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  III. 

Fig.  5.  Trigonocarpon  olivseforme.  Longitudinal  section  of  seed,  s,  s,  fleshy  outer 
layer  of  testa  ;  e,  inner  hard  layer  of  the  same ;  m,  ruicropyle :  inside 
the  seed  the  outlines  of  the  contracted  uucellus  and  of  the  embryo-sac  can 
be  traced,  x  nearly  4  diam.  Scott  Collection,  040.  From  a  photograph 
by  Mr.  L.  A.  Boodle. 

.,  6.  T.  olivx forme.  Transverse  section  of  seed,  showing  the  twelve  angles  of  the 
testa,  of  which  three  are  more  prominent  than  the  rest,  s,  e,  the  two 
layers  of  the  testa,  as  in  fig.  5.  The  outlines  of  the  uucellus  and  embryo- 
sac  are  distinct,  x  nearly  4  diam.  Scott  Collection,  325.  Hough  Hill, 
Lower  Coal  Measures.     From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  L.  A.  Boodle. 

„  7.  Section  of  an  annulate  Fern-Sporangium  containing  spores,  a,  annulus  con- 
sisting of  enlarged  cells,  with  rather  thick  walls.  On  the  opposite  side  of 
the  sporangium  the  cells  are  much  narrower,  with  thiuner  walls,  x  about 
80  diam.  Dulesgate,  Lower  Coal  Measures.  From  a  photograph  by 
Mr.  L.  A.  Boodle. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.  1905.     PI.  III. 


')'      -sr 


Fig.  5. 


>         i  :  •)     ■SS'3  -**""  ".W-^Jpf  SSjtifSi^  '   <  ^m 


Fig.  6. 


Fig. 


Figs.   5.  6.     Trigonoearpon  olivaeforme. 
Fig.   7.     Annulate   Fern  sporangium. 


The  President's  Address.     By  Duleinficld  H.  Scott.         145 

Weber  and  Sterzel  have  shown  that  these  petioles,  in  their  turn, 
were  borne  on  the  stems  known  as  Medullosd.  This  is  well  seen 
in  the  English  species  {Mcdtdlosa  anglica)  where  the  leaf-bases 
attached  to  the  stem  show  the  typical  structure  of  a  Mycloxylon. 

The  organisation  of  the  stem  is  peculiar,  for  it  contains  several 
•distinct  vascular  cylinders,  thus  resembling  the  stem  of  the  more 
complex  Ferns,  but  each  of  these  cylinders  grew  in  thickness  on 
its  own  account,  by  means  of  a  special  cambial  layer — a  combina- 
tion of  characters  not  known  in  any  living  plant.  While  the 
primary  structure  of  the  stem  was  Fern -like,  the  secondary  tissues 
resembled  those  of  Cycads,  as  was  also  the  case  with  the  structure 
•of  the  petiole  ;  the  form  and  venation  of  the  leaves,  however,  take 
us  back  once  more  to  the  Ferns.  In  the  case  of  the  English 
Jfcdullosa  the  foliage  was  that  of  an  Alcthoptcris.  Owing  to  these 
indications  of  affinity  in  two  directions,  the  family  Medullosere,  or 
Neuropteridea3  (for  the  names  may  be  treated  as  synonymous),  have 
been  classed  of  late  years  in  the  intermediate  group  Cycadofilices.* 
Thus  Stur's  exclusion  of  these  plants  from  the  true  Ferns  has  been 
justified  by  anatomical  evidence. 

Suggestions  as  to  the  probable  fructification  were  made  in  1898 
and  1900  by  Hemingway  and  Wild,  the  former  relying  on  the 
association  of  the  fronds  with  certain  unassigned  seeds,  while  the 
latter  called  attention  to  some  points  of  structural  similarity 
between  one  of  these  seeds,  Trigonocarpon,  and  the  petioles  of 
Mcdullosa,  with  which  it  constantly  occurs  in  association.  The 
•connection,  however,  of  these  seeds  with  the  Neuropteridese  re- 
mained doubtful,  though  very  probable,  until  strengthened  by 
Mr.  Kidston's  striking  discovery,  in  1903,  of  a  large  seed  in  actual 
continuity  with  the  pinnules  of  a  well-known  species  of  Ncuroptcris, 
N.  lictcrophylla,  the  most  impressive  example  of  a  "  seed-bearing 
Fern  "  which  has  yet  been  brought  to  light  f  (pi.  II.  fig.  4).  From 
the  nature  of  the  preservation  it  has  not  been  possible  to  examine 
the  structure  of  the  seed  of  Ncuroptcris  lictcrophylla,  but  that  of 
Trigonocarpon  is  well  known,  at  least  in  its  main  features.  The 
body  of  the  seed  is  oval,  attaining  an  inch  in  length ;  it  bears 
twelve  longitudinal  ridges,  of  which  three  are  more  pronounced 
than  the  rest,  and  have  thus  given  the  genus  its  name.J  The 
ridges  belong  to  the  hard  fibrous  inner  layer  of  the  seed-coat ;  this 
was  enveloped  by  a  fleshy  outer  coat,  of  considerable  thickness, 
bounded  by  a  well-marked  epidermis.  The  fleshy  outer  testa  is 
only  well  preserved  in  the  best  of  the  petrified  specimens  (see 
pi.  III.  figs.  5  and  6).     Favourable  specimens  further  show  that  the 

*  Scott,  "  Studies  in  Fossil  Botany,"  1900,  p.  374. 

t  Kidston,  "  The  Fructification  of  Neuropteris  heterophylla"  Phil.  Trans.  R.S.  (B), 
exevii.  (1904)  p.  1. 

X  The  ordinary  three-cornered  specimens,  however,  are  merely  structureless  casts 
of  the  inside  of  the  seed. 


146 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


micropylc  was  a  long  tube,  exceeding  the  body  of  the  seed  in  length,, 
and  Hanked  by  a  broad  wing,  continuous  with  the  outer  layer  of  the 
testa  (fig.  33). 

Everything  now  points  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Medulloseae, 
or  Neuropteriderc,  generally  were  seed-bearing  plants.  M. 
Grand'Eury's  recent  observations  on  the  distribution  of  these 
fossils  are  of  great  interest  in  their  bearing  on  this  question.*  This 
distinguished  French  palreobotanist  has  an  unrivalled  knowledge 


Fig.  33. — Trigonocarpon  Parlrinsoni.  Cast  of  seed-cavity,  -with  long 
micropylar  canal,  x  1^  di&m.  From  Barnsley,  Middle  Coal 
Measures.  Kidston  Collection,  1062.  (From  a  sketch  by  Miss 
Janet  Kobertson;   kindly  lent  by  Profossor  F.  W.  Oliver.) 

of  the  coal-plants  as  they  occur  in  situ  in  the  mines.  By  his 
researches  on  the  mode  of  occurrence  of  the  fossil  plants  in  the  coal- 
fields of  St.  Etienne  and  other  districts,  he  has  been  led  to  the  con- 
clusion that  Alcthopteris,  Ncuropteris,  Odontopteris,  Linopteris,  and 
others,  bore  seeds,  and  that  they  were  primitive  Cycadinpe  with. 
the  fronds  of  Eerns.  About  St.  Etienne,  the  Neuropteridese  and 
their  allies  form  in  bulk  about  one-seventh  of  the  fossil  vegetation, 
and  usually  occur  in  groups  by  themselves,  separate  from  the  groups 

*  Grand'Eury,  "Sur  les  Graines  des  NeuropteiMe'es,"  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxiV. 
(1904)  pp.  23,  782. 


The  President's  Address.     By  Dukinfield  H.  Scott.       147 

made  up  of  Lycopods,  Calamites,  and  Cordaitese.  Seeds  rarely 
occur  except  in  association  with  the  Cordaitese  or  the  Neuro- 
pteridese ;  with  the  former  the  flattened  bilateral  seeds  are  found, 
with  the  latter  are  associated  the  round  or  oval  seeds,  such  as 
Trigonocarpon  and  PacJujtesta.  Where  the  Neuropteriderc  are 
richly  represented,  the  seeds  accompanying  them  are  numerous  and 
varied  ;  different  kinds  of  seeds  occur  in  association  with  the 
different  genera,  and  no  other  fronds  than  those  of  Neuropteridepe 
occur  with  the  seeds.  Various  species  of  Alethopteris,  Neuropteris, 
Odontopteris,  and  Linoptcris,  have  their  special  seeds  associated  with 
them.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  seeds  associated  with 
some  species  of  Alethopteris  are  of  the  same  type  as  our  Trigo- 
nocarpon, confirming  the  conclusion  of  Wild  above  referred  to. 
As  one  would  naturally  expect,  it  is  in  cases  where  the  plants  occur 
in  situ.,  or  not  far  off  from  their  place  of  growth,  that  we  find  the 
seeds  associated  with  them. 

These  observations,  begun  in  the  Upper  Coal-measures  of 
St.  Etienne,  have  since  been  extended,  with  similar  results,  to  the 
Middle  Coal-Measures  of  the  Liege  district.  As  the  seeds  would 
naturally  have  been  shed  when  ripe,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
M.  Grand'Eury  has  hitherto  only  found  immature  seeds,  not  readily 
to  be  identified,  in  actual  connection  with  the  rachis.  In  any  case, 
this  investigator's  extensive  observations  on  association  materially 
confirm  the  more  definite  evidence  from  continuity  and  compara- 
tive structure  already  brought  forward.  M.  Grand'Eury  points  out 
that  there  are  a  great  number  of  seeds  still  unassigned,  even  exceed- 
ing in  variety  the  fronds  with  which  they  are  associated.  A  rich 
field  is  thus  opened  up  for  further  investigation. 

Within  the  last  fortnight  a  communication  has  reached  us 
from  America,  showing  that  the  evidence  for  the  existence  of 
"  seed-bearing  Ferns "  is  no  longer  limited  to  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic.  Mr.  David  White,  the  well-known  Washington  palaeo- 
botanist,  has  discovered,  in  a  species  of  Aneimites  (otherwise 
Adiantites)  from  the  Lower  Carboniferous  of  America,  organs 
attached  to  the  frond,  which  he  interprets  as  winged  seeds.*  My 
friend  Mr.  Newell  Arber  has  pointed  out  to  me  the  great  resem- 
blance which  exists  between  the  supposed  seeds  of  Aneimites  and 
certain  seeds  observed  by  him  which  he  finds  associated  with  the 
fronds  of  a  similar  genus  Eremoptcris,  from  our  own  Coal-measures. 
After  examining  the  specimens  of  the  latter  with  Mr.  Arber  in  the 
collection  of  the  British  Museum,  I  was  led  to  believe  that  Mr. 
White's  interpretation  of  the  bodies  in  his  Aneimites  as  seeds  is 
probably  correct ;  there  can  be  no  doubt,  from  his  figures,  that 
they  are  borne  on  the  frond.     It  thus  appears  that  Mr.  White  has 

*  D.  White,  "  The  Seeds  of  Aneimites."  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections 
xlvii.  part  3  (Dec.  1904). 


148  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

discovered  another  striking  case  of  an  apparent  Fern-frond  bearing 
the  reproductive  organs  characteristic  of  Phanerogamic  plants. 

If  we  now  sum  up  the  results  of  our  rapid  survey,  we  find  that 
among  the  Carboniferous  plants  commonly  described  as  Ferns,  a 
certain  number,  but,  as  appears  probable,  only  a  minority,  were 
really  of  that  nature,  as  shown  by. their  Filicinean  fructification. 
Among  these  true  Ferns  the  Marattiacese  were  largely  represented ; 
other  families  also  existed,  though  probably  not  identical  with  any 
of  the  groups  now  living. 

The  investigations  of  the  last  few  years  indicate,  however,  that 
of  the  Fern-like  plants  of  that  period,  a  large  number,  prob- 
ably the  majority,  were  not,  properly  speaking,  Ferns  at  all,  but 
seed-bearing  plants,  most  nearly  allied  to  such  recent  Gymno- 
sperms  as  the  Cycads,  while  at  the  same  time  retaining  some  of 
the  characters  of  their  cryptogamic  allies. 

It  is  probable  that  a  certain  number  of  the  fossils  hitherto 
interpreted  as  the  fructifications  of  Ferns,  will  turn  out  to  be  the 
pollen-bearing  organs  of  the  fern-like  seed-plants,  or  Pterido- 
spermese,  as  we  now  call  them.  This  is  a  part  of  the  subject  on 
which  much  light  may  be  expected  to  be  thrown  by  further  inves- 
tigation, but  which  is  as  yet  hardly  ripe  for  discussion. 

In  conclusion,  a  little  more  may  be  said  about  the  family 
Cycadaceae,  which  in  the  recent  Flora  most  nearly  represents  the 
fern-like  seed-plants  which  played  so  important  a  part  in 
Palaeozoic  times.  They  are  by  no  means  numerous  at  the  present 
day,  including  only  nine  genera  with  about  seventy  species,  scattered 
over  the  tropical  and  sub -tropical  zones  of  both  the  Old  and  New 
worlds.  During  the  intervening  Mesozoic  period,  however,  the 
Cycads  and  their  allies  held  a  dominant  position,  forming  a  large 
part  of  the  vegetation  of  the  globe  in  all  latitudes. 

The  fern-like  habit  of  some  of  the  recent  Cycads  has  been 
already  referred  to ;  it  may  be  added  that  in  many  of  them  either 
the  leaf  or  its  pinnee  are  circinately  coiled  in  the  bud,  as  in  Ferns. 

Some  of  the  Cycads,  as  in  the  genera  Cycas  and  Encephalartos, 
attain  the  dimensions  of  small  trees,  reaching  about  20  feet  in 
height.  The  large  pinnate  leaves  (bi-pinnate  in  the  Australian 
genus  Bowcnia)  bear  a  superficial  resemblance  to  those  of  Palms. 

Cycas,  the  type  genus,  differs  from  the  rest  of  the  family  in  the 
structure  of  the  leaflets,  each  of  which  is  traversed  by  a  midrib 
only,  while  in  the  other  genera  the  venation  is  more  complex  and 
fern-like.  Cycas  is,  moreover,  of  special  interest  from  the  character 
of  the  female  inflorescence.  No  female  cone  is  produced,  but  a 
rosette  of  leaf-like  carpels  appears  on  the  main  stem  in  place  of  the 
ordinary  leaves,  and  after  flowering,  the  normal  vegetative  growth 
of  the  axis  is  resumed.  The  carpels,  which  bear  from  two  to  six 
ovules  each,  are  lobed  and  foliaceous  in  the  commonly  cultivated 
species  C.  revoluta,  while  in  C.  circinalis  and  others  they  are  more 


The  President's  Address.     By  Dulcinficld  R.  Scott.       149 

reduced.  The  seeds,  even  if  unfertilised,  may  attain  the  size  of 
large  plums,  and  from  their  bright  colours  are  conspicuous  objects. 

In  bearing  the  seeds  on  leaves  comparatively  little  modified, 
Oi/cas  approaches  nearest  of  any  living  plants  to  the  Palaeozoic 
Pteridosperms,  where,  as  we  have  seen,  all  the  evidence  points  to 
the  seeds  having  been  developed  on  the  rachis  of  the  frond. 

In  the  other  genera  of  Cycadacese  the  carpels  are  more 
specialised,  bearing  two  marginal  ovules  each,  and  are  grouped  in 
definite  terminal  cones. 

Throughout  the  family  the  male  sporophylls  or  stamens  are 
borne  in  cones ;  each  stamen  produces  numerous  pollen-sacs  on  its 
lower  surface,  which  are  grouped  in  sori  like  the  sporangia  of  Ferns. 
The  seeds  of  Cycads  agree  closely  with  those  of  the  fossil  Pterido- 
sperms in  many  respects.  Here  we  need  only  mention  the  posses- 
sion of  a  pollen-chamber,  an  excavation  in  the  tip  of  the  nucellus 
or  central  body  of  the  ovule,  in  which  the  pollen-grains  are  received, 
and  in  which  their  germination  takes  place.  The  presence  of 
this  organ  was  first  discovered  and  excellently  illustrated  by  our 
countryman  Griffith,  as  long  ago  as  1854.*  As  we  saw  in  the 
case  of  Lagcnostoma,  the  pollen-chamber  is  a  conspicuous  feature 
in  the  structure  of  Pteridospermous  and  other  Palaeozoic  seeds. 

The  fact  that  in  the  Cycadacere,  as  also  in  the  Maidenhair  Tree, 
fertilisation  is  effected  by  means  of  actively  moving  spermatozoids, 
as  in  Ferns  and  other  Cryptogams,  was  discovered  by  the  two 
Japanese  botanists  Ikeno  and  Hirase  in  1896,  and  independently 
confirmed  by  the  researches  of  Webber,  in  America.  The  proof 
thus  afforded  that  in  their  method  of  fertilisation  these  lower 
Gymnosperms  are  exactly  intermediate  between  the  Cryptogams  and 
the  higher  seed-plants,  is  one  of  the  most  striking  contributions  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  evolution  of  plants,  and  harmonises  well  with 
the  conclusions  we  have  drawn  from  a  study  of  the  Palaeozoic 
forms. 

Of  all  living  seed-plants  the  Cycads  stand  nearest  the  Ferns 
among  Cryptogams.  The  Pteridosperms  of  the  Palaeozoic  era, 
however,  approached  the  latter  much  more  closely  still,  and  appear 
to  afford  convincing  evidence  of  the  descent  of  the  Gymnospermous 
seed-plants  from  ancestors  of  the  same  stock  with  the  Ferns. 

*  Icones  Plant.  Asiat.,  part  4,  pis.  377  and  378  ;  Notulae  ad.  Plant.  Asiut.,  1854, 
pp.  6-8. 


150 


NOTES. 

An  Experimental  Proof  of  Phase-Reversal  in  Diffraction-Spectra. 
By  A.  E.  Conkady,  F.R.A.S.,  F.R.M.S. 

In  the  paper  which  I  read  at  the  November  Meeting  on  micro- 
scopical theories,  I  supplied  the  mathematical  proof  of  an  important 
theorem  applicable  to  gratings,  and  showed  how  this  theorem 
explained  the  formation  of  correct  images  of  gratings  by  means  of 
the  light  diffracted  by  them. 

As  that  proof,  being  mathematical,  is  not  likely  to  appeal  to  the 
majority  of  practical  microscopists,  and  as  some  of  these  may  have 
been  misled  by  the  attack  which  has  been  directed  against  the 
validity  of  that  proof,  I  have  much  pleasure  in  describing  and 
showing  a  convincing  experimental  proof  of  the  theorem  in  question. 

In  my  paper  I  showed  theoretically  that  the  second  spectrum 
was  the  lowest  which  was  subject  to  phase-reversal,  and  I  pointed 
out  in  detail  how  the  reversal  occurred  as  soon  as  the  width  of  the 
slit  exceeded  the  width  of  the  dark  interval,  and  how  this  reversal 
of  phase  accounted  for  the  relative  width  of  the  slits  being  correctly 
shown  as  soon  as  the  second  spectrum  was  admitted.  I  moreover 
pointed  out  that,  owing  to  the  preponderance  of  the  direct  light 
and  of  the  first  spectrum,  the  slits  were  always  shown  in  their 
correct  position,  i.e.  coincident  with  the  ideal  geometrical  image, 
and  that  the  admission  of  the  second  spectrum  merely  altered  the 
width  of  the  lines  in  the  image  in  the  proper  direction.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  all  these  deductions  were  purely  theoretical, 
for  I  had  not  had  an  opportunity — and,  indeed,  had  not  sought  for 
one — to  try  the  experiment.  I  wanted  to  prophesy  from  theory 
what  should  happen.  In  deference  to  the  leading  idea  of  my 
treatment  of  the  Abbe  theory,  viz.  to  limit  myself  to  normal  v:ork- 
ing  conditio7is,  I  did  not  discuss  what  would  happen  if  the  direct 
light  were  cut  off,  and  the  image  formed  by  the  first  and  second 
spectrums  only,  as  would  occur  if  dark-ground  illumination  were 
adopted.  Now  it  is  easy  to  extend  the  deductions  in  this  direction. 
I  showed  in  the  original  paper  that,  with  relatively  narrow  slits,  the 
direct  light  and  the  light  of  the  first  and  of  the  second  spectrum 
would  all  arrive  at  the  centre  lines  of  the  geometrical  images  of 
the  slits  in  the  same  phase ;  hence  it  follows  that  the  exclusion  of 
the  direct  light  would  leave  the  two  spectra  still  meeting  in  equal 
phases,  and  producing  a  maximum  of  brightness  along  the  same 


Notes.  151 

centre  lines,  and  the  lines  would,  therefore,  be  shown  in  exactly  the 
same  position,  and  otherwise,  also,  much  the  same  as  before.  But 
I  also  stated  in  ithe  paper  that  with  relatively  broad  slits  the 
second  spectrum  arrived  at  the  same  points  in  the  opposite  phase, 
but  couIl.  not  reverse  the  result  of  the  direct  light  and  of  the  first 
spectrum,  owing  to  the  comparative  weakness  (under  these  con- 
ditions) of  the  light  of  the  second  spectrum.  But  if  in  this  case 
the  direct  light  were  blotted  out,  it  is  at  once  apparent  that  the 
remaining  two  spectra  would  meet  in  the  centre-lines  of  the  geo- 
metrical images  of  the  slits  opposed  to  each  other  in  phase.  They 
would,  therefore,  come  to  complete  interference,  and  produce 
practical  darkness  where  there  was  maximum  brightness  before ; 
and,  in  accordance  with  the  general  theory  of  interference,  they 
should  produce  maximum  brightness  where,  in  the  presence  of 
the  direct  light,  there  was  practically  complete  darkness.  In  other 
words,  the  change  from  direct  to  dark-ground  illumination  should 
cause  the  lines  in  a  grating  of  relatively  broad  slits  to  change  their 
position  by  half  an  interval. 

These  were  the  conclusions  which  quite  recently  I  put  before 
Mr.  Eheinberg  when  he  happened  to  call  on  me,  and  I  was  delighted 
to  hear  that  he  had  the  instrument  and  the  gratings  that  should 
enable  us  to  submit  my  theory  to  the  test  of  actual  experiment. 

The  instrument  referred  to  is  Abbe's  "  Demonstration  Micro- 
scope," and  the  grating  which  was  selected  for  the  experiment  is  a 
"  reciprocal  "  one,  i.e.  one  having  relatively  narrow  slits  in  one 
half,  relatively  broad  slits  in  the  other  half,  the  interval  from  centre 
to  centre  of  the  slits  being  the  same  in  both  rulings.  It  is,  there- 
fore, an  ideal  object  for  this  crucial  experiment,  inasmuch  as  it 
presents  the  two  cases  side  by  side  in  the  same  field,  and  under 
precisely  the  same  conditions. 

It  is  as  gratifying  to  myself,  as  it  must  be  disconcerting  to  the 
gentleman  who  tried  to  disprove  my  theoretical  conclusions,  that 
the  latter  are  borne  out  by  experiment  to  the  fullest  possible 
extent,  for — 

1.  The  admission  of  the  second  spectrum  brings  out  the  relative 
width  of  slit  and  dark  interval,  in  accordance  with  my  theory  and 
true  to  nature. 

2.  The  surprising  result  predicted  by  theory  duly  follows  when, 
in  the  presence  of  the  first  and  second  spectrum,  the  direct  light  is 
cut  off. 

The  bright  lines  forming  the  images  of  the  relatively  narrow 
slits  retain  their  position,  and  are  only  slightly  affected  in  the 
■direction  of  a  moderate  change  in  width  and  brightness,  but  the 
lines  forming  the  images  of  the  relatively  broad  slits  immediately 
change  their  position,  so  as  to  appear  where  the  dark  interval  was 
before,  exactly  as  had  been  deduced  theoretically. 

It  will,  no   doubt,  prove  a  difficult   matter  to  maintain  the 


152  Notes. 

objection  to  my  theorem  in  the  face  of  this  striking,  and  indeed 
startling,  experiment. 

While  experimenting  in  Mr.  Itheinberg's  laboratory,  and  by 
the  exercise  of  some  patience  and  discrimination,  we  were  able  to 
confirm  theory  in  yet  another  and  equally  convincing  manner  by 
means  of  the  same  grating.  It  is  a  simple  deduction  from  my 
theory,  that  if  by  any  process  we  could  reverse  the  phase  relation  of 
the  second  spectrum  to  the  direct  light  and  to  the  first  spectrum, 
the  relative  width  of  the  lines  should  be  shown  the  reverse  of  truth, 
i.e.  the  narrow  lines  should  appear  broadened  out,  whilst  the  broad 
ones  should  be  sharpened  up.  By  careful  use  of  the  "  compen- 
sator "  we  were  able  to  produce  this  effect  also  ;  but,  as  in  the  present 
form  of  the  compensator  the  experiment  is  a  delicate  one,  and  the 
proper  conditions  easily  upset,  I  defer  the  demonstration  for  a 
future  occasion,  as  I  am  naturally  anxious  not  to  provide  any 
opportunities  for  the  misrepresentation  of  facts  or  the  raising  of 
false  issues,  such  as  would  be  afforded  by  disturbing  the  theoretically 
necessary  adjustments. 

In  conclusion,  I  might  point  out  that  I  have  recently  discovered 
that  phase-reversals  of  the  kind  which  I  have  dealt  with  in  my 
paper,  and  the  importance  of  which  for  the  full  explanation  of 
microscopical  images  has  been  there  insisted  upon,  have  been  found 
many  years  ago  by  Sir  George  Airy  and  by  Schwerd,  in  connection 
with  numerical  determinations  of  the  amplitudes  of  diffracted 
light ;  but  as,  from  their  point  of  view,  the  phase  of  the  diffracted, 
light  was  immaterial — the  intensity  being  the  quantity  sought — no 
importance  was  attached  to  it,  and  no  attention  called  to  this 
interesting  fact,  which  would,  indeed,  seem  to  have  been  com- 
pletely lost  sight  of  until  now. 


The  Influence  on  Images  of  Gratings  of  Phase-Differences 
amongst  their  Spectra. 

By  Julius   Eheinbeeg. 

Plate  IV. 

Tiie  accompanying  photographs,  taken  with  the  Abbe  Demonstra- 
tion Microscope,  afford  some  experimental  evidence  of  the  results 
brought  out  by  Mr.  A.  E.  Conrady's  development  of  the  theory  of 
microscopic  vision. 

The  following  is,  I  think,  a  simple  method  of  regarding  those 
results,  which  will  assist  in  understanding  the  photographs. 


JOURN.  R.  M1CR.  SOC.  1905.    PI.  IV. 


FIG.  I. 


A     BCDEF 


FIG.  3.         ,'' 


^rtv 


\    Slit  to   Bar 
1\         I  to  I 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  7 


FIG.  4.        A 


X    Slit  to  Bar 
\       I  to  2 

B 


\   Slit  to  Bar 
2  to  I 


1ST    ^-w.  1ST 


2*P^' 


FIG.  6 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.  10. 


FIG.  11. 


Notes.  153 

The  theory  of  diffraction  teaches  us  that  in  a  regular  grating, 
in  which  the  slits  are  all  of  equal  width,  we  need  only  draw  the 
light-intensity  curve  for  one  of  the  slits  to  be  able  to  indicate 
immediately  the  positions  and  relative  intensities  of  the  spectra  or 
maxima  of  the  grating  as  a  whole. 

The  intensity  curve  for  one  slit  may  be  represented  by  figs.  1 
and  2.*  From  the  highest  point  at  the  centre,  A,  it  falls  to  zero 
at  B,  and  then  alternately  rises  and  falls.  This  indicates  that  in 
the  diffraction  pattern  which  the  slit  forms,  the  points  A,  C,  E  will 
be  the  middle  of  bright  bands,  the  points  B,  I),  F  the  middle  of 
dark  bands.  The  width  of  the  bands  depends  upon  the  width  oi 
the  slits,  being  in  inverse  ratio.  Thus,  fig.  2  shows  the  intensity 
curve  for  a  slit  half  as  wide  as  that  of  fig.  1. 

When,  as  in  a  regular  grating,  we  have  more  slits  than  one,  all 
of  the  same  width,  all  that  we  require  to  know  to  find  the  position 
of  the  maxima  of  the  grating  is  the  relative  width  of  the  slits  to 
the  bars,  for  the  first  maximum  will  occupy  a  position  on  A  B 
(i.e.  the  distance  between  the  centre  of  the  middle  bright  band  and 
that  of  the  first  dark  band),  such  that  its  distance  from  A  and  B 
respectively  is  in  the  same  ratio  as  the  width  of  the  slits  to  that  of 
the  bars.  Thus,  if  the  slits  just  equal  the  bars  in  width,  the  first 
maximum  will  be  equidistant  from  A  and  B  (fig.  2)  ;  if  the  slit  is 
half  as  wide  as  the  bars,  it  will  be  half  as  far  from  A  as  from  B 
(fig.  3) ;  if  twice  as  wide  as  the  bars,  it  will  be  double  as  far  from 
A  as  from  B  (fig.  4) ;  and  so  forth.  Having  found  the  distance  of 
the  first  maximum  from  A,  we  may  mark  off  the  same  distance  for 
all  the  succeeding  maxima,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  as  a  necessary 
corollary  there  are  always  just  as  many  maxima  formed  between 
A  and  B  as  the  number  of  times  the  width  of  the  bars  divided  by 
that  of  the  slit  shows.  Intermediate  between  the  maxima  of  the 
grating  there  will,  of  course,  be  the  minima. 

The  relative  light-intensities  of  the  maxima  produced  by  the 
grating  depend  on  where  they  happen  to  fall  with  respect  to  the 
intensity  curve  of  their  single  slits,  because  they  lie  on  a  similar 
curve.  Thus,  in  figs.  3,  4,  and  5,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  relative 
intensities  of  the  maxima  are  just  the  same  as  for  the  corresponding 
points  on  the  single-slit  t  intensity  curves,  indicated  by  the  dotted 
lines. 

Now  the  point  brought  out  by  Mr.  Conrady  is,  that  in  the  case 
of  a  single  slit  a  change  of  half  a  phase-period  occurs  at  each  point 
of  zero  intensity,  and  that  the  maxima  from  the  grating,  wherever 

*  All  the  intensity  curves  shown  in  the  figures  are  diagrammatic,  their  purpose 
being  merely  to  illustrate  matters  brought  forward  in  this  Note,  and  reasons  of  space 
having  precluded  their  being  drawn  to  scale. 

t  Tnia  holds  good  even  where  a  maximum  happens  to  fall  on  a  point  where  the 
single-slit  curve  show3  zero  intensity,  for  then  the  particular  maximum  in  question  is 
absent. 

Apil  19th,  1905  m 


i  r>4  Notes, 

they  happen  to  fall  with  respect  to  the  intensity  curve  of  the  single 
slit,  will  show  a  corresponding  change  of  phase. 

Thus,  not  only  are  the  relative  intensities  of  the  maxima  deter- 
mined by  the  intensity  curve  of  the  single  slit,  but  we  may  also 
draw  certain  conclusions  from  the  same  as  to  their  phase. 

When,  as  in  a  Microscope,  using  parallel  light  from  the  con- 
denser, we  have  the  spectra  produced  by  the  object  grating  formed 
in  the  back  focal  plane  of  the  objective,  we  can  detect  any  change 
of  phase  from  the  normal  by  an  alteration  of  the  position  of  the 
lines  in  the  image  or  view-plane.  By  normal  phase-difference  I 
mean  that  difference  which  occurs  in  consequence  of  the  position 
of  the  grating  in  the  object-plane,  and  which  is  the  cause  of  the 
images  of  the  lines  being  formed  at  the  points  where,  according  to 
geometrical  optics,  they  should  be  formed.* 

When  the  position  of  the  grating  on  the  Microscope  stage  is  such 
that  one  of  its  slits  is  situated  symmetrically  on  the  axis  of  the 
Microscope,  this  phase-difference  is  nil ;  when  it  is  situated  so  that 
one  of  the  bars  is  situated  symmetrically  on  the  optical  axis,  the 
normal  difference  between  two  spectra  would  be  half  a  phase- 
period.  It  is  essential,  however,  not  to  confuse  this  particular 
phase-difference  with  that  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Conrady,  the  latter 
being  an  entirely  different  and  additional  effect. 

We  now  come  to  the  photographs. 

Fig.  6  shows  the  image  of  a  reciprocal  grating  (magnification 
X  13),  photographed  in  the  ordinary  manner.  In  the  upper  half, 
the  width  of  the  slits  to  that  of  the  bars  is  as  1  to  2.  In  the  lower 
half,  the  width  of  the  slits  to  that  of  the  bars  is  as  2  to  1.  It  will 
be  seen  that  a  bright  line  in  the  upper  half  always  corresponds  in 
position  with  a  dark  one  in  the  lower  half,  and  vice  versa. 

Fig.  7  is  the  central  part  of  the  diffraction  pattern  produced  by 
the  grating  in  the  back  focal  plane  of  the  objective  (monochromatic 
light  having  been  used).  It  shows  the  central  or  zero  maximum 
and  the  first  and  second  maxima  on  both  sides. 

Fig.  8  illustrates  diagrammatically  the  intensity  curves  pro- 
duced by  the  upper  half  and  those  of  the  lower  half  of  the  grating, 
the  dotted  lines  showing  the  intensity  curve  of  a  single  slit  in  the 
upper  half  and  in  the  lower  half.  It  will  be  seen  that,  though  the 
positions  of  the  maxima  in  both  cases  coincide,  the  intensity  curves 
of  the  single  slits  are  different — that  of  the  slit  in  the  upper  half 
being  twice  as  wide  as  that  of  the  slit  in  the  lower  half,  because  the 
former  slit  is  half  as  wide  as  the  latter.  It  will  further  be  noticed 
that,  owing  to  this  fact,  whilst  the  first  maxima  furnished  by  the 
two  gratings   both  occupy  a  position  between   A  and   B  on   the 

*  See  R.  T.  Glazebrook,  "  Note  on  the  Diffraction  Theory  of  the  Microscope,  as 
applied  to  the  case  when  the  Object  is  in  Motion,"  Journal  Physical  Society  of 
London,  1904,  pp.  157-9.  Also  J.  D.  Everett,  "A  Direct  Proof  of  Abbe's  Theorems 
on  Microscopic  Resolutions  of  Gratings,"  this  Journal,  1904,  pp.  385-7.  And  also 
J.  Rheiuberg, "  On  the  Influence  on  Images  of  Gratings  of  Phase-Differences  amongst 
their  Spectra,"  this  Journal,  1904,  pp.  388-90. 


Notes.  155 

central  band,  the  second  maximum  occupies  a  position  between 
A  and  B  only  in  the  case  of  the  upper  grating  ;  in  the  case  of  the 
lower  grating  it  occupies  a  position  on  the  first  band,  indicated  by 
the  dotted  intensity  curve  of  the  single  slit. 

Fig.  9  is  a  photograph  of  the  grating,  all  spectra  being  excluded 
from  taking  part  in  the  image  except  those  underlined  a  in  fig.  7, 
viz.  the  zero  and  the  first  maximum  on  the  right-hand  side. 

Observe  that  the  relative  position  of  the  upper  and  lower  set  of 
lines  remains  unchanged,  which  indicates  that,  so  far  as  these  two 
maxima  are  concerned,  there  is  merely  the  normal  phase -difference, 
both  as  regards  the  upper  and  the  lower  half  of  the  grating. 

Fig.  10  shows  a  photograph  of  the  grating,  all  spectra  being 
excluded  from  taking  part  in  the  image  except  the  underlined 
portion  b  in  fig.  7,  viz.  the  first  and  second  maxima  on  the  right- 
hand  side. 

Observe  that  the  lines  of  the  lower  set  have  got  shifted,  so  that 
the  black  and  white  lines  run  right  through  from  top  to  bottom. 
This  is  because  the  spectra  furnished  by  the  upper  half  have  merely 
the  normal  phase-difference,  whatever  that  may  be,  whilst  those 
furnished  by  the  lower  half  have  an  additional  difference  of  half  a 
phase-period.  On  referring  to  fig.  8,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  is 
explained  by  the  fact  that  in  the  case  of  the  lower  grating  the  second 
maximum  occupies  a  position  on  the  first  band  which  a  single  one 
of  its  slits  would  have  formed,  and,  as  we  learnt  above,  a  change  of 
phase  occurs  at  B. 

Fig.  11  shows  a  photograph  of  the  grating,  all  the  spectra  being 
excluded  except  the  underlined  part  c  in  fig.  7,  which  comprises 
the  first  and  second  maxima  and  a  small  part  of  the  zero  maximum. 

Observe  that  this  photograph  shows  the  transition  stage  from 
fig.  9  to  fig.  10. 

As  regards  the  lower  half,  the  combined  influence  is  seen  of  the 
zero  and  first  maximum  being  normal  as  regards  phase-difference, 
together  with  the  influence  produced  by  the  first  and  second,  and  by 
the  zero  and  second  maxima,  having  an  extra  difference  of  half  a 
phase-period. 

As  regards  all  the  spectra  furnished  by  the  upper  half  of  the 
grating,  everything  is  normal. 

The  effect  shown  in  this  photograph  is  only  obtainable  by 
adjusting  the  part  of  the  zero  maximum  admitted  very  carefully,  as 
the  change  in  appearance  from  that  in  fig.  9  to  that  in  fig.  10  is 
comparatively  sudden.  When  a  considerable  part,  or  the  whole,  of 
the  zero  maximum  is  allowed  to  pass  along  with  the  first  and  second 
maxima,  the  effect  is  essentially  as  seen  in  photograph  9. 

Mr.  Conrady's  experiment,  here  recorded  photographically,  con- 
stitutes, I  think,  striking  evidence  of  the  influence  on  the  images 
of  gratings  of  the  phase-differences  amongst  their  spectra,  clue  to  the 
relative  width  of  the  slits  to  the  bars — a  new  point  in  the  theory  of 
the  Microscope  image  of  considerable  importance. 

M    2 


156 


0  P>  I  T  U  A  R  Y. 

Ernst  Abbe. 
Born,  Jan.  23,  1840;    Died,  Jan.  U,  1905. 

ERNST  Abbe — the  illustrious  Honorary  Member  of  our  Society,  to 
whom,  more  than  to  any  other  man,  the  perfection  of  the  modern 
Microscope  is  due — was  the  son  of  a  foreman  in  a  spinning  mill  at 
Eisenach,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar.  Evincing  talent 
at  an  early  age,  he  was  sent  to  the  universities  of  Jena  and 
Gbttingen,  at  the  latter  of  which  he  took  his  degree,  his  thesis 
being  on  the  "  Mechanical  Equivalent  of  Heat."  After  passing  a 
short  time  at  Frankfort-on-tke-Main  as  a  Privatdocent,*  he  was,  at 
the  age  of  twenty-three,  appointed  by  the  Jena  University  as 
Lecturer  on  Mathematics,  Physics  and  Astronomy,  on  the  strength 
of  a  treatise  on  the  "  Theory  of  Errors."  Three  years  later  he  was 
approached  by  Carl  Zeiss,  and  induced  to  enter  his  firm  as  scientific 
adviser.  Thus  began  one  of  the  most  fruitful  periods  of  progress  in 
the  annals  of  optics.  Carl  Zeiss  was  a  philosophical  instrument 
maker  of  Jena,  whose  business  in  those  days  was  of  but  very 
modest  proportions.  Imbued,  however,  with  the  necessity  of 
placing  the  construction  of  optical  instruments,  and  especially  of 
Microscopes,  on  a  more  scientific  basis,  he  looked  around  him  for 
suitable  help.  Experts  on  the  subject  being  unavailable,  he  had  to 
find  some  one  possessed  of  the  necessary  qualifications  to  become 
one,  and  with  the  necessary  force  of  character  to  prosecute  his  work 
in  the  face  of  difficulties.  That  great  obstacles  would  have  to  be 
surmounted  Carl  Zeiss  appears  to  have  been  fully  aware,  especially 
as  his  first  attempt  to  secure  scientific  guidance  in  putting  Micro- 
scope construction  on  a  proper  theoretical  basis  had  been  a  failure, 
and  had  led  to  his  competitors  recommending  their  Microscopes  by 
saying,  "They  were  not  like  those  made  at  Jena,"  In  his  second 
choice  of  a  coadjutor  he  was  more  fortunate,  for  Ernst  Abbe  proved 
himself  eminently  qualified  for  the  work.  Not  more  than  two 
years  had  elapsed  when,  in  18G8,  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight,  Abbe 
introduced  his  method  of  Microscope  construction,  consisting  in  the 
complete  theoretical  determination  beforehand  of  the  required  data. 
Thenceforth  the  old  haphazard  trial-and-error  methods  of  making 
objectives  were  completely  discarded. 

*  A  Privatdocent,  for  which  we  have  no  exact  equivalent,  is  a  university  lecturer 
qualifying  for  a  professorship. 


Obituary.  157 

Abbe  had  arrived  at  his  results  by  studying  afresh,  from  first 
principles,  the  whole  problem  of  microscopic  images,  from  the 
standpoints  of  both  geometrical  and  physical  optics.  He  came 
to  the  task  with  a  fresh  mind,  for  till  that  time  he  had  not 
specialised  in  optics,  nor  had  he  worked  much  with  optical  instru- 
ments. This,  in  the  case  of  an  intellect  so  keen  and  vigorous,  and 
fortified  by  the  necessary  training  in  physics  and  mathematics,  was 
a  positive  advantage,  for  no  preconceived  ideas  hampered  him  in 
drawing  his  conclusions  from  the  extensive  course  of  experimental 
work  which  accompanied  his  theoretical  investigations.  It  was  in 
the  course  of  these  that,  following  up  the  work  of  Fraunhofer  on 
the  telescope,  he  evolved  his  famous  Theory  of  Microscopic 
Vision,  based  on  his  discovery  of  the  modifications  produced  in 
the  image  by  the  diffractive  action  of  the  object  itself  on  the  light 
by  which  it  is  illuminated.  This  theory  has  been  known  chiefly 
under  the  name  of  the  Diffraction  Theory — presumably  because  in 
Abbe's  original  papers,  to  use  his  own  words,  "  Different  structures 
always  yield  the  same  microscopic  images  as  soon  as  the  difference 
of  diffraction  effect  connected  with  them  is  artificially  removed  from 
the  action  of  the  Microscope  ;  and  that  similar  structures  as  con- 
stantly yield  different  images  when  the  diffractive  effect  taking 
place  in  the  Microscope  is  artificially  rendered  dissimilar." 

Abbe  showed  that  the  optical  system  of  the  Microscope — 
usually  considered  as  consisting  of  an  objective  to  produce  a 
magnified,  inverted  image,  and  an  ocular  acting  as  a  simple  magni- 
fying glass  to  enlarge  this  image — might  be  analysed  in  a  different 
way.  He  demonstrated  that  the  Microscope  system  was  equiva- 
lent to  a  telescope  with  a  loup,  or  simple  magnifying  glass — to 
parallelise  the  rays  from  the  object — placed  in  front  of  it.  Thus, 
the  Microscope  objective  can  be  looked  upon  as  consisting  of  two 
lens  components,  one  acting  as  a  simple  magnifying  lens,  behind 
which  the  other,  acting  as  a  telescope  objective,  occurs ;  the  object 
and  its  image  being  hi  the  principal  focal  planes  respectively  of 
these  two  components.  In  conformity  with  this  characteristic 
analysis  of  the  Microscope,  Abbe  treated  the  problems  of  micro- 
scopic image  formation  in  two  steps :  firstly,  investigating  the 
nature  of  the  light  distribution  in  the  back  focal  plane  of  the  ob- 
jective (which  takes  into  account  the  diffractive  action  of  the  object 
on  the  light  source,  according  to  the  mode  of  illumination) ; 
and,  secondly,  deducing  the  image  in  the  image-plane  from  this. 
This  method  clearly  brings  out  the  difference  between  the  imaging 
of  self-luminous  and  non-self-luminous  objects — a  fact  which  has 
led  to  Abbe's  theory  being  also  known,  more  especially  on  the 
Continent,  as  the  "  Theory  of  Secondary  Imaging." 

The  theory  was  first  given  to  the  world  in  1873,  in  a  paper 
entitled  "A  Contribution  to  the  Theory  of  the  Microscope  and 
the  Nature  of  Microscopic  Vision,"  in  M.  Schultze's  "  Archiv  fur 


1 58  Obituary. 

Mikroskopische   Anatomie."  *     This   paper  has    been  excellently 
translated  into  English  by  Dr.  H.  E.  Fripp.f 

Startling  in  the  simplicity  with  which  it  admitted  of  experi- 
mental verification  as  to  the  resolving  power  of  the  Microscope,  | 
and  other  problems  imperfectly  understood  at  the  time,  it  created 
a  considerable  sensation.  It  also  attracted  to  itself  a  good  deal 
of  criticism,  which  Abbe  dealt  with  in  1880  in  a  controversial 
paper  entitled,  ''  On  the  Limitations  of  Geometrical  Optics,  with 
remarks  on  Dr.  E.  Altmann's  paper  on  the  'Theory  of  Image 
Formation.'  "  § 

About  the  same  period  there  was  a  great  controversy  going 
on  in  this  country  on  the  "Aperture  Question," ||  and  it  is  to 
Abbe  that  we  owe  the  familiar  term  and  significance  of  "  Numerical 
Aperture."  In  a  paper  read  before  our  Society,  in  1877,  he  gave 
a  description  of  his  well-known  Apertometer,  for  measuring  the 
N.A.  of  objectives. 

One  of  the  direct  results  of  Abbe's  diffraction  theory  and  his 
work  on  Numerical  Aperture  was  the  introduction  of  the  Homo- 
geneous Immersion  System  for  microscopic  objectives.  Abbe,  in 
a  paper  in  1879  before  this  Society ,1f  tells  how  he  had  thought  of 
realising  this  principle,  but  did  not  see  the  wide  range  of  its  use- 
fulness till  its  complete  advantages  were  pointed  out  to  him  by  our 
late  Fellow,  Mr.  John  Ware  Stephenson,  who  had  discovered  the 
principle  independently.**  He  thereupon  made  the  calculations  for 
a  series  of  objectives,  which  were  executed  by  Carl  Zeiss,  and  first 
introduced  in  1878. 

Two  achievements  of  Abbe,  in  their  direct  and  indirect  results, 
influenced  the  history  of  the  Microscope  more  than  any  others. 
They  stand  pre-eminent.     The  first,  to  which  we  have  briefly  re- 

*  Vol.  ix.  pp.  413-68. 

t  Proceedings  of  the  Bristol  Naturalists'  Society,  i.  (1S75)  pp.  200-68.  A  very 
short  but  lucid  abstract  of  this  paper  appears  in  uur  Journal  (then  the  Monthly 
Microscopic  Journal)  xii.  pp.  30-31.  which  is  likewise  of  interest,  as  it  is  the  first 
notice  of  the  Abbe  Illuminator  (the  two-lens'  form). 

X  This,  and  a  number  of  other  problems  dealt  with  in  Abbe'a  papers,  had  been 
investigated  by  Helmholtz  at  almost  the  same  time.  Though  working  on  somewhat 
differeut  lines,  both  investigators  arrived  at  closely  similar  results.  Helmholtz — who 
did  not  know  of  Abbe's  work  till  his  own  paper,  entitled  "  The  Theoretical  Limits  nf 
Optical  Capacity  of  the  Microscope,"  was  ready  for  publication — acknowledges  Abbe's 
priority  in  a  postscript.  Helmholtz's  paper  appeared  in  1874,  in  the  Jubelband  of 
PoggendorfFs  Anualen,  and  has  likewise  been  translated  into  English  by  Dr.  H.  E 
Fripp,  Proc.  Bristol.  Nat.  Soc.,i.  (1875)  pp.  413-40. 

§  Sitz.  der  Jen.  Gesell.  f.  Med.  und  Naturwiss.  (1880)  pp.  71-109. 

|1  For  a  concise  historical  review,  showing  the  part  played  by  Abbe  and  others, 
see  paper  by  our  ex-President,  E.  M.  Nelson,  on  "  Microscopic  Vision."  in  the  Proo. 
Brit.  Nat.  Soc,  viii.  (1897)  part  ii. 

^  "On  Stephenson's  System  of  Homogeneous  Immersion  for  Microscope  Objec- 
tives," ii.  (1879)  pp.  256-65. 

**  For    previous   anticipations   of   the    Homogeneous    Immersion    System,    see 
"  Carpenter  on  the  Microscope,"  8th  edition,  p.  364. 


Obituary.  159 

ferred,  was  his  Diffraction  Theory.     The  second  was  the  production 
of  the  Jena  Optical  Glass.     Abbe  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  main  hindrance  to  further  improvements  lay  in  the  paucity  of 
the  kinds  of  glass  available.     Already  in  1874,  in  a  paper  dealing 
with  measurements  of  dispersion  and  refraction,*   he  had  drawn 
attention  to  the  fact  that  "  makers  of  optical  glass  denominated 
their  products  according  to  their  specific  weight,  as  though  they 
were  destined  for  ships'  ballast,"  and  had  gone  on  to  show  how 
glasses  having  a  different  relation  between  the   mean   refractive 
index  and  dispersive  power  were  absolutely  a  necessity.     In  187(> 
he  came  over  to  this  country  to  inspect  the  scientific  apparatus  at 
the  International  Exhibition  ;  and  a  report  which  he  wrote  on  the 
Loan  Collection  of  Microscopical  Apparatus  at  South  Kensington  f 
may  be  classed  as  one  of  the  most  important  of  his  papers,  for  it 
was  in  this  treatise  that  he  set  himself  to  explain  in  detail  the  need 
of  producing  suitable  new  kinds  of  glass,  which  had  the  effect  of 
attracting  Dr.  Otto  Schott,  a  Westphalian  glass-maker,  who  volun- 
teered to  assist  in  the  work. 

Experimental  work  on  a  small  scale  was  begun  by  Schott 
in  1881.  In  1882  he  removed  to  Jena.  The  results  were  so 
promising,  that  Abbe,  by  his  efforts,  was  able  to  obtain  a  large 
grant  from  the  Prussian  ministry  in  aid  of  further  work  in  the 
same  direction,  and  in  1884  the  manufacture  was  placed  on  a 
wholesale  industrial  footing.  A  year  later  the  first  fruits  were 
seen,  and  Abbe  had  brought  out  Apochromatic  Objectives  and 
Compensating  Eyepieces. 

In  a  short  memoir  like  this,  a  mere  mention  of  some  of  the 
other  apparatus  devised  by  Abbe  must  suffice.  Amongst  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  Eefractometer  and  Spectrometer  bearing  his 
name  (1874),  the  Camera  Lucida  (1881),  and  the  Microscope  Illu- 
minator (1872).  The  latter,  curiously  enough,  was  originally 
designed  only  for  testing  Microscope  objectives.  The  Demonstra- 
tion Microscope,  in  which  his  theoretical  analysis  of  the  Microscope 
is  carried  out  into  practice,  should  also  not  be  forgotten.  But, 
apart  from  the  instruments  bearing  his  name,  his  influence  may  be 
traced  in  the  many  productions  of  the  firm  of  Carl  Zeiss.  The 
history  and  development  of  that  undertaking,  as  well  as  of  the 
<  )ptical  Glass  Works,  are  indissolubly  connected  with  Abbe,  and 
are  a  striking  testimony,  not  only  to  the  achievements  of  Abbe  the 
man  of  science,  but  also  of  Abbe  the  social  reformer  and  the 
capable  organiser  and  administrator.  For,  great  as  Abbe  showed 
himself  as  a  pioneer  in  the  paths  of  science,  he  was  equally  great 
as  a  pioneer  in  other  directions. 

*  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  f.|Naturwiss.,  viii.  (1874)  pp.  96-174. 

t  "  The  Optical  Means  of  Assisting  Microscopy,"  published  by  A.  W.  Hofmanu 

1878. 


160  Obituary. 

Sprung  from  the  working  classes  himself,  and  brought  into 
contact  with  them  from  his  youth,  he  keenly  sympathised  with 
them  in  their  troubles.  When,  therefore,  in  1888,  a  year  after  the 
death  of  Carl  Zeiss,  the  latter's  son,  Roderich,  retired  from  the 
firm,  leaving  Abbe,  who  had  been  a  partner  for  thirteen  years,  as 
sole  proprietor,  he  at  once  set  about  the  realisation  of  his  dreams 
of  social  reform.  Abbe  was  a  collectivist.  Following  the  doc- 
trines of  Herbert  Spencer,  Abbe — the  friend  of  Haeckel — looked 
upon  an  industrial  establishment  in  the  light  of  a  living  organism, 
dependent  for  its  growth,  development  and  the  products  of  its 
activity  not  only  on  its  individual  members,  but  on  their  co- 
ordinated action  as  a  whole.  He,  therefore,  considered  that  a 
considerable  part  of  the  profits  of  an  industrial  establishment 
should  go  to  the  benefit  of  the  members  collectively.  Pushing  the 
analogy  further,  because  an  organism  is  dependent  on  its  environ- 
ment, and  has  been  moulded  by  the  continuous  action  of  traceable 
causes,  therefore  these  factors  which  contribute  to  its  successful 
evolution  should  also  receive  a  due  measure  of  consideration.  It 
is  evident  from  certain  of  his  speeches,  notably  a  remarkable 
speech  delivered  in  1897  on  profit-sharing  in  the  Zeiss  Optical 
Works,  that  some  such  considerations  influenced  him  ;  and  Abbe; 
who  was  a  combination  of  the  idealist,  the  man  of  action  and  the 
philanthropist,  put  his  ideas  into  execution. 

In  1891  he  founded  the  Carl  Zeiss  "Stiftung,"  *  ceding  to  the 
same  all  his  rights,  both  in  the  Optical  and  in  the  Glass  Works,  and 
merely  retaining  a  position  as  manager.  The  statutes  state  that 
the  aim  of  the  "  Stiftung"  is  the  consolidation  and  development  of 
the  industries,  as  carried  on  by  the  Optical  and  the  Glass  Works,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  afford  lasting  security  for  providing  a  large 
number  of  people  with  the  most  favourable  opportunity  for  labour, 
and  securing  to  them  collectively  greater  benefits  than  can  be  the 
case  where  personal  proprietorship  exists  ;  and  to  assist  in  eleva- 
ting their  personal  and  social  status. 

In  pursuance  of  these  ideas,  we  find,  after  the  regulations  as  to 
the  payment  of  workers,  provisions  for  securing  that  no  worker 
can  have  his  wages  reduced,  that  no  worker  can  be  dismissed  with- 
out compensation,  that  no  one,  not  even  a  manager,  can  receive  a 
salary  more  than  ten  times  the  average  yearly  earning  of  workers 
above  twenty-four  years  old  who  have  been  three  years  in  the  firm. 
Then  we  find  provisions  as  to  sick  funds,  superannuation  and 
pension  funds,  which  extend  also  to  the  widows  and  orphans  of 
employes.  After  the  provisions  for  the  reserve  funds,  and  pay- 
ment of  a  small  share  of  the  profits  to  all  employes,  according  to 


* 


A  '•  Stiftung  "  is  an  institution  founded  as  the  result  of  a  bequest,  and  lias  to  be 
administered  under  certain  statutes.  The  nearest  English  equivalent  is  the  word, 
"Trust,"  which,  however,  in  certain  respects  conveys  a  different  sense. 


Obituary.  161 

their  wages,  if  the  profits  realised  permit  of  this,  it  is  provided 
that  a  considerable  portion  of  same  be  set  aside  for  more  general 
interests.  In  the  first  place  come  grants  for  public  institutions, 
etc.,  for  the  benefit  of  Jena  and  district.  Secondly,  grants  in  aid  of 
research  and  teaching  in  the  science  of  optics,  which  may  take  any 
shape  or  form.  Thirdly,  grants  in  aid  of  pure  scientific  study  or 
research  in  the  whole  domain  of  science,  and  without  reference  to 
any  benefit  it  may  confer  on  the  "  Stiftung." 

With  what  success  Abbe  has  achieved  his  ideals  is  seen  from 
the  mere  fact  that  the  "  Stiftung "  has  already  built  a  people's 
institute,  with  a  large  public  library,  at  a  cost  of  50,000/.,  and  has 
also  subsidised  the  Jena  University  to  the  extent  of  close  on 
100,000/. 

Abbe  had  close  relations  with  our  Society,  in  which  he  took  a 
great  interest,  as  is  evinced  by  the  fact  that  of  the  twenty-two 
papers  on  the  theory  of  the  Microscope,  which  are  published  in  the 
first  volume  of  his  collected  papers,*  no  less  than  nine  are  commu- 
nications to  this  Society.  A  complete  list  of  them  is  appended. 
On  1st  May,  1878,  he  was  elected  as  an  Honorary  Fellow,  and  in 
1879,  when  he  came  over  to  this  country,  he  gave  a  demonstration 
on  his  "Theory  of  the  Microscope  and  the  Nature  of  Microscopic 
Vision  "  at  one  of  our  Meetings.  A  further  series  of  his  writings  on 
the  Microscope,  based  on,  as  yet,  unpublished  material,  may,  we  are 
led  to  hope  from  Dr.  Czapski's  preface  to  Abbe's  collected  papers, 
be  forthcoming  in  another  volume  of  these,  and  will  certainly  be 
looked  forward  to  with  much  interest.  For,  in  the  stress  of  con- 
tinuous productive  work,  Abbe,  unfortunately,  never  found  time  to 
write  for  publication  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  his  "  Theory  of  the 
Microscope,"  or  much  of  his  other  work,  and  it  has  to  be  gathered 
out  of  various  publications.  With  reference  to  the  Microscope,  his 
collected  papers  to  a  great  extent  supply  the  want,f  and  Czapski's 
"  Outlines  of  the  Theory  of  Optical  Instruments  after  Abbe,"}  as 
well  of  a  recently  published  work  on  "  Image  Formation  in  Optical 
Instruments  from  the  Standpoint  of  Geometrical  Optics,"  §  by  the 
scientific  collaborators  of  the  Zeiss  Works,  give  much  information 
on  a  great  deal  of  Abbe's  other  optical  work  and  theories.     The 

*  "  Gesammelte  Abhandlungen  von  Ernst  Abbe,"  by  the  scientific  collaborators  of 
the  Zeiss  Optical  Works,  edited  by  Dr.  S.Czapski,  published  1904,  Gustav  Fischer, 
Jena. 

t  In  chapter  iii.  of  "  Carpenter  on  the  Microscope,"  edited  by  Dallinger,  8th 
edition,  1901,  will  be  found  an  excellent  condensed  account  of  the  Abbe  Theory, 
with  references  also  to  certain  modifications  of  Abbe's  views.  These  latter  must 
have  occurred  about  the  year  1880.  The  best  connected  and  condensed  account  of 
the  Abbe  Theory  in  German  will  be  found  in  Dippel's  "Handbook  of  Microscopy," 
2nd  edition,  1882,  chap.  iii. 

%  This  work  forms  a  part  of  Winkelmann's  "  Handbuch  der  Physik,"  but  is  pub- 
lished separately.     Second  edition,  1904,  published  by  Barth,  Leipsic. 

§  Edited  by  M.  von  Rohr.     Tublished  1904,  Julius  Springer.  Berlin. 


162  Obituary. 

best  general  and  popular  account  of  Abbe's  lite  and  work  is  to- 
be  found  in  Professor  Auerbach's  little  book  on  the  Carl  Zeiss 
"  Stiftung,"  of  which  an  English  translation  has  just  appeared.  * 

Abbe  was  a  member  of  many  learned  societies.  Amongst 
other  distinctions,  he  was  appointed  Extra- Ordinary  Professor  of 
the  University  of  Jena  in  1870,  and  had  the  honorary  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Medicine  conferred  on  him  by  the  University  of  Halle, 
and  Doctor  of  Laws  by  the  University  of  Jena,  He  married,  in 
1871,  a  daughter  of  his  former  teacher,  Professor  Snell,  and  had 
two  daughters.  He  always  lived  in  the  simplest  style,  and  his 
unassuming  manners,  his  accessibility  to  the  humblest  of  his  work- 
people, his  unvarying  kindness,  the  knowledge  of  his  strong  sense 
of  fairness  and  justice,  and  his  noble  ideals,  led  to  his  being 
universally  esteemed,  and  in  many  cases  revered.  He  was  one  of 
those  magnetic  personalities  who  seemed  to  be  able  to  influence  all 
those  around.  Though  he  had  plenty  of  opponents  of  his  socio- 
logical, as  well  as  of  his  scientific  ideas,  he  had  no  enemies  ;  for 
everyone  knew  that  everything  he  did  or  said  was  actuated  by  the 
single-minded  desire  for  reform  and  progress,  and  no  one  was  more 
unmindful  of  self.  He  ever  kept  his  name  in  the  background, 
and  in  all  he  did  sought  to  bury  his  own  individuality.  Expres- 
sions of  thanks  or  admiration  for  anything  he  did  were  waived  aside. 
The  fact  of  having  moved  in  the  direction  of  his  ideals  was 
sufficient  for  him.  To  realise  those  ideals,  to  carry  out  some 
improvement  in  science,  to  elaborate  some  plan  for  the  betterment 
of  his  employes,  he  would  work  day  in  day  out,  allowing  himself 
no  relaxation,  and  in  the  end,  indeed,  he  completely  shattered  his 
constitution  thereby. 

It  is  rare  to  find  a  high  degree  of  idealism  combined  with  per- 
sistent and  consistent  action  to  the  attainment  of  its  end.  To  the 
combination  of  qualities,  seldom  found  together  in  one  individual, 
we  must  look  in  a  great  measure  for  the  cause  of  Abbe's  greatness. 
Not  alone  the  acuteness  of  his  intellect,  whether  applied  to  scientific 
research  or  to  sociological  problems,  made  Abbe  what  he  was ; 
neither  was  it  his  lofty  aspirations,  his  philanthropy,  nor  his  un- 
doubted talent  as  an  organiser — it  was  the  union  of  all  these  with 
the  will-power,  the  energy  and  determination  to  carry  through 
everything  that  he  conceived  to  be  right,  regardless  of  obstacles 
and  of  the  complete  self-abnegation  it  entailed,  that  led  to  the 
remarkable  achievements  which  have  secured  for  Abbe  a  fame  that 
time  will  not  impair. 

*  "  The  Zeiss  Works  and  the  Carl  Zeiss  '  Stiftung,' "  by  Felix  Auerbaoh,  trans- 
lated by  Paul  and  Cheshire.  Published  1904,  by  Marshall,  Brookes  and  Chalkley. 
Limited,  London. 


Obituary.  163 


List  of  Papers  and  other  Communications  made  to  The  Royal 
Microscopical  Society  by  Professor  E.  Abbe. 

On  Stephenson's  System  of  Homogeneous  Immersion  for  Microscope  Objec- 
tives.—1879,  p.  256. 

On  New  Methods  for  Improving  Spherical  Correction,  applied  to  the  Con- 
struction of  Wide-Angled  Object-glasses.— 1879,  p.  812. 

Some  Remarks  on  the  Apertometer. — 1880,  p.  20. 

On  the  Conditions  of  Orthoscopic  and  Pseudoscopic  Effects  in  the  Binocular 
Microscope.— 1881,  p.  203. 

Xote  on  a  Fluid  for  Homogeneous  Immersion. — 1881,  p.  866. 

On  the  Estimation  of  Aperture  in  the  Microscope. — 1881,  p.  388. 

The  Relation  of  Aperture  and  Power  in  the  Microscope  : — 

I.  General  Considerations  as  to  Wide  and  Narrow  Apertures. — 1882, 
p.  300. 

II.  The  Rational  Balance  of  Aperture  and  Power— 1882,  p.  460. 

II.     Continued,     (ii.)  Division  of  the  entire  Power  of  the  Microscope 
between  Ocular  and  Objective.— 1883,  p.  790. 

On  the  Mode  of  Vision  with  Objectives  of  Wide  Aperture. — 1881,  p.  20. 

Note  on  the  Proper  Definition  of  the  Amplifying  Power  of  a  Lens  or  a 
Lens-System.— 1884,  p.  348. 

Note  on  Limits  of  Resolution  in  the  Microscope. — 1885,  p.  970. 

On  Improvements  of  the  Microscope  with  the  aid  of  new  kinds  of  Optical 
Glass —1887,  p.  20. 

On  the  Effect  of  Illumination  by  means  of  Wide- Angled  Cones  of  Light. — 
1889,  p.  721. 

[Some  of  the  papers  were  written  in  English  by  the  author,  others  were  in 
German,  and  were  translated.] 

Julius  Eheinberg. 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY      AND       BOTANY 

(PRINCIPALLY   INVERTEBRATA   AND    CRYPTOGAMIA), 

MICEOSCOPY,  Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 
a.  Embryology. t 

Evolution  Theory.} — August  Weismann's  lectures  on  the  evolution 
theory  have  been  translated  from  the  second  German  edition  (1904), 
and  supply  what  may  be  called  a  general  text-book  of  organic  evolution. 
They  represent  the  fruit  of  a  life-time  of  observation  and  reflection, 
a  veteran's  judicial  summing  up  of  his  results,  and  certainly  one  of  the 
most  important  contributions  to  evolution  literature  since  Darwin's 
day. 

As  the  author's  preface  indicates,  the  salient  features  of  his  crowning 
work  are  :  (1)  the  illumination  of  the  evolution  process  with  a  wealth  of 
fresh  illustrations  ;  (2)  the  vindication  of  the  "  germ-plasm  "  concept  as 
a  valuable  working  hypothesis  ;  (3)  the  final  abandonment  of  any  as- 
sumption of  transmissible  acquired  characters  ;  (4)  a  further  analysis  of 
the  nature  and  origin  of  variations  ;  and  (5),  above  all,  an  extension  of  the 
selection  principle  of  Darwin  and  Wallace  to  its  logical  outcome  in  the 
suggestive  theory  of  germinal  selection. 

Maturation  and  Fertilisation  in  the  Axolotl.§ — J.  W.  JenMnson 
gives  a  detailed  account  of  these  processes.  His  results,  in  the  main, 
corroborate  the  work  of  previous  writers,  although,  with  reference  to  the 
origin  of  the  cleavage  centrosomes,  he  brings  forward  an  account  which 
differs  from  that  of  Fick.  This  writer  held  that  these  bodies  arose  from 
the  sperm  middle  piece,  while  the  present  author  states  there  is  a  stage 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of  this  part  of 
the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  to 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are  either  new  or  have 
not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  Section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so  called , 
but  also  those  dealing  wi tli  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and  allied  subjects. 

X  The  Evolution  Theory,  by  August  Weismann,  trans,  by  J.  Arthur  Thomson 
and  Margaret  R.  Thomson,  i.,  xvi.  and  41G  pp.,  95  figs,  and  3  coloured  plates  ;  ii.. 
405  pp.,  40  figs.     London  (Arnold),  1904. 

§  Quart.  Jourii.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlviii.  (1904)  pp.  407-82  (5  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  165 

where  the  middle  piece  disappears.  He  adduces  evidence  of  the  forma- 
tion of  the  definitive  centrosome  de  novo  from  the  sperm  nucleus.  The 
paper  includes  a  critique  of  current  theories  of  fertilisation,  and  also  an 
account  of  experiments  designed  to  throw  light  on  the  nature  of  the 
physical  processes  involved  in  these  phenomena. 

Dermoid  Cysts  of  Ovary  and  Testis.* — S.  G.  Shattock  discusses 
the  origin  and  significance  of  these  growths  ;  describing  in  particular  a 
remarkable  specimen  from  a  human  subject  which  contained  two  in- 
formed lower  limbs  between  which  there  was  a  vulva,  and  behind  the 
latter  a  median  perineal  raphe.  Above  the  vulva  there  grew  a  tuft  of 
long  pubic  hair,  whilst  the  rest  of  the  teratoma  was  covered  with  lanugo 
only.  At  the  base  of  the  mass  was  a  smooth  cavity  in  which  there  lay  a 
blind  coil  of  intestine.  In  each  of  the  lower  limbs  there  was  an 
elongated  compound  skeletal  element,  and  in  the  trunk  a  rudimentary 
spinal  column  and  pelvic  girdle.  On  one  side  there  was  a  rudimentary 
upper  limb.  Medullated  nerve  tissue  was  demonstrated  in  the  spinal 
cord.  The  author  reviews  and  rejects  the  hitherto  proposed  theories  of 
such  cysts,  substituting  one  which  he  terms  "  epigenesis."  He  suggests 
that  the  ovarian  teratomatous  cyst  resulted  from  the  fertilisation  of  a 
primordial  ovum  in  the  embryo,  so  that  the  embryo  furnished  a  second 
imperfect  individual,  the  origin  of  which  was  not  therefore  synchronous 
with,  but  later  than  itself.  It  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  a  second 
penetration  of  the  developing  ovum  by  spermatozoa  took  place.  It  is 
well-known  that  more  than  a  single  spermatozoon  may  perforate  the 
investing  membrane  of  the  ovum,  and  one  might  fertilise  a  primordial 
ovum,  which  is  assumed  to  be  early  formed.  This  theory  involves  the 
preliminary  maturation  of  the  ovum  at  an  abnormally  early  date. 
Further,  in  the  case  of  such  cysts  in  the  testicle,  the  assumption  has  to 
be  made  that  the  gonad  in  question  contained  primordial  ova — was,  in 
fact,  an  ovo-testis. 

Secretions  of  the  Genital  Organs.f — G.  Loisel,  in  a  second  paper, 
continues  his  account  of  the  phenomena  of  secretion  of  the  genital 
organs.  The  present  paper  deals  with  the  absorption  of  unlaid  ova 
(spurious  corpora  lutea),  the  function  of  the  interstitial  cells,  the 
chemical  products  elaborated  in  the  ovary,  and  the  toxic  qualities  of  the 
ovary  compared  with  that  of  other  tissues.  In  general,  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  ovary  fulfils  a  purifying  function  in  the  organism.  This 
consists  in  fixing,  transforming,  or  destroying  certain  injurious  products 
poured  into  the  blood  by  the  somatic  tissues  and  brought  to  the  ovary 
by  the  arterial  system.  The  elements  which  treat  these  products  are, 
in  invertebrates,  the  ova  and  follicular  cells  ;  in  vertebrates,  the  corpus 
luteum  and  interstitial  cells.  Some  of  the  products  are  purely  and 
simply  excreted,  others  are  thrown  out  along  with  the  ova  and  utilised 
in  sexual  reproduction,  while  others  are  reabsorbed  by  the  organism  as 
internal  secretions. 

Absorption  of  Yolk  in  Viper  Embryos.! — H.  Dubuisson  has  en- 

*  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  No.  2288  (1904)  pp.  1248-9. 
+  Journ.  de  l'Anat.  et  Phys.,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  5S-93. 
%  Comptea  Bend  us,  exxxix.  (1904)  pp.  684-6. 


16»'»  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

deavoured,  by  means  of  sections  in  different  planes  through  the  yolk  sac, 
to  gain  some  knowledge  on  this  subject.  For  example,  be  finds  in  a 
section  perpendicular  to  the  long  axis  of  an  embryo  of  5  mm.,  and 
through  the  umbilical  vein,  that  the  perivitelline  cells  are  transformed 
into  digestive  tube  cells.  In  cells  with  superficial  yolk  spherules  fusion 
of  these  is  seen,  and,  from  these,  cells  with  vacuolated  contents  result. 
The  contents  gradually  become  basophile,  the  inter-vacuolar  spaces 
diminish  in  thickness,  and  cells  with  a  protoplasmic  reticulum  sur- 
rounded by  vacuoles  form  the  next  stage.  These  cells  are  still  in 
relation  to  a  homogeneous  vitellus.  Lastly,  the  cells  of  the  digestive 
tube  possess  a  closely  reticulated  basophile  protoplasm. 

Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Placenta.* — Hans  Strahl  communi- 
cates an  important  paper  on  the  placenta  in  lemurs  {Galago,  Pro- 
pithecus,  Lemur),  in  Viverra  civetta  and  in  Centetes  ecaudatus.  The 
lemurs  have  a  semiplacenta  diffusa  ;  the  civet,  sl  placenta  zonaria  simplex  ; 
and  Centetes,  a  placenta  discoidalis  perforata,  along  with  an  annular  semi- 
placenta avillosa. 

Placenta  of  Seal.f — A.  J.  P.  van  den  Broek  gives  an  account  of  the 
foetal  membranes  and  the  placenta  of  Phoca  vitulina,  which  have  not 
been  previously  described  in  detail.  He  makes  an  interesting  com- 
parison between  the  conditions  in  the  seal  and  those  in  dog  and  other 
fissipeds,  showing  that  the  pinnipeds  are  as  distinct  in  placental  relations 
as  otherwise. 

Involution  of  Uterine  Mucous  Membrane  in  Tarsius.J — Hans 
Strahl  describes  the  processes  of  involution  gone  through  by  the  uterus 
of  Tar  sins  spectrum  during  the  puerperal  period.  These  take  their  own 
peculiar  course,  and  are  unlike  those  which  occur  in  any  of  the  other 
mammals  in  which  the  history  of  the  uterus  has  been  carefully  studied. 

Implantation  of  Ovum  of  Spermophilus.§ — J.  Rejsek  describes  the 
early  syncytium,  formed  by  some  of  the  cells  of  Rauber's  layer,  which 
effects  the  fixation  and  primary  nutrition  of  the  ovum  of  Spermophilus 
citillus.  The  processes  of  the  syncytium  bring  the  ovum  into  close 
connection  with  a  fluid  material,  which  is  mainly  due  to  maternal  cell- 
products  (derivatives  of  the  blood,  plasma  and  serum).  The  implanta- 
tion and  primary  nutrition  are  altogether  apart  from  the  subsequent 
placentation. 

Spermatozoa  of  Discoglossus  Pictus.||  —  E.  Ballowitz  gives  a 
description  of  the  remarkable  spermatozoa  of  this  amphibian,  which 
measure  i\  mm.  in  length. 

Significance  of  the  Nucleolus  in  the  Maturing  Ovum. If — Konrad 
Guenther  has  studied  this  problem  in  sea-urchins  and  holothurians.  He 
finds  that  the  nucleolus  is  a  drop  secreted  from  the  nuclear  framework, 

*  Abh.  Senckenberg  Nat.  Ges.,  xxvii.  (1904)  pp.  263-319  (10  pis.  and  1  fig.). 
t  K.  Akad.  Wetenschappen  Amsterdam  (Proc.  Sect.  Sci.)  vi.  (1904)  pp.  610-9. 
%  Op.  cit.,  vi.  (1903)  pp.  302-5. 
5  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxiii.  (1903)  pp.  259-73  (1  pi.). 
||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  343-64  (1  pL). 
i  Zool.  Jahrb..  xix.  (1903)  pp.  1-28  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    KTC.     >  167 

into  which  the  chromatin  penetrates,  segregating  itself  and  arranging 
itself  prior  to  division.  In  the  nucleolar  fluid  there  may  be  at  the  same 
time  an  intense  metabolism. 

.  Determination  of  Sex.* — Heinrich  Bayer  discusses  fertilisation  and 
sex  determination  from  a  gynaecologist's  point  of  view.  As  to  fertilisa- 
tion, he  agrees  in  the  main  with  Boveri  and  de  Vries.  As  to  sex- 
determination,  he  argues  against  the  position  of  0.  Schultze  and 
Lenhossek,  that  the  sex  is  predetermined  in  ovo,  and  inclines  to  attach 
importance  to  the  spermatozoon  as  well.  In  particular,  he  maintains 
that  the  energy  of  the  eperm-centrosome  is  determinative.  "When  its 
•energy  is  great,  the  offspring  tends  to  be  female,  when  its  energy  is  less, 
the  offspring  tends  to  be  male. 

Cytasters  and  Centrosomes  in  Artificial  Parthenogenesis. f — E.  B. 
Wilson  found  that  centrosomes  may  arise  by  new  formation  in  the 
-artificially  induced  parthenogenesis  of  sea-urchin  ova.  This  result  has 
been  vigorously  criticised  by  Petrunkewitsch.  Wilson  answers  the  criti- 
cisms of  Petrunkewitsch,  which  do  not  seem  to  him  to  overthrow,  or  even 
weaken,  the  case  for  the  independent  new  formation  of  centrosomes. 

"  I  willingly  grant  that  a  phenomenon  so  surprising,  and  of  such  far- 
reaching  significance,  as  the  new  formation  of  centrosomes,  capable  of 
division,  in  a  non-nucleated  mass  of  protoplasm — or  the  hardly  less  re- 
markable one  of  a  multiple  free-formation  in  an  entire  egg  of  centro- 
somes capable  of  subsequent  division — is  not  to  be  unreservedly  accepted 
without  additional  study  of  the  most  careful  kind,  and  by  different 
observers  ;  but  if  my  conclusions  on  these  points  are  to  be  rejected,  it 
must  be  on  evidence  more  adequate  than  that  brought  forward  by 
Petrunkewitsch.1' 

Development  of  the  Venous  System  in  the  Mole. J — A.  Soulie  and 
C.  Bonne  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  constitution  and  successive 
modifications  which  the  venous  system  presents  during  foetal  life.  A 
very  complete  series  of  embryos,  from  1*6  mm.  to  20  mm.  long,  has 
been  utilised  as  a  basis  for  their  conclusions,  which,  in  a  synthetic  and 
•comparative  manner,  they  give  of  the  evolution  of  the  venous  system  in 
the  mole  during  both  the  first  and  second  circulations. 

Development  of  Olfactory  Organ  in  Spinax  Niger.§— 0.  Sund  has 
•examined  a  series  of  embryos  of  S.  niger  up  to  4  cm.  He  describes  a 
paired  blind  sac  in  the  anterior  region  of  the  olfactory  organ,  which  in 
origin,  development  and  innervation  is  strikingly  similar  to  Jacobson's 
organ,  and  with  which  the  author  suggests  the  latter  is  probably  homo- 
logous. 

Development  of  Gills  of  Fishes.]] — T.  Moroff  finds  that  the  mode  of 
origin  of  the  gill-slits  in  the  different  groups  is  as  follows.  In  Cyclo- 
stomes   there  are  evaginations  from  the  gut,  which,  on  reaching  the 

*  Befruchtung  und  Geschlechtsbildung  Strassburg  (19f)4)  pp.  39.     See  Zool 
.Zentralbl.,  xi.  (1904)  p.  779.  t  Zool.  Anzeig..  xxviii.  (1904)  pp.  8-12. 

X  Journ.  de  l'Anat  et  Pbys.,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  1-39  (3  pis.)- 
§  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  651-9. 
H  Arch.  Mikr.  Anut.,  lxiv.  (1904)  pp.  189-213  (2  pis.). 


L68  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RKSEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

ectoderm,  fuse  with  it,  and  thus  the  gill-slits  originate.  Obviously  they 
are  endodermal,  and  in  the  further  development  of  the  gill  apparatus 
there  is  no  change  in  this.  In  Teleosteans  and  Ganoids  a  reverse  process 
takes  place  ;  there  are  ectodermal  ingrowths,  with  very  slight  outgrowths 
from  the  gut.  Ultimately  ectoderm  reaches  the  gut  wall  in  all  the  slits, 
and  thus  the  presence  of  skin  teeth  on  the  inner  edges  of  the  arches  and 
in  the  gnllet  is  accounted  for.  In  Selachians  an  intermediate  condition 
exists,  there  being  gut  folds  which  blend  with  slight  invaginations  of 
ectoderm.  The  largest  part  is  thus  endodermal  at  first,  but  later  the 
conditions  are  reversed.  The  endodermal  part  of  the  pockets  disap- 
pears completely,  and  in  mature  animals  the  inner  openings  alone  of  the 
slits  are  lined  by  it,  and  thus  a  similar  condition  to  that  in  Teleosteans 
is  reached.  The  development  of  the  gill  apparatus  is  also  considered  in 
the  paper. 

Development  of  Kidney  in  Elasmobranchs.* — I.Borcea  has  studied 
this  in  Mustelns  and  Acanthias,  and  finds  that  the  Elasmobranch  kidney 
is  embryologically  of  the  same  value  as  that  of  higher  vertebrates. 

Development  of  Myocardium  in  Teleosts.f — J.  Boeke  finds  that  in 
Mimenoid  larva?  the  myocardium  forms  a  syncytium,  as  others  have 
observed  in  mammals.  During  the  differentiation  of  the  fibrils,  the  cell 
limits,  at  first  distinct,  are  lost,  and  the  cells  fuse  into  a  syncytium.  The 
author  indicates  the  importance  of  this  fact  in  relation  to  the  physiology 
of  the  heart  muscle-fibres. 

b.  Histology. 

Intra-  and  Extra-Cellular  Nerve  Nets  in  Vertebrates.! — L.  Auer- 
bach  gives  proof  for  his  view,  brought  forward  in  the  paper,  that  the  end 
branches  of  the  axis  cylinder  do  not  remain  separate  from  each  other, 
but,  contrary  to  the  usual  idea,  blend  in  a  peculiarly  continuous  net- 
work. 

Peripheral  Nerves  of  Vertebrates.! — R.  G.  Harrison  finds  that  the 
axis  cylinders  of  motor  nerves  are  developed  in  a  normal  manner  in  frog 
embryos,  in  which  the  occurrence  of  Schwann  cells  has  been  prevented 
by  the  early  cutting  out  of  the  "  Ganglienleiste."  The  nerves  are  here 
naked  fibres,  which  can  be  followed  as  such  .into  the  ventral  part  of  the 
tail  musculature.  The  sensory  nerves  of  the  tail  consist  in  Triton 
larvae,  first  of  naked  branched  fibres,  which  from  their  origin  in  the 
hinder  cells  and  the  spinal  ganglia  to  their  termination  show  no- 
Schwann  cells.  These  cells  only  appear  after  the  fibre  is  formed  ;  they 
come  forward  gradually  from  the  centre  to  the  periphery,  as  may  be  seen 
by  a  comparison  of  different  stages,  and  by  direct  observation  on  the 
fins  of  living  tadpoles.  The  Rohon-Beard  hinder  cells  of  the  frog 
embryo  early  throw  out  protoplasmic  continuations,  which  stretch  under 
the  skin  and  become  nerve  fibres.  The  end  of  the  developing  nerve- 
fibre  consists  of  a  thickening  with  delicately  branched  pseudopodic  ter- 

*  Comptes  Rendue,  exxxix.  (1904)  pp.  747-9. 

t  K.  Akad.  Wetenschappen  Amsterdam  (Proc.  Sect.  Sci.)  yi.  (190">)  pp.  218-25 
(1  pi.).  %  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  47-5:"). 

§  S.B.  Niederrhein  Gee.  Nat.  Bonn.  (1904)  pp.  1-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  1G9 

in inations.  These  fibres  are  first  simple,  later  they  divide,  and  finally 
the  branchings  of  neighbouring  cells  interlace  to  form  a  plexus.  No 
Schwann  cells,  from  begining  to  end,  are  present  in  these  cells.  It  is 
consequently  certain  that  the  nerve  fibres  arise  simply  from  the  ganglion 
cells,  and  it  is  quite  inadmissible  that  the  Schwann  cells  have  to  do  with 
the  genesis  of  the  axis  cylinder  or  with  the  peripheral  end-branchings  of 
the  same. 

Cornu  Ammonis  in  Man.* — E,.  "Wiedershiem  records  having  ob- 
served, in  certain  old  and  badly  preserved  preparations  of  the  human 
brain,  appearances  resembling  interlocking  teeth,  in  the  cornu  ammonis, 
such  as  Jung  had  previously  described  as  a  "  Zackenlager."  The  author 
considers  this  layer  a  secondary  formation  in  old  specimens,  and  not  a 
normal  structure. 

Olfactory  Buds  in  Vertebrates.f — K.  Kamon  has  made  a  compara- 
tive histological  examination  of  the  olfactory  and  taste  buds  in  Esox  and 
Trif/hi.  He  finds  numerous  differences  between  these  two  sets  of  organs, 
and  considers,  in  consequence,  that  Blane's  theory  of  homology  is  at  fault. 
The  epithelial  buds,  described  by  Disse,  in  the  olfactory  region  of  mam- 
mals, particularly  in  the  calf,  are  not  present  in  these  fishes.  These 
buds  are  simply  concentric  groupings  of  olfactory  epithelium  around 
invaginations  towards  the  tunica  propria.  There  are  neither  in  the 
olfactory  mucous  membrane  of  fishes  nor  of  mammals  comparable 
formations. 

Structure  of  Hypophysis  in  Vertebrates.^ — Gr.  Sterzi  has  inves- 
tigated this  in  representative  types  from  Cyclostomes  to  Mammals.  The 
hypophysis  is  ahvays  formed  of  two  parts — a  nervous jirocessus  infundibuli 
and  an  epithelial  saccus  vasculosis,  but  there  is  great  variety  in  the 
relative  development  of  these  two  parts  and  in  their  details.  The 
epithelial  portion  is  always  composed  of  two  distinct  areas,  distinguished 
histologically,  e.g.  by  their  staining  reactions,  as  "  chromophilous  "  and 
"  chromophobic." 

Fibrillar  Structure  in  Frog's  Liver.§ — Max  "Wolff  describes  remark- 
able fibrillar  structures  in  the  frog's  liver,  which  are  not  nervous,  as 
Allegra  maintained,  but  connective  in  nature,  and  are  in  close  association 
with  the  capillary  network.  The  paper  includes  a  discussion  of  the 
differential  diagnosis  of  nervous  and  non-nervous  fibrillar  elements. 

Adipogenic  Function  of  the  Mammalian  Liver.|] — C.  Deflandre 
finds  that  this  function,  as  proved  by  chemical  analysis,  is  normal  in 
mammals.  It  is  notably  augmented  during  gestation  and  lactation.  The 
products  appear  to  be  absorbed  by  the  foetus  from  the  maternal  liver, 
and  accumulated  provisionally.  Further,  in  certain  food  conditions,  e.g. 
after  a  meal  rich  in  fat,  or  by  transformation  into  fat  of  other  elements, 
and  in  pathological  states  of  fatty  degeneration,  the  adipo-hepatic 
function  is  increased. 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  113-18. 
t  Arch.  Micr.  Anat.,  lxiv.  (1904)  pp.  G53-63  (1  pi.). 

X  Atti  Accad.  Sci.  Veneto-Trentino-Litriana,  New  Series,  i.  (1904)  pp.  70-141 
(9  figs.).  §  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  135-44  (4  figs.). 

H  Journ.  de  l'Anat.  et  Phys.,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  94-101. 

April  19th,  1905  n 


170  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Epithelium  of  Stomach.* — M.  C.  Dekhuyzen  and  P.  Vermaat  have 
studied  the  epithelium  lining  the  stomach  in  rats,  mice  and  rabbits. 
Some  of  the  cells  have  the  power  of  sending  out  a  large  number  of  cell- 
filaments,  which  stand  closely  together  when  the  striated  horde]'  is 
contracted  and  when  the  filaments  have  their  minimum  length,  hut 
which  can  also  be  extended,  and  are  then  enabled  to  diverge.  The  "  outer 
limbs"  vary  greatly  in  appearance,  now  more  hair-like,  and  again  less 
delicate.  Like  similar  cells  in  the  intestine,  they  are  apparently  absorp- 
tive, for  some  showed  small  drops  of  fat. 

Peculiar  Osseous  Tissue  of  Sunfish.f— Felice  Supino  describes 
afresh  the  peculiar  hony  tissue  of  Ortliagoriscus,  which  is  so  soft  that  it 
can  he  readily  cut  with  a  razor.  It  is  quite  distinct  from  cartilage,  and 
exhibits  a  sort  of  network,  in  the  meshes  of  which  there  is  an  amorphous 
hyaline  substance,  not  readily  stainahle  (non-calcified  ossein  according 
to  llarting),  including  a  few  cells  and  numerous  long  and  tortuous 
fihres. 

Minute  Structure  of  the  Suprarenals  in  Guinea-Pig.J  —  Franz 
Puhrmann  distinguishes  sharply  between  the  external  cortical  layer  (zona 
glomerulosa  and  part  of  the  zona  fascicularis  of  Arnold)  and  the  internal 
cortical  layer  (zona  reticularis)  of  Arnold.  The  medullary  area  consists 
of  internal  cortical  cells  in  a  different  functional  state.  The  detailed 
characters  of  the  elements  of  the  external  and  internal  layers  are  described 
at  length. 

Eyelids  of  Mammals.§— H.Eggelinghas  made  a  comparative  study 
of  mammalian  eyelids,  which  are  primarily  folds  of  the  integument 
clothed  externally  and  internally  with  many-layered  flat  epithelium,  hairs, 
and  skin-glands.  Internally,  the  integumentary  characters  are  mostly 
lost,  but  the  many-layered  flat  epithelium  may  have  considerable 
development,  and  meibomian  glands  arise  from  sebaceous  glands  near 
the  margin.  The  so-called  tarsus,  a  firm  differentiation  of  the  connec- 
tive tissue,  within  which  the  meibomian  glands  lie,  is  characteristic 
of  quadrumana.  Much  of  the  increased  differentiation  in  mammals,  as 
compared  with  other  vertebrates,  is  due  to  the  increased  development  of 
the  eye  musculature. 

c-  G-eneral. 

Formation  of  a  Species. ||— J.  F.  Walker  discusses  what  takes  place 
when  one  species  is  changed  into  another.  When  the  species  A  is  con- 
verted into  the  species  B,  there  must  be  an  intermediate  transitional 
stage,  in  which  the  collection  of  individuals  is  neither  the  species  A  nor 
the  species  B.  A  species  is  defined  as  a  centre  round  which  individuals 
are  thickly  clustered,  and  the  spaces  between  these  centres  may  be  either 
devoid  of  individuals  or  contain  here  and  there  an  abnormal  form.  The 
true  type  of  a  species  is  its  centre,  where  the  individuals  are  most  thickly 
clustered  and  most  closely  resemble  each  other  ;  those  further  from  the 

*  K.  Akad.  Wetenschappen  Amsterdam  (Proc.  Sect.  Sci.)  vi.  (1903)  pp  30-4 

t  Atti.  R.  Accad.  Lincei  (Rend.)  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  118-21. 

J  Zeitschr.  f.  wisa.  Zool.,  lxxviii.  (1905)  pp.  522-M  (2  pis.). 

§  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  f.  Naturwiss.,  xxxix.  (1904)  pp  1-42  (IS  fi°-s  ) 

||  Geol.  Mag.,  Decade  V.,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  15-17.  ° 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  171 

centre  differ  less  or  more  widely  from  the  type  as  they  approach 
nearer  the  boundary  of  the  species.  As  a  species  moves,  either  in 
geographical  space  or  geological  time,  the  position  of  its  centre  will 
gradually  alter,  if  its  environment  be  different,  so  that  forms  like  those 
contained  near  the  boundary  of  the  species  A,  and  therefore  not  typical 
of  it,  may  become  the  centre  of  the  species  B  and  typical  of  it.  These 
sentences  give  a  general  indication  of  the  author's  point  of  view. 

Theory  of  Sleep.* — A.  Gorter  begins  by  discussing  the  different  well- 
known  theories  as  to  the  cause  of  normal  sleep.  Sleep  has  been  referred 
to  "anaemia  of  the  brain,"  to  interruption"  of  contact  between  the  neura, 
to  accumulation  of  fatigue-substances,  and  so  on.  G-orter  thinks  that 
normal  sleep  is  due  to  cessation  or  decrease  of  stimuli  from  the  sur- 
roundings, and  that  it  has  been  phylogenetically  evolved  in  direct 
relation  to  the  sun.  Man's  need  for  sleep  is  an  inheritance  from  the 
animal  world,  and  may  be  greatly  lessened.  In  coming  generations 
sleep  may  perhaps  be  dispensed  with,  but  the  individual  life  will  be 
shortened. 

Nutritive  Arteries  of  Long  Bones. f— P.  Piollet  finds  that  in 
human  embryos  the  principal  feeding  arteries  of  the  long  bones  of 
the  limbs  are  either  perpendicular,  or  inclined  towards  the  distal 
extremity  of  the  limb,  i.e.  in  the  direction  of  the  blood  current.  As 
growth  goes  on,  by  the  fact  of  unequal  growth  at  the  two  extremities  of 
the  bone,  the  place  of  entrance  of  an  artery  into  the  bone  is  carried 
away  from  the  epiphysis  which  furnishes  most  of  the  bone.  The  result 
is,  the  feeding  artery  takes  an  oblique  course  and  is  directed  to  the 
extremity  of  the  bone  which  is  growing  least.  In  consequence  of  growth 
in  fchicknesn,  by  the  juxtaposition  of  osseous  layers  of  periosteal  origin, 
the  nutritive  canal  also  takes  the  same  obliquity.  In  adults  the  feeding 
arteries  and  the  canals  containing  them  are  directed  as  follows  :  For 
humerus,  radius  and  ulna,  towards  the  elbow  ;  for  femur,  tibia  and  fibula, 
from  the  knee  ;  for  metacarpals  and  metatarsals,  towards  the  extremity 
without  uniting  cartilage.  Briefly,  the  nutritive  arteries  of  the  long 
bones  of  the  adult  are  directed  away  from  the  more  active  epiphyses,  the 
mechanical  result  of  the  unequal  elongation  of  the  two  extremities  of 
the  bone. 

Multiple  Origin  of  Horses  and  Ponies. $ — J.  Cossar  Ewart  points 
•out  that  in  post-glacial  as  in  pre-glacial  times  there  were  several  distinct 
species  of  horses,  and  that  it  is  extremely  probable  that  some  of  the  pre- 
historic species  and  varieties  have  persisted  almost  unaltered  to  the 
present  day.  He  describes  three  distinct  kinds  of  living  horses,  viz.  the 
wild  horse  of  the  Gobi  desert  {Eguus  caballus  prjevalskii) ;  the  Celtic 
pony,  which,  though  no  longer  wild,  may  be  known  as  Equus  caballus 
celtieus  ;  and  the  Norse  horse,  which  may  very  well  stand  as  the  type  of 
the  large  occidental  breeds  and  be  known  as  Equus  caballus  typicus. 

In  addition  to  these  three  very  distinct  types — two  at  least  of  which 
have  taken  part  in  forming  quite  a  number  of  our  British  breeds — we 

*  K.  Akad.  Wetenschappen  Amsterdam  (Proc.  Sect.  Sci.)  vi.  (1903)  pp.  86-91. 

t  Journ.  de  PAnat  Phys.,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  40-57. 

X  From  Trans.  Highland  and  Agric.  Soc.  Scotland  (1904)  39  pp.  (25  figB.). 

N   2 


17-!  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

have  a  Long-headed,  heavily  built  variety  with  a  straight  profile,  and  a 
long-headed  heavily  built  variety  with  a  more  or  less  pronounced  Roman 
nose. 

In  addition  to  several  occidental  varieties,  there  are  several  African 
and  oriental  varieties  ;  and,  in  as  far  as  the  English  thoroughbred  is  a 
mixture  of  African  and  oriental  varieties  and  of  occidental  light  and 
heavy  varieties,  it  might  be  cited  as  an  excellent  example  of  a  breed 
which  includes  amongst  its  ancestors  several  wild  species — a  breed  which 
has  had  a  multiple  origin. 

Phylogeny  of  Mammalian  Tongue.* — J.  Tokarski  has  made  some 
observations  on  the  comparative  anatomy  of  the  tongue  in  Nasua 
socialis,  Phascologale  flavipes,  Halmaturus  iialabatus,  Fells  catns,  etc.. 
As  a  result  of  his  inquiries  he  concludes  that  the  muscular  tongue, 
together  with  a  part  of  its  supporting  organ,  has  been  separated  off  in 
its  whole  length  from  the  lower  tongue.  This  was  necessitated  as 
muscular  elements  became  more  numerous,  on  account  of  the  hindrance 
to  free  movement  caused  by  the  processus  ento-glossus.  Before  this  took 
place  there  was  formed,  from  the  original  perichondrium  of  the  processus, 
a  perpendicular  wall  of  division,  which  formed  a  support  for  the  trans- 
verse musculature,  the  septum  linguas.  In  many  cases  this  represents  a 
direct  continuation  of  the  lyssa  capsule.  Oppel's  statement  that  the 
lyssa  must  be  considered  in  many  animals  as  a  neomorph,  on  account  of 
the  absence  of  rudimentary  tissues,  is  probably  incorrect. 

Anatomy  of  Notoryctes  Typhlops.j — G.  Sweet  discusses  the  ana- 
tomy of  the  organ  of  Jacobson  and  associated  parts,  claiming  that  they 
afford  evidence  of  a  close  affinity  of  this  Polyprotodont  with  the  Dipro- 
todonts  by  way  of  JEpyprymnus  and  Petaurus,  and  also,  though  at  a 
much  greater  distance,  with  the  Edentates  and  Rodents.  Corroborative 
evidence  is  afforded  by  the  iliac  arteries. 

Copulatory  Organs  in  Mammals.:]: — Ulrich  Gerhardt  has  made 
a  comparative  study  of  the  mammalian  penis,  and  shows  its  remarkable 
specialisation  in  various  types,  which  is  apparently  correlated  with  the 
effective  discharge  of  its  function  in  the  coitus. 

British  Mammals.§ — J.  G.  Millais  has  completed  Volume  I.  of  a 
magnificent  work  on  British  Mammals,  which  includes  a  wealth  of  beau- 
tiful illustration  and  a  full  account  of  habits  and  distribution.  It  is  the 
work  of  one  who  is  fortunate  in  combining  the  qualities  of  artist  and 
naturalist.  The  first  volume  relates  to  the  Chiroptera,  Insectivora,  and 
Carnivora  (exclusive  of  Mustelidas). 

Catalogue  of  Canadian  Birds.)] — John  Macoun  completes  his  cata- 
logue, which  brings  together  all  the  available  knowledge  of  the  distri- 
bution  and   the  breeding  habits  of  Canadian  birds.      The  third  part 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  121-31. 
t  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Victoria,  xvii.  (1904)  pp.  70-111  (4  pis.). 
X  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  f.  Naturwiss.,  xxxix.  (1904)  pp.  43-118  (1  pi.). 
§  The  Mammals  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.     By  J.  G.  Millais.     Vol.  I.,  pp. 
xx.  and  303  ;  illustrated.     London  (1904). 

||  Geol.  Survey  of  Canada  (1904)  pp.  415-733,  and  xxiii.  pp.  of  Index. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  173 

■deals   with   sparrows,  swallows,   vireos,   warblers,   wrens,  titmice,   and 
thrushes. 

Jaw-Muscles  of  Snakes  in  Relation  to  the  Poison-Gland.* — 
Nils  Rosen  gives  an  account  of  M.  masseter  and  M.  temporalis  in  various 
snakes.  He  finds  that  M.  masseter  (M.  par.-quadr.-mandib.),  and  espe- 
cially the  first  portion  of  it,  has  an  important  role  in  compressing  the 
poison-gland.  He  does  not  deny  a  minor  role  to  other  muscles,  and  to 
the  tension  of  the  ligammtum  sygomaticum. 

Locomotion  of  Snakes.f — P.  Buffa  has  made  a  detailed  study  of 
the  musculature  of  the  skin,  and  gives  the  particulars  in  each  of  twenty- 
three  species.  As  a  result,  he  concludes  that  crawling  in  serpents  is  the 
result  of  the  very  complex  relations  of  two  different  categories  of  move- 
ment. These  are  movements  of  the  scales,  the  whole  integument  and 
the  ribs,  which  last  are  controlled  by  the  special  connections  existing 
between  the  scales  and  integument.  The  second  set  of  movements  are 
those  instituted  by  the  muscles  uniting  the  scales  themselves,  and  uniting 
scales  and  ribs.  The  ribs  act  as  a  fulcrum  to  the  body,  in  which  func- 
tion the  undulatory  movements  of  the  body  as  a  whole  undoubtedly 
take  part. 

Effect  of  Heat  on  Colour-Changes  of  Anolis  Carolinensis.f — 
(j.  H.  Parker  and  S.  A.  Starratt  find  that  the  temperature  is  a  factor 
in  the  colour-change  of  this  lizard.  At  10°  C.  the  animal  becomes  brown, 
and  remains  so  irrespective  of  illumination  (115  candle-metres).  At 
this  temperature  heat  is  the  controlling  factor.  At  40°  and  45°  C.,  the 
lizard  becomes  green  or  greenish-grey,  and  remains  so  irrespective  of 
illumination  (115  candle-metres).  Here  again  heat  is  the  controlling 
factor.  At  intermediate  temperatures,  20°-35°,  light  (115  candle-metres) 
and  dark  are  controlling  factors,  but  the  effect  of  heat  is  still  evident 
over  this  range  in  that  it  may  influence  the  rate  of  the  colour-changes. 

Influence  of  Food  on  Length  of  Intestine  in  Tadpoles. § — Emile 
Yung  has  experimented  with  the  larva?  of  Ra/ia  esculenta,  by  giving  them 
different  kinds  of  food.  Whatever  the  diet  be,  the  intestine  elongates 
rapidly  until  the  hind  limbs  appear,  then  it  diminishes  until  the  develop- 
ment of  the  hind  limbs  is  complete,  after  which  it  elongates  slightly. 
From  the  time  the  fore  limbs  show  themselves,  the  intestine  shortens 
persistently. 

The  vegetarian  larvae  always  have  a  longer  intestine  than  the  carni- 
vorous forms.  The  difference  is  most  marked  during  the  period  before 
the  appearance  of  the  hind  limbs.  The  fact  that  the  shortening  of  the 
intestine,  common  to  all  larvae,  but  most  marked  in  the  vegetarian  forms, 
coincides  with  the  periods  of  metamorphosis  during  which  the  larvae 
eat  little  or  nothing,  lends  support  to  the  view  that  the  length  of  the 
intestine  is  a  function  of  the  quantity  of  food  which  it  contains. 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1904)  pp.  1-7  (6  figs.). 

t  Atti  Accud.  Sci.  Veneto-Trentino-Istriana,  Anno  I.  (1905)  pp.  145-237  (4  pis.). 

X  Proc.  Amer.  Acad.,  xl.  (1904)  pp.  457-66. 

§  Comptes  Rendus  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  749-51. 


174  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Monstrosity  of  Bladder  in  Frog.* — "W.  Woodland  reports  a  case  in 
which  the  left  lobe  of  the  bladder  of  Rana  temporaria,  was  proximal ly 
stretched  to  form  a  thin  tube,  which,  running  anteriorly  in  the  body- 
cavity,  perforated  the  muscular  portion  of  the  ventral  body-wall,  and 
expanded  distally  into  a  spherical  sac,  lying  external  to  the  muscles  and 
in  the  median  ventral  lymph-sinus.  Permanently  imprisoned  in  the  distal 
sac  was  a  full-grown  specimen  of  the  usual  parasite,  Polystomum  inte- 
ger rimwn. 

Correlated  Protective  Devices  in  Salamanders.f — M.  E.  Hubbard 
has  found  in  three  species  of  salamander  a  relation  between  the  power 
of  autotomy  and  the  presence  of  poison  glands.  They  form  a  graduated 
series.  Batrachoseps  atienuatus  yields  comparatively  little  poisonous 
secretion  when  stimulated,  Plethodon  oregonensis  yields  it  abundantly  on 
the  tail,  and  Diemyctylus  torosus  pours  it  out  over  the  dorsal  surface  of 
the  body.  Batrachoseps  is  eaten  with  avidity  by  snakes,  Plethodon  is  not 
rejected,  and  Diemyctylus  does  not  appear  to  be  taken  at  all  as  food.  On 
the  other  hand,  Batrachoseps  practises  autotomy  on  little  provocation  and 
at  almost  any  point,  Plethodon  only  as  a  last  resort  and  at  one  region 
only,  Diemyctylus  not  at  all. 

Skulls  of  Teleosts  in  Relation  to  Mode  of  Life.} — F.  Supino 
points  out  that  some  cranial  characters  of  Teleosts,  notably  the  amount 
of  cartilage  or  bone  in  certain  regions,  may  be  correlated  with  the  mode 
of  life. 

Gills  and  Teeth  of  Comephorus.§ — A.  Korotneff  notes  some  pecu- 
liarities in  the  gills  and  teeth  of  this  fish  from  Lake  Baikal.  The  gill 
arches  are  four  in  number  :  they  possess  on  their  inner  edge  specialised 
papilke,  which  bear  long  shield-shaped  teeth  ;  on  their  outer  edge,  lancet- 
shaped  gill  plates,  which  are  covered  on  both  sides  with  gill  lamella?. 
In  the  axis  of  the  gill  plate  there  runs  a  rod  of  cartilage,  accompanied 
by  an  artery  and  vein.  At  the  point  of  origin  of  the  gill  lamella  from 
the  plate,  and  on  its  inner  side,  there  arises  from  the  vein  a  sinus  venosus. 
On  the  border  of  this  sinus  there  runs  a  delicate  artery,  supplying  the 
artery  of  the  gill  leaf.  On  the  flat  side  of  the  gill  lamella  a  capillary 
net  communicates  on  one  side  with  the  vein  lacuna  and  on  the  other 
probably  with  the  above-mentioned  artery.  The  teeth  develop  from  a 
mesoderm  papilla  which  projects  into  the  epithelium.  Around  it  the 
inner  layer  of  the  many-layered  epithelium  forms  a  cap  of  prismatic 
cells,  while  between  the  epithelium  and  the  papilla,  cement,  to  which  a 
mesodermic  origin  is  to  be  ascribed,  is  laid  down.  An  upward  growth 
of  the  whole  takes  place,  while  the  papilla  enlarges,  the  cement  in- 
creases, and  the  cap  cells  become  long  and  thread-like.  It  is  doubtful 
if  enamel  is  present.  In  origin  the  teeth  are  suggestive  more  of  Ganoids 
than  of  bony  fishes. 

Structure  of  the  Swim-Bladder. || — 1).  Deineka  makes  an  addition 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1904)  pp.  404-5  (1  fig.). 

t  Univ.  California  Publications,  i.  ( 1903)  pp.  157-70  (1  pi.). 

j  Atti.  R.  Accad.  Lincei  (Rend.)  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  625-31. 

§  Biol.  CentralbL.  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  641-4. 

||  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  149-64  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  ITT* 

to  the  steadily  increasing  literature  of  this  subject.  He  discusses  the 
work  of  earlier  writers,  and  seeks  to  bring  his  own  into  line  with  it.  He 
has  experimentally  demonstrated  the  hydrostatic  function  of  the  organ, 
but  cannot  say  if  it  is  an  active  one — whether  the  quantity  of  gas  is 
capable  of  being  lessened  or  increased  at  need — or  whether  mechanical 
as  a  result  of  its  position.  The  composition  of  the  gases  receives 
attention,  and  also  the  nerve  supply  and  structure  of  the  bladder, 
particularly  the  blood  vessels  and  gland  cells.  In  the  blood  glands  there 
are  remarkable  giant  cells,  resembling  those  of  the  bone  marrow.  On  a 
surface  view  these  are  seen  to  be  disposed  irregularly,  and  are  so  large 
that  they  frequently  occupy  the  whole  thickness  of  the  cellular  layer  of 
the  gland.  Each  cell  is  beset  by  a  close  network  of  vessels.  These  cells 
are  particularly  numerous  in  young  fishes,  and  they' appear  to  give  rise, 
by  amitotic  division  of  the  nucleus,  to  the  small  cells  of  the  gland. 

Swim-Bladder  of  Fishes.* — A.  Jaeger  finds  that  there  are  three  kinds 
of  arrangement  in  the  swim-bladder  of  fishes  for  regulating  the  quantity 
of  gas.  The  "  red-body  "  liberates  oxygen  (which  is  the  only  element  to 
be  considered  in  an  increase  of  air  in  the  bladder)  from  the  blood.  The 
lessening  of  the  quantity  of  air  is  effected  in  fishes  with  closed  bladder 
through  the  absorption  of  oxygen  by  means  of  the  "  oval,"  in  others 
with  open  bladder  by  its  escape  through  the  duct.  The  inner  epithelial 
lining  of  the  bladder  is  impermeable  to  oxygen.  Through  the  regulating 
mechanism  described,  the  changing  water-pressure  is  neutralised  so  that, 
at  all  depths,  the  volume  of  the  fish  is  the  same,  and  its  specific  gravity 
equal  to  that  of  the  surrounding  medium. 

Inferior  Pharyngeal  Bones  in  Genus  Orestias.f  —  J.  Pellegrin 
finds  considerable  differences  in  the  character  of  the  teeth  in  different 
species  of  this  genus,  which  are  adaptations  to  diverse  feeding  habits. 
A  specialised  food,  composed  of  small  strong-shelled  molluscs  which  are 
difficult  to  crush,  has  led  to  the  transformation  of  narrow  alveolar 
surfaces  into  conical  teeth,  with  considerable  augmentation  of  the  alveo- 
lar surface.  In  species  which  feed  on  softer  vegetable  or  animal 
substances,  there  are  large  alveolar  surfaces,  with  granular  rounded  teeth, 
and  a  marked  tendency  to  fusion  of  the  inferior  pharyngeals. 

Australian  Fossil  Fishes. J — F.  Chapman  and  G.  B.  Pritchard  give 
an  account  of  eleven  genera,  represented  by  twenty-five  species  of  Tertiary 
Selachia,  three  of  which  are  new.  The  ranges  of  the  several  forms  are 
tabulated,  and  some  interesting  information,  pointing  to  the  affinity  of 
the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  strata  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia,  is  adduced. 

Food-Fishes  of  North  Sea.§ — P.  P.  C.  Hoek,  in  collaboration  with 
Heinckc,  Ehrenbaum  and  Kyle,  has  given  an  account  of  the  ten  most 
important  food-fishes  of  the  North  Sea.     Each  species   is   dealt   with 

*  Ber.  Senckenberg  Nat.  Ges.  Fr.  (1904)  pp.  G3*-72*. 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  682-4. 

J  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Vict.,  xvii.  (1904)  pp.  267-97  (2  pls.\ 

§  Die  Literatur  der  zehn  wicbtigsten  Nutzfischc  d^r  Nordsee  in  monojjraphischer 
Darstellung.  Conseil  Intemat.  Explor.  de  la  Mer.  No.  3  (1903)  pp.  112  (10  pis.). 
See  Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xi.  (1904)  pp.  852-3. 


176  SUMMARY    OP    CTKRBNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

monographically,  and  a  plate  is  devoted  to  each.  This  will  be  a  very 
useful  book,  ;is  ii  includes  literature,  nomenclature,  distribution,  and 
what  is  known  as  development,  as  well  as  a  careful  morphological 
account  of  each  form.  The  ten  species  are  :  Mackerel,  Cod,  Haddock, 
Whiting,  Plaice,  Pleuronectes  limanda,  Solea  vulgaris,  Herring,  and 
Engraulis  encrasicholus. 

Fishes  of  Panama  Bay.* — Charles  H.  Gilbert  and  Edwin  C.  Starks 
enumerate  :S74  species,  of  which  4:5  are  new.  The  new  species  are 
described,  and  there  are  notes  on  many  of  those  previously  recorded.  Of 
the  374  species  recorded  from  Panama,  204  are  now  known  to  occur  in 
the  Gulf  of  California,  and  further  exploration  will  certainly  increase 
the  list  of  forms  common  to  the  two  areas,  which  differ  principally  in 
the  greater  development  at  Panama  of  Siluroids  and  Sciamoids. 

Much  has  been  written  concerning  the  close  parallelism  between  the 
fish  faunas  on  opposite  sides  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  the  bearing 
of  this  upon  the  question  of  a  water-way  formerly  open  between  the  two 
oceans.  The  ichthyological  evidence  is  overwhelmingly  in  favour  of  a 
former  open  communication,  which  must  have  become  closed  at  a  period 
sufficiently  remote  from  the  present  to  have  permitted  the  specific 
differentiation  of  a  very  large  majority  of  the  forms  involved.  It  is 
interesting  to  find  definite  evidence  of  the  widely  varying  rates  of 
differentiation.  Thus  there  are  54  identical  species  ;  a  larger  number 
have  become  distinguished  by  minute  but  constant  differences,  and  by 
imperceptible  gradations  we  pass  to  widely  divergent  species. 

Sense  of  Hearing-  in  Goldfish.f — Henry  B.  Bigelow  has  made  many 
experiments,  using  an  ingenious  apparatus,  to  test  the  sense  of  hearing 
in  the  goldfish  {Carassius  auratus,  L.).  He  tested  three  sets  :  (1)  nor- 
mal fishes  ;  (2)  those  in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  integument  had 
been  made  insensitive  by  cutting  the  fifth  and  seventh  nerves,  the  lateral 
line  nerves,  and  the  spinal  cord  close  to  the  medulla  ;  and  (3)  fishes  in 
which  the  eighth  nerve  had  been  cut. 

Normal  goldfishes  usually  respond  in  a  definite  manner  to  sound- 
vibrations  in  water.  Goldfishes  in  which  most  of  the  skin  has  been 
rendered  insensitive  by  cutting  the  nerves,  and  specimens  from  which 
the  ears,  except  the  saccular  portion,  have  been  removed,  still  respond  in 
an  essentially  normal  way  to  sound-vibrations  in  water.  Goldfishes  in 
which  the  eighth  nerves  have  been  cut  on  both  sides,  thus  eliminating 
the  sacculi  and  lagenaa  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  ear,  seldom  or  never 
respond  to  sound-vibrations  in  water.  Goldfishes  possess  the  sense  of 
hearing,  and  the  portion  of  the  ear  concerned  with  this  sense  is  the  sac 
which  probably  represents  the  sacculus  and  the  lagena  of  higher  verte- 
brates. 

Maldive  Cephalochorda.J — G.  II.  Parker  finds,  in  a  collection  made 
by  A.  Agassiz  in  the  Maldives,  species  representing  the  three  genera 

*  Mem.  California  Acad.  Sci.,  iv.  (1904).  Contributions  from  Hopkins'  Labora- 
tory, xxxii.  (1904)  pp.  1-304  (33  pis.). 

t  Ainer.  Nat.,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  275-84. 

t  Bull.  Mus.  Corap.  Zool.  Harvard,  xlvi.  (1904)  pp.  39-52  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  177 

Branchiostoma,  Heteropleuron,  and  Asymmetron,  namely  B.  pelaginim 
Giinther,  Heteropleuron  maldivense  Cooper,  H.  agassizii  sp.  n.,  H.  par- 
vum  sp.  n.,  Asymmetron  orientate  sp.  n.,  and  A.  macrkaudatum  sp.  n. 
— a  somewhat  remarkably  rich  material  from  three  localities  in  the 
Maldives. 

River  Plankton.* — C.  A.  Kofoid  has  made  an  extensive  study  of  the 
plankton  of  the  Illinois  river  for  the  years  1804  to  IS!)'.).  The  period 
of  minimum  productivity  of  plankton  is  in  January  and  February  ;  this 
is  followed  by  rising  productivity  which  reaches  its  maximum  in  April, 
after  which  there  is  a  gradual  decline.  Area  and  depth  show  little  rela- 
tion to  plankton  production,  but  fluctuations  in  hydrographic  conditions, 
temperature  and  light  are  important.  Young  waters  from  springs  and 
creeks  have  little  plankton,  but  develop  an  abundant  one  when  im- 
pounded in  backwater  reservoirs.  Submerged  vegetation  tends  to 
diminish  the  production  of  plankton. 

Plymouth  Marine  Invertebrate  Fauna.f — A  useful  and  interesting 
list  of  the  Plymouth  marine  invertebrate  fauna  has  been  compiled  from 
the  records  of  the  laboratory  of  the  Marine  Biological  Association.  The 
various  grounds  are  described,  and  the  local  distribution  of  species  is  re- 
corded. 

Tunicata. 

Studies  on  Tunicates4 — D.  Damas  discusses  in  particular  the 
branchial  region  in  Tunicates,  the  definition  of  the  protostigma,  the 
number  of  protostigmata  in  various  types  (which  he  calls  poly-,  hexa-, 
tetra-,  di-,  and  mono-prostigmata),  the  development  of  the  branchial 
apparatus  in  these  types,  and  so  on.  He  holds  firmly  to  the  proposition 
that  Tunicata  have  but  one  pair  of  branchial  clefts,  in  the  strict  sense. 
The  paper  also  includes  a  discussion  of  the  segmentation  of  the  tail  of 
Appendicularians.  In  Oikopleura  dioica  there  are  ten  muscle-plates, 
each  innervated  by  a  motor  nerve,  and  apparently  representing  true 
segments.  Finally,  the  author  has  some  interesting  notes  on  the  struc- 
ture of  the  larva  of  Distaplia  magnilarva. 

Physiological  Polarisation  in  Ascidian  Heart. § — F.  W.  Bancroft 
and  C.  0.  Esterly  describe  certain  experiments  upon  the  heart  of  Ciona 
intestinalis,  from  which  they  conclude  that  not  only  does  the  direction  of 
the  Contractions  remain  fixed,  while  a  part  of  the  heart  is  connected  with 
only  one  of  its  ends,  but  that  in  some  way  a  change  is  effected  in  the 
heart  tissue,  so  that  the  direction  of  the  contractions  still  remains  fixed 
after  the  part  has  been  isolated  from  the  end  which  was  instrumental  in 
producing  the  fixation.  The  heart  tissue  becomes  physiologically  polar- 
ised by  being  left  in  contact  for  a  while  with  only  one  end  of  the  heart. 

*  Bull.  Illinois  State  Lab.   Nat.  Hist.,  vii.  pp.  95-629  (50  pis.).     See  Amer. 
Nat.,  xxxviii.  (1904)  p.  397. 

t  Journ.  Marine  Biol.  Assoc,  vii.  (1904)  pp.  155-298  (1  chart). 

X  Arch.  Biol.,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  745-833  (4  pis.). 

§  Univ.  California  Publications,  i.  (1903)  pp.  105-14. 


ITS  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

INVERTEBRATA. 
Mollusca. 

•y.  Gastropoda. 

Germinal  Layers  in  Gastropods. * — T.  Fujita  has  studied  the- 
formation  of  the  germinal  layers  in  Siphonaria  lepida  and  in  Aplysia, 
and  compares  his  results  with  those  attained  by  others.  Throughout 
the  cleavage  there  is  no  fixed  regularity,  such  as  is  expressed  in  the  so- 
called  law  of  alternation  of  spirals  as  stated  by  Wilson,  Kofoid  and 
others.  There  is,  however,  a  spiral  arrangement  or  symmetry  for  some 
time.  It  is  abruptly  transformed  in  an  interesting  manner  into  a 
bilateral  symmetry,  just  after  the  cells  of  three  germ-layers  are  dis- 
tinguishable. The  author  follows  the  lineage  on  to  the  50-cell  stage, 
and  sums  up  in  a  table  of  cell-generations,  which  he  compares  with 
similar  tables  of  Neritina,  Umbrella,  and  Limax. 

Maturation  in  Nudibranchs.f — W.  M.  Smallwood  has  studied  the 
eggs  of  Doris  bifida,  Montagua  gouldii  and  M.  pelosa,  at  Wood's  Hole,. 
Mass. 

The  chromatic  substance  is  differentiated  into  basi-chromatin  and 
oxy-chromatin.  The  former  gives  rise  to  the  chromosomes  ;  the  latter 
passes  into  the  cytoplasm,  to  contribute  in  part  to  the  formation  of  the 
sphere  substance. 

No  evidence  of  chromosome  vesicles  was  found  during  the  prophase 
of  the  first  maturation,  as  is  the  case  in  Haminea  solitaria.  But  during 
the  "  rest-pause  "  between  the  first  and  second  maturation,  the  chromo- 
somes frequently  have  distinct  vesicles. 

The  Qgg  chromosomes  enclosed  in  vesicles  change  while  in  this  state, 
until  each  vesicle  has  the  appearance  of  a  miniature  nucleus.  Before  the 
metaphase  of  the  second  maturation,  the  several  chromatic  granules  unite 
into  a  solid  mass,  the  vesicle  probably  disappearing.  The  facts  observed 
strengthen  the  growing  conviction  that  the  theory  of  the  qualitative 
division  of  the  chromosomes  is  untenable. 

Fertilisation  takes  place  in  the  oviduct,  the  tail  remaining  outside. 
The  sperm  head  becomes  vesicular  during  its  progress  towards  the  animal 
pole  ;  and  while  it  is  undergoing  this  change  one  or  more  chromosome 
vesicles  may  be  formed,  in  connection  with  the  chromatin  derived  from 
the  sperm,  which  are  similar  to  the  egg  chromosome  vesicles.  These 
vesicles  arise  undoubtedly  through  the  influence  of  the  chromatin  on  the 
cytoplasm,  and  this  fact  suggests Lhat  the  vesicles  in  the  three  Nudibranchs 
investigated  are  not  identical  with  those  in  Haminea  solitaria,  which  arise 
in  the  nucleus. 

Magellan  Species  of  Trophon4 — H.  Strebel  reports  on  the  species  of 
Trophon  from  the  Magellan  province  collected  by  the  Swedish  Expedi- 
tion (Nordenskjold),  the  Scotia  Expedition  (Bruce),  by  Michaelsen,  bv 

*  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xx.  Article  1  (1904)  pp.  1-42  (3  pis.). 
t  Morphol.  Jalirb..  xxxiii.  (1905)  pp.  87-105  (1  pi.). 
X  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  171-248  (6  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  17l> 

Paessler,  and  others.  It  is  satisfactory  to  have  a  number  of  collections  of 
similar  material  dealt  with  at  once.  Fourteen  new  species  are  described  ; 
and  the  growth-changes  and  variations  of  Trophon  geversianus  are  deali 
with  in  detail,  with  abundant  illustrations. 

Arthropoda. 

Insertion  of  Muscles  on  the  Skeleton  of  Arthropods.* — R.  H. 
Stamm  has  made  a  precise  study  of  the  way  in  which  the  muscle  fibres 
become  attached  to  the  chitinous  skeleton  in  insects  and  crustaceans. 

a-   Insecta. 

Sense  of  Hearing  in  Insects.! — Em.  Radl  maintains  that  the  sense 
of  hearing  exists  in  insects,  but  on  a  simpler  basis  than  in  higher  verte- 
brates. The  structural  and  functional  basis  is  not  to.be  looked  for  in  the 
tactile  organs,  of  which  there  are  many  sorts,  but  in  the  chordonotal 
organs  which  are  in  close  association  with  muscular  activity.  Hearing 
in  insects  is  a  refined  muscular  sense. 

Development  of  the  Gut  in  Insects  during  Metamorphosis. 1 — 
P.  Deegener  has  elucidated  the  following  facts  from  a  studv  of  CyMster 
roeselii  Curtis.  The  mid-gut  epithelium  of  old  larva?  is  thrown  off  at 
the  time  of  its  transformation  into  the  pupa,  and  is  replaced  provisionally 
by  a  "  KryptmJials-epithel."  This  provisional  epithelium  is  soon  pushed 
into  the  gut  lumen,  and,  with  the  remains  of  the  active  epithelium,  forms 
the  "  yellow  body  "  of  the  larva.  The  larval  basal  membrane  is  preserved 
during  these  changes.  In  the  later  stages  of  the  larva  an  epithelium 
peculiar  to  the  pupa  is  developed,  whose  function  is  limited  to  the 
"yellow  body"  of  the  larva.  The  pupa  epithelium  is  built  up  of  the 
imaginal  cells  of  the  larval  " Kryptmschl&whe"  and  towards  the  fourth 
day  of  the  pupal  period  it  approaches  dissolution.  Subsequently  the 
pupa  epithelium,  along  with  the  larval  basal  membrane,  occupies  the  inner 
region  of  the  imaginal  mid-gut,  whose  wall  is  formed  of  imaginal  cells. 
This  epithelium,  which  is  separated  from  the  imaginal  islands,  forms  the 
"  yellow  body  "  of  the  pupa.  An  analogous  shedding  of  the  epithelium  of 
the  other  regions  of  the  gut,  and  also  of  the  gut  musculature  takes  place. 

Wax-glands  in  Meliponidse.§ — L.  Dreyling  concludes,  from  a  study 
of  the  structure  and  development  of  these  glands  in  Melipona  quinque- 
fasciata,  that  they  are  fundamentally  similar  to  those  of  the  honey-bee, 
and  are  to  be  distinguished  from  these  only  by  their  dorsal  position. 

Hypopharynx  of  Hymenoptera.|| — Max  Hilzheimer  has  studied  the 
"  hypopharynx "  of  Hymenoptera,  which  is  never  rudimentary  as  in 
many  other  insects,  e.g.  Coleoptera,  but  is  often  so  strongly  developed 
that  it  can  bear  masticating  organs,  as  in  Thysanura  and  Poduridre.  As 
regards  the  hypopharynx,  the  Hymenoptera  represent  an  early  divergence 
from  the  primitive  insect  stock. 

•  Mem.  Acad.  Roy.  Danemark,  Copenhagen,  7th  series,  i.  pp.  127-64  (2  pis.). 

f  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxv.  (1905)  pp.  1-5. 

%  Zool.  Jahrb.  (1904)  xx.  pp.  499-676  (11  pis.). 

§  Zool.  Anzeig..  xxviii.  (1904)  pp.  204-10. 

I  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  f.  Naturwiss.,  xxxix.  (1904)  pp.  119-50  (1  pi.). 


180  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Accessory  Glands  of  the  Silk-Producing  Apparatus  in  Cater- 
pillars.*— L.  Bordas  has  studied  the  complex  and  very  variable  acces- 
sory glands  which  are  associated  with  the  silk-glands  in  the  larva  of 
many  Lepidoptera,  which  probably  serve,  when  functional,  to  agglutinate 
or  strengthen  the  silk  threads. 

Modifications  in  the  Development  of  Lepidoptera.f — Arnold 
Pictet  notes  that  the  winter-pause  exhibited  by  embryos,  larvae,  or  pupa;, 
is,  in  part,  an  expression  of  the  hereditary  constitution,  for  it  occurs  even 
when  the  temperature  is  artificially  kept  from  falling  low.  It  is  not 
possible  to  suppress  altogether  the  hibernal  pause,  but  in  Lasiocampa 
quercus  artificial  raising  of  the  temperature  alters  entirely  the  normal 
duration  of  the  various  stages. 

Experiments  in  altering  the  diet  of  Ocneria  dispar,  etc.,  show  that 
the  rate  of  development  and  the  pigmentation  can  be  greatly  modified. 
It  is  interesting  to  find  that  albino-forms  have  a  pupal  life  shorter  than 
the  normal,  and  that  melanic  forms  have  a  pupal  life  longer  than  the 
normal. 

In  sexually  dimorphic  forms,  bad  nutrition  results  in  regressive  males, 
like  the  females  in  colouring  ;  while  rich  nutrition  results  in  progressive 
females,  like  the  males  in  colouring. 

Is  there  a  Relation  between  Size  of  Eggs  and  Sex  in  Lepidop- 
tera ? — L.  Cuenot  J  has  made  observations  on  the  sex  of  the  progeny 
from  large  and  from  small  eggs  of  Bombyx  mori  and  Ocneria  dispar. 
Both  sets  give  rise  to  approximately  similar  numbers  of  males  and 
females.  There  seems  to  be  no  causal  relation  between  the  volume 
of  the  ovum  and  the  sex  of  the  product.  Quajat  (1903)  has  shown  that 
there  is  no  relation  between  the  density  of  the  ova  of  Bombyx  mori  and 
the  sex  of  the  progeny.  The  facts,  so  far  as  they  go,  which  is  not  very 
far,  tell  against  the  theory  of  progamic  determination  of  sex. 

Mosquitos  of  New  York  State. § — E.  P.  Felt  has  issued  an  im- 
portant bulletin  calling  attention  to  the  more  important  species  which 
occur  in  New  York  State,  and  giving  keys  and  illustrations  for  their 
identification.  Special  attention  is  given  to  establishing  the  identity 
of  both  larvae  and  adults.  Much  important  information  concerning 
their  life  histories,  haunts  and  breeding  places,  their  migrations,  distri- 
bution and  natural  enemies,  is  given. 

Some  New  Sense-Organs  in  Diptera.lj — W.  Wesche  finds  that  the 
antenna?  and  palpi  of  insects  are  capable  of  receiving  the  stimulus  of 
several  senses,  and  that  their  capacities  differ  greatly  in  different  species. 
Taste-hairs,  homologous  with  Krsepelin's  taste-hairs  in  Muscidas,  are 
found  in  various  orders  of  insects.  "What  are  believed  to  be  typical 
olfactory  organs  are  described  in  Gastrophilus  equi,  Stratiomys  chame- 
leon, and  Bibio  hortidanus .  Three  new  organs,  probably  sense-organs, 
are  described. 

*  Cornptes  Rendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  1036-8. 

t  Arch.  Bci.  Phys.  Nat.,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  608-12. 

X  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.  iii.  (1904),  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  2,  pp.  xvii.-xxii. 

§  New  York  State  Museum,  Bulletin  79  (19  0  241-400  (57  pis.). 

||  Jouru.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  ix.  (1904)  pp.  91-104  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  181 

Coffee  Beetle.* — L.  Boutan  discusses  the  formidable  "  Indian 
Borer  "  Xylotrechus  quadrupes  C,  which  threatens  to  ruin  the  coffee- 
plantations  at  Tonkin.  It  is  a  longicorn  beetle,  which  lays  eggs  in  the 
cortex  of  the  coffee-plant.  Remedial  measures  are  discussed,  and  the 
surrounding  of  the  stems  with  thick  bandages  to  prevent  emergence  is 
especially  recommended.  Anything  that  keeps  the  stem  persistently 
moist  seeems  to  be  efficacious  in  hindering  the  development  of  the  eggs. 

Maternal  Instinct  in  Rhynchota.t — F.  P.  Dodd  gives  an  interest- 
ing account  of  the  brooding  habits  of  the  female  Tectocoris  Uneola,  var. 
bnnksi  Don.  This  bug  sits  in  a  brooding  attitude  over  her  eggs  for 
three  weeks,  and  that  without  feeding,  until  the  young  are  hatched. 
When  the  young  begin  to  break  through,  the  mother  backs  an  inch  or 
so  away  from  the  egg  mass,  and  stays  there  for  some  hours  (long  after 
the  last  egg  has  hatched)  ;  she  then  departs,  leaving  the  small  bugs  to 
take  care  of  themselves.  The  author  thinks  that  this  protection  has  in 
some  measure  for  its  object  the  keeping  off  of  ichneumon  flies. 

Development  of  Head  Skeleton  in  Cockroach.!: — W.  A.  Riley  has 
studied  the  development  of  the  head  of  Blatta  germanka  with  especial 
reference  to  the  skeleton.  His  views  in  regard  to  the  relations  of  the 
sclerites  of  the  adult  Blatta  to  the  primitive  segments  are  summed  up  in 
the  following  table  : — 

Segment.  Sclerites. 

Protocerebral  .         .     Vertex,  gense. 

Front,  clypeus  and  labrum. 

Deutocerebral         .  .     Antennal  sclerites. 

Tritocerebral .         .         .  — 

Mandibular   .         .         .     Part  of  post-gense,  trocbantins. 

Part  of  hypopharynx. 
Maxillary      .         .         .     Remainder  of  post-gense,  maxillary  pleurites. 

Remainder  of  hypopharynx. 
Labial  ....     Labial  pleurites  ;  lateral  cervical  sclerites. 

Ventral  cervical  sclerites. 

It  would  seem  that  the  definitive  sclerites  afford  little  or  no  evidence 
as  to  the  primary  segmentation  of  insects.  This  is  certainly  true  of  the 
head  sclerites,  and  probably  applies  to  other  regions  of  the  body. 
Sclerites  originate  from  mechanical  causes,  and  do  not  necessarily  have 
any  relation  to  the  primary  segmentation. 

Thorax  of  G-ryllus  Domesticus.§—  F.  Voss,  as  a  preliminary  to  the 
elucidation  of  the  question  of  the  morphological  significance  of  the  insect's 
winir,  <nves  a  detailed  account  of  the  skeleton  of  the  thorax,  and  of  the 
wing  joint  and  its  movement. 

In  a  subsequent  paper  |]  he  gives  a  most  painstaking  and  exact  study  of 
the  skeletal  parts  and  musculature  of  the  thorax  of  the  cricket,  with 
special  reference  to  the  wing-articulation  and  wing-movement. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxix.  (1904)  pp.  932-4. 

+  Trans.  Entomol.  Soc.  London,  11)04,  pp.  483-6  (1  pi.). 

t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  777-810  (12  rigs.). 

§  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lsxviii.  (1904)  pp.  26S-354  (2  pis). 

H   Op.  cit.  (1905)  pp.  355-521  (2  diagrams  and  15  figs.). 


182  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

Palmen's  Organ  in  Ephemerids.* — J.  Gross  discusses  this  remark- 
able structure  in  Ephemera  vulgata  L.  It  is  a  roundish  body,  with 
•concentric  layers  of  chitin,  and  lies  on  the  roof  of  the  head  where  four 
tracheae  meet.  No  nerve  endings  were  found,  but  the  suggestion  is 
made  that  the  puzzling  structure  may  be  an  equilibrating  or  orientating 


organ. 


Monograph  on  Lepismatidse.t — K.  Escherich  has  supplied  a  much- 
needed  critical  monograph  on  this  family  of  Thysanura,  which  is  so 
important  in  relation  to  higher  insects.  He  discusses  the  segmentation 
of  the  body,  the  integument  with  its  scales,  bristles,  teeth  and  spines, 
and  the  various  appendages.  There  is  an  interesting  chapter  on  habits, 
both  of  those  which  live  freely  and  of  those  which  live  in  association  with 
ants  and  termites.  Those  which  occur  in  houses — Lepisma  saccharina, 
'rhmnobia  domestica,  and  Acrotelsa  collar  is — are  especially  referred  to. 
The  bulk  of  the  memoir  is,  of  course,  systematic.  The  first  subfamily, 
Lepismatinrc,  includes  Lepisma,  Isolepisma,  g.  n.,  Heterolepisma,  g.  n., 
Silvestrella,  g.  n.,  Braunsina,  g.  n.,  Lepismina,  Ctenolepisma,  g.  n., 
Tiiermooia  and  Acrotelsa,  g.  n.  The  second  sub-family  Nicoletiinae 
includes  Atelura,  Lepidospora,  g.  n.,  Nicoletia  and  Trinemophora.  The 
third  sub-family  Maindroniinas  includes  the  single  genus  Maindronia. 

Collembola  of  Lapland. | — H.  Agren  reports  on  the  first  collection 
of  Collembola  from  Lapland.  It  Avas  made  by  S.  Bengtsson  in  11)03. 
Twelve  species  occur  in  Lapland  which  are  known  from  the  Palrcarctic 
region  generally  ;  Isotoma  bidenticulata  is  restricted  to  Arctic  and 
Alpine  areas ;  nine  species  occur  which  have  hitherto  been  known  only 
from  regions  to  the  south  of  Lapland  ;  Achorutes  lapponicus  Axels,  and 
six  new  species,  may  be  provisionally  regarded  as  characteristic  of 
Lapland  ;  but  no  specifically  Arctic  species  was  discovered. 

Ventral  Tube  of  Tomoceros.§ — E.  W.  Hoffmann  describes  in  con- 
siderable detail  the  structure  and  relations  to  the  head  glands  of  this 
tube  which  develops  from  a  pair  of  abdominal  legs.  It  functions  mainly 
as  an  adhesive  organ,  but  appears  to  be  capable  of  assisting  in  respira- 
tion. 

8.  Arachnida. 

Spiders  of  the  Erigone  Group.||  —  Frank  P.  Smith  indicates  the 
extent  and  constitution  of  the  "Erigone  Group"  of  British  spiders, 
embracing  the  genera  (Edothorax,  Stylothorax,  Coryphcms,  Gongylidium, 
Gongydiellum,  Trachygnatha,  Erigonidium  g.  n.,  Gonatium,  Enydia 
(nomen  novum),  Falconeria  g.  n.,  Dismodicus,  and  Typlioclirozstus. 

Fossil  Scorpion  from  Lancashire.1T — W.  Baldwin  and  "W.  H.  Sut- 
cliffe  describe  from  the  middle  coal-measures  of  Lancashire,  near  Boch- 
dale,  a  new  species  of  scorpion,  Eoscorpius  spartliensis.  The  specimen 
occurred  within  a  clay-ironstone  nodule.     The  authors  make  some  com- 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xix.  (1903)  pp.  91-106  (1  pi.  and  3  figs.). 
+  Zoologica,  xviii.  (1905)  heft  43,  pp.  1-164  (4  pis.  and  67  figs.). 
\  Arkivf.  Zool.  (K.  Svenska  Vetensk.  Akad.)  ii.  (1904)  pp.  1-30  (2  pis.). 
§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1904)  pp.  87-116. 
||  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  ix.  (1904)  pp.  109-16. 
t  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.  (1904)  pp.  394-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  183 

parisons  with  other  species,  and  discuss  the  geological  bearing  of  their 
•discovery. 

Secretion  in  Female  Gonads  of  Hydrachnids.*  -  -Karel  Thon 
recalls  a  communication  made  by  Balbiani,  t  in  1897,  on  the  secretory 
•capacity  of  the  epithelium  of  the  female  gonads  of  spiders.  In  studying 
E ulais-nym^hs,  Thon  found  that  the  interior  of  the  gonads  was  full  of 
large,  tough,  glassy  concretions,  produced  at  the  time  of  the  appearance 
of  the  first  oocytes.  The  whole  vicinity  of  the  gonadial  tubes  was 
•crowded  with  leucocytes  filled  with  large  granules.  It  almost  seems  as 
if  the  leucocytes  were  accumulating  excretions  from  the  gonads,  but 
•definite  proof  is  lacking. 

Two  New  British  Water-Mites 4 — C.  D.  Soar  describes  a  new 
genus  Pseudofeltria,  allied  to  Feltria,  and  Mideopsis  crassipes  sp.  n.  with 
very  thick  legs. 

Minute  Structure  of  the  Tick.§ — Erik  Nordenskiold  fills  some  gaps 
by  a  brief  communication  dealing  with  the  alimentary  system,  excretory 
organ,  blood,  and  musculature  of  Ixodes  reduvius.  The  intestinal 
musculature,  which  previous  investigators  have  missed,  can  be  readily 
seen  in  sections.  The  salivary  glands  show  some  remarkable  cellular 
peculiarities.  The  excretion  in  the  lumen  of  the  excretory  organ  occurs 
in  the  form  of  drops  and  peculiar  spherical  granules  of  guanin. 

e.  Crustacea. 

Rudimentary  Gill  in  Astacus  Fluviatilis.|| — M.  Moseley  describes 
a  minute  rudimentary  gill  in  A.  fluvMilis  Fabr.,  in  a  position  which 
appears  to  correspond  to  the  arthrodial  membrane  of  the  seventh  somite — 

that  of  the  first  pair  of  maxillipeds.  It  is  not  present  in  other  species 
of  Astacus   examined  by  the  writer,  e.g.   .4.   torrmtium,  A.  pallipes, 

or  A.  leptodactylus,  nor  in  various  related  genera.     It  appears  to   be 

feebly  represented  in  A.  dauricus  from  Corea. 

Heteromorphism  in  Rock  Lobster.^ — V.  Ariola  describes  a  case  in 
Palinurus  vulgaris  in  which  the  left  eye-stalk  was  represented  by  an 
antenna-like  structure,  16  centimetres  in  length.  The  regenerated  struc- 
ture resembled  the  exopodite  of  an  antennule,  but  with  more  numerous 
joints.  He  regards  this  as  an  atavistic  reversion.  But  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  antennules  are  homologous  with  ordinary  appendages.  It 
may  be  that  the  antennules  and  the  eye-stalks  are  not  strictly  in  line 
with  the  appendages,  or  that  one  is  and  the  other  is  not. 

Fresh-water  Decapods  of  Celebes.**— J.  Ptoux  gives  a  detailed 
comparison  of  the  species  of  Caridiaa  and  of  Potamon  from  this  region, 
together  with  notes  on  their  distribution  in  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

*  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxv.  (1905)  pp.  83-92  (3  figs.). 
t  Archives  d'Anatomie  Microscopique,  i.  (1897). 
%  Jouin.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  ix.  (1904)  pp.  105-8  (2  figs.). 
§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  47S-85  (7  figs.). 
||  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlviii.  (1904)  pp.  359-6(5  (2  pis.). 
•f  Arch.   Entwicklungsmechanik,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  248-52  (1  pi.).     See  Zool. 
Zentralbl.,  xi.  (1904)  pp.  830-2. 

Revue  Suisse  Zool.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  539-72  (1  pi.). 


*» 


184  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

The  genus  Potamon,  for  example,  is  mostly  localised  in  one  island  and 
in  a  definite  area  of  it.  In  Celebes  there  are  seven  species,  and  of  one  of 
these  there  are  nine  varieties. 

Nereicola  ovata  Keferstein.* — Mario  Stenta  communicates  a  note 
on  the  occurrence  of  this  interesting  parasitic  Copepod  (representing  ;i 
family  in  the  tribe  Isokerandria,  in  the  sub-order  Podoplea)  which 
infests  Nereis  cultrifera,  N.  ihimerilii,  etc. 

Pycnogonids  of  Bermuda.f — Leon  J.  Cole  reports  on  the  few 
Pycnogonids  discoverable  at  the  Bermuda  Islands,  viz.  Ammothea  gracilis 
Yerrill.  Ammothella  appendiculata  Dohrn,  and  Anoplodactylus  insignis 
bermudensis  sub-sp.n.  There  are  strong  tidal  currents  ;  how  is  it  that 
the  Pycnogonids  are  not  all  swept  away  ?  The  adults  cling  tenaciously 
to  the  hydroids,  but  the  danger  comes  to  the  eggs  and  larvce.  The  eggs 
are  taken  directly  from  the  female  by  the  male,  and,  as  is  well  known, 
are  carried  by  him  until  they  are  hatched.  The  newly-hatched  larva?  of 
Ammothea  and  related  forms  bear  a  large  pair  of  chelas  on  the  enor- 
mously developed  cheliferaa,  and  are  thus  enabled  to  cling  to  the  parent, 
or  to  hydroids  and  similar  objects.  The  most  striking  character  of  the 
Bermuda  sub-species  of  Anoplodactylus  insignis  is  its  protective  red 
and  yellow  coloration,  which  closely  resembles  Obelia  marginata  Allman. 
to  which  it  often  clings. 

Annulata. 

Notes  on  PolychaBta.J — "W.  C.  M'Intosh,  in  his  twenty-sixth  con- 
tribution of  notes  from  the  Gatty  Marine  Laboratory,  St.  Andrews, 
discusses  :  (1)  Pacific,  Atlantic  and  Japanese  "  Palolo,"  and  analogous 
phenomena  exhibited  in  British  waters  by  Nereis  dumerilii,  N.  longissima, 
and  other  forms  ;  (2)  the  families  Goniadida?,  Glyceridas,  and  Ariciidre 
as  represented  in  Britain,  in  the  "  Porcupine  "  collection,  in  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  (Whiteaves),  off  Norway  and  Finmark  (Norman)  ;  and 
(3)  the  form  described  in  the  "Challenger"  report  as  Hemipodus  (?) 
magellanmis,  for  which  a  new  generic  title — Glgcerella,  as  suggested  by 
Arwidsson — is  required. 

New  British  Sabellarian.§ — E.  J.  Allen  describes  Pallasia  murata 
sp.  n.  from  Plymouth.  The  new  worm  most  closely  resembles  Pallasia 
giardi  M'Intosh,  from  Port  Jackson  in  Australia,  and  P.  laivispinis 
Grube,  from  Upolu  in  the  Pacific,  and  from  Ascension.  The  details  of 
its  structure,  as  well  as  the  large  size  (5  inches)  of  the  British  specimen., 
indicate  that  it  is  a  new  species.  The  paper  includes  an  interesting 
note,  by  Arnold  Watson,  on  the  structures  which  surround  the  mouth. 

Alleged  Otocysts  of  Alciopidae.|| — P.  Fauvel  points  out  that  the 
structures  described  by  Beraneck  as  otocysts,  on  the  first  and  second 

*  Boll.  Soc.  Adriat.  Sci.  Nat.  Trieste,  xxii.  (1904)  pp.  195-201. 
t  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xxxi.  (1904)  pp.  315-28  (3  pis.), 
t  Ann.  Mng.  Nat.  Hist.,  xv.  (1905)  pp.  ;5H-57  (1  pi.). 
§  Journ.  Marine  BioL  Ass.,  vii.  (1904)  pp.  299-304  (1  pi.). 

II  O.K.  Abs.  Fran?.  Avanc.  Sci.  Congres  d'Angers  (1903)  pp.  784-8.  See  Zool. 
Zontralbl.,  xi.  (1904)  p.  822. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  185 

body -segments  of  Alciopidae,  are  really  receptacula  seminis  occurring  only 
in  the  females,  and  formed  by  hypertrophied  dorsal  cirri. 

Xerophilous  Enchytrseidae  of  Switzerland.* — K.  Bretscher  discusses 
the  distribution  of  those  Enchytraeidae  which  frequent  damp  earth  occa- 
sionally covered  by  casual  water.  Their  number  is  surprisingly  large,  for 
he  deals  with  fifty  species,  largely  of  his  own  definition,  representing 
seven  genera,  Henlea,  Buchholzia,  Bryodrilm,  Mesmchyirmus,  Enchy- 
tnrus,Fredericia  (12  species),  and  Achceta. 

Digestive  Apparatus  of  Aulastoma.j — C.  Spiess  has  investigated 
the  histology  of  the  alimentary  tract  in  Aulastoma  gulo.  There  is  no 
reservoir,  as  in  Hirudo ;  there  is  highly  developed  epithelial  differentiation, 
whereby  a  buccal" cavity,  oesophagus,  stomach,  and  intestine  are  severally 
distinguishable.  The  wall  throughout  the  whole  length  consists  of  a 
connective  and  epithelial  layer,  corresponding  to  the  mucous  coat  of  the 
vertebrate  digestive  tract.  The  oesophagus  does  not,  as  in  Hirudo, 
assist  in  digestion,  but  the  intestinal  epithelium  possesses  glands  which 
secrete  digestive  ferments.  They  are  unicellular,  and  are  intermediate 
between  glandular  epithelial  cells  and  the  pluricellular  glands  of  the 
intestine  of  the  higher  vertebrates.  A  true  stomach,  histologically  dif- 
ferent from  the  other  parts  of  the  tract,  is  present.  Details  of  its  glands 
are  also  given  in  the  paper. 

Metamerism  of  Hirudinea.J — N.  Livanow  discusses  the  difficult 
problem  of  the  somites  (neurosomites  and  myosomites)  of  Hirudinea. 

Nematohelniintb.es. 

Acanthocephala  of  Birds.§ — L.  de  Marval  has  revised  the  list  of 
described  forms  of  Acanthocephala  occurring  in  birds,  with  the  result 
that  the  number  of  species  is  considerably  reduced.  Brief  diagnostic 
descriptions  of  the  species  with  their  synonyms  are  given,  and  from 
these  diagnoses  all  references  to  the  hosts  are  intentionally  omitted. 

Oxyuris  Vermicularis  in  Peritoneal  Cavity.|| — P.  Schneider  gives 
an  account  of  a  cyst  from  the  peritoneal  cavity  of  a  woman  30  years 
of  age.  It  contained  the  remains  of  a  mature  female  Oxyuris  vermi- 
cularis,  with  ova.  The  author  discusses  the  question  of  its  migration 
thither. 

Blood-Coagulating  Substance  in  Anchylostoma.1i — L.  Loeb  and 
A.  J.  Smith  have  shown  experimentally  that  in  the  anterior  half  of  the 
body  of  A.  caninum  a  substance  is  present  which  strongly  hinders  the 
flow  of  blood,  and  whose  effect  is  similar  to  that  of  Hirudo  in  vitro. 
The  substance  is  not  altogether  destroyed  by  boiling.  They  failed  to 
prove  any  hemolytic  action  on  the  part  of  extracts  of  these  animals,  but 
consider  that  the  coagulating  effect  has  some  bearing  upon  the  anasmia 
frequently  observed  in  Anchylostoma  infection. 

*  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  501-13. 
t  Revue  Suisse  Zool.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  585-647  (2  pis.). 
J  Zool.  Jahrk,  xix.  (1903)  pp.  29-90  (5  pis.). 
§  Revue  Suisse  Zool.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  573-s:;. 
||  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  550-4. 
T  Op.  cit.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  93-8. 

April  19th,'  1905  o 


186  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Alleged  Toxic  Action  of  Intestinal  Parasites.* — L.  Jammes  and 
H.  Mandoul  have  endeavoured,  by  observation  and  experiment,  to  arrive 
at  some  definite  conclusion  on  this  subject.  Their  decision  is  against 
the  theory  of  toxic  action.  The  influence  of  the  parasites  is  mainly 
mechanical,  and  their  irritation  leads  indirectly  to  secondary  morbid 
results. 

Notes  on  Nematodes. f — Von  Linstow  gives  an  account  of  the 
cloaca  in  the  male  of  HeteraJcis  distans  Rud.,  an  intestinal  parasite  of 
monkeys.  He  has  notes  on  Mermis  piscinalis  sp.  n.,  Neomermis  macro- 
laimus  g.  et  sp.  n.,  Ghordodes  betularius  sp.  n.,  free  living  forms.  From 
the  sturgeon  he  reports  a  new  Trematode,  Erpucotyle  circular  is  sp.  n.,  and 
a.  new  Cestode,  Ichthyotamia  shorihowi. 

Researches  in  Helminthology  and  Parasitology.}— J.  Leidy,  jun., 
has  collected  and  issued  in  a  useful  form  the  verbal  communications, 
short  papers,  and  elaborate  memoirs,  of  the  late  Professor  Leidy,  which 
have  appeared  in  various  journals  from  1845  to  1891.  A  bibliographical 
list,  with  5!)(J  references,  and  a  complete  index  to  the  parasites  considered 
in  the  volume,  are  attached. 

New  Helminths  from  West  Africa.§  —  0.  von  Linstow  describes 
from  the  gut  of  Erinaceus  albiventris,  from  Nigeria,  Physalopteru  dispar 
sp.  n.,  Echinorhynchus  cestodiformis  sp.  n.,  Tamia  voluta  sp.  n.,  and 
from  the  caecum  of  Anas  boschas  /era,  near  Gottingen,  Tcenia  (Hymeno- 
lepis)  voluta  sp.  n. 

Platyhelrninthes. 

Echinococci  of  Domestic  Animals.|| — G.  Lichtenheld  has  made  a 
statistical  statement  as  to  the  distribution  of  echinococci  in  the  several 
organs  of  the  horse,  ox,  pig,  and  sheep,  together  with  particulars  of  the 
histological  features  of  both  sterile  and  fertile  forms.  He  finds  that  in 
older  animals  the  percentage  infesting  the  liver  is  distinctly  smaller  than 
in  younger  forms,  while  of  other  organs  infected  it  is  correspondingly 
higher.  Of  the  total  oxen  examined,  GO  per  cent,  of  the  parasites  were 
found  in  the  lungs  ;  of  horses,  1)1  per  cent,  in  the  liver  ;  of  sheep,  52  and 
45  per  cent,  in  lungs  and  liver  respectively  ;  boars  yielded  74,  and  sows 
72  per  cent,  respectively  from  the  liver.  Other  organs  infected  were 
spleen,  kidney,  heart,  and  sub-peritoneal  tissues.  The  connective  tissue 
envelope  of  echinococci  arises  from  a  reactive  inflammation  of  the  in- 
fected organ.  In  sterile  echinococci  the  inner  layer  retains  its  cellular 
character  ;  in  the  fertile,  the  inner  layers  are  transformed  into  fibrous 
tissue,  while  the  outer  gives  rise  to  a  new  formation  of  cellular  elements. 
Of  the  young  undeveloped  echinococci,  the  author  regards  those  which 
have  led  to  necrosis  of  the  surrounding  delicate  cells,  and  to  the  develop- 
ment of  a  strong  connective  tissue  envelope,  as  a  first  stage  of  the  fertile  ; 
and  all  the  others  as  a  first  stage  of  the  sterile. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  1734-0. 

+  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxiv.  (11)04)  pp.  4*4-97  (1  pi.). 

t  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,  Washington,  xlvi.  (1904)  pp.  1-281. 

§  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xxxvi.  (1004)  pp.  379-83  (1  pi.). 

||  Tom.  cit.,  No.  4,  pp.  540-50,  and  xxxvii..  No.  1,  pp.  64-72  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  187 

Dibothriocephalus  latus  in  Dogs.* — S.  von  Ratz  discusses  the  pro- 
blem of  the  presence  of  this  parasite  in  dogs  in  Hungary,  where  it  appears 
to  be  not  uncommon. 

Amitosis  in  Cestoda.f— C.  M.  Child  gives  the  results  of  observations 
•on  the  development  of  the  gonads  in  Moniezia.  These  arise  mainly  by 
amitotic  division  of  nuclei  in  the  syncytium  of  the  parenchyma.  A  few 
isolated  instances  of  mitosis  appear  to  occur,  but  they  are  comparatively 
rare.  The  case  here  presented  indicates  the  existence  of  a  relation 
between  amitosis  and  nuclear  activity  ;  and  in  general  a  relation  between 
amitosis  and  degeneration  exists  only  in  so  far  as  in  regions  or  periods 
of  intense  nuclear  activity  many  nuclei,  in  some  cases  perhaps  all,  are 
likely  to  degenerate.  The  nuclear  degeneration  of  the  testis  in  Moniezia 
is  probably  a  case  in  point.  The  author  further  points  out  that  there  is 
here  an  instance  of  cells  which  pass  through  a  long  history  of  amitotic 
division,  and  are  yet  capable  of  giving  rise  to  sexual  cells.  It  is  difficult 
to  see  how  the  hypothesis  of  the  individuality  of  the  chromosomes  can 
be  maintained.  A  study  of  the  facts  in  Moniezia  seems  to  indicate  that 
there  is  no  fundamental  and  continuous  distinction  between  tissue  cell 
and  ?erm  cell. 


&v 


Cestodes  of  Mammals.J — J.  Bourquin  discusses  Bertia  studeri  E. 
Blanchard,  from  the  chimpanzee  ;  B.  elongata  sp.  n.,  from  Galeopithecus  ; 
and  B.  plastica  (Sluiter)  Stiles,  from  Galeopithecus.  He  gives  a  revised 
diagnosis  of  the  genus  Bertia. 

Gonads  of  Taenia  sinuosa§. — T.  B.  Rosseter  describes  the  genital  or- 
gans of  this  tape-worm,  which  he  obtained  from  the  intestine  of  a  duck 
which  he  fed  with  cysticercoids  from  Ostracods.  The  spicules  of  this  tape- 
worm have  led  the  author  to  the  extraordinary  conclusion  that  there  is  a 
close  affinity  between  Cestodes  and  Sponges. 

New  Trematodes.|] — 0.  Fuhrmann  describes  Botltriogaster  variolar  is, 
the  type  of  a  new  genus,  from  the  gut  of  Rostrhamus  sociaiilis,  a  South 
American  falcon  ;  Echinostomum  armatum,a  new  species,  from  the  same 
animal,  and  which  is  different  from  those  hitherto  known  from  birds  of 
prey  ;  Ecltinostomum  inerme,  sp.  n.,  from  the  stomach  of  an  unknown 
species  of  Lutra. 

Degeneration  of  Gonads  in  Starved  Planarians.lf— F.  Stoppenbrink 
has  experimented  with  Planaria  alpina  and  P.  gonocephala.  The  size 
may  be  reduced  by  three-fourths  in  nine  months  of  starving.  The 
gonads  degenerate  in  the  inverse  order  of  their  development,  and  the 
general  result  formulated  by  Barfurth  is  confirmed,  that  the  relatively 
less  important  organs  for  self-preservation  are  first  affected  and  most 
seriously'  reduced. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  384-7. 

t  Aiiat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  No.  22,  pp.  545-58. 

X  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (190."))  pp.  417-19. 

§  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  ix.  (1904)  pp.  81-90  (1  pi.). 

||  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  58-G4. 

1  Verh.  Nat.  Ver.  Itkeinland,  lxi.  (1904)  pp.  27-3G. 

o  -2 


188  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Nervous  System  of  Tricladidae  from  Baikal.* — H.  Sabussow  has 
studied  species  of  Sorocelis  Grube,  Rimacephcdus  Korotneflf,  and  Planaria 
Miiller,  from  Lake  Baikal,  with  especial  reference  bo  the  nervous  system. 
As  in  other  triclads,  it  consists  of  a  brain,  two  ventral  longitudinal 
strands,  and  a  nerve  plexus  in  close  relation  to  the  integumentary  mus- 
cular layer,  and  especially  developed  on  the  ventral  surface. 

The  main  mass  of  the  longitudinal  strands  consists  of  a  glia  frame- 
work, formed  from  the  fibres  or  lamellae,  secreted  from  the  numerous 
glia  cells.  The  nerve  cells  are  relatively  few,  and  occur  in  the  spaces 
bounded  by  glia  cells.  A  characteristic  peculiarity  of  the  nerve  cells  is 
the  differentiation  of  fibrillar  structures  in  the  protoplasm.  The  nerve 
cells  seem  to  be  inter-connected  by  fibrils,  passing  from  one  element  to 
another,  so  that  a  sort  of  network  is  formed. 

Excretory  System  of  Fresh-water  Triclads.f — J.  Wilhelmi  supplies 
some  notes  on  the  structure  and  course  of  the  excretory  canals,  based 
on  observations  on  Dendrocoelum  lacteum,  Plan  or  in  ///pin  a,  P.  torva,  P. 
gonocephala,  and  Polyceli*  nigra.  The  main  and  side  branches  are  lined 
internally  by  a  membrane.  The  wall  consists  of  a  highly  granulated, 
almost  homogeneous  mass,  which  passes  over  without  limiting  border 
into  the  mesenchyme.  Flame  cells  are  not  present  in  the  main  stems  of 
Dendrocoelum  or  Planaria  alpina.  P.  alpina  appears  to  have  a  large 
number  of  external  openings,  but  the  question  is  difficult  to  elucidate. 
The  author  failed  to  find  the  network  of  vessels  described  by  Chichkoff. 
Flame  cells  occur  only  in  the  mesenchyme,  and  not  in  the  gut  epithelium. 
The  system  in  fresh-water  triclads  resembles  in  essentials  that  of  Cestodes 
and  Trematodes,  but  is  distinguished  from  that  of  both  by  the  mode  of 
opening  and  the  absence  of  transverse  anastomoses.  In  the  course  of 
the  main  stems,  the  segmental  arrangement  of  the  clump  formations, 
and  dorsal  openings,  the  fresh-water  triclads  resemble  the  marine  Gunda 
segmentata. 

Viviparity  in  the  Eumesostominae.J — E.  Sekera  describes  and  dis- 
cusses the  significance  of  viviparity  exhibited  by  3fesostoma  ekrenoergi, 
M.  lingua,  etc.  The  young,  arising  from  summer  eggs,  break  through 
the  mother's  body  at  some  point  which  can  heal  readily.  The  parent's 
vitality  is  unimpaired,  and  she  produces  resting  eggs  later.  These 
summer  animals  do  not  usually  produce  summer  eggs.  The  author 
considers  the  formation  of  the  summer  eggs,  and  the  accompanying 
viviparity  as  a  parallel  phenomenon  with  asexual  reproduction  by 
division,  as  seen  in  the  Stenostomida?  and  Microstomida3,  whereby  a  very 
rapid  and  abundant  multiplication  of  individuals  is  effected. 

Rotifera. 

Three  New  Parasitic  Rotifers. — Sebastiano  Piovanelli  §  describes 
Distyla  branchicola,  a  new  parasitic  species,  living,  in  company  with  the 
two    Bdelloids   previously  described,    in    the   branchial   cavity   of   the 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (11)04)  pp.  20-32  (4  figs.). 
t  Tom.  cit.,  No.  7  (1904)  pp.  268-72. 
J  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1904)  No.  7.  pp.  232-43. 
§  Monitore  Zool.  Italiano,  xiv.  (1903)  pp.  345-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  189 

Mediterranean  fresh-water  crab  Telphusa  fluviatilis.  This  new  species 
is  said  to  resemble  Distyla  lipara  Gosse,  but  to  differ  from  it  by  being 
more  elongate,  and  by  the  total  absence  of  an  eye.     No  figure  is  given. 

Stan.  Hlava  *  figures  and  describes  Albertki  bernardi,  a  new  parasitic 
species  living  in  the  intestine  of  Stylaria  lacustris  (Nais  proboscidea). 
The  body  is  segmented,  spindle-shaped,  with  a  wing-like  enlargement  at 
the  posterior  extremity  ;  foot  small ;  no  eyes  ;  the  head  and  mastax  are 
small  ;  the  species  is  oviparous. 

Raffaele  Isself  describes  and  figures  Balatro  anguiformis,  a  new 
species  parasitic  in  the  intestine  of  the  01igocha3te  annelids  Fredericia 
bulbosa  and  Henlea  ventriculosa,  and  which  appears  to  differ  from 
B.  calvus  Claparede,  mainly  by  the  absence  of  the  great  postero-ventral 
lobe. 

Echinoderma. 

Siamese  Sea-Urchins4 — Th.  Martensen  reports  on  the  regular 
echinoids  collected  by  the  Danish  expedition  to  Siam.  Sixteen  species 
are  dealt  with,  of  which  four  are  new,  viz.  C/modiadema  granulatum, 
Pleurechinus  ddderleini,  P.  siamensis,  and  Gymnechinus  pulchellus,  the 
first  named  being  the  type  of  a  new  genus.  The  author  has  used  this 
opportunity  to  revise  the  classification  of  the  regular  echinoids. 

Species  of  Cucumaria  from  Plymouth.§ — S.  Pace  points  out  that 
two  species  have  been  hitherto  confused  as  Cucumaria  montagui  Fleming, 
viz.  C.  saxicola  Brady  and  Robertson,  and  C.  normani  sp.  n. 

New  Crinoid.|j — W.  Minckert  describes  Promachocriiws  vanhbffenia- 
nus  sp.  n.,  a  littoral  Antarctic  form  collected  by  the  "  Gauss  "  expedition. 
He  amends  the  definition  of  the  genus,  erects  the  new  genus  Decametro- 
crinus  [=  Promachocriuus  (pars)]  P.  H.  Carpenter,  and  suggests  the 
new  family  Decametrocrinidaj  for  the  two  genera.  This  is  the  first  new 
discovery  of  a  ten-rayed  unstalked  Crinoid  since  the  "  Challenger  "  days. 

Ccelentera. 

Development  of  Hydranths  of  Campanularidae  and  Plumularidae.ir 
— Ormand  Billard  finds  that  the  rudiment  or  primordium  of  the  ten- 
tacles forms  in  the  young  hydranths  the  outer  margin  ofl  an  annual 
groove,  surrounding  a  papilla  which  represents  the  future  hypostome. 
The  tentacles,  confluent  to  begin  with,  are  first  indicated  by  strands  of 
endodermic  cells ;  then  they  appear  as  slight  denticulations ;  then  the 
interspaces  are  incised  to  the  level  of  the  groove. 

Porifera. 

Phylogeny  of  Hexactinellid  Sponges.** — E.  A.  Minchin,  in  speculat- 
ing on  this  subject,  makes  the  following  suggestions.  In  the  ancestral 
form  of  these,  and  perhaps  of  all  sponges,  the  gastral  layer  was  in  the  form 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  Dec.  1904.  pp.  365-8. 
t  Archivio  Zoologico,  vol.  2,  1904,  pp.  1-9  (1  pi.). 

%  Mem.  Acad.  Roy.  Danemark,  I 'openhague,  7th  Series,  vol.   i.  No.  1  (1904) 
pp.  1-124  (7  pis.  and  a  map).        §  Journ.  Marine  Biol.  Ass.,  vii.  (1904)  pp,  305-9. 
||  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  490-501  (2  figs.). 
%  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  1038-40. 
**  Zool.  Anzeig..  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  439-48. 


L90  SUMMABY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

of  a  continuous  shoot  of  collar-colls,  suspended  evenly  in  tlio  midst  of 
the  dermal  layer,  which  formed  a  trabecular  system,  developed  as  much 
towards  the  interior  as  towards  the  exterior  of  the  gastral  layer.  The 
spicular  skeleton  arose  first  in  the  trabecular  system,  situated  exter- 
nally to  the  gastral  layer,  and  the  earliest  regular  form  of  spicule  was  the 
stauractinc.  This  stage  of  evolution  is  represented  by  the  palaeozoic 
Stanractinophora  of  Sehrammen,  especially  by  the  Protospongidaj.  The 
next  step  in  phylogeny  was  the  folding  of  the  gastral  layer  to  form 
distinct  flagellated  chambers,  and  with  this  change  the  stauractines 
developed  additional  rays  directed  radially,  thus  producing  the  hexactines 
found  in  all  Hexactinellida  after  the  palaeozoic  epoch,  and  probably  also 
in  many  oven  at  that  early  time. 

Genus  Raspailia.* — F.  K.  Pick  gives  a  monographic  account  of  this 
genus  of  horny  sponges  belonging  to  the  family  Ectyoninre.  He  dis- 
cusses the  history  of  the  genus,  gives  a  systematic  account  of  the  species, 
adding  to  the  list,  and  describes  the  structure  of  the  canal-system,  skele- 
ton, and  so  forth. 

Studies  on  the  Hexactinellida.f — Isao  Ijima  makes  a  fourth  con- 
tribution of  hexactinellid  studies,  and  deals  with  the  family  Rossellidre. 
He  re-defines  the  family,  gives  a  key  to  the  genera,  and  treats  of  about 
thirty  species,  five  of  which  are  described  for  the  first  time.  The  twenty- 
three  plates  are  of  great  excellence. 

Protozoa. 

Movement  and  Reactions  of  Amceba3.:|:— H.  S.  Jennings  has  found 
it  possible  to  determine  the  exact  movements  of  the  outer  layer  of 
Amoeba  verrucosa,  and  others,  by  causing  foreign  particles  to  adhere  to 
the  surface.  The  movements  of  these  particles  show  that  the  motion  of 
an  amoeba  is  of  a  rolling  character,  as  Lachmann  pointed  out  in  185S,  and 
Wallich  in  1863.  A  single  particle  was  seen  to  complete  the  circuit  of 
the  cell  many  times.  It  is  not  merely  a  thin  outer  layer  that  moves 
forward  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  whole  substance  of  the  amceba,  save  that 
part  which  is  in  contact  with  the  substratum,  flows  forward  in  a  single 
stream.  There  is  typically  no  backward  current  in  a  progressing 
amoeba.  In  a  free  pseudopodium  all  parts  move  outward,  new  portions 
of  the  surface  of  the  body  continually  passing  to  the  surface  of  the 
pseudopodium.  Thus  the  movements  of  amoeba?  lose  their  supposed 
resemblance  to  those  of  a  fluid  mass  moving  as  a  result  of  a  local  change 
in  surface  tension.  The  actual  movements  of  an  amoeba  resemble  even 
in  details  the  movements  of  a  drop  of  fluid  which  adheres  on  only  one 
side  of  the  substratum.  Purely  physical  explanations  will  not  work  : 
still  loss,  when  we  consider  cases  of  an  amceba  pursuing  a  spherical  cyst 
of  Euglena  for  fifteen  minutes.  One  amoeba  pursued  another  for  a  long 
time,  finally  capturing  and  ingesting  it.  After  being  carried  for  a  short 
distance,  the  prey  partly  escaped  and  was  recaptured.     It  again  escaped 

*  Arch.  f.  Naturges.,  lxxi.  (1904)  pp.  1-48  (4  pis.). 

t  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  l-o07  (23  pis.  and  10  figs.). 
X  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxv.  (1905)  pp.  92-5  (2  figs.).     Publication  No.  16,  Carnesrie- 
Inst.  "Washington  (1904)  pp.  129-234. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  191 

completely,  but  was  pursued,  overtaken,  recaptured,  and  again  carried 
away.  After  rive  minutes  it  escaped  again,  and  this  time  completely,  so 
that  the  hunter  amo3ba  went  on  its  way  without  its  meal. 

Contractile  Vacuole  in  Amoeba.* — E.  Penard  describes  the  mode 
of  liberation  of  the  contents  of  the  contractile  vacuole  in  A.  terrkola. 
It  is  always  situated  near  the  edge  of  the  plasma,  and  never  breaks  till 
its  wall  touches  the  outside  pellicle.  There  is  a  transformation  of  the 
pellicle  substance,  whereby  it  becomes  porous,  and  the  extrusion  to 
the  outside  of  the  contents  is  made  manifest  by  the  appearance  outside 
the  amoeba  of  a  minute  white  cloud  at  the  point  of  contact. 

Structure  of  Radiolaria.f — Gr.  H.  Fowler  gives  some  notes  on  the 
structure  of  Gazelletta  fam.  Medusettida.  It  appears  that  the  "  shell- 
mouth  "  of  Planlctonetta  (a  related  genus),  i.e.  a  ring  round  the  point  of 
ingestion,  is  in  Gazelletta  a  shell-cap  over  the  extra-capsular  protaplasm. 
The  body-shell  of  Planlctonetta  is  not  represented  in  Gazelletta.  The 
intrinsic  shell  in  both  appears  to  be  the  structure  here  termed  the  "shell- 
mouth." 

Swarms  of  Volvox.J — Otto  Zacharias  reports  from  Schwerin  an 
extraordinary  "  Wasserbliite,"  due  to  Volvox  minor  and  V.  globator. 
There  were  at  times  680  colonies  to  the  litre.  Most  of  them  sank  deeper 
at  night,  and  were  obviously  heliotropic  positively,  as  is  well  known  from 
laboratory  experiments.  Those  found  at  night  near  the  surface  were 
mostly  young  colonies,  not  yet  reproductive. 

Fission  in  Trichonympha.§ — Anna  Foa  gives  an  account  of  the 
flagellate  Trklionijmpha  agilis  Leidy,  parasitic  in  the  intestine  of  Termes 
lucifugvs.  This  flagellate  occurs  in  two  forms,  a  larger  and  a  smaller, 
which  may  be  different  species  ;  and  one  of  the  interesting  results  of  the 
investigation  is,  that  the  details  of  mitosis  are  different  in  the  two. 
Thus,  in  the  larger  form  there  are  no  distinct  chromosomes  in  the 
chromatin  mass. 

Two  Flagellate  Parasites.  || — Anna  Foa  describes,  Dkercomonas 
maris  Grassi,  from  the  mouse  ;  and  U.  intestinalis  Duj.,  from  the  frog. 
The  genus  Hexamitus  of  Dujardin  must  be  split  into  Hexamitus  Duj., 
with  five  known  species  ;  Dkercomonas  Grassi,  with  two  known  species  ; 
and  Urophagus  Klebs,  with  two  known  species. 

Giant  Trypanosoma  in  Bovine  Blood.*[ — A.  Lingard  gives  some 
particulars  of  a  giant  trypanosoine  which  was  found  in  the  blood  of 
bovines  inoculated  with  blood  containing  the  small  variety  of  trypano- 
some,  primarily  derived  from  the  rat.  lief  ore  injection  into  bovines,  the 
small  variety  was  passed  by  inoculation  through  the  horse  and  donkey. 
I  b  appears  traceable  to  the  soiled  blood  of  the  rat. 

*  Revue  Suisse  Zool.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  657-62. 
t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlviii.  (1904)  pp.  4S3-S. 
%  Biol.  Centralbl..  xxv.  (1905)  pp.  95-6. 

§  Atti  R.  Accad.  Lincei  (Rend.)  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  618-25  (5  figs.). 
||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  121-30  (6  figs.). 
H  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasiteuk.,  \xx\.  (1903)  j.p.  234-8  (1  pi.). 


192  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

iTrypanosomes  of  French  West  Africa.* — A.  Laveran  gives  an  up-to- 
date  summary  of  our  knowledge  of  the  trypanosonies  and  the  mosquitog 
which  disseminate  them,  together  with  their  areas  of  distribution  in 
Senegal,  French  Guinea,  Ivory  Coast,  Sudan,  Lake  Tchad,  and  Congo. 

Trypanosomes  and  Leishman-Donovan  Bodies.! — L.  Rogers  describes 
several  stages  in  the  development  of  these  bodies  from  the  spleen  in 
cachexia!  fevers  and  Kala-Azar,  which  show  that  they  belong  to  the 
flagellated  Protozoa  (trypanosomes).  He  has  obtained  in  cultures  from 
the  human  spleen,  parasites,  plasmodial,  amoeboid  and  flagellate  forms, 
similar  to  those  found  in  a  variety  of  animals  suffering  from  the  disease 
produced  by  Trypanosoma  brucii. 

Trypanosomes  in  Paddas.f — M.  Thiroux  notes  that  the  bird  Padda 
oryzivora,  inoculated  with  Trypanosoma  pad-dee,  is  often  found  to  be 
infected  by  Halteridium  danilewskyi.  Experiments  show  that  the  pre- 
sence of  these  two  Protozoan  parasites  imply  double  infection.  The 
Trypanosoma  is  very  rare  in  paddas  in  natural  conditions,  the  Halteridium 
is  very  common. 

Trypanosomes  and  Tsetse  in  French  Guinea. § — A.  Laveran  reports 
that  several  species  of  Glossina,  or  tsetse-fly,  are  abundant  throughout 
French  Guinea,  where  human  trypanomyasis,  and  one  or  more  analogous 
equine  diseases,  are  rife. 

*  Comptes  Eendus,  exxxix.  (1904)  pp.  658-62. 

t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlviii.  (1904)  pp.  367-77  (1  pi.). 

X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  109-10. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  75-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  193 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including-  Cell-Contents. 

Spindle  Formation  in  the  Pollen-Mother-Cells  of  Cassia  tomen- 
tosa.* — H.  T.  A.  Hus  finds  that  the  cytoplasm  of  the  young  pollen- 
mother-cells  consists  of  a  network  of  radially  arranged  fibres,  on  and 
between  which  large  and  small  granules  are  formed.  The  meshes  next 
the  nuclear  wall  are  smaller  and  elongated,  parallel  to  the  wall.  A 
granular  zone  appears  around  the  nucleus,  and  at  the  same  time  deeply 
staining  rough  fibres,  often  arranged  in  conical  groups,  appear  in  the 
cytoplasm.  In  the  next  stage  a  felt-like  zone  more  or  less  completely 
surrounds  the  nucleus,  and  the  deeply  staining  fibres  of  the  cytoplasm, 
now  united  into  cones,  establish  a  connection  with  the  fibres  of  this  zone. 
The  linin  threads  become  parallel  with  the  other  fibres  and  also  with  the 
axis  of  the  larger  cone.  As  soon  as  the  rough  threads  of  the  fibres 
become  smooth  the  nucleolar  wall  breaks  down,  the  linin  and  the  kino- 
plasmic  fibres  anastomose  and  become  grouped  in  bundles.  A  multipolar 
spindle  is  formed,  two  cones  of  which,  opposite  to  each  other,  are  more 
prominent,  and  gradually  absorb  the  smaller  cones.  The  spindle  of  the 
second  division  is  more  markedly  multipolar  than  that  of  the  first 
division.  The  author  concludes  that  the  spindle  formation  in  this  species 
forms  a  connecting  link  between  the  multipolar  polyarchal  spindle  anlage 
usually  met  with  in  dividing  mother-cells  of  pollen,  spore  and  embryo- 
sac  and  the  multipolar  diarchal  spindle  anlage  of  vegetative  cells. 

Structure  of  the  Starch-Grain.t  —  R.  H.  Denniston  finds  in  de- 
veloping starch-grains  of  various  sorts  an  outer  sharply  defined  layer 
next  the  plastid,  which  takes  up  orange  strongly  from  the  safranin- 
gentian-violet-orange  stain,  the  body  of  the  grain  becoming  bright  violet. 
After  partial  digestion  by  diastase  the  grains  show  the  orange-staining 
layer  little  affected,  while  the  violet  part  is  much  dissolved,  and  orange- 
staining  material  appears  in  the  corroded  interior.  The  author  suggests 
that  the  outer  layer  is  different  from  the  rest,  and  believes  it  to  be  a 
carbohydrate  not  yet  fully  polymerised  to  starch. 

Structure  and  Development. 
Vegetative. 

Regeneration  in  Zamia.} — J.  M.  Coulter  and  M.  A.  Chrysler  give 
some  account  of  the  remarkable  power  shown  by  mutilated   stems  of 

*  Proc.  Calif.  Acad.  Sci.,  iii.  pt.  2  (1904)  pp.  329-54  (3  ph.).  See  also  W.  J.  Land 
in  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  p.  74. 

t  Trans.  Wis.  Acad.,  xiv.  (1904)  pp.  527-33.  See  also  Bot.  Gazettp,  xxxviii. 
(1904)  p.  47::.  X  liot.  Gazette,  xxxviii.  (19u4)  pp.  452-X. 


194  SUMMARY   OF   CUEEBNT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Zamia  floridana  of  producing  new  shoots  and  roots.  It  was  stated  that 
portions  of  the  stem  not  larger  than  a  walnut  had  been  *<.vn  to  produce 
both  root  and  shoot.  In  the  stems  studied,  the  new  shoots  generally 
spring  from  the  vascular  part  of  the  central  cylinder,  as  many  as  five 
shoots  having  been  seen  to  spring  from  this  region  in  a  stem  3  cm.  in 
diameter.  The  vascular  elements  are  continuous  with  the  vascular 
tissue  of  the  central  cylinder  of  the  parent  stem.  Less  frequently  new 
shoots  arise  from  the  peripheral  part  of  the  wounded  surface  of  the 
cortex ;  both  regions  of  origin  may  be  used  in  the  same  stem.  The 
origin  of  the  new  roots  is  just  as  variable.  In  several  cases  they  arise 
from  vascular  tissue,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  shoots,  roots  may  arise  from  a 
chip  of  the  cortex  of  an  old  vein.  The  authors  conclude  that  in  the 
case  of  the  stem  of  Zamia  the  power  of  regeneration  is  present  in  all 
nieristematic  tissue  ;  in  cases  of  mutilation  the  tissue  chiefly  concerned  is 
the  phellogen  of  the  callus,  that  over  the  region  of  the  central  cylinder 
being  more  often  successful  than  that  over  the  cortex. 

Anatomy  of  Palm  Roots.* — E.  Drabble  gives  an  account  of  his 
researches  on  the  anatomy  of  the  roots  of  palms.  More  than  sixty 
species  have  been  examined,  and  essentially  similar  results  have  been 
obtained  from  each.  The  adventitious  root  has  its  origin  in  the  peri- 
cycle  of  the  stem,  arising  as  an  extensive  rhizogenic  arc.  The  apex  is 
occupied  by  a  non-stratified  group  of  initial  cells,  which  give  rise  by 
division  to  a  common  ground-mass  of  parenchyma  wherein,  in  very 
young  roots,  appears  a  series  of  separate  procambial  strands.  These  are 
continued,  by  secondary  divisions  of  the  parenchyma,  into  the  central 
cylinder  of  the  stem.  The  strands,  usually  after  undergoing  repeated 
bifurcations,  are  connected  with  the  bundles  of  the  stem.  Each  of  these 
strands  gives  rise  to  a  "  stele  "-like  structure  with  exarch  protoxylem- 
groups  alternating  with  phloem-groups ;  but  without  histologically 
differentiated  endodermis.  As  the  root  lengthens  the  procambial  tissue 
takes  the  form  of  a  series  of  arcs  by  apical  fusion  of  the  strands.  Still 
later  a  lobed  cylinder  is  produced,  and  finally  the  root-cylinder  of  a 
monocotyledonous  plant  results. 

As  a  rule  all  the  changes  take  place  during  the  passage  of  the  root 
through  the  thick  cortex  at  the  base  of  the  stem,  but  in  several  species 
the  lobed  cylinder,  or  even  the  free  strands,  persist  in  the  extra-cauline 
portion.  The  internally  directed  protoxylem-groups  usually  die  out 
distally,  but  are  occasionally  represented  by  inversely  orientated  groups, 
the  metaxylem  elements  persisting  as  the  large  scattered  vessels  nearly 
always  present  in  palm-roots.  The  "  medullary  "  strands  are  shown  to 
be  in  reality  the  reduced  remains  of  some  of  the  free  basal  "  stele  "-like 
structures  which  have  not  entered  into  the  composition  of  the  vascular 
ring.  In  some  few  cases,  the  proximally  free  strands  unite  to  form  not 
a  single  cylinder,  but  three  or  more,  so  producing  Cormack's  "  poly- 
stelic  "  condition.  Distally  these  become  incomplete  on  the  central  Bur- 
face,  and  give  rise  by  lateral  fusion  in  the  apical  region  to  first  a  lobed, 
and  finally  a  normal  root  cylinder. 

The  author  regards  the"  medulla  "  in  palm-roots  as  merely  that  por- 

*  Trans.  I. inn.  Soc.,  ser.  2  (Bot.)  vi.  pp.  427-00  (4  pis.  nnd  figs,  in  text). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  195 

tion  of  the  common  ground-parenchyma,  arising  at  the  non-stratified 

apex,  which  becomes  enclosed  distally  by  fusion  of  the  procambial  strands, 
and  hence  differs  in  no  respect  from  the  external "  cortical "  parenchyma. 
Tlie  suggestion  is  put  forward  that  all  ideas  of  "monostely"  and 
"polystely,"  and  of  "medulla  "  and  "  cortex  "  as  separate  morphological 
entities,  are  based  on  an  artificial  conception  of  the  structures  involved. 
Anatomy  of  Anemiopsis  californica.* — T.  Holm  gives  an  account 
of  the  anatomy  of  the  vegetative  organs  of  this  plant — a  member  of  the 
tribe  Saururese  of  the  order  Piperaceae— included  by  Bentham  and 
Hooker  in  Houttuynia,  but  considered  as  a  distinct  genus  by  Eichler, 
De  Candolle,  and  others.  The  plant  lives  in  moist,  saline  localities,  and 
may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  a  halophyte.  The  author  considers,  how- 
ever, that  its  structure  may  be  defined  more  properly  as  simply  pipera- 
ceoua  than  either  halophilous  or  xerophilous.  The  most  conspicuous 
characters — the  prominently  developed  hypoderm  and  the  abundance  of 
secreting  cells  throughout  the  various  tissues — are  in  conformity  with 
the  general  structure  of  the  order  rather  than  with  halophytes. 
There  are  also  points  of  difference  in  the  anatomy  of  the  leaves,  petiole 
and  stem.  It  would  appear  as  if  Anemiopsis,  so  far  as  concerns  its 
structure,  gives  a  better  illustration  of  one  of  the  several  types  of  the 
Piperaceee  than  of  any  specialised  type  modified  in  accordance  with  the 
environment. 

Stomata  of  Holacantha.f  —  C  E.  Bessey  describes  the  stomatal 
apparatus  of  the  burro  thorn  (Holacantha  Emoryi),  a  leafless,  thorny 
shrub  about  3  metres  high  (or  sometimes  arborescent),  which  forms 
impenetrable  thickets  in  the  deserts  of  the  Southern  States.  It  is  a 
member  of  the  Simarubese.  The  surface  of  the  branches  and  thorns  (or 
modified  branches)  is  pea-green  in  colour.  The  epidermis  is  3—5  layers 
deep,  with  a  remarkably  thick  outer  wall  and  much  thickened  lateral  walls. 
Below  the  epidermis  is  a  thick  mass  of  palisade  cells.  The  stomata  are 
thickly  scattered  over  the  surface,  numbering  about  73  per  sq.  mm.  Each 
lies  at  the  bottom  of  a  narrow  chimney-shaped  cavity,  which  passes 
entirely  through  the  thickness  of  the  epidermis  and  is  prolonged  both 
above  and  below  it ;  the  cavity  is  of  a  somewhat  smaller  diameter  at  the 
mouth.  The  stomal  apparatus  at  the  lower  end  of  the  chimney  consists 
of  from  40-GO  cells,  which  extend  down  into  the  mass  of  palisade  tissue. 
It  is  almost  circular  in  cross  section,  and  consists  of  from  10-12  rows 
of  thinner-walled  cells  than  those  forming  the  main  part  of  the  chimney. 
At  the  bottom  of  this  structure  is  the  proper  stoma,  which  closely 
resembles  that  of  ordinary  plants,  and  beneath  it  is  the  usual  air-cavity. 
The  whole  forms  a  successful  means  for  protecting  the  plant  against 
loss  of  water  while  allowing,  free  access  of  carbon-dioxide.  The  highly 
transparent  epidermis  permits  photosynthesis. 

Reproductive. 

Pro-embryo  of  the  Bennettitese.J  —  Gr.  R.  Wieland  describes  pro- 
embryos  which  he  has  seen  in  fruits  of  Cycadeoidea  from  the  Black  Hills. 

*  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  ser.  4.  xix.  (1905)  pp.  76-82  (fig.  in  text). 

t  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxi.  (1904)  pp.  52:1-7. 

X  Amer.  Journ.  Sci..  ser.  4,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  445-7  (1  pi.). 


I'."''  SUMMARY    OF   CUBRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

In  ;i  specimen  which  bears  a  number  of  fine  ovulate  cells,  with  seed- 
bodies  approximately  the  same  size  as  in  the  original  Bmnettites 
Gibsoniamis,  the  author  found  large  angular  to  rounded  pro-embryonal 
cells.  These  appear  to  fill  the  entire  nucellar  space  in  some  of"  the 
transverse  sections.  In  others  the  pro-embryo  cells  appear  to  have  been 
but  partially  preserved  or  else  to  have  collapsed,  carrying  the  nucellar 
wall  inwards,  as  if  there  had  been  a  central  cavity  in  the  large-celled 
mass ;  several  irregular  ribbon-like  traces  were  also  noted,  about  the 
thickness  of  the  cell-walls,  extending  across  the  large-celled  mass. 
These  are  not  supposed  to  be  suspensors,  or  tubular  oospores  or  cells, 
such  as  precede  embryo-formation  in  Ephedra.  Some  sections  suggest 
that  the  mass  of  pro-embryo  tissue  was  either  less  dense  in  its  central 
regions  or  that  there  was  a  small  central  cavity,  but  this  point,  which 
would  show  a  fundamental  agreement  with  existing  Cycads,  cannot  be 
readily  settled  in  absence  of  a  good  longitudinal  section.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  the  lower  half  of  the  nucellus  was  closely  filled  by  the 
typical  large  undifferentiated  cells  making  up  the  mass  of  the  pro- 
embryo.  Another  section  showed  the  upper  end  of  the  nucellus  ex- 
tending well  into  the  top  of  the  seed,  which  is  quite  filled  with  the 
characteristic  tissue. 

There  is  no  distinct  indication  of  endosperm,  or  of  differentiation 
into  an  inner  and  outer  zone.  The  pro-embryo  tissue  appears  to  be 
homogeneous  throughout,  except  in  one  instance,  where  some  more 
elongated  cells  appear  to  rest  against  the  nucellar  wall. 

Comparison  with  the  other  gymnosperms  shows  that  the  pro-embryo 
of  the  Bennettitea3  is  unique  in  occupying  the  entire  nucellus,  though  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  nucellse  of  the  existing  Cycads  are 
almost  of  the  same  size,  increase  in  the  size  of  the  seed  having  been 
plainly  bound  up  with  endosperm  development.  It  may  be  that  a  pro- 
gressive reduction  of  endosperm  has  taken  place  in  the  Bennettiteai. 
and  was  perhaps  a  cause  of  the  disappearance  of  the  group.  The 
pro-embryo  shows  most  resemblance  to  that  of  Ginkgo,  and  proves  that 
the  embryogeny  of  Ginkgo  is  the  most  primitive  among  existing 
gymnosperms. 

Life  History  of  Pinus.* — Margaret  C.  Ferguson  gives  a  detailed 
account  of  the  results  of  her  work  on  this  subject,  derived  mainly  from 
a  study  of  Pinus  Strobus.  The  subject-matter  falls  under  the  headings  : 
microsporogenesis,  the  male  gametophyte,  macrosporogenesis,  the 
female  gametophyte,  and  fertilisation  and  related  phenomena.  In 
most  species  the  archesporium  is  well  developed  before  winter,  but  the 
mother-cell  stage  is  not  reached  till  the  next  April,  or  in  P.  Strobus  till 
May.  There  is  probably  a  qualitative  reduction  of  chromatin  during 
the  second  mitosis  in  the  pollen-mother-cell.  The  air  sacs  arise  by  the 
separation  of  the  exine  from  the  intine  at  two  definite  points.  The 
author  describes  a  feature  hitherto  overlooked,  a  partial  wall  lying  within 
the  intine  at  the  prothallial  end  of  the  spore.  The  generative  cell  is  not 
surrounded   by  a  definite  wall,  and  when  its  nucleus  divides  the  two 

*  Proc.  Washington  Acad.  Sci..  vi.  (1904)  pp.  1-202  (24  pis.).     See  also  Cham- 
berlain in  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  06-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  197 

sperm-nuclei  lie  free  in  a  common  mass  of  cytoplasm  and  never  form 
distinct  sperm-cells  ;  the  two  nuclei  are  unequal.  The  endosperm  con- 
tains about  two  thousand  free  nuclei  before  walls  begin  to  be  formed. 
The  archegonia  appear  about  two  weeks  before  fertilisation.  He  also 
describes  in  considerable  detail  the  independence  of  the  male  and  female 
chromatin  during  fertilisation.  Eight  nuclei  are  formed  in  the  pro- 
embryo  at  the  base  of  the  oosphere  before  the  appearance  of  cell-walls. 

Comparative  Embryology  of  the  Cucurbitacese* — J.  E.  Kirkwood 
Upives  the  results  of  his  work  based  on  the  study  of  sixteen  genera  of  this 
order,  and  relating  chiefly  to  the  development  of  the  ovary  and  embryo- 
sac.  Some  light  is  thrown  on  the  systematic  position  of  the  family 
which  has  been  placed  in  recent  Continental  systems  among  the  Sym- 
petalae,  owing  chiefly  to  the  union  of  the  petals.  The  author  of  the 
present  memoir,  however,  finds  that  in  all  the  sixteen  genera  certain 
characters  of  Sympetala3  which  have  been  regarded  as  fundamental 
are  contradicted.  For  instance,  the  ovule  in  the  Sympetalae  is  con- 
stantly characterised  by  a  single  very  prominent  integument,  a  much 
reduced  nucellus,  and  the  elimination  of  tapetal  tissue,  the  hypodermal 
archesporial  cell  passing  over  directly  into  the  mother-cell.  But  in  all 
the  Cucnrbitaceae  studied,  the  author  finds  the  ovules  with  two  integu- 
ments, a  well-developed  nucellus,  and  often  very  extensive  tapetal  tissue. 
The  synergids  are  remarkable  for  their  prominence  and  structure,  and 
the  antipodals  are  ephemeral ;  the  endosperm  is  characterised  by  ex- 
tensive growth  and  nutritive  activity. 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Carbon  Nutrition  of  Green  Plants  by  Organic  Substances.f — 
J.  Laurent  gives  a  full  account  of  his  experiments  on  this  subject.  He 
finds  conclusive  evidence  of  the  value  of  carbohydrate  foodstuffs  to 
green  plants  when  presented  to  their  roots.  Thus  maize  roots  were  able 
to  make  use  of  glucose  solutions,  the  plants  showing  increase  of  dry 
weight  when  grown  in  the  dark  ;  and  plants  of  various  species,  previously 
deprived  of  starch,  were  able  to  manufacture  starch  in  sunlight  when 
glucose,  in  1-5  per  cent,  solutions,  was  presented  to  their  roots,  under 
conditions  which  ensured  absence  of  carbon  dioxide.  The  author,  how- 
ever, failed  to  induce  roots  of  green  plants  to  digest  starch,  indicating  a 
fundamental  difference  between  the  nutrition  of  saprophytes,  which  have 
this  power,  and  autophytes.  In  a  series  of  experiments  on  the  influence 
of  organic  substances  on  growth  and  form,  the  author  found  that  growth 
of  the  stem  was  checked  in  concentrated  solutions.  That  this  result  does 
not  entirely  depend  on  increased  osmotic  pressure  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  different  results  are  obtained  with  solutions  of  equal  concentration 
of  glucose  and  glycerin  respectively. 

*  Bull.  New  York  Bot.  Garden,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  313-402  (12  pis.).     See  also  J.M.C. 
in  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  p.  73. 

t  Rev.  Gen.  Bot,  xvi.  (1904)  pp.  14  -4s.  66-80,96  128,  155-66,188-202,231-42 

(7  pis.). 


10S  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

Relative  Transpiration  of  Old  and  New  Leaves  of  the  Myrtus 
Type.* — J.  Y.  Bergen  has  studied  the  relative  activity  in  transpiration 
of  old  and  new  leaves  in  some  leathery-leaved  evergreens  of  the  Neapoli- 
tan region,  such  as  olive,  holm-oak,  Rhamnus  Alaternus  and  Nerium 
Oleander.  He  finds  that  the  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  of  this  region 
differ  greatly  in  the  longevity  of  their  leaves,  some  of  the  species  having 
leaves  that  live  only  about  fifteen  months,  while  those  of  others  live 
more  than  two-and-a-half  years.  All  of  the  leaves  studied  reach  their 
maximum  area  considerably  before  they  attain  their  full  thickness.  The 
leaves  of  six  of  the  eight  species  studied  transpire  more  for  equal  areas 
when  fifteen  to  eighteen  months  old  than  they  do  when  they  have  just 
reached  their  maximum  area,  at  three  or  four  months.  Transpiration 
for  equal  weights  of  leaves  is  generally  more  active  for  leaves  of  fifteen 
or  more  months  than  for  those  of  three  months  or  a  little  older. 
Epidermal  transpiration  bears  a  much  smaller  ratio  to  total  transpira- 
tion in  leaves  of  three  months  than  in  those  of  fifteen  months. 

Daily  Periodicity  of  Cell-division  and  of  Elongation  in  the  Root 
of  Allium.! — W.  E.  Kellicott  finds  in  the  root  of  Allium  two  maxima 
and  two  minima  in  the  rate  of  cell-division  during  twenty-four  hours. 
The  primary  maximum  occurs  shortly  before  midnight,  the  primary 
minimum  about  7  a.m.  The  secondary  maximum  occurs  about  1  p.m. 
and  the  secondary  minimum  about  3  p.m.  There  is  no  correspondence 
between  the  rate  of  cell-division  and  slight  variations  in  temperature. 
The  root  of  Podophyllum  shows  maximal  and  minimal  points  at  almost 
the  same  hours  as  in  Allium.  Tap-water  alone,  or  with  various  sub- 
stances in  solution,  seriously  affects  the  course  of  cell-division.  In  some 
cases  there  may  be  recovery  and  partial  return  to  the  normal  condition. 
Under  normal  conditions  of  growth  the  rate  of  elongation  of  the  root  of 
Allium  shows  a  daily  rhythm,  with  two  maxima  and  two  minima  during 
twenty-four  hours.  Elongation  is  most  rapid  about  4  or  5  p.m.,  the 
secondary  maximum  occurring  about  7  a.m. ;  the  primary  minimum 
is  about  11  p.m.,  and  the  secondary  minimum  about  noon.  Periods 
of  rapid  cell-division  coincide  with  low  rate  of  elongation,  and  rate 
of  cell-division  is  lowest  during  rapid  elongation. 

Periodicity  of  Growth  in  Thickness  in  the  Tropics.^ — A.  Ursprung 

has  studied  the  structure  of  the  wood  of  some  species  growing  at  Buiten- 
zorg,  where  the  climate  is  uniform,  and  in  Eastern  Java,  where  there  is 
an  alternation  of  wet  and  dry  seasons.  He  finds  in  the  latter  a  much 
more  striking  development  of  the  annual  ring  structure  than  in  the  case  of 
the  same  species  grown  at  Buitenzorg,  though  there  is  some  variability  in 
the  relative  differences  in  different  species.  Representatives  of  six  natural 
orders  were  examined. 

Chemical  Changes. 

Blackening  of  Baptisia  tinctoria.§ — J.  T.  Emerson  discusses  the 
blackening  of  Wild  Indigo  on  Cape  Cod.     If  a  leaf  is  injured  a  black 

*  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  446-51. 

t  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxi.  (1904)  pp.  529-50. 

X  Bot.  Zeit.,  l'xii.  (1904)  pp.  189-210. 

§  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxi.  (1904)  pp.  G21-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  L99 

spot  appears,  and  branches  which  have  been  injured  arc  the  first  to  show 
the  blackening,  which,  however,  appears  naturally  in  uninjured  plants, 
affecting  even  the  flowers.  The  author  finds  that  the  blackening  is  due 
to  oxidizing  enzymes,  of  which  there  are  at  least  two,  an  oxidase  which 
gives  an  opalescent  blue  with  gum  giiaiac  solution,  and  is  destroyed 
by  heat  at  about  83°-84°  C,  and  a  peroxidase  which  give  a  deep  blue 
with  hydrogen  peroxide,  and  which  is  destroyed  by  heat  at  86°-87°  C. 
Both  enzymes  can  be  destroyed  with  dilute  solutions  of  citric  acid  and 
sodium  hydroxide. 

General. 

Identification  of  Trees  in  Winter.* — L.  H.  Scholl,  E.  C.  Cotton, 
and  J.  H.  Schaffner  have  prepared  keys  to  the  hickories,  ashes,  and 
poplars  respectively,  in  the  winter  condition  as  regards  Ohio  species. 
The  characters  used  are  the  form,  colour  and  indumentum  of  the  bud, 
the  character  of  the  bud-scales,  and  the  surface  characters  of  the  twig, 
and,  in  case  of  hickory,  of  the  bark.  There  are  six  species  of  hickory, 
seven  of  ash,  and  eight  of  poplar. 

Localised  Stages  in  Common  Roadside  Plants.f — J.  A.  Cushman 

describes  for  a  number  of  common  North- American  species  the  various 
progressive  stages  towards  the  adult  leaf-form  which  characterise  the 
seedling,  and  in  the  case  of  perennials,  the  spring  growth,  and  also  the 
regressive  development  which  occurs  on  flowering  shoots.  The  species 
studied  include  Thalktrum  polygamum,  Wild  Carrot,  Wild  Indigo 
(Baptisia  tinctoria),  Sheep  Sorrel,  PotenUUa  canadensis,  Sambucus 
canadensis,  Chenopodium  album,  Yarrow,  and  species  of  Aster  and 
Eupatorium.  In  Thalktrum  and  Baptisia,  the  chief  feature  is  a  change 
in  the  number  of  leaflets  ;  in  Rumex,  a  change  in  the  auricled  leaf-base  ; 
in  Eupatorium,  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  connate  leaf -base. 
Different  individuals  show  variations  due  to  differences  in  acceleration 
•of  development,  which  may  be  due  to  external  or  internal  causes. 
Regressive  development,  seen  in  localised  senescence  below  the  flower, 
is  often  more  reversionary  than  stages  in  the  usual  seedling. 

Variation  of  California  Plants.^ — E.  B.  Copeland  points  out  that, 
while  one  of  the  first  features  of  the  flora  of  the  mountainous  and  rather 
■dry  parts  of  California  which  impresses  any  one  familiar  with  that  of  the 
Eastern  States  and  the  Mississippi  Valley,  is  the  exceeding  variability  of 
a  great  many  of  the  plants,  it  has  yet  never  been  the  subject  of  any 
particular  study.  He  describes  the  variation  in  the  leaf-characters — 
size,  margin,  base  and  apex — in  a  few  woody  plants  comprising  several 
oaks,  Rhamnus  califomka,  Arctostaphylus  tomentosa,  and  species  of  C'eano- 
thus  and  Baccharis.  The  leaf-variation  in  a  few  apparently  monstrous 
ferns  is  also  described.  The  author  then  uses  his  results  as  a  basis  for 
a  discussion  of  the  mutation  theory  in  bionomics  ;  and  endeavours  to 
show  that  there  is  no  foundation  for  the  view  that  mutations  exist  as 
essentially  distinct  from  ordinary  variations. 

*  Ohio  Nat.,  v.  (1905)  pp.  269-71. 

t  Amer.  Nat,  xxxviii,  (1904)  pp.  818-32  (figs,  in  text). 

%  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  401-26. 


200  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Relation  of  Soils  to  Vegetation.* — B.  E.  Livingston  lias  studied  the 
relation  of  soils  to  natural  vegetation  in  Roscommon  and  Crawford 
Counties,  Michigan.  Be  finds  that  the  main  factor  in  determining  the 
distribution  of  the  forests  on  the  uplands  of  this  region  is  that  of  the 
size  of  soil  particles,  the  sorting  of  which  dates  hack  almost  entirely  to 
the  close  of  the  last  Glacial  epoch.  The  size  of  the  particles  determines 
the  amount  of  air  and  moisture  in  the  soil,  and  these  in  turn  determine 
the  amount  of  humus  formation  and  the  growth  of  nitrifying  organisms, 
and  perhaps  also  to  some  extent  the  amount  of  soluble  salts  in  the 
surface  layers.  A  factor  of  less  importance,  because  applicable  only  over 
small  areas,  is  the  nearness  of  the  underground  water  level  to  the  surface. 
Broadly  speaking,  physiography  determines  the  vegetational  distribution. 
The  physiographic  features  are  largely  those  of  glacial  topography,  or 
traceable  directly  to  these.  It  is  probable  that  many  dry  soils  have  at 
length  become  moist  enough  to  support  one  of  the  more  moisture-loving 
types  of  vegetation  simply  by  increase  of  humus  content.  The  lowlands 
are  covered  with  a  vegetation  complex  of  species  such  that  they  can  bear 
excess  of  water  and  paucity  of  oxygen  in  the  soil.  From  the  open 
meadow  and  coniferous  swamp  we  pass,  with  better  and  better  drainage, 
through  the  mixed  swamp  to  the  hardwood,  or  the  white  pine  of  the 
uplands.  The  natural  re-forestation  of  the  pine  areas  with  Xorway  pine, 
and  partly,  at  least,  with  white  pine,  will  probably  occur  if  the  fires  can 
be  suppressed. 

Asiatic  Plants.f — D.  Prain  has  published  notes  on  various  Indian 
and  East  Asiatic  plants.  These  include  a  new  genus  of  Araliaceee 
(Woodburnia)  from  Burma,  described  as  a  striking  plant  with  flowers 
unusually  large  for  the  family  ;  a  new  Mum,  from  Assam,  a  fine  species, 
which  in  habit  much  resembles  a  Sikkim  variety  of  the  common  Musa 
paradisiaca,  and  several  new  Convolvulaceae  from  China  and  Malaya. 
The  author  also  gives  some  critical  notes  on  the  Roxburghiaceaj,  with  a 
key  to  the  species  of  Stemona. 

Flora  of  the  Australian  Alps.! — J-  Stirling  has  studied  the  flora 
of  this  area  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  origin  and  distribution  of 
the  mixed  types  of  plants  now  flourishing  on  the  higher  altitudes  over 
South-East  Australia,  and  its  relation  to  the  tertiary  floras  of  South- 
East  Australia.  The  author  has  collected  more  than  1000  species  in 
the  region  at  elevations  between  2000  and  7000  feet,  and  the  present 
is  a  preliminary  account,  with  a  census  of  the  plants.  The  general 
study  of  the  flora  shows  that  climatic  conditions  have  had  a  dominating 
influence  in  the  evolution  of  varietal  forms.  This  is  especially  noticeable 
in  the  genus  Eucalyptus. 

The  author  gives  an  account  of  the  physical  features  of  the 
range.  All  the  higher  plateaux  are  distinctly  Alpine  ;  the  soil  is 
rich,  volcanic,  and  highly  productive.  Fine  Eucalyptus  forests  clothe 
the  sub-Alpine  levels.  The  plants  comprise  240  genera,  with  117* 
species  of  Seed-plants  ;  and  161  genera,  with  841  species  of  Cryptogams. 

*  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  22-41. 

t  Journ.  Asiat.  Sue.  Bengal,  lxxiii.  (11)04)  pp.  14-24  and  39-4G  (1  pi.). 

X  Trans,  and  Proc.  Bot.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxii.  (1904)  pp.  319-95  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  201 

The  best  represented  orders  are  Leguminosae,  with  22  genera  and 
76  species;  Compositffi,  with  25  and  74;  and  Grasses,  with  19  and 
35.  There  is  a  greater  affinity  with  the  Tasmanian  Alpine  flora 
than  with  that  of  any  other  region.  Notes  are  given  on  the  more 
interesting  plants  in  the  different  natural  orders,  and  also  a  census  of  all 
the  plants  known,  including  Cryptogams. 

Fries,  Th.  M. — Svenska  Vaxtnamn.     (Swedish  plant-names.) 

[An  annotated  list  of  popular  names  of  plants,  with  their  Latin  equivalents. 
Keferencesto  literature  are  given.] 

"  Arhiv  f.  Botanik,  iii.  No.  13  (1904)  pp.  28-60. 

Malme,  G.  O. — Die  TTmbelliferen  der  zweiten  Regnell'schen  Eeise.     (The  Umbel - 
liferss  of  the  second  Regnell  expedition.) 

[A  systematic  account  of  the  plants  of  this  order  collected  on  this  Brazilian 
expedition.  The  family  is  represented  in  Brazil  chiefly  by  the  genera 
Hydrocotyle  and  L'ryngium,  which  include  6  and  20  respectively  of  the  31 
species  collected.  Four  new  species  and  two  new  varieties  of  Eryngium 
are  described.]  Tom.  tit.  pp.  1-22  (3  pis.). 

Merino,  R.  P. — Contribucion  a  la  Flora  de  Galicia.     Supplement  IV.      [Fourth 
supplement  to  the  Flora  of  Galicia.) 

[A  systematic  list  of  ferns  and  seed-plants,  with  critical  notes  and  descriptions 
of  new  species  of  Erica,  Linaria,  and  Sagina  respectively.] 

Mem.  d.  1.  Soc.  Espan.  Hid.  Nat,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  455-516. 

Townsenc,  F. — Flora  of  Hampshire,  including  the  Isle  of  Wight. 
[New  edition,  with  numerous  additions.] 

Lovell  Reeve  (1904)  xxxviii.  and  658  pp.,  2  pis.  and  map. 


CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 
(By  A.  Gepp,  M.A.,  F.L.S.) 

Anatomy  of  Psilotum  triquetrum.*— S.  O.  Ford  gives  a  detailed 
account  of  the  anatomy  of  this  plant.  It  consists  of  a  much-branched 
aerial  stem  and  rhizome.  The  leaves  are  much  reduced,  and  have  no 
vascular  supply.  There  are  no  roots.  The  plant  is  monostelic  through- 
out. At  the  base  of  the  aerial  stem  a  protostele  is  found,  and  this, 
higher  up,  may  be  succeeded  by  a  medullated  stage  with  no  inner 
phloem  or  endodermis.  Secondary  tracheids  may  occur.  In  the 
aerial  branches  a  central  core  of  sclerenchymatous  fibres  is  found, 
surrounded  by  xylem  with  radiating  groups  of  protoxylem.  In  the 
rhizome  the  xylem  forms  an  irregular  mass  with  no  fibres,  and  the 
protoxylem  consists  of  ordinary  scalariform  tracheids.  The  phloem 
throughout  is  feebly  developed,  and  lignification  of  this  tissue  may 
occur  in  the  aerial  stem.  A  three-sided  apical  cell  is  present  both  in  the 
aerial  stem  and  in  the  rhizome.  From  the  nature  of  the  sporangia! 
apparatus  the  Psilotaceas  have  been  regarded  as  possessing  a  close  affinity 
with  the  fossil  Sphenophyllales.  There  is  also  a  strong  resemblance, 
anatomically,  to  some  of  the  fossil  Lycopods,  especially  to  the  stem  of 
Lepidodrendron  mundum,  as  well  as  to  the  axis  of  the  cone  of  Lepido- 
strobus  Broiviui. 

*  Ann.  Bot.,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  589-605  (1  pi.). 
April  19th,  1905  p 


202  SUMMARY   OF   OUEEENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Prothallium  of  Ophioglossum  vulgatum.* — H.  Bruchmann  has 
succeeded  in  finding  the  long-sought  gametophyte  of  0.  vulgatum,  and 
describes  in  detail  and  with  many  figures  the  external  and  internal 
structure  of  the  prothallium  and  young  sporophyte.  The  prothallium 
shows  a  radial  structure,  and  agrees  in  the  main  with  that  of  O.peduncu- 
losum  and  0.  pendulum.  It  yet  remains  to  cultivate  the  spores,  so  that 
the  earliest  stages  of  the  prothallium  may  be  obtained.  Incidentally  he 
describes  the  cutting  of  a  lenticular  cell  (first  rhizoid  cell)  from  the  basal 
cell  of  the  infant  prothallium  in  several  European  species  of  Lycopodium. 

Polystichum.f — A.  Somerville  treats  of  the  three  British  species  of  this 
genus  : — P.  Lonchitis,  P.  acideatum,  P.  angidare,  with  special  reference 
to  this  last,  the  distribution  of  which  in  Scotland  (where  it  is  becoming 
increasingly  rare)  he  describes.  P.  lobatum  he  suppresses,  stating  his 
reasons  for  regarding  it  as  an  immature  form  of  P.  acideatum.  He  indi- 
cates several  points  of  distinction  between  P.  acideatum  and  P.  angular e. 

Battandier  et  Trabut — Flore  Analytique  et  Synoptique  de  l'Algerie  et  de  la 
Tunisie.     (Analytic  and  synoptic  flora  of  Algeria  and  Tunis.) 

[Contains  on  pp.  401-8  the  Pteridophyta,  with  descriptions  and  keys.] 

Paris  :  Klincksieck  (1904)  400  pp. 

Bernstiel,  O. — Scolopendrium  officinarum  f.  undulatum. 

Gartenwelt,  ix.  (1004)  pp.  121-2. 

Boodle,  L.  A. — The  structure  of  the  leaves  of  the  Bracken  (Pteris  Aquilina  Linn.) 
in  relation  to  environment.  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Bot.)  xxxv.  (1904)  pp.  659-70. 

Botjygtjes — Sur  Interpretation  anatomique  des  cordons  liberaux  ligneux  du  Pteris 
Aquilina.  (On  the  anatomical  interpretation  of  the  wood-bast  fibres  of  P.  Aquilina.) 

Act.  Soc.  Linn.  Bordeaux,  lviii.  (1903)  p.  76. 

Br  aim,  J. — Osmunda  regalis  at  Goathland.  Naturalist,  1904,  p.  378. 

Brenzinger,  C. — Flora  des  Amtsbezirks  Buchen.  (Flora  of  the  district  of  Buchen.) 

Mitt.  Bad.  Bot.  Ver.,  1904,  p.  385-416. 

Campbell,  D.  H. — The  Affinities  of  the  Ophioglossacese  and  Marsiliaceae. 

Amer.  Naturalist,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  761-75  (figs,  iu  text). 

Chifflot,  J. — Sur  un  cas  rare  d'heterotaxie  de  l'epi  diodangifere  de  l'Equisetum 
maximum  Lam.  et  sur  les  causes  de  sa  production.  (On  a  rare  case  of  heterotaxy 
of  the  diodangiferous  spike  of  E.  maximum  and  the  causes  of  its  production.) 

Note  pres.  a  la  Soc.  Linn.  Lyon,  1904,  5  pp. ; 
Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  Beibl.,  p.  82. 

Christ,  H. — Primitiae  Florae  Costaricensis.     Filices  et  Lycopodiaceae.    (First-fruits 
of  the  flora  of  Costa  Rica.     Ferns  and  Lycopodiaceae.) 

[Continuation.]  Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  v.  (1905)  pp.  1-16. 

„  „  Quelques  remarques  concernant  une  collection  de  Fougeres  du  Bhotan 
recoltees  par  "W.  Griffith  et  acquise  par  l'Herbier  Delessert  en 
1856.  (Some  remarks  upon  a  collection  of  ferns  of  Bbotan  collected 
by  Griffith  and  acquired  by  Herbier  Delessert  in  1856.) 

Ann.  Conserv.  Jard.  bot.  Geneve,  vii.-viii.  (1904)  pp.  330-32. 

Clute,  W.  N. — Adiantum  Capillus- veneris  in  Pennsylvania? 

[A  plea  for  investigation  of  reported  occurrences  of  the  species.] 

Fern  Bulletin,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  121-2. 

*  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxii.  (1904)  pp.  227-48  (2  pis.). 

t  Trans.  Proc.  Bot.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxii.  (1904)  pp.  312-17. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  203 

Clcte,  W.  N. — The  Jamaica  Walking  Fern. 

[Fadyenia  prolifera.]  Tom.  ait.,  pp.  112-3(1  pi.). 

Cooks,  R.  S. — Notes  from  Louisiana. 

[On  Azolla  caroliniana,  Adiantum  pedatum,  and  A.  CapillitS'veneris.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  110-1. 
Dukes,  W.  C. — Babyhood  of  Ferns. 

[Method  of  cultivating  prothallia.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  105-6. 

„         „        Fall-fruiting  of  Osmunda.  Tom.  cit,  pp.  103-4. 

Eaton,  A.  A.— Dodge's  Fern.  Amer.  Botanist,  v.  (1904)  p.  117. 

„        „  Pellaea  ornithopus.  Fern  Bulletin,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  113-4. 

Fitzpatkick,  T.  J. — Notes  on  the  Ferns  of  Washington. 

[A  list  of  13  species,  with  notes.]       Tom.  cit.,  pp.  108-10. 

„  „  The  Fern  Flora  of  Montana. 

[A  list  of  39  species,  with  notes.]        Tom.  cit.,  pp.  97-101. 

Fleming,  W.  W. — Abnormal  Growth  of  Polypody. 

[Fronds  of  F.  vulgare  as  long  as  2  ft.  3£  in.  were  found  on  a  wall  near  Portlaw.] 

Irish  Naturalist,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  40. 

Foster,  A.  S. — The  Broad  Wood  Fern  in  Washington. 

[Note  on  the  large  size  attained  by  Nephrodium  spinulosum  dilatatum  on  the 
west  coast  of  America.]  Fern  Bulletin,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  104-5. 

Fi'io,  M. — Polypodium  vulgare  L.  und  Polypodium  vulgare,  y  serratum  Willd. 
[Claims  specific  rank  for  the  latter.] 

Hedwigia,  xii  v.  (1905)  pp.  106-11  (1  pi.). 

God ron — Remarques  sur  le  Polystichum  oreopteris.     (Remarks  on  P.  oreopteris.) 

Bull.  Soc.  Amis  Sci.  Nat.  fiouen,  1904,  pp.  4-7. 
Hahne,  A.  H. — Forking  Ferns. 

[A  list  of  79  species,  with  notes  to  show  the  position,  kind  and  degree  of 
bifurcation  in  each  case.]  Fern  Bulletin,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  114-8. 

Harrison,  C. — Sligo  Ferns. 

[Records  the  finding  of  Hymenophyllum  unilaterale,  H.  tunbridgense,  and 
Polypodium  vulgare  var.  cambricum.  In  an  editorial  note  R.  L.  Praeger 
remarks  on  the  extreme  rarity  of  the  latter  in  Ireland,  and  points  out  that 
Linnaeus  considered  it  a  good  species.] 

Irish  Naturalist,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  39,  40. 

Hierontmus,  G. — Plantae    Lehmannianae    in    Guatemala,    Columbia   et   Ecuador 

regionibusque  finitimis  collectae.  Pteridophyta.  (Plants  col- 
lected by  Lehmann  in  Guatemala,  Columbia,  Ecuador,  and 
the  neighbouring  regions.     Pteridophytes.] 

[Ceratopteris  to  Selaginella.     Conclusion.] 

Engler's  Bot.  Jahrb.,  xxxiv.  (1905)  pp.  561-82. 

„  „  Polypodiorum   species  novae   et   non    satis  novae.    (Species  of 

Polypodium  new  or  insufficiently  known.) 

[Descriptions  of  new  species  and  remarks  on  oldir 
species.  Keys  to  the  P.  serrulatum  and  P.  tri- 
chomanoides  groups.] 

Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  78-105. 

Hochreutiner,  B.  P.  G. — Cryptogames  vasculaires.     (Vascular  cryptogams.) 

[In  his  ''Le  Sud  Oranais."]  Ann.  Conserv.  Jard.  Bot.,  Geneve, 

1904,  pp.  112-3. 
Kellerman,  W.  A.,  &  H.  A.  G  lea  son— Notes  on  the  Ohio  Ferns. 

[A  localised  list  of  45  species  ;  10  others  require  authentication.] 

Ohio  Naturalist,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  205-10. 

Kummerle,  J.  B. — Adatok  a  Kaukasus  edenyes  viragtalan  novenyeinek  ismere- 

tehez.     (Contributions  to  a  knowledge  of  the  Pteridophyta 
of  the  Caucasus.) 

Annal.  Mus.  Nation.  Hungaric,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  570-3. 

P  2 


204  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Le  Grand,  A. — Distribution  geographique  des  Asplenium  fontanum  et  foresiacum. 
(Geographical  distribution  of  A.  fontanum  and  foresiacum.) 

[The  former  species  is  exclusively  calcicolous,  while  A.  foresiacum  Le  Grand 
(syn.  A.  Halleri  var.  macrophyllum  Saint-Lager)  is  absolutely  silicicolous, 
and  occurs  in  the  centre  and  south  of  France.] 

llev.  Bot.  Syst.  et  Geogr.,  1904,  pp.  103-9. 

Maion,  W.  K. — A  new  Asplenium  from  Mexico. 

[Description  of  A.  modestum,  with  indication  of  its  affinities.] 

Bull  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxi.  (1904)  pp.  657-8. 

„        .,         A  new  Fern,  Goniophlebium  Pringlei,  from  Mexico. 

Proc.  U.S.  Nat,  Mus.,  xxvii.  (1904)  pp.  953-4. 

„        „  Notes  on  American  Ferns.  VII. 

[On  the  synonymy  of  the  N.W.  American  Polypodium  occiden- 
tale  Maxon,  and  on  Asplenium  pycnocarpon  Spreng.] 

Fern  Bulletin,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  101-3. 

Nicholson,  W.  A. — Fauna  and  Flora  of  Norfolk.     Part  VI.  [additions]. 

[Flowering  plants  and  ferns.]  Trans.  Norfolk  and  Norwich  Nat.  Soc, 

1903-4  (1904)  pp.  748-51. 

Osborn,  A.— Aspidium  anomalum.  Garden,  lxv.  (1904),  No.  1689. 

Phelps,  O.  P. — New  Stations  for  two  rare  Connecticut  Ferns. 
[Pellxa  gracilis  and  Asplenium  montanum.~] 

Fern  Bulletin,  xii.  (1904)  p.  118. 

PodpEra,  J. — Weitere  Beitrage  zur  Phanerogamen-  und  Gefasskryptogamen-flora 
Bb'hmens.  (Further  contributions  to  the  phanerogamic  and  vascular  crvptogamic 
flora  of  Bohemia.)  Verh.  K.K.  Zool.  Bot.  Ges.  Wien,  liv.  (1904)  pp.  313-41. 

Potonie,  H. — Die  Zusatzfiedern  (Aphlebien)  der  Fame.    (The  additional  pinn» 
[Aphlebia]  of  ferns.)  Naturw.  Wochenschr.,  1903,  pp.  33-41. 

„        „        Ueber  die  physiologische  Bedeutung  der  Aphlebien.    (On  the  physio- 
logical meaning  of  the  Alphlebia.) 

Zeitschr.  Deutsch.  Geol.  Ges.,  1903,  Monatsb.  p.  11-12. 

Ritzberger,  E. — Prodomus  einer  Flora  von  Oberoesterreich.  (Preliminary  essay 
of  a  flora  of  Upper  Austria.)  Jahresb.  Ver.  Naturh.  in  Oesterr.  ob.  der 

Enns.  Linz.,  1904,  59  pp. 
Robinson,  C.  B. — The  Ferns  of  Northern  Cape  Breton. 

Torreya,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  136-8. 

Sallet — Les  Hydropteridees  dans  la  region  tonkinoise.  (The  Hydropterideae  in 
the  Tonkin  region.)  Act.  Soc.  Linn.  Bordeaux,  lviii.  (1903)  p.  244. 

Schmidt,  R. — Ueber  Gabelungen  bei  Farnen.     (On  dichotomv  in  ferns.) 

SB.  Nat.  Gesell.  Leipzig,  1903,  pp.  1-4. 

Schneck,  J. — Asplenium  ruta-muraria  on  the  towers  of  Milan  Cathedral. 

Fern  Bulletin,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  118-9. 

Schube,  T. — Die  Verbreitung  der  Gefasspflanzen  in  Schlesien.  (The  distribution  of 
the  vascular  cryptogams  in  Silesia.)  Breslau  (Nischkowsky)  1903. 

Stirling,  J. — Notes  on  a  Census  of  the  Flora  of  the  Australian  Alps. 

[Contains  a  list  of  plants,  including  51  pteridophytes,  with  their  distribution 
and  altitude.]  Trans.  Bot.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxii.  (1904)  p.  319. 

Trail.  J.  W.  H. — Topographical  Botany  of  the  River-basins  Forth  and  Tweed  in 
Scotland. 

[With  a  list  containing  48  pteridophytes.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  277-308. 

Waisbeoker,  A. — TTjadatok  Vas  varmegye  florajahoz.     (New  contributions  to  the 
flora  of  the  Eisenburg  county  in  West  Hungary.) 
[Contains  descriptions  of  14  new  forms  of  ferns.] 

Mag.  Bot.  Lapok.,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  88-108. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  205 

Wool  son,  G.  A. — Nephrodium  pittsfordensis. 

[The  parentage  of  this  hybrid.]  Fern  Bulletin,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  106-8. 

Worslet,  A. — Notes  on  some  plants  and  ferns  found  about  Petropolis  (South  Brazil), 
February  and  March  1900.  Journ.  B.  Bort.  Soc,  xxviii.  (1904)  pp.  525-32. 

Yabe,  Y.,  &  K.  Yendo — Plants  of  Shimushu  Island. 

Bot.  Mag.  Tokyo,  xviii.  (1904)  p.  167. 

Bryophyta. 

(By  A.  Gepp.) 

European  Mosses.* — G.  Eoth  publishes  the  eleventh  and  concluding 
part  of  his  "  Europaischen  Laubmoose."  The  whole  work  forms  two 
thick  volumes,  and  contains  upwards  of  1:300  pages  of  text,  illustrated 
by  62  plates,  on  which  are  figured  nearly  1250  species ;  and  it  has  been 
published  in  the  short  space  of  a  year  and  a  half.  It  treats  of  the 
mosses  of  all  Europe,  and  figures  an  authentic  sample  of  each  species, 
some  hundreds  of  the  species  having  never  been  figured  previously. 
The  descriptions  are  re-written  uniformly  from  the  author's  point  of 
view,  the  important  characters  being  italicised,  but  there  are  no  keys  to 
genera  or  species,  nor  are  the  magnifications  of  the  figures  given.  The 
work  is  fully  indexed. 

Anonymous — Sphaignes  de  l'Ain.    Especes  ou  varietes  nouvelles.    (Sphagna  of 
►»*  Ain.     Species  or  new  varieties.)  Bull.  Soc.  Nat.  Ain,  1904,  p.  33. 

A  knell — Martinellia  obliqua  Arnell. 

[Description  of  a  new  species  of  hepatic.] 

Bev.  Bryolog.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  1-2  (figs.). 

Bauer,  E.  — Musci  Alegrenses.  Enumeration  de  mousses  et  d'hepatiques  recoltees 
par  M.  Ed.  Martin  Reineck  et  M.  Josef  Czermack  en  1897-9  an  Bresil.  (Mosses 
of  Porto- Alegre.  Enumeration  of  mosses  and  hepatics  gathered  by  Reineck  and 
Czermack  in  1897-9  in  Brazil.) 

[List  of  10  hepatics  and  42  mosses ;  4  species  are  new.] 

Tom.  cit.,  xxxii.  (1905)  p.  11. 

Becquerel,  P. — Surla  germination  des  spores  d'Atrichum  undulatum  et  d'Hypnum 
velutinum,  et  sur  la  nutrition  de  leurs  protonemas  dans  des  milieux  liquides 
sterilises.  (On  the  germination  of  the  spores  of  Atrichum  undulatum  and  of 
Hypnum  velutinum,  and  on  the  nutrition  of  their  protenemas  in  sterilised  liquid 
media).  Comptes  Bendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  745-7. 

Boyd,  D.  A. — Notes  on  Mosses  from  West  Kilbride,  Ayrshire. 

[Two  seaside  species,  Tortula  rurali/ormu,  with  a  note  on  the  characters 
that  distinguish  it  from  T.  ruralis ;  and  Brachythecium  albicans,  fruiting 
abundantly.]  Trans.  Edinb.  Nat.  and  Micr.  Soc,  v.  (1904)  pp.  96-7. 

B  kit  ton,  E.  G. — Notes  on  Nomenclature.     IV.  The  genus  Neckera  Hedw. 

[The  history  of  this  genus  is  given  ;  and  for  stated  reasons  the  name  is 
changed  to  Bhystophyllum,  and  seven  North  American  species  are  re-named 
accordingly.]  Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  4-6. 

Cardot,  J. — Enumeration  des  Mousses  recoltees  par  M.  Hochreutiner  en  Algerie. 
(List  of  the  mosses  collected  by  M.  Hochreutiner  in  Algeria.) 
[In  B.  P.  G.  Hochreutiner's  "  Le  Sud  Oranais."] 

Ann.  Conserv.  Jard.  bot.  Geneve,  1904,  pp.  239-41. 

Cardot,  J.,  &  I.  Theriot — New  or  unrecorded  Mosses  of  North  America. 

[Adapted  from  Bot.  Gazette,  May  1904.]  Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  8-11. 

*  Leipzig :  Engelmann,  1905,  Heft  xi..  pp.  xvi.,  641-733,  pis.  li.-lxu. 


206  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Claassen,  E. — List  of  the  Mosses  of  Cuyahoga  and  other  counties  of  Northern 
Ohio. 

[Contains  about  135  species,  three  of  which  are  new  to  Ohio  State.] 

Ohio  Naturalist,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  157-60. 

Cornet,  A. — Trois  Mousses  nouvelles  pour  la  Flore  Beige.  (Three  mosses  new  to 
the  Belgian  flora.  Bull.  Soc.  Boy.  Bot.  Belg..  xli.  (1904)  pp.  143-4. 

Dismier,  G. — Trichodon  cylindricus  Schpr.  et  Campylopus  subulatus  Schpr.  dans  les 
Vosges.  Muscinees  rares  ou  peu  connues  pour  cette  chaine  de  montagnes.  ( T. 
cylindrinis  and  C.  subulatus  in  the  Vosges,  with  some  Muscinea;  rare  or  little 
known  for  this  mountain  chain.) 

[Notes  on  six  mosses  and  four  hepatics.] 

Bev.  Bryolog.,xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  8-10. 

Grout,  A.  J. — Spore  distribution  in  Buxbaumia. 

[An  observation  which  shows  that  the  peristome  of  Buxbaumia  aphylla  is  not 
a  useless  organ,  but  plays  a  part  in  spore  distribution.] 

Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  3-4. 

Gyorfft,  J. — TJeber  das  Vorkommen  der  Buxbaumia  Hall,  in  Ungarn.  (On  the 
occurrence  of  Buxbaumia  in  Hungary.) 

[Enumeration  of  all  recorded  Hungarian  localities  for  Buxbaumia ;  it  is  re- 
markable that  B.  indusiata  is  more  frequent  than  B.  aphylla,  especially  in 
the  Tatra.]  Mag.  Bot.  Lapok.,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  250-4. 

Haqen,  J.,  et  P.  Porsil  d. — Descriptions  de  quelques  especes  nouvelles  de  Bryacees 
recoltees  sur  Tile  de  Disko.  (Descriptions  of  some  new  species  of  Bryacex  col- 
lected on  Disco  Island.)  Medd.  om  Chronland,  xxvi.  (1904) 

pp.  435-65  (6  pis.). 

Halin,  M. — Decouverte  du  Breutelia  arcuata  Schinip.  en  Belgique.  (Discovery  of 
B.  arcuata  in  Belgium.)  g   Bull.  Soc.  Boy.  Bot.  Belg.,  xli.  (1904)  pp.  188-9. 

Harris,  C.  W.  &  W.  P. — Lichens  and  Mosses  of  Montana. 

Bull.  Univ.  Mont.  Biol,  ser.  1  (1904)  pp.  303-31  (7  pis.). 

Herzog,  T. — Die  Lanbmoose  Badens;  eine  bryogeographische  Skizze.  (Bryogeo- 
graphic  sketch  of  the  mosses  of  Baden.) 

[Continuation.     Milium  to  Polytrichum.~]  Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.  v.  (1905) 

pp.  149-64. 

Hiktze,  F.,  &  C.  Kohlhoff — Eine  "Wanderung  durch  ein  interessantes  Moos- 

gabiet  Hinterpommerns.     (A  trip  through  an  interesting  moss  district  of  inner 

Pomerania.)  Ver.  bot.  Vereins  Prov.  Brandenburg,  xlv.  (1904)  pp.  88-40. 

Holzingek,  J.  M. — Review  of  Dr.  Warnstorf's  paper  on  European  Harpidia. 

Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  7-8. 

Ingham,  W. — Tortula  laBvipiliformis  De  Not.     (A  new  observation.) 

[Young  plants  observed  growing  naturally  in  the  rosette  of  brood- 
leaves,  a  fact  not  mentioned  by  Correns,  who  found  the  young 
plants  growing  on  the  protonema  produced  by  detached  brood- 
leaves  when  cultivated  in  nutrient  fluid.] 

Naturalist,  1904,  p.  378. 
it         „       Riccia  sorocarpa  Bisch. 

[Fruiting  specimens  associated  with  Fossombronia  cristata  in  a 
stubble-field  at  Langwith  in  December;  Riccia  glauca  being 
found  in  a  similar  field  at  Strensall.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  378-9. 

»i        „       Jongermannia  niinuta  Crantz. 

[Found  with  Lepidozia  trichoclados  C.  Muell.  on  dead  sticks  in  a 
wood  on  Strensall  Common.]  Tom.  cit.,  p.  :;79. 

Lanqeron,  M. — Remarques  sur  le  presence  du  Trichocolea  tomentella  Dum.  dans  le 
Jura.     (Remarks  on  the  presence  of  T.  tomentella  in  the  Jura.) 

Arch.  Flore  Jurass.,  v.  (1904)  pp.  6:;-  6. 

L  ingot,  F. — Cueillettes  bryologiques  dans  l'Ain.     (Gatherings  of  Mosses  in  Ain.) 

Bull.  Soc.  Nat.  Ain,  1904,  pp.  29-32. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY",   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  207 

Mansion,  A. — Compte-rendu  de  1  Excursion  bryologique  du  11  Octobre  1903,  a 
Weert-Saint- Georges,  Praeghe  et  Nethen.  (Account  of  the 
bryological  excursion.  Oct.  11,  1903,  to  Weert-Saint-Georges, 
Praeghe,  and  Ne'then.) 

[Gives  lists  of  mosses  and  liepatics  gathered  at  the  various 
spots  visited.]  Bull.  Soc.  Roy.  Bot.  Belg.,  xli.  (1904) 

pp.  182-5. 

„  „        Les  Muscinees  du  Limbourg.     (The  Musciuese  of  Limbourg.) 

[List  of  45  hepatics,  14  sphagna,  159  mosses.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  145-57. 

Mansion,  A.,  &  Ch.  S  lad  den — Note  sur  deux  hepatiques  nouvelles  pour  la  flor- 

belge :  Riccia  sorocarpa  JBischoff  et  Fossome 
bronia  angulosa  Raddi.  (Note  on  two  hepatics 
new  to  the  Belgian  flora.) 

[Descriptions  of  the  two  species  quoted, 
with  notes.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  185-8. 

.,  „  .,  Quelques  mots  de  Geo-bryologie.     (A  few  words 

on  geo-bryology.) 

[On  the  study  of  mosses  in  relation  to  their 
geographical  distribution,  the  soil  on 
which  they  grow,  and  such  conditions 
of  environment  as  altitude,  moisture, 
light,  etc.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  180-2. 

Matotjschkk,  F.— Bryologische  Notizen  aus  Tirol,  Vorarlberg  und  Liechtenstein. 
(Bryological  records  from  Tyrol,  Vorarlberg,  and  Liechtenstein.) 

[Localised  lists  of  79  hepatics,  13  sphagna,  and  258  mosses,  with  6  new  vars. 
or  forms,  and  10  other  additions  to  the  district.] 

Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1904)  pp.  19-45. 

Nejikc,  B. — Indukce  dorsiventrality  u  mechu.     (The  induction  of  dorsiventrality  in 
some  mosses.)  Rospravy  Bohm.  Acad.  Prag.  xiii.  No.  15  (1904)  24  pp. 

Nicholson,  W.  E. — Supplemental  notes  on  the  Mosses  of  South-Western  Switzer- 
land. 

[List  of  55  species,  with  notes.]  Rev.  Bryologique,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  3-7. 

Pearson,  W.  H. — Lejeunea  microscopica  Taylor. 

[Records  the  occurrence  of  this  very  rare  hepatic  in  Skye,  and  its  distribution 
as  far  as  it  is  known.]  Journal  of  Botany,  xliii.  (1904)  p.  31. 

Pet  erf  i,  M. — Adatok  Romania  lombosmohfldrajahoz.    (Contributions  to  the  moss- 
flora  of  Roumania.)  Mag.  Bot.  Lapoh,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  241-5. 

„        „        Astomum  intermedium. 

[A  proof  that  this  species  is  identical  with  A.  multicapsulare, 
and  only  represents  a  forma  biennis  of  it.] 

Nov.  Kbzl.,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  21-4  (figs.). 

„        .,        Hunyad  megye  lombosmohai.    (Mosses  of  the  Hunyadi  counties.) 

Jahrb.  Hunyadin  Tort,  es  Reg.  Tdrsulat, 
xiv.  (1904)  pp.  73-116. 

V 

Podpeka,  J. — Ein  Beitrag  zur  Laubmoosflora  Bb'hmens.     (Contributions  to  the 
moss-flora  of  Bohemia.)  Yer.  K.K.  Zool.  bot.  Gesell.  Wien% 

liv. (1904)  pp.  507-15. 
„        „        Geranium  lucidum  L.,  nova  na  Morave"  rostlina  jevnosnubna.     (6?er« 
luc,  a  new  phanerogam  for  Moravia.) 

[Also  four  mosses  new  to  the  province.] 

ZeiUchr.  de*  mtihr.  Landesmus.,  iv.  (1904)  No.  2. 

Roll,  J. — Beitrage  zur  Torfmoosflora  des  Cascadengebirges  in  Nord-Amerika.   (Con- 
tributions to  the  sphagnum-flora  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  of  N.  America.) 

Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1904)  pp.  46-9. 
Russell,  J. — Report  of  the  Microscopical  Section. 

[Contains  a  short  account  of  the  life-history  of  Marchantia  polymorpha  and 
Funaria  hijgrometrica.']  Trans.  Edinb.  Field  Nat.  Micr.  <S'oc, 

v.  (1904)  pp.  141-3. 


208  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Schiffner,  V. — Bryologische  Fragmente.     (Bryologioal  notes.) 

[These  are : — 18.  A  hepatic  new  for  Middle  Europe  (Kantia 
sphagnicola);  19.  Reinark8;on  Riccia  Hiibeneriana  Lindb.; 

20.  [Marsupella    badensis    Schiffn.,    new  for    Bohemia; 

21.  On  the  occurrence  of  Haplomitrium  Hookeri  N.  abE. 
in  the  Riesengebirge ;  22.  On  Scapania  obliqua  Arnell 
;iiid  its  discovery  in  Middle  Europe.] 

Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  lv.  (1905)  pp.  6-13. 
„  „  Ein  Kapitel  aus  der  Biologie  der  Lebermoose.     (A  chapter  from 

the  biology  of  Liverworts.) 

Festschr.  z.  Aschersons  70  Geburtstag.  Berlin,  1904, 

pp.  118-28. 
Smith,  A.  M. — William  Starling  Sullivant. 

[A  biographical  notice,  with  portrait,  of  the  famous  bryologist  of  the  United 
States;  born  1S03,  died  1873.  Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  1-3. 

Stephani,  F. — Hepaticarum  species  novae.     X.-XI.     (New   species  of  hepatics* 
Parts  X.-XI.) 

[Contains  two  new  genera,  Gollaniella  and  Massalongoa, 
both  from  the  N.W.  Himalaya.) 

Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1904-5)  pp.  14-5,72-5. 
,,  „        Species  hepaticarum. 

[Continuation.     Plagiochila,  descriptions  of  32  species.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  v.  (1905)  pp.  175-90. 

„  „        TJeber  die  geographische  Verbreitung  der  Lebermoose.    (On  the 

geographical  distribution  of  the  Liverworts.) 

[Remarks  on  the  incapacity  of  the  bepaticse  for  wide 
dispersal,  and  the  conclusions  to  ,be  drawn  that  many 
genera  represented  by  numerous  species  of  close-creeping 
plants,  with  entire  or  bifid  leaves,  are  indigenous  to 
Europe  ;  while  some  twelve  genera,  which  are  each  re- 
presented by  only  one  to  three  species,  immigrated  into 
Europe  in  the  remote  past,  and,  being  unfitted  to  survive 
a  changed  climate,  etc.,  were  almost  exterminated.] 

SB.  Nat.  Gesell.  Leipzig,  1903,  pp.  27-31. 

Stirling,  J. — Notes  on  a  Census  of  the  Flora  of  the  Australian  Alps. 
TContains  a  list  of  plants,  including  170  mo.-ses.] 

Tram.  Proc.  Bot.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxii.  (1904)  pp.  319-95. 

Timm,  R.— TJeber  Torfmoose.     (On  sphagna.) 

[General  remarks  on  sphagna  and  their  uses.] 

Verh.  Nat.  Vereins  Hamburg,  xi.  (1904)  p.  Ixxvi. 

Torka,  V. — Aloina  brevirostris  (Hook  et  Grev.)  Kindb. 

Zeitschr.  Natuno.  Heutsch.  Ges.  Posen,  xi.  (1904)  Heft  i. 
„        „       Neuentdeckte  Moose  in  der  Provinz  Brandenburg.     (Mosses  recently 
discovered  in  the  Province  of  Brandenburg.) 

[Two  species.]  Allg.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  1904,  pp.  184-5. 

„        „      Wahrend  des  Ausfiugs  am  14  August,  1904,  bei  Krumflies  und  Promno 

in  der  Nahe  von  Pudewitz  beobachtete  Moose  und  Algen.     (Mosses 

and   algae  observed  during   the  excursion   of  Aug.    14,  1904,  at 

Krummflies  and  Promno,  in  the  vicinity  of  Pudewitz.) 

Zeitschr.  Naturw.  Deutsch.  Ges.  Posen,  xi.  (1904)  Heft  i. 

V,a\  den  Broeck,  H. — Compte-rendu  de  la  deuxieme  herborisation  de  la  section 

de  Bryologie,  le  21  Mai,  1903,  dans  la  Campine  Anversoise.     (Account  of  the 

second  field-day  of  the  bryological  section,  on  May  21,  1903,  in  the  Antwerp 

plain. 

[Gives  a  list  of  46  mosses,  18  sphagna,  and  20  hepatics.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Roy.  Bot.  Belg.,  xli.  (1904)  pp.  165-70. 
Warnstorf,  C— Die  Laubmoose.     (The  Mosses.) 

Kryptog.fi.  Mark  Brandenburg,  ii.  2  (1904)  pp.  241-432  (figs.). 

Watts,  W.  W. — Notes  on  some  New  South  "Wales  Hepatics. 

[List  of  23  species.]  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  New  South  Wales, 

xxvii.  (1903)  pp.  493-4. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  209 

AVatts,  W.  W. — Further  Notes  on  Australian  Hepatics. 

[List  of  44  species.]  Op.  cit.,  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  558-60. 

West,  W. — Scapania  aspera  in  West  Yorkshire. 

[Frequent  in  every  limestone  district.]  Naturalist,  1904,  p.  379 

Wheldon,  J.  A. — A  gemmiparous  Pterigynandrum. 

[Description  of  P.  filiforme  var.  montanense,  a  new  variety  from  south-west 
Switzerland,  remarkable  for  its  abundant  gemmae.] 

New  Bryolog.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  7-8. 
Willia  ms,  K.  S. — Bolivian  Mosses.     Part  I. 

[Treats  of  Acrocarpi,  Andrezea  to  Funaria,  and  contains  descriptions  of  3  new 
genera  and  28  new  species.]  Bull.  New  York  Bot.  Garden. 

iii.  (1903)  pp.  104-34. 

Zschacke,  H. — Vorarbeiten  zu  einer  Moosflora  des  Herzogtums  Anhalt.  I.  Die 
Moose  des  Harzvorlandes.  (Preliminary  studies  for  a  mossrloru  of  the  Duchy  ot 
Anhalt.     I.  Mosses  of  the  foot-hills  of  the  Harz.) 

Verh.  bot.  Vereins  Prov.  Brandenburg,  xlv.  (1904)  pp.  1-37. 

Thallophyta. 
Algae. 
(By  E.  S.  Gepp.) 

Plankton  of  Three  English  Rivers.* — P.  E.  Fritsch  continues  his 
algological  notes,  and  the  subject  of  the  sixth  is  a  comparison  of  the 
plankton  of  the  Cam,  at  Cambridge,  the  Trent,  at  Nottingham,  and  the 
Thames.  Samples  from  the  first  two  rivers  were  taken  within  a  few 
days  of  each  other  in  August  of  last  year,  and  the  Thames  sample  was 
taken  two  years  previously.  A  table  is  given,  illustrating  the  compara- 
tive constitution  of  the  three  rivers.  As  regards  the  number  of  different 
species  in  the  Trent  and  the  Thames,  there  is  little  to  choose  between 
the  two  ;  but  from  the  point  of  view  of  number  of  individuals,  the 
author  finds  that  eight  species  occur  commonly,  or  very  commonly  in  the 
Thames,  whereas  in  the  Trent  no  species  can  be  called  common.  The 
filamentous  diatoms  are  important  constituents  in  both  Thames  and 
Trent.  A  few  species,  Volvox  f/lobator  and  Ceratium  hirwidinella,  were 
found  in  the  Trent  only.  Bacillaria  paradoxa  occurs  in  the  Trent,  and 
in  the  Thames  above  Teddington,  beyond  tidal  influence.  As  regards 
the  Cam,  the  author  likens  it  to  a  Thames  backwater,  from  its  sluggish 
.stream.  He  finds  that,  as  in  backwaters,  the  quantity  of  individuals  is 
muGh  greater,  although  the  number  of  different  species  (Cam  1C, 
Thames  30,  Trent  32)  is  markedly  less  than  in  a  main  river  like  the 
Thames  or  Trent.  Diatoms  are  by  far  the  most  dominant  forms  in  the 
Cam. 

Phytoplankton  of  some  Plon  Lakes.t — E.  Lemmermann  continues 
his  studies  on  the  phytoplaukton  of  these  lakes.  In  the  present  study 
he  treats  of  the  Great  Plon  Lake,  the  Schluen  Lake,  the  Plus  Lake,  and 
the  small  Uklei  Lake.  In  the  first  he  finds  there  are  three  periods  : 
I.  First  Bacillaria  period,  in  which  Melosira  distans  var.  Imvissima 
limn,  occurs  in  masses  from  January  to  the  end  of  April  ;  Diatoma 
elongatum  Ag.  in  May ;   Asterionella  gracillima   Heib.   and  Andbcma 

*  Ann.  Bot.,  xix.(1905)  pp.  163-7. 

t  Forsch.  Ber.  Biol.  Stat.  Plon.,  x.(1903)  pp.  116-71. 


210  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Lemmermanni  Richter,  through  June  to  the  beginning  of  July  ;  and. 
Fragilaria  crotonensis  Kitton,  during  July.  II.  Schizophycete  period. 
Gloiotrichia  echinulata  Richter,  July  to  August ;  Clathrocytis  aeruginosa 
Henfr.,  Oct.  to  Nov.  III.  Second  BaciUaria  period.  Melosira  distant 
var.  Icevissima  Grim.,  December  to  January. 

These  species  occur  in  masses  during  the  periods  stated.  The 
author  attributes  the  periodicity  to  change  of  temperature  and  to  the 
varying  quantity  of  silicic  acid  in  the  water.  Details  are  given  of  the 
plankton  of  the  other  lakes.  Several  new  varieties  are  described  for 
species  already  known,  as  well  as  a  new  genus  and  species,  Botryodictyon 
elegans.  Changes  of  nomenclature  are  brought  forward,  and  remarks 
are  made  on  the  free-swimming  species  of  Lynybya  and  the  genus 
Hyalobryon,  as  well  as  various  other  species. 

Studies  on  Phytoplankton.* — C.  H.  Ostenfeld  publishes  his  second 
and  third  studies  on  this  subject.  The  former  is  on  a  sample  from  a  lake 
in  South  Iceland,  collected  by  H.  Jonsson.  The  main  part  of  the  sample 
consists  of  diatoms,  among  which  Biatoma  hiemale  occurs  in  long  bands 
like  a  Fragilaria,  and  is  here  recorded  for  the  first  time  as  a  plankton 
form.  Neither  Tabellaria  nor  Cyclotella  occur  in  the  sample.  A  great 
quantity  of  Tribonema  bombycinum  Derb.  et  Sol.  forma  depauperata 
Wille,  was  found,  but  the  other  green  alga?  were  few  and  only  in  single 
specimens.  The  author  considers  that  the  plankton  of  this  lake  is  like 
that  of  the  lowland  lakes  of  Northern  Central  Europe  and  Southern 
Scandinavia,  but  much  poorer,  especially  by  the  lack  of  the  summer 
forms. 

The  latter  of  these  studies  deals  with  the  phytoplankton  from  some 
tarns  near  Thorshavn  (Stromo)  in  the  Faeroes.  This  work  is  supple- 
mentary to  the  author's  paper  published  with  Professor  Borgesen.  The 
results  are  tabulated.  Very  few  diatoms  were  obtained  in  four  of  the 
five  tarns  examined,  but  in  the  fifth  they  were  predominant.  P&ridinium 
Willei  was  abundant. 

Classification  of  Protophyta.f— C.  E.  Bessey  publishes  a  revision 
of  the  families  and  a  rearrangement  of  the  North  American  genera.  He 
divides  the  Schizophyceae  into  two  orders — Cystiphoras  and  Nemato- 
geneae — the  first  being  1-celled,  the  second  filamentous.  Cystiphora) 
consists  of  the  Chroococcaceae,  and  Nematogeneaa  contains  Oscillariacea), 
Rivulariaceaa,  Scytonemaceae,  Nostocacese,  Sirosiphoniaceaa.  Keys  are 
given  to  the  genera  in  each  family,  and  each  genus  is  described. 

Remarks  on  Glceocapsa.J — Gr.  T.  West  describes  the  life-history  of 
Glaiocapsa  crepidinum,  which  occurs  on  mud,  etc.,  in  salt  or  brackish 
water.  Seven  stages  in  the  life-history  are  figured  in  colours.  The 
thick  hyaline  integument  is  not  a  gelatinised  cell-wall,  but  is  excreted 
by  the  cell.  Multiplication  takes  place  by  simple  cell-division.  The 
daughter-cells  secrete  each  their  own  integument,  being  still  enclosed, 
within  the  much  stretched  mother-cell  integument.  Thus  colonies  of 
two  or  four  with  lamellated  integument  are  formed.    Finally,  the  young 

*  Bot.  Tidssk.,  xxvi.  (1904)  pp.  231-9. 

t  Trans.  Amer.  Micr.  Soc,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  S9-104. 

X  Trans.  Edinb.  Field  Nat.  and  Micr.  Soc,  v.  (1904)  pp.  130-3  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.   ETC.  211 

cells  are  liberated  by  tbe  rupture  of  the  primary  integument,  and  each 
forms  a  new  colony.  At  intervals  a  cell  develops  a  spiny,  cellulose  coat 
outside  the  integument,  and  becomes  a  resting-cyst.  After  a  period  of 
quiescence  it  produces  a  new  colony  by  simple  cell-division,  the  remains 
of  the  spiny  coat  being  visible  for  a  time.  A  colony  of  two  cells  with 
integument  measures  about  55 /x  x  45/*;  a  colony  of  four  about  85/*  x 
GO//..  For  mounting,  it  is  recommended  to  place  the  material  with 
water  at  one  end  of  a  dish,  which  is  covered  over  except  at  the  opposite 
end  ;  the  organisms  then  leave  the  mud  and  travel  towards  the  illu- 
minated end,  and  can  be  removed  with  a  pipette  and  preserved  in  the 
following  solution  ; — Copper  acetate  0*5  grm.,  distilled  water  100  c.cm.  ; 
mix,  and  add  at  ordinary  temperature  gum  acacia  65  grm.  ;  when  it  is 
dissolved,  add  pure  glycerin  55  c.cm.,  mercuric  chloride  2  grm. ;  filter 
before  use. 

Reproduction  of  Anabaena.* — F.  E.  Fritsch  continues  his  studies 
on  the  Cyanophyceas,  and  describes  his  researches  on  Anabcena  Azollir. 
He  finds  that  the  spore-contents  in  germination  are  either  protruded 
from  the  ruptured  spore-membrane  by  the  formation  of  mucilage,  or 
the  spore-membrane  itself  becomes  mucilaginous,  while  the  contents 
retain  their  original  position  in  the  thread.  The  gonidia  are  formed  by 
rejuvenescence,  acquire  a  well-marked  membrane,  and  are  liberated  by 
one  of  two  methods  resembling  those  of  spore-germination.  The  spores 
have  the  power  of  germinating  at  once,  while  the  gonidia  pass  through 
a  resting  period  after  liberation'. 

Cyanophyceae.f — 0.  P.  Phillips  publishes  a  comparative  study  of  the 
cytology  and  movements  of  the  Gyanophyceae.  He  comes  to  the  conclusi<  m 
that  these  plants  are  much  higher  in  their  organisation  than  has  been 
supposed,  possessing,  as  they  undoubtedly  do,  a  chromatophore  and  true 
nucleus.  The  nucleus  undergoes  part,  at  least,  of  the  karyokinetio 
process  ;  and  the  chromatophore  is  also  primitive,  combining  the  func- 
tion of  a  colour-bearing  organ  with  that  of  the  cytoplasm.  The  cell 
consists  of  a  nucleus,  a  thin  colourless  ectoplasm,  and  between  them  a 
thick  band  of  pigmented  cytoplasm  —  the  chromatophore.  In  the 
latter  are  located  the  cyanophycin-granules  and  slime-balls,  which  are 
both  probably  food  products.  The  nucleus  divides  by  one  of  two 
methods  :  either  it  stops  short  at  the  net-spireme  stage  and  constricts 
itself  into  halves  ;  or  it  continues  further  and  forms  a  rudimentary 
spindle  with  rudimentary  chromosomes  upon  linin-tkreads.  The  move- 
ments of  Oscillaria,  Cyliiulrospermum,  etc.,  are  explained  by  the  presence 
of  delicate  protoplasmic  cilia,  which  radiate  from  the  nucleus  outwards 
through  pores  in  the  cell-wall.  .Similar  protoplasmic  processes  occur  on 
the  end  cells  of  Oscillaria,  etc.  The  protoplasts  of  the  cells  of  fila- 
mentous Cyanophyceaa  are  all  connected  by  tine  protoplasmic  threads, 
which  pass  through  pores  in  the  wall,  especially  a  central  pore.  The 
heterocyst  is  a  modified  vegetative  cell  packed  with  some  substance, 
perhaps  modified  chromatin.  Spores  arc  formed  in  Oscillaria  by  the 
fusion   of  two  or   more    cells   of    the    filament.      The  cell-wall  is  of 

*  New  Phytologist,  Hi.  (1904)  pp.  216-2S  (1  pi.). 

f  Contr.  But.  Lab.  Univ.  Pennsylvania,  ii.  (ls»04)  pp.  237-835  (3  pla.). 


212  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

■cellulose  at  first,  and  later  resembles  fungus-cellulose.  The  cell- wall  is 
laid  down  as  microsomata,  in  lamellae  on  the  inside  of  the  cell-wall.  A 
long  bibliography  is  appended. 

Phytoplankton  of  Donjec.* — L.  Reinhard  has  made  a  study  of  the 
phytoplankton  of  the  Donjec,  and  finds  that  the  forms  which  are 
characteristic  of  larger  rivers  are  for  the  greater  part  wanting  there, 
Melo&vra  granulata  being  almost  the  only  exception.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  flora  is  rich  in  Limno-  and  Heleoplankton  forms,  as  Volvocinese, 
Pediastrum,  Scenedesmus,  etc.  This  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the 
Donjec  is  rich  in  bays  which  penetrate  far  into  the  land,  and  attain  the 
character  of  closed  basins.  In  these  the  plankton  is  developed,  and 
floats  thence  into  the  main  stream.  The  number  of  species  found  in  a 
short  stretch  of  the  river  during  a  month's  work  was  135. 

Clementsia  Markhamiana.f — 0.  Murray  gives  the  following  de- 
seription  of  this  new  pelagic  genus  and  species  : — "  Units  existing  in 
colonies  within  a  stratified  integument,  dividing  into  groups  of  four, 
varying  much  in  the  numbers  of  the  colony  ;  the  integument  gradually 
growing  in  thickness  and  in  stratification  ;  ultimately  bursting  and  per- 
mitting the  escape  of  the  unit  cells  ;  unit  cells  increasing  in  size 
markedly  and  (presumably)  subdividing  into  colonies  like  the  parent 
colony  ;  in  nearly  every  stage  characterised  by  the  thick  and  many  times 
stratified  walls  of  the  integument,  and  especially  also  by  the  abundant 
oily  and  chlorophyllaceous  contents  of  the  cells."  It  was  collected  in 
the  Atlantic  a  few  degrees  south  of  the  Equator  during  the  outward 
voyage  of  the  Discover//.  Four  stages  in  its  life-history  are  figured  in 
colours.  The  data  given  are  strongly  suggestive  of  Glceocystis,  but  the 
affinities  are  not  stated. 

Division  in  Desmids  under  Pathologic  Conditions.! — J.  A.  Cush- 
man  has  examined  species  of  Cosmarium,  Euastrum  and  Micrasterias,  in 
which  the  process  of  division  was  taking  place  in  the  digestive  tract  of 
certain  Entomostraca.  The  newly-formed  cells  are  contorted,  and  quite 
unlike  the  species.  A  figure  is  given  of  a  species  of  Micrasterias, 
showing  two  quite  dissimilar  semi-cells. 

Penicillus  and  Rhipocephalus.§ — A.  and  E.  S.  Gepp  describe  two 
novelties — Penicillus  pyriformis  and  P.  Lamourouxii  Decaisne  var. 
gracilis — both  collected  in  the  West  Indies  by  Mr.  M.  A.  Howe. 
P.  pyriformis  differs  from  the  common  species,  P.  capilatus,  in  having 
a  pear-shaped  capitulum  composed  of  interlacing  filaments  ;  the  stalk 
barely  penetrates  into  the  head.  The  new  variety  of  P.  Lamourouxii  is 
intermediate  between  that  species  and  P.  capitatus.  It  closely  resembles 
P.  Lamourouxii  in  habit,  as  also  in  its  thin-walled,  compressible,  usually 
flattened  stem,  which  penetrates  but  a  very  short  way  into  the  capitulum. 
It  differs  from  P.  capitatus  in  having  coarser  filaments  and  a  soft  com- 
pressed stem,  not  nearly  penetrating  to  the  middle  of  the  capitulum. 
The  unicellular  character  of  both  Penicillus  and  Rhipocepihalus  is  insisted 

*  Arb.  Nat.-forsch.Gesell.  Univ.  Charkow,  xxxix.  (1904). 

+  Geogr.  Joum.,  xxv.  (19U5)  pp.  121-3  (1  pi.). 

J  Rhodora,  vi.  (1904)  p.  234.  §  Journ.  Bot.,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  1-5  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  21 :'»: 

upon.  Passing  on  to  Rhiporephalus  Phoenix,  the  authors  break  up  that 
species  into  three  varieties — typica,  brevifolia,  and  longifolia ;  and  refer 
to  the  last  of  these  a  remarkable  specimen  from  Florida,  which  bears 
flabella  nearly  5  cm.  long. 

Microspores  of  Diatoms.* — G.  Karsten  has  made  some  interesting 
and  important  observations  on  the  so-called  "  microspores "  of  a  new 
species  of  plankton  diatoms — Oorethron  Valdivicc — brought  home  by  the 
German  Deep  Sea  Expedition  from  the  Antarctic  Seas.  It  is  a  common 
species,  and  was  found  in  a  normal  condition,  with  microspores  as 
well  as  with  plentiful  auxospores.  The  cell-contents  were  seen 
divided  in  multiples  of  2  up  to  128,  and  consisted  of  globular  cells  sur- 
rounded by  a  protoplasmic  membrane.  The  author  succeeded  in  finding 
stages  of  division  from  16  to  32,  in  which  nuclear  spindles  were  just 
being  formed.  The  nuclei  all  divide  simultaneously,  and  the  chromato- 
phores  also  divide.  Eventually,  these  globular  cells  escape,  and  are 
found  hanging  in  masses  entangled  among  the  spines  of  mature 
individuals.  It  has  been  suggested  that  these  cells  in  another  genus 
(Rhizosolenia)  are  either  true  spores  which  grow  into  a  mature 
individual,  or  that  they  are  male  cells  which  copulate  with  other  cells, 
and  thereby  occasion  the  formation  of  auxospores.  The  author,  how- 
ever, finds  that  they  are  in  reality  neither  the  one  nor  the  other.  The 
microspores  of  different  origin  unite  in  pairs  and  form  a  zygote,  the 
further  development  of  which  is  traced  as  far  as  possible  on  the  material 
at  the  author's  disposal,  and  the  different  stages  are  described  and  figured. 
The  process  may  be  summarised  briefly.  Gametes  from  two  mother-cells 
unite  in  pairs,  the  zygotes  increase  in  size  and  produce  two  daughter-, 
cells  of  similar  orientation.  Each  daughter-cell  possesses  two  similar 
nuclei.  During  the  gradual  development  of  the  upper  end  of  the  cell, 
the  nucleus  situated  at  that  end  increases  in  size,  while  the  lower  nucleus 
diminishes.  By  the  time  the  shell,  or  frustule,  begins  to  form,  the  small 
nucleus  has  disappeared.  After  the  crown  of  notches  has  been  formed 
on  the  upper  shell,  the  young  plant  bursts  through  its  shell,  and  stretches 
out  to  form  a  complete  Corethron  Valdivice.  The  bristles,  the  second 
shell,  and  the  girdle  develop  gradually,  and  the  normal  length  is  attained 
by  elongation  of  the  girdle  bands,  while  the  diameter  may  be  increased 
by  the  formation  of  auxospores.  The  main  interest  of  the  above 
described  development  lies  in  its  parallelism  to  that  of  the  Desmid 
zygote,  which  is  discussed  ;  and  new  points  of  relationship  are  brought 
forward. 

Diatoms  of  the  Montagne  Noire,  Pyrenees.! — J.  Comere  has  ex- 
amined a  collection  of  diatoms  made  in  the  basins  and  canals  which 
supply  water  to  the  Canal  du  Midi.  The  results  of  the  six  different 
gatherings  are  presented  in  tabulated  form,  and  include  sixty-six  specks. 
Of  these,  one  only  appears  to  be  new  for  the  south-west  of  France — 
i.  e.  Cymbella  anglica — which  occurs  abundantly  in  most  of  the  samples. 
The  entire  collection  shows  a  mixture  of  epiphytic  and  limnophilous  forms, 
such  as  Cocconeis,  Rhoicosphenia,  Epithcmia,  etc. ;  and  of  forms  which 

*   Ber.  Deutsch.  Dot.  Gesell.,  xxii.  (1904)  pp.  544-54  (1  pi.). 
t  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  de  Fiance,  li.  (1904)  pp.  338-45. 


^L4  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

prefer  cold  and  rapid  water  and  are  commonly  found  in  mountainous 
regions,  such  as  C'eratoneis  Arcus  and  Odontidium  hyemale.  The  author 
closes  his  paper  with  an  observation  of  biological  interest  regarding  the 
algae  of  this  Canal  du  Midi.  He  finds  that  since  the  augmentation  of 
traffic,  and  consequent  necessity  for  frequent  opening  of  the  locks,  the 
development  of  the  algal  flora  has  diminished,  and  many  species  have 
disappeared.  This  is,  he  considers,  owing  to  the  want  of  stagnant  water 
in  which  certain  diatoms,  desmids  and  other  algse,  find  their  most 
favourable  habitat. 

Laminaria  bullata.* — Olga  Mueller  has  made  a  study  of  the  vege- 
tative thallus,  and  gives  the  results  under  three  sections  :  External 
Morphology,  Anatomy,  and  Haptere.  The  material  examined  was 
collected  at  Port  Renfrew,  B.C.,  and  was  found  growing  attached  to 
rocks  where  the  tidal  currents  were  very  strong.  They  grew  in  the 
sublittoral  zone,  and  could  only  be  collected  at  low  tide  and  with  diffi- 
culty. The  plant  is  a  perennial.  It  consists  of  three  tissues,  the 
epidermal,  the  cortical,  and  the  pith.  Only  the  first  two  are  found  in 
the  hapteres,  while  the  stipe  and  lamina  contain  them  all.  Figures  are 
given  of  the  structure  of  various  parts  of  the  plant. 

Demonstration  of  Masked  Chlorophyll  in  Laminaria.  — T.  Ber- 
wick publishes  a  revised  note  on  Laminaria,  in  which  he  details  several 
experiments  which  serve  for  showing  masked  chlorophyll  in  that  genus, 
and  are  useful  for  class  purposes.  The  first  experiment  is  described  as 
follows  : — If  a  frond  of  Laminaria  of  any  length — the  longer  the  better 
— after  being  simply  air-dried,  be  passed  with  moderate  rapidity  with 
both  hands  through  an  ordinary  bat-wing,  or  Bunsen  flame,  at  once  the 
brown  colouring  matter  (phycophasin)  disappears,  the  discharge  of  a 
misty  vapour  accompanying  the  change. 

Endocladia  muricata.J — F.  M.  Warner  publishes  some  remarks  on 
this  alga,  and  describes  both  its  external  habit  and  structure.  He  agrees 
with  Setchell  and  Gardner  as  to  the  internal  identity  of  E.  muricata 
with  E.  hamulosa.  The  plants  of  E.  muricata  were  found  growing  on 
rocks  and  boulders  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  littoral  zone  very  near 
high-water  mark.     A  plate  shows  good  figures  of  the  structure. 

Floride8e.§ — G-.  B.  De  Toni  has  published  the  final  section  of  his 
"  Sylloge  Floridearum,"  being  part  of  his  "  Sylloge  Algarum."  The 
present  section  contains  Grloisiphoniaceas,  Grateloupiacese,  Dumontiaceae, 
Nemastomaceaj,  Rhizophyllidaceae,  Squamariaceaa,  and  Corallinacese  ;  as 
well  as  the  index  to  the  whole  of  the  Floridea3.  Finally,  the  author  gives 
in  an  appendix  the  names  of  all  genera  and  species  published  since  the 
appearance  of  the  earlier  sections,  thus  bringing  the  treatment  of 
Florideae  up  to  date.  Except  in  the  case  of  new  genera  and  a  few 
species,  the  names  in  the  appendix  stand  with  their  references  only, 
and  sometimes  their  habitat,  without  diagnoses. 

*  Minnesota  Bot.  Stud.  ser.  iii.  (1901)  pp.  303-8  (1  pi.). 

t  Trans.  Proc.  Bot.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxii.  (1904)  pp.  395-G. 

%  Minnesota  Bot.  Stud.,  ser.  iii.  (1903)  pp.  297-302. 

§  Sylloge  Algarum,  iv.  Florideae,  sect.  4  (1905)  pp.  1523-1973. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  215 

Callymenia  phyllophora.* —Clara  K.  Leavitt  gives  some  observa- 
tions on  this  alga,  which  was  collected  at  the  Port  Renfrew  Station, 
B.C.  She  summarises  her  remarks  under  the  following  heads  :  Habitat, 
Cross  Structure,  Minute  Structure,  Lamina,  Fruit,  Parasites.  She  finds 
that  the  plant  is  elittoral,  and  occurs  in  crevices  in  the  rocky  caverns 
where  the  tidal  surge  is  strong.  Only  young  plants  were  uncovered  by 
low  tides  ;  mature  plants  were  well  beyond  low  tide  line.  The  stipe  and 
lamina  are  both  composed  of  three  layers  of  tissue  :  an  epidermis,  of 
3—5  cells  in  thickness  ;  a  cortex,  2  or  3  cells  deep  ;  and  a  "  pith  strand, 
occupying  the  main  cross  section."  Plants  of  Microcladia  Coulter i 
and  Chlorochytrium  inclusum  were  found  on  and  in  Callymenia  phyllo- 
phora. 

Lithothamnia  of  the  Adriatic  and  Morocco.! — M.  Foslie  describes 
collections  of  these  algae  made  in  Rovigno,  the  Brionic  Islands,  Cherso, 
and  on  the  coasts  of  Morocco.  Sixteen  species,  with  their  forms,  are 
described  from  the  Adriatic,  and  very  full  critical  notes  are  appended  to 
the  records.  Among  many  other  points  of  interest,  the  author  shows 
that  the  genus  Sphccranthera  of  Heydrich  cannot  be  maintained,  as 
S.  decussata  includes  at  least  two  different  species,  one  of  which  is 
Lithoihamnion  Philippii  Foslie.  Fifteen  species  are  recorded  from  the 
•coasts  of  Morocco.  The  paper  is  illustrated  by  three  quarto  plates, 
containing  eighty  photographs  of  plants,  natural  size. 

Marine  Algae  of  East  Greenland.} — H.  Jonsson  has  examined 
collections  from  this  coast  made  by  C.  Kruuse,  and  finds  the  number  of 
species  recorded  from  there  is  largely  increased.  Rosenvinge's  statement 
as  to  the  difference  between  the  marine  flora  of  East  and  "West  Greenland 
is  confirmed.  The  list  published  by  Jonsson  includes  all  the  marine  algae 
known  at  present  from  East  Greenland,  and  they  amount  to  114  species. 
Interesting  critical  notes  are  in  many  cases  appended  to  the  records. 

Marine  Algae  of  Jan  Mayen.§ — H.  Jonsson  enumerates  fifteen 
marine  algae  collected  on  this  island  by  C.  Kruuse,  six  of  which  are  new 
records.  The  previously  known  flora  for  Jan  Mayen  included  twenty- 
one  species. 

Algal  Flora  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.! — E.  Lemmermann  has 
examined  collections  of  marine  and  fresh-water  algae,  including  diatoms 
and  Peridineae,  made  by  Dr.  Schauinsland  on  various  islands  in  the 
Sandwich  group.  The  additions  to  the  flora  made  by  these  collections 
number  178,  bringing  the  total  number  of  species  recorded  from  the 
islands  up  to  461.  The  aerophilous  algae  are  poorly  represented,  while 
the  limnophilous  species  are  plentiful.  Thermophilous  species  occur  in 
the  hot  waters  on  Hawaii ;  halophilous  species  in  the  crater  lake, 
Moanaloa,  near  Honolulu,  and  in  the  lagoon  of  Laysan.  As  regards 
marine  forms,  the  three  commonest  among  large  species  are  Sargassum 

*  Minnesota  Bot.  Stud.,  ser.  iii.  (1904)  pp.  291-6  (2  pis.). 

+  Wiss.  Meeresunters.  Kiel.  Biol.  Anst.  Helgoland,  vii.  (1904)  pp.  1-40  (3  pis.). 

%  Medell.  om  Gronland,  xxx.  (1904)  73  pp.,  13  figs. 

t>  Bot.  Tidssk.,  xxvi.  (1904)  pp.  20-1. 

j|  Engler,  Bot.  Jahrb.  v.  (1905)  pp.  007-G3  (2  pis.). 


21  li  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

polyphyllum,  Turlmaria  ornata  and  Ahnfeltia  concinna,  the  latter  being 
in  as  great  profusion  as  is  Funis  on  British  coasts.  A  table  of  plankton 
is  iriven.  A  systematic  treatment  follows,  in  which  the  records  are 
often  accompanied  by  critical  notes.  Eight  new  species  are  described 
and  several  new  varieties. 

Anonymous — Diatoms  at  Spurn. 

[Records  a  collection  of  5:?  species  of  diatoms  made  on  the  occasion  of  the 
recent  visit  to  Spurn  of  the  Yorkshire  Naturalists'  Union.  An  abundance 
was  found  of  Actinocyclus  Boperii,  and  three  species  new  to  the  Hull 
district  are  recorded.]  Naturalixt,  1904,  pp.  37f>-80. 

Artari,  A. — Der  Einfluss  der  Konzentration  der  Nahrlosungen  auf  die  Entwicke- 
lnng  einiger  griiner  Algen.  (The  influence  of  concentration  of  nutritive  solutions- 
on  the  development  of  certain  green  Algae.) 

Pringsheim  Jahrb.  Wiss.  Bot.,  xi.  (1904)  pp.  593-613. 

Beijerinck,  M.  W.— Chlorella  variegata,  ein  hunter  Mikrobe.     (Ch.  variegata.  a 

coloured  microbe.)  Bee.  Trav.  Bot.  NeerlandY 

i.  (1904)  pp.  14-28. 

Das  Assimilationsprodukt  der  Kohlensaure  in  den  Chromato- 
phoren  der  Diatomeen.  (The  assimilation  product  of 
carbonic  acid  in  the  chroma tophores  of  diatoms.) 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  28-33. 

Borgesen,  F.— 0m  Faerbernes  Algevegetation.  Et  Gensvar.  I.  (On  the  algid 
vegetation  of  the  Faeroes.) 

[A  detailed  and  searching  criticism  on  the  paper  of  Messrs.  Porsild  and 
Simmons  on  this  subject  in  a  previous  number  of  the  same  journal  (p.  149)] 

Botan.  Notiser.,  1904,  pp.  245-74. 

Brehm,  V.,  &  F.  Zederbauer. — Beitrage  zur  Planktonuntersuchung  Alpiner 
Seen.    (Contributiona  to  our  knowledge  of  the  plankton  of  Alpine  lakes.) 

[Describes  the  results  of  an  investigation  of  Lakes  Garda,  Loppio.  and  Cal- 
donazzo.  The  plankton  is  largely  zoological.  In  the  last-named  lake, 
however,  Oscillaria  rubescens  occurred  in  such  masses  as  had  only  been  seen 
by  the  authors  in  the  Lake  of  Zell.] 

Verh.  K.  E.  Zool.  Bot.  Gesell.  Wien.  liv.  (1904)  pp.  635-43. 

Collins,  F.  S. — Algae  of  the  Flume. 

[An  account  of  over  a  dozen  algae  encrusting  the  walls  of  a  damp,  deep,  and 
narrow  ravine  in  New  Hampshire.]  Bhodora,  vi.  (1904)  pp.  229-31. 

Da  vies,  J.  H.—  A  rare  Alga  in  the  Upper  Bann. 

[Specimens  of  Cladophora  tsgagropila  were  observed  last  July  growing  in 
situ,  as  large  flat  patches  submerged  and  imbedded  in  the  sandy  debris  of 
the  River  Bann  at  Knochnagor,  co.  Down.] 

Irish  Naturalist,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  30. 

D  a  v  i  s,  B.  M. — The  Sexual  Organs  and  Sporophyte  Generation  of  the  Rhodophyceae. 
[Treats  of  Nemaliou.]  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  64-6. 

G  a  i  d  u  K  o  w,  N.  — TJeber  den  Einflussfarbigen  Lichtes  auf  die  Farbung  der  Oscillarien 
(On  the  influence  of  coloured  light  on  the, coloration  of  the  Oscillarise.) 

Script.  Hort.  bot.  Univ.  Petrop.,  xxii.  (9  pis.). 

G  E  R  a  ssi  mo  w,  J.  J.— Atherkulturen  von  Spirogyra.   (Ether  cultures  of  Spirogyra.) 

[Describes  the  swelling  of  cells  which  contain  a 
nucleus,  caused  by  the  ether;  the  cells  and  the 
chambers  which  have  not  a  nucleus  are  not 
affected  by  the  ether.  The  author  therefore  con- 
cludes that  the  ether  acts  on  the  nucleus  itself, 
exciting  it  to  activity,  the  result  being  the  swell- 
ing of  the  cell-wall  surrounding  it.] 

Flora,  xciv.  (1905)  pp.  79-85  (7  tables). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  217 

Gerasbimow,  J.  J. — TJeber  die  Grosse  des  Zellkerns.     (On  the  size  of  the  nucleus.} 

[Observations  made  on  Spironyra.'] 

Beih.  Bot.  Centrdlbl.,  xviii.  Abt.  1  (1904) 

pp.  45-118  (2  pis.). 

,,  „  TJeber  die  kernlosen  und  die  einen  Uberfluss  an  Kernmasse 

enthaltenden  Zellen  bei  Zygnema.   (On  the  non-nncleated 

cells  and  thosj  containing  an  excess  of  nuclear  substance 

in  Zygnema.)  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (191)6)  pp.  50-6. 

Harding,  H.A..&  F.  C.  Stewart — Vitality  of  Pseudomonas  campestris  (Pam.> 
Smith  on  Cabbage  Seed.  Science,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  55-6. 

Hardt.  A.  D.— The  Fresh-water  Algae  of  Victoria. 

[A  more  or  less  general  and  popular  account  of  the  group.] 

Victorian  Naturalist,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  81-7. 

Kohl,  F.  G.— Zur  Frage  nach  der  Organisation  der  Cyanophyceenzelle  undnach  der 
mitotischen  Theilung  ihres  Kernes.  (On  the  question  of  the  organisation  of  the 
cell  in  Cyanophycex  and  the  mitotic  division  of  its  nucleus.] 

Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl,  xviii,  Abt.  1  (1904)  pp.  1-8. 

Kraskowits,  G. — TJeber  Algenvegetation  an  Norwegens  West-Kiiste  bei  Bergen. 
(On  the  algal  vegetation  of  the  West  Coast  of  Norway  near  Bergen.) 

Mitt.  Naturw.  Ver.  Univ.  Wien,  ii.  (1904). 

Lloyd,  F.  E. — Development  of  the  Egg  in  Vaucheria. 

Plant  World,  vii.  (1904)  pp.  311-12. 

Migula,  W.,  &  Schmidle,  W. — Algae  Hochreutinerianae  Oranenses.  (Algse  col- 
lected by  Hochreutiner  in  Oran  in  Algeria.) 

Hochreutiner's  Le  Sud  Oranais,  Geneva,  1904,  pp.  248-9. 

Mi  quel,  P. — Du  Noyau  chez  les  Diatomees.     (On  the  nucleus  of  Diatoms.) 

Micrograph.  Pre'parat.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  167-75. 
Olive,  E.  W. — Mitotic  division  of  the  Nuclei  of  the  Cyanophyceae. 

Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl,  xviii.  Abt.  1  (1904)  pp.  9-44  (2  pis.). 

Paulsen,  O. — Plankton-Investigations  in  the  waters  round  Iceland  in  1903,  with 
two  maps.  Meddel.  Komm.  f.  Uavunders.  Ser.  Plankton,  i.  (1904). 

Pen  ard,  E. — lUtude  snr  la  Chlamydomyxa  montana.     (Study  of  C.  montana.) 

Arch.  Protistenkunde,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  298-334  (1  fig.) 

Scherffel,  A. — Notizen  zur  Kenntniss  der  Chrysomonadineae.  (Notes  on  Chryso- 
monadineae.') Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxii.  (1904)  pp.  439-44. 

Schorler,  B. — Bereicherungen  der  Flora  Saxonica  im  Jahre  1903.  (Additions  to- 
the  flora  of  Saxony  in  1903.)  Abh.  Naturw.  Gesell.  Isis.  Dresden, 

i.  (1904)  pp.  28-34. 
Svedelius,   N.  —  Algen  aus  den  Landern  der  Magellanstrasse   und  Westpata- 
goniens.     (Algae  froin  the  regions  of  the  Magellan  Straits  and  West  Patagonia.) 

Svensk.  Exped.iill  Magellansldnderna,  iii.  No.  8  (1904). 

Wille,  N. — Die  Schizophyceen  der  Plankton  Expedition.     (The  Sehizophycese  of 

the  Plankton  Expedition.)  Ergebnisse  Plankton  Exp.  Humboldt-Stiftung, 

1904,88  pp.  3  pis. 

Fungi. 
(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith.) 

The  Wintering  of  Peronospora  in  the  Vine.* — J.  von  Istvanffi 
finds  that  the  continuance  of  this  fungus  is  due  not  only  to  the  oospores 
which  are  imbedded  in  the  tissue  of  the  leaves,  but  that  the  mycelium 

*  Ber.  bot.  Sect.  Kgl.  Ungar.  Naturwiss.  Ges.,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  74-7  (3  figs.).     See 
also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  97. 

April  19th,  1905  q 


218  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

also  persists  in  the  sheath  leaves  of  the  shoot  and  in  the  woody  parts  of 
the  twigs.  In  the  latter  case  it  penetrates  deeply.  This  mycelium  is 
the  product  of  a  late  autumn  infection  by  the  Pero/tospora. 

Membrane  of  Zygospore.*— P.  Vuillemin  has  investigated  the 
formation  of  the  outer  layers  of  the  mature  zygospore,  lie  finds  that 
there  are  five  principal  layers,  alternately  thin  and  thick.  The  most 
noticeable  is  the  fourth  layer,  which  is  next  to  the  outer  coating.  It  is 
distinguished  by  its  elasticity  and  by  the  brown  coloration.  The 
author  terms  it  the  carbon  layer  (assise  charbonneuse).  He  discusses 
the  formation  of  these  protective  layers  in  various  types  of  Mucorini, 
Sporodinia  Aspergillus,  Spinellus  rhombosporus,  S.  chdlybeus,  Zygo- 
rhynchus  heterogamies,  Z.  Moelleri,  and  in  Mucor  fragilis.  He  states,  in 
conclusion,  that  the  protoplasm  of  the  zygospore  manifests  no  special 
dermato-genetic  property.  The  wall  formed  is  strong  and  thick,  but 
does  not  differ  from  the  wall  of  the  copulating  gametes  ;  growth  is 
gradual  and  continuous  both  in  time  and  dimensions. 

Hyphoids  and  Bacteroids.f— P.  Vuillemin  finds  in  the  root  tuber- 
cles of  Leguminosa3,  filaments  of  a  fungal  nature  resembling  those  of  a 
Pythium.  They  often  show  swellings,  either  terminal  or  intercalary, 
which  have  no  connection  with  the  Pythium  fructification.  The  author 
describes  them  under  the  term  hyphoid,  as  they  have  undergone  some- 
thing of  the  same  transformation  as  the  bacteroids  of  Rhizobium,  and 
they  are  not  parasites,  but,  like  the  root  bacteria,  live  in  symbiosis  with 
the  roots  of  the  host. 

Tobacco  Disease  due  to  Sclerotinia.j — C.  A.  J.  A.  Oudemans  and 
<?.  J.  Koning  have  investigated  a  "rot"  of  tobacco  plants  due  to  this 
fungus.  It  develops  as  fine  white  filaments  on  the  surface  of  the  leaf 
)Y  stalk.  From  these,  conidiophores  are  developed,  and,  later,  black 
sclerotia  are  formed.  The  fungus  was  also  cultivated  successfully  as  a 
saprophyte  on  malt-gelatin,  etc.  The  Peziza  from  Sclerotinia  NicoUarm 
sp.  n.  was  grown  from  the  sclerotium.  The  disease  only  occurs  in  wet 
years,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  moist  conditions,  such  as  too 
great  shade,  and  to  secure  the  speedy  drying  of  the  leaves  when 
gathered,  as  the  fungus  spreads  very  rapidly  among  damp  leaves.  In 
a  further  note,§  the  authors  record  successful  cultures  of  the  Sclerotia, 
and  the  growth  of  much  larger  Peziza  forms  than  those  at  first  obtained. 

Two  Supposed  Species  of  Ovularia.|| — E.  S.  Salmon  gives  reasons 
for  regarding  Ovularia fallax  and  0.  Clematidis  as  synonyms  of  Oidium 
Pohjgoni.  The  former  has  been  found  on  Vicia,  the  latter  on  Clematis, 
both  of  them  hosts  of  Erysvphe  Polygoni.  These  fungi  are  both  forms 
of  Oidium,  and  identical  with  Oidium  [leuconicum,  the  conidial  form 
of  Ergsiphe  Polygoni. 

Notes  on  the  Occurrence  of  Black  Rot.lf— A.  Prunet  gives  various 
details  as  to  the  time  when  the  vines  are  most  likely  to  be  attacked  by 

*  Ami.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  483-506  (4  pis.). 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxI.  (1905)  pp.  52-3. 

t  R.  Akad.  Weten^cli.  Amsterdam,  vi.  (1903)  pp.  48-.r)8  (1  pi.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  85-6(1  pi.).  ||  Journ.  Bot.  xliii  (1905)  pp.  41-4  (1  pi.). 

^f  Re'v.Vitic,  xxii.  (1904)  pp.  289-91.    tSienlso  Dot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.(1905)  p.  37. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  219 

this  disease.  The  first  attack  is  due  to  the  ascospores  of  the  fungus. 
'The  perithecia  are  developed  on  vegetable  remains  on  the  ground,  and 
the  spores  are  expelled  during  the  first  rainy  season.  The  wind  carries 
them  to  the  vines,  and  pycnidia  are  formed.  The  spores  of  the  pycnidia 
first  formed  are  washed  over  the  branches  by  subsequent  rains,  and  the 
spread  of  the  fungus  is  secured.  The  precise  dates  of  attack  and  further 
spread  of  the  disease  are  thus  ascertained,  and  measures  can  be  more 
•easily  taken  to  check  the  mischief. 

Mycological  Notes.* — P.  Magnus  gives  here  the  diagnosis  of  a 
rather  unusual  species  of  Erysiphe  found  on  Asteriscus  aquaticus.  It  is 
-characterised  by  the  somewhat  flat  apothecia,  which  are  held  so  firmly  to 
■the  leaf  by  the  appendages  that  the  surface  of  the  leaf  becomes  depressed 
by  the  pressure  of  the  fungus.  Magnus  also  publishes  notes  on  some 
Hyphomycetes  ;  Ovidaria  pus  ilia  should  be  called  0.  aplospora,  and 
Helminthosporium  Diedickei  should  be  Brachysporium  Crepini. 

Further  Cultural  Experiments  with  Biologic  forms  of  the 
Erysiphaceae.f — In  a  recent  paper,  E.  S.  Salmon  described  methods 
■of  culture  in  which  he  wounded,  or  otherwise  injured,  a  host  plant 
hitherto  immune  to  the  fungus,  and  thus  rendered  it  liable  to  infection. 
For  such  a  case  he  proposes  the  terms  xenoparasite  and  xenoparasitism. 
In  the  case  of  the  specialised  fungus  on  its  proper  host  under  normal 
-conditions,  he  uses  the  terms  cccoparasite  and  mcoparasitism . 

He  found  that  though  he  could,  by  wounding  or  weakening  the 
host  plant,  induce  a  "strange "  form  to  grow  on  it,  yet,  in  the  following 
generation,  the  spores  so  produced  refused  to  germinate  on  the  same 
host  if  it  were  in  a  healthy  condition,  while  they  germinated  readily  on 
the  host  on  which  the  form  normally  grew.  The  injuries  that  rendered 
the  plant  liable  to  infection  were  mechanical,  by  cuts  or  bruises,  or  they 
were  caused  by  interference  with  the  normal  functions  of  the  cell  by 
the  application  of  alcohol,  ether,  or  heat.  A  detailed  account  of  the 
various  experiments  is  given. 

Vitality  of  Yeast  in  Varying  Conditions.! — W.  Henneberg  worked 
with  pure  cultures  of  yeast,  of  which  he  tested  the  vitality  under  the 
"varying  influences  of  moisture,  temperature,  illumination,  etc.  He 
found  that  the  different  races  of  yeast  exhibited  different  properties, 
some  having  more  power  of  resistance  than  others.  A  series  of 
researches  was  directed  to  the  influence  exerted  by  foreign  organisms, 
moulds,  bacilli,  etc.,  in  the  yeast  cultures.  Some  of  these  gave  off  very 
strong  odours  ;  he  did  not  find,  however,  that  they  were  directly 
injurious  to  the  growth  of  the  yeast,  except  in  so  far  as  they  used  up 
the  nourishment,  and  so  impoverished  the  culture  medium. 

Nuclear  Fusion  in  Yeast  Spores.§— Gaston  Bonnier  notes  the  re- 
sults arrived  at  by  various  workers  on  this  subject,  and  re-examines  a 
number  of  cases  already  experimented  on.     In  Saccharomyc&s  Mellacei, 

*  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1904)  pp.  17-18. 

+  Ann.  Hot.,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  125-48. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  641-5. 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  988-90. 

Q   2 


220  SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

fusion  never  takes  place  between  the  spores.  On  germination  they 
sometimes,  in  addition  to  the  germinating  tube,  put  out  a  small  bud 
which  looks  somewhat  like  a  fused  spore.  In  8.  Ludwigii  he  finds 
undoubted  conjunction  of  spores  and  fusion  of  nuclei ;  conjugation 
constantly  taking  place  within  the  ascus  before  its  walls  have  broken 
down.  In  &.  Johannisberg  ii.  and  S.  Saturnus,  conjugation  may  take 
place  between  two  spores  before  germination,  but  there  are  frequent 
cases  of  germination  from  single  spores  representing  parthenogenesis.  In 
8.  Johannisberg  ii.  the  two  nuclei  do  not  fuse  until  the  united  spore  has 
begun  to  germinate. 

Diseases  due  to  Cladosporium.*  —  G.  D.  Ippolito  finds  that  the 
dark-coloured  spots  on  seeds  of  wheat  are  due  to  Cladosporium  herbarum. 
The  epicarp  and  the  underlying  starch-sheath  are  attacked.  On  the 
germination  of  the  seeds,  the  mycelium  of  the  fungus  grows  with  the 
embryo,  and  causes  yellow  spots  on  the  stem. 

The  same  author |  found  Cladosporium  Pisi  infecting  the  hulls  of 
peas.  It  pierces  the  epidermis,  and  lives  as  a  saprophyte  on  the  tissue 
which  it  has  destroyed. 

E.  Lasnier  %  also  publishes  some  notes  on  a  disease  of  peas  due  to 
Cladosporium  herbarum.  He  finds  that  the  peas  are  small  and  deformed  ; 
the  mycelium  enters  by  the  funicle,  and  the  invaded  tissues  become 
brown.  A  similar  fungus  has  been  recorded  as  CI.  Pisi,  but  the  author 
sees  no  morphological  difference  between  that  fungus  and  CI.  herbarum. 
It  is  usually  considered  to  be  a  saprophyte,  but  in  this  case,  as  in  some 
others,  Cladosporium  is  a  true  parasite.  In  artficial  cultures,  the  Hormo- 
dendron  form  was  produced  with  branching  conidia  at  the  apex  of  the 
conidiophore. 

Disease  of  Larch.§  — C.  A.  J.  A.  Oudemans  describes  a  fungus 
disease  of  Larch  which  affects  the  leaves,  covering  them  over  by  its 
growth,  closing  the  stomata,  and  interfering  with  assimilation,  causing 
the  leaves  to  become  brown  in  colour.  The  fungus  forms  minute  fruits, 
consisting  of  brownish  spores  growing  in  chains,  and  forming  compact 
pustules.  It  differs  from  the  neighbouring  genera  Trimmatostroma  and 
Exosporium  in  having  no  stroma,  and  has  been  placed  by  the  author  in  a 
new  genus,  Exosporina,  with  the  specific  name  Laricis. 

Isaria  forms  of  Penicillium.||- — P.  Vuillemin  disapproves  of  the 
grouping  of  ill-defined  species  in  the  genus  Isaria.  He  finds  that  Isaria 
destructor,  which  has  been  placed  by  some  authors  in  Oospora,  is  really  a 
form  of  Penicittium.  It  is  a  parasite  on  insects,  and  should  be  known 
as  P.  anisoplece.  The  writer  makes  notes  on  P.  Priardi,  also  parasitic 
on  insects,  and  previously  classified  as  Isaria  trunrata. 

*  Stazioni  sperim.  Agrar.,  xxxvi.  (1903)  pp.  1009-14.     See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt. 
xiii.  (1904)  p.  779. 

t  Sul  Cladosporium  Pisi  Cug.  e  Maccb..  9  pp.,  Trani.  1904.  See  also  Centralbl. 
Bakt  xiii.  (19i)4)  p.  779. 

%  Bull.  Soc.  Mvcol.  Franee,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  2:!0-8  (1  pi.). 

K.  Akad.  Wetensch.,  Amsterdam,  yi.  C1904)  pp.  498-501  (1  pi.). 
Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  214-21  (1  pl.)-1 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  221 

Morphological  and  Biological  Characteristics  of  Penicillium 
Species.*  —  The  recorded  species  of  Penicillium  are  about  sixty  in 
number,  most  of  them  so  imperfectly  described  that  it  is  impossible  to 
recognise  them.  0.  Stoll  has  taken  up  this  difficult  genus,  and  lias 
described  seven  species  from  well  authenticated  growths,  most  of  them 
cultivated  by  himself.  Penicillium  brevicaule  he  found  on  old  tapestry  ; 
P.  olivaceum  and  P.  italicum  grew  on  oranges  and  citrons ;  P.  rubrum 
on  straw  in  a  hen-house  ;  P.  glaucum  was  found  everywhere.  In  each 
case  he  describes  the  conidial  form  of  fructification,  and  the  behaviour 
of  the  fungus  in  regard  to  the  substratum,  and  he  gives  accurate 
measurements  and  descriptions  of  the  conidia.  Under  certain  condi- 
tions P.  glaucum  develops  a  colourless  form,  P.  candidum  Link. ;  when 
re-infected  on  potato,  the  usual  colour  is  again  produced.  Further  work 
is  needed  to  determine  the  other  species  not  dealt  with  by  Stoll. 

Rusts  of  Pines. t — D.  H.  C.  Schellenberg  observed  that  the  rust  of 
Pinus  Cembra  alternated  with  Cronartium  on  Ribes  alpinum.  Further 
study  proved  that  it  was  the  same  rust  that  attacked  Pinus  Strobus, 
known  as  Peridermium  Strobi.  It  is  a  well-known  and  frequent  parasite 
in  Alpine  pine  woods. 

Pucciniae  found  on  Umbelliferse.J — 0.  Semadeni  concludes  a  long 
account  of  these  fungi.  He  recounts  the  different  infection  experiments 
with  their  results.  Thus,  he  finds  that  P.  bullata  is  to  be  regarded  as 
a  "collective  species,"  including  one  or  more  biological  species.  He 
establishes  a  new  species,  P.  Pozzii  on  Clucropliyllum  hirsutum  var. 
glabrum,  and  shows  that  JEcidium  Mei  has  as  Puccinia  form  P.  ma- 
millata  Schroeb.  on  Polygonum  bistorta  and  P.  viviparum.  He  gives 
the  new  name  P.  Mei-mamillata  to  the  species.  Another  form  on 
Angelica  he  terms  P.  Angel ica-mamil lata. 

Notes  on  Uredospores  of  Uromyces  brevipes  and  U.  punctato- 
striatus.§ — P.  Dietel  describes  two  kinds  of  uredospores  on  Uromyces 
brevipes.  The  primary  spores,  which  appear  on  the  stronger  veins  and 
petioles  of  the  leaf,  cause  slight  deformations.  The  secondary  spores 
are  smaller,  and  appear  mixed  with  teleutospores.  There  are  other 
differences  in  the  markings  of  the  spores.  Uromyces  punctato-striatus  is, 
like  the  previous  species,  a  parasite  of  Rhus.  There  are  primary  and 
secondary  spores,  but  in  this  case  the  secondary  spores  grow  in  sori  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaf. 

On  the  Vegetative  Life  of  some  Uredinese.|| — Jakob  Eriksson  here 
re-states  his  theory  of  the  propagation  of  rusts  by  a  mycoplasma  contained 
in  the  tissue  of  the  host,  and  gradually  developing  into  fungal  hypha3 
and  rust  sori  with  spores.  He  states  finally  that  "  the  question  where 
the  plasmodia  in  the  leaves  of  the  corn-plants  have  come  from,  must  be 
left  for  further  investigation." 

•  Inaug.  Diss.  Wurzburg,  1904,  56  pp.,  5  pis.  See  alsoBot.  Centralbl.,  xiii.  (1904) 
pp.  770-3. 

f  Naturwiss.  Zeitschr.  Land.  Forstw.,  1904,  p.  233.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt. 
xiii.  (1904)  pp.  659-GO. 

%  Cemralbl.  Bakt,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  527-43  (5  figs.). 

§  Ann.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  530-3.  Ann.  Bot.,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  55-9. 


222  SUMMARY    OK    CURRKNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Notes  on  Uredineae.* —  P.  Eennings  records  a  new  and  harmful 
species  of  rust,  Uredo  Wittmackiana  on  Epidendrum,  from  Orizaba,  in 
Mexico.  It  differs  considerably  from  the  species  previously  found  on  the 
plants  of  this  genus. 

Shunsuke  Kusano  f  describes  several  new  forms  of  Uromyces  and  an 
sEciditim  on  species  of  Sophora.  E.  V.  Oven  $  gives  an  account  of 
Phragmidium  on  various  kinds  of  roses.  He  gives  the  names  of  the 
varieties  that  were,  more  or  less,  subject  to  attack  in  the  grounds  of  the 
Pomological  Institute  at  Proskau. 

W.  L.  Balls  §  publishes  notes  on  the  infection  of  plants  by  rust- 
fungi.  He  thinks  they  are  probably  in  search  of  watery  vapour  when 
they  penetrate  the  stomata  of  the  host.  He  gives  an  acount  of  an 
experiment  he  made  to  test  this  theory. 

In  discussing  the  occurrence  of  rusts  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Toulouse,  A.  Prunet||  notes  that  the  only  one  that  attained  serious 
proportions  during  the  year  li)03  was  Puccinia  triticina  on  corn. 

Recent  Researches  on  the  Parasitism  of  Fungi.f — In  a  discussion 
of  this  whole  question,  Marshall  Ward  begins  with  an  historical  survey 
of  the  progressive  knowledge  of  the  subjects  both  of  bacteria  and  fungi, 
leading  on  to  the  great  development  of  the  science  of  Plant  Pathology. 
He  then  confines  himself  to  a  consideration  of  the  Uredineae  as  parasites, 
sketches  their  life-history,  classification,  the  modern  view  of  their 
sexuality,  and  the  methods  of  spore  distribution.  Data  are  given  as  to 
the  work  of  insects  in  aiding  the  spread  of  fungi,  and  as  to  the  length 
of  time  the  uredospores  retain  their  vitality,  these  facts  having  an  im- 
portant bearing  on  the  theories  affecting  the  unlooked-for  appearance 
of  rust  in  different  localities.  Specialisation  in  parasitism  is  next 
described  and  exemplified,  and  the  various  explanations  of  immunity 
and  susceptibility  are  alluded  to.  Ward  explains  and  refutes  Eriksson's 
mycoplasm  hypothesis,  and  gives  the  results  of  his  own  observations  on 
infection  and  on  susceptible  and  immune  varieties  of  plants.  In  the 
latter  case,  though  the  spores  germinated  and  entered  the  host  plant  in 
the  normal  fashion,  in  a  few  days  they  died  off  ;  either  they  were  starved 
for  want  of  food  supply,  or  they  were  poisoned.  He  concludes  that  the 
phenomena  were  those  of  starvation  :  the  hyphas  had  clumsily  killed  the 
plant-cells,  instead  of  delicately  tapping  them  for  food,  and  in  turn  died 
for  lack  of  nutrition.  Experiments  were  made  to  prove  this  theory,  and 
it  was  found  that  the  same  results  were  obtained  when  there  was  a  lack 
of  carbon  supply.  Small  nests  of  dead,  brownish-coloured  cells  were 
produced,  on  which  the  parasite  could  not  live.  The  paper  concludes  by 
re-stating  the  facts  that  go  to  prove  how  unnecessary  any  mycoplasma 
theory  is  to  explain  the  appearance  of  rusts. 

*  Gartenflora,  1904,  pp.  397-8.     See  also  But.  Centralbl.,  xcvi.  (1901)  p.  621. 

t  Lot.  Mag.  Tokyo,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  1-6.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiii.  (1901) 
p.  782. 

J  Naturw.  Zeitschr.  Land  Forstw.,  1901,  Heft  4-5.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt., 
xiii.  (1904)  p.  784. 

§  New  Bhytol.,  iv.  (1905)  pp.  18-19. 

||  Assoc.  Franc,  pour  l'Avanc.  Sci.  Angers,  xxxii.  (1904)  pp.  731-3.  See  also 
Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  98.  ^  Ann.  Bot.,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  1-54. 


ZOOLOGY,  AND  BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,  ETC.         22:5 

Destruction  of  Biich  and  other  wood  by  Polyporus  nigricans.* 
Ivar  Lindroth  gives  an  account  of  the  attack  of  this  fungus  not  only 
on  birch,  but  also  on  Salix  Gaprea  and  Populus  tremula.  Infection 
follows  probably  on  deep  wounds  caused  by  frost,  the  breaking  of 
branches,  etc.,  enabling  the  fungus  to  reach  the  pith  ;  the  tissue  surround- 
ing the  diseased  spot  becomes  filled  with  gum.  The  author  describes  the 
gradual  destruction  of  the  cells  by  the  fungus,  and  he  also  notes  other 
species  of  Polyporei  that  attack  the  birch. 

Notes  on  the  Variability  of  Hypothele  repanda.f — Howard  J. 
Banker  has  reviewed  the  different  accounts  of  this  species,  known 
generally  as  Hijdnum  repandum.  It  varies  so  much  in  habit  and  colour 
that  it  has  been  split  into  three  species,  which  the  writer  thinks  may 
probably  become  well-established.  He  describes  a  form  he  himself 
found  with  flattened  teeth,  growing  in  comparatively  wet  ground.  In  a 
drier  situation  the  same  fungus  was  found  showing  very  few  of  these 
flattened  teeth,  or  in  some  cases  none  at  all. 

Spore  Dispersion  in  the  Basidiomycetes,  and  the  Biological  Value- 
of  the  Basidium.J — Richard  Falck  has  answered  a  number  of  interesting 
questions  in  the  course  of  his  investigation.  He  finds  that  pileate  fungi 
scatter  their  spores  over  a  fairly  wide  area,  even  in  enclosed  chambers,, 
which  are  secure  against  air-currents  ;  and  that  the  larger  the  fungus  is, 
or  the  more  of  them  there  are  together,  the  further  are  the  spores  dissemi- 
nated. He  notes  also  that  while  the  Polyporei  deposit  the  spores  in  some- 
what symmetrical  fashion,  from  the  Agaricineae  they  are  carried  away  and 
deposited  in  lines  and  streaks  that  have  no  connection  with  the  direction 
or  form  of  the  gills.  In  all  fungi  the  spore  deposit  corresponds  to  some 
extent  with  the  incidence  of  the  rays  of  light.  He  has  found  that  the 
fungus,  by  its  own  internal  heat,  establishes  delicate  air-currents,  which 
suffice  for  the  very  wide-spread  scattering  of  such  light  bodies.  When 
the  spores  separate  from  the  sterigmata,  they  fall  first  downwards,  and 
are  thus  caught  away  by  the  currents  and  finally  deposited,  always  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  area  on  which  they  alight.  These  self-engendered 
currents  explain  the  wide  dispersal  in  the  enclosed  room.  The  author, 
by  experiments  with  light  and  temperature,  found  that  their  influence 
explained  the  lines  and  streaks  formed  by  the  falling  spores.  The 
character  of  the  surface  on  which  the  spores  alighted  had  no  connection 
with  these  lines.  Falck  does  not  fail  to  allow  full  weight  also  to  the 
air-currents  due  to  wind  and  temperature. 

The  biological  value  of  basidia  are  next  considered  ;  the  author 
compares  the  different  forms  of  fungi  with  reference  to  their  sporophores  ; 
the  basidium  in  this  group  of  fungi  suffices  to  raise  the  spores  above  the 
hymenium,  and  so  enables  them  to  fall  free  when  they  are  ripe,  and  to 
be  carried  away  by  the  lightest  of  currents. 

The  author  devotes  considerable  attention  to  the  problem  of  spore 
dissemination  among  the  Uredineas.  The  teleutospores  are  to  be  found 
on  plant  remains  that  have  fallen  to  the  ground  and  there  passed  the 

■*  Naturw.  Zeitschr.  Land*  Forstw.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  393-40H  (7  ii<>s.).     See  also 
Bot.  Centralis,  xcvi.  (19(14)  pp.  (324-5.  t  Tonvya,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  113-7. 

t  (John's  Beitr.  Biol.  PtL.nzen,  ix.  (1904)  pp.  1-S2  (6  pis.). 


'224  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

■winter  ;  in  Bpring  they  germinate  and  produce  sporidia,  just  at  the  time 
when  earth-currents  are  being  generated  by  increased  temperature. 
They  are  wafted  to  any  height  or  distance,  fall  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  leaves,  and  the  germinating  tuhe  pierces  the  cuticle  of  the  young 
leaf.     The  later  spore  forms  are  dispersed  by  the  wind. 

Falck  returns  to  the  Basidiomycetes  to  examine  the  signification  of 
the  various  forms.  He  finds  that  pores,  gills,  folds,  etc.,  are  all 
adaptations  to  secure  a  greater  hymeneal  surface  and  an  increased  spore- 
production.  The  pileus,  as  already  noted,  serves  for  the  evolution  of 
heat  and  the  formation  of  air-currents.  He  concludes  by  some  accounts 
of  spore  dissemination  in  the  Phycomycetes  and  the  Ascomycetes,  and 
discusses  the  economic  value  of  fungi  in  regard  to  Nature  and  to  man. 

Two  New  Pests  of  the  Vine  in  Hungary.* — Gv.  de  Istvanffi  finds 
that  Tthy phallus  impudicus  attacks  the  underground  stock  of  the  vine 
and  destroys  it.  The  mycelium  infects  first  the  soft  bast  and  the  cortical 
parenchyma  ;  it  then  penetrates  through  the  medullary  rays  to  the  wood 
and  destroys  them,  until  only  a  skeleton  of  the  wood  vessels  is  left.  The 
other  dealt  with  is  an  animal  pest,  C&pophagus  pchinopus. 

Practical  Notes  on  the  Beet  Disease.! — A.  Guttman  traces  the 
origin  of  this  disease  to  Phoma  Betcc  The  seeds  of  the  beet  are  already 
infected  with  the  spores  of  the  fungus,  and  circumstances  determine  if 
the  young  beet  plant  is  able  to  throw  off  the  attack.  Weather,  soil 
composition,  and  conditions  of  the  beet  plant  are  all  important  factors. 
Stormy  weather  and  poor  soil  weaken  the  plant  and  encourage  the 
growth  of  the  fungus.  The  author  recommends  somewhat  late  sowing 
of  the  seed  and  thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil.  Treatment  of  the  seeds 
with  some  fungicide  has  been  recommended,  but  has  not  proved  advan- 
tageous. 

Canker  of  Fruit  Trees.* — Rudolf  Goethe  holds  that  canker  is  due 
to  the  attack  of  the  fungus  Nectria  ditissima,  and  not  to  bacteria,  nor 
to  the  action  of  frost.  In  regard  to  the  latter  cause,  he  points  out  that 
with  a  frost  wound  there  is  no  thickening  and  swelling  of  the  tissue  as 
there  is  in  true  canker.  He  describes  the  different  kinds  of  canker,  the 
kinds  of  trees  that  are  liable  to  be  attacked,  and  the  conditions  that 
favour  the  disease.  He  also  recommends  methods  of  extirpation  and 
prevention. 

Fungal  Parasites  of  the  Tea  Plant.§  —  X.  N.  Speschnew  is  the 
author  of  a  monograph  on  this  subject,  the  first  of  a  series  dealing  with 
the  diseases  of  cultivated  plants  in  Transcaucasia.  He  describes  the 
fungi  that  cause  disease,  many  of  the  species  being  new,  and  he  advises 
as  to  the  best  methods  for  extirpating  them. 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Centr.  Ampelog.  roy.  Hongr.,  iii.  Livr.  I,  Budapest,  1904,  viii.  and 
55  pp.  (3  pis.)      See  also  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxiii.  (1905)  pp.  28-9. 

t  Deutsche  Landw.  Presse,  1904,  p.  04.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiii.  (1904) 
p.  660. 

J  Ueber  den  Krebs  der  Obstbaume,  P.  Parey  (Berlin,  1904)  34  pp.  See  also 
Centralbl.  Hakt.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  662-3. 

§  S.A.  atis  den  Arbeiten  Bot.  Gart.  Tiflis.  ii.  Lief.  vi.  Heft  3  (Tiflis.  1904)  S:i  pp. 
4  col.  pis.     (Russian.)    See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  40-1. 


ZOOLOGY   ANTD    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  225 

Mould  Ferments  from  India.* — A.  Nechitsch  has  studied  the  or- 
ganisms used  to  produce  fermented  liquor  in  Sikkim  and  at  Mount 
Khasia.  The  principal  ferment  used  in  the  former  region  was  Mucor 
Praini.  The  sporangiophores  may  grow  to  a  height  of  4  cm.  ;  they 
divide  into  some  six  branches,  terminating  in  sporangia  with  minute 
spores.  Occasionally  chlamydospores  and  yeast  are  produced.  In  the 
other  case  he  found  that  fermentation  was  induced  by  a  species  of 
Dematium,  D.  Ghodati,  near  to  D.  pallidum.  The  author  also  studied 
the  effect  of  different  salts  on  alcoholic  fermentation. 

Report  on  Fungicides. f — B.  D.  Halstead  and  J.  A.  Kelsey  describe 
a  series  of  leaf-diseases  of  cultivated  plants,  and  the  best  methods  of 
destroying  the  attacking  fungi.  Diseases  of  asparagus,  potato,  tomato, 
and  pear  are  dealt  with  ;  a  considerable  portion  of  the  report  deals  with  a 
description  of  Erysipltece.  Twenty-nine  species  and  six  varieties,  grow- 
ing on  123  hosts,  are  recorded  from  the  neighbourhood  of  New  Jersey. 

Mycological  Notes.:}:  — •  L.  Lutz  collected  sclerotia  of  Claviceps 
purpurea  on  Psamma  arenaria.  He  placed  them  in  suitable  conditions 
for  germination  in  November  1902,  and  kept  them  under  observation 
until  March  1904,  when  the  Peziza  form  was  produced.  The  author 
also  records  an  attack  of  Sclerotinia  Fuckeliana  on  Quinquina  cultivated 
in  Paris.  The  leaves  were  covered  by  the  conidial  form.  Bordeaux 
mixture  was  used  to  kill  the  fungus. 

Vegetable  Pathology.§ — A.  Maublanc  gives  an  account  of  a  disease 
of  olives  due  to  Macrophoma  dalmatica.  The  fruit  is  attacked  while  still 
immature,  and  the  fungus  gives  rise  to  brown  spots.  It  may  possibly 
be  a  wound  parasite,  that  gains  entrance  through  the  bite  of  an  insect. 

The  author  has  devoted  considerable  attention  to  Dasyscypha  calyci- 
formis,  recorded  as  a  disease  of  Pines.  He  finds  no  evidence  that  the 
fungus  is  parasitic.  The  mycelium  is  never  present  except  in  wood  or 
bark  already  killed  by  Armittaria  moUea. 

Inter-relation  of  Pests  of  Cereals. || — J.  B.  Jungner  has  watched 
the  action  and  development  during  a  year  of  the  various  enemies  of 
cereal  plants,  including  insects,  fungi,  and  unfavourable  climatic  con- 
ditions. He  found  that  injury  by  frost  was  followed  by  attacks  of 
numerous  fungi,  such  as  Ascochyta,  Sphcrelhi,  Septoria,  Cladosporium, 
and  Helminthosporium.  He  discusses  the  dispersion  of  conidia  and 
spores  by  wind  and  insects,  and  notes  the  case  in  which  insects  and  fungi 
grow  together  or  are  closely  related,  as,  for  instance,  Capnodium,  which 
grows  on  the  secretion  of  Aphides.  Several  cases  of  rust  infection  are 
given,  following  on  attacks  by  insects  ;  Leptosphotria  herpotrichoides 
grew  on  leaves  that  had  been  infested  by  various  insects. 

*  Inst.  Bot.  Univ.  Geneve,  ser.  6,  fasc.  .r>  (Geneve,  1904)  38  pp.  (1  pi.  and  6  figs.). 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  36-7. 

t  Rep.  Botanist,  New  Jersey  Agrie.  Stat.,  1903  (1904)  pp.  459-54  (15  plB.).  See 
also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcvi.  (1904)  p.  G19. 

I  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  211-13. 

§  Tom.  eit..  pp.  227-235  (15  figs.). 

||  Zeitschr.  Prlani-nkr.,  xiv.  (1904)  pp.  321-47. 


226  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Assimilation  of  Atmospheric  Nitrogen  by  a  Turf  Fungus.*— Ch. 
Ternetz  found  that,  after  |carefully  cleaning  the  roots  of  such  plants  as 
Erica  carnea,  Call  mm  vulgaris,  \' arc  in  in  in  Vitis-idcea,  etc.,  and  placing 
them  on  agar-agar,  a  pycnidia-forming  fungus  was  always  produced. 
The  same  fungus  appeared  in  an  agar-agar  culture  of  crumbled  turf.  It 
was  impossible  to  decide  if  this  was  the  fungus  that  formed  the  myco- 
rhiza  of  the  roots.  Experiments  were  conducted  on  a  substratum 
wanting  in  nitrogen,  and  it  was  found  that  the  fungus  not  only  grew 
luxuriously,  but  that  it  gained  in  nitrogen. 

Poisoning  by  Fungi.t — J.  Hockauf  discusses  the  whole  question  of 
fungus  poisoning,  the  difficulty  of  determining  the  species  of  larger 
fungi,  when  one  realises  the  great  variability  of  form,  and  the  chemical 
changes  that  may  exist  alongside  of  this  variability.  CUtocybe  nebularis 
is  a  recognised  edible  in  Munich ;  in  other  countries  it  is  considered 
dangerous,  and  so  with  other  species  and  varieties.  The  author  cites 
many  cases  of  poisoning,  but  data  are  wanted  as  to  the  age  and  con- 
dition of  the  fungi. 

H.  Steinvorth  $  publishes  new  observations  on  poisoning  by  plants, 
the  first  chapter  dealing  with  fungi.  He  cites  cases  where  Amanita 
phalloides,  A.  rabescens,  A.  pantherinus,  Russula  rubra,  and  Boletus 
Satanas,  collected  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hanover,  were  eaten  with 
impunity. 

Diseases  of  Sugar  Beet  in  Bohemia.§  —  Franz  Bubak  found  on 
the  leaves  of  the  Beet  Gercospora  beticola  and  Ramularia  Betce,  the  latter 
new  to  Bohemia,  and  gives  rise  to  large  greyish  or  brownish  spots  on  the 
leaves.  PhyUostida  Beta  is  constantly  found  on  the  same  spots,  and  the 
writer  considers  they  are  forms  of  the  same  fungus,  some  Pyrenomycete. 

He  has  also  ||  devoted  some  attention  to  the  disease  caused  to  the 
roots  by  Rhizoctonia  violacea.  It  is  spread  largely  by  the  wind  carrying 
small  particles  of  earth  to  wdiich  are  attached  pieces  of  the  mycelium  of 
the  fungus.  The  spores  are  still  unknown.  He  gives  an  account  of 
the  various  remedies  tried  to  combat  the  disease. 

Biological  Species  of  Parasitic  Fungi,  and  the  Development  of 
New  Forms.l — Ed.  Fischer  sketches  the  history  of  Puccinia  graminis, 
and  gives  an  account  of  Eriksson's  work  on  the  different  biological 
species  within  the  one  morphological  species.  He  states  his  belief  that 
they  have  all  come  from  the  one  form,  and  that  the  extent  to  which 
such  specialisation  arises  testifies  to  the  age  of  the  parasite.     Thus  the 

*  Ber.  Peutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xxii.  (19(H)  pp.  267-74.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  ii. 
(1904)  pp.  557-8. 

f  Wiener  Klin.  Wochenschr.,  No.  26  (Wien,  1904),  19  pp.  See  also  Hedwigia, 
xliv.  (1904)Beibl.,  p.  14. 

t  .Tahr.  Naturwiss.  Ver.  Lunoburg,  xxi.  (Luneberg,  1904)  pp.  77-S2.  See  also 
Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1904)  Beibl.,  p.  18. 

§  Zeitschr.  Zuckerind.  Bohmen  Prog.,  1904,  Heft  7  (4  pp.).  See  also  Hedwigia, 
xliv.  (1904)  Beibl.,  p.  28. 

||   Tom.  cit.,  2  pp.     See  also  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1904)  Beibl.,  p.  29. 

if  Atti  Soc.  Elevet.  Sci.  Nat.  Locarno.  86me  seseione,  Zurigo,  1904,  pp.  49-62.  See 
also  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1904)  Beibl.,  pp.  12-13. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  227 

Urcdinca?  must  have  existed  as  parasites  during  a  longer  period  of  time 
than  Botrytis  or  than  C'uscua.  The  phenomena  are  very  complicated, 
and  it  is  not  always  easy  to  decide  whether  they  are  not  in  some  cases 
also  morphologically  distinct. 

Diseases  of  Plants,  with  Methods  of  Prevention  or  Cure.*  —  J. 
Kindshoven  recommends  treatment  by  spraying  with  copper-lime  or 
copper-soda  solutions  for  the  extirpation  of  fungal  diseases.  He  proved 
the  value  of  this  method  in  overcoming  an  attack  of  Pears  by  Fusi- 
c  Iridium . 

W.  Freckmannf  describes  the  development  oiSclerotinia  Trifoliorum, 
which,  he  finds,  attacks  Trifolium  pratmse,  T.  incarnatwn,  T.  hybri- 
durn,  T.  pannonicum,  Onobrychis  sativa,  Medicayo  sativa,  Anthyllis 
vulneraria,  and  Lupinus permnis.  The  fungus  attacks  plants  three  and 
four  years  old,  as  well  as  the  seedlings.  To  stamp  out  the  disease,  it  is 
necessary  to  prevent  the  sclerotia  from  germinating  ;  they  should  be 
deeply  ploughed  in.     A  change  of  crop  is  also  recommended. 

Arthur,  J.  C. — Revised  list  of  Indiana  Plant  Rusts. 

[The  list  includes  105  species  of  plant  rusts,  representing  sixteen  genera.] 

Froc.  hid.  Acad.  Sci.  1903  pp.  141-52. 

Barbier  Maurice — Agaricinees   rares,  critiques,  ou  nouvelles  de  la  Cote-d'Or. 
(Kare,  critical,  or  new  agarics  from  the  Gold  Coast.) 

Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xx.  (11)04)  pp.  225-7. 

Bastiak,  H.  Charlto  n — The  heterogenetic  origin  of  Fungus-germs  and  Monads. 

Arm.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  xv.  (1905)  pp.  210-17  (2  pis.). 

Bod  en,  Fr.— Die  Stockfaule  der  Fichte,  ihre  Entstehung  und  Verhiitung.    (The 
rotting  of  firs  and  its  prevention.) 

[The  writer  discusses  the  culture  of  firs  and  the  causes  of  disease  among  them.] 

Hameln  (1004)  91  pp.,  1  woodcut,  and  18  text  figs. 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bald.,  xiii.  (1904)  p.  785. 

B  o  y  d,  D.  A.— Notes  on  Fungi  from  West  Kilbride,  Ayrshire. 

[Popular  account  of  the  two   striking  species,  Hirneola  Auricula-judx   and 
Lachnea  coccinea.']  Trans.  Edinb.  Field.  Nat.  Club  and  Micros.  S<><-., 

v.  parti.  (1904)  pp.  77-8. 

Bubak,  Fr.  —  In   Bohmen  im    Jahre   1902    aufgetretenen   Pflanzenkrankheiten. 
(Plant  diseases  in  Bohemia  during  the  year  1902.) 

[The account  of  plant  diseases  includes  insects  as  well  as  fungal  pests.] 

Zeitschr.  Landw.  Versuchsw.  Oesterr.,  1904,  p.  731. 
See  also  Centralbl,  Balit.,  xiii.  (1904)  p.  776-8. 

Cope i, and,  Edwin  Bin « ha m— New  or  interesting  California  Fungi.   II. 
[Diagnoses  of  nine  new  species  are  given.] 

Ann.  Mycol,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  507-10  (1  pi.) 

Delbruck,  M,  &  A.   Schrohe — Hefe,  Garung  und  Faulnis.     (Yeast  fermenta- 
tion and  impurity.) 

[The  authors"  give  the  history  of  the  whole  subject  of  Fermentation  and  the 
Technology  of  the  industry.]  P.  Parey  (Berlin,  19D4)  14  text  fi<r«. 

See  also  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxiii.  (1905)  pp.  1-2. 


*  Prakt.  Blatter  f.  Pflanzenhau  u.  rflanzenschutz,  1904,  pp.  53-4.  See  iilso 
Centralbl.  Bakt..  xiii.  (1904)  p.  G70. 

t  Deutsche  Landw.  Presse,  1904,  No.  51,  pp.  452-4.  See  also  Centralbl.  Ba'  t .. 
xiii.  (1904)  pp.  670-1. 


228  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Diedecke,  H. — Neue  order  seltene  Pilze  aus  Thiiringen.  (New  or  rare  fungi 
from  Thuringia.) 

[The  species  ;ill  belong  to  the  group  of  Microfungi,  either  Ascomycetes  or 
Deuteromycetes  ;  a  number  of  them  are  new  to  science.] 

Ann.  Mycol,  ii.  (1004)  pp.  511-14. 

G  alzin — Du  Parasitisme  des  Champignons  Basidiomycetes  epixyles.     Suite. 
(On  two  parasitism  of  wood-fungi.     liasidiomycetes.) 

[The  author  describes    the  changes    produced    in  the  wood  by 
the  ditlerent  forms.] 

Bull,  de  V Assoc.  Vosg.  Hist.  Nat.  (July,  1004)  No.  6,  pp.  8 1  -7. 
See  also  But.  Centralbl.,  xcvi.  (1004)  p.  044. 

„      „      La  Lenzites  abietina  B.  saprophyte  et  les  degats  qu'elle  peut  occasioner. 
(Lenzites  abietina,  saprophyte,  and  the  mischief  it  may  jrive  rise  to.) 
[This  fungus  attacks  felled  wood,  and  destroys  it.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  89-01.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcvi.  (1004)  p.  644. 

Hollo  s,  J. —  Gasteromycetes  Hungariae  cum  tabulis  XXXI.  (The  Gasteromycetes 
of  Hungary.) 

[Commissioned  by  the  Hungarian  Academy  of  Science.  Plates  coloured  in 
part  from  original  drawings  and  photographs.  Authorised  German  trans- 
lation.] Osw.  Weigel  (Leipzig,  1904)  fob.  211  pp. 

See  also  Hedioigia,  xlix.  (1004)  Beibl.,  p.  14-lf). 

Kostytschew,  S. — TJntersuchungen  iiber  die  Atmung  und  alkoholische  Garung 
der  Mucoraceen.  (Research  on  the  respiration  and  alcoholic  fermentation  of  the 
Mucoraccse.)  Centralbl.  Bald.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  577-80. 

K  rasnosselskt,  T. — Atmung  und  Garung  der  Schimmelpilze  in  Rollkulturen. 
(Respiration  and  fermentation  of  mould-fungi  in  cultures.) 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  G73-87  (6  figs.). 

Kkieger,  W. — Fungi  saxonici.     Fasc.  36.     Nos.  1751-1800. 

[Descriptions  are  published  of  some  of  the  species.  Tlie  fascicle  includes 
many  interesting  forms.] 

Koni^steiu,  i.  S.,  1904.     See  &\soBot.  Centralbl,  xcvi.  (1004)  p.  623 

Lazaeoe  Ibiza,  de  Blas — Notas  Micologicas  ;  colleccion  de  datos  referentes  a 
los  Hongos  de  Espana.  (Mycological  notes  ;  series  of  data  referring  to  the 
fungi  of  Spain.) 

[The  author  gives  an  account  of  the  appearance  and  occurrence  of  a  number  of 
fungi.]  Mem.  Hoc.  Esp.  Hist.  Nat.,  ii.  (1904;  pp.  339-62. 

Molliahd,  M. — TJn  nouvel  note  du  Peronospora  Chlorae  de  Bary.  (A  new  host  of 
Feronospora  Chlorae.) 

[The  parasite  has  been  found  on  Cicendia.  It  attacks  the  flower  without 
injuring  the  seed.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xx.  (1004)  pp.  223-4. 

Niger,  F.  \V. — TJredineae  et  TJstilagineae  Fuegianae,  A.  P.  Dusen  collecti. 
[A  number  of  new  species  are  recorded.] 

Wiss.  Ergebnisse  der  Schwed.  Exp.  Magellansldndern,  1895-7, 

Bd.  iii.  pp.  59-64. 

Nikitinsky,  Jaco b— TJeber die  Beeinflussung  der  Entwickelung  einiger  Schim- 
melpilze durch  ihre  Stoffwechselprodukte.  (On  the  influence  exerted  on  some 
mould-fungi  by  ti.e  products  of  their  metabolism.) 

Inaug.  Diss.  Basel.   Leipzig,  1904,  8vo,  03  pp. 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bald.,  xiii.  (1903)  pp.  773-4. 

Out  on,  W.  A.— Plant  diseases  in  1903. 

[The  different  cultivated  plants  are  recorded,  with  the  parasites  that  have 
been  found  attacking  them.] 

Yearbook',  U.S.  Dep.  Agric,  1903  (Washington.  1004)  pp.  550-5. 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiii.  (1004)  pp.  655-6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  229 

Patouillaed,  N. — Contribution  a  l'histoire  naturelle  de  la  Tunisie.    Notes  My- 
cologiques.     (Contribution  to  the  natural  history  of  Tunis.     Mycolngical  notes.) 
[Several  new  species  of  fungi  are  described,  and  important  critical  notes  are 
made  on  others.] 

Estr.  Bull.  Soc.  Hist.  Nat.  d'Autun,  xvii.  (1904)  pp.  1-15  (pis.  iii.-v.). 

See  also  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1904)  Beibl.,  p.  17. 

Rehm,  H. — Ascomyceten  exs.  fasc.  33. 

[A  list  of  the  species  included  in  the  Exsiccata,  with  notes  on 
some  of  the  plants,  and  diagnoses  of  those  that  are  new.] 

Ann.  Mycol,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  515-21. 

Revision  der  Gattungen  Tryblidiella,  Rhydithysterium.  Tryblidaria,  Try- 
blidium,  Tryblidiopsis.     (Revision  of  the  genera  TryUidiella.  etc.) 
[The   writer    considers    that    the   species   of    Rhydithysterium, 
should  be  included  under  TryUidiella.'] 

Tom.  cit,  pp.  522-6. 
Ascomycetes  Fuegiani,  A  P.  Dusen  collecti. 

[Several  of  the  species  collected  are  new  ;  descriptions  of  these 
are  given.]  Wiss.  Ergeb.  der  Schwed.  Exp.  Magellan., 

1S95-7,  pp.  39-58  (1  pi.). 
„      Beitrage  zur  Pilzflora  von  Sudamerika.   XIV.     (Contributions  to   the 
fungus-flora  of  South  America,  collected  by  E.  Lie  in  Brazil.) 

[There  is  a  large  number  of  new  species  of  microfungi ;  the  new 
genera  are  Trycophyma  (Myriangiales)  and  Stictoclypeolum 
(Mullisiacese.)]  Hedwigia,  xliv.  pp.  1-13(1  pi). 

Roll  and,  Leon — Observations  sur  quelques  especes  critiques.     (Observations  on 

critical  species.) 

[The  author  gives  descriptive  and  explanatory  notes  on 
some  of  the  larger  Hymenomycetes.] 

Iiev.  Mycol,  xxvi.  (1904)  pp.  137-41. 

„  Champignons  des  iles  Baleares,  recoltes  principalement  dans 

la  region  montagneuse  de  Solier.     ("Fungi  of  the  Balearic 

Isles,  collected  chiefly  in  the  mountainous  region  of  Solier.) 

[The  author  sketches  the  locality,  and  makes  notes  on 

some  of  the  parasitic  forms;  the  list  includes  three 

new  species.]         Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xx.  (1904) 

pp.  191-210  (2  pis.). 

Stirling,  James — Notes  on  a  census  of  the  Flora  of  the  Australian  Alps. 

[The  list  includes  a  number  of  lichens  and  fungi,  recorded  on  pp.  391-5.] 

Trans,  and  Proc.  Bot.  Soc.  Edinb.,  xxii.  (1904)  pp.  319-95. 

Stdow— Mycotheca  germanica,  Fasc.  V.-VI.     (Nos.  201-300.) 

[Diagnoses  are  given  uf  a  number  of  the  species,  some  of  them  new  to  science.] 

Ann.  Mycol,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  527-30. 

Trotter,  A. — Notulae  mycologicae.     (Mycological  notes.) 

[The  notes  deal  largely  with  new  species  of  microfungi.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  533-8  (4  figs.). 

Tuzson,  Johann — TJeber  das  Modern  und  die  Zonservierung  des  Buchenholzes, 
(The  decay  and  preservation  of  Beech  wood.) 

Budapest :  Lex-Okt.,  90  pp.,  3  col.  pis.  and  16  figs.     (Hungarian.) 

See  also  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1904)  pp.  31-2. 

Lichens. 

Notes  on  Lichens.* — James  McAndrew  gives    popular   notes   on 
Lichens  in  general — on  their  form,  classification,  habitat,  and  on  their 

♦  Trans.  Edinb.  Field  Nat.  Club  and  Micro.  Soc,  v.  part  2  (1904)  pp.  S6-94. 


230  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

economic  uses  as  dye-stuffs  or  as  food.  He  then  gives  a  more  particular 
description  of  Gladoniir.  He  recognises  three  genera,  Pycnothslia, 
Cladonia,  and  Gladina,  which  most  lichenologists  include  under  one 
genus,  Cladonia.  He  pronounces  against  the  theory  of  a  symbiosis 
between  Fungi  and  Algaj  as  an  explanation  of  the  Lichen  thallus,  and 
strongly  advocates  the  use  of  reagents  as  an  aid  in  the  determination  of 
species. 

Habitat  of  Lichens.*  —  W.  West  publishes  a  note  on  Physcia 
paristina,  which  had  been  recorded  by  Wheldon  and  Wilson  as  growing 
with  great  luxuriance  on  cow-sheds.  His  own  observations  agree  with 
those  of  these  two  collectors,  and  he  considers  that  the  presence  of  nitro- 
genous matter — which  would  be  conveyed  as  dust  to  the  roof  of  such 
buildings,  to  walls  on  road-sides,  etc.- — probably  accounts  for  the  presence 
of  this  lichen  in  these  situations.  Maritime  rocks  are  another  favourite 
habitat,  the  desired  nourishment  being  supplied  by  the  droppings  of  sea- 
birds. 

Anatomy  of  the  Genus  Usnea.f — Fritz  Schulte  has  carefully  worked 
through  several  species  of  this  genus,  and  gives  the  histology  of  the 
thallus  and  the  apothecia.  The  fibrils,  he  finds,  repeat  the  anatomy  of 
the  main  axis  ;  a  strong  sclerotic  central  axis  is  characteristic  of  all  the 
forms.  This  strand  is  repeated  in  the  fruits  as  a  sub-hymenial  layer. 
The  cortex  is  formed  of  parallel  hyphas.  In  the  young  fruits  he  found 
the  ascogones,  but,  with  the  exception  of  one  very  doubtful  case,  he 
found  no  trichogyne.  Schulte  tested  also  for  chemical  properties. 
Barbatin  acid  was  present  in  large  quantities  in  Usnea  ceratina,  sparingly 
in  U.  lonyissima.  It  was  absent  in  all  the  other  species  examined. 
Usnea  acid  was  found  only  in  U.  microcarpa,  U.  Schraderi,  U.  cornuta, 
U.  scabrata,  U.  plicata,  and  U.  dasypoya.  It  forms  a  red  colour  with 
potash  ;  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  were  deposited  on  the  hyphre  of  all 
the  species  examined. 

Malme,  Gust.  O.A.N. —  Beitrage  zur   Stictaceen  Flora  Feuerlands  und  Pata- 
goniens. 

[A  short  account  of  the  family,  and  a  list  of  species  collected  by  the  Svenska 
expedition  in  Fuegia  and  Patagonia.] 

Wiss.  Ergtbnhse  der  Schwed.  Exp.  Magellansliindern. 
1895-97,  Bd.  iii.(1904)  pp.  1-37  (2  pis.). 

Nils  on,  13.— Die  Flechtenvegetation  von  Eullen.    (Lichen  vegetation  of  Kullen.) 

[The  character  of  the  country  is  described,  and  a  list  of  137  species  is  given, 

none  of  them  new  ;  there  are  some  important  notes  and  descriptions  of  the 

lichens.]  Arlcivf.  Bot,  i.  (1904)  pp.  467-96. 

See  also  Hedicigia,  xliv.  Beibl.,  p.  18. 

Olivier,  H. — Lichens  du  Kouy-Tcheou. 

[The  writer  describes  seven  Cladonix  and  on<;  Physcia  from  the  district.] 

Bull.  Acad.  Intern.  Geogr.  Bot,  3  se'r.,  xiii.  (1904)  No.  183,  pp.  193-6. 

See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  ii.  (1904)  p.  f>(JU. 


*  Journ.  Bot.,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  31-2. 

t  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xviii.  (1904)  pj,.  1-22  (8  figs,  and  3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  231 

Schizophyta. 
Schizomycetes. 

Identity  of  Loeffler's  Bacillus  typhosus  murium  with  the  Bacillus 
paratyphosus  "  B."  * — Bonhoff  considers  that  the  Bacillus  typhosus 
murium  of  Loeffler,  the  B.  enteriditis  of  Gaertner,  and  the  B.  paratyphosus 
"Z>,"  are  to  he  differentiated  neither  biologically  nor  by  their  agglutina- 
ting and  bacteriolytic  reactions,  but  there  exist  certain  differences  of 
pathogenic  properties,  the  exact  nature  of  which  have,  as  yet,  not  been 
explained.  However,  the  three  organisms  belong  to  one  group,  and  are 
far  more  nearly  related  to  each  other  than  the  B.  paratyphosus  "  B  "  is 
to  the  B.  paratyphosus  "  A,"  to  which  latter  organism  he  suggests  the 
name  paratyphosus  should  be  restricted. 

Red  String  of  the  Sugar  Cane.f— R.  Greig  Smith  examined  an 
example  of  red  string  in  an  apparently  healthy  cane  which  had  only  two 
or  three  coloured  bundles  in  cross  section.  Portions  of  the  red  strings 
were  cut  out  with  a  sterile  knife  and  inserted  into  tubes  of  molten 
glucose-gelatin,  which  after  standing  for  an  hour  or  two  at  30°  C.  were 
poured  into  Petri  dishes.  He  obtained  a  mould  which  produced  a  bril- 
liant crimson  scarlet  colour,  and  was  primarily  responsible  for  the  colour 
of  the  strings,  and  also  several  bacteria.  From  the  presence  of  gum  in 
the  vessels  he  was  of  opinion  that  the  mould  was  accompanied  by  a  slime 
bacterium,  and  that  the  complete  phenomenon  of  red  gum  was  brought 
about  by  the  simultaneous  growth  of  two  organisms,  a  mould  and  a 
bacterium.  Of  the  bacteria  isolated,  one  was  a  slime  bacterium,  another 
was  B.  sacchari,  and  a  third  was  B.  fluoresceins  liquefacisns.  To  test 
which  of  these  would  produce  a  crimson  colour  when  grown  in  combina- 
tion with  the  mould,  he  planted  a  fragment  of  the  mould  upon  the  centre 
of  a  plate  of  nutrient  la3Vulose  agar,  on  which  medium  it  only  produced  a 
trace  of  colour.  "When  the  mould  had  grown  outwards  as  a  zonate  white 
pile  of  about  ?>  c.cm.  diameter,  the  bacteria  were  infected  at  three  places 
equidistant  from  the  centre.  In  three  days  giant  colonies  had  formed 
at  the  points  of  infection,  while  the  mould  had  spread  towards  them. 
As  the  mould  touched  the  white  slime  bacterial  colony,  a  brilliant 
crimson  colour  developed  not  only  throughout  the  colony  but  in  the 
neighbouring  medium."  The  B.  sacchari  developed  a  foxy  red  colour, 
but  the  mould  refused  to  grow  towards  the  colony  of  B.  fluoresceins 
liquefaciens.  This  experiment  showed  that  the  white  slime  bacterium 
could  be  of  service  to  the  mould  in  producing  the  colour  of  the  crimson 
red  gum  in  the  vessel  of  the  cane.  The  bacterium  grew  as  a  white 
slime  on  sterile  sugar  cane,  and  the  mould  grown  on  the  same  medium 
produced  "  practically  "  no  colour.  When  both  bacterium  and  mould 
were  grown  together,  a  deep  crimson  colour  was  developed.  He  found 
the  gum  to  be  a  galactan,  giving  the  chemical  reactions  of  arabin  ;  he 
named  the  bacterium  B.  pseitdarabinus.  It  is  an  actively  motile  cocco- 
bacillus,  with  numerous  flagella  ;    it  stains  readily,  but  not  by  Gram's 

*  (entralbl.  Bakt..  Ref.  1««  Abt.,  xxxv.(]fK)4)  p.  763. 
t  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W..  1H04,  j.j>.  44it-f>9. 


232  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

method  ;  spore  formation  was  not  observed.  He  gives  details  of  the 
cultural  characteristics  of  this  organism,  and  also  a  short  account  of  the 
morphology  and  life  history  of  the  mould,  which,  however,  he  cannot 
identify  with  any  hitherto  described  fungus. 

Bacillus  subtilis  group  of  Bacteria.* — F.  D.  Chester  reviews  the 
researches  of  Oottheil  and  of  Meyer,  which  show  the  value  to  be  placed 
on  the  morphological  rather  than  on  the  cultural  characters  in  making  a 
classification  of  this  group  of  bacteria. 

The  members  of  this  group  are  arranged  in  two  classes  :  (a)  those 
whose  diameter  is  less  than  one  micron  (//,),  B.  mesenteric  us,  B.  aste- 
rosporus,  B.  subtilis,  B.  .simplex,  and  B.  fusiformis ;  {b)  those  whose 
diameters  exceed  one  micron,  B.  ruminatus,  B.  cereus,  B.  mycoides, 
11.  tumesc&ns,  and  B.  megatherium. 

The  principal  value  of  measurements  applies  to  the  sizes  of  spores, 
which  are  more  constant;  three  sizes  are  included:  (a)  spores  0*5  /a— 
0*6  fi  in  diameter,  B.  mesentericus  •  spores  with  an  average  diameter  of 
0*8  ai,  B.  cereus,  B.  tumescens,  and  B.  fusiformis  ;  spores  of  1  •  0  /a-1  ■  6  //. 
diameter,  B.  megatherium,  B.  ruminatus,  and  B.  asterosporus. 

Spores  are  further  differentiated  by  their  form  and  by  the  character 
of  their  walls.  Five  different  forms  are  noted  :  (a)  reuiform  spores  of 
B.  megatherium  ;  (b)  small  elongated  spores  of  B.  mesentericus  ;  (c) 
quadrangular  and  pointed  forms  in  B.  ruminatus  ;  (d)  round  spores  in 
B.  fusiformis,  and  (e)  the  oval  or  elliptical  spores  of  other  species. 

Spores  stained  by  his  method  show  two  distinct  parts,  an  inner  un- 
stained central  body,  and  an  outer  deeply-stained  wall  or  membrane. 
In  some  varieties  (B.  subtilis)  this  wall  is  thin  and  without  differentia- 
tion of  parts ;  in  others  (B.  ruminatus)  it  is  a  relatively  thick  capsule 
composed  of  three  distinct  portions,  an  outer  deeply-staining  membrane 
(extine),  a  delicate  inner  layer  (intine)  surrounding  the  central  body, 
and  an  intermediate  faintly-staining  portion. 

Germination  in  this  group  takes  place  in  two  ways — by  protrusion, 
and  by  stretching  and  subsequent  rupture.  Spore  germination  is  either 
polar  or  equatorial,  and  sometimes  the  germinal  rod  emerges  from  the 
rod  from  both  poles,  the  spore  membrane  remaining  attached  to  the 
rod  as  a  ring  (B.  simplex).  When  the  germinal  rod  emerges  from 
the  spore  it  enters  the  "  vegetative "  stage ;  these  vegetative  rods 
undergo  septation,  forming  shorter  vegetative  cells,  and  these,  again, 
produce  short  and  long  chains  or  individual  swarms.  The  duration 
of  the  swarming  stage  and  the  character  of  the  motility  have  an  im- 
portant bearing  on  the  differentiation  of  these  organisms,  and  also  on 
certain  cultural  characteristics.  The  vegetative  and  swarming  stages 
are  followed  by  the  production  of  longer  vegetative  rods,  and  their 
separation  as  individual  cells  whose  special  function  is  to  produce  spores. 
These  specialised  cells  have  been  termed  "  sporangia."  He  gives  details 
of  the  cultural  features  and  chemical  functions  of  the  group,  and 
appends  a  classification. 

Bacillus  fusiformis.t  — ■  V.  Ellermann  has  isolated  this  organism  on 
two  occasions  —  from  a  fatal  case  of  necrotic  stomatitis,  and  from  a 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2,e  Abt.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  737-52. 
t  Op.  cit.,  l*a  Abt.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  p.  729. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  233 

case  of  ulcerative  angina.  Colonies  of  1-1 "  5  mm.  appeared,  after  two 
days,  in  the  depth  of  serum  agar  ;  they  had  a  felty,  branched  appear- 
ance, and  when  fully  grown  were  often  prismatic  in  shape,  of  a  pale 
yellow  colour,  and  smelling  offensively  ;  the  medium  became  clouded 
but  was  not  liquefied  ;  growth  was  only  obtained  under  anaerobic 
conditions  ;  in  serum  broth  there  formed,  after  24  hours,  large  white 
flocculi,  which  sank  to  the  bottom  ;  no  growth  was  obtained  on 
ordinary  agar,  glucose  agar,  Hesse's  agar,  or  on  ordinary  broth. 

The  bacillus  is  a  non-motile,  slender  rod,  with  pointed  ends  and 
faintly  and  irregularly  staining  protoplasm  ;  in  length  about  5  /x-12  /*, 
and  at  times  forming  very  long  threads  ;  it  stains  by  Gram's  method  and 
by  Weigert's,  but  not  by  that  of  Claudius  ;  it  contains  no  Babes -Ernst 
granules.  The  author  refers  to  the  similar  organisms  isolated  by  Yeillon 
and  Zuber,  and  also  to  Vincent's  bacillus. 

Septicaemia  affecting  Geese.  *  —  Riemer  gives  details  of  two 
epidemics  of  septicaemia  occurring  among  geese.  From  the  blood  of 
these  cases,  taken  after  death,  he  isolated  an  organism,  identical  in  each 
case,  which  resembled  the  bacillus  of  swine  erysipelas.  It  consisted  of 
fine  rods  0 " 3  fi- 1  fi  long  and  0 '  1  fi  broad,  two  being  often  linked 
together  end  on  ;  in  agar  and  broth  cultures  abundant  threads  are 
seen  ;  after  several  days'  incubation  only  coccal  forms  are  found  ;  these 
stain  well  and  simulate  contamination.  The  bacillus  stains  by  ordinary 
aniline  dyes  but  is  decolorised  by  Gram ;  it  is  non-motile,  and  flagella 
are  absent ;  spore  formation  not  observed.  Growth  is  good  on  faintly 
alkaline  media  ;  slight  acidity  hinders,  and  strong  acidity  completely 
stops  growth  ;  the  cultures  are  relatively  short  lived,  14  days'  to  3  weeks' 
incubation  killing  the  rods,  so  that  frequent  subculture  is  necessary  ; 
the  optimum  temperature  is  37-5°C.  Gelatin  is  not  a  favourable 
medium,  growth  showing  on  the  surface  after  2  or  3  days,  as  small 
depressions,  in  which,  under  microscopic  examination,  are  seen  to  lie. 
small,  smooth-edged,  yellow  colonies  with  finely  granular  surfaces  ;  m 
gelatin  stab  cultures,  growth  occurs  only  at  the  surface,  and  after  a 
week  the  gelatin  is  almost  entirely  liquefied,  and  has  a  slimy  consistence 
in  which  floats  a  white  soft  bacterial  mass.  In  agar  stab,  growth 
takes  place  only  at  the  upper  part,  and,  on  the  surface  broadens  out  as  a 
delicate  pellicle.  Broth  cultures  are  clouded,  and  in  some  cases  a 
pellicle  is  formed  which  consists  of  long  interlacing  threads  ;  in  other 
cases  no  pellicle  is  formed.  In  milk  and  in  glucose  broth  there  is  a 
similar  growth  ;  no  change  of  reaction  occurs  in  the  milk,  nor  is  it 
coagulated  ;  in  the  glucose  broth  there  is  a  slight  addition  of  alkali,  but 
no  gas  production  ;  there  is  no  growth  on  potato.  Growth  is  best  on 
Loeffler's  blood  serum,  forming  yellowish  white  colonies  ;  the  bacilli  are 
larger  and  stronger  than  on  other  media,  and  the  above  mentioned 
double  forms  rarely  occur ;  later  the  medium  is  stained  brown,  and 
slightly  liquefied.  A  24  hours'  old  culture  was  killed  by  exposure  to 
56°  C.  for  5  minutes.  Riemer  found  the  organism  was  pathogenic  if 
injected  into  geese,  but  not  so  if  given  with  the  food  ;  it  was  less  patho- 
genic for  ducks,  and  innocuous  to  fowls  and  pigeons  and  to  the  ordinary 
experimental  animals. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1*  Abt,  xxxvii.  (1904)"pp.  641-8. 
April  19th,  1905  R 


234  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Glischrobacterium  as  the  Cause  of  Mucous  Fermentation  of 
Urine  in  Man.* — E.  A.  Rothman  records  a  case  of  ropey  urine  in  a 
man.  The  urine,  which  resembled  glycerin,  was  straw  coloured,  slightly 
cloudy,  of  acid  reaction,  and  sp.  gr.  1  ■  006  ;  it  contained  a  trace  of  serum, 
albumin,  and  mucin,  and  showed  40-GO  leucocytes  to  a  microscope  field. 

Stab  cultures  in  agar,  after  24  hours  at  36°  C,  gave  abundant  growth 
of  mucous  masses  ;  on  agar  plates  the  confluent  colonies  formed  worm- 
like figures  ;  examined  microscopically,  the  younger  colonies  were  finely 
granular,  round  with  smooth  edges,  and  of  a  yellowish  brown  colour  ; 
the  older  being  coarsely  granular,  and  having  indented  edges.  Smear 
preparations  showed  short  rods  0 "  7  /a-1  '  5  /x  long  by  0  •  3  /x-0  ■  5  //.  broad, 
imbedded  in  mucus.  They  stained  best  by  Ziehl's  carbol-fuchsin  well 
diluted  with  a  3  p.c.  solution  of  carbolic-acid  water,  and  also  by 
Gram's  method.  Hanging  drop  of  broth  culture  showed  active  mole- 
cular movement,  and  slight  true  motility.  Stab  culture  on  gelatin 
showed  growth  along  the  stab,  but  mostly  on  the  surface,  gas  being 
produced  in  the  depth  of  the  medium  ;  the  gelatin  was  not  liquefied. 
Anaerobic  cultures  grew  more  slowly.  The  optimum  temperature  was 
36°  C.  Broth,  milk,  and  2  p.c.  pepton  solution  in  0'85  p.c.  sodium 
chloride,  became  ropey  like  the  urine,  the  broth  becoming  slightly 
clouded,  and  having  a  copious  sediment ;  no  pigment  was  formed.  A 
faint  indol  reaction  was  obtained.  Growth  was  scanty  on  serum.  The 
organism  was  very  sensitive  to  drying.  It  was  only  very  slightly  patho- 
genic for  animals. 

Rothman  considers  that  this  organism  is  the  same  as  that  described 
by  Salaris  and  Malerba,  and  named  by  them  the  Glischrobacterium  ;  but 
he  failed  to  obtain  growth  on  potato,  and  the  appearance  of  the  colonies 
on  solid  media  is  not  quite  the  same  as  that  observed  by  these  authors. 

He  refers  to  three  published  cases  of  ropey  urine,  and  suggests  the 
comparison  of  this  mucous  fermentation  with  that  noted  by  Pasteur  as 
occurring  in  wine — "  vin  filant  " — produced  by  the  Micrococcus  viscosus, 
and  that  noted  by  Van  Laer  as  occurring  in  beer ;  also  the  mucous 
fermentation  of  milk  described  by  Adametz,  produced  by  Bacillus  lactis 
viscosus,  and  to  similar  conditions  recorded  by  other  writers. 

Pathogenic  Capsulated  Streptococcus  from  the  Naso-pharynx.f 
R.  0.  Neumann  has  found  on  eight  occasions  capsulated  streptococci 
in  the  nasopharynx.  They  are  characterised  by  their  clear,  glass-like, 
water-drop,  transparent  colonies  on  gelatin  and  agar,  and  by  their  well- 
formed  capsules  and  the  large  size  of  the  individual  cocci.  Two  or  four 
cocci  are  seen  lying  together  in  one  capsule  ;  chains  occur  rarely  ;  the 
cocci  are  usually  round,  but  sometimes  oval,  or  rod-like  ;  some  strains 
stain  by  Gram's  method,  others  do  not ;  the  capsule  stains  slightly  or 
not  at  all  by  ordinary  aniline  dyes.  Good  growth  is  obtained  on  agar, 
gelatin,  glycerin-agar,  and  sugar-agar,  but  Loeffler's  serum  is  unfavour- 
able to  growth.  The  colonies  are  sharp  contoured,  about  the  size  of  a 
pin's  head,  and  resemble  small  drops  of  saliva ;  with  low  magnification 
they  show  a  homogeneous,  finely-granulated  substance,  readily  drying  up 
in  the  course  of  a  few  days  ;  in  broth  there  is  slight  cloudiness  without 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  491-5. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  481-4. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  235 

much  sediment ;  on  potato,  growth  is  variable— with  some  stains  it  is 
only  slight,  with  others  it  is  good,  resembling  that  of  B.  mucosum  ;  milk 
usually  coagulates  after  many  days,  a  later  peptonising  of  the  coagulum 
rarely  happens  ;  gas  production,  H2S  formation,  and  indol  reaction  were 
not  observed  ;  gelatin  was  not  liquefied.  Growth  was  equally  good 
under  anaerobic  and  under  aerobic  conditions.  The  various  strains  were 
pathogenic  for  white  mice,  guinea-pigs,  rats  and  rabbits,  and  were 
equally  toxic  by  subcutaneous  and  intraperitoneal  injection,  death 
occurring  usually  after  2-4  days,  according  to  the  dose  administered. 
The  author  refers  to  several  varieties  of  similar  organisms  described  by 
other  writers,  and  indicates  where  these  differ  from  that  isolated  by 
himself. 

Variable  Galactan  Bacterium.* — R.  Greig  Smith  isolated  a  slime 
bacterium  from  Strychnos  Atherstonei ;  it  grew  on  gelatin  plates  as 
almost  powdery  colonies,  lying  on  the  surface  of  the  medium  and 
breaking  into  fragments  when  touched  with  a  needle.  Pure  cultures 
were  prepared  by  repeated  cultivation  on  glucose-gelatin  plates.  The 
pure  cultures  infected  into  saccharose  pepton  fluid  produce  slime.  The 
slime  was  also  formed  from  other  carbohydrates,  especially  maltose 
and  glycerin,  and  to  a  slighter  extent  from  galactose,  lajvulose, 
dextrose,  lactose,  and  invert-sugar  ;  the  production  of  slime  being 
measured  by  the  viscosity,  which  is  determined  by  noting  the  time  in 
seconds  during  which  5  c.cm.  of  the  culture  passed  through  a  pipette  with 
a  capillary  orifice.  The  author  employed  the  glycerin  medium  for  the 
production  of  large  quantities  of  the  gum  ;  this  on  analysis  he  found  to 
be  a  galactan. 

On  cultivation,  the  bacterium  was  observed  to  take  on  a  modified 
type,  with  the  formation  of  yellow,  slimy  colonies  on  glucose  gelatin  ; 
this  depends  on  an  alteration  of  the  solubility  of  the  gum.  He  has 
named  the  organism  Bacillus  Atherstonei.  Morphologically,  it  occurs  as 
plump,  round-ended  rods,  1  •  2  \x  by  0  •  7  fx-0  •  8  /x,  and  in  saccharose 
pepton-fluid  threads  up  to  7*5 /x  may  be  formed.  The  bacillus  is 
motile,  but  flagella  could  not  be  stained  ;  it  is  non-sporing  ;  it  does  not 
stain  by  Gram's  method  ;  it  grows  at  30°  C,  but  gum  or  slime  is  only 
produced  at  or  below  22°  C.  Details  of  the  cultural  characteristics  on 
various  media  are  °;iven. 


&* 


Epidemic  Cerebrospinal  Meningitis  and  its  Specific  Cause.f  — 
A.  Bettencourt  and  C.  Franca  have  studied  bacteriologically  271  cases  of 
cerebrospinal  meningitis,  and  in  all,  with  three  exceptions,  they  found 
the  Micrococcus  intracellular  is  meningitidis  of  "Weichselbaum. 

Material  for  the  research  was  obtained  by  lumbar  punctures  and 
from  the  cerebral  ventricles  after  death.  Ascitic  agar  and  broth,  to 
which  cerebrospinal  fluid  had  been  added,  were  used  as  media.  In  six 
cases  cultures  were  made  from  venous  blood,  but  they  all  remained 
sterile.  Direct  examination  of  cerebrospinal  fluid  showed  in  acute 
cases  a  preponderance  of  polymorphonuclear  leucocytes  ;  in  protracted 
cases  these  were  replaced  by  lymphocytes  and  mononuclear  cells.    Inside 


♦  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  190i,  p.  U2. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  l,e  Abt.  Kef.,  xxxv.  (1905) 


pp.  769-71. 

R   2 


236  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

and  outside  the  cells  were  diplococci  resembling  Neisser's  gonococcus, 
staining  with  aniline  dyes,  but  not  by  Gram's  method.  Broth  cultures 
were  uniformly  clouded,  and  often  formed  a  pellicle  ;  on  ascitic  agar  after 
24  hours,  greyish-white,  translucent  shining  colonies  appeared,  having 
round  wavy  margins  and  more  opaque  centres,  which  later  became 
yellow  and  brown,  whilst  on  the  margins  a  characteristic  crystalline 
deposit  was  noticeable  ;  on  ordinary  agar  growth  was  slower,  on  potato 
hardly  visible  ;  on  sloped  agar  cultures  with  neutral  red  and  glucose 
it  took  on  a  pale  pink  colour,  the  medium  remaining  unchanged  ; 
growth  was  good  in  milk,  but  coagulation  did  not  occur  ;  no  growth 
was  obtained  on  gelatin  at  18°-22°  C. ;  the  diplococcus  only  grew  in 
the  presence  of  oxygen  ;  indol  reaction  and  Legal-Weil's  test  were 
negative  ;  addition  of  glycerin  to  the  media  inhibited  growth.  For 
animals  this  diplococcus  was  found  to  be  only  slightly  pathogenic. 
Serum  from  a  patient  suffering  from  cerebrospinal  meningitis 
agglutinated  the  diplococcus — the  authors  regarding  this  as  a  specific 
reaction. 

Bacterium  cyaneum :  a  New  Chromogenic  Organising  —  E.  L. 
Leonard  describes  a  micro-organism  that  was  discovered  on  several 
occasions  in  air  plates  made  in  the  Hendrix  Laboratory  during  1900- 
1901,  but  has  not  been  again  met  with.  The  colonies  of  this  bacterium 
are  remarkable  for  the  deep  blue  pigment  they  produce  in  the  sur- 
rounding medium.  It  is  a  non-pathogenic  chromogenic  bacillus  1  /x- 
2  •  5  /a  in  length,  0  •  7  /jl  in  thickness,  longer  forms  appearing  in  broth 
cultures.  It  is  non-motile.  It  contains  refractile  deeply  staining 
granules,  but  no  spores,  capsule  or  flagella  have  been  observed  ;  it  stains 
by  the  ordinary  aniline  dyes,  and  also  by  Gram's  method.  Growth  is 
best  at  room  temperature  ;  it  grows  well  at  37°  C,  but  does  not  form 
pigment ;  at  10°  C.  no  growth  occurs  ;  it  is  killed  by  5  minutes'  ex- 
posure to  moist  heat  of  68°  C. ;  no  growth  occurs  under  anaerobic 
conditions.  On  agar  plates  at  37°  C,  24  hours  old,  colonies  are  coarsely 
granular  and  greenish-yellow  in  colour,  the  older  colonies  having  thin 
irregular  edges ;  in  those  growing  at  room  temperature,  many  fine, 
irregular,  blue  granules  occur  throughout  the  central  portion  of  the 
colony,  the  surrounding  medium  being  lightly  tinged  blue.  On  gelatin 
plates,  24  hours  old,  colonies  are  small,  granular,  brownish-yellow,  with 
circumscribed  edges ;  the  medium  is  unchanged,  but  liquefaction  com- 
mences after  48  hours,  and  is  complete  in  3-4  days,  the  medium 
becoming  slightly  greenish-yellow  in  colour.  Litmus  milk  shows  no 
change  within  36  hours  ;  after  48  hours  it  becomes  more  alkaline,  and  at 
the  4th-5th  day  it  is  decolorised,  but  remains  uncoagulated,  the  organism 
forming  a  blue  precipitate  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube.  Growth  on  potato 
appears  only  after  3-4  days.  On  blood  serum  a  yellow-green  growth  is 
seen  after  24  hours ;  it  is  elevated  and  moist ;  there  is  a  slight  blue 
coloration  of  the  medium,  which,  after  a  week,  becomes  liquefied  and  of 
an  olive-green  colour.  Fermentation  tests  in  dextrose-free  bouillon 
show  no  gas  formation,  nor  is  gas  produced  in  any  sugar  solution. 

t  Johns  Hopkins  Hosp.  Bull.,  xv.  (1904)  p.  398. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  237 

The  blue  pigment  is  non-crystalline,  soluble  in  water,  slightly  in 
alcohol,  insoluble  in  ether  and  chloroform. 

The  author  sets  out  in  tabular  form  the  differentiating  characters 
between  this  organism  and  Pseudomonas  cyaneo-fhwrescens  and  Pseudo- 
monas  syncynea. 

Beijerinck,  M.  W. — Ueber  die  Bakterien  welche  sich  im  dunkeln  mit  Kohlen- 

saure  als  Kohlenstoffquelle  ernahren  kb'nnen. 

Centralbl.  Bakt,  2te  Abt.,  xi.(1904)  pp.  593-9. 

Beitzke,  H. — Ueber  die  fusiformen  Bacillen. 

Op.  cit,  V  Abt.,  Kef.,  xxxv.  (1904)  pp.  1-15. 

Boekhout,  F.  W.,&  Ott  de  Vries,  J. — Ueber  eine die  Gelatine  verflussigende 

Milchsaurebakterie.  Op.  cit.,  2te  Abt.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  587-90. 

Cafferina,  G. — Beitrag  zum  Studiumder  tb.ermoph.ilen  Bakterien. 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  533-5  (1  pi.). 

Gaucher,  L. — Sur  quelqnes  bacteries  chromogenes  isolees  d'une  eau  de  source. 

Op.  cit,  xi.  (1904)  pp.  721-3. 

Hefferan,  Mary — A  Comparative  and  Experimental  Study  of  Bacilli-producing 
red  pigment.  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  520-40. 

H  i  l  l,  G.  E. — Bacterial  Disposal  of  Sewage. 

Journ.  Franklin  Inst.,  clix.  (1905)  pp.  1-16. 

Kamen,  L. — Zur  iEtiologie  der  Gasphlegmone. 

Centralbl.  Bakt.,   lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxv. 

(1904)  pp.  554-63,  686-714  (3  pis.). 

Menel,  Em. — Einige  Beobachtengen  iiber  die  Struktur  und  Sporenbildung   be 

symbiotischen  Bakterien.  Op.  cit.,  2te  Abt.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  559-74  (1  pi.) 

Neide,  E. — Botanische  Beschreibung  einiger  sporenbildenden  Bakterien. 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  539-54  (3  pis.). 

Ottolenghi,  D. — Ueber  die  feine  Struktur  des  Milzbrandbacillus. 

Op.  cit,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  pp.  546-53  (3  figs.) 

Preisz,  H.— Studien  iiber  Morphologie  und  Biologie  des  Milzbandbacillus. 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  537-45,  657-65  (2  pis.). 

Schorler,  B. — Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Eisenbakterien. 

Op.  cit,  2*«  Abt.,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  681-95. 

Strong,  R.  P. — Protective  Inoculation  against  Asiatic  Cholera. 

[An  experimental  study,  with  descriptions  of  the  cultures  and  the  technique, 
employed.]  Bureau  Govt.  Lab.  Manila,  Publication  16, 

(1904)  52  pp. 

Suchting,  H. — Kritische  Studien  iiber  die  Knbllchenbakterien. 

Centralbl.  Bakt,  2*  Abt.,  xi.  (1904)  pp.  496-52. 

Vejdovsky,  F. — Ueber  den  Kern  der  Bakterien  und  Seine  Teilung. 

Tom.  cit,  pp.  481-96  (1  pi.). 


*    I  cSX- 


238  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.   Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 
(1)  Stands. 

Ladd's  Student's  Microscope. — This  instrument  (fig.  34),  kindly 
presented  to  the  Society's  Collection  by  Mr.  Wynne  E.  Baxter,  was 
exhibited  at  the  Meeting  on  May  18,  1004.  It  was  made  about  1864. 
Its  features  are  :  a  very  light  tripod  foot,  consisting  of  a  framework  of 
tubes  ;  a  body  fixed  on  a  frame,  which  slides  on  a  straight  dove-tailed 
bar,  on  the  Jackson  plan  ;  the  substage  slides  on  the  same  bar,  and  is 
movable  by  rack-and-pinion,  whilst  the  stage,  which  is  also  fitted  in 
the  same  dove-tailed  groove,  is  fixed. 

Motion  is  not  imparted  to  the  body  by  rack-work,  but  by  a  chain 
working  round  a  spindle  turned  by  the  milled  head,  which  gives  a 
movement  of  remarkable  smoothness  and  free  from  backlash.  A 
part  of  the  chain  is  visible  in  the  figure,  above  the  top  of  the  dove-tailed 
bar. 

The  fine-adjustment  is  made  by  a  lever  which  hangs  down  from  a 
collar  formed  on  the  right-hand  milled  head  of  the  coarse-adjustment. 

The  mechanical  stage  is  also  moved  by  chains  in  both  directions. 

The  substage  referred  to  is  peculiar,  and  consists  of  two  movable 
plates  carried  by  a  third  plate  which  is  fixed  to  a  bracket  that  slides  in 
the  dove-tailed  groove  already  mentioned. 

The  centring  of  the  substage  is  effected  by  means  of  the  two  movable 
plates.  The  upper  plate  is  pivoted  on  the  lower,  and  the  latter  is 
pivoted  on  the  fixed  plate.  The  pivot  of  the  upper  plate  is  seen  in  the 
figure,  to  the  right  of  the  tube  for  receiving  the  condenser.  The  pivot 
of  the  lower  plate  is  to  the  front  of  the  tube,  and  is  hidden  by  the  upper 
plate.  Motion  is  given  to  each  plate  by  means  of  a  pinion  geared  into 
a  short  rack  cut  in  the  edge  of  the  plate  near  the  corner.  The  pinion 
and  milled  head  for  moving  the  lower  plate  are  seen  in  the  figure,  and 
the  pinion  for  moving  the  upper  plate  is  in  a  corresponding  position  on 
the  other  side.  Owing  to  the  positions  of  the  pivots,  the  movements 
of  the  plates  are  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  so  that  the  condenser 
can  be  adjusted  to  the  axis  of  the  instrument. 

The  mechanical  stage  is  moved  in  both  directions  by  chains  passing 
round  spindles. 

There  are  two  eye-pieces  and  two  object-glasses,  of  1  in.  and  £  in. 
focus. 

This  Microscope  is  described  in  Carpenter,  4th  edition,  1864. 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives;  (3)  Illu- 
minating and  other  Apparatus;  (4)  Photomicrography;  (5)  Microscopical  Optics 
and  Manipulation ;  (0)  Miscellaneous. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


239 


Portable  Microscope.  —  This  instrument  (fig.  35)  —  presented  by 
Dr.  C.  St.  Aubyn-Farrer,  May  18,  1904— though  probably  by  Cary,  is 


Fig.  34. 


without  the  maker's  name,  and  is  similar  to  that  made  by  Cary,  after 
the  design  of  C.  Gould,  about  1828. 

This"  Microscope   differs  from  the  one  in  the  Society's  Collection 


240 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


in  having  an  eye-piece  with  two  lenses  only,  instead  of  three,  although 
the  presence  of  a  screw-thread  seems  to  indicate  that  provision  for  this 
third  lens  had  been  made,  which,  however,  is  not  essential  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  good  image. 

The  spring-clip  to  the  stage  is  fixed  on  the  upper  side,  instead  of  the 
under  side — a  much  better  position. 

The  mirror  is  plane,  and  under  \%  in.  hvdiameter  (less  in  diameter 


Fig.  35. 

than  a  sixpence).     It  can  be  used  for  illuminating  opaque  objects  by 
inserting  the  stem  in  the  socket  seen  to  the  right-hand  of  the  stage. 

The  object-glasses  are  three  simple  lenses,  which  may  be  used  singly 
or  in  combination.  By  removing  the  body  the  instrument  can  be  used 
as  a  simple  Microscope. 

Zeiss's  New  Laboratory  Stand.*— This  instrument  (fig.  36)  is 
intended  for  use  in  the  laboratory,  and  for  demonstration  purposes.    One 

*  Carl  Zeiss's  Special  Catalogue,  x.  (1904). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


241 


of  its  chief  features  is  an  obvious  and  convenient  handle,  a  most  useful 
adjunct  to  an  instrument  intended  for  elementary  microscopists  who  are 
prone  to  lift  the  stand  by  its  fine-adjustment.  The  instrument  is 
supplied  with  rack-and-pinion  coarse-adjustment,  and  a  micrometer 
movement  fine  adjustment.  The  fixed  stage  is  circular,  and  of  large 
dimensions  (If  inch  diameter),  but  this  may  be  easily  removed  and 
replaced  by  a  rotating  stage,  provided  with  a  scale  of  degrees  whenever 
polarised  light  is  required.     The  usual  accessory  substage  fittings  and 


Fig.  :->t3. 


apparatus  are  supplied.     Their  addition  adds  somewhat  to  the  cost,  but 
materially  increases  the  effectiveness  of  the  instrument. 

Reichert's  New  Large  Stand,  A 1,  with  Extra  Wide  Tube  and  New 
Lateral  Micrometer-screw.*  —  In  this  instrument  (fig.  87)  the  body- 
tube  projects  specially  far  over  the  stage,  and  permits  of  the  examination 
of  large  plate  preparations  or  Petri's  dishes.  The  pillar  can  be  used 
as  a  handle  without  danger  of  disturbing  the  fine-adjustment.  The 
circular  rotating  stage  can  be  centred  by  means  of  the  screws  c  c',  which 
also  provide  a  small  lateral  movement.-  Larger  movements  up  to 
100  mm.  may  be  obtained  by  means  of  a  new  mechanical  stage,  which 

*  C.  Keichert  (Vienna),  Catalogue  No.  25  (Mikroscopie,  1904)  pp.  14-15. 


Fig.  37. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


243 


can  be  fitted  above  the  rotating  stage.  The  coarse-adjustment  is  by 
rack-and-pinion.  The  fine-adjustment  (fig.  38)  is  by  means  of  a  new 
micrometer-screw,  which  operates  thus  :  by  turning  the  milled  head  m  a 
spindle  on  which  a  worm  is  cut  actuates  a  worm-wheel,  by  the  rotation 
of  which  a  roller  is  raised  or  lowered,  and  with  it  the  tube.  In  this 
manner  a  fine-adjustment  of  the  greatest  delicacy  is  attained.  The 
movement  of  the  micrometer-screw  is  an  endless  one,  which  is  a  feature 
of  considerable  importance.  Since  the  only  downward  pressure  is  that 
of  a  delicate  spring  and  the  slight  weight  of  the  aluminium  tube,  the 
resistance  to  the  micrometer-screw  is  exceedingly  small,  and  injury  to  the 


Fig.  38. 


cover-glass  is  almost  impossible,  even  should  the  objective  come  into 
contact  with  it.  All  bearing  surfaces  are  of  steel,  and  the  entire 
mechanism  is  protected  within  the  frame  of  the  Microscope.  The  head 
of  the  micrometer-screw  is  so  graduated  that  one  division  is  equivalent  to 
0  •  001  mm.  movement  of  the  objective. 

Reichert's  Large  Stand,  No.  1  A,  fitted  with  Tip-up  Stage-Clips.* 
The  movable  object-stage  of  this  instrument  (fig.  39)  was  figured  and 
described  in  the  Journal  for  1898  (p.  383,  fig.  43),  but  attention  was 
not  called  to  the  tip-up  stage-clips,  which  are  here  seen  in  position. 

*  C.Reichert  (Vienna),  Catalogue  No.  25  (Mikroskopie,  1904)  pp.  17-18  (figs. 
4, 4a). 


Fig.  39. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,  ETC. 


245 


Reicherl's  New  Mineralogical  Stand.*— This  instrument  (fig.  40) 
is  similar  in  size  and  adjustment  to  the  last  described  model.     The 


Fig.  40. 
*  C.  Reichert  (Vienna),  Catalogue  No.  25  (Mikroskopie,  1904)  p.  30,  fig.  16c. 


Fig.  41. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  247 

object  stage  is  completely  rotatory  around  the  optic  axis,  and  has  also 
rectangular  movements — one  with  slow  micrometer  adjustment,  readable 
to  0*01  mm.,  the  other  with  quicker  movement,  readable  to  0*1  mm. 
The  circular  graduations  are  into  8G0°  with  a  vernier.  The  rotatory 
object-stage,  by  lifting  the  fixing  screws  at  its  sides,  can  be  removed  and 
replaced  by  a  vulcanite  stage  with  a  finding  arrangement,  and  is  likewise 
graduated  into  860°.  The  micrometer-screw  has  a  vernier ;  the  third 
Nicol  is  rotatory  for  about  90°  in  a  collar  within  the  tube  ;  there  is  a 
Bertrand  condenser. 

Reichert's  Large  Mineralogical  Stand.* — This  instrument,  cata- 
logued as  No.  1  b,  is  shown  in  fig.  41,  and  is  made  with  a  rotatory 
object-stage,  divided  into  360°,  and  crossed  by  two  millimetre  scales  at 
right  angles  for  orientating  known  objects.  The  mirrors  are  hollow- 
plane,  and  adjustable  at  various  heights.  The  coarse-adjustment  is  by 
rack-and-pinion,  and  the  fine  by  a  new  delicate  graduated  micrometer- 
screw.  Both  polariser  and  cylinder-diaphragm  have  a  vertical  rack 
movement,  and  are  fitted  into  a  diaphragm-carrier  of  Abbe's  complete 
illuminating  apparatus,  in  order  to  afford  a  rapid  change  from  polarised 
to  unpolarised  light.  The  analyser  is  placed  above  the  ocular,  and 
is  fitted  with  a  graduated  circle  divided  into  360°.  It  has  also  an 
opening  for  the  insertion  of  a  quartz  prism,  and  can  be  removed  and 
replaced  without  disturbing  the  ocular.  The  polarising  Nicol  is  easily 
rotatory,  and  the  four  quadrants  of  rotation  are  indicated  by  the  click- 
ing of  a  spring.  The  third  Nicol,  without  any  interference  with  the 
adjustment  of  the  instrument,  can  be  applied  as  an  analyser  immediately 
above  the  objective.  The  application  of  a  pin  ensures  that  the  cross- 
threads,  ocular,  and  the  graduated  circle  are  always  in  connexion.  The 
screws  c  c'  are  for  accurately  centring  the  objective.  Nicols  with  large 
field  of  view,  or  quartz  plates,  can  be  inserted  at  Z.  A  condenser  facili- 
tates the  observation  of  axial  images  of  mineral  sections.  By  drawing 
out  the  lens  L  the  rays  through  the  objective  can  be  changed  from 
parallel  to  divergent  pencils  ;  the  necessary  draw-out  adjustment  of 
ocular  is  then  performed  by  the  rack  t.  The  iris  on  the  Abbe  condenser 
receives  the  disks  of  calcite  and  mica. 

Reichert's  Microscope  for  Determining  Hardness  of  Substances. f 
This  instrument,  which  has  been  constructed  from  the  designs  of 
J.  A.  Brinell,  is  shown  in  fig.  42.  The  principle  of  the  method  depends 
upon  measuring  the  area  in  square  millimetres  of  the  circular  dent 
produced  in  a  substance  when  a  superposed  steel  sphere  is  subjected  to 
a  known  pressure  in  kilograms.  The  ratio  of  pressure  per  square 
millimetre  gives  the  "  hardness  number  "  of  the  substance.  The  general 
view  of  the  instrument  is  given  in  fig.  42,  and  the  chief  parts  are  : — 
(1)  T  (fig.  43)  the  tube  forming  a  special  Microscope,  with  cross-threads, 
ocular  and  objective,  working  up  to  about  50-fold  magnification  ;  (2) 
M,i  the  object-stage,  acting  also  as  foot  of  the  whole,  with  a  pillar 
carrying  the  rotatory  upper  parts  ;  (3)  a  horizontal  arrangement  of 
parts  —  some  fixed,  some  movable  —  serving  for  the  lengthwise  and 
diagonal  movements  of  the   tube  ;    (4)  a  vernier  for  reading  off  the 

*  C.  Reichert  (Vienna),  Catalogue  No.  25  (Mikroskopie,  1904)  pp.  28-9,  fig.  16. 
+  Tom.  cit,  p.  36,  fig.  17e ;  and  Special  Circular. 


Oy 


48 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


diameter  of  the  circular  dent.  The  milled  screw-head  S  provides  for 
the  vertical  adjustment  of  the  tube  ;  S'  and  S"  govern  the  backwards- 
and-forwards  movement  in  the  direction  of  its  length  ;  8'"  controls  the 


Anszug- 


Fig.  42. 


horizontal  motion  perpendicular  to  the  last  and  moves  the  whole  of  the 
over-stage  parts.  In  taking  the  measurements,  the  tube  is  first  got 
upright,  and  the  vernier  by  means  of  the  screw  S'  brought  to  the  zero  ; 


the  dent  to  be  examined  is  then  applied  to  the  object-stage,  and  the  tube, 
by  means  of  S",  moved  so  that  one  cross-thread  is  tangentially  over  the 
edge  of  the  dent,  thus  o  The  tube  is  now  moved  sideways  until  the 
other  thread  (perpendicular  to  last)  passes  through  the  centre  of  the 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


249 


dent.  By  means  of  S'  the  tube  (with  the  objective)  is  carefully  moved 
over  the  dent  until  the  first  cross-thread  reaches  a  similar  tangential 
position  on  the  opposite  sidp.  The  reading  of  the  vernier  gives  the 
diameter  of  the  circular  dent.  A  shade  r  and  lens  /  are  provided  to 
facilitate  reading  the  vernier.  In  the  case  of  large  objects  the  whole 
instrument  is  placed  on  the  specimen  so  that  the  aperture  X  is  over  the 
dent. 

(2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Reichert's  Objectives  with  Bourguet's  Spring  Safety  Action.* — 
C.  Reichert  has  fitted  this   protective   action  to    all   his   achromatic 


Fig.  44. 


Fig.  45. 


objectives  numbered  6  and  upwards.  The  arrangement  is  shown  in 
figs.  44  and  45.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  elasticity  of  the 
spring  keeps  the  combination  in  proper  adjustment,  but  if  there  should 
be  contact  with  the  object,  the  lens-holder  is  pushed  within  its  sheath. 

H. — Construction  of  Aplanatic  Combinations  of  Lenses  with  or  without  Achroma- 
tism.    IV.  English  Mechanic,  lxxx.  (1905)  pp.  595-6. 

(3)  Illuminating-  and  other  Apparatus. 

Reichert's    Swing-out    Condenser   and    Iris    Diaphragm.f —  The 
complete  arrangement  is  shown  in  fig.  46.     It  will  be  seen  that  the  con- 


Fig.  46.  Fig.  47. 

denser  can  be  swung  out  of  the  iris  by  the  action  of  the  hinge  Ch,  which 
is  operated  by  twisting  the  bifid  lever.  Fig.  47  shows  the  condenser  in 
more  detail. 

*  C.  Eeichert  (Vienna),  Catalogue  No.  25  (Mikroskopie,  1904)  p.  5. 
April  19th,  1905  s 


250 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


Electric  Warm-Stage,  for  Use  with  the  Microscope,  combined 
with  a  Nernst  Lamp  to  Illuminate  the  Microscope. — H.  C.  Ross  gives 
the  following  description  of  this  apparatus  (figs.  48  and  49)  exhibited  at 
the  December  Meeting. 

"With  the  assistance  of  Engineer-Lieut.  Fielder,  R.N.,  I  have  in- 
vented an  electric  warm-stage,  which  has  the  following  advantages  : — 
(1)  As  it  fits  on  top  of  the  slide,  it  can  be  slipped  on  or  off  without  alter- 
ing the  focus.  (2)  It  can  be  used  with  the  highest  powers  of  the  Micro- 
scope and  with  the  Abbe  condenser.  (3)  It  does  not  interfere  with  the 
movements  of  the  mechanical  stage,  the  warm-stage  moving  backwards 
and  forwards  with  the  slide.  (4)  It  requires  no  attention,  for  so  long  as 
the  current  is  running  through  it,  so  long  will  the  temperature  of  the 
centre  of  the  slide  be  9r ' 


3/°C. 


Fig.  48. 


"  The  apparatus  consists  of  a  box  of  ebonite,  about  the  same  length 
as  but  a  little  wider  than  an  ordinary  slide,  and  it  is  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  thick.  There  is  a  gap  in  the  centre  1  in.  square,  to  allow  for  the 
cover-slip  and  objective  of  the  Microscope. 

"  Pressed  into  the  ebonite  box  is  a  coil  of  wire,  which  offers  a  standard 
resistance  to  the  electric  current,  and  this  again  is  covered  in  by  a  sheet 
of  mica — the  mica  surface  being  in  contact  with  the  slide.  Two  wires 
connect  the  warm-stage  with  the  main  electric  light  circuit.  Two  brass 
clips  are  supplied  with  each  apparatus,  so  that  the  warm-stage  can  be 
clipped  on  to  the  slide  if  desired. 

"  That  the  temperature  of  the  centre  of  the  slide  can  be  maintained  at 
37°  C,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  a  certain  amount  of  resistance 
on  one  of  the  wires  connecting  the  apparatus  with  the  light  circuit,  which 
resistance  varies  according  to  the  voltage.     In  the  first  apparatus  I  made, 

*  C.  Reichert  (Vienna),  Catalogue  No.  25  (Mikroskopie,  1904)  pp.  12-13. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


251 


this  took  the  form  of  a  resistance  coil,  but  it  struck  me  that  all  the 
current  passing  through  the  coil  was  wasted,  so  it  was  replaced  by  a 
lamp,  which  could  light  the  Microscope  and  also  be  the  resistance  for 
the  warm-stage.  For  the  suggestion  that  the  lamp  should  be  of  the 
Nernst  pattern,  I  am  indebted  to  my  brother,  Professor  Ronald  Ross. 

"  The  lamp  fills  another  purpose  besides  illuminating  the  Microscope 
and  regulating  the  amount  of  current  to  the  warm-stage  :  it  simplifies 
the  question  of  a  change  iof  voltage.  Suppose  an  instrument  were 
procured  for  a  current  of  100  volts,  and  one  wished  to  use  it  with  a 
current  of  230  volts,  all  that  would  be  necessary  would  be  to  change 
parts  of  the  lamp,  and  the  apparatus  is  ready  for  use. 

"  The  lamp  is  mounted  on  an  oak  base,  and  is  supplied  with  two 
switches,  one  for  the  lamp  and  one  for  the  warm-stage.'" 


Fig.  49. 


Improved  Methods  of  Working  with  the  Vertical  Illuminator.* 
Method  I. — With  the  image  of  a  stop.  Method  II. — With  the  stop 
and  the  vertical  illuminator. 

The  accessories  necessary  for  Method  I.  are  (1)  source  of  light ;  (2) 
carrier  for  stop  ;  (3)  condenser  ;  (1)  vertical  illuminator.  The  con- 
denser is  first  set  between  the  light  and  the  vertical  illuminator,  so  that 
it  forms  an  aerial  image  of  the  source  of  light  at  a  distance  from  the 
vertical  illuminator  equal  to  that  from  the  vertical  illuminator  to  the 
top  of  the  eye-piece.  The  carrier  for  the  stop  is  then  placed  between 
the  light  and  the  condenser  in  such  a  position  that  its  aerial  image 
is  exactly  adjusted  and  falls  sharply  in  focus  at  the  back  lens  of  the 
objective.  This  will  give  an  effect  precisely  the  same  as  placing  a 
stop  or  diaphragm  over  the  vertical  illuminator  itself,  while  the  upward 
path  of  the  rays  from  the  object  to  the  eye  is  unimpeded. 

The  accessories  necessary  for  Method  II.  are  (1)  source  of  light  ; 
(2)  bull's-eye  condenser  ;  (3)  vertical  illuminator  with  stop  or  diaphragm 


*  Knowledge,  ii.  (1905)  p.  43. 


B   2 


252 


SUMMARY   OF   CQRRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


fitted  to  its  side.  For  this  method,  the  lamp  and  bull's-eye  are  adjusted 
as  in  Method  I.,  care  being  taken  that  proper  distances  are  kept,  when 
the  same  effect  will  be  produced  as  with  a  stop  or  diaphragm  placed 
immediately  over  the  vertical  illuminator. 

C.  Baker's  Electric  Lamp  for  the  Microscope.  — This  illuminant 
consists  of  a  Nernst  electric  lamp  (fig.  50),  mounted  upon  a  heavy 
tripod  stand,  the  feet  of  which  are  corked.  It  is  capable  of  adjust- 
ment in  a  vertical  direction,  and  there  is  also  a  tilting  movement,  to 
enable  the  lamp  to  be  used  at  any  angle  required. 


I*  Imma  Miiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


Fig.  50. 


There  are  three  parts  to  the  Nernst  lamp,  namely,  the  lamp  holder, 
containing  an  automatic  cut-out ;  compensating  resistance  (a  small  glass 
bulb  containing  a  fine  spiral  wire) ;  and  the  filament  itself,  mounted  on 
porcelain,  and  having  an  electric  heater  behind  it. 

These  lamps  are  made  for  use  on  two  currents,  namely,  100  volts 
and  200  volts,  and  are  provided  with  either  plug  or  bayonet-joint 
connections. 

The  globe  covering  the  luminous  filament  is  blackened,  leaving 
only  a  small  aperture  in  front,  through  which  the  light  passes. 

Coloured  and  ground-glass  screens,  for  modifying  the  light,  are 
carried  in  front  of  the  globe  by  means  of  a  removable  carrier. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  253 


(5)  Microscopical   Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Milne,  J.  R. — New  form  of  Spectrophotometer. 

[Paper  describing  the  developed  form  of  the  instrument,  the 
principle  of  which  was  indicated  in  a  previous  communi- 
cation.] 

Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxv.  (1905)  pp.  338-54. 

M  „        New   form    of  Juxtapositor,  to   bring   into   accurate   contact   the 

edges  of  the  two  beams  of  light  used  in  Spectrophotometry  with 
an  application  to  Polarimetry. 

Tom,  cit,  pp.  355-63  (3  figs.). 

(6)   Miscellaneous. 

Linnseus  and  the  Use  of  the  Microscope.  —  Mr.  Frank  Crisp 
has  kindly  forwarded  the  following  letter  and  extract  for  insertion  in 
the  Journal  : — 

Perhaps  it  might  be  worthy  of  a  note  in  the  Journal  to  call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  Linnaeus  used  a  Microscope.  I  had  never  heard  that 
he  did,  but  at  a  Meeting  of  the  Linnaean  Society  not  long  since  the 
President,  Professor  S.  H.  Vines,  F.R.S.  D.Sc,  mentioned  the  fact,  and 
I  asked  him  for  the  authority,  which  he  has  sent  me  as  per  enclosed 
manuscript. 

Cuff's  name  has  been  spun  out  in  the  Latin.  I  should  have  thought 
that  Cuffianus  would  have  been  sufficient.  Possibly  they  thought  his 
name  was  Cuffin. 

Memorandum  as  to  the  Use  of  Microscope  by  Linnceus. 

Amcenitates  academics,  vii.,  Dissertation  cxlvi.,  Mundus  Invisibilis 
(Roos,  1767),  p.  399.  Speaking  of  the  Smut  of  Wheat  (Ustilago)  the 
author  says  : — 

"  Perhibet  Auctor,  pulvere  hoc  aquae  immisso  et  sestivo  calore  per 
aliquot  dies  exposito,  vera  ovis  excludi  animalcula.  Experimentum 
hoc  iteratum  vidimus  apud  N.  D.  Praes  (i.e.  Linnaeus)  ubi  microscopio 
Cuffiniano  haec  (nudo  alioqum  oculo  invisibilia)  ad  multas  vidi 
myriades." 

Translation. — The  author  asserts  that  when  this  powder  has  been 
mixed  with  water,  and  exposed  for  some  days  to  summer  heat,  true 
animalcules  are  given  off  by  the  ova.  We  have  seen  this  experiment 
repeated  in  the  presence  of  our  Mr.  President,  where,  with  a  Cuffinian 
Microscope,  I  have  seen  them — i.e.  the  animalcules— (though  they  are 
invisible  with  the  naked  eye)  in  many  myriads.— S.  H.  V. 

Method  of  Constructing  small  Glass  Tanks.* — T.  G.  Kingsford 
describes  the  following  simple  method  of  constructing  glass  tanks 
suitable  for  aquaria  and  for  light  filters/f" 

The  construction  is  simple  and  within  the  range  of  the  amateur 
mechanic.     It  consists  of  2  glass  disks  for  the  sides,  a  band  of  thin 

*  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  ix.  (1904)  pp.  117-20  (2  figs.), 
t  See  this  Journal,  1904,  pp.  383  and  479. 


254 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 


sheet  metal  (A,  figs.  51  and  52)  lined  with  rubber  B,  and  a  metal  clip  or 
small  bolt  C,  to  draw  the  ends  of  the  band  toward  each  other.     In  order 


Fig.  51. 


to  leave  an  opening  for  the  introduction  of  fluid  the  ends  of  the  band 
do  not  quite  meet.  Short  strips  of  rubber,  D,  are  solutioned  on  to  the 
rubber  lining.     These  serve  to  keep  the  glass  sides  the  desired  distance 


&£y 


Fig.  52. 


apart.  Fig.  51  shows  a  tank  ready  for  use,  and  intended- [to  be 
attached  to  an  ordinary  bull's-eye  condenser  stand.  The  glass  sides 
recommended  are  bevel-edsed  clock   glasses,  obtainable  in  sizes*  from 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  255 

about  f  in.  to  about  <S  in.  in  diameter.     The  metal  band  should  not  be 
too  stiff. 

The  form  of  the  tightening  clip  will  depend  on  the  use  to  which  the 
tank  is  to  be  put.  If  a  clear  opening  be  not  necessary,  the  ends  of  the 
band  are  turned  up  at  right-angles,  and  a  small  bolt  passed  through 
them  (fig.  51),  but  if  a  clear  opening  be  desired,  the  form  shown  in 
fig.  52  should  be  used. 

Rock  Crystal.* — F.  J.  Cheshire  describes  the  geological  conditions 
of  the  places  where  rock  crystal,  the  brazilian  pebble  of  the  optician, 
is  obtained,  and  gives  an  account  of  its  crystalline  nature.  In  con- 
nection therewith,  he  points  out  that  for  high-power  spectacle  lenses 
the  crystal  should  be  axis-cut,  so  that  the  effect  of  the  double  refraction 
of  the  crystal  is  minimised  as  far  as  possible. 

Photogrammetric  Focimetry.| — V.  Legros  treats  this  subject  in  a 
series  of  articles  whose  nature  may  be  gathered  from  his  following 
divisions  of  the  subject : — 

Part  I.  Chap.  1.  Principles  of  the  method. 

„     2.  Errors  of  the  method. 

„     3.  Determination  of  the  nodal  points. 

„     4.  Curvature  of  field. 

„     5.  Astigmatism. 

„     6.  Anomalies  of  focal  length. 

,,     7.  Definition,  focal  length,  focal  volume,  luminosity. 

„     8.  Chemical  focus. 

Part  II.  Chap.  1 .  Relations  of  microbiology  and  of  military  technology. 

„     2.  Improvised  microscopic  focimetry. 

„     8.  Photogrammetric  focimeter  for  microscopical  optics. 

„     4.  Conclusions. 

A  New  Spherometer.J — This  instrument  for  measuring  the  curvature 
of  lenses  is  described  by  C.  V.  Raper.  The  material  for  the  framework 
was  made  of  Dr.  Guilleaume's  "  Invar."  In  figs.  53  and  54  a  sectional 
elevation  and  plan  are  given,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  instrument 
consists  essentially  of  a  tripod  frame,  and  a  very  fine  worm  and  worm- 
wheel.  The  frame  is  built  up  of  the  invar  rod-stays  B  and  Bx  attached 
to  the  top-centre  Ax.  The  two  B  stays  have  the  conical-pointed  feet 
F  affixed  at  their  lower  extremities,  as  plainly  shown  by  the  elevation. 
The  Bj  stay,  however,  lying  in  the  same  vertical  plane  as  the  hori- 
zontal lifting-bar  H,  is  affixed  thereto,  and  the  B  stays  are  similarly 
attached  to  other  horizontal  stays  H2  (fig.  55).  The  horizontal  lifting- 
bars  are  screwed  into  the  lower  centre-piece  A1?  both  these  (top  and 
bottom)  centre-pieces  being  of  invar.  The  invar  tube  C  forming  the 
vertical  strut,  and  also  the  bearing  and  nut  for  the  worm-wheel  spindle, 
is  a  drive-fit  into  both  centre-pieces,  and  is  further  secured  in  the 
lower  centre-piece  A  by  the  screwed  ends  of  the  two  horizontal  lifting- 

*  Revue  des  Sciences  Photographiques  (Paris,  1 304),  Nos.  1-8.  about  72  pp.,  3  figs. 
+  Brit.  Optical  Journ.,  1904,"  pp.  202,  221,  239,  2C2  (20  figs.). 
X  English  Mechanic,  lxxx.  (1904)  pp.  358-00  (4  figs.). 


256 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


bars  H  and  H^  penetrating  it.  The  spring  pressing  on  the  top  of  C, 
the  compression  of  which  can  be  regulated  by  the  knurled  brass  nut 
D,  is  to  keep  the  screwed  part  of  the  centre  spindle  up  into  the  nut, 


BBA-iSBAj. 


iVb&j 


X, 


PHOSPV 
BR( 


l3R.vfc,     tO  ccv  is  Ptmm 


-<S4  BA 


-  ^' V* 


5QO   TEETM         So    P        lEftD    5Q 


Fro.  53. 


Fig.  54. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


257 


thus  avoiding  any  back-lash.  The  worm-wheel  is  carried  in  the  invar 
frame  K,  pivoting;  on  pin  P,  which  frame  is  fitted  with  a  slot  to  accom- 
modate the  rise  and  fall  of  the  worm-wheel,  so  that  worm,  wheel  and  frame 
can  move  together.  The  worm  or  tangent-wheel  W,  as  shown  in  the 
end  elevation  (fig.  55),  is  turned  solid  with  its  shaft,  and  is  rotated  by- 
means  of  the  aluminium  thumb-screw  T,  which  is  screwed  to  the  worm- 
wheel  shaft,  as  shown  at  fig.  55.  The  invar  worm-wheel  is  kept  in  gear 
with  the  phosphor  bronze  worm  by  means  of  the  constant  pressure  of 
the  tuning-fork-shaped  spring  E,  which  spring  is  screwed  to  the  hori- 
zontal lifting-bar  H  by  a  couple  of  screws,  as  shown  by  the  elevation 
at  fig.  53.      The  worm-wheel  X  is  driven  fast  on  the  centre  spindle, 


>" 


«v  BMUMto  'JRC. 


Fig.  55. 


and  further  secured  by  the  No.  10  B.A.  screw  (fig.  53).  The  lifting- 
bar  Hj  is  fitted  with  a  balance  weight,  and  both  lifting-bars  have  ivory 
tips.  The  balance-weight  was  carefully  reduced  from  an  excess  until 
exact  balance  was  obtained,  this  being  highly  necessary  ;  balance  in  the 
other  direction  being  similarly  attained  by  the  bearing  Q  (fig.  54). 
The  pointed  ends  of  the  conical  feet  F  have  the  sharpness  re- 
moved sufficiently  to  prevent  them  scratching  the  lens.  The  vertical 
spindle  is  screwed  100  to  the  inch,  the  worm-wheel  has  500  teeth, 
one-fiftieth  inch  pitch,  and  the  worm  has  50  threads  per  inch  ;  thus 
for  one  revolution  of  the  worm  the  vertical  spindle,  together  with  the 
worm-wheel,  is  raised  or  lowered  one  fifty-thousandth  of  an  inch,  or 
one-millionth  of  an  inch  for  one-twentieth  of  a  revolution  of  the 
worm-arbor.     It  was  found   that   the   error   of   this   spherometer  was 


258  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

about  one  three-millionth  of  an  inch,  and  as,  of  course,  one  five-millionth 
would  make  a  difference  of  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  the  focal  length  of 
lenses  of  certain  curvature,  this  error,  though  mechanically  small,  is 
optically  considerable.  At  the  same  time,  the  author  is  doubtful  whether 
a  spherometer  of  greater  accuracy  could  be  constructed,  and  even  in  that 
event  he  thinks  the  personal  and  temperature  errors  would  probably 
nullify  the  advantage. 

F.R.M.S.— Visibility  of  Minute  Flagella. 

English  Mechanic,  lxxx.  (1905)  p.  527  (4  figs.). 

Zeiss,  C. — Stereoscopy:  Pulfrich  Stereo-Comparators. 

[A  catalogue  by  tbe  Jena  firm  of  this  valuable  instrument,  which 
is  especially  applicable  to  the  purposes  of  Stellar  Astronomy, 
Metronomy,  Observations  of  Sun  and  Moon,  Meteorology, 
Geology,  Topography,  Photogrammetry,  etc.] 

Jena,  1903,  16  pp. 

The  following  reprints  of  pamphlets  by  C.  Pulfrich  bearing  on  the 
Stereo-Comparator  have  been  also  published  by  Julius  Springer,  Berlin ; 
they  are  extracts  from  the  "  Zeitschrift  fur  Instrumentenkunde  "  : — 

1.  TJeber  einige  stereoskopische  Versuche. 

August  1901,  pp.  221-4  (1  fig.). 

2.  TJeber  eine  Prufungstafel  fur  stereoskopiscb.es  Sehen. 

September  1901,  pp.  249-60  (1  fig.  and  1  pi.). 

3.  TJeber  neuere  Anwendungen  der  Stereoskopie  und  iiber  einen  hierfiir 

bestimmten  Stereo-Zomparator. 

Marcli,  1902,  pp.  65-81 ;  May,  1902,  pp.  133-41 ; 
June  1902,  pp.  178-92  (15  figs.). 

4.  Neue  stereoskopische   Methoden   und  Apparate  fur  die   Zwecke  der 

Astronomie,  Topographie  und  Metronomie.     Part  I. 

[This  is  practicallv  a  collection  of  all  the  previous  articles.] 
J.  Springer  (Berlin,  1903)  69  pp.,  27  figs. 

5.  TJeber  einen  Versuch  zur  praktischen  Erprobung  der  Stereo-Photogram- 

metrie  fur  die  Zwecke  der  Topographie. 

November  1903,  pp.  317-34  (2  figs.). 

6.  TJeber  die  Anwerdung   des   Stereo-Komparators   fur  die  Zwecke  der 

topographischen  Punkbestimmung.  February  1904,  4  pp. 

Other  reprints,  also  obtainable  through  O.  Zeiss,  on  Stereoscopy,  are  : — 

1.  C.  Pc  lfrich— TJeber  die  bis  jetzt  mit  dem  Stereo-Komparator  auf 

astronomischen  Gebiete  erhaltenen  Versuchsergebnisse. 

Reprinted  from  V.  J.  S.  der  Adron.  Gesdl.  Jahr.  37, 
9  pp.,  with  a  stereogram  of  the  moon. 

2.  Von  Hvbl,  A.  F. — Die  Stereophotogrammetrie. 

Reprinted  from  Mitt,  des  K.  u.  K. 
Militdrgeogr.  Inst.,  Band  xxii.,  16  pp. 

3.  „  „  Die  Stereophotogrammetrische  Terrainaufnahme. 

Op.  cit.,  Band  xxiii ,  30  pp..  6  figs.,  and  a 
stereogram  of  a  mountain  landscape. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  259 

B.  Technique.* 
(1)    Collecting:  Objects,  including-  Culture   Processes. 

Cultivation  of  Tubercle  Bacilli  from  Bacterial  Mixtures.f— A. 
Dworetzky  shortly  describes  Spengler's  formalin  method  for  the  pure 
cultivation  of  tubercle  bacilli  from  bacterial  mixtures,  and  gives  details 
of  numerous  attempts  made  by  him  to  obtain  pure  cultures  of  the 
tubercle  bacillus  from  various  sources,  in  every  instance  without  success. 
After  varying  the  strength  of  the  formalin  used,  and  the  time  of 
exposure  of  the  mixtures,  he  concludes  that  tubercle  bacilli  are  destroyed 
with  as  equal  readiness  as  the  other  bacteria. 

New  Levelling  Apparatus.^ — This  apparatus,  devised  by  S.  Ser- 
kowski,  consists  of  a  thick  three-  or  four-cornered  glass  or  porcelain 
plate,  to  which  are  attached  three  or  four  screw  feet.  After  levelling,  it 
may  be  used  for  plates  or  dishes  with  fluid  media ;  for  drying  cover- 
glass  preparations,  where  it  is  necessary  to  have  thin  and  even  films, 
also  for  the  observation  of  fluid  preparations,  such  as  urine  sediments, 
the  entire  microscope  being  placed  on  the  levelled  plate  ;  a  microscope, 
covered  by  a  bell  jar,  can  be  more  thoroughly  protected  from  dust  if 
kept  on  this  apparatus.  If  one  half  is  coloured  black,  and  under  the 
other  half  is  pasted  a  line-ruled  white  card,  like  a  Wolff hugel's  apparatus, 
it  will  serve  to  count  the  colonies  on  a  plate. 

Simplification  of  the  Drigalski  Medium.§  —  In  preparing  this 
medium,  Hagemann  recommends  the  addition  of  milk  in  the  place  of 
nutrose  and  milk-sugar.  He  obtains  the  same  good  results  as  with  the 
Drigalski-agar,  and  the  preparation  is  considerably  simplified.  He  stores 
the  milk-agar  in  quantities  of  200  c.cm.,  and  adds  alkali,  litmus  and 
crystal-violet  to  the  medium  immediately  before  using  it.  He  recom- 
mends a  2  p.c.  instead  of  a  3  p.c  agar,  since  it  is  more  readily  filtered. 

Differentiation  of  Streptococci. || — M.  H.  Gordon  finds  that  different 
varieties  of  streptococci  behave  in  different  ways  with  regard  to  acid 
production  when  grown  in  litmus  broths  containing  saccharose,  lactose, 
raffmose,  inulin,  salicin,  and  mannite ;  he  considers,  therefore,  that 
these  substances  may  be  of  service  in  differentiating  the  varieties  of 
these  organisms. 

Anaerobic  Cultures  with  Phosphorus.^ — A.  W.  Sellards  finds 
phosphorus  a  very  convenient  oxygen-absorbing  agent  as  compared  with 
alkaline  pyrogallate.     Neither  the  oxides  of  phosphorus  formed,  nor  the 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses; (2)  Preparing  Objects;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  &c. ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  l,e  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  628-31. 

X  Tom.  cit..  pp.  637-40  (1  fig.). 

§  Op.  cit.,  lte  Abt.  Kef.,  xxxv.  (1905)  p.  794. 

||  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1*  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  p.  728. 

%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  632-7. 


260  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

vapours  of  the  original  phosphorus,  affect  the  nutrient  properties  or  the 
reaction  of  the  media  employed.  For  hanging  drop  cultures,  special 
cells  were  devised  to  protect  the  media  from  the  vapours  of  phosphorus 
and  from  its  oxides.  Test  tube  cultures  were  made  by  substituting 
a  few  small  pieces  of  phosphorus  for  the  pyrogallic  acid  of  a  Buchner's 
apparatus.  On  addition  of  the  potassium  hydroxide  solution,  phosphoric 
pentoxide  is  formed,  which  at  once  takes  up  water  to  form  phosphoric 
acid,  which  descends  as  a  white  cloud  ;  in  a  few  hours  the  main  portion 
of  the  oxygen  is  absorbed,  but  complete  absorption  does  not  result  until 
after  24  hours  at  the  temperature  of  the  incubator. 

Spores  of  B.  tetani,  in  1  p.c.  glucose  broth,  germinated  overnight 
at  37*  5°  C,  and  went  into  spore-formation  in  48  hours  ;  stab  cultures 
of  this  organism  grew  equally  well  at  the  surface  and  in  the  depth  of  the 
stab  ;  growth  was  more  rapid  than  by  Buchner's  method. 

Asp>ergiUus  niger,  a  strict  aerobe,  refused  to  grow ;  Penicillium 
glaucum  also  refused  to  grow,  and  still  showed  no  growth  on  subsequent 
exposure  to  air,  the  spores  being  destroyed  by  the  absence  of  oxygen. 

B.  pyocyaneus  and  B.  megatherium,  facultative  anaerobes,  showed  no 
growth  within  24hours  ;  B.  coli  communis  and  B.  typhosus  at  37*5°  C, 
in  glucose  broth,  showed  abundant  growth  within  24  hours,  the  colonies 
of  B.  coli  being  thin  and  transparent,  those  of  B.  typhosus  being  denser. 

Details  are  given  for  modifying  the  method  when  applied  to  plate 
cultures,  or  for  numbers  of  tube  cultures  and  Smith's  fermentation  tubes. 

In  glucose  gelatin  stabs  B.  graveolus,  B. pyocyaneus,  B.  megatherium, 
B.  anthracis,  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus,  Sarcina  lutea,  and  Proteus 
vulgaris  grew  feebly,  and  produced  neither  liquefaction  nor  pigment, 
but  on  being  exposed  to  the  air  they  regained  their  vigour  and  properties 
of  liquefying  and  producing  pigment.  The  inversion  of  cane-sugar 
bouillon  inoculated  with  yeast  and  also  with  a  mixed  culture  of  inverting 
forms,  was  prevented  by  keeping  the  cultures  in  anaerobic  conditions. 
The  oxygen  was  so  completely  absorbed  by  the  phosphorus  that  un- 
inoculated  media,  stained  with  litmus  or  methylen-blue,  were  decolorised 
within  24  hours. 

Cultivation  of  the  Amoebae  of  Tropical  Dysentery.* — A.  Lesage 
succeeded  in  cultivating  amoeba?  from  intestinal  mucus  in  the  following 
way  :  Mucus  was  taken  from,  say,  10  places  and  transferred  to  as  many 
Petri's  capsules.  Only  capsules  which  contained  living  amoeba?  were 
retained,  the  others  being  rejected.  The  living  amoeba?  were  then  culti- 
vated in  fiat  glass  vials  or  in  test  tubes,  the  medium  being  agar,  which 
had  been  washed  for  8  days  and  afterwards  sterilised. 

The  cultivation  temperature  was  from  18°  to  25°.  The  essential 
feature  of  the  method  was  to  prevent  the  amoeba?  being  overgrown  by 
bacteria. 

In  a  few  days,  small  amoeba?  could  be  found.  Cultivations  were  also 
made  on  plates  on  which  a  paracolon  bacillus  was  growing.  In  this  way 
living  amoeba?  could  be  passed  from  the  human  intestine  on  to  a  plate 
without  going  through  the  encysted  stage. 

Another  method  consisted  in  cultivating  amoeba?  from  the  encysted 
forms.     Some  mucus  containing  living  amoeba?  was  placed  in  a  glass 

•  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xviii.  (1905)  pp.  9-16  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  261 

vessel  and  a  little  sterilised  water  added.  The  mucus  was  allowed  to 
dry  slowly  at  from  18-25°.  After  a  few  days  the  dried  mucus  and 
water  were  sown  on  plates  of  washed  agar.  About  1  plate  in  10  gave  a 
successful  culture.  Each  of  these  served  as  a  starting  point  for  obtaining 
the  pure  mixed  culture  by  progressively  eliminating  the  bacteria. 

Each  time  the  amoeba  was  sown  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  and  the 
symbiotic  bacterium  at  the  top.  The  plate  was  kept  at  25°.  After  a 
few  days  the  amceba  reached  the  upper  part,  and  from  here  the  amoebas 
were  taken  for  the  next  culture. 

Cultivating  the  Bacillus  of  Leprosy.*  —  E.  R.  Rost  cultivates 
Bacillus  lepra  and  also  other  acid-fast  bacilli  on  media  from  which 
chlorine  has  been  removed.  The  medium  is  made  by  distilling  beef 
extract,  or  by  passing  a  current  of  superheated  steam  from  the  autoclave 
over  boiling  beef  extract,  or  by  passing  superheated  steam  over  the  beef 
extract  soaked  in  pumice  stone  in  bottles  inside  the  autoclave. 

By  the  last  procedure  a  growth  of  B.  tuberculosis  is  obtained  in  from 
1-3  days,  of  B.  lepras  in  from  3-5  days.  The  characteristic  appearance 
is  a  curly  white,  stringy,  heavy  deposit  at  the  bottom  of  the  tubes,  which 
is  hard  to  shake  up,  but,  when  shaken  up,  appears  as  a  curly  white  stringy 
shred  in  the  tubes. 

A  satisfactory  solid  medium  is  obtained  by  dialysing  nutrient  agar 
in  frequently  changed  warm  distilled  agar ;  by  this  means  the  sodium 
chloride  is  disposed  of,  and  on  the  surface  of  the  medium  the  acid-fast 
group  of  bacteria  grow  with  greatest  ease.  The  bacillus  of  leprosy  grows 
at  first  as  a  white  and  later  as  a  yellow,  or  brick-red,  curly  thick  growth, 
very  much  like  the  bacillus  of  tubercle  on  the  glycerinised  nutrient  agar. 

The  author  then  calls  attention  to  the  staining  reactions  of  B.  lepras, 
and  states  that  it  may  be  differentially  diagnosed  from  other  acid-fast 
bacteria  as  follows  :  (1)  It  retains  the  stain  of  acid  dyes  much  more  than 
any  of  the  other  bacteria  of  this  class.  It  retains  the  stain  of  carbol- 
fuchsin  even  after  decolorisation  in  25  p.c.  nitric  acid.  (2)  It  is  more 
irregular  than  the  tubercle  bacillus,  and  not  curved,  and  is  somewhat 
smaller.  (3)  It  contains  small  oval  spores  within  itself,  which  are  highly 
refractile,  and  the  end  of  the  bacillus  may  be  open  where  some  have 
presumably  escaped.  (4)  It  has  a  beady  appearance,  due  to  the  presence 
of  these  oval  spores.  (5)  Like  the  B.  tuberculosis,  it  may  grow  out  into 
cultures  into  long,  branching  filaments,  but  there  are  often  oval  spores 
separate  in  the  cultures,  and  these  may  be  alone  visible  at  times.  (6) 
In  the  body  it  is  found  in  great  numbers  inside  epithelial  cells,  generally 
in  the  middle  of  the  cells,  whereas  the  B.  tuberculosis  is  found  in  small 
numbers  inside  giant  cells  at  the  polar  ends. 

In  order  to  obtain  pure  cultures  from  a  given  case,  a  tube  of  the 
medium  is  inoculated  with  a  piece  of  leprous  tissue,  and  incubated  at 
100°  F.  In  from  3-5  days  the  thick  deposit  is  examined.  It  is  usually 
found  to  contain  the  bacilli  of  leprosy  and  other  organisms.  The  tube 
is  then  placed  in  a  warm  Petri  dish  of  the  dialysed  medium.  In  from 
3-5  days  colonies  of  B.  lepras  may  be  picked  out  in  the  usual  way. 

Then  follows  the  method  of  making  the  toxin,  or  leprolin. 

*  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1905,  i.  pp.  294-6. 


262  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 


(2)  Preparing:  Objects.  ' 

Preparing  Suprarenal  Bodies  of  Guinea-Pig's.*  —  F.  Fuhrmann, 
who  studied  the  liner  structure  of  the  suprarenal  bodies  of  guinea-pigs, 
found  that  the  best  fixatives  were  Zenker's  fluid,  Midler's  fluid,  and 
formalin  in  proportion  of  9-1  ;  4  p.c.  formalin  and  saturated  subli- 
mate solution  in  0 '  75  p.c.  salt  solution.  For  cell  examination  Hermann's 
platinum- chloride- osmic- acetic  acid  mixture,  or  Flemming's  chrorn- 
osmium-acetic  acid  mixture,  gave  excellent  results,  provided  the  glands 
were  cut  up  into  slices  of  about  2  mm.  thick.  After  fixation,  the  pieces 
were  washed  in  running  water,  and  then  hardened  in  alcohol.  Paraffin 
and  celloidin  sections  were  made.  For  the  latter,  solutions  of  celloidin 
dissolved  in  methyl-alcohol  were  used,  and  the  pieces  were  transferred 
from  ethyl-alcohol  to  the  thinnest,  and  afterwards  passed  through  the 
thicker  sections.  The  celloidin  was  hardened  in  65  p.c.  alcohol,  and 
was  ready  for  cutting  in  about  an  hour.  The  sections  were  cleared  with 
origanum  oil.  One  great  advantage  over  the  ether-alcohol  method  is 
that  the  fat  is  much  less  dissolved  out. 

The  sections  were  stained  by  Benda's  method — i.  e.  they  were  first 
mordanted  with  sulphate  of  iron,  and  then  treated  with  1  p.c.  aqueous 
hasmatoxylin  solution.  They  were  afterwards  differentiated  in  the  freely 
diluted  mordant,  or  by  van  Gieson's  method.  Alizarin  I.,  diluted  with 
5  parts  of  water,  and  with  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  calcium  acetate, 
is  also  recommended.  In  this  solution  the  sections  remain  for  24  hours 
at  incubation  temperature.  Several  other  ordinary  staining  methods  gave 
good  results. 

Bayon — Demonstration  von  Praparaten  der  normalen  und  pathologischen  Schild- 
driise. 

[Contains  some  remarks  on  the  action  of  fixatives  on  the  colloid  substance  of 
the  thyroid  gland,  and  on  the  nature  of  the  vacuoles.] 

SB.  Pkys.-Med.  Geselhch.  Wurzburg,  1904,  pp.  97-102. 

Zilliacus,  W. — Die  Ausbreitung  der  verschiedenen  Epithelarten  im  menscblichen 
Kehlkopfe  und  eine  neue  Methode  dieselbe  festzustellen. 

[Gives  method  for  differentiating  the  different  kinds  of  epithelial  culls  in 
human  larynx.]  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  '25-30. 

(3)  Cutting-,  including-  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 

Celloidin  Method  for  Hard  Plant  Tissues.f  —  A.  B.  Plowman 
describes  the  following  celloidin  method  which  was  developed  and  per- 
fected by  E.  C.  Jeffrey.  Wood  should  be  cut  up  into  cubic  blocks,  not 
more  than  1  c.cm.,  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  faces  represent  the  desired 
plane  of  section.  If  dry,  the  material  must  be  repeatedly  boiled  to 
remove  the  air  ;  the  vacuum  pump  should  also  be  used.  Living  tissue 
should  be  killed  and  fixed  by  immersion  in  the  following  mixture  : — 
Saturated  solution  of  sublimate  in  ?>0  p.c.  alcohol,  3  parts ;  saturated 
solution  of  picric  acid  in  30  p.c.  alcohol,  1  part.  After  24  hours  the 
fixed  blocks  are  passed  through  40,  50,  60,  70,  80  p.c.  alcohol,  the  stay 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxviii.  (1905)  pp.  552-60  (2  pis.), 
t  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  456-b'l. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  263 

in  each  being  24  hours,  and  the  80  p.c.  having  enough  iodine  solution 
to  make  it  a  deep  brown  colour. 

The  next  step  is  to  remove  silica  or  other  mineral  constituents  by 
immersing  the  blocks  in  10  p.c.  hydrofluoric  acid  for  3  or  4  days,  the 
acid  being  changed  once  or  twice.  This  is  followed  by  washing  in 
running  water  for  2  to  4  hours. 

The  next  step  is  to  dehydrate  thoroughly  in  graded  alcohols  in  the 
usual  way,  and  remove  any  residual  air  with  the  vacuum  pump. 

The  material  is  now  ready  for  impregnation  with  celloidin,  which  is 
dissolved  in  ether  and  synthol  or  ether  and  absolute  alcohol.  Ten 
grades  from  2  to  20  p.c.  celloidin  are  to  be  used.  The  blocks  are  placed 
in  a  bottle,  which  can  be  firmly  and  tightly  stoppered,  covered  with 
2  p.c.  celloidin  solution,  and  the  bottle  incubated  for  12-18  hours  at 
from  50°-60°  C.  On  removal  the  bottle  is  quickly  cooled  in  cold  water, 
after  which  the  2  p.c.  is  replaced  by  the  4  p.c.  solution,  and  so  on  till 
the  thickest  grade  is  reached.  On  removal  from  the  last,  the  celloidin- 
ised  block  is  placed  in  chloroform  for  12  hours,  and  then  transferred  to 
a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  glycerin  and  95  p.c.  alcohol. 

•  Sections  are  best  made  with  a  sliding  microtome  ;  for  histological 
examination  a  thickness  of  10  /x  is  sufficient,  but  for  photomicrographic 
purposes  they  should  be  as  thin  as  5  /a  or  less. 

For  staining  and  mounting  it  is  usually  advisable  to  remove  the 
celloidin  at  this  stage  by  placing  the  sections  for  10  or  15  minutes  in 
ether,  and  afterwards  in  95  p.c.  alcohol.  The  most  useful  stain  is 
hematoxylin,  followed  by  safranin.  After  staining,  the  sections  are 
treated  in  the  usual  way,  and  mounted  in  balsam.  It  is  advisable  to 
clear  the  sections  in  the  same  kind  of  liquid  as  is  used  for  dissolving  the 
balsam.  For  photographic  purposes  the  best  stain  is  Heidenhain's  iron- 
haematoxylin.  The  sections  should  be  repeatedly  washed  in  distilled 
water  after  the  iron-alum  and  before  they  are  placed  in  hematoxylin. 

In  some  cases  it  is  necessary  to  retain  the  celloidin  matrix  ;  the  sec- 
tions should  then  be  dehydrated  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  chloroform. 

In  order  to  make  serial  mounts,  the  sections  are  cut  on  the  following 
mixture  : — Alcohol  90  p.c,  85  parts  ;  glycerin  15  parts.  As  the  sections 
are  cut,  they  are  arranged  on  strips  of  thin  smooth  paper,  and  when  the 
alcohol  has  evaporated  the  strips  are  turned  face  downwards  on  slides 
coated  with  albumen  fixative.  Several  layers  of  paper  are  piled  on,  and 
the  whole  pressed  down  with  a  squeegee  roller  covered  with  another 
slide.  The  lot  is  then  clamped  together  and  placed  in  an  incubator  to 
dry  for  not  more  than  12  hours.  When  removed,  the  paper  is  stripped 
off,  and  the  slide  with  adhering  section  is  treated  in  the  usual  way. 

Preparing  and  Staining  the  Eggs  of  Haminea  Solitaria.*  — 
A.  M.  Small  wood  fixed  the  eggs  with  Kleinenberg's  picrosulphuric  and 
Conklin's  picro-acetic  mixtures.  In  order  to  facilitate  penetration  of 
the  fixative,  the  capsules  were  torn  through  with  wooden  needles.  The 
eggs  were  left  in  the  fixative  for  1  hour,  and  then  transferred  to  70  p.c. 
alcohol,  which  was  changed  until  the  colour  due  to  picric  acid  was  removed. 

For  staining,  Heidenhain's  iron-hasniatoxylin  was  used,  followed  by 

*  Bull.  Museum  Comp.  Zool.  Harvard,  slv.  (1904)  pp.  261-318  (13  pis.). 


264  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

an  aqueous  solution  of  Bordeaux  red.  This  procedure  was  the  best, 
except  for  fertilisation  stages. 

In  order  to  differentiate  the  sperm  within  the  egg  from  the  deuto- 
plasm,  the  eggs  were  stained  with  Delafield's  hematoxylin,  and  differen- 
tiated with  a  weak  solution  of  picric  acid  in  90  p.c.  alcohol.  This 
makes  the  deutoplasm  reddish  yellow,  but  leaves  the  sperm  black. 

Later  experience  found  that  Brazilin  was  superior  to  iron-hasmato- 
xylin.  After  sectioning,  the  eggs  were  mordanted  in  a  solution  of 
iron  in  70  p.c.  alcohol  for  30  to  60  minutes,  and  then  stained  for  30 
minutes  to  2  hours  in  a  J  p.c.  solution  of  Brazilin  in  70  p.c.  alcohol. 
The  Brazilin  gives  a  double  stain,  nucleoplasm  staining  intensely  black, 
and  cytoplasm  a  Bordeaux  red  hue.  It  has  the  further  advantage  of 
being  a  shorter  process,  and  that  it  rarely  overstains. 

Demonstrating  Enzyme-secreting  Cells.*  —  H.  S.  Reed,  for   his 

stud}-  of  the  enzyme-secreting  cells  in  the  seedlings  of  Zea  Mays  and 
Pharnix  dactylifera,  used  the  following  killing  fluids  : — (1)  Saturated 
solution  of  picric  acid  in  50  p.c.  alcohol ;  (2)  Aqueous  picro-corrosive 
fluid.  This  was  made  by  adding  1  vol.  of  saturated  aqueous  solution 
of  mercuric  bichloride  to  3  vols,  of  saturated  aqueous  solution  of  picric 
acid.  After  lying  12-18  hours  in  this  fluid,  the  material  was  washed 
in  water  and  dehydrated  in  alcohol ;  (3)  Kleinenberg's  picro-sulphuric 
acid  ;  (4)  Chrom-osmo-acetic  acid  ;  |  (5)  Iridium  chloride  in  acetic 
acid  (1  p.c.  aqueous  solution  of  iridium  chloride,  25  c.cm. ;  glacial  acetic 
acid,  75  c.cm.)  ;  (6)  Worcester's  killing  fluid  (saturated  aqueous  solution 
mercury  bi-chloride,  96  parts  ;  formalin,  4  parts  ;  10  p.c.  acetic  acid, 
10  parts  ;  formic  acid,  5  drops  to  each  litre  of  solution).  The  tissue  was 
immersed  for  10-20  hours,  then  transferred  to  70  p.c.  alcohol  which 
contains  1  p.c.  potassium  iodide  ;  (7)  Saturated  aqueous  solution  of 
mercury  bi-chloride  in  absolute  alcohol.  The  paraffin  sections  were 
stained  with  picro-nigrosin  ;  Kleinenberg's  hasrnatoxylin  ;  Heidenhain's 
iron-alum  hasmatoxylin  ;  Zimmermann's-fuchsin-iodine  green  ;  Gram's 
method  ;  eosin-toluidin-blue ;  eosin  and  anilin-blue  ;  eosin  and  gentian 
violet ;  Flemming's  triple  stain. 

The  best  staining  results  were  obtained  from  the  eosin-toluidin-blue. 

Chamberlain,  C.  J. — Celloidin  method  for  hard  tissues. 

[A  note  in  reference  to  E.  C.  Jeffrey's  method  given 

above.]  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxviii.  (1904)  p.  145. 

„  „  Ditto.  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  382-3. 

Jeffrey,  E.  C. —  Ditto.  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  381-2. 

(4)    Staining:  and  Injecting. 

Staining  Protozoa 4  —  F.  Marino  found  that  azur  in  aqueous  or 
alcoholic  solution  stains  well  the  nucleus  and  protoplasm  of  Protozoa 
fixed  in  alcohol,  and  that  very  dilute  aqueous  solution  of  eosin  (1 :  20,000) 
differentiates  them. 

A  mixture  of  an  aqueous  solution  of  methylen-blue  and  of  azur 

*  Ann.  Bot.,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  269-87  (1  pi.). 

t  Mottier's  formula,  Pring.  Jahrb.,  xxx.  p.  170. 

j  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  761-5  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  265 

(blue  0*5,  azur  0-5,  water  100)  and  an  aqueous  solution  of  carbonate  of 
soda  0*5  p.c.,  is  incubated  at  37°  or  more  for  24-48  hours.  To  this  is 
added  an  aqueous  solution  of  eosin,  the  strength  of  which  varies  with  the 
quality  of  the  blue.  The  exact  quantity  must  be  determined  by  trying,  e.g. 
0  •  1,  0 "  25,  0  •  3  p.c.  From  the  filtered  mixture  is  obtained  a  powder  soluble 
in  water  and  absolute  alcohol.  The  method  of  staining  is  as  follows  : — 
0*04  grm.  of  the  blue  prepared  as  given  above  is  dissolved  in  20  c.cm. 
methylic  alcohol  and  0*05  grm.  eosin  in  1000  of  water.  On  an  18  mm. 
cover-glass  is  placed  some  protozoal  blood.  To  this  are  added  4  drops 
of  the  blue  solution.  After  exactly  3  minutes,  and  without  washing, 
8-10  drops  of  the  eosin  solution  are  poured  on  and  allowed  to  act  for 
2  minutes. 

If  the  coverslips  be  larger,  a  proportionately  larger  quantity  of  the 
staining  solutions  must  be  used,  and,  of  course,  slides  may  be  used 
instead  of  slips. 

The  preparations  are  merely  washed  in  water,  dried,  and  mounted  in 
balsam. 

While  the  staining  is  going  on,  the  preparations  must  be  covered  to 
avoid  evaporation  and  precipitation. 

For  staining  films  of  microbes  fixed  in  the  flame,  a  1  :  500  aqueous 
solution  of  the  blue  is  allowed  to  act  for  half  to  one  minute. 

Differential  Staining  of  Bacillus  Typhosus  in  Sections.* — Bonhoff 
recommends  the  following  method.  The  section,  taken  out  of  absolute 
alcohol,  is  washed  and  fixed  on  the  slide  ;  it  is  then  treated  cold  for 
two  minutes,  with  5  drops  of  a  freshly  prepared  mixture  of  saturated 
alcoholic  methylen-blue  (4  drops),  Ziehl's  solution  (15  drops)  and  dis- 
tilled water  (20  c.cm.)  ;  it  is  now  warmed  over  a  small  gas  jet  until 
it  commences  to  steam,  washed  in  water,  then  in  1  p.c.  acetic  acid,  and 
again  in  water  ;  dried  with  blotting  paper,  and  washed  with  several  lots 
of  anilin  and  xylol  equal  parts,  ancl  mounted  in  balsam.  The  section  is 
stained  throughout  a  light  red,  the  bacilli  having  an  intense  sky-blue 
colour. 

Christian,  H.  A.— Newer  aspects  of  the  Pathology  of  Fat  and  Fatty  Degeneration. 
[Mentions  use  of  Osmium  tetraoxide,  Sudan  iiL,_Scharlach  R.,  and  Indophenol 
for  staining  fat,  and  the  technique  required.] 

Johns  Hopkins  Hosp.  Bull.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  1-6. 


Metallography,  etc. 

Sulphides  and  Silicates  of  Manganese  in  Steel.t — J.  E.  Stead 
points  out  that  the  identity  in  shape  of  the  globular  masses  of  these 
substances  may  have  caused  them  to  be  confused  with  one  another.  He 
found  that,  if  the  polished  surface  of  a  section  were  examined  previously  to 
etching,  particles  of  a  pale  dove-colour  could  be  tentatively  accepted  as 
sulphide.  In  the  case  of  very  minute  particles,  the  reflected  actinic 
light  from  sulphide  of  manganese  is  greater  than  that  from  the  silicate, 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Ref.,  xxxv.  (1905)  p.  794. 
t  Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,  ix.  (1905)  pp.  105-13  (4  figs.). 

April  10th,  1905  ■  t 


266  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

and  a  sensitive  dry -plate  in  the  camera  will  show  a  great  contrast  between 
them.  Without  etching,  whilst  the  object  is  still  under  the  Microscope, 
a  drop  of  sulphuric  acid  (1  of  strong  acid  to  3  of  water)  should  be 
placed  on  the  surface,  and  from  each  sulphide  particle  a  bubble  of  gas 
will  be  evolved,  but  no  gas  will  form  over  the  pure  silicate.  This  gas 
can  be  recognised  as  H2S  by  cementing  a  small  cell  or  ring  of  glass  on 
the  polished  specimen,  and  placing  over  this  a  cover-glass  whose  under- 
side has  been  moistened  with  lead  acetate.  In  a  short  time  a  dark  stain 
of  lead  acetate  will  form,  easily  recognisable  under  the  Microscope.  The 
liquid  may  be  removed  in  a  capillary  tube  and  further  tested,  with  nitric 
acid  and  bismuthate  of  soda,  for  a  permanganate  reaction.  The  areas 
of  sulphide  and  silicate  can  best  be  seen  after  heat-tinting  the  polished 
specimens  to  a  light-brown  colour,  when  the  patches  appear  relatively 
light  on  a  brown  ground. 

Andrews,  T. — Microscopic  Observations  on  Naval  Accidents. 

[The  author  describes  his  investigations  of  the  cause  of  failure  of  the  steel 
connecting-rod  of  H.M.S.  Bullfinch.']  Engineering,  Dec.  2,  9,  16,  1904; 

Iron  anil  Steel  Mag.,  ix.  (Jan.  1905)  pp.  163-8. 

Gledhill,  J.  M. — Development  and  Use  of  High-Speed  Tool  Steel. 

[A  paper  read  at  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  Meeting,  New  York,  Oct.  1904. 
An  historical  and  descriptive  article,  describing  some  of  the  most  recent 
improvements.]  Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,  ix.  (Jan.  1905)  pp.  19-44, 

with  figs,  and  photomicrographs. 

S eaton,  A.  E.,  &  A.  Jude — Impact  Tests  on  the  Wrought  Steels  of  Commerce. 

[The  author  describes  bis  experiments,  and  illustrates  them  by  numerous 

photomicrographs.]  Proc.  Inst.  Mechanical  Engineers, 

read  Nov.  18,  1904,  33  pp.,  10  pis.  and  8  figs 


267 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  15th  of  February,  1905,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
D.  H.  Scott,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  etc.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  18th  of  January,  1905,  were 
read  and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 

Mr.  Finlayson's  paper  describing  his  Comparascope  was  read  bv 
Dr.  Hebb. 

The  President  said  he  understood  that  the  instrument  described  in 
this  paper  was  on  the  table  for  inspection.  He  had  seen  photographs 
of  it,  and  also  a  photograph  taken  by  it,  and  thought  it  was  clear 
that  there  was  a  use  for  an  instrument  of  this  kind.  He  had  often 
wanted  something  of  this  kind  in  the  course  of  his  work  on  the  structure 
of  fossil  plants,  as  the  only  means  available  for  comparing  objects  was 
by  photographs,  which  did  not  always  show  all  the  detail,  so  that  an 
invention  which  enabled  two  objects  to  be  seen  together  in  the  same 
field  of  view  would  be  of  very  great  advantage. 

Dr.  Hebb  said  that  another  method  of  making  comparisons  between 
two  objects  was  described  in  the  Society's  Journal  for  February,  by 
which  specimens  were  mounted  one  over  the  other  on  the  same  slide,  so 
that  by  focussing  up  or  down  either  could  be  brought  into  focus,  and  a 
comparison  could  be  easily  made  between  the  normal  and  abnormal. 

Mr.  A.  D.  Michael  said  that  in  the  case  of  very  small  objects,  having 
both  in  the  field  at  once,  without  any  separate  focussing  being  required, 
would  be  a  distinct  advantage  if  they  were  sufficiently  in  the  centre  of 
the  field  to  secure  good  definition ;  but  where  the  objects  were  larger 
they  could  not  be  got  into  the  same  field  except  with  a  low  power,  which 
might  not  show  the  details  sufficiently.  For  small  objects,  however,  he 
thought  the  arrangement  described  would  answer  admirably. 

Dr.  Hebb  said  that  they  had  received  a  photograph  of  Pl&urosigma 
angulatum,  taken  by  Mr.  Merlin,  and  sent  to  the  Society  by  Mr.  Nelson, 
who  thought  it  one  of  great  excellence. 

The  photograph  was  exhibited,  and  the  following  description  by 
Mr.  Merlin  of  the  method  by  which  it  was  taken  was  read  by  Dr.  Hebb  : 
P.  angulatum.  Fractured  Valve  X  7500.  Photographed  with  Zeiss 
apochromatic  £-in.  N.A.  1  -425,  and  a  Powell  X  40  compensating  ocular. 
The  valve  is  partly  in  "  pearl  dot  "  and  partly  in  "  black  dot "  focus. 
Postage  stamp  fracture  and  optical  intercostals  well  shown.  Axial  illu- 
mination, with  full  aperture  of  Powell's  dry  apochromatic  condenser. 
The  sun's  image  from  a  heliostat  being  sharply  focussed  on  to  the  valve. 
No  auxiliary  condenser  employed.  Valve  mounted  in  realgar.  Deep 
violet  screen.  Direct  photo  taken  on  an  Eastman  kodoid  film.  Expo- 
sure, 1  minute. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  unanimously  voted  to  the  authors  of 
these  papers,  and  to  Dr.  Hebb  for  reading  them. 


268  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

Mr.  C.  Beck  exhibited  and  described  an  optical  bench  and  large 
camera,  both  being  on  tables  and  fixing  pedestals,  in  which  all  the 
apparatus  was  fixed  upon  a  strong  bar,  accurately  centred  so  that  the 
raising  and  lowering  adjustments  were  obtained  by  elevating  and  de- 
pressing the  bar.  A  complete  apparatus  for  focal  adjustment  was 
provided.  The  camera  and  bench  had  been  described  in  the  Journal 
before,  but  had  not  previously  been  exhibited.  He  also  showed  a 
Metallurgical  Microscope  with  improved  focussing  arrangement,  by 
which  the  stage  was  also  raised  and  lowered  ;  also  another  model  for 
the  same  purpose,  which  allowed  of  the  use  of  a  large  number  of  appli- 
ances enabling  specimens  of  considerable  size  to  be  examined.  A 
complete  set  of  vertical  illuminators,  both  prism,  mirror,  and  thin  glass 
forms,  was  also  exhibited. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were,  upon  the  motion  of  the  President, 
unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Beck  for  his  exhibits  and  description. 


Mr.  J.  E.  Stead,  F.R.S.,  being  called  upon  to  read  his  paper  '  On 
Practical  Micro-Metallography,'  said  he  wished  at  the  outset  to  express 
his  indebtedness  to  the  authorities  of  that  building  for  the  facilities 
afforded  of  exhibiting  the  machinery  before  them  ;  to  Messrs.  Carling  and 
Son,  of  Middlesbrough,  for  the  loan  of  the  machine  and  apparatus  ;  to 
Mr.  Plumtree,  and  to  the  Union  Electric  Co.  for  the  use  of  the  motor 
by  which  the  machinery  was  worked.  In  illustration  of  the  subject  a 
series  of  views  were  shown  upon  the  screen,  the  first  twenty  of  which 
showed  the  different  kinds  of  apparatus  used  for  the  preparation  and 
examination  of  the  specimens.  These  were  followed  by  a  large  number 
of  actual  specimens  depicted  upon  the  screen  in  the  most  brilliant 
manner  by  means  of  the  Epidiascope — the  details  of  surface,  and 
especially  the  coloration,  being  exhibited  on  a  scale  and  in  a  manner 
impossible  by  any  other  means  ;  the  extremely  beautiful  colours 
produced  by  heating,  and  especially  those  upon  a  polished  section  of  a 
meteorite,  being  amongst  the  finest  examples  exhibited. 

The  President  said  they  had  listened  with  the  greatest  interest  to 
the  very  remarkable  address  which  had  been  given  that  evening,  and  it 
was  extremely  interesting  to  a  biologist  to  see  these  examples  of  micro- 
scopic structure,  so  different  from  those  he  was  accustomed  to  meet  with. 

Mr.  Beck  said  he  should  like  to  personally  offer  his  thanks  to 
Mr.  Stead  for  the  extremely  interesting  evening  which  he  had  afforded 
them,  and  he  felt  the  more  satisfaction  in  doing  this  as  he  had  him- 
self suggested  that  Mr.  Stead  would  be  the  best  man  to  lecture  upon 
this  subject.  As  far  as  metallography  went,  he  was  profoundly  ignorant, 
and  certainly,  from  every  point  of  view,  it  seemed  to  be  a  very  difficult 
branch  of  science  to  pursue,  but  he  had  some  experience  as  to  the  diffi- 
cult subject  of  illumination  with  high  powers  for  metallurgy  in  which 
his  firm  had  made  many  experiments.  He  was  much  obliged  by  the 
suggestion  made  as  to  their  silver  illuminator,  which  should  be  carried 
out.  Professor  Huntingdon  mounted  his  specimens  on  a  ball,  to  the 
back  of  which  was  attached  a  rod  which  could  be  fixed  at  its  extremity, 
so  that  a  slight  movement  of  the  mechanical  stage  gave  a  very  slight 
alteration  in  level.  Their  great  difficulty  for  metallurgical  work  was  to 
get  an  object  glass  which  would  give  a  perfectly  flat  picture  for  photo- 
graphy, since  the  usual  object  of   the  optician  was  to  get  one  which 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY.  269 

would  give  as  perfect  a  definition  as  possible  in  the  centre,  and  the  two 
conditions  were  mathematically  inconsistent.  It  might,  however,  be 
worth  while  for  the  purpose  before  them  to  make  lenses  with  a  flat 
photographic  field,  even  at  the  expense  of  the  definition  in  the  centre. 
If  a  lens  so  constructed  should  get  into  the  hands  of  some  uninstructed 
person,  the  reputation  of  the  maker  would  be  likely  to  suffer,  and  this, 
perhaps,  had  something  to  do  with  the  reluctance  of  opticians  to  produce 
them. 

Mr.  Carpenter  said  he  could  only  re-echo  the  very  cordial  remarks  of 
Mr.  Beck. 

Mr.  Vezey  hoped  that  the  absence  of  remarks  on  the  part  of  the 
Fellows  present  would  not  be  taken  as  indicating  that  the  very 
interesting  demonstration  given  by  Mr.  Stead  had  not  been  thoroughly 
appreciated.  He  was  sure  that  they  had  not  only  been  greatly  interested, 
but  had  been  specially  pleased  at  the  opportunity  afforded  of  seeing  the 
very  beautiful  specimens  exhibited  in  a  manner  which  was  rendered 
possible  by  the  fact  of  the  Society  having  the  use  of  an  instrument 
capable  of  showing  them  so  perfectly. 

Mr.  Stead  said  he  would  like  to  mention  that  he  had  asked  and  had 
responses  from  all  the  prominent  metallographers  in  England  and 
abroad,  who  had  sent  him  a  series  of  lantern  photographs  with  which, 
had  time  permitted,  he  could  have  continued  the  subject.  He  was 
afraid,  however,  that  if  he  had  started  on  that,  he  should  have  gone  on 
until  midnight.  He  hoped  that  at  some  future  time  he  might  have  an 
opportunity  of  showing  these  to  the  Society,  as  he  thought  they  ought 
to  see  something  of  the  kind  of  work  which  was  being  done.  In  every 
works  of  any  importance  microscopic  examination  of  iron  and  steel  was 
being  introduced,  and  he  felt  sure  that  in  all  such  places  the  Microscope 
had  come  to  stay. 

The  President  was  sure  all  would  be  pleased  to  find  that  Mr.  Stead 
had  held  out  to  them  the  hope  of  one  day  hearing  the  continuation  of 
this  very  interesting  subject,  and  of  seeing  what  he  had  not,  for  want 
of  time,  been  able  to  show  them  that  evening. 

A  hearty  vote  of  thanks  was  then  accorded  to  Mr.  Stead  for  his 
communication. 

Mr.  Stead  said  it  had  given  him  very  great  pleasure  to  bring  this 
subject  before  them,  and  he  might  add  that  his  remarks  on  Phosphorus 
in  Iron,  and  the  specimens  shown,  had  not  been  made  public  before. 

New  Fellows. — The  following  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows  : — 
Dr.  David  Anderson-Berry,  John  Wm.  Bridge,  and  Rev.  Arthur  Stanley 
Hoole.  

The  following  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited  : —  ■ 
Mr.  Conrad  Beck  : — An  Optical  Bench  and  large  Camera  ;  a  Metal- 
lurgical  Microscope   with    improved   focussing   arrangement ;    another 
model,   for   examining  large  specimens  ;    Sorby-Beck  Reflector ;  Beck 
Prism  Illuminator,  Vertical  Illuminator,  and  Monochromatic  Trough. 
Mr.  D.  Finlayson  : — The  Ashe-Finlayson  "  Comparascope." 
Dr.  Hebb  : — Photograph  of  Pleurosigma  angulatum,  taken  by  Mr. 
Merlin. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Stead  : — In  illustration  of  his  Demonstration  :  Machines 
for  cutting  and  polishing  specimens  of  metals,  made  by  Messrs.  Carling 


270  PROCEEDINGS  OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

and  Son  ;  Lantern  Slides  of  Apparatus  used  by  different  investigators 
in  preparing  specimens,  and  of  different  forms  of  Microscopes  used  by 
Metallographers  ;  a  number  of  actual  specimens  shown  on  the  screen  by 
means  of  the  Epidiascope. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  15th  of  March,  1905,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W., 
A.  D.  Michael,  Esq.,  E.L.S.,  etc.,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  15th  of  February,  1904,  were 
read  and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  Chairman. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Library,  exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints,  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 
Dr.  J.  Bapt.  De  Toni.    Sylloge  Algarum.    Vol.  IV.    FlorideiB.l  „»      «   ,, 

Section  IV.    FamiliaTl.-VII.    (8vo.  Patavii,  Jan.  9,  1905.)/  *neA.umor. 

W.  A.  Herdman,  D.Sc,  F.R.S..  P.L.S.     Report  to  the  Govern- \ 

rnent  of  Ceylon  on  the  Pearl  Oyster  Fisheries  of  the  Gulf  of 

Manaar.      With  Supplementary  Reports  upon  the  Marine  ^     ^,     r>      i  cnrjPi„ 

Biology  of  Ceylon,  by  other  Naturalists.    Published  at  the  (  **     *"         "' 

request  of  the  Colonial  Government,  by  the  Royal  Society.  I 

(London,  4to,  1904)  J 

Memorandum   on  the   Construction  and   Verification  of  a  \T1ie  Superintendent  of 

New  Copy  of  the  Imperial  Standard  Yard.   Part  1.  . .    J  Weights  and  Measures. 

Monthly  Microscopical  Journal,  1859-1877,  Vols.  1-18 
Journal   of    the    Royal    Microscopical   Society,    1878-1882,  [   Mr.  R.  L.  Howard. 

5  vols,  in  9  vols 


Mr.  J.  E.  Stead,  F.R.S.,  then  delivered  the  second  part  of  his  lecture 
on  Micro-Metallurgy.  Referring  to  the  lecture  delivered  at  the  previous 
Meeting,  he  reminded  the  Fellows  present  that  he  had  on  that  occasion 
described  the  methods  by  which  metals  were  prepared  and  polished  for 
microscopical  examination,  and  had  exhibited  a  number  of  specimens 
upon  the  screen,  but  he  had  then,  for  want  of  time,  been  unable  to  show 
a  large  number  of  lantern  slides  which  had  been  sent  to  him  by  nearly 
all  of  the  most  eminent  metallographers  for  the  purpose  of  his  lecture, 
many  of  which  would  be  exhibited  for  the  first  time  this  evening. 
Those  to  whom  he  felt  specially  indebted  were  : — Dr.  Sorby,  M.  Osmond, 
Professor  Arnold,  Professor  H.  le  Chatelier,  Dr.  T.  K.  Rose,  Professor 
J.  A.  Ewing,  Mr.  Rosenhain,  Mr.  G.  T.  Beilby,  Messrs.  Heycock  and 
Neville,  Mr.  W.  H.  Merrett,  Mr.  F.  W.  Harbord,  and  Professor  Heyn, 
of  Charlottenburg. 

Micrograms  reproduced  from  the  illustrations  in  Dr.  Sorby's  original 
papers  clearly  showed  that,  as  far  as  his  work  went,  it  was  of  a  good  and 
accurate  character,  and  that  subsequent  observations  by  more  modern 
workers  had  confirmed  all  he  had  done. 

In  referring  to  the  work  of  Osmond  upon  steel,  it  was  shown  by  his 
illustrations,  and  also  by  the  work  of  the  lecturer  and  other  observers, 
that  whilst  the  hardenite  in  steels  quenched  from  a  point  a  little  above 
the  recalescence  point  Aiv2-3,  although  crystalline,  was  practically  amor- 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  271 

phous,  on  heating  to  and  quenching  from  a  higher  temperature,  a 
crystalline  structure  was  strongly  developed,  and  had  the  same  charac- 
teristics as  martensite  in  steels  containing  less  carbon. 

Troostite  and  austenite,  although  not  thoroughly  understood,  had 
been  recognised  as  true  micro-constituents. 

Sorbite,  like  troostite,  required  more  study.  It  was  neither  troostite 
nor  pearlite,  and  Osmond  had  described  it  tentatively  as  unsegregated 
pearhte.  As  much  discussion  had  taken  place  during  the  last  few  years 
with  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  micro-constituents — sorbite,  troostite, 
and  austenite — a  committee  had  been  formed  to  work  under  Dr.  Glaze- 
brook,  of  the  National  Physical  Laboratory,  to  endeavour  to  ascertain 
their  true  nature. 

The  work  of  Professor  Arnold  was  illustrated  by  slides  made  from 
accurate  drawings  of  the  structures  of  cement  steels  and  steels  containing 
sulphur. 

The  lecturer  expressed  great  appreciation  for  Arnold's  drawings,  and 
pointed  out  that  in  many  cases  they  were  preferable  to  photographs,  but 
that  generally  photographs  were  better  when  properly  taken. 

The  special  features  of  Professor  H.  Le  Chatelier's  work  were  illus- 
trated by  photomicrographs  of  cast  irons  and  steels,  some  of  the  struc- 
tures of  which  had  been  developed  by  the  action  of  potash  and  lead 
oxide,  which  darkened  the  cementite  but  left  the  other  constituents  white. 

The  mid-ribs  of  cementite  in  the  dark  barbs  of  martensite  were  in 
this  way  clearly  shown. 

The  effect  of  strain  and  continued  reversals  of  stress  on  iron  was 
illustrated  by  photomicrographs  prepared  by  Professor  J.  A.  Ewing, 
Mr.  Walter  Rosenhain,  and  Mr.  Humphrey. 

The  surface-flow  of  metals  was  illustrated  by  the  elaborate  work  of 
Mr.  G.  T.  Beilby. 

The  work  of  Mr.  W.  H.  Merrett,  of  the  Royal  College  of  Science, 
was  represented  by  photographs  of  granular  pearlite,  magnified  1600 
diameters,  which  showed  that  the  carbide  of  iron,  or  cementite,  existed 
in  globular  or  roughly-shaped  globular  particles  completely  separated 
from  each  other. 

The  micro-structures  of  steels  produced  by  electrical  processes  were 
given  by  slides  provided  by  Mr.  F.  W.  Harbord,  and  shown  to  be 
identical  with  the  micro-structures  of  steels  made  by  the  ordinary 
processes. 

The  structure  of  bronzes  was  very  beautifully  illustrated  with  slides 
provided  by  Messrs.  C.  T.  Heycock  and  F.  H.  Neville,  Cambridge.  The 
lecturer,  in  describing  the  work  of  those  gentlemen,  remarked  that  the 
research  upon  Copper  and  Tin  Alloys,  presented  to  the  Royal  Society, 
was  of  the  highest  merit,  and  a  type  of  work  such  as  students,  who 
wished  to  study  metallic  alloys,  should  take  as  an  example. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  lecturer's  remarks — there  being  no  time  for 
discussion— the  Chairman  said  he  felt  sure  that  all  who  were  present 
would  join  in  a  very  hearty  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Stead  for  the  ex- 
hibition given  to  them  that  evening  of  a  very  remarkable  and  highly 
interesting  series  of  slides  illustrating  a  subject  of  great  scientific  and 
economic  interest. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  then  unanimously  voted  to  Mr. 
Stead  for  his  very  interesting  communication. 

Mr.  Stead,  in  responding,  said  he  thought  he  himself  ought  to  thank 


272  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

the  Society  not  only  for  the  opportunity  afforded  him  of  showing  what 
was  to  him  a  series  of  illustrations  of  remarkable  interest,  but  also  to 
the  Fellows  present  that  evening  for  the  patient  manner  in  which  they 
had  listened  to  what,  he  feared,  had  taken  more  time  than  he  hud 
anticipated. 

In  further  illustration  of  the  subject  a  large  number  of  specimens 
were  exhibited  in  the  room  at  the  close  of  the  Meeting. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited  : — 
Mr.  J.  E.  Stead  : — Lantern  slides   and  the  following    specimens  in 
illustration  of  his  lecture. 

A.  Soft  plates  of  pure  iron,  soldered  together  by  phosphide  of  iron, 
and  forged  from  1  in.  to  ^  in.  in  thickness.  One  portion  was  annealed 
at  1:550°,  the  other  was  not  annealed.  Both  were  polished  and  heated 
at  one  end  in  a  lead  bath,  so  as  to  produce  heat-oxidation  tints.  The 
unannealed  specimen  showed  blue  phosphide  lines  on  a  brown  ground. 
The  tints  on  the  annealed  portion  were  uniform,  showing  that  the 
phosphide  had  completely  diffused. 

B.  Alternate  plates  of  wrought  iron,  containing  0*01  p.c.  and 
0*  25  p.c.  phosphorus  welded  together,  sectioned  and  polished,  and  etched 
with  picric  acid  solution,  which  coloured  the  phosphorised  iron  brown, 
but  left  the  pure  iron  white. 

C.  Wrought  iron  of  commerce,  polished,  heat-tinted,  and  slightly 
etched  with  very  dilute  nitric  acid.  The  section  showed  a  series  of 
differently  coloured  bands,  the  colour  varying  with  the  amount  of 
phosphorus  in  the  iron. 

D.  Puddled  bar,  polished  and  etched  with  picric  acid,  which  coloured 
the  more  highly  phosphorised  parts  brown. 

E.  Segregationed  steel  bar,  etched  with  picric  acid,  showing  a  brown 
patch  in  the  centre,  high  in  phosphorus. 

F.  Steel  bar  containing  1  ■  3  p.c.  carbon,  which  had  been  heated  at 
one  end  to  whiteness,  and  after  cooling  to  800°  C.  it  was  quenched  in 
water.  The  constituents — martensite,  troostite,  sorbite,  and  pearlite — ■ 
were  all  visible  in  the  picric-acid  etched  metal. 

G.  Compound  steel  safe  plate,  composed  of  alternate  layers  of  steel, 
with  0  •  05  p.c.  carbon,  and  steel  with  0 "  9  p.c.  carbon,  etched  with 
picric  acid.  The  hard  steel  was  coloured  brown,  the  soft  steel  remained 
white. 

H.  Loluca  meteorite,  polished  and  heat- tinted.  The  Widmanstatten 
structure  was  very  perfectly  developed. 

I.  A  steel  forging,  containing  what  is  known  as  a  phantom  or  ghost, 
or  an  area  leriticular  in  section,  high  in  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  The 
phantom  had  a  blue  tint  on  a  ground-mass  coloured  brown.  The  colours 
were  developed  by  heat-tinting. 

J.  Messrs.  J.  Swift  and  Son  :  Mr.  Stead's  External  Cover-glass 
Reflector  for  low-power  objectives  for  illuminating  opaque  objects. 

New  Fellows: — The  following  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows: 
Messrs.  George  Albert  Evans,  John  Mastin,  and  Eliezer  Moffat.  The 
following  were  elected  Honorary  Fellows  :  Professor  William  Gilson 
Farlow,  Professor  Herbert  S.  Jennings,  Professor  Edmund  B.  Wilson, 
and  Professor  R.  W.  Wood. 


^ 


JOURNAL 

OF   THE 

ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY. 

JUNE,    1905. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


Ill — Micro-Metallography  with  Practical  Demonstration. 
By   J.  E.  Stead,  F.K.S. 

{Bead  February  15th,  1905.) 

As  metals  are  opaque,  it  is  impossible  to  deal  with  them  as  the 
mineralogist  deals  with  his  rocks  and  minerals.  Therefore,  the 
metallographer  is  obliged  to  depend  upon  what  is  revealed  upon 
then  polished  surfaces.  On  this  account  it  is  not  necessary  to 
have  specimens  of  any  particular  shape,  size  or  thickness.  The 
only  thing  absolutely  essential  is  that  one  surface  is  perfectly  flat, 
and  is  polished  so  as  to  have  a  mirror-like  appearance,  free  from 
scratches. 

It  was  Dr.  Sorby,  of  Sheffield,  who  first  elaborated  a  system  for 
the  examination  of  the  micro-constituents  of  Iron  and  Steel.  His 
methods  are  so  well  known  that  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  give 
them  here  in  detail.  It  is  sufficient  to  state  that  the  metals  were 
polished  by  hand  on  a  series  of  emery  papers  diminishing  in  coarse- 
ness, and  finished  upon  rouged  parchment. 

Polishing  by  hand  takes  a  long  time,  and  although  the  work 
when  properly  finished  is  perfect,  it  has  been  found  a  very  great 
convenience  to  expedite  the  process  by  means  of  quick  running 
discs  and  grinding  appliances  worked  by  electrical  or  other  power. 

Professor  Martens  polished  on  beds  of  pitch  containing  grinding 
powders  mechanically  suspended,  which  were  placed  on  the  head  of 
a  wheel  running  horizontally.  A  series  of  many  specimens  were 
fixed  with  cement  to  a  holder,  which  was  caused  to  traverse  back- 
ward and  forward  across  the  polishing  surface. 

Osmond  proceeds  by  first  grinding  on  emery  papers  by  hand, 
roughly  polishing  on  rouged  cloth,  and  then  on  a  wheel  covered 

June  21st,  1005  U 


274  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

with  rouged  parchment  for  fine  polishing.  He  has  given,  in  his 
book  upon  the  mierostructure  of  metals,  detailed  instructions  for 
the  polishing  of  metals  and  the  preparation  of  the  emery  papers 
which  he  found  most  suitable. 

Professor  Arnold  prepares  his  specimens  on  revolving  horizontal 
polishing  blocks,  and  Mr.  Sauveur  on  vertical  running  wheels, 
the  polishing  being  effected  on  the  sides  of  the  discs.  Professor 
H.  Le  Chatelier,  on  the  other  hand,  polishes  on  the  periphery  of 
vertical  wheels. 

Each  authority  quoted  has  done  excellent  work,  and  it  may 
be  accepted  that  all  the  devices  have  given  satisfaction  in  the 
hands  of  the  operators. 

Professor  H.  Le  Chatelier  prepares  alumina  powder  for  the 
polishing,  and  a  description  of  the  method  has  already  been 
furnished  to  this  Society  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Merrett. 

Messrs.  Carling  and  Son,  machinists,  Middlesbrough,  have  for 
many  years  been  devoting  much  attention  to  the  construction  of 
suitable  devices  for  polishing  metals  by  machinery,  examples  of 
which  are  exhibited  here  to-night  by  their  consent.  The  principle 
of  working  is  the  same  as  that  of  other  machines,  such  as  are  used 
by  Professor  Ewing,  Mr.  W.  Bosenhain,  Mr.  W.  H.  Merrett  and 
others,  but  there  are  certain  improvements  which  are  possible 
advantages,  and  which  have  enabled  me  to  perfectly  polish  a 
specimen  of  steel  one  centimetre  scjuare  in  about  five  minutes 
after  it  is  cut  by  the  saw,  or  filed  smooth. 

An  examination  of  the  accompanying  photograph  (fig.  56)  will 
show  at  a  glance  the  construction  of  the  machine. 

The  shaft  of  the  revolving  wheel  rests  upon  a  polished  steel 
ball  to  prevent  friction,  and  is  caused  to  revolve  by  the  cord  con- 
nected to  a  power-driven  pulley,  preferably  a  \ -horse  power  electric 
motor,  running  at  such  a  speed  that  the  little  wheel  revolves  at 
the  rate  of  between  500  and  1000  revolutions  per  minute.  The 
sheath  S  prevents  the  projection  of  the  water,  which  is  caught  and 
conveyed  to  the  trough  T.  The  sheath  has  the  additional  advan- 
tage that  it  affords  a  rest  for  the  hand  when  holding  the  specimen,, 
and  enables  the  operator  to  regulate  the  pressure. 

A  series  of  loose  conical  blocks  B  are  placed  simply  alternately 
as  required  on  the  top  of  the  wheel  A,  the  friction  of  which  is 
sufficient  to  carry  them  round  without  slipping. 

The  block,  No.  1,  is  prepared  by  stretching  a  piece  of  the  finest 
emery  cloth  over  its  surface  and  securing  it  in  position  by  pressing 
the  ring  over  the  cloth  and  cone.  The  surplus  cloth  is  removed 
witli  a  knife.* 

The  other  blocks  are  prepared  in  precisely  the  same  way,  but 
instead   of  emery  cloth   the  paper   manufactured   in   France   for 

*  These  conical  blocks  are  similar  to  the  hand-polishing  blocks  designed  by 
Professor  Arnold. 


Micro-Metallography.     By  J.  E.  Stead. 


271 


polishing  engraving  plates  is  substituted.     The   second  block  is 
covered  with    paper  marked  "Hubert  0,"  the   third  block  with 


Fig.  56. 


paper  marked  "  Hubert  000."     The  fourth  block  is  covered  with 
a  ribless  cloth  of  considerable  thickness,  denseness  and  texture. 


u  2 


276  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Special  care  is  necessary  in  the  preparation  of  this  block,  for  upon 
it  the  polishing  is  finished.  On  the  top  of  the  block  is  placed  a 
small  disc  of  cloth  of  exactly  the  same  diameter  as  the  upper  area 
of  the  block.  Upon  this  is  sprinkled  pretty  thickly  a  covering  of 
about  one  gramme  of  diamantine  powder,  a  preparation  of  calcined 
alumina  manufactured  by  A.  Guyot  Dupold,  Tocle,  Switzerland, 
which  is  quite  as  satisfactory  as  the  calcined  alumina  prepared  as 
directed  by  Professor  H.  Le  Chatelier,  and  it  has  the  advantage  that 
it  can  be  readily  obtained  from  any  jeweller  at  a  small  price.  This 
diamantine  powder,  having  been  placed  upon  the  cloth  disc,  a  larger 
piece  of  cloth  is  placed  over  it  and  the  ring  pressed  home  over 
the  cone.  Arranged  in  this  way,  any  of  the  larger  particles  of 
powder  are  prevented  from  passing  upwards  through  the  pores  of 
the  cloth,  and  only  the  finest  portions  reach  the  upper  surface 
and  are  utilised  in  the  polishing. 

Professor  Arnold  has  independently  found  this  method  of 
procedure  to  be  very  useful. 

Many  metallographers  prefer  to  use  large  blocks  or  wheels  for 
polishing,  but  in  my  experience  it  has  been  found  that  with 
smaller  ones  there  is  less  danger  of  dust  getting  on  the  cloth,  and 
the  apparatus  is  more  convenient  and  less  cumbersome. 

In  the  many  designs  for  polishing  apparatus,  shown  at  this  meet- 
ing, it  will  be  observed  that  some  are  fitted  with  a  series  of  blocks 
in  which  all  the  necessary  grinding  and  polishing  surfaces  are  close 
together,  and  there  is  no  necessity  of  changing  the  blocks.  On  the 
other  hand  there  is  a  machine  writh  larger  blocks  to  suit  those  who 
prefer  them,  and  there  is  also  a  single  table  with  interchangeable 
discs.  All  these  machines  can  be  fitted  with  the  traversing 
specimen  holders,  so  that  polishing  becomes  practically  automatic. 
I  am  under  great  obligation  to  the  makers  for  allowing  these  to  be 
exhibited  this  evening. 


Selection  of  Specimens. 

When  a  metallographer  is  called  upon  to  make  an  examination 
of  a  metal  structure,  which  has  broken  or  failed  when  in  use,  it  is 
most  important  that  all  particulars  should  be  provided  him,  with 
exact  details  as  to  the  nature  of  the  strains  and  stresses  applied, 
where  they  were  applied,  and  whether,  or  not,  any  local  distortion 
of  the  metal  substance  has  been  produced  in  the  machine  shop,  or 
when  in  practical  use. 

In  selecting  the  position  from  which  specimens  shall  be  taken, 
the  metallographer  must  be  largely  guided,  by  the  information  he 
receives.  All  fractures  or  failures  in  metals  have  initial  starting 
points,  and  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  seat  of  weakness 
is  located  exactly  at  this  point,  and  possibly  nowhere  else.     A 


Micro-Metallography.     By  J.  E.  Stead.  277 

piece  of  machinery,  for  instance,  may  have  perfect  mechanical  pro- 
perties, a  perfect  microstructure,  be  of  correct  mechanical  design, 
and  yet  fail  when  in  use,  because  of  some  slight  depression  or 
flaw  in  the  surface  of  the  metal.  When  these  are  present,  it  is  of 
very  little  use  to  make  further  investigation,  because  these  irregu- 
larities are  almost  always  sufficient  to  account  for  the  failure.  If 
they  are  absent,  it  is  important  that  the  metal  near  to  the  initial 
point  of  fracture  should  be  selected  for  microscopic  examination, 
for  it  is  quite  possible  that  this  particular  part  may  have  been 
weakened  by  some  kind  of  incorrect  thermal  or  mechanical 
treatment,  when  possibly  no  other  part  of  it  may  have  been  so 
affected. 

It  often  happens  that  engineers  and  others,  who  wish  to  have  a 
micro-examination  of  the  metal,  cut  off  a  piece  perhaps  several 
inches  away  from  where  the  fracture  initiated,  and  expect  the 
metallographer  to  diagnose  from  the  structure  the  cause  of  fracture. 

It  is  important  also  in  metals  which  have  been  rolled  or  forged 
that  longitudinal  as  well  as  cross  sections  should  be  examined,  for 
it  not  infrequently  happens  that  what  cannot  be  seen  in  the  cross 
section  becomes  quite  evident  in  the  specimen  cut  longitudinally. 

In  selecting  specimens  from  worn  surfaces,  such  as  rails,  tyres, 
and  other  similar  metals,  two  such  surfaces  should  be  placed  face 
to  face,  so  that  the  worn  parts  of  the  metal  constitute  a  line 
between  the  two  sections.  After  placing  face  to  face  the  two  pieces, 
1  cm.  by  £  cm.  by  •£  cm.,  they  are  held  in  position  in  a  vice,  and  a 
little  solder  placed  on  the  back  of  them  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
keep  then  in  position.  Care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  lower 
part,  opposite  to  the  soldered  end,  against  a  metal  plate,  so  that 
the  surface  to  be  examined  does  not  become  heated.  The  specimen 
is  then  ground  and  polished  in  the  usual  way,  and  a  section  of  the 
worn  or  crushed  surface  can  be  examined.  If  this  precaution  of 
placing  the  pieces  together  is  not  taken,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to 
polish  the  metal  in  the  usual  way,  the  worn  surface  will  become 
rounded  on  the  polishing  blocks,  and  it  will  be  difficult  to  study  it 
properly. 

In  the  preparation  of  samples  of  wire,  first  of  all  it  is  necessary 
to  obtain  pieces  of  steel  about  the  same  hardness  as  the  wire,  1  cm. 
square  and  h  cm.  in  thickness.  In  the  centre  of  this  a  hole  is 
drilled  of  exactly  the  same  thickness  as  the  wire.  The  latter  is 
inserted  in  the  hole,  the  metal  placed  on  a  steel  block,  and  the 
back  of  the  specimen  secured  in  position  by  solder.  The  section  is 
then  polished  in  the  usual  way.  Longitudinal  sections  are  prepared 
by  soldering  several  pieces  of  wire  on  a  small  block  2  cm.  by  ^  cm. 
by  1  cm.,  but  only  at  the  extreme  ends,  so  as  to  avoid  heating  the 
central  parts,  which  alone  are  examined.  All  the  pieces  are  then 
ground  down  to  half  their  diameter,  and  the  surfaces  are  polished 
and  etched  in  the  ustial  way. 


278  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

On  examining  sections  of  material  such  as  tin  plate  sheets, 
similar  supports  of  metal  must  again  be  provided.  Fine  cuts  with 
a  fret  saw  are  made  in  the  centre,  half  way  through  the  support, 
and  pieces  of  tin  plate  are  slipped  into  the  slits.  They  are  retained 
there  by  squeezing  the  metal  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  two 
sides  of  it  to  press  against  the  enclosed  pieces  of  sheet. 


Polishing  the  Specimens. 

In  general  practice,  it  has  been  found  that  the  polishing  is  more 
rapidly  effected  by  holding  the  specimen  in  the  hand  than  by  fixing 
it  in  the  automatic  holders.  One's  finger  tips  suffer  somewhat 
when  many  samples  are  polished,  but  that  is  not  a  serious  objection. 

Block  No.  1  is  placed  on  the  wheel,  and  by  means  of  a  switch 
the  current  of  electricity  is  turned  on  to  the  motor.  As  the  hori- 
zontal wheel  revolves,  the  specimen,  sawn  or  filed  to  shape,  is 
pressed  on  to  the  surface  of  the  block  with  considerable  force  at 
first,  and  then  with  gradually  diminishing  pressure  until  the  saw 
or  file  marks  are  removed.  This  operation  does  not  take  more 
than  a  minute.  The  current  is  switched  off,  No.  1  block  is  replaced 
by  No.  2,  and  the  specimen  passed  over  this.  After  changing 
No.  2  for  No.  3,  the  specimen  is  rough  polished  thereon.  No.  4 
block  (cloth  cover)  is  now  put  on  the  wheel,  water  is  run  on  to  the 
surface,  and  the  final  polishing  completed. 

One  great  secret  of  success  in  polishing  is  to  gradually  diminish 
the  pressure  of  the  specimen  on  the  blocks,  commencing  with  heavy 
pressure  and  finishing  with  practically  none,  and  to  pass  the  speci- 
men round  the  block  in  an  opposite  direction  to  that  in  which  the 
wheel  is  rotating. 

The  block  with  the  "  000  "  emery  covering  requires  some  little 
preparation  before  it  is  suitable  for  fine  grinding.  This  is  effected 
by  covering  it  with  rouge,  and  pressing  a  flat  piece  of  polished  steel 
upon  its  surface  when  rapidly  revolving.  After  rotating  for  about 
five  minutes,  the  surface  of  the  block  is  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  fine 
linen  cloth  to  remove  all  the  gritty  particles.  This  operation  is 
twice  repeated,  after  which  the  surface  will  be  in  a  most  suitable 
condition  for  practical  work,  and  if  care  is  taken  will  be  capable  of 
polishing  from  fifty  to  sixty  specimens. 

The  cloth  block,  in  spite  of  all  precautions,  may  occasionally 
become  contaminated  by  dust  and  grit.  This  is  very  soon  dis- 
covered by  the  appearance  of  curved  lines  upon  the  specimen  which 
is  being  polished.  In  such  case  the  block  is  removed  and  placed 
in  running  water,  and  the  cloth  is  meanwhile  rubbed  with  the  finger. 
In  this  way  the  grit  will  become  dislodged. 

h  When  polishing  upon  this  block  it  is  important  that  it  should 


Micro-Metallography.     By  J.  E.  Stead.  279 

be  kept  moist  by  allowing  water  to  fall  upon  its  surface  from  the 
reservoir  D.  In  the  bottom  of  this  reservoir  there  is  placed  a  plug 
of  cotton-wool  to  prevent  the  passage  of  any  grit. 

When  polishing  copper,  brass,  and  softer  metals  the  No.  4  block 
is  lubricated  with  oil  instead  of  water. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  description  just  given  there  is 
nothing  required  excepting  what  can  be  obtained  commercially. 

The  emery  paper  can  be  obtained  i'rom  any  ironmonger,  the  cloth 
from  any  tailor,  and  the  diamantine  powder  from  any  jeweller. 


Mounting  the  Specimens  foii  Microscopic  Examination. 

There  have  been  several  devices  described  for  the  purpose  of 
mounting  specimens  upon  glass  slides  for  microscopical  examination. 
Mr.  Merrett  uses  a  mixture  of  wax,  but  for  my  own  part  I  find  that 
there  is  nothing  better  than  the  plasticine  used  by  children  for 
model  making,  a  material  which  constantly  remains  plastic  both  in 
summer  and  winter,  and  has,  moreover,  the  good  property  of 
adhesiveness.  This  can  be  obtained  from  any  kindergarten  stores, 
at  very  little  cost,  or  from  dealers  in  polishing  apparatus. 

A  most  accurate  and  certain  method  of  obtaining  the  polished 
surface  of  the  metal  in  true  parallel  plane  with  the  plane  of  the 
Microscope  slide  is  to  place  the  polished  surface  of  the  specimen 
upon  a  piece  of  plate-glass,  and  to  place  over  tins  a  short  cylinder 
of  brass  or  other  metal,  the  two  ends  of  which  are  parallel,  and 
whose  height  is  sufficient  to  extend  a  little  beyond  the  back  of  the 
specimen.  A  piece  of  plasticine  having  been  stuck  on  to  the  glass 
slide,  this  is  pressed  upon  the  specimen  until  the  glass  rests  on  the 
upper  end  of  the  cylinder.  The  slide  is  then  removed,  together 
with  the  specimen  adhering  to  it. 

Messrs.  Watson  and  Sons  have  one  or  two  devices  for  levelling 
metal  sections  on  the  stage  of  the  Microscope,  one  of  which  has 
been  designed  by  Mr.  Eosenhain ;  and  Messrs.  Swift  and  Sons  have 
prepared,  to  my  design,  a  device  which  is  most  satisfactory. 

Messrs.  Heycock  and  Neville  have  a  very  neat  way  of  marking 
their  glass  slides.  Instead  of  plain  slips  they  use  ground  glass, 
and  write  in  pencil  upon  the  frosted  surface  a  description  of  the 
nature  and  character  of  the  object.  The  necessity  of  having  some 
simple  method  of  marking  will  be  obvious  when  it  is  known  that 
it  is  often  necessary  to  immerse  the  metal  sections  after  mounting  in 
etching  fluids.  Gummed  labels  would  come  off  and  be  lost  under 
such  treatment.  In  practice  it  has  been  found  more  convenient  to 
use  glass  slips  2  in.  by  1  in.  instead  of  those  3  in.  by  1  in. 


280  Transactions  of  the  Society. 


Methods  of  Etching. 

The  chief  advance  made  in  metallography  of  recent  date  con- 
sists in  the  method  of  developing  the  structures  of  metals. 

Dr.  Sorby  and  Professor  Arnold  recommend  the  use  of  nitric 
acid  in  different  degrees  of  concentration,  but,  excepting  in  such 
cases  when  vigorous  action  is  required  and  for  very  pure  steels  free 
from  phosphorus  and  sulphur,  nitric  acid  does  not  give  good 
results. 

M.  Osmond  devised  a  process  of  showing  up  the  pearlitic  and 
other  structures  of  steels,  which  he  described  as  the  "  polissage 
attack,"  which  consisted  of  rubbing  the  polished  metal  section  on 
parchment,  moistened  with  a  solution  of  lirjuorice-root  in  water,  or 
a  2  p.c.  solution  of  nitrate  of  ammonia  in  water.  When  the  proper 
pressure  is  applied,  after  a  little  practice,  it  is  possible  to  get  a  very 
perfect  development  of  the  structures  of  steels  by  this  method. 

Tincture  of  iodine  has  been  used  by  Osmond  and  others  with 
very  satisfactory  results,  and  for  a  long  time  I  have  found  this  a 
most  admirable  reagent  for  differentiating  between  the  appearance 
of  such  portions  in  steels,  which  are  relatively  higher  in  phosphorus, 
from  those  containing  less  of  that  element.  Iron  or  steel  con- 
taining much  phosphorus  is  less  readily  corroded  or  attacked  by 
iodine  than  similar  material  containing  little  of  that  element.  By 
taking  advantage  of  this  peculiarity,  when  a  given  piece  of  metal 
contains  more  phosphorus  in  one  part  than  in  another,  it  is  easy  by 
the  action  of  dilute  iodine  to  find  out  where  the  high  phosphorus 
portions  are  located. 

M.  Ischewsky,  in  the  laboratory  of  Professor  H.  Le  Chatelier, 
discovered  that  a  5  p.c.  solution  of  picric  acid  in  absolute  alcohol 
would  give  the  same  constant  and  perfect  development  of  the 
structure  of  pearlite  in  steel  as  was  obtained  by  the  "polish 
attack  "  of  Osmond,  and  this  reagent  is  almost  universally  recog- 
nised as  one  of  the  most  valuable  reagents  for  etching  steels. 

On  applying  picric  acid  in  the  development  of  steels  containing 
high  percentages  of  phosphorus,  it  has  been  found  that  by  long 
continued  action  it  causes  the  portions  highest  in  phosphorus  to 
become  brown  relatively  more  rapidly  than  the  other  parts. 

Brasses,  containing  varying  proportions  of  copper,  when  placed 
side  by  side  in  the  picric  solution,  become  coloured  in  different 
degrees  and  at  varying  periods. 

It  is  possible  that  the  same  reagent  may  be  used  for  other 
alloys  with  advantage. 

Professor  H.  Le  Chatelier  has  discovered  that  alkaline  oxidising 
reagents  have  the  peculiarity  of  darkening  carbide  of  iron  when  in 


Micro-Metallography.     By  J.  B.  Stead.  281 

the  massive  state  in  steel,  and  considering  that  no  other  reagents 
yet  employed  have  succeeded  in  causing  it  to  become  tinted,  these 
must  be  regarded  as  valuable  additions  to  our  etching  fluids. 

Professor  Heyn  has  used  a  10  p.c.  solution  of  double  chloride 
of  copper  and  ammonium  for  the  purpose  of  developing  the  crystal- 
line structure  of  iron,  a  reagent  which  has  been  proved  to  be  of 
great  value  and  service,  and  is  recognised  as  a  standard  reagent  by 
many  workers. 

Messrs.  Heycock  and  Neville  have  found  that  in  the  study  of 
the  bronzes,  ferric  chloride  in  alcohol  is  a  most  valuable  reagent 
for  the  development  of  the  structures  of  such  alloys. 

M.  G.  Charpy  and  others  have  used  the  electrical  method 
of  etching  with  advantage,  in  which  the  specimen  is  attached  to 
one  of  the  poles  of  a  battery  and  immersed  in  a  suitable  etching 
liquid,  such  as  hydrochloric  acid,  the  metal  being  electrically 
dissolved  from  the  surface.  This  method  has  given  very  good 
results  in  the  development  of  the  structure  of  brasses,  and  of 
austenite  and  martensite  in  high  carbon  steels. 

Other  reagents,  such  as  the  tinctures  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
nitric  acid,  and  bromine,  have  been  used  with  success. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  methods  of  revealing  the  structure  of 
metals  consists  in  heating  the  brightly  polished  specimens  until 
they  assume  oxidation-coloured  films.  Professors  Behrens  and 
Martens  and  others  have  been  most  successful  in  the  application 
of  this  method.  Professor  Cohen  has  also  used  it  in  differentiating 
the  various  constituents  in  meteorites. 


Microscopes  foe  Metallography. 

Microscopes  suitable  for  metallography  are  supplied  by  most  of 
the  good  makers,  and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  what  is 
required  in  that  direction,  but  in  metallographic  work  the  Micro- 
scope does  not  require  any  substage,  and  the  stage  itself  should  be 
arranged  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  capable  of  being  racked  down- 
wards so  as  to  admit  of  giving  a  large  space  between  the  object- 
glass  and  the  object  itself.  Indeed,  an  ideal  Microscope  is  one  in 
which  a  gap  of  8  in.  can  be  made.  The  reason  for  this  is — it 
often  happens  that  it  is  necessary  to  use  very  low  power  objectives, 
and  to  obtain  a  wide  field  of  vision.  Many  makers  have  introduced 
Microscope  stands  with  vertically  movable  stages,  and ,  these  are 
found  in  the  stands  of  Messrs.  Reichert,  of  Vienna ;  Messrs.  Beck, 
Limited,  Messrs.  Watson  and  Sons,  and  Mr.  Carl  Zeiss,  of  London, 
as  well  as  in  the  Microscopes  used  by  Mr.  Sauveur,  of  Boston,  U.S.A. 


282  Transactions  of  the  Society. 


Cameras. 

In  my  work  I  have  used  the  camera  supplied  by  Messrs. 
Nachet  et  Fils,  of  Paris,  and  have  found  it  to  be  very  useful. 

Modifications  of  the  vertical  cameras  are  prepared  and  sold  by 
nearly  all  Microscope  makers. 

Horizontal  cameras,  designed  specially  for  metallography,  made 
by  Mr.  Carl  Zeiss,  and  Messrs.  Beck,  Limited,  are  much  to  be 
preferred  to  the  vertical  type,  the  only  objection  being  that  they 
take  up  much  more  space. 

Illuminators  for  Opaque  Objects. 

As  all  metal  objects  are  opaque,  only  such  devices  as  throw 
light  on  their  surfaces  are  of  use  in  metallography. 

The  very  excellent  Sorby  Beck  oblique  and  vertical  illuminators 
for  low  power  objectives,  have  done  yeoman  service  to  Micro- 
metallography  in  the  past,  but  I  would  suggest  that  they  would  be 
still  more  useful  if  the  silver  mirrors  were  replaced  by  glass. 
Except  perhaps  in  country  places  free  from  smoke,  fume  and 
grime,  the  silver  surfaces  become  tarnished,  and  it  is  necessary 
periodically  to  remove  the  reflectors  and  re-polish  them  before  they 
can  be  used. 

The  internal  cover-glass  reflector  of  Beck  has  been  used  with 
much  success  by  most  metallographers,  but  personally  I  have  had 
trouble  in  obtaining  photographs  when  illuminating  with  this 
arrangement,  in  consequence  of  the  reflection  of  vertical  rays  of 
light  which  fall  on  the  surface  of  the  lenses  in  the  object-glass 
itself.  For  this  reason  for  several  years  I  have  used  the  Nachet 
prism  reflector,  and  more  recently  the  prism  reflector  made  by 
Zeiss,  which  certainly  gives  illumination  of  a  very  high  order  and 
is  free  from  the  objection  inherent  to  the  cover-glass. 

I  notice  that  Messrs.  Beck  are  now  supplying  a  good  prism 
reflector  for  high  power  objectives  which  is  fitted  with  a  diaphragm 
so  as  to  cut  off  the  light  to  any  desirable  degree.  I  have  not  had 
an  opportunity  of  trying  this  instrument,  but  hope  to  have  that 
pleasure  in  the  near  future. 

Messrs.  Swift  and  Sons  have  prepared  to  my  design  a  very 
useful  external  cover-glass  arrangement  suitable  for  1£  in.  to  2  in. 
objectives.  This  consists  of  a  tube  which  is  caused  to  slide  over 
the  lower  part  of  the  object  glass,  the  bottom  part  of  which  is 
cut  at  an  angle  of  45°,  and  against  this  a  cover-glass  |  in. 
in  diameter  is  placed  and  kept  in  position  by  small  springs.  The 
inner  side  of  the  tube  is  blackened  so  as  to  avoid  double  reflection. 


Micro-Metallography.     By  J.  E.  Stead.  283 

With  this  reflector  working  with  an  ordinary  incandescent  lamp  a 
photograph  of  85  diameters  can  be  taken  in  3  minutes  when  using 
a  No.  3  eye-piece. 


Methods  of  Illumination. 

The  arc  electric  light  takes  the  premier  place ;  following  it  in 
order  are  the  Nernst  light,  the  acetylene  lamp,  the  incandescent 
gas  burner,  the  incandescent  electric  lamp  worked  at  high  pressure, 
and  finally  the  ordinary  Microscope  oil  lamp. 

In  conclusion,  I  must  express  my  indebtedness  to  Messrs. 
Carling  and  Son,  Middlesbrough,  for  the  loan  of  their  machines 
and  apparatus  ;  to  Mr.  Plumtree,  and  to  the  Union  Electric  Co.  for 
the  use  of  the  motor  by  which  the  machinery  has  been  worked,  and 
to  Mr.  Swift  for  the  loan  of  microscopes  and  illuminators. 


284 


IV. — Methods  for  Detecting  the  more  Highly  Phosphorised  Portions 

in  Iron  and  Steel. 

By  J.  E.  Stead,  F.E.S. 

CEead  March  15th,  1905.) 
Plates  V.  and  VI. 

On  reading  the  published  researches  of  micro-metallographers 
it  would  appear  that  very  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
methods  for  detecting  or  identifying  the  more  highly  phos- 
phorised portions  in  iron  and  steel.  I  have,  however,  repeatedly 
had  occasion  to  report  upon  the  structure  of  steels  and  to  draw 
attention  to  irregular  distribution  of  phosphorus. 

Signor  E.  Schanzer,  C.E.,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Institute 
of  Naval  Architects,  April  6th,  1900,  referred  to  the  peculiar  bands 
of  ferrite  and  pearlite  parallel  to  the  axis  of  a  propeller  shaft,  which 
he  had  examined  (pi.  V.  fig.  1.).  Every  micro-metallographer  must 
have  noticed  a  similar  structure. 

Professor  Arnold  and  Mr.  S.  A.  Houghton  have  described  them 
in  papers  they  have  published. 

Signor  Schanzer,  when  discussing  the  causes  leading  to  this 
peculiar  arrangement,  stated  that  "  nothing  can  be  said  as  to 
whether  the  high  amounts  of  phosphorus  are  favourable  to  the 
development  of  the  particular  structure,  nor  can  any  other  cause 
be  suggested." 

That  phosphorus  is  at  least  responsible  in  many  cases  for  the 
arrangement  of  ferrite  and  pearlite  in  trains,  lines  or  bands,  I  have 
most  conclusively  demonstrated,  and  it  appears  most  probable  that 
Signor  Schanzer's  inference  is  correct  for  the  case  examined. 

Mr.  Henry  Fay  in  an  article  published  in  "  The  Metallographist " 
1901,  page  115,  describes  a  segregation  of  phosphorus  in  a  piece 
of  cold  rolled  shafting,  in  winch,  after  Osmond's  polish-attack, 
midway  between  the  centre  and  exterior  there  appeared  a  white 
ring  on  a  dark  ground.  The  ring  contained  0*214  p.c.  phosphorus 
and  the  dark  portions  0*09  p.c. 

Mr.  Fay  believed  the  white  ring  contained  some  of  the  phos- 
phide eutectic,  but  this  seems  scarcely  likely,  for  it  is  not  until 
such  low  carbon  steel  contains  above  1  p.c.  phosphorus  that  the 
eutectic  containing  10*2  p.c.  phosphorus  separates.  Probably  the 
structure  observed  consisted  of  alternate  portions  of  steel  contain- 
ing high  and  low  amounts  of  phosphorus,  a  condition  which  might 
easily  lead  to  the  supposition,  judging  from  the  appearance  alone, 


Phosphoriscd  Portions  in  Iron  and  Steel.     Bij  J.  E.  Stead.     285 

that  it  was  a  eutectic,  whereas  such  structure  may  be  produced,  as 
I  have  found  by  actual  experiment,  by  the  peculiar  way  in  which 
the  phosphorettic  parts  of  steel  are  imprisoned  in  and  between  the 
crystallites  of  iron. 

I  have  already  published  the  methods  of  detecting  phosphide 
in  pig-irons  by  the  Microscope ;  and  it  only  remains  for  me  to 
describe  other  methods  for  differentiating  between  the  portions 
higher  and  lower  in  phosphorus  in  commercial  irons  and  steels. 

The  following  are  detailed  directions  for  applying  the  several 
methods. 

Heat  Tinting  Methods. 

When  polished  iron  or  steel  is  heated  in  air  the  surface  becomes 
coloured  by  the  formation  of  films  of  oxide  of  iron.  In  proportion 
as  the  temperature  is  raised,  or  continued  at  one  suitable  tempera- 
ture the  tints  pass  from  pale  yellow  to  yellow,  brown,  purple,  blue, 
and  steel  grey,  and  through  the  same  series  of  tints  a  second  time 
if  the  heating  is  continued,  but  the  tints  of  the  second  series  are  not 
so  intense  as  those  of  the  first. 

Massive  carbide  of  iron  becomes  coloured  less  rapidly  than  iron 
and  more  rapidly  than  phosphide  of  iron,  whilst  iron  containing 
phosphorus  in  solid  solution  colours  more  rapidly  than  pure  iron 
or  iron  containing  less  phosphorus. 

Method  1. — Into  an  iron  crucible  or  ladle,  or  other  suitable 
receptacle,  is  placed  about  4  ounces  of  tinman's  solder  (2  tin, 
1  lead).  The  vessel  is  placed  over  a  Bunsen  burner  and  the  solder 
melted.  Into  the  metal  a  Le  Chatelier  couple,  covered  with  a  thin 
piece  of  asbestos  paper,  is  inserted.  The  flame  of  the  burner  is 
adjusted  until  the  temperature  of  the  metal  stands  at  250°  C. 
The  specimens,  having  been  polished,  are  rubbed  with  a  piece  of 
clean  woollen  cloth,  and  are  warmed  on  a  hot-plate,  or  in  a  boiling 
water  oven,  and  when  still  warm  they  are  again  rubbed  with  the 
cloth.  They  are  then  floated  on  the  molten  metal.  The  reason 
for  first  gently  heating  is  to  prevent  condensation  of  acid  water 
from  the  waste  products  of  the  burning  gas.  If  the  precaution  is 
not  taken  the  specimen  after  heating  will  be  covered  with  minute 
coloured  dots  due  to  condensed  steam.  The  surfaces  of  the  speci- 
mens are  watched  and  examined  with  a  strong  magnifying  glass. 
They  will  assume  a  regular  yellow  tint,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the 
phosphorised  portions  will  become  brown  on  a  yellow  ground, 
and  if  the  heating  is  continued  they  will  become  coloured  blue, 
whilst  the  parts  not  so  high  in  phosphorus  will  be  brown  or 
dark  yellow.  At  this  point  the  specimens  are  removed  and  may 
be  examined  under  the  Microscope,  whilst  still  hot.  If  the  tinting 
is  not  sufficiently  advanced  they  may  be  returned  to  the  bath  for 
further  heating. 

Examples,  pi.  V.  figs.  3,  4,  6. 


286  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Method  2. — Instead  of  regulating  the  temperature  of  the  bath 
it  may  be  heated  until  the  surface  of  the  solder  begins  to  form 
yellow  films.  Each  specimen,  preferably  of  the  dimensions  20  mm., 
by  10  mm.  by  5  mm.,  is,  after  warming  and  rubbing  with  a  cloth, 
held  at  one  end  with  a  pair  of  tongs,  and  the  under  surface  of  the 
other  end  is  immersed  in  the  highly  heated  metal.  In  one  minute 
or  less  the  tinting  will  be  complete,  but  it  will  be  graduated  in 
colour  between  grey  at  one  end  and  pale  yellow  at  the  other ;  the 
intermediate  part  passing  through  the  whole  gamut  of  colouring. 
The  specimens  are  removed  when  the  central  parts  have  assumed 
a  brown  colour. 

Treated  in  this  way  the  phosphorised  portions  will  be  dark 
brown  on  a  yellow  ground,  or  blue  on  a  brown  ground. 

Method  3. — The  specimen  is  heated  rapidly  until  uniformly  blue, 
and  when  cold  is  immersed  in  water  containing  a  one-thousandth 
part  of  nitric  acid.  The  films  covering  the  phosphorised  parts  will 
be  dissolved  in  advance,  and  if  the  acid  treatment  is  stopped  at  the 
right  moment  it  is  possible  to  have  white  phosphorised  areas  on  a 
brown  or  blue  matrix.  This  method  gives  very  satisfactory  results, 
but  many  failures  to  obtain  the  exact  development  may  follow  the 
first  attempts.  It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  rub  the  developed 
specimen  with  moistened  chamois  leather  before  drying  with  a  hot 
blast  of  air  (pi.  V.  fig.  5). 

Method  4. — Instead  of  floating  the  specimens  on  the  surface  of 
liquid  metal,  they  are  placed  into  a  jacketed  copper  chamber  4  in. 
in  length  and  1  in.  square,  which  is  surrounded,  excepting  at  one 
end,  with  heavy  mineral  oil,  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  245°  C. 
A  drawer  is  fitted  into  this,  and  into  it  the  metal  sections  are 
placed.  The  tinting  by  this  method  of  heating  is  more  under 
control  than  by  the  first  described,  and  it  is  easy  to  locate  the  parts 
highest  in  phosphorus  even  in  steel  castings  containing  under 
O'Oo  p.c.  of  that  element. 


Iodine  Etching. 

This  method  is  based  on  the  fact  that  a  very  dilute  tincture 
of  iodine  in  potassium  iodide  corrodes  the  portions  lower  in  phos- 
phorus relatively  more  rapidly  than  those  containing  more  of  that 
element. 

The  necessary  reagent  contains  1  gramme  of  iodide  and  0*1 
iodine  per  500  c.cm.  alcohol  and  50  c.cm.  water. 

The  polished  specimens  are  immersed  in  this  and  are  examined 
from  time  to  time.  When  it  is  seen  that  some  portions  remain 
brilliantly  white  on  a  dull  ground,  they  are  removed,  washed 
with  water  and  alcohol,  and  dried  in  a  current  of  hot  air. 

In  longitudinal  sections   of  rolled  steel  after  this  treatment 


Phosphorised.  Portions  in  Iron  and  Steel.     By  J.  E.  Stead.     287 

there  will  be  seen  white  lines  which  may  or  may  not  he  indepen- 
dent of  the  ferrite  and  pearlite  areas  (pi.  VI.  fig.  10).  These  white 
lines  contain  the  higher  proportion  of  phosphorus.  Relatively  they 
resist  the  corrosive  action  of  the  iodine.  That  this  is  so  may  be 
verified  by  a  longer  action  followed  by  slight  re-polishing  on  wet 
parchment,  when,  even  with  the  aid  of  a  simple  lens,  the  resist 
lines  will  be  seen  to  stand  in  relief.  When  examined  under  oblique- 
light  rays,  the  phosphorised  parts  appear  black  on  a  light  ground 
(pi.  VI.  fig.  8). 

Picric  Acid  Etching  and  Tinting  Method. 

The  long-continued  action  of  a  2  p.c.  solution  of  picric  acid  in 
water  containing  5  p.c.  alcohol  will  colour  the  portions  higher 
in  phosphorus,  yellow,  brown,  blue,  etc. 

This  method  is  well  adapted  for  the  study  of  wrought  iron  and 
soft  steel. 

When  applying  the  reagent  the  specimens  are  immersed  in  the 
solution. 

The  colouring  may  take  several  minutes  to  develop.  When  it 
is  considered  advisable  to  remove  the  specimens,  they  must  be- 
washed  with  water  and  alcohol,  dried  in  a  current  of  hot  air,  and 
on  no  account  must  they  be  wiped  with  a  cloth,  for  the  slightest 
friction  is  liable  to  remove  some  of  the  films  (pi.  VI.  fig.  7). 

A  simple  solution  of  picric  acid  in  water  colours  the  phosphorised 
portions  in  advance  of  the  parts  containing  less  phosphorus,  but  all 
parts  will  eventually  become  brown  if  the  action  is  continued  long: 
enough. 


vo* 


Nitric  Acid  Etching  and  Tinting  Method. 

This  method  is  based  on  the  observation  that  very  dilute  nitric 
acid,  like  iodine,  acts  relatively  less  rapidly  on  the  phosphorised 
portions,  and  at  first  they  remain  bright,  but,  if  the  action  is. 
continued,  they  become  darkened  by  the  formation  of  a  dark 
coloured  skin  or  film.  This  film  is  probably  of  the  same  sub- 
stance as  the  black  residue  which  remains  when  phosphorised 
steels  are  dissolved  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

On  etching  longitudinal  sections  of  steel  and  iron,  the  phos- 
phorised lines  at  first  resist  the  acid  and  appear  white  on  a  dark 
ground,  but  after  longer  action  the  white  lines  become  relatively 
darker  than  the  less  phosphorised  parts— indeed,  it  is  possible  with 
care  to  obtain  a  positive  and  negative  appearance  on  the  same 
specimen  by  a  short  or  more  prolonged  etching  (pi.  VI.  fig.  9). 

After  strong  etching,  if  the  specimen  is  re-polished  on  a  cloth 
block,  the  phosphorus  lines  will  stand  in  relief,  and  as  the  dark 


288  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

stain  is  readily  removed  by  slight  friction,  the  lines  appear  white 
on  a  dull  ground. 

Professor  Heyn  has  kindly  sent  me  some  photographs  of  steel 
structures  developed  by  his  copper-ammonium-chloride  reagent, 
which  appeared  to  be  identical  with  those  developed  by  iodine. 
Although  he  does  not  describe  them  as  other  than  indicative  of 
primary  crystallisation,  I  have  but  little  doubt  that  they  are 
mainly  evidence  of  imperfect  distribution  of  phosphorus. 

If  steel,  containing  low  carbon,  say  under  0  *  5  p.c,  in  either  the 
cast  or  forged  condition,  is  very  slowly  cooled,  the  highly  phos- 
phorised  areas  reject  the  carbon  which  had  segregated  with  the 
phosphorus,  and  as  a  result  massive  areas  of  ferrite  appear,  the 
borders  of  which  are  often  surrounded  with  pearlite. 

If  the  phosphorus  is  greatly  concentrated  in  certain  parts, 
carbon  will  not  be  retained  there  even  on  comparatively  rapid 
cooling  from  a  high  temperature  (pi.  VI.  fig.  11). 

Description  of  the  Photo-Microgkaphs. 
Plates  V.  and  VI. 

Fig.  1. — Heavy  steel  forging  showing  white  parallel  streaks, 
similar  to  those  described  by  Signor  Schanzer,  etched  with  iodine. 

Fig.  2. — Photograph  of  rolled  soft  steel  bar,  by  Professor  E. 
Heyn,  etched  with  the  Heyn  reagent.  The  dark  central  portion  is 
highest  in  phosphorus. 


Tensile  Strength. 

Elongation, 

Outer  zone       . 

.       37-0  kg. 

25*5  p.c. 

Inner  zone 

.       42-5  kg. 

22-2  p.o. 

Professor  Heyn  states  that  etching  alone  enables  one  to  deter- 
mine that  the  central  portion  is  highest  in  phosphorus. 

Fig.  3. — Steel  casting  containing  0*3  p.c.  carbon,  0*057  p.c. 
sulphur,  and  0  •  041  p.c.  phosphorus.  Heat-tinted  to  a  brown  colour. 
The  high  lights  indicate  specks  of  sulphide  of  manganese  (MnS), 
the  half-tone  parts  are  the  boundaries  of  crystals  highest  in  phos- 
phorus. The  dark  background  is  ferrite  and  pearlite.  In  the 
object  itself  the  ground  mass  is  brown,  the  phosphoiised  parts  are 
purple,  and  the  sulphide  of  manganese  is  white.  After  forging  to 
one-third  of  the  original  diameter,  the  phosphoiised  parts  appear 
as  bands,  and  are  readily  detected  by  heat-tinting,  or  by  slight 
etching  with  iodine. 

Fig.  4. — The  same  steel  as  fig.  3,  to  which  phosphorus  was 
added  when  fluid  to  give  0 '  3  p.c.  Structure  developed  by  heat- 
tinting.  The  whiter  parts  are  the  boundaries  of  the  primary 
crystals,  and  are  very  high  in  phosphorus. 

Fig.  5. — The  same  steel  as  the  last,  after  forging  to  one-third  of 
the  diameter.     Heated  rapidly  to  blue  and  etched  with  very  dilute 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.  1905.  PI.  V. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.   3. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  6. 


JOURN.  R.  MICR.  SOC.  1905.  PI.  VI. 


.#!-*»  ..V.  ■ 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  9. 


IW 


Fig.    10. 


dtm'i 


"¥&** 


Fig.  8. 


t^j^l 


Fig.  11. 


Phosphorised  Portions  in  Iron  and  Steel.     By  J.  E.  Stead.     289 

nitric  acid  (Method  3),  which  leaves  the  phosphorised  portions 
white  on  a  dark  ground. 

Fig.  6. — The  same  steel  as  fig.  3,  but  with  0'5  p.c.  phosphorus. 
Heat  tinted  (Method  1). 

Fig.  7. — Plates  of  pure  iron  with  two  bands  of  iron  high  in 
phosphorus  between  them.  Etched  by  the  picric  acid  method. 
The  dark  bands  represent  the  parts  high  in  phosphorus. 

Fig.  8. — Alternate  plates  of  pure  iron,  free  from  phosphorus, 
and  iron  containing  0*25  p.c.  of  that  element.  Etched  by  the 
iodine  method.  Illuminated  by  the  oblique  light.  The  piua  iron, 
white,  is  etched ;  the  phosphorised  portions,  dark,  have  resisted  the 
attack. 

Fig.  9. — Cross  section  of  a  rail-head  containing  0*08  p.c. 
phosphorus.  Structure  developed  by  the  nitric  acid  method.  The 
dark  spots  represent  minute  segregations  of  phosphorus. 

Fig.  10. — Longitudinal  section  of  a  steel  tyre,  containing  about 
C-5  p.c.  carbon.  Etched  with  dilute  iodine,  showing  that  the 
resist  phosphorus  lines  pass  through  the  normal  ferrite  and  pearlite 
areas. 

Fig.  11. — Longitudinal  section  of  a  heavy  crank-shaft,  etched 
slightly  with  picric  acid,  showing  the  terminating  point  of  a 
phosphorus  segregation  (white).  The  carbon  has  been  thrown  out 
of  the  segregation  during  annealing,  and  surrounds  it  in  the  con- 
dition of  pearlite  (dark).  The  segregation  appeared  as  a  white  line 
nearly  two  inches  in  length,  and  represents  what  machinists  some- 
times call  "  phantoms  "  or  "  ghosts."  As  a  rule  these  local  segrega- 
tions are  accompanied  by  sulphide  of  manganese.  In  one  case  an 
approximate  analysis  indicated  0*35  p.c.  phosphorus,  0*5  p.c. 
sulphur,  and  no  carbon.  The  surrounding  metal  had  0  ■  04  p.c. 
phosphorus  and  0 "  05  p.c.  sulphur. 


June  21st,  1905 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY      AND       BOTANY 

(principally  invertebrata  and  cryptogamia), 

MICEOSCOPY,  Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

.VERTEBRATA. 
a    Embryolog-y.f 


Natural  and  Artificial  Parthenogenesis.^ — A.  Petrunkevitck  takes 
a  retrospect  of  recent  work  and  discussion  on  parthenogenesis,  aud  seeks 
to  show  how  the  question  now  stands.  Our  knowledge  of  fertilisation 
and  parthenogenesis  may  be  recapitulated  in  four  statements. 

1.  Both  the  egg  ready  for  fertilisation  and  the  mature  sperm  show  a 
reduction  in  the  number  of  chromosomes  of  their  nuclei  to  one  half  of 
that  found  in  somatic  cells. 

2.  No  matter  how  many  spermatozoa  succeed  in  entering  the  egg, 
the  nucleus  of  only  one  of  them,  under  normal  conditions,  fuses  with 
the  egg  nucleus,  thus  restoring  the  original  number  of  chromosomes. 
All  other  spermatozoa  are  absorbed. 

h\  The  centrosome  of  the  egg  disappears  after  the  second  polar  cell 
is  formed,  its  functions  being  assumed  by  the  centrosome  of  the  sperma- 
tozoon. 

4.  In  most  parthenogenetic  eggs  no  reduction  of  chromosomes  takes 
place — only  one  polar  cell  being  formed — and  the  egg  centrosome 
remains  active. 

The  spermatozoon  may  introduce  substances  apart  from  its  chromo- 
somes and  its  centrosome  ;  it  may  be  necessary  (with  Bethe  and 
Bresslau)  to  distinguish  between  Besamung  and  BefrucMung,  but  it 
seems  certain  that  the  paternal  hereditary  characters  are  transmitted  to 
the  descendant  by  the  chromosomes  of  the  sperm-nucleus,  and  that  the 
sperm-centrosome  gives  the  stimulus  to  development  and  controls  the 
successive  divisions. 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of  this  part  of 
the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  to 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are  either  new  or  have 
not  been  previously  described  in  this  couutry. 

t  This  Section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so  called, 
but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  aud  allied  subjects. 

X  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  65-76. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  291 

Polyspermy  sometimes  exists  normally,  but  even  then  all  the  sperma- 
tozoa save  one  are  normally  absorbed  by  the  egg-cytoplasm.  If  their 
centrosomes  persist  they  may  form  independent  centres  for  cell-division, 
and  interfere — sometimes  fatally — with  normal  development.  Abnormal 
development  also  follows  where  the  egg-nucleus  unites  with  more  than 
one  sperm-nucleus.  Thus  the  mere  entrance  of  a  spermatozoon  into 
an  egg  cannot  be  regarded  as  in  itself  the  efficient  stimulus  to  normal 
development.  It  is  possible,  by  etherising  an  egg,  to  prevent  the  union 
of  the  sperm-nucleus  with  the  egg-nucleus,  and  then  one-half  of  the 
egg,  with  the  egg-nucleus,  develops  parthenogetically,  while  the  other, 
with  the  sperm-nucleus,  develops  merogenetically.  Therefore  Petrun- 
kevitch  holds  to  the  old  definition  of  fertilisation,  and  calls  an  egg 
fertilised  only  when  the  union  of  the  nuclei  is  accomplished.  Apart 
from  fission,  there  are  three  kinds  of  propagation  without  fertilisation  : — 
(a)  budding,  through  successive  regular  mitotic  divisions  proceeding 
from  one  or  several  cells  ;  (b)  parthenogenesis,  from  an  unfertilised  egg, 
introduced  by  a  maturation  division ;  and  (c)  paadogenesis,  as  in 
Cecidomyia,  which  may  be  larval  parthenogenesis  or  nearer  budding, 
according  as  a  process  of  maturation  does  or  does  not  occur,  which  is 
still  a  problem. 

In  the  majority  of  parthenogenetic  eggs — the  single  exception  being 
that  of  certain  insects — there  is  but  one  maturation  division  and  no 
reduction  of  chromosomes,  the  opportunities  for  variation  being  thus 
much  restricted.  The  exception  to  this  rule  is  found  in  those  insects 
in  which  only  one  sex  develops  parthenogenetically,  and  in  the  male 
individuals  in  those  cases  where  both  sexes  develop  parthenogenetically. 
In  such  cases  two  maturation  divisions  take  place  with  a  corresponding 
reduction  in  the  number  of  chromosomes. 

Microscopic  study  and  that  only  is  able  to  show  without  error 
whether  an  egg  is  fertilised  or  not.  The  development  of  an  aster 
around  the  oentrosome  of  the  spermatozoon  after  it  has  entered  the 
ovum  facilitates  the  finding  of  the  sperm-nucleus,  which  keeps  its  place 
close  behind  the  migrating  centrosome.  This  sperm-aster  develops  in 
the  same  way  throughout  the  entire  animal  kingdom  ;  in  polyspermic 
bee-eggs  similar  asters  appear  in  numbers  equalling  those  of  the  sperma- 
tozoa which  enter  the  egg ;  in  the  so-called  drone-egg  an  aster  would 
surely  develop  should  a  spermatozoon  enter  it.  In  spite  of  all  criticism, 
the  parthenogenesis  of  the  drone-egg  remains  certain. 

In  parthenogenetic  eggs  the  egg-centrosome  remains  active ;  in 
Artemia  sali/ia,  at  least,  we  can  easily  see  that  it  moves  alone  towards 
the  centre  of  the  egg  to  await  there  the  nucleus,  which,  after  the  single 
maturation-division,1"  is  destined  to  become  the  first  cleavage-nucleus. 
Thus  does  the  egg-centrosome  in  parthenogenetic  eggs  maintain  its 
individuality  through  all  cell-generations.  May  it  be,  however,  that 
in  pure  parthenogenesis  the  ostensibly  female  centrosomes  are  descen- 
dants of  a  remote  ancestral  male  centrosome  ? 

Still  more  important  biological  problems  are  connected  with  the 
behaviour  of  the  chromosomes" in  parthenogenesis.  In  pure  partheno- 
genesis they  remain  unreduced  in  number  ;  but  in  the  exceptional  cases 
the  number  is  reduced.  But  Petrunkevitch  has  shown  that  the  number 
of  chromosomes  in  the  first  cleavage  nucleus  of  the  drone-egg  again 

x  2 


292  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

becomes  normal ;  probably  through  longitudinal  splitting  without  a 
corresponding  division  of  the  cyptoplasm.  In  all  parthenogenetic  e«i:*, 
with  possibly  the  one  exception  of  Nematus  (according  to  Doncaster),  the 
number  of  chromosomes  in  the  first  cleavage  nucleus  becomes  in  some 
way  equal  to  that  in  the  somatic  cells.  It  is  not  impossible  that  in 
Sonatas  there  is  no  reduction  in  spermatogenesis,  which  would  lead 
to  the  same  thing.  Petrunkevitch's  attempt  to  show  that  the  polar  cells, 
after  a  conjugation  similar  to  that  of  the  pronuclei,  give  rise  to  the 
primordia  of  the  male  gonads,  requires  confirmation. 

Experiment  must  supplement  the  observation  of  normal  partheno- 
genesis. Two  methods  are  possible,  of  which  one  is  cross-breeding  and 
in-breeding,  e.g.  in  bees,  and  the  other  artificial  parthenogenesis  and 
merogony.  In  merogony  there  is  a  reduced  number  of  chromosomes 
and  the  presence  of  the  active  sperm-centrosome.  In  artificial  partheno- 
genesis, there  is  a  stimulation  to  new  life  of  the  egg-centrosome.  It 
may  be  that  there  are  de  novo  formations  of  centrosomes,  as  the  research 
of  Yatsu  has  again  emphasised  ;  even  then,  it  is  probable  that  the 
divisions  are  due  to  the  egg-centrosome. 

According  as  the  stimulus  is  appplied  before  or  after  the  second 
maturation  division,  we  get  development  with  the  normal  number  of 
chromosomes,  or  with  the  reduced  number.  Both  parthenogenetic 
development  with  the  reduced  number  of  chromosomes  and  merogonic 
development  show  abnormalities,  which  increase  in  inverse  ratio  to  the 
number  of  chromosomes  left  in  the  egg ;  all  this  goes  to  show  that 
neither  merogony  nor  artificial  parthenogenesis  with  a  reduced  number 
of  chromosomes  can  be  regarded  as  equivalent  to  natural  parthenogenesis. 
So  Petrunkevitch  distinguishes  artificial,  pathological,  uniparental 
development  from  artificial  true  parthenogenesis  (with  the  normal  number 
of  chromosomes).  Experiments  must  be  made  by  applying  the  stimulus 
at  the  different  moments  of  maturation. 

Maturation  and  Fertilisation  of  Haminea  solitaria  (Say).*— TV.  M, 
Smallwood  gives  the  results  of  his  embryological  investigations  upon  this 
mollusc.  In  the  first  maturation  the  chromosomes  divide  transversely, 
but  in  the  second  maturation  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  whether  the 
division  is  transverse  or  longitudinal.  A  quantitative,  but  not  a 
numerical,  reduction  is  accomplished  by  each  of  these  two  divisions. 
Qualitative  reduction  cannot  be  demonstrated.  In  fertilisation,  the  sperm 
head  may  penetrate  the  ovum  at  any  point  of  its  surface.  A  middle 
piece  .could  not  be  distinguished.  Accessory  asters  appear  in  the  ana- 
phase of  the  second  maturation,  which  are  temporary  and  independent 
of  the  sperm  head.  The  chromatin  in  both  male  and  female  pronuclei 
passes  through  a  metamorphosis  before  the  cleavage  asters  arise.  Of  the 
two  cleavage  asters  one  is  associated  in  origin  with  each  pronucleus. 
The  centrosome  at  the  close  of  each  cleavage  becomes  indistinguishable 
from  the  microsomes  in  the  cytoplasm,  and  it  is  therefore  impossible  to 
affirm  that  it  divides  in  preparation  for  the  following  cleavage. 

Individuality  of  the  Chromosomes.! — TV.  J.  Baumgartner  commu- 
nicates some  observations  on  the  germ-cells  of  crickets,  which  furnish 

*  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.  Harvard,  xlv.  (1904)  pp.  259-31S  (13  pis.). 
t  Biol.  Bulletin,  viiL  (1904)  pp.  1-23  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  293 

two  lines  of  evidence  confirming  the  individuality  of  the  chromosomes. 
The  first  of  these  concerns  the  accessory  chromosome,  in  whose  behaviour 
he  finds  additional  proof  of  its  distinctness  from  the  other  chromo- 
somes. The  second  line  of  evidence  concerns  the  ordinary  chromosomes. 
Boveri  has  recently  found  a  difference  in  function  in  the  chromosomes  ; 
Sutton  has  found  a  difference  in  size ;  and  Bamngartner  has  been 
fortunate  enough  to  find  a  difference  in  form,  a  characteristic  shape 
assumed  by  the  chromosomes  in  the  prophase  and  metaphase  of  the 
first  spermatocyte  division. 

Telephase  in  Blastomeres  of  Salmonidae.* — P.  Bouin  states  that  the 
axial  filaments  which  differentiate  themselves  in  the  course  of  the 
mitoses  of  the  large  blastomeres  in  the  Salmonidas  are  the  following  : — 
(1)  A  system  of  fibrillar  extended  between  the  diverging  kinetic  centres. 
This  is  the  primary  protoplasmic  spindle  ;  it  disappears  when  the 
distance  between  the  centres  is  considerable.  (2)  The  secondary  spindle, 
a  true  karyodieretic  spindle  which  is  derived  from  the  two  regions  of 
the  aster  directed  towards  the  nucleus.  (3)  A  system  of  filbrilke 
■developed  between  the  polar  plates.  This  is  the  spindle  residue  in 
the  small  blastomeres ;  it  is  crushed  by  the  invagination  of  the 
€ell-membrane  during  division.  (4)  A  fourth  system  of  filaments 
is  constituted  after  the  disappearance  of  the  before  mentioned  set.  They 
occupy  the  whole  equatorial  region  of  the  mother-cell,  and  are  re-united 
after  the  separation  of  the  plasma  into  a  sheaf-like  formation.  The 
name  "  equatorial  palisade  "  (palissade  equatoriale)  is  proposed  for  these 
filaments,  and  separation  sheaf  (gerbe  de  separation)  to  designate  the 
figure  made  by  them  when  gathered  together  by  the  converging  invagi- 
nation of  the  cellular  membrane. 

Morphological  Superiority  of  the  Female  Sex.f — T.H.Montgomery, 
jun.,  reviews  a  number  of  facts  in  the  anatomy  and  development  of 
various  invertebrate  and  vertebrate  types,  from  which  he  concludes  that 
the  male  is  the  more  embryonic  and  less  developed.  A  survey  of  the 
facts  of  sexual  dimorphism  shows  the  supposed  excellence  of  the  male 
to  consist  in  what  are  mainly  unimportant  morphological  characters. 
The  female  possesses  an  internal  reproductive  apparatus  which  is 
generally  of  much  greater  complexity  than  that  of  the  male,  and  some- 
times a  central  nervous  system  of  higher  specialisation.  Almost 
without  exception  the  female  is  larger  than  the  male.  When  either  of 
the  sexes  is  rudimentary  in  comparison  with  the  other,  it  is  in  almost  all 
cases  the  male.  The  general  conclusion  reached  is  that  from  the  stand- 
point of  morphological  advancement  the  female  is  clearly  the  superior 
in  the  invertebrates  and  lower  vertebrates  ;  and  still  superior,  but  in 
less  degree,  in  the  higher  vertebrates. 

Experiments  on  Tadpoles.} — Empedocle  Goggio  has  made  a  long 
series  of  experiments  on  the  tadpoles  of  the  toad  {Bitfo  vulgaris) 
showing  the  degree  of  viability  and  regenerative  capacity  exhibited  after 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exp.,  iii.  (1905)  Notes  et  Revue,  pp.  xcii-c. 

t  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc,  xliii.  (1904)  pp.  3(35-80. 

J  Atti  Soc.  Toscana  Sci.  Nat,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  1S6-223  (2  pis.). 


294  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

many  different  forms  of  mutilation.     His  results  are  remarkable,  but 
he  has  not  as  yet  formulated  any  general  conclusions. 

Spermatozoa  of  Lamprey.* — E.  Ballowitz  describes  the  structure  of 
the  spermatozoon  in  Petromyzon  fluviatilis,  and  especially  the  unique 
feature,  an  extremely  delicate  and  long  thread  ("  Ko-pfborste  ")  which 
arises  from  the  apex  of  the  head.  Its  morphological  character  and 
functional  import  remain  undiscovered. 

Function  of  Interstitial  Gland  of  Testis.f— D.  N.  Voinov  finds 
that  the  testes  of  the  adult  cock  are  toxic  for  animals  of  the  same  and 
different  species  independently  of  sex.  The  genital  toxins  introduced 
into  the  blood  produce  respiratory,  circulatory,  and  motor  troubles,  the 
gravity  of  which  is  proportional  to  the  dose  ;  large  injections  causing 
death.  This  toxicity  is  unrelated  to  sexual  activity,  for  the  effects  of  the 
testes  of  both  adult  and  young  animals  are  the  same  in  degree.  These 
effects  are  traceable  to  the  interstitial  gland,  which  absorbs  the  toxins 
of  the  blood,  preventing  them  from  reaching  the  seminal  elements. 

Shifting  of  Pectoral  Fin  during  Development.:}:— H.  H.  Swinnerton 
has  studied  the  relative  positions  of  the  pectoral  fin  in  an  extensive 
series  of  stages  of  the  three-spined  stickleback  (Gasterostens  acuJeatns). 
The  glenoid  border  tends  to  rotate  from  a  horizontal  to  a  vertical 
position  during  development.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  shifting  of 
the  fin  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  coraco-scapular  plate  is  at  first 
a  very  insignificant  portion  of  the  pectoral  skeleton,  but  as  development 
advances  it  broadens  out  antero-posteriorly.  In  view  of  the  phylogenetic 
shifting  forwards  of  the  pelvic  fin  in  Teleosts,  it  would  be  instructive  to 
ascertain  if  there  is  a  corresponding  phylogenetic  shifting  back  of  the 
pectoral  fin. 

Influence  of  Castration  on  Size.§  —  E.  Pittard  submits  statistics 
which  lead  him  to  conclude  that  castration  results  in  an  increase  of  the 
absolute  size  in  human  groups,  that  the  bust  contributes  very  much  less 
than  the  legs  to  the  exaggerated  development — in  fact,  there  is  a  rela- 
tive diminution  in  the  development  of  the  bust  and  a  relatively  large 
increase  in  the  legs. 

Development  of  Vascular  System  of  Ceratodus.|| — W.  E.  Kellicott 
gives  a  summary  of  the  chief  results  of  his  study  of  the  development  of 
the  vascular  system  in  Ceratodus  ;  the  general  conclusion  is  that  the 
resemblances  in  the  vascular  (and  respiratory)  systems  between  this  most 
primitive  representative  of  the  extant  Dipnoi  and  the  Amphibia,  espe- 
cially the  Urodela,  are  numerous  and  fundamental,  and  cannot  be  ex- 
plained as  parallelisms. 

Studies  in  Bone  Development.! — H.  Meyburg  has  investigated 
certain  points  in  the  development  of  bone,  particularly  the  stage  de- 
scribed by  Gebhardt  as  "  in  toto  konzentrischen  Struktur."    Succeeding 

*  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxv.  (1904)  pp.  96-120  (1  pi.), 
t  Arch.  Zool.  Exp.,  iii.  (1905)  Notes  et  Revue,  pp.  lxxxi.-xcii. 
X  Aim.  Nat.  Hist.,  xv.  (1905)  pp.  319-21  (4  figs.). 
§  Comptes  Rendus,  exxxix.  (1904)  pp.  571-3. 
||  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  200  -S  (2  figs.). 
1  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxiv.  (1904)  pp.  627-52. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  295 

the  rudiment  of  the  diaphysis  of  the  tubular  bones  in  mammals  is  a 
stage  which  consists  of  laminre  arranged  concentrically  round  the  whole 
skeletal  part.  The  interstices  between  these  laminae  are  likewise  con- 
centric, and  are  occupied  by  a  corresponding  concentric  network  of  blood 
vessels.  These  spaces  are  later  filled  out  with  delicate  non-lamellate 
bone  substance,  which  has  a  preponderatingly  "  in  toto  concentric " 
arrangement,  whilst,  observed  in  detail,  it  is  seen  to  be  deposited 
concentrically  about  the  single  vessel  groups.  This  characteristic 
arrangement,  which  persists  in  different  animals  for  different  periods, 
entirely  disappears,  and  is  replaced  by  a  structure  formed  of  general 
lamellte  and  Haversian  pillars,  which  is  likewise  "  in  toto  concentric." 
Roux  distinguishes  the  two  stages  as  "  primary"  and  "  secondary  in  toto 
concentric "  respectively.  The  paper  gives  an  account  of  the  sub- 
sequent changes  resulting  in  the  well-known  compact  diaphyses,  as  well 
as  the  different  degrees  occurring  in  various  animals  and  in  particular 
bones. 

Lumbar  Spinal  Cord  in  Birds.* — G.  Imhof  gives  an  account  of  the 
structure  and  development  of  the  lumbar  spinal  cord.  The  lumbar 
dilatation,  together  with  the  widened  pelvic  canal,  is  a  secondary  acquisi- 
tion of  a  relatively  late  period  of  embryonic  life.  It  reaches  in  the  histo- 
logical differentiation  of  its  supporting  substance,  a  stage  not  possible 
in  modern  reptiles,  not  to  speak  of  Mesozoic  forms.  The  author  regards 
the  view  that  the  lumbar  swelling  in  birds  is  a  character  inherited  from 
Dinosaur  ancestors  as  quite  untenable. 

Notes  on  Opisthenogenesis.f — A.  S.  Packard  discusses,  with  the 
help  of  some  examples  which  have  come  under  his  personal  observation, 
the  question  of  the  development  of  segments,  median  tubercles,  and 
markings  a  tergo.  Opisthenogenesis,  as  regards  markings,  appears  to 
have  some  relation  with  the  opisthenogenetic  origin  in  post-embryonic 
development  of  new  segments  in  "  the  budding  zone."  The  portion  of 
the  animal  which  arises  from  this  zone  appears  to  be  a  secondary  or 
inherited  region,  due  to  the  post-embryonic  acquisition  of  new  characters 
(certain  trunk  segments  and  their  appendages)  in  many  segmented  or 
polymerous  animals.  It  is  suggested  that  the  phenomenon  of  con- 
crescence may  be  the  initial  cause,  or  at  least  in  some  way  connected 
with  the  breaking  up  of  the  longitudinal  stripes  of  the  body  and  their 
transformation  into  spots  at  or  near  the  budding  zone  of  their  poly- 
merous or  polypodous  (Peripatus-Yike)  ancestors. 

b.  Histology. 

Studies  on  Neuroglia.:}: — W.  Rubaschkin  has  investigated  the  origin, 
nature,  and  relations  of  neuroglia,  with  the  following  results.  It  con- 
sists of  fibres  and  different  kinds  of  cells  genetically  related.  The 
earliest  gliagenetic  cells  are  distinguished  by  their  size  and  granular 
cell-body  with  granular  prolongations.  The  gliagenetic  cells  are  the 
beginning  of  all  elements  of  the  neuroglia,  and  form  by  the  metamor- 

•  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxv.  CI 905)  pp.  498-610  (1  pi.). 
t  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc,  xliii.  (1904)  pp.  289-94. 
X  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxiv.  (1904)  pp.  575-626  (4  pis.). 


296  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

phosis  of  their  prolongations  and  of  their  protoplasm  the  different 
elements.  The  differentiated  prolongations  assume  the  character  of 
glia  fibrils  ;  from  a  single  prolongation  there  probably  arise  several 
fibrils,  some  of  which  remain  in  connection  with  the  cell,  whilst  others 
become  free.  The  last  stage  of  the  glia  metamorphosis  consists  of 
cells  without  prolongations,  and  astrocytes  (which  probably  remain 
stellate),  with  differentiated  prolongations  and  differentiated  cell-body 
{Astrocyten  des  Endtypus).  The  cell-body  of  many  full-grown  stellate 
cells,  but  especially  of  this  type  of  Astrocyte,  is  provided  with  comb- 
shaped  elevations,  which  on  staining  behave  as  glia  fibrils.  Round  the 
vessels  the  glia  fibres  form  a  more  or  less  thickly  interlacing  net,  similar 
to  glia  adventitia,  and,  together  with  the  continuations  of  the  stellate 
cells,  they  form  around  the  nerve-cells  and  fibres  a  more  or  less  close 
network,  the  glia  capsules,  but  penetrate  neither  into  the  interior  of 
the  nerve-cells  nor  of  the  myelin.  Especially  rich  in  glia  are  the  optic 
nerve,  chiasma,  optic  tract,  and  olfactory  nerve,  while  the  roots  of  the 
spinal  nerves  are  provided  to  a  definite  extent  with  glia  fibres.  An 
account  is  also  given  of  the  structure  and  composition  of  the  ependyme, 
of  the  continuations  of  the  cells  of  the  ependyme  epithelium,  and  of  the 
infundibulum. 

New  Nerve  Sheath  in  Sensory  Nerves.* — A.  Ruffini  has  found  a 
new  nerve  sheath,  between  Schwann's  and  Ilenle's,  in  the  terminal  tract 
of  the  sensory  nerve-fibres  in  man.  He  regards  it  as  protective  in 
character,  calls  it  the  guaina  sussidaria,  and  describes  it  in  detail. 

Peripheral  Cell-Groups  in  Spinal  Cord  of  Reptiles.f — A.  I.  Sterzi 
discusses  the  peripheral  cell-groups  which  occur  throughout  the  whole 
length  of  the  spinal  cord  in  reptiles,  metamerically  arranged  beside  the 
spinal  roots,  arising  in  development  from  the  ventral  column,  and  motor 
in  function.     They  may  be  compared  to  the  spinal  ganglia. 

Olfactory  Cells  of  Lamprey4 — E.  Ballowitz  gives  a  detailed  account 
of  the  minute  structure  of  the  olfactory  cells  in  Petromyzon  fluviatilis, 
describing  the  peripheral  protoplasmic  body,  which  bears  long  cilia,  and 
the  central  nerve-process,  which  pursues  an  irregularly  curved  course 
between  the  loose  basal  portions  of  the  supporting  cells,  and  shows 
varicosities. 

Endocellular  Tubules.§ — Domingo  Sanchez  has  previously  directed 
attention  to  what  he  regards  as  fine  intra-cellular  tubules  in  the  intes- 
tinal cells  of  certain  Isopods.  He  returns  to  this  subject  and  discusses 
intra-cellular  tubule  {a)  in  the  unicellular  glands,  (b)  in  intestinal 
epithelium,  and  (c)  in  ganglion  cells.  These  represent  three  distinct 
groups  of  intra-cellular  tubules  which  must  be  separately  discussed. 
The  author's  new  instances  are  chiefly  from  the  intestinal  cells  of  slugs 
and  snails. 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  Ixxix.  (1905)  pp.  150-70  (2  pis.). 

t  Atti  Soc.  Toscana  Sci.  Nat.,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  243-75  (2  pis.). 

t  Archiv  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxv.  (1904)  pp.  78-95  (1  pi.). 

§  Boll.  Soc.  Espaii.  Hist.  Nat.,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  375-9  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  297 

Structure  and  Regeneration  of  Poison  Glands  of  Plethodon 
oregonensis.* — C.  0.  Esterly  finds  that  the  skin  glands  of  this  newt  are 
of  two  kinds,  as  in  most  amphibians,  namely  granular  and  mucous. 
The  granule  glands  are  larger  than  the  mucous  glands,  have  an  investing 
musculature,  and  are  poisonous.  They  are  destroyed  in  the  process  of 
secretion,  and  renewal  takes  place  by  the  growth  into  all  the  old 
glands  of  a  new  and  smaller  gland,  which  is  mucous  in  character.  The 
growth  of  the  new  gland  is  dependent  upon  the  removal  of  the  secretion 
about  it.  There  is  evidence  that  even  when  hindered  in  their  develop- 
ment, they  still  secrete  mucus,  and  a  primordium  giving  the  mucous 
reaction  is  found  in  all  glands  whether  degenerate  or  not.  When  not 
hemmed  in  by  the  heavy  granular  contents  of  the  large  glands,  the  new 
glands  grow  and  replace  the  old  glands,  probably  assuming  their 
function. 

Both  the  musculature  and  the  epithelium  of  the  granule  glands  have 
a  direct  nerve  supply.  The  gland  cells  are  surrounded  by  a  basket-work 
of  fibres,  which  in  some  cases  have  terminal  expansions  lying  on  the 
nuclei.  The  muscles  are  supplied  by  nerves  with  typical  endings  in  the 
form  of  expansions  or  bulbs,  as  well  as  by  fine  twigs  without  terminal 
expansions. 

Intranuclear  Pat  in  the  Supra-renals  of  Mammals.t — P.  Mulon 
finds  in  some  mammals,  e.g.  guinea-pig  and  dog,  both  young  and  adult, 
that  the  nuclei  of  the  cells  of  the  cortical  substance  show  fatty  inclusions. 
The  nuclei  are  quite  normal  in  form  and  as  to  their  chromatin.  The 
presence  of  fat  in  the  nuclei,  i.e.  in  a  phosphatic  environment,  is  the 
more  remarkable,  since  the  cytoplasm  of  these  glandular  cells  contains  a 
lecithin.  The  presence  of  inclusions  of  the  same  chemical  nature  in  the 
nucleus  and  in  the  cytoplasm  of  secreting  cells  suggests  that  the  nucleus 
has  an  active  role  in  the  secretory  process. 

Supra-renal  Capsules 4 — Rivas  Mateos,  C.  Calleja,  and  R.  Folch 
give  a  summary  account  of  their  observations  on  the  minute  structure  of 
the  supra-renal  capsules  in  mammals,  discussing  in  order  the  connective- 
tissue  zone,  the  cortical  zone,  and  the  medullary  zone. 

Heart  Muscle  of  Dog.§ — Gertrude  A.  Gillmore  finds  that  in  the  dog's 
heart  the  fibres  are  packed  closely  together.  Fibrils  from  adjacent  cells 
blend  together  to  form  new  fibres.  Along  the  edge  of  the  fibres  there 
is  a  narrow  wavy  condensation  of  sarcoplasm  resembling  the  sarcolemma 
of  insect  muscle.  In  this  structure  Krause's  membrane  terminates. 
Numerous  other  details  of  structure  are  discussed  in  the  paper. 

c  General. 

Pelagic  Cephalochordates.|] — R.  Goldschraidt  obtained  from  the 
*  Yaldivia'  collection  26  specimens  of  pelagic  Cephalochordates  captured 

*  Univ.  California  Publications  (Zoology)  i.,  No.  7  (1904)  pp.  227-63  (4  pla.). 

t  Comptes  Eendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  1228-30. 

X  Boll.  Soc.  Espafi.  Hist.  Nat.,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  262-4. 

S  Trans.  Amer.  Micr.  Soc,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  35-44  (3  pis.). 

||  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxv.  (1905)  pp.  235-40  (1  fig.). 


298  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

in  circnm-equatorial  waters  in  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  Oceans. 
The  collection  included  Giinther's  Branchiostomum  pelwjicum  and  two 
new  species.  All  must  be  referred  to  the  genus  Amphioxides  Gill,  for 
which  the  new  family  Amphioxididse  is  proposed.  The  diagnosis  reads 
as  follows  : — Pelagic  Acrania  without  peribranchial  space,  with  a  slit-like 
mouth  lying  to  the  left,  with  branchial  slits  on  the  ventral  median  line, 
with  the  pharynx  divided  into  a  dorsal  nutritive,  and  a  ventral  respiratory 
portion.  In  Amphioxides  pelagic  us  (Giinther)  the  notochord  runs  to  a 
point  at  the  caudal  end,  and  there  are  15  post-anal  myotomes;  in 
A.  voddivm  sp.  n.  the  notochord  ends  bluntly  in  front  of  the  caudal  end, 
and  there  are  11  post-anal  myotomes  ;  in  A.  stenurus  sp.  n.  the  myotomes 
are  55  pre-anal  and  15  post-anal,  and  the  posterior  end  is  very  much 
narrowed.  The  author  promises  to  discuss  these  forms  in  detail,  and  to 
show  why  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  neotamic  larval  forms. 

Eye  of  Bdellostoma  stouti.* — B.  M.  Allen  recalls  the  observations 
of  Johannes  Miiller,  who  noted  the  absence  of  eye-muscles,  the  lack  of 
a  crystalline  lens,  the  homogeneous  character  of  the  eye-capsule,  and 
the  total  absence  of  pigmentation  in  the  eye-structures.  By  means  of 
serial  section,  Allen  has  amplified  these  observations.  The  eye  is  im- 
bedded in  a  mass  of  fat  lying  beneath  a  transparent  patch  of  skin  on 
the  side  of  the  head  ;  no  traces  of  eye-muscles  are  to  be  seen,  and 
Kupffer  found  none  in  the  embryo.  A  slender  optic  nerve  can  be  traced 
through  the  mass  of  fat  to  the  eye-ball.  In  some  cases,  the  eye  is 
wholly  imbedded,  not  reaching  to  the  surface  of  the  mass  of  fat ;  in 
other  cases,  the  corneal  portion  is  flattened  against  the  integument. 

The  size  and  shape  of  the  eye-ball,  the  thickness  of  the  retina,  and 
the  presence  or  absence  of  a  persistent  choroid  fissure,  are  subject  to 
great  fluctuation. 

A  section  of  the  eye  shows  the  sclerotic  and  choroid  coats,  together 
with  the  inner  layer  of  the  cornea,  to  consist  of  a  homogeneous 
unpigmented  layer  of  connective  tissue.  The  optic  cup  remains  in  a 
primitive  condition.  The  inner  layer  is  not  directly  apposed  to  the 
outer,  there  being  a  distinct  interval  between  the  two.  The  inner  layer 
shows  more  or  less  clearly  marked  retinal  cells  ;  the  outer  layer  is 
composed  of  a  single  layer  of  unpigmented  cubical  cells. 

Nervous  System  of  Cyclothone  acclinidens.f  —  August  Gierse  has 
made  a  study  of  the  brain  and  cranial  nerves  of  this  small  pelagic  deep- 
water  Teleostean,  and  finds  that  there  are  divergences  in  several  respects 
from  the  common  condition  of  affairs  in  bony  fishes.  The  skull  is  a 
persistent  chondrocranium  ;  the  whole  skeleton  is  cartilaginous  ;  there 
are  no  scales.  The  brain  is  long  and  narrow  ;  the  cerebral  hemispheres 
are  inconspicuous ;  the  thalamencephalon  is  exposed  ;  there  are  two 
independent  epiphyses  ;  there  are  two  symmetrical  pineal  nerves  ;  the 
parapineal  organ  is  a  simple  evagination  of  the  ventriculus  communis 
with  a  terminal  spindle-shaped  expansion  in  close  apposition  to  the  pineal 
organ  ;  the  connection  between  hypophysis  and  infundibulum  is  a  solid 
nervous  strand  ;  the  mid-brain  is  strongly  developed,  but  with  an  im- 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  20S-11  (11  figs.), 
t  Morphol.  Jahrb,xxxii.  (1904)  pp.  602-88  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  299 

perfect  roof  ;  the  cerebellum  resembles  that  of  ArgyropeUeus,  and  is 
primitive  in  the  slight  development  of  the  valvula  cerebelli ;  the  medulla 
is  essentially  like  that  of  other  fishes.  The  cranial  nerves  are  described 
at  length. 

Pairing  of  Rana  temporaria.* — W.  Wolterstorff  records  some 
interesting  facts  concerning  R.  temporaria,  observed  by  Dr.  Dieck  on  an 
expedition  in  Asturias.  In  a  pass  (1400  m.  high)  between  Leon  and 
Oviedo,  he  observed  thousands  of  gigantic  well-nourished  reddish-brown 
frogs  in  copula  upon  the  snow.  They  were  progressing  towards  a  brook 
which  was  just  thawing.  It  appears  that  they  pass  the  winter  under  the 
snow  ;  under  the  sexual  impulse  they  scrape  out  channels  through  which 
they  reach  the  surface  and  make  for  the  water. 

Types  of  Limb-Structure  in  Triassic  Ichthyosauria.t  —  J.  C. 
Merriam  discusses  the  four  types  of  limbs  known  in  the  Triassic 
Ichthyosaurs.  They  show  an  unexpected  degree  of  differentiation  when 
compared  with  the  limbs  of  Jurassic  genera.  But  in  spite  of  the 
differentiation  shown  in  the  Triassic  types,  they  have  all  retained  certain 
primitive  characters  not  common  in  the  later  forms.  All  show  a 
separation  of  radius  and  ulna,  and  in  all  excepting  Shastasaurus  osmonti 
these  elements  are  elongated  and  the  radius  is  constricted  or  shafted. 
The  presence  of  these  and  other  primitive  characters  in  so  many  other- 
wise different  forms  furnishes  us  with  much  stronger  evidence  of  the 
origin  of  the  Ichthyosauria  from  generalised  shore  forms  than  could 
have  been  given  by  the  single  type  known  to  Baur,  who  nevertheless 
reached  the  conclusion  that  the  limbs  of  the  Triassic  Ichthyosaurs  come 
nearer  to  the  type  found  in  the  primitive  Reptilia  than  do  those  of  the 
later  representatives  of  the  order,  and  argued  that  the  group  bore  the 
same  relation  to  the  Rhynchocephalia  that  the  cetaceans  bear  to  the 
primitive  mammals. 

Ear-Bones  of  Vipera  and  Tropidonotus.J — W.  Moller  has  inves- 
tigated the  development  and  innervation  of  the  ear-bones  in  these  two 
forms  by  means  of  reconstructions  from  serial  sections  of  embryos. 
The  columella  arises  from  the  caudal  end  of  the  capsule  which  de- 
velops around  the  membranous  labyrinth.  From  this  it  grows  as  a 
conical  projection  towards  the  hyoid  arch,  to  end  near  the  outer  open- 
ing of  the  first  gill-cleft.  In  the  beginning  there  is  no  clear  dis- 
tinction between  the  origin  of  the  columella  and  the  rest  of  the 
labyrinth  capsule.  At  all  the  stages  examined  the  columella  was  of 
uniform  structure  throughout,  and  nothing  to  indicate  its  formation  in 
two  parts  was  found.  The  tuberosity  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  quadrate 
observed  by  Hassa  is  probably  a  stylo-hyal  which  has  fused  with  it. 
This  stylo-hyal,  the  author  finds,  is  united  by  a  joint  with  the  columella. 
Peculiar  granule-bearing  cells  were  observed  around  the  columella  at 
the  stage  of  formation  of  the  primitive  cartilage.  Numerous  details 
regarding  innervation  are  given  in  the  paper. 

*  Zool.  Anzeic,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.53C-S. 

t  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  23-30  (7  figs.). 

J  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxv.  (1905)  pp.  439-97  (2  pis.). 


300  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Epidermal  Organs  in  Lizards.* — F.  Folg  has  made  a  comparative 
histological  examination  of  the  femoral,  pre-anal  or  inguinal,  and  anal 
organs  in  Laccrta,  Agama,  and  other  lizards.  These  organs  all  show 
a  more  or  less  marked  agreement  with  the  epidermis,  and  are  not  of  a 
glandular  nature. 

Reptilian  Lower  Jaw.f — J.  S.  Kingsley  discusses  the  composition 
of  the  lower-jaw  in  reptilian  types.  A  good  deal  of  confusion  has 
arisen,  since  Cuvier  recognised  at  most  six  component  bones  (1836).  In 
an  embryo  of  the  lizard  Sceloporiis,  in  which  the  centres  of  ossification 
have  appeared,  reconstruction  from  serial  sections  shows  the  following 
elements  :  most  posteriorly  a  long  and  slender  dermarticular,  the  arti- 
cular, the  angular,  the  splenial,  the  coronoid,  the  dentary,  and  the 
surangular.  The  only  difference  between  Cuvier's  account  and  that 
given  by  Kingsley  is  the  recognition  of  the  dermarticular  as  a  distinct 
element.  In  the  lizard  it  afterwards  fuses  with  the  articular,  but  in 
some  reptiles  it  is  distinct  throughout  life.  Its  characteristics  are  its 
position  on  the  posterior  inner  side  of  Meckel's  cartilage,  its  inferior 
margin  being  overlapped  by  the  angular  and  its  anterior  end,  which  lies 
ventral  to  the  coronoid,  by  the  splenial  element. 

Classification  of  Birds.}— R.  W.  Shufeldt  gives  his  classification  of 
the  higher  groups  down  to  and  including  the  families  of  birds.  The 
divisions  employed  are  Order,  Super-sub-order,  Sub-order,  Family.  Xo 
details  are  given,  but  the  paper  discusses  in  a  general  way  the  value  of 
various  criteria  in  classification. 

Rudimentary  Upper  Canines  in  Elk.§ — E.  Lonnberg  describes  in 
an  old  male  of  Alces  alces  a  pair  of  rudimentary  canine  teeth,  which 
were  imbedded  in  the  firm  connective  tissue  of  the  soft  palate,  and  not 
implanted  in  alveoli.  They  were  quite  short,  without  fang,  and  in  shape 
resembled  the  crown  ends  of  the  "  hooks  "  of  red  deer. 

Perineal  Sac  in  Cavia  cobaya.]] — S.  Grosz  describes  in  both  sexes 
a  perineal  sac,  into  which  two  sebaceous  glandular  bodies  open.  These 
glands  are  markedly  developed  in  the  male,  less  so  in  the  female.  The 
author  is  of  opinion  that  this  apparatus  is  related  to  the  sexual  function, 
and  effects  attraction  between  the  sexes. 

Arboreal  Ancestry  of  Mammalia.^ — W,  D.  Matthew  discusses  the 
probable  origin  of  the  mammalia,  postulating  a  common  ancestral  group 
from  which  all  known  mammals,  excepting  the  Prototheria,  are  de- 
scended. The  evidence  for  such  a  group  is  the  close  uniformity  of 
these  mammalia  in  general  structure,  in  spite  of  their  wide  divergence 
in  adaptive  specialisation,  and  the  invariable  approximation  towards  a 
central  type  of  each  race  whose  development  is  known  from  palaeontology. 
He  enumerates  with  considerable  detail  the  characters  of  this  primitive 

*  Arbeit.  Zoo).  Inst.  Wien.  xv.  Heft  2  (1004)  pp.  7-3G  (3  pla.). 
t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  59-64  (8  figs.). 
t  Op.  cit.,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  833-57. 
§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  448-9. 
||  Zeitsclir.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  261-7. 
^  Amer.  Nat,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  811-18. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  301 

central  type,  in  which  he  assumes  opposability  of  the  first  digit  in  both 
maims  and  pes,  and  an  arboreal  habit.  The  earliest  divergence  from  the 
type  is  placed  in  the  middle  or  upper  Cretaceous.  The  various  modern 
arboreal  groups  (monkeys,  squirrels,  arboreal  insectivores,  opossums)  are 
the  least  altered  in  structure,  while  the  amount  of  structural  change  in 
other  groups,  as  shown  by  their  known  palaeontology,  is  proportioned  to 
the  change  in  their  mode  of  life,  the  Ungulate  exhibiting  the  greatest 
changes. 

Orkney  Vole.* — C.  J.  Forsyth  Major  points  out  that  Microtus 
orcadensis  discovered  by  Mr.  Millais  in  the  Orkneys  and  certain  parts  of 
Shetland  most  closely  approaches  31.  arvalis,  one  of  the  field-voles  of 
Continental  Europe  and  Northern  Asia.  It  certainly  belongs  to  the 
31.  arvalis  group,  and  that  group  (if  not  the  species  31.  arvalis)  was 
represented  in  Britain  during  Pleistocene  times.  This  last  circumstance 
will  in  due  time  presumably  help  to  explain  satisfactorily  the  present 
existence  of  a  member  of  the  31.  arvalis  group  in  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  Islands. 

Cave  Faunas. f — Armand  Vire  has  made  a  special  study  of  this 
subject,  and  finds,  amongst  other  things,  that  the  fauna  of  caves  is 
essentially  a  mixture  of  two  types.  One  is  manifestly  representative  of 
the  existing  fauna  outside  ;  the  other  has  no  relations  in  existing  fresh 
waters,  but  seems  to  have  arisen  from  species  now  everywhere  else 
extinct. 

Tube  Plan  of  Structure  of  the  Animal  Body.J — J.  S.  Foote,  in  an 
extremely  interesting  paper,  demonstrates  the  tube  character  of  most  of 
the  organs  of  the  body,  classifying  them  as  four-,  three-,  two-,  single- 
coated,  and  one-layered  tubes.  Four-coated  tubes,  e.g.  alimentary  tract, 
are  adapted  to  the  progressive  motion  of  their  contents  and  to  the 
application  of  their  epithelial  structures  to  the  contents.  Three-coated 
tubes  are  adapted  to  the  progressive  motion  of  their  contents  when 
necessary,  e.g.  fallopian  tube.  "Two-coated  are  adapted  to  conditions  re- 
quiring an  open  tube,  as  trachea  and  large  bronchi.  Single-coated 
tubes  are  adapted  to  functions  of  secretion  and  special  sense,  while  one- 
layered  tubes  are  adapted  to  osmotic  conditions.  By  a  simple  method  of 
construction  explained  in  the  paper,  different  organs  can  be  built  up  and 
their  nature  and  functions  deduced  from  the  various  layers  and 
combinations  employed. 

The  Thermocline  and  its  Biological  Significance^— E.  A.  Birge 
reviews  a  number  of  facts  bearing  on  the  biological  significance  of  the 
thermocline  or  Sprung schicht.  This  is  defined  as  the  comparatively  thin 
stratum  in  the  water  of  a  lake,  situated  below  the  surface,  in  which  the 
temperature  falls  rapidly— much  more  rapidly  than  in  strata  of  similar 
thickness  above  or  below  it.  It  is  to  be  fairly  inferred  that  the  thermo- 
cline constitutes  a  critical  point  in  the  distribution  of  the  plankton  in 
the  water  below  the  surface.     No  single  factor  within  the  water  itself 

•  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xv.  (1905)  pp.  323-4. 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  992-5. 

\  Trans.  Amer.  Micr.  Soc,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  65-86  (6  pis.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  5-33. 


302  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

compares  with  it  in  importance.  The  direct  influence  of  the  change  of 
temperature  is  not  very  great,  and  in  this  respect  the  difference  of 
temperature  in  the  lake  corresponds  to  temperature-differences  in  general. 
Most  plants  and  animals  of  temperate  regions  are  not  particularly  sensi- 
tive to  a  change  of  a  few  degrees  of  temperature.  For  some  species, 
however,  the  change  from  warm  to  cool  water  constitutes  the  factor 
which  determines  their  vertical  distribution.  Indirectly,  the  effect  of 
the  thermocline  is  far  greater.  The  stagnation  of  the  lower  water,  with 
its  attendant  chemical  results,  causes  a  sharp  limitation  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  animal  life  in  many  lakes.  The  thermocline  in  these  lakes 
marks  the  limit  of  the  thriving  of  algae  and  thus  directly  limits  the 
distribution  of  plants  and  indirectly  that  of  the  animals  which  feed  upon 
them.  In  all  lakes  the  thermocline  has  an  evident  influence  upon 
distribution,  and  although  it  is  by  no  means  an  impassable  barrier,  most 
species  of  plankton  animals  live,  by  preference,  either  above  or  below  it. 

Origin  of  Markings  of  Organisms.* — A.  S.  Packard  discusses  his 
theory  that  the  markings  of  organisms  are  due  to  the  physical  rather 
than  the  biological  environment.  The  alleged  cases  of  Mullerian 
mimicry  can  be  explained  by  convergence  due  to  such  causes.  He 
regards  the  attacks  of  birds  upon  insects  as  a  negligible  factor.  Resem- 
blances in  coloration  and  markings  are  the  result  of  pigmentation 
caused  by  exposure  to  the  combined  effects  of  sunlight  and  shade. 
They  are  due  to  the  repetition  of  the  fundamental  colours,  brown,  black, 
red,  yellow,  in  insects  of  different  orders,  as  well  as  animals  of  different 
classes,  living  exposed  to  direct  sunlight,  and  often  having  exceptional 
diurnal  or  light-loving  habits  in  contrast  to  the  lucifugous  habits  of  the 
other  species  of  the  genus,  family  or  order.  The  similarity  of  design 
appears  in  many,  if  not  most,  cases  to  be  due  to  the  repetition  of  mark- 
ings with  identical  shapes  or  patterns,  i.e.  lines,  bars,  which  are  eventually 
broken  up  into  spots  and  repeated  ad  infinitum,  owing  to  the  economy 
of  material  and  design,  differing  in  detail  in  different  groups  owing  to 
their  different  origin  and  hereditary  constitution.  Such  markings 
probably  gradually  arose  in  a  given  region  simultaneously  in  all 
the  individuals,  and  not  as  a  variation  in  a  single  individual,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  been  favoured  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  While 
the  initial  causes,  therefore,  are  Lamarckian,  natural  selection  as  a 
preservative  process  may  form  a  subordinate  factor.  It  is  pointed  out 
that  stripes,  bars,  and  spots  occurred  on  the  wings  of  Palaeozoic  insects 
which  flourished  before  the  appearance  of  birds  and  even  of  modern 
types  of  lizards. 

Pre-Aristotelian  Zoology.f — Rudolph  Burckhardt  gives  an  analysis 
of  the  zoological  or  dietetic  part  of  the  Corpus  Hippocraticum  and 
compares  what  he  calls  "  das  koische  Tiersystem  "  and  "  die  knidische 
Tierfolge  "  with  Aristotle's  classification.  After  careful  consideration  he 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that  although  there  were  pre- Aristotelian  hints 
at  orderly  arrangement,  Aristotle  was  the  first  to  consciously  employ  the 
principles  of  zoological  taxonomy. 

*  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.  xliii.  (1904)  pp.  393-450. 
t  Verh.  Nat.  Ges.  Basel,  xv.  (1904)  pp.  377-414. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  303 

Tunicata. 

Archiascidia  neapolitana.* — Oh.  Julin  gives  a  detailed  description 
of  this  interesting  new  type,  the  most  archaic  of  known  Ascidians, 
nearest  the  hypothetical  ancestor  Protoascidia.  It  is  like  the  young 
oozooid  of  Glavelina  in  many  ways,  but  it  is  sexually  mature  and  has  no 
epicardium.  On  each  side  of  the  thorax  there  are  two  rows  of  branchial 
stigmata,  much  elongated,  separated  by  a  transverse  sinus,  and  arising 
from  two  branchial  clefts,  appearing  one  behind  the  other.  There  is  no 
epicardium,  but  throughout  the  length  of  the  abdomen  there  is  a  frontal 
partition  of  peribranchial  origin  dividing  the  abdomen  into  a  larger 
dorsal  and  a  more  restricted  ventral  sinus.  In  the  nature  of  the  intes- 
tinal gland,  in  the  structure  of  the  gonads,  and  in  many  other  ways, 
Archiascidia  is  true  to  its  name.  A  new  family  Archiascidiida?  is 
required. 

Mesoderm  Formation  and  the  Structure  of  the  Tail  in  Ascidian 
Larvae  .| — -Philipp  Heinemann  has  studied  the  development  of  Ciona 
intestinalis,  Glavelina  hpadiformis,  and  Molgula  nana,  with  especial 
reference  to  the  origin  of  the  mesoderm  and  the  structure  of  the  tail. 
He  agrees  with  Kowalewsky  and  Seeliger  that  endoderm-cells  lying 
laterally  below  the  nerve-cord  and  the  ectoderm  give  origin  to  the 
mesoderm  ;  he  disagrees  with  the  view  of  Davidoff  that  an  endoderm- 
cell  divides  into  a  mesoderm-cell  and  another  endoderm  cell,  with  the 
view  of  Van  Beneden  and  Julin  that  diverticula  from  the  enteron  form 
the  mesoderm  primordia,  and  with  one  of  Castle's  conclusions  that  in 
the  posterior  region  of  the  body  the  mesoderm  has  an  ectodermic  origin. 

In  the  three  forms  studied  the  "  tail "  is  composed  of  similar  parts, 
namely  the  peripheral  fin-fringe,  a  central  notochord,  the  nerve-cord, 
the  two  muscle-bands,  and  an  eudodermic  process. 

Dolchinia  mirabilis.J — A.  Korotneff  described  more  than  ten  years 
ago  a  remarkable  Tunicate  from  Naples  which  he  named  Dolchinia 
mirabilis.  In  passing  through  Naples  in  1903  he  was  fortunate  enough 
to  find  that  his  discovery  had  re-occurred  in  abundance.  It  had  only 
once  been  found  in  the  intervening  decennium. 

The  form  in  question  is  a  gelatinous  and  transparent  tube  almost 
covered  with  salpiform  individuals  fixed  to  the  surface  by  stalks  which 
are  readily  detached.  In  his  first  specimens  Korotneff  found  only  one 
kind  of  zooid,  but  in  the  second  set  he  found  a  second  type  with  a 
marked  resemblance  to  the  lateral  form  of  Doliolum.  He  gives  a 
detailed  description,  and  shows  that  Dolchinia  must  be  ranked  phyleti- 
callv  alongside  of  Doliolum. 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Mollusca. 

Myocardium  in  Primitive  Molluscs.§ — P.  Vigier  and  Fr.  Vies  have 
studied  the  minute  structure  of  the  myocardium  in  one  of  the  Amphi- 

*  MT.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapel,  xvi.  (1904)  pp.  489-552  (1  pi.). 

t  Xeitachr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxix.  (1905)  pp.  1-72  (4  pis.). 

I  MT.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapel,  xvi.  (1904)  pp.  480-8  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.). 

§  Comptes  Kendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  I22tj-S. 


304  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

neura  (Acanthochites  fascirularis)  and  in  the  protobranch  Nucvla,  and 
show  that  the  degree  of  differentiation  does  not  in  general  correspond 
with  phyletic  position.  It  has  of  course  to  do  with  the  functional  activity 
of  the  heart,  which  differs  even  among  related  forms  in  correspondence 
with  the  conditions  of  life.  In  the  Chiton  the  musculature  of  the  heart 
consists  of  a  plexus  of  fibrils  which  do  not  form  individualised  fibres. 
Most  of  the  fibrils  are  simply  striated  ;  a  few  show  compound  striation, 
and  some  appear  homogeneous.  In  the  protobranch  the  musculature  is 
feebly  developed  ;  there  are  a  few  delicate  bundles  of  simply  striated 
fibrils  ;  there  are  no  definite  fibres. 

Histology  of  Molluscan  Heart-Muscle.* — P.  Vigier  and  F.  Vies 
have  failed  to  find  any  relation  between  the  perfection  of  striation  of 
the  heart-muscle  of  molluscs  and  the  phylogeny  of  the  group.  The 
degree  to  which  it  exists  in  particular  forms  has  a  purely  functional 
significance,  and  it  is  suggested  that  the  striation  described  by  Marceau 
in  the  heart  of  Octopus  is  not  characteristic  of  Cephalopods  in  general. 

a.  Cephalopoda. 

Egg-Envelopes  in  Cephalopods  and  Chitons.f —  A.  Schweikart 
describes  the  formation  of  the  egg  and  the  follicle-cells  in  Cephalopods, 
the  three  ovarian  egg-envelopes  in  Todaropsis  veranii  and  Eleclone 
moschata,  the  peculiar  conditions  seen  at  the  animal  pole  of  the  egg  of 
Eledone  when  the  micropyle  is  being  formed,  the  development  of  the 
true  chorion  from  the  follicular  epithelium  in  Sepiola  rondeletii,  and  the 
formation  of  the  micropyle  in  Kossia  macrosoma. 

In  five  species  of  Chitonidae  the  ovum  first  acquires  a  chorionic 
membrane  as  a  secreted  product  of  the  follicular  cells,  and  afterwards  a 
vitelline  membrane  which  arises  as  a  peripheral  hardening  of  the 
peripheral  zone  of  the  egg-cytoplasm. 

7.      G 1  £  \  1  c  1  c  c"  a 

Physiological  Studies  on  Aplysia.J — W.  Straub  shows  how  well 
this  mollusc  is  adapted  for  physiological  studies  on  heart-beats,  blood- 
pressure,  respiration,  innervation,  and  so  on.  His  communication  is 
simply  an  illustration  of  physiological  method  applied  in  a  more  or  less 
unexplored  field. 

New  Genus  of  Solenogastres.§— H.  Heath  describes  a  new  genus 
from  Alaska,  Limifossor,  g.  n.,  and  species  L.  talpoideus,  sp.  n.  In  the 
arrangement  of  the  organs  in  the  posterior  end  of  the  body,  the  form 
described  resembles  Chcetoderma,  but  in  several  important  characters  it 
differs.  The  body  is  short ;  the  radula  is  very  large,  of  the  distichous 
type,  with  28  transverse  rows  ;  dorsal  salivary  glands  are  present ;  stomach 
and  liver  are  well-developed  and  distinct  from  the  relatively  long  slender 
intestine. 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  221-9. 

t  Zool.  Jahrb.  Suppl.,  Heft  vi.,  Fauna  Chilensis  (1904)  pp.  353-406  (4  pis.  and 
2  figs.). 

t  MT.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapel,  xvi.  (1904)  pp.  458-68  (1  pi.  and  5  figs.). 
§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  sxviii.  (1904)  pp.  329-31. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  305 

Germinal  Localisation  in  Patella  and  Dentalium.* — E.  B.  "Wilson 
gives  an  account  of  experiments  on  the  development  of  isolated  blast*  >- 
meres  which  establish  definitely  the  principle  of  mosaic  development  in 
the  case  of  these  molluscs.  The  evidence  in  Patella  that  the  cleavage 
cells  are  definitely  specified  from  the  time  of  their  first  formation,  and 
that  they  undergo  self -differentiation  without  essential  modification 
through  their  relation  to  the  other  cells,  is  demonstrated  in  the  cells  of 
the  first  quartet,  at  least  as  far  as  the  l(!-celled  stage.  The  entire  first 
quartet  of  Patella,  when  isolated,  produces  a  mass  of  ectoblast  cells, 
which,  though  it  closes,  does  not  gastrulate,  but  undergoes  essentially  the 
same  differentiation  as  if  it  formed  the  upper  hemisphere  of  a  complete 
larva.  The  foregoing  and  numerous  analogous  facts  constitute  a  strong 
body  of  prima  facie  evidence  that  the  entire  cleavage-pattern  in  the 
molluscan  egg  represents  (with  certain  specified  reservations)  a  mosaic- 
work  of  self-differentiating  cells,  exactly  in  the  sense  of  Roux's  general 
conception.  Similar  conclusions  have  been  arrived  at  from  a  study  of 
the  germ  regions  in  the  egg  of  Dentalium. 

Cephalopyge  trematoides.f — Elise  Hanel  describes  under  this  title 
a  new  Nudibranch  which  Chun  found  on  a  voyage  to  the  Canaries  and 
recorded  %  as  a  species  of  Phyllirho'd.  Some  specimens  were  found  free, 
and  two  were  found  attached  by  a  ventral  suctorial  process  under  the 
head  to  colonies  of  Halistemma.  Hand's  more  detailed  observation  of 
this  interesting  form  shows  that  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  species  of 
Plii/llirhoe.  It  has  a  foot-gland,  for  instance,  and  the  anus  opens  on 
the  head  ;  it  is  a  connecting  link  between  the  divergent  Phyllirhoidaj 
and  the  other  Nudibranchs. 

5.    Lamellibranchiata. 

Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Mactra.§ — K.  Kostanecki  finds  that 
the  addition  of  potassium  chloride  to  the  sea-water  induces  some  degree 
of  parthenogenetic  development  in  the  ova  of  Mactra,  and  he  has 
studied  the  details  of  nuclear  change  in  the  formation  of  the  directive 
and  segmentation  divisions.  He  confirms  Boveri's  conclusion  that  the 
artificial  stimulus  evokes  the  formation  of  new  centres  in  the  cytoplasm, 
corresponding  physiologically  to  the  centrosome  normally  introduced  by 
the  spermatozoon.  In  certain  conditions  the  artificially  induced  directive 
divisions  are  exactly  like  those  in  fertilised  ova.  The  formation  of  the 
division-centres  for  the  segmentation  spindle  occurs  apart  from  the 
centriole  left  after  the  liberation  of  the  second  polar  body  ;  it  seems  to 
arise  de  novo  in  intimate  association  with  the  nuclear  framework.  The 
formation  of  this  "  intra-nuclear  spindle,"  without  polar  radiation,  with- 
out central  granules,  with  the  two  poles  defined  simply  by  the  conver- 
gence of  the  spindle-fibres,  and  leading  on  by  "intra-nuclear  karyokinesis  " 
to  the  appearance  of  two  daughter-nuclei,  must  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  most  striking  phenomena  in  the  artificially  induced  parthenogenetic 
process. 

*  Journ.  Esper.  Zoology,  Baltimore,  i.  (1904)  pp.  1-72,  107-2G8. 

t  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi. '  1905)  pp.  451-66  (2  pis.)- 

X  S.B.  Akad.  wiss.  Berlin.  1888,  p.  28. 

§  Bull.  Iutemat.  Acad.  *ci.  Cracovie,  1904,  pp.  70-91. 

Jane  21st,  1005  Y 


30G  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Locomotion  of  Nucula.* — Fred  Vies  has  made  a  careful  study  of  the 
movements  of  Nucula  nucleus.  When  its  pedal  disc  is  extended  the 
upper  surface  of  the  plantar  sole  becomes  concave  in  the  sand,  and  the 
animal  draws  itself  towards  this  anchor.  The  precise  details  require  a 
diagram  for  their  exposition.  In  Gastropods  and  most  Lamellibranchs 
the  locomotion  is  a  backward  propulsion  from  the  under  or  latero- 
inferior  aspect  of  the  foot ;  in  Nucula  the  process  is  almost  the  direct 
opposite  of  this. 

Arthropoda. 
a.  Insecta. 

Maturation  in  Viviparous  Aphides.f  —  J.  P.  Stschelkanovzew 
finds  that  the  maturation  changes  of  the  chromatin  substance  in  the 
summer  ova  of  Aphis  roso'  take  place  with  great  rapidity  and  in  a  some- 
what simplified  fashion.  The  " stage  of  the  germinal  vesicle  "  is  distinctly 
recognisable  ;  the  old  chromatin-thread  is  partially  dissolved  ;  it  seems 
to  break  up  into  several  nucleoli,  but  the  majority  of  these  arise  by 
new  formation.  During  the  formation  of  nucleoli  there  seems  to  be  a 
passage  of  a  chromatin-like  substance  from  the  cytoplasm  of  the  ovum 
into  the  nucleus,  probably  to  form,  through  the  mediation  of  the 
nucleolar  substance,  organised  chromatin.  The  new  chromatin-thread, 
from  Avhich  the  chromosomes  of  the  polar  body  arise,  is  formed  directly 
from  the  peripheral  nucleoli,  and  shows  no  trace  of  longitudinal  splitting. 

Primitive  Thysanuran.f — F.  Silvestri  describes  Anajapyx  vesiculosus, 
which  is  even  more  primitive  than  Prqjapyx,  and  is  also  remarkable  as  a 
synthetic  type.  It  combines  characters  of  Symphyla  and  Diplopoda  (the 
pre-anal  glands  and  the  ventral  vesicles),  of  Campodeidre  (the  subcoxal 
appendices  on  the  internal  side  of  the  stiles  of  the  first  urosternite,  the 
form  of  the  inferior  labrum  and  of  the  stiles),  of  Japygida?  (the  presence 
of  stiles  on  the  first  urosternite,  the  form  of  the  maxilla?,  the  same 
number  of  stigmata  as  in  Parajapyx,  and  the  longitudinal  anastomosis 
of  the  trachea?),  and  of  Lepismatidre  (the  longitudinal  and  ventral 
anastomosis  of  the  tracheal  system  and  the  strong  development  of  the 
anterior  intestine). 

Protective  Resemblance  in  Insecta. § — Mark  L.  Sykes  gives  a  very 
full  account  of  the  phenomena  upon  which  Miiller's  theory  of  mutual 
protection,  and  Bates's  theory  of  mimicry,  are  based.  Numerous  striking 
illustrations  are  given  ;  most  of  the  examples  are  selected  from  amongst 
the  tropical  fauna,  but  it  is  pointed  out  that  the  British  Insecta  include 
amongst  their  numbers  in  all  stages,  many  varied  and  beautiful  examples 
of  protective  resemblance. 

Structure  of  Tracheate  Syncerebrum.||— B.  Haller  reviews  in  an 
exhaustive  manner  the  plan  of  structure  and  relations  of  the  tracheate 
syncerebrum.     Very  generally  and  briefly  it  may  be  stated  to  consist  of 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  101-6  (5  figs.), 
t  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxiv.  (11)04)  pp.  104-12  (7  figs.), 
t  Aim.  R.  Scuola  Aerie.  Portici,  vi.  (1905)  p.  15  (12  figs.). 
§  Proc  Manchester  Field  Club,  1904,  pp.  183-234  (11  pis.). 
||  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxv.  (1904)  pp.  181-279  (6  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  .",07 

three  divisions,  proto-,  deuto-,  and  trito-cerebrum.  These  are  blended 
into  one  in  the  Myriopoda.  The  three  divisions  correspond  to  three 
sense  spheres  ;  the  protocerebrum  to  that  of  the  eyes,  the  deutocerebrurn 
to  that  of  the  antennae,  and  the  tritocerebrum  to  that  of  Tomosvary's 
organ. 

Structure  of  Ocelli  in  Periplaneta  and  Cloeon.* — W.  v.  Reitzenstein 
finds  that  in  both  these  forms  the  ocellus  ("  fenestra  ")  is  a  three-layered 
eye  which  arises  through  invagination  of  the  hypodermis,  and  from  the 
middle  layer  of  which  the  inverse  retina  is  differentiated.  The  develop- 
ment in  Vespa  is  similar. 

Inheritance  of  Acquired  Characters  in  Insecta.f — E.  B.  Poulton 
discusses  the  evidence  derived  from  the  study  of  various  phenomena  from 
the  Insecta  bearing  upon  this  problem.  Some  of  the  points  dealt  with 
are  the  origin  of  the  pupal  groove  which  receives  the  silken  loop  in 
Pierinae,  the  effect  of  gravity  upon  the  shape  of  suspended  pupas  such  as 
those  of  the  Nymphalinas,  various  protective  resemblances,  and  instincts 
in  Insects.  The  conclusion  drawn  from  the  whole  is  that  nowhere  in  the 
Insecta  is  there  support  for  the  assumption  upon  which  the  Lamarckian 
theory  is  founded,  that  acquired  characters  are  transmissible. 

Development  of  Head  Skeleton  in  Blatta.J — W.  A.  Riley  has 
investigated  the  relations  of  the  sclerites  of  the  adult  Blatta  to  the 
primitive  segments.  He  concludes  that  sclerites  originate  from  mechan- 
ical causes,  and  do  not  necessarily  have  any  relation  to  the  primary 
segmentation.  Their  value  as  an  index  to  relationship  among  insects  is 
not,  however,  depreciated.  They  are  to  a  marked  degree  constant,  and 
may  be  homologised  in  the  different  groups. 

Digestion  in  Cockroach.§ — Dimitri  Neniukoff  has  studied  the 
digestive  processes  in  Periplaneta  orientalis  from  the  chemical  side. 
The  salivary  secretion,  always  neutral  in  reaction,  changes  starch  into 
glucose,  has  a  slight  peptonising  function,  and  contains  Rhodaukalium 
(KCNS).  The  crop-extract  changes  starch  into  glucose  and  has  a  very 
slight  peptonising  power.  The  mid-gut  has  normally  an  alkaline 
reaction  and  an  energetic  proteolytic  ferment. 

Palaeozoic  Cockroaches. || — E.  H.  Sellards  has  studied  the  structure 
of  palaeozoic  cockroaches  and  describes  a  number  of  new  forms.  Cock- 
roaches represent  a  remarkably  persistent  type.  They  range  from  the 
Carboniferous,  and  doubtless  took  their  origin  somewhat  earlier.  The 
group  has  by  no  means  remained  stationary  throughout  its  long 
existence,  but 'illustrates  the  laws  of  advance  and  specialisation. 

The  author  shows  how  the  cockroaches  afford  illustration  of  (a) 
specialisation  by  reduction,  e.g.  in  the  shortening  of  the  ovipositor  and  in 
the  more  or  less  complete  fusion  of  two  or  more  of  the  main  veins  at 
their  base  or  throughout  a  part  of  their  course  ;  {b)  parallel  evolution,  e.g. 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  161-SO  (2  pis.). 

t  Trans.  Entomol.  Soc.  (London,  1904)  part  v.,  pp.  civ.-cxxxi. 

X  Amer.  Nat.  xzzviii.  (1904)  pp.  777-810. 

§  Physiologiste  Russe,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  31-4. 

'i|  Amer.  Journ.  Sci..  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  213  27(37  figs.,  1  pi.). 

V   2 


308  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

in  the  independent  origin  of  the  plaiting  of  the  hind  wings  in  more 
than  one  division  of  the  Orthoptera ;  (c)  mechanical  factors,  e.g.  in  the 

plications  which  arc  doubtless  developed  largely  in  response  to  mechani- 
cal need  and  in  the  cross  veins;  and  {cl)  recapitulation  of  ancestral 
characters  in  ontogeny ',  e.g.  in  the  nervation  of  the  wing. 

Oenogyna  baeticum.* — F.  Silvestri  gives  an  account  of  this  moths 
belonging  to  the  family  Arctiidae,  whose  polyphagous  larva*  do  damage 
in  Italy  and  elsewhere  to  leguminous  and  many  other  kinds  of  plants. 
It  has  its  headquarters  in  Spain,  Morocco,  Algeria  and  Tunisia.  There 
is  a  striking  sexual  dimorphism,  notably  illustrated  by  the  minute  scale- 
like wings  of  the  female  in  contrast  to  the  normal  wings  of  the  male. 
The  life-history,  the  natural  checks,  and  preventive  remedies  are  duly 
discussed. 

Stalked  Eggs  of  Rhyosa  persuasoria.f — E.  Bngnion  gives  an 
account  of  the  ovaries  and  oogenesis  in  this  very  large  Ichneumonid 
which  lays  its  eggs  in  various  wood-boring  larvae,  e.g.  of  Sirex  gigas  and 
similar  forms.  One  interesting  feature  is  the  long  stalk  of  the  egg — a 
cylindrical  filiform  pedicel  which  occupies  D-10  mm.  of  the  total  length 
(12— 13" 5  mm.)  of  the  egg.     The  development  of  the  stalk  is  described. 

Ants'  Nest  Beetles.} — Arthur  M.  Lea  reports  on  a  collection  of 
fourteen  beetles  from  ants'  nests,  made  by  J.  C.  Goudie  in  the  Mallee 
district  of  North-west  Victoria.  He  notes  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
species  have  less  than  the  usual  number  (11)  of  joints  to  the  antennae. 
The  next  most  noticeable  feature  is  the  frequency  with  which  the 
prothorax  is  deeply  and  often  very  peculiarly  sculptured  ;  and  another 
peculiarity  is  the  method  (usually  by  ridges  or  grooves)  by  which  the 
appendages  are  protected.  In  many  of  the  species,  moreover,  the 
buccal  appendages  are  often  very  small,  and  in  some  of  them  quite 
invisible.  Some  forms  seem  to  be  welcomed  by  the  ants ;  others  are 
distinctly  hostile. 

Sound  Production  in  Lamellicorn  Beetles. § — Gr.  J.  Arrow  reviews 
and  describes  the  various  stridulating  organs  existing  in  this  group, 
giving  also  a  systematic  description  of  the  species  referred  to  in  the 
paper.  The  most  noticeable  feature  with  regard  to  these  organs  is  the 
great  variety  of  situation  they  affect  in  the  adult.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  the  larva?  they  fall  into  three  series,  viz.  the  Lucanid  group  in  which 
the  stridulating  plate  is  on  the  hind  trochanter,  the  Geotropid  group, 
in  which  it  is  on  the  middle  coxa,  and  the  Scarabaeid  group,  where  the 
jaw  bears  the  vocal  organs.  These  larval  organs  are  considered  of 
some  significance  in  determining  relationships,  and  several  points  in  the 
classification  of  the  group  are  considered  from  this  standpoint. 

Structure  of  Female  Flea.||  —  M.  Lass  has  made  a  minute  study  of 
the  structure  of  the  female  flea  {Paler  cants  or  serraticeps).     Some  of 

*  Bull.  Scuola  Agric.  Portici,  ser.  ii.,  No.  10  (1905)  pp.  1-12  (7  figs.). 
+  Bull.  Soc.  Vandoise  Sci.  Nat.,  xl.  (1904)  pp.  245-9  1 1  pi.). 
t  Proc.  R.  Soc.  Victoria,  xvii.  (1905),  pp.  371-85(1  pi.). 
§  Trans.  Entoni.  Soc.  London  (1904)  pp.  709-50  (1  pi.). 
||  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxix.  (1905)  pp.  73-131  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY,  AND  BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,  ETC.         300 

his  results  are  the  following  : — Larva,  pupa,  and  imago  have  ten  abdo- 
minal segments ;  the  sex  is  recognisable  in  the  half-grown  larva  ;  each 
larval  segment  bis  two  rows  of  setae,  except  the  last,  which  has  one  ;  the 
absence  of  eyes  in  the  larvae  is  confirmed  ;  the  larva  has  eight  ganglia, 
the  female  pupa  has  seven  \  the  absence  of  a  hypopharynx  is  confirmed  ; 
there  is  a  nervous  connection  between  the  last  abdominal  ganglion  and 
the  "  sensory  plate "  ;  in  the  imago  there  are  nerve-cells  beneath  the 
sensory  plate  ;  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  segments  there  is  a  tergite  and 
sternite  ;  the  last  (tenth)  stigma  lies  on  the  tergite  of  the  eighth  abdo- 
minal segment ;  there  is  a  glandular  organ  to  the  anal  side  of  the  bursa 
copulatrix  ;  the  ovarioles  are  "panoistic,"  i.e.  without  special  nutritive- 
cells  ;  the  terminal  thread  and  terminal  chamber  are  continuous  ;  the 
indifferent  cells  of  the  terminal  chamber  give  rise  to  ova,  follicle-cells, 
and  the  elements  of  the  membrana  propria  ;  the  follicles  are  quite 
separated  from  one  another  by  the  membrana  propria  ;  the  ovum  shows 
at  the  two  flattened  poles  the  primordia  of  micropyle  canals. 

The  Pulicidas  have  few  relations  with  Diptera  ;  they  form  a  special 
order  between  Diptera  and  Coleoptera. 

New  Flightless  Fly.*— Giinther  Enderlein  describes  Thripomorpha 
paludicola  g.  et  sp.  n.,  one  specimen  of  which  he  obtained  near  Berlin 
when  collecting  Thrips  (Thysanoptera).  As  its  name  suggests,  this  new 
flightless  fly  has  an  extraordinarily  close  likeness  to  Thrips.  The  shape 
of  the  body  seen  from  above  and  the  size  and  movements  of  the  animal 
recall  a  large  Thysanopteron.  It  is  however,  one  of  the  Bibionidre,  with 
a  quite  wingless  thorax. 

Mosquitoes  of  Para.f — Emilio  A.  Goeldi  gives  an  account  of  his 
investigations  on  the  mosquitoes  of  Para,  with  especial  reference  to  the 
species  Stegomyia  fasciata  and  Culex  fatigans  and  their  hygienic 
importance.  He  has  also  many  interesting  communications  to  make  on 
their  mode  of  life,  their  food,  and  their  reproduction. 

Social  Wasps  of  Para-J — -A.  Ducke  gives  a  synoptic  table  of  the 
South  American  genera  of  Vespidaj,  and  a  particular  account  of  the 
social  wasps  of  Para,  with  ethological  notes. 

5.   Arachnida. 

Auditory  and  Olfactory  Sense  of  Spiders.§ — Annie  H.  Pritchett  has 
experimented  with  the  two  species,  Geolycosa  texana  Montg.,  and 
Pardosa  mercuricdis  Montg.,  with  the  following  results.  No  responses 
were  obtained  to  tuning-forks  of  various  vibrations,  nor  to  the  crashing 
sound  of  metal  plates  struck  with  a  bar.  From  this  she  concludes  that 
these  spiders  probably  do  not  hear  at  all.  All  parts  of  the  body  are 
extremely  sensitive  to  touch,  and  the  spider  responds  immediately  if  it 
or  the  cage  comes  in  contact  with  the  tuning-fork.  Experiments  with 
individuals  variously  mutilated  yielded  the  conclusion  that  the  ability  to 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1005)  pp.  447-50  (1  pi.  and  4  figs.), 
t  Boll.  Mus.  GceWi.  ix.  (1904)  pp.  129-97. 
%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  317-74  (2  pis.  and  4  lit^s.). 
§  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  859-67. 


olO  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

perceive  odours  is  distributed  over  the  -whole  integument  of  the  spider, 
and  that  there  is  no  definitely  localised  olfactory  organ. 

Eggs  of  Tardigrada.* — F.  Richters  summarises  the  known  facts 
regarding  the  eggs  of  Tardigrada.  They  are  laid  either  free  or  within  a 
membrane.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  marine  genera  Echiniscoides  and 
Lydella.  All  eggs  laid  in  membranes  have  a  smooth  shell ;  those  free 
have  very  differently  formed  apparatus  for  fixation,  whose  function  is 
to  prevent  the  eggs  being  washed  out  by  the  rain  from  the  mossy  turf  in 
which  they  develop.  The  membrane  enclosing  the  smooth  eggs  bears 
numerous  claws  which  effect  the  same  purpose.  In  a  second  paper  \  a 
description  of  a  new  species,  Echiniscus  conifer,  is  given. 

Marine  Pseudoscorpion  from  the  Isle  of  Man.} — A.  D.  Imms 
reports  the  occurrence  of  Obisimn  [maritimum  Leach  among  the  rocks 
between  the  limits  of  high  and  low  tides  at  Port  Erin.  It  was  found  in 
the  recesses  of  the  rock  fissures  along  with  adults  of  the  marine  Collem- 
bolon  Anurida  maritime/,,  larva?,  pupas,  and  imagines  of  the  Coleop- 
teron  Micralymna  brevipenne,  and  a  species  of  Acarus.  It  is  probable 
that  the  pseudo-scorpion  preys  upon  the  Collembola,  and  most  likely 
upon  the  Acari  also.  When  alarmed  or  irritated,  it  ran  about  actively 
in  both  a  forward  and  backward  direction  with  outstretched  pedipalps, 
but  it  was  not  seen  to  run  sideways,  as  some  pseudoscorpions  do. 

When  submerged,  twice  every  twenty-four  hours,  it  probably  relies 
upon  the  store  of  air  within  its  tracheal  system.  In  the  living  condition 
this  species  is  easily  recognised  by  the  olive-greenish  colour  of  the  body, 
contrasted  with  the  bright  red-brown  of  the  pedipalps.  Pickard  Cam- 
bridge has  obtained  the  same  form  from  the  Devonshire  coast  and 
from  Jersey  ;  it  does  not  appear  to  be  known  on  the  Continent.  This 
is  the  second  recorded  occurrence  in  the  British  Isles  since  the  time  of 
Leach. 

Pentanymphon  Antarcticum.§ — T.  V.  Hodgson  describes  this  new 
type  found  by  the  '  Discovery,'  and  also  by  the  '  Scotia.'  The  body  is 
smooth,  very  slender,  with  lateral  processes  widely  separated  ;  there  are 
five  pairs  of  ambulatory  appendages  ;  the  mandibles  are  well-developed, 
2-jointed,  and  chelate  ;  the  palps  are  5-jointed  ;  the  ovigerous  legs  are 
10-jointed,  terminating  in  a  claw,  the  last  four  joints  with  a  single  row 
of  denticulate  spines.  The  only  feature  of  importance  which  separates 
it  from  the  genus  Nymphon  is  the  presence  of  a  fifth  pair  of  legs. 

Ten-legged  Pycnogonids.|| — Leon  J.  Cole  calls  attention  to  the 
description  which  Eights  IF  gave  in  1837  of  a  Pycnogonid  (Decolopoda 
australis)  with  a  fifth  pair  of  walking  legs  from  the  South  Shetland 
Islands.  C.  V.  Hodgson  has  found  several  specimens  in  the  '  Scotia ' 
collection  from  the  South  Orkneys,  along  with  a  single  specimen  of 
Pentanymphon  antarcticum  which  he  described  from  the  '  Discovery ' 
collection.     In  Decolopoda,  as  Cole  points  out,  we  have  the  most  primi- 

*  Ber.  Senck.  Nat.  Ges.  (1904)  pp.  59-70  (2  pis.).  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  73-4. 

X  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xv.,  (1905)  pp.  231-2. 

§  Op.  cit.,  xiv.  (1904)  pp.  458-62  (1  pi.  and  1  fig.). 

fl  Op.  cit,  xv.  (1905)  pp.  405-15. 

«I  Boston  Journ.  Nat.  Hist.,  i.  (1837)  pp.  203-6  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  311 

tive  of  the  known  Pycnogonids.  The  chelifori  are  well  developed  and 
strongly  chelate,  the  palpi  are  present  and  made  up  of  ten  joints,  the 
ovigera  are  present  in  both  sexes,  and  are  provided  with  denticulate 
spines,  and  the  trunk-segmentation  is  distinct.  Cole  puts  the  relation- 
ships of  the  Pycnogonids  in  the  following  scheme  : — 

Pycnogonomorph  a 
Pycnogonidse 

|  COLOSSENDEOMORPHA 

Phoxichilidfe  Pasithoidse 

Phoxichilidiidre 
Hannonia 

Pallenidaj  Ammotheidae 


Nymphonidfe 

I 
Pentanymphon 


Eurycydidse 


Deeolopoda 


Decolopoda  of  Eights.* — J.  C.  C.  Loman  calls  attention  to  the 
description  and  figures  of  Decolopoda  australis,  which  were  given  about 
seventy  years  ago  by  James  Eights.  Loman  says  that  the  description 
and  figures  indicate  a  Pycnogonid  larva,  probably  referable  to  Hoek's 
Colossendeis  robusta.  The  larvae  of  Oolossendeis  have  cheliferse  with  a 
two- jointed  shaft  at  an  age  when  the  palps  and  legs  have  their  final 
form.  Only  in  one  respect  does  Decolopoda  differ  from  all  other 
Pycnogonids — in  having  ten  legs  instead  of  eight,  and  Loman  thinks 
that  Eights  must  have  miscounted  them  !  "  Without  this  supernumerary 
pair  of  legs  the  animal  is  a  typical  Colossendeis  larva  ;  with  the  ten 
legs  it  is  an  irrational  monstrosity  ('  ein  irrationelles  Monstrum ')."  As 
will  be  seen  from  the  report  preceding  this,  the  "  monstrosity "  is  a 
reality,  and  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing  that  Eights  would  count 
eight  as  ten. 


»&* 


Myrmecophilous  Acari.j — A.  Berlese  gives  a  fully  illustrated  account 
of  the  numerous  myrmecophilous  Acari  belonging  to  the  group 
Mesostigmata,  including  the  families  Uropodidas,  Antennophorida3, 
Laelaptidas,  and  Ganiasida?.  He  deals  with  about  GO  species,  many  of 
which  are  new. 

«.  Crustacea. 

Commensal  Crab  on  a  Sea-Urchin.J — E.  L.  Bouvier  and  G.  Seurat 
describe   Eumedon   convidor,   sp.  n.,   closely  allied   to  E.  pentagonus, 

described  by  A.  Milne-Edwards.  It  was  found  living  as  an  intimate 
commensal  on  a  long-spined  sea-urchin,  probably  Echinothriz  turcorum, 
from  the  archipelago  of  Gambier.  Commensal  ism  is  rare  in  crabs  of 
the   group  Parthenopia?,    the  only  other  case  being   that  of   Zebrida 

*  Zool.  Anzeiar.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  722-:l. 
f  Redia,  i.  (1904)  pp.  299-474  (14  pis.). 
;  Cowptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  G29-31. 


312  SUMMARY   OV   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

which  simply  lives  among  the  spines  of  a  sea-urchin,  whereas  this  new 
form  is  imbedded  in  the  anal  region  in  a  capacious  invaginated  pocket. 
Only  the  female  was  found  ;  the  male  is  probably  free-living.  In  spite 
of  its  close  commensalism,  almost  like  endo-parasitism,  the  crab  has  a 
hard,  well-calcified  shell.  It  has  a  dull  violet  colour,  less  pronounced 
than  that  of  the  sea-urchin. 

Variations  in  Number  and  Arrangement  of  Male  Genital  Apertures 
in  Nephrops  norvegicus.* — D.  C.  Mcintosh  finds  that  the  male  genital 
openings  may  occur  singly  on  the  right  or  the  left  second  walking  leg, 
on  both  the  third  walking  legs,  or  singly  on  either  the  right  or  the  left, 
or  only  on  the  right  fourth  walking  leg,  or  normally  on  both  sides. 
F.  H.  A.  Marshall  found  the  percentage  of  abnormal  specimens  from 
the  Firth  of  Forth  12  '2  ;  Mcintosh  specimens  from  the  Clyde  had  a 
percentage  of  abnormality  2-40. 

Proportions  of  the  Sexes  in  Nephrops  norvegicus.t —  D.  0. 
Mcintosh  finds  that  in  the  Clyde  area  the  proportions  of  the  sexes  are 
approximately  equal ;  that  the  size  of  fully  grown  males  is  considerably 
greater  than  that  of  fully  grown  females  ;  and  that  the  animals  occur 
together  in  companies  of  approximately  the  same  size. 

Scales  of  Pandalidas4  —  H.  Coutiere  finds  that  Decapods  of  the 
family  PandalidEe  have  a  remarkable  peculiarity,  namely  a  covering  of 
smooth,  transparent,  lanceolate  scales  ("phancres  "),  each  with  a  short 
stalk  traversed  by  a  central  canal.  They  overlap  one  another,  are 
readily  knocked  off,  and  recall  the  scales  of  Lepidoptera.  A  dozen 
species  were  examined,  and  all  exhibited  this  peculiar  cuticular  covering. 

Luminosity  of  Gnathophausia.§ — Gr.  Ulig  discusses  the  phos- 
phorescence of  a  Gnathophausia,  obtained  by  the  German  Deep  Sea 
Expedition  from  a  depth  of  132G  metres.  The  colour  was  greenish, 
and  was  due  to  a  secretion  which  exuded  from  two  glands  below  the 
cephalothorax  anteriorly,  at  the  base  of  the  second  maxillre.  G.  0. 
Sars  described  the  structure  in  Gnathophausia  calcarata,  and  suggested 
that  it  was  luminous.  The  secretion  is  formed  in  two  glandular  sacs, 
which  lead  into  a  large  reservoir  with  a  duct  opening  on  a  papilla  at 
the  base  of  the  exopodite. 

Phagocytary  Organ  of  Decapods. || — L.  Cuenot  has  investigated  this 
in  a  large  number  of  species.  There  are  two  distinct  lymphoid  structures 
— a  globuligenous  organ,  forming  the  amcebocytes  of  the  blood,  and  a 
phagocytary  organ.  The  former  is  always  situated  near  the  ophthalmic 
artery  ;  it  completely  invests  it  in  some,  e.g.  Pagurus,  it  is  spread  out  upon 
the  stomach  in  others,  e.g.  Astacns,  in  others,  e.g.  Palwmon,  it  forms  a 
definite  mass  at  the  base  of  the  rostrum.  The  phagocytary  organ,  except 
in  Nika  edulis,  is  connected  with  the  hepatic  arteries.  In  Decapods  with 
a  cephalothoracic  liver,  the  phagocytes  envelop  the  hepatic  arterioles  ;  in 
the  Pagurids,  which  have  an  abdominal  liver,  they  cover  the  numerous 

*  Proc.  Cambridge  Thil.  Soc,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  441-4. 

t  Loc.  cit.  X  Coraptea  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  674-6. 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  662  (2  figs.). 

||  Arch.  Zool.  Exp.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  1-15  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


313 


cceca  branched  over  the  arteries.  In  the  Palsemonidse,  besides  the 
hepatic  phagocytes,  there  are  in  the  heart  vacuolar  cells  which,  in  a  feeble 
degree,  have  a  phagocytary  function.  The  vacuolar  liquid  has  an  acid 
reaction. 

Minute  Structure  of  Heart  in  Decapoda.*— W.  Gadzikiewicz  has 
studied  this  in  Pahcmon,  Pachygra/psus,  and  Astacus.  The  heart 
consists  of  two  layers — an  internal  muscularis  and  an  external  adventitia 
(visceral  pericardium  or  epicardium).  The  adventitia  consists  of  vesi- 
cular cells  in  many  rows,  suggesting  many-layered  epithelium.  The 
myocardium  consists  of  individual  fibres  whose  protoplasmic  substance 
coalesces  to  form  a  general  protoplasmic  matrix  in  which  the  contractile 
fibrils  lie.  Many  blood  corpuscles  merge  in  the  protoplasmic  substance 
of  the  muscle-fibres,  and  are  disintegrated.  There  is  no  "cardiac 
endothelium "  nor  "  intima."  The  author's  conclusions  support  the 
heemocoel  theory  of  Lang. 

Life-History  of  G-nathia  maxillaris.t — Geoffrey  Smith  has  studied 
the  metamorphosis  and  life-history  of  this  Gnathiid  or  Anceid,  whose 
larval  form,  known  as  Praniza,  lives  ecto-parasi tic-ally  on  various  kinds 
of  fishes.  He  discusses  the  final  metamorphosis  of  the  Praniza  into  the 
male  and  female  adult,  and  the  striking  variation  in  the  size  of  the  adults. 
The  adult  males  vary  in  size  from  1-8  mm.,  and  the  much  rarer  adult 
females  from  1-7  mm.  The  bimodality  of  the  curve  of  size  is  due  to  the 
existence  of  two  critical  periods  for  the  final  transformation,  and  the 
presumption  is  strong  that  the  size  to  which  any  larva  may  attain  is 
chiefly  due  to  the  conditions  of  nutrition  it  meets  with,  and  its  fortune 
in  being  brushed  off  its  host  at  an  early  or  late  stage  of  growth.  The 
larger  adults  owe  their  size  to  the  length  of  time  spent  and  the  amount 
of  nutrition  acquired  during  the  Praniza  stage.  On  the  whole  the  small 
males  have  mandibles  that  are  broader  and  shorter  than  those  of  the 
large  males  :  in  other  words,  there  is  an  incipient  structural  dimorphism 
in  the  mandibles,  in  correlation  with  the  difference  in  size  of  the  males. 

The  life-history  may  be  thus  tabulated  : — 

Normal  segmented  larvae 
0-8-1-2  mm. 


Praniza?  on  fish 
1-4  mm. 

Small  adults  on  ground 


Giant  segmented 
larva3  on  ground 
4-5  mm.     — 


Praniza) 

on  fish 
5-8  mm. 


Large  adults  on  ground 

Notes    on   Alcippe    lampas.J  —  K.  W.  Genthe  gives  some   notes 
which  are  supplementary  to  the  work  of  Berndt  and  earlier  writers  upon 

*  Bull.  Intermit.  Med.  Sci.  Crncovie,  1904,  pp.  424-34  (7  figs.), 
t  MT.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapel.  xvi.  (1904)  pp.  469-71  (1  pi.). 
:  Zool.  Jahrb..  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  181-200  (2  pis.). 


314  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

this  Cimpede.  The  points  taken  up  are  mainly  anatomical,  e.g.  the 
muscle  systems,  the  digestive  apparatus,  and  the  circulation,  though 
some  facts  regarding  its  habits  are  also  given.  At  Wood's  Hole  it  is 
found  in  large  numbers,  boring  in  Gastropod  shells  inhabited  by  hermit 
crabs,  of  which  it  appears  to  be  a  regular  messmate. 

Chilian  Cirripeds.* — A.  Gravel  describes  the  structure  of  some 
interesting  operculate  Cirripedia  brought  by  L.  Plate  from  Chili,  namely 
Coronuht  diadema,  Balanus  psittacus,  B.  Jiosculus  var.  sordidus,  CldJui- 
malus  cirratus,  and  G.  scabrosus. 

Annulata. 

Mosaic  Development  in  the  Annelid  Egg.f — E.  B.  Wilson  records 
certain  interesting  facts  in  the  development  of  La/iice,  having  an 
important  bearing  on  this  theory.  When  either  cell  of  the  two-celled 
stage  is  destroyed,  the  remaining  cell  segments  as  if  it  still  formed  a  part 
of  an  entire  embryo.  The  later  development,  however,  is  essentially 
different.  The  posterior  cell  develops  into  a  segmented  larva  with  a 
prototroch,  an  asymmetrical  pre-trochal  or  head  region,  and  a  nearly 
typical  metameric  seta-bearing  trunk  region,  the  active  movements  of 
which  show  that  the  muscles  are  normally  developed.  The  pre-trochal 
or  head  region  bears  an  apical  organ,  is  more  or  less  asymmetrical  and 
with  only  one  eye.  The  anterior  cell  likewise  yields  a  prototroch  and  a 
pretrochal  region,  with  an  apical  organ,  but  produces  no  post-trochal 
region,  develops  no  trunk  or  seta3,  and  does  not  become  metameric. 
This  result  shows  that  from  the  beginning  of  development  the  material 
for  the  trunk  region  is  mainly  localised  in  the  posterior  cell ;  and 
furthermore,  that  this  material  is  essential  for  the  development  of  the 
metameric  structure.  The  opinion  is  expressed  that,  so  far  as  the  early 
stages  of  development  are  concerned,  it  is  difficult  to  escape  the  hypo- 
thesis of  formative  stuffs  or  specific  morphoplasmic  substances,  in  some 
form.  The  problem  of  the  localising  or  form-determining  factors  which 
are  responsible  for  the  determination  of  the  segregation  pattern  remains, 
however,  unsolved. 

Ventral  Sensory  Organs  of  Palolo  Worm.} —  Olav  Schroder 
describes  the  peculiar  structures  which  lie  along  the  ventral  median  line 
of  Eunice  viridis  like  so  many  pigment  spots.  There  is  a  lens-like  thick- 
ening of  the  cuticle,  there  is  pigment,  there  are  sensory  cells  and 
intermediate  cells  {ZicischenzeUen),  but  there  is  little  to  warrant  the 
view  of  Spengel,  Hesse,  and  others,  who  regarded  the  organs  as  "  eyes.'1 
The  author  notes  how  his  results  differ  from  those  of  Hesse,  who 
regarded  Schroder's  sensory  cells  as  primitive  nerve  fibrils  and  Schroder's 
intermediate  cells  as  nerve-cells. 

Polynoid  Commensal  of  Balanoglossus.§ — Ch.  Gravier  describes 
Lepidasthenia  digueti,  sp.  n.,  which  lives  as  a  commensal  in  the  dorsal 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,Supplementband  vi.,  Fauna  Chilensis,  1904,  pp.  307-52  (3  pis.). 

t  Science,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  748-50. 

X  Zt-itschr.  -wiss.  Zool.,  lxxix.  (1905)  pp.  132-49  (2  pis.  and  2  figs.). 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  875-S. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  315 

tube  formed  by  the  "  genital  wings  "  of  a  very  large  species  of  Balano- 
r/lossus  from  the  Gulf  of  California.  One  of  the  Polynoids  bore  fixed 
to  its  back  a  remarkable  Stomatopod,  also  new,  belonging  to  the  genus 
Lysiosquilla ;  its  dorsal  surface  has  a  marked  mimetic  resemblance  to 
the  back  of  the  Polynoid.  In  1882  Giard  reported  the  occurrence  of 
•another  Polyehret,  Auoplonereis  (Opliiodionnus)  herrmamii,  as  a  com- 
mensal on  two  species  of  Balanoglossus. 

Anatomy  and  Histology  of  Blood  Vessels  in  Lumbricus.* — 0. 
Gungl  has  investigated  this  subject.  A  typical  vessel  possesses  a  homo- 
geneous connective  tissue  membrane,  sharply  defined  and  deeply  stained 
by  rubin  and  acid-fuchsin.  Towards  the  lumen  are  elongated  cells 
which  never  form  an  epithelial-like  lining.  On  the  outer  side  the  wall 
cells  lie  upon  the  intima,  and  from  these  arise  the  striped  muscle  fibres 
which  are  arranged  within  the  connective  tissue  in  a  doubly  oblique 
manner.  If  the  vessel  is  free  in  the  body  cavity,  e.g.  ventral  vessel,  it 
possesses  a  peritoneal  layer.  The  small  vessels  and  capillaries  are 
derivable  by  loss  of  musculature  from  a  vessel  of  the  ventral  type. 
The  author  further  works  out  a  comparison  between  these  and  the 
capillaries  of  Vertebrates. 

Variation  and  Correlation  in  the  Earthworm.t — Raymond  Pearl 
and  W.  1ST.  Fuller  have  made  statistical  studies  of  Lumbricus  agricola 
from  which  they  conclude  that  there  is  a  great  range  of  variation  in 
the  total  number  of  somites  (79-1G4)  and  a  rather  high  variability  as 
measured  by  the  standard  deviation  and  the  co-efficient  of  variation. 
This  earthworm  is  markedly  more  variable  in  length  than  in  the  number 
of  somites.  The  clitellum  is  decidedly  more  variable  with  respect  to  the 
number  of  its  somites  than  is  the  body  in  front  of  the  clitellum.  As  the 
number  of  somites  in  front  of  the  clitellum  increases,  there  is  a  strongly 
marked  tendency  for  the  number  of  clitellar  somites  to  decrease.  With 
regard  to  negative  correlation,  the  suggestion  is  made  that  it  may  have 
ultimately  the  same  physiological  basis  as  compensatory  regulation.  The 
foregoing  are  the  main  points  in  the  abstract ;  the  complete  paper  has 
has  not  yet  appeared. 

Gephyrea  of  Japan.} — Iwaji  Ikeda  gives  an  account  of  87  species — 
26  Sipunculoids  under  7  genera  and  11  Echiuroids  under  3  genera. 
Previous  to  this  paper  onlyfour  Gephyreans  seem  to  have  been  recorded 
from  Japan.  Of  the  o7  species  described,  24  are  new.  A  useful  dia- 
gnostic key  is  given. 

Ovogenesis  of  Sagitta.!— N.  M.  Stevens  supplies  the  following 
■additional  facts  regarding  the  ovogenesis  in  Sagitta,  determined  on 
material  of  8.  eleyans.  The  so-called  sperm-oviduct  of  Sagitta  is 
merely  a  sperm-duct.  A  temporary  oviduct  is  formed  periodically  be- 
tween the  sperm-duct  and  the  germinal  epithelium.  This  duct  appears 
to  be  opened  up  by  the  activity  of  the  individual  eggs  pushing  their 
way  out  of  the  ovary  proper  and  in  between  the  germinal  epithelium 

*  Arbeit.  Zool.  Inst.  Wien,  xv.  (1904)  pp.  155-82  (1  pi.). 
t  Fifth  Report  Michigan  Acad.  Sci.,  1903,  pp.  200-2. 
%  Journ.  Coll.  Sci..  Tokyo,  xx.,  Art.  4  (1904)  pp.  1-87  (4  pis.). 
§  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1901)  pp.  243-52  (1  pi.). 


316  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

nnd  the  sperm  duct.  The  chromosomes  preserve  their  individuality 
from  the  time  when  reduction  in  number  occurs  in  the  very  young 
oocytes  to  their  appearance  as  tetrads  in  the  first  polar  spindle.  The 
scattered  chromosomes  of  the  germinal  vesicle  are  collected  by  currents 
in  the  karyoplasm,  at  the  point  where  the  first  polar  spindle  is  formed. 
There  is  a  preliminary  longitudinal  splitting  of  the  chromosomes  during 
their  reduction  in  size.  The  chromosomes  in  the  young  oocytes  conjugate 
longitudinally,  instead  of  end  to  end  as  in  the  spermatocytes  ;  there  are 
two  types  of  conjugation  of  the  chromosomes — oocyte  and  spermatocyte, 
and  two  corresponding  types  of  maturation  divisions,  giving,  however,, 
equivalent  results.  The  chromatin  (?)  granules  which  result  from  the 
reduction  in  size  of  the  chromosomes  pass  directly  out  from  the  nucleus, 
into  the  cytoplasm  along  strands  of  karyoplasm. 

Nematohelminth.es. 

Freshwater  Nematodes  of  New  Zealand.* — X.  A.  Cobb  describes, 
four  new  free-living  species — M&rmis  Nova  Zealandm,  Mononchus  rex, 
Dorylaimus  Nov<z  Zealandim,  and  D. profundus.  These  belong  to  well- 
known  genera,  and  present  no  remarkable  variations  from  the  types  of 
their  'respective  groups.  It  is  probable  that  many  of  the  free-living 
genera  have  a  very  wide  geographical  distribution.  The  small  size  of 
the  individuals,  their  fecundity,  their  adaptability  to  transportation  by  a 
great  variety  of  agencies,  and  their  resistance  to  desiccation,  at  least  in 
certain  stages,  are  all  in  favour  of  wide  distribution.  A  noteworthy 
point  is  the  depth  from  which  some  of  the  specimens  were  captured  j 
thus  the  two  species  of  Dorylaimus  were  obtained  from  200-1100  feet. 

New  Free-living  Nematode  from  Patagonia  \ — J.  G.  de  Man 
describes  a  new  form,  Phctris  (Plectrotdes)  patagonicus,  which  differs, 
from  P.  antarcticus  in  form,  in  structure  of  head  lips,  and  of  oesophageal 
bulb.  The  type  specimen  was  found  in  a  dung-ball  of  Grypotherium 
darwini. 

Ichthyonema  grayi.} —  James  F.  Gemmill  gives  an  account  of 
IcMhyonema  grayi  Gemmill  and  von  Linstow,  an  interesting  Nematode 
of  large  size  found  in  the  perivisceral  cavity  of  the  common  sea-urchin 
in  different  localities  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  Not  more  than  four 
females  (600-1500  mm.  in  length  by  2-4  mm.  in  breadth)  occurred  in 
any  one  sea-urchin,  and  in  one  case  only  a  single  large  specimen  was. 
present,  which  measured  quite  five  feet  in  length.  Besides  the  large 
specimens,  some  smaller  ones  were  always  present,  50-200  mm.  in  length, 
which  seem  to  be  the  males.  A  full  description  has  been  published  else- 
where  §,  and  we  may  simply  refer  to  some  notable  features  : — the 
absence  of  mouth,  anus,  and  excretory  canals  ;  the  poorly  developed 
muscular  system  ;  the  simplicity  of  the  nervous  system,  represented  by 
a  thickening  of  the  hypodermis  at  the  head  end,  which  is  not  continued 
backwards  into  definite  longitudinal  cords,  except,  perhaps,  for  a  short. 

*  Proc.  Cambridge  Phil.  Soc.xii.  (1904)  pp.  363-74  (4  flgs.). 
t  Ber.  Senck.  Natur.  Ges.  (1904)  pp.  41-5. 
%  Trans.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  Glasgow,  vi.  (Dec.  1903)  pp.  299-301. 
§  Arch.  Natur.,  1902. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  317 


distance  on  the  ventral  aspect ;  the  single  ventral  ovary,  almost  as  long 
as  the  worm  itself.  The  ova  all  ripen  at  the  same  time  ;  the  early 
development  takes  place  within  the  body,  which  eventually  becomes  little 
more  than  an  elongated  sac  filled  with  eggs  or  embryos.  The  largest 
specimen  contained  upwards  of  20  million  embryos. 

We  may  add  to  this  report  that  a  specimen  of  this  interesting 
parasite  was  recently  obtained  from  a  sea-urchin  brought  in  by  an 
Aberdeen  trawler. 

Platyh.elminth.es. 

Sexual  Phases  in  Geonemertes.* — W.  K.  Coe  finds  that  the  Ber- 
muda land  Nemertean,  Geonemertes  ar/ricola,  is  not  only  hermaphrodite 
but  also  viviparous.  The  sexual  phases  are  further  complicated  by  the 
appearance  of  undifferentiated  gonads  which  form  both  kinds  of  sexual 
products.  Such  gonads  often  occur  interspersed  among  others  which 
form  either  ova  or  spermatozoa  only.  As  a  rule  in  such  an  ovo-testis 
the  spermatozoa  are  discharged  before  the  single  ovum  of  the  same 
organ  has  matured.     Self -fertilisation  probably  does  not  normally  occur. 

Land  Planarian  from  Ohio.| — L.  B.  Walton  records  the  occurrence 
or  a  species  of  Rliyncltodemus  in  Ohio.  It  differs  in  many  particulars 
from  the  only  known  form  of  this  genus  occurring  in  the  United  States, 
although  it  is  probably  related  to  it. 

Two  Interesting  Trematodes.f — Norman  Maclaren  gives  a  full 
description  of  (a)  Dipl&ctanum  cequans  Diesing,  a  Gyrodactylid  from  the 
gills  of  Labrax  lupus,  etc.,  which  he  refers  to  the  genus  Tetraonchus 
Diesing,  sub-genus  DipJectanum,  and  (ft)  Nematobothrium  molce  sp.  n. 
from  the  sunfish,  which  he  refers  to  the  Distomidse. 

Habits  and  Structure  of  Cotylaspis  insignis.§ — H.  L.  Osbom  has 
investigated  a  number  of  points  in  the  anatomy  and  habits  of  this 
Trematode.  In  Lake  Chautauqua  it  is  confined  to  Anodonta,  although 
this  is  not  the  case  with  respect  to  the  United  States  generally.  It 
most  commonly  occurs  adhering  very  firmly  by  its  huge  ventral  sucker 
to  the  cloacal  surface  of  the  kidney  of  its  host.  It  can  hardly  be 
considered  even  ecto-parasitic,  but  is  more  strictly  commensal,  since 
it  not  only  does  not  draw  any  nutriment  from  its  host,  but  is  even 
beneficial  by  keeping  the  surface  of  the  kidney  free  from  organic 
material.  The  almost  free  habit  would  seem  to  be  secondary,  and 
arrived  at  by  way  of  a  partially  free  ancestral  form,  having  habits  like 
those  of  Aspidogaster.  The  excretory  system  is  unlike  that  of  any  other 
known  member  of  the  family.  It  has  a  single  terminal  dorsal  pore,  two 
independent  rhythmically  pulsatile  bladders,  a  collecting  vessel  running 
directly  to  the  level  of  the  pharynx,  ;i  recurrent  vessel,  ciliated,  directly 
continuous  with  the  collecting  vessel,  two  branches  from  this — one 
anterior  and  one  posterior — into  which  all  the  larger  capillary  vessels 
discharge,  minute  non-ciliated  capillaries  terminated   by  ciliated  flarae- 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (190."".)  pp.  454-8. 

t  Ohio  Naturalist,  v.  (1903)  Xo.  3,  p.  254. 

%  Jcnaisnhe  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  572-G18  (3  pis.  and  G  fi^s.). 

§  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  201-35  (3  pis.). 


3  1  8  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

cells.  There  is  a  single  testis  ;  the  oviduct  resembles  that  of  Aspidogaster 
near  the  ovary  in  having  the  sume  "tuba  fallopii  ;"  there  is  n<>  distinct 
ootype  or  shell  gland,  and  no  Laurer  canal. 

Incertae  Sedis. 

Excretory  Apparatus  in  Entoprocta.*— G.  Stiasny  has  observed 
various  details  of  this  in  the  living  specimens  of  Pedkellina  echinata  and 
Loxosoma  annelidicola,  as  well  as  sections  of  these  and  other  types.  In 
P.  re  hi  n  (tttt-  the  excretory  apparatus  consists  of  an  unpaired  duct  which 
divides  into  two  branches,  forming  an  inverted  Y-  It  lies  between  the 
oesophagus  and  nerve  ganglion.  The  blind  ends  of  the  fork  are  closed 
by  an  end  cell,  which  appears  like  a  massing  of  plasma  with  a  large 
nucleus.  The  wall  of  this  canal  contains  two  or  more  cells  with  large 
nuclei ;  the  lumen  is  wide,  the  cells  are  very  long  and  narrow  and  with- 
out cilia,  except  the  end  cell,  which  has  a  very  large  "  flame."  There 
are  cilia  on  the  unpaired  portion  of  the  system.  It  is  probable  that, 
contrary  to  the  finding  of  Prouho,  the  excretory  apparatus  of  the 
Entoprocta  is  of  one  type. 

Rotifera. 

New  Rotifers  from  Scotland.f  —  James  Murray,  in  studying  the 
fauna  of  Scotch  lakes  in  connection  with  the  Lake  Survey  under  the 
Pullar  Trust,  has  found  the  following  twelve  new  species  of' Rotifers  of 
the  order  Bdelloida,  which  he  describes  very  fully,  with  seven  plates  of 
illustrations  :  Gallidina  aiujusticolUs,  G.  annulate,  G.  crenata,  G.  pukhra, 
G.  muricata,  C.  crucicornis,  G.  armata,  G.  incrassata,  Philodina  laticornis, 
Ph.  laticeps,  Ph.  humerosa,  and  Microdina  paradoxa.  The  last-named 
forms  a  new  genus  and  a  new  family,  Microdinadte,  characterised  by 
the  absence  of  a  corona,  and  by  jaws  intermediate  between  the  ramate 
type  of  all  other  Bdelloida,  and  the  malleo-ramate  type  of  Melicertz. 

Echinoderma. 

Artificial  Production  of  Vitelline  Membrane  in  Unfertilised  Ova 
of  Sea  Urchin. :[— Curt  Herbst  finds  that  traces  of  silver  salts  in  the 
water  evoke  the  formation  of  vitelline  membranes  on  unfertilised  ova,  as 
also  happens  under  the  influence  of  chloroform,  clove-oil,  xylol,  and  other 
reagents.  The  formation  and  elevation  of  the  vitelline  membrane  is  not 
a  simple  coagulation  process.  The  elevation  of  the  membrane  from  the 
surface  of  the  egg  is  first  of  all  due  to  a  vital  change  in  the  cytoplasm, 
which  retracts  from  the  primary  vitelline  membrane  and  secretes  a  sub- 
stance between  that  and  itself.  When  water  enters  the  interspace  the 
primary  limiting  membrane  is  raised  mechanically.  Apart  from  this, 
however,  there  is  the  modification  of  the  readily  penetrable  primary 
membrane  into  a  more  resistent  secondary  envelope.  This  change  may 
be  a  coagulation  or  similar  process.  In  any  case  it  can  be  induced  in 
unfertilised  ova  by  coagulating  reagents  which  do  not  rapidly  kill  them. 
It  follows  that  in  normal  conditions,  the  spermatozoon  must  contain  a 

*  Arbeit.  Zool.  Inst.  Wien,  xv.  (1904)  pp.  lS:S-f>(J  (1  pi.). 
t  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  E<lin.,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  3G7-SG  (7  pis.). 
X  MT.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapbl,  xvi.  (1904)  pp.  445-57. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  319 

coagulating  substance  which  induces  in  the  ovum  the  elevation  of  the 
vitelline  membrane. 

New  Devonian  Ophiurid.* — F.  A.  Bather  describes Sympterura  minveri 

g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  Devonian  Ophiurid  from  Cornwall.  The  genus  is  thus  diag- 
nosed : — A  Lapworthurid  with  spinulosc  disc  extending  to  second  arm- 
segment,  with  oral  skeleton  of  teeth,  long  jaws,  and  short  mouth-frames 
(torus  not  seen),  with  free  arm-segments  containing  a  vertebral  ossicle, 
possibly  compound,  grooved  ventrally  and  provided  on  each  side  with 
two  wings,  to  the  distal  of  which  is  attached  an  adambulacral  spiniferous 
element.  The  structure  of  the  arm-segments  suggests  that  the  vertebrae 
may  be  composed  of  two  successive  pairs  of  ambulacral  elements,  and 
reasons  are  given  for  suspecting  that  this  may  be  the  case  in  all  the  more 
advanced  Ophiurids.  The  holotype  of  the  species,  which  is  the  first 
Echinoderm  described  from  these  Cornish  slates,  is  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Ccelentera. 

Movements  and  Reactions  of  Hydra.f — G-.  Wagner  has  made  a 
careful  study  of  the  behaviour  of  Hydra  viridis  and  other  species.  An 
undisturbed  Hydra  contracts  at  fairly  regular  intervals  ;  after  contraction 
it  expands  in  such  a  way  as  to  occupy  a  different  position  from  that 
previously  occupied.  It  has  only  one  form  of  response  to  a  single 
mechanical  stimulation,  localised  or  non-localised  ;  this  response  is  by 
contraction,  more  or  less  complete,  and  not  necessarily  toward  or  away 
from  the  stimulus.  When  a  stimulus  is  repeated  as  soon  as  the  polyp 
has  regained  the  expanded  stage,  contraction  results  as  before.  If  a  non- 
localised  mechanical  stimulus  is  repeated  at  very  brief  intervals,  say  one 
second,  acclimatisation  is  soon  effected,  and  the  Hydra  no  longer 
responds.  A  localised  stimulus  applied  at  such  brief  intervals  brings, 
about  at  first  an  apparent  acclimatisation.  This  is  soon  followed  in 
many  cases  by  the  complicated  "  escape  "  movement,  the  Hydra  moving 
away  from  the  region  where  stimulation  occurs.  This  shows  that  the 
physiological  condition  of  the  animal  has  been  changed,  so  that  to  the 
same  stimulus  under  the  same  external  conditions  it  now  gives  a  reaction 
different  from  that  given  at  first. 

Hydra  shows  no  orientation  movements  in  response  to  stimulation  by 
a  current  of  water.  When  the  foot  is  detached  the  animal  performs 
active  movements  directed  toward  restoring  the  normal  condition  of 
attachment.  Geotaxis  plays  no  part.  Xon-locali$ed  chemical  stimuli 
cause  general  contraction,  except  in  certain  food  reactions.  A  strong 
localised  chemical  stimulus  causes  a  bending  of  the  body  or  tentacles,  as 
the  case  may  be,  toward  the  side  stimulated.  The  result  is  due  to  the 
contraction  of  the  ectoderm  cells  directly  affected  by  the  reagent,  and  is 
non-adaptive.  Hydra  reacts  to  food  only  after  a  period  of  hunger.  A 
mechanical  stimulus  will  not  produce  a  discharge  of  nematocysts  ;  a 
chemical  stimulus  does,  probably  by  direct  effect,  in  the  area  touched  by 
the  reagent.  The  nematocysts  can  and  do  pierce  the  epidermis  of  the 
prey,  but  Hydra  seems  able  to  paralyse  prey  without  discharging 
nematocysts. 

*  Geo!  Mng.,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  161-9  (1  pi.). 

t  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.,  xlviii.  (1905)  pp.  T85-G22  (0  figs.) 


320  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Biological    Studies   on    Corymorpha.* — H.    B.    Torrey    describee 

Co7\i/)>i<ir/i//tr  [tiilinn  both  adult  and  young  forms — and  discusses  its 
activities  in  movement,  feeding,  and  the  like. 

It  is  unusually  active  for  a  hydroid.  It  is  everywhere  sensitive  to 
mechanical  stimuli,  irritant  chemicals  and  abrupt  changes  in  temperature, 
nowhere  to  odorous  substances. 

The  prehensile  mechanism  is  composed  of  proximal  tentacles  which 
move  toward  the  mouth  in  response  to  all  effective  stimuli ;  distal 
tentacles  which  move  away  from  the  mouth  in  their  initial  response  to 
stimuli ;  and  a  proboscis,  which  may  move  toward  the  point  stimulated. 
These  movements,  as  well  as  shortening  and  possibly  lengthening  the 
stem,  are  performed  by  muscles. 

The  stem  of  the  adult  responds  to  the  stimulus  of  gravity  by  means 
of  a  change  in  the  turgidity  of  the  vacuolated  axial  cells.  The  response 
of  these  cells  varies  according  as  the  stem  is  attached  proximally  or 
distally,  and  according  as  it  is  heteromorphic  or  not.  The  polarity  of 
the  stem  is  expressed  not  only  by  the  regenerative  development,  but  by 
changes  in  the  axial  cells. 

Locomotion  is  accomplished  by  amoehoid  cells  located  at  the  proximal 
end  in  the  adult,  more  generally  distributed  in  the  larva,  and  covering 
the  club-shaped  ends  of  the  filaments  of  the  hold-fast. 

Cilia  are  present  on  the  epithelial  cells  lining  the  hydranth  cavity 
and  the  peripheral  canals.  Supplemented  by  contractions  and  expan- 
sions of  the  hydranth  cavity,  they  provide  for  the  circulatory  currents 
through  the  body. 

Eggs  are  laid  both  in  summer  and  winter,  usually  during  the 
morning  hours.  They  have  adhesive  coats.  The  planulae  are  never 
ciliated,  and  their  locomotion  is  limited  to  very  slow  creeping  movements. 
The  larvae  are  geotropic. 

Gymnoblastic  Hydroids  of  Western  Mediterranean.! — S.  Motz- 
Kossowska  gives  an  account  of  gymnoblastic  hydroids  collected  near 
Banyuls  and  neighbouring  coast  and  Balearic  Islands.  Seven  new 
species  and  two  new  varieties  are  recorded.  A  marked  resemblance  to 
the  fauna  of  the  bay  of  Naples  was  noted.  The  paper  includes  a 
discussion  of  the  phylogenetic  position  of  the  several  members  of  the 
group.  The  author  agrees  with  Schneider  in  placing  the  Corynidae  at 
the  base  of  the  system,  and  from  a  typical  Corynid  with  capitate 
tentacles  recognises  a  departure  along  three  distinct  lines,  viz.  (a) 
diminution  of  the  number  of  tentacles,  e.g.,  Tlarella  singnlaris ;  (b) 
diminution  of  number  of  tentacles  and  atrophy  of  the  capitula  of  the 
proximal  whorl,  e.g.,  Cladonema:  Goryne  pintheri  and  Stauridium 
productum  being  intermediate ;  (c)  great  development  of  proximal 
circle  of  filiform  tentacles  as  Tubularia  with  Pennaria  intermediate. 
It  is  possible  that  those  Corynids  with  stinging  buds  on  the  external 
face  of  the  tentacles  {Tiarella')  may  have  given  rise  to  forms  with 
ramified  tentacles  like  Cladocoryne. 

Notes  on  Hydromedusaa  from  Naples.^  —  Chas.  W.  Hargitt  has 
studied  several  species,  some  of  which  are  believed  to  be  new,  others 

*  Journ.  Exper.  Zool..  i.  (1904)  pp.  395-422. 

t  Arch.  Zool.  Exp.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  39-9S  (1  pL). 

t  MT.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapel,  xvi.  (1904)  pp.  553-85  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  321 

more  or  less  rare,  and  all  of  more  than  ordinary  biological  interest. 
He  describes  Pachycordyh  weismanni,  sp.  n.,  and  notes,  inter  alia,  that 
in  the  females  (which  alone  were  found)  the  germ-cells  originate  in  the 
endoderm  and  do  not  occur  elsewhere  at  any  time  during  their  growth 
or  maturation.  The  medusoid  is  either  extremely  degenerate,  or  one  of 
very  primitive  type.  Its  development  within  a  chitinous  capsule 
(gonangium  ?)  associated  with  the  sporosac-like  history  of  the  gonophore. 
would  seem  to  suggest  the  latter  alternative.  The  development  of 
Anthomedusas  within  gonangia  is  quite  rare,  if  not  wholly  anomalous. 

The  oogenesis,  maturation,  and  fertilisation  in  Tubular ia  mesembry- 
anihemum  Allm.  are  then  described.  The  germ-cells  were  found  both  in 
the  ectoderm  of  the  peduncle  of  the  gonophore,  as  Brauer  contends, 
and  in  the  ectoderm  and  endoderm  of  the  spadix,  as  Ciamician  and 
Weismann  reported.  An  account  of  the  cleavage,  the  germ-layers,  and 
the  embryo  is  given. 

The  author  also  describes  Perigonimus  napolitanus,  sp.  n.  (?), 
Gemmaria  implexa  Alder,  Corydendrium  parasiticum  Cavolini,  and 
Podocoryne  conchicola  (Philippi),  and  supplies  numerous  contributions 
towards  a  clearer  knowledge  of  some  disputed  problems  concerning  the 
Hydromedusae. 

Regeneration  and  Non-Sexual  Reproduction  in  Sagartia.* — R.  B. 
Torrey  and  J.  R.  Mery  describe  the  different  modes  of  fission  observed 
in  8.  davisi.  They  endeavoured  experimentally  to  discover  the  cause  of 
fission.  A  complete  answer  has  not  been  found,  though  they  conclude 
that  an  interruption  of  the  physical  continuity  of  two  portions  of  a 
polyp  by  a  cut  in  the  normal  fission  plane  tends  to  interfere  with  the 
physiological  inter-action  of  the  separated  regions,  and  to  initiate  the 
process  of  fission. 

Chilian  Actiniae.! — J.  Playfair  McMurrich  reports  on  L.  Plate's 
collection  of  Actinians  from  the  coast  of  Chili.  He  divides  the 
simpler  Actinians  into  families,  recognising  in  addition  to  the  Edwards- 
id  a3,  which  will  include  the  Edwardsiae,  HalcampidaB,  and  the  genus 
Scytophorus,  the  Gonactiniidas,  which  will  include  Gonactinia,  Protanthea, 
and  possibly  Oractis,  the  Peachiida3,  including  Peachia,  Eloactis,  and 
Haloclava,  and  the  Ilanthidfe,  having  essentially  the  limitations 
recognised  by  Andres.     Altogether  27  species  are  dealt  with. 

The  Mesenteric  Musculature  of  Actiniaria.J — 0.  Carlgren  con- 
tributes some  details  regarding  these  muscles  and  their  homologies. 
One  or  two  of  his  points  may  be  given.  The  basilar  muscles  arise  in 
the  Actiniaria  later  phylogenetically  than  the  parieto-basilar  and  the 
parietal  muscles.  The  lower  Actiniaria  (Protanthea,  Athenaria,  and  the 
Discosomidea  among  the  Stichodactylineae)  have  in  their  mesenteric 
musculature  no  homologue  to  the  basilar  muscles,  which  develop  only 
with  the  growth  of  a  true  creeping  base.  In  the  Athenaria  the  parietal 
muscle  which  is  found  on  the  same  side  as  the  transverse  mesenterial 
muscles  is  homologous  with  the  parietal  basilar  muscle  of  the  higher 

•  Univ.  California  Publications,  i.  (1904)  pp.  211-26. 

t  Zool.  Jahrb.,  Supplementband  vi.,  Fauna  Chilensis,  1904,  pp.  215-306  (6  pis. 
and  5  figs.).  %  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  510-19. 

June  21st,  1905  z 


322  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Actiniaria  and  the  Protanthea,  and  is  only  a  further  development  of  this 
muscle. 

Morphology  of  Coral  Polyps.* — J.  E.  Duerden  sums  up  his  con- 
clusions as  to  the  relationships  of  Madreporarian  corals.  With  the 
exception  of  the  characteristics  dependent  on  the  presence  of  a  skeleton, 
the  Madreporaria  present  no  feature  which  separates  them  from  ordinary 
hexameral  Actinians.  The  development  and  arrangement  of  the 
mesenteries  and  the  tentacles  in  both  the  protocnemic  and  metaenemic 
stages  are  the  same  in  both  groups.  In  the  absence  of  siphonoglyphs 
from  the  stoniodaeuni,  and  of  lateral  ciliated  bands  from  the  mesenterial 
filaments,  coral  polyps  differ  from  the  great  majority  of  anemones,  but 
some  of  the  lower  Actinians  are  without  siphonoglyphs,  and  have  but 
simple  filaments. 

Modern  Actiniaria  (excluding  the  Cerianthege  and  Zoanthea?)  and 
Madreporaria  constitute  a  single  group,  one  section  of  which  forms  a 
skeleton  which  is  absent  in  the  other. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Palaeozoic  rugose  corals  diverge  from  modern 
corals  after  the  formation  of  the  six  primary  septa  ;  their  septa  are  then 
added  in  the  same  sequence  as  are  the  mesenteries  in  the  Zoantheai ; 
further,  the  single  ventral  siphonoglyph  of  the  Zoanthids  was  probably 
present  in  the  rugose  polyp,  being  now  represented  on  the  skeleton  by 
the  "  fossula."  The  Rugosa  and  Zoanthere  undoubtedly  constitute  a 
•common  group  of  skeleton-forming  and  skeletonless  polyps,  just  as  do 
the  modern  Madreporaria  and  ordinary  hexamerous  Actiniaria. 

Protozoa. 

Behaviour  of  Lower  Organisms.! — H.  S.  Jennings  has  published 
an  important  series  of  investigations  on  the  reactions  of  Protozoa, 
Planaria,  and  Rotifera  to  heat,  light,  and  other  stimuli.  Seven  memoirs 
are  included  in  the  volume.  The  theory  of  tropisms,  the  consideration 
of  physiological  states  as  determining  factors  in  the  behaviour  of  these 
organisms,  and  the  method  of  trial  and  error  in  their  behaviour,  are 
subjects  discussed  on  the  basis  of  the  experimental  data.  One  or  two 
conclusions  only  can  be  quoted.  The  author  decides  that  the  theory  of 
tropisms  does  not  go  far  in  helping  us  to  understand  the  behaviour  in 
question  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  when  accurately  studied  as  a  rule 
inconsistent  with  its  fundamental  assumptions.  IwStentor  and  Planaria 
it  is  proved  that  to  the  same  stimuli,  under  the  same  external  con- 
ditions, the  same  individuals  react  at  different  times  in  radically  dif- 
ferent ways,  showing  the  existence  of  different  physiological  states 
which  determine  the  nature  of  the  reaction.  The  behaviour  of  the 
lower  organisms  is  flexible,  by  the  method  of  trial  and  error.  This 
method  involves  many  of  the  fundamental  qualities  seen  in  higher 
animals,  yet  with  the  simplest  possible  basis  in  ways  of  action  ;  a  great 
portion  of  the  behaviour  consisting  often  of  but  one  or  two  definite 
movements — movements  that  are  stereotyped  when  considered  by  them- 
selves, but  not  stereotyped  in  their  relation  to  the  environment.     This 

*  Smithsonian  Misc.  Collections,  xlvii.  (1904)  pp.  9S-111  (16  figs.). 

f  Publications  of  Carnegie  Institute,  Washington,  No.  16  (1901)  pp.  1-256. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  323 

method  leads  upward,  offering  at  every  point  opportunity  for  develop- 
ment, and  showing,  even  in  the  unicellular  organisms,  what  must  be 
•considered  the  beginnings  of  intelligence  (objective)  and  of  many  other 
qualities  found  in  higher  animals.  Tropic  action  doubtless  occurs,  but 
the  main  basis  of  behaviour  is  in  these  organisms  the  method  of  trial 
and  error. 

New  and  little-known  British  Freshwater  Rhizopods.* — James 
€ash  describes  from  Mid-Cheshire  and  Essex  a  number  of  interesting 
Rhizopods  :  a  naked  reticularian  form,  Penardia  mutabills  g.  et  sp.  n. ; 
•an  Arcellid  with  central  digitate  and  lateral  more  elongated  and  acicular 
pseudopodia,  Difflugiella  apiculata  g.  et  sp.  n.  ;  besides  Amoeba pilosa  sp.  n., 
Jlastigamocba  aspera  F.  E.  Schulze,  Gymnoplirys  cometa  Cienk.,  and  Vam- 
pyrella  fl'abellata  sp.  n. 

Longitudinal  Division  in  Opalina  ranarum.f — H.  Schouteden  re- 
cords the  occurrence  in  Opalina  of  division  lengthwise.  The  process 
goes  on  comparatively  slowly,  a  gradually  deepening  furrow  appearing 
first ;  when  this  has  almost  divided  the  animal,  the  two  halves  swim 
sharply  apart,  and  the  bridge  between  tears  with  a  snap.  The  whole 
process  was  observed,  and  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  case  of  conjugation. 

Trypanosomes  and  Haemogregarines  of  Teleosts.J — E.  Brumpt  de- 
scribes several  new  species  of  these  from  Gobius,  Callionymus,  Cottus,  etc. 
There  are  two  distinct  types  of  Trypanosome,  one  resembling  that  of 
the  skate,  the  other  that  of  the  mammals,  particularly  of  the  rat. 

Culture  of  a  Frog's  Trypanosome  in  a  Leech.§ — A.  Billet  finds  that 
Trypanosoma  inopinatum  of  the  green  frog  of  Algeria  thrives  well  in 
the  alimentary  canal  of  the  leech  Helobdella  algira,  which  often  occurs 
■on  the  frog.  The  Trypanosome  is  rare  in  the  frog,  but  forms  of  Dre- 
panidium are  common — yet  Drepanidium  is  not  found  in  the  leech.  It 
is  suggested  that  there  may  be  a  metamorphosis  of  the  Drepanidium 
into  the  Trypanosome,  just  as  Schaudinn  has  described  the  transfor- 
mation of  Hcemogregarina  ziemanni  into  a  Trypanosome. 

Haemoflagellates  in  Teleosteans.|| — C.  Lebailly  finds  Trypanosoma 
p!atess(B  sp.  n.  and  Hcemogregarina  platessce  together  in  Platessa  vul- 
garis, and  two  similar  pairs,  also  new  species,  co-existent  in  Flesus 
vulgaris  and  Platophrys  Interna.  The  occurrence  of  the  two  forms  in 
one  host  is  to  be  considered  in  relation  to  the  researches  of  Schaudinn 
and  Billet  on  the  probable  relationship  of  the  two  types. 

Anisogamy  in  Gregarines.^f — L.  Brasil  observes  that  in  Urospora, 
sand  very  probably  in  Gonospora,  two  kinds  of  gametes  exist,  that  con- 
jugating gametes  are  unlike,  and  that  each  of  the  two  associated 
Gregarines  give  rise  to  only  one  kind  of  gamete. 

Hsemosporidia  of  Rana.** — J.  H.  Stebbins,  jun.,  has  found  in  the 
blood  of  Rana  catesbiana  several  forms  of  Hicmogregarina  catesbiance, 

*  Jonrn.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.)  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  218-25  (1  pi.). 
t  Zool.  Auzeig..  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  468-9. 
%  Coinptes  Rendus,  cxxxix.  (1001)  pp.  G13-15. 
§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  574-6.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  576-7. 

%  Arch.  Zool.  Exp.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  17-3S  (1  pi). 
**  Tr;ms.  Amer.  Micr.  Soc,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  55-62  (2  pis.). 

z  2 


324  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

among  which  may  be  mentioned,  the  merozoite  or  spore  ;  the  tro- 
phozoite and  cytocyst  of  the  asexual  cycle ;  the  micro-  and  macro- 
gametocytes,  oocyst,  and  sporozoite  of  the  sexual  cycle,  in  which  the 
microgametocyte  is  extra-corpuscular,  while  the  macrogametocyte  is  both 
extra-  and  intra-corpuscular.  Infection  may  be  induced  by  the  food 
taken  into  the  animal's  digestive  tract,  as  well  as  by  other  causes. 
Schizogony  and  sporogony  occur  in  the  red  blood-corpuscles  of  the  same 
host ;  in  the  asexual  cycle,  multiplication  is  effected  by  segmentation,  or 
sporulation.  After  many  generations  of  schizogony,  the  sexes  become 
differentiated  into  macro-  and  microgametocytes,  and  conjugate  by  some 
means  not  yet  discovered.  The  extra-corpuscular  macrogametocyte,  after 
fertilisation,  penetrates  a  red  blood-corpuscle  and  becomes  encysted ; 
from  the  cyst-nucleus  arise  sporoblasts,  which  in  turn  are  converted 
into  sporozoites.  These  rupture  the  oocyst  and  escape  into  the  plasma^ 
.vhere  they  are  ready  to  invade  fresh  blood-corpuscles. 


"♦""J**- 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  325 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including1  Cell-Contents. 

Structure  of  the  Cell  of  the  Cyanophycese. — Papers  on  this  hotly- 
-contested  subject  still  continue  to  appear.  F.  Gr.  Kohl*  gives  a  general 
summary  of  his  'large  work  on  this  subject,  which  appeared  a  short  time 
ago,  and  replies  to  certain  criticisms  of  Brandt.  The  work  of  E.  W. 
'01ive,t  however,  is  of  the  most  importance,  for  by  the  use  of  modern 
methods  of  fixation,  staining,  and  section-cutting,  he  claims  to  have 
clearly  established  the  existence  of  mitotic  nuclear  division  in  this  group. 
The  central  nucleus  appears  to  be  in  a  state  of  continuous  mitotic 
division  ;  only  in  the  spores  and  heterocysts  do  the  nuclei  enter  the 
condition  of  rest  and  exhibit  a  nuclear  vacuole  and  membrane.  The 
■ordinary  nucleus  shows  a  distinction  into  a  more  or  less  dense  or 
chromatic  portion,  which  encloses  a  number  of  minute  chromatin 
granules,  the  chromosomes,  which  are  of  constant  number  in  a  given 
species — 8  in  Nostoc  commune,  for  example,  and  16  in  Oscillatoria  tenuis. 
During  actual  division  there  is  a  definite  spindle,  and  the  chromosomes 
undergo  fission,  the  whole  spireme  thread,  which  consists  of  the  chromo 
somes  in  a  row,  undergoing  a  longitudinal  fission.  The  cell  divides  by 
the  growing-in  of  a  ring-shaped  wall. 

0.  P.  Phillips  %  has  made  a  comparative  study  of  the  cytology  and 
movements  of  the  Cyanophyceae.  He  regards  the  central  body  in  the 
cell  as  a  nucleus,  and  describes  sexual  fusions  in  the  formation  of  the 
spores.  He  finds  that  the  chromatin  of  the  central  body  is  aggregated 
in  hollow  vesicles  in  the  resting  cell.  This  vesicular  appearance  dis- 
appears in  the  dividing  cell,  and  the  chromatin  granules  become 
arranged  in  a  loose  network,  and  multiply  by  transverse  division. 
^Nuclear  division  follows,  in  one  of  two  ways,  both  occurring  in  the  same 
species.  One  method  corresponds  to  a  direct  division  ;  the  other  is  a 
primitive  form  of  karyokinesis,  and  resembles  the  method  of  mitosis 
•described  by  Kohl,  in  which  a  double  transverse  division  occurs  in  the 
spirem  thread,  never  a  longitudinal  splitting.  The  author  also  found 
thick-walled  spores  in  Oscillatoria,  produced  after  the  fusion  of  several 
•cells,  and  after  adjoining  "  nurse-cells  "  have  disintegrated  and  given  up 
their  chromatin  to  the  spore-cell.  This  fusion  is  regarded  as  a  sexual  act. 
He  also  states  that  the  movements  of  the  Cyanophyceas  are  caused  by 
•delicate  cilia  distributed  along  the  sides  of  the  filament. 

*  Beih.  Bot,  Centralbl.,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  1-8. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  9-44  (1  pi.). 

X  Contr.  Bot.  Lab.  Univ.  Pennsylvania,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  237-335  (3  pis.).     See  also 
Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  228-9. 


326  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

On  the  Size  of  the  Nucleus.* — J.  J.  Gerassimow  describes  in  detail,, 
with  tables,  his  observations  on  cells  of  Spirogyra,  which,  by  abnormal 
conditions  (cooling,  etherisation,  etc.),  have  been  caused  to  divide  into 
cells  without  nuclei  and  cells  with  either  a  single  very  large  nucleus  or 
two  nuclei. 

Structure  and  Development. 

"Vegetative. 

Course  of  Laticiferous  Tubes  in  Leaves.f — Oscar  Mayus  has  studied 
the  laticiferous  tissue  in  the  leaves  of  members  of  the  Moracese,  Papa- 
veraceas,  Euphorbiacese,  Apocynaceas,  Asclepiadacea?,  and  Composite 
and  comes  to  the  following  conclusions  : — The  laticiferous  tubes  in  the 
leaf-blade  form,  with  those  present  in  other  parts  of  the  plant,  a 
perfectly  continuous  system.  Latex-tubes,  peculiar  to  the  leaf,  do  not 
occur.  Generally,  the  latex- tissue  accompanies  the  vessels  ;  from  this 
point  of  view  we  can  distinguish  three  classes  of  latex-tube  endings  : 
(a)  the  tubes  end  along  with  the  vessels  ;  (b)  they  pass  beyond  the  vas- 
cular bundle  and  run  free  in  the  parenchyma  ;  (c)  they  run  from  the 
lower  to  the  upper  epidermis  of  the  leaf.  In  addition  to  H  and  net-like 
anastomoses,  those  of  loop-form  also  occur.  From  the  nerves  of  the 
third  order  onward,  latex-tubes  take  the  place  of  sieve-tubes.  Starch  is 
always  present  in  the  cells  surrounding  the  free  running  latex-tubes. 

Structure  and  Development  of  Epiphegus  virginiana.+ — E.  Cooke 
and  Schively  have  made  a  study  of  this  parasite,  a  member  of  the 
Orobanchacese.  They  find  that  the  haustoria  are  not  developed  on  the 
parasite,  but  arise  from  the  roots  of  the  beech,  the  host-plant.  The 
embryo  is  rudimentary.  Bicollateral  bundles  occur  both  in  the  tuber 
and  in  the  aerial  shoot. 

Secretory  Apparatus  of  the  Dipterocarpese.§ — P.  Guerin  has  studied 
the  mode  of  development  and  the  course  of  the  secretory  canals  in  the 
wood  of  species  of  Bipterocarpus.  The  canal  arises  by  separation  of  four 
cambial  cells,  which  are  precisely  like  the  other  elements  of  the  cambium* 
and,  contrary  to  the  method  of  development  usual  in  other  plants,  these 
four  cells  do  not  result  from  the  division  of  a  single  mother-cell.  The 
canal  may  retain  this  original  form,  or  it  may  be  found  at  a  later  stage 
bordered  by  a  larger  number  of  cells,  the  increase  in  the  number  being 
due  not  to  a  radial  division  of  the  original  four,  but  to  their  tangential 
separation,  whereby  a  larger  number  of  cambial  cells  is  involved.  The 
diameter  of  the  canal  hardly  increases  with  age,  but  at  a  given  time,  the 
thin  walls  of  the  secreting  cells  which  limit  the  canal  give  way,  and  the 
original  border  more  or  less  completely  disappears.  Tangential  sections 
show  an  anastomosing  between  some  of  the  canals  during  their  sinuous 
longitudinal  course. 

Pitcher-formation  in  Saxifrages.||— J.  Mahen  and  X.  Gillot  have 
studied  the  teratological  formation  of  pitchers  in  Saxifraga  ciliata,  in 

•  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  45-118  (2  pis.), 
t  Tom.  cit,  1905,  pp.  273-86  (17  figs,  in  text). 

%  Contr.  Bot.  Lab.  Univ.  Pennsylvania,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  352-98.  See  also  Bot 
Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  p.  239.  §  Comptes  Eendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  520-2. 

||  Journ.  de  Bot.,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  27-39  (7  figs  in  text). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  327 

which  they  find  the  following  types  : — Transformation  of  the  leaves  into 
pitchers,  formation  of  pitchers  upon  the  leaves,  and  formation  of  super- 
numerary leaflets  by  proliferation  of  the  nerves.  The  pitcher-like  leaf 
results  from  a  compression  of  the  young  leaf  in  the  bud,  resulting  in  a 
peltate  widening  development  at  the  petiole  ;  it  does  not  arise  from  union 
of  the  leaf-margins.  As  such  leaves  are  met  with  in  many  different 
types  from  various  localities,  the  action  of  the  environment  as  a  cause  of 
the  deformation  may  be  eliminated,  nor  is  there  evidence  of  any  para- 
sitic action.  The  author  also  describes  the  occurrence  of  abnormal 
vascular  bundles  in  the  pith  of  Saxifrages  ;  the  pith  bundles  show 
inverse  orientation,  wood  external  and  bast  internal,  and  seem  to  be 
due  to  a  lateral  proliferation  of  the  cambial  cells.  He  also  describes  in 
the  neck  of  the  pitchers,  wood  islands,  of  primary  origin,  which  have 
become  separated  from  the  cambium  by  normal  parenchyma. 

Anatomical  Investigations  on  Stem-galls* — C.  Houard has  studied 
in  a  large  number  of  plants  the  structure  of  the  so-called  "  terminal " 
galls,  which  are  characterised  by  arrest  in  the  growth  in  length  of  the 
internodes  at  the  end  of  the  stem,  an  increased  diameter  of  the  affected 
region,  and  the  consequent  crowding  of  the   leaves.      In  a   previous, 
memoir  the  author  has  dealt  with  the  "  lateral "  galls,  those  in  which 
growth  in  length  of  the  internodes  is  not  arrested.     The  following  are 
the  general  conclusions  arrived  at : — The  parasite  affects  the  growing 
point  of  the  stem,  setting  up  an  action  which  finds  expression  in  the 
hypertrophy  and  cellular  hyperplasy  of  the  surrounding  tissues.      In- 
crease in  length  of  the  shoot  is  arrested  or  stopped  ;  the  upper  internodes 
remain  short,  and  show  a  corresponding  increase  in  thickness,  as  well  as 
important  anatomical  modifications.     Cortex  and  pith'are  generally  more 
developed,  while  the  numerous  fibro-vascular  bundles  are  scattered  irregu- 
larly and  without  regular  orientation.   There  is  also  absence  of  periderm, 
and  poor  formation  of  secondary  tissues.     Associated  with  the  arrest  in 
growth  of  the  internodes  is  a  diminution  in  growth  in  length  of  the 
leaves,  which  become  broader,  thicker,  and  covered  with  hairs.     Their 
internal  structure  is  generally  much  modified,  showing  arrest  in  differ- 
entiation  of  the   tissues — diminution  of  chlorophyll-containing  tissue, 
stomata  irregular   and   without   order,  more   numerous   hypertrophied 
vascular  bundles,  with   irregular  primary  wood  and   slight   secondary 
formation.    As  a  result  the  gall  assumes  a  tufted  form,  like  an  artichoke 
or  large  bud  ;  the  original  symmetry  of  the  shoot  is  preserved,  as  the 
attack  of  the  parasite  is  at  the  growing  point.     The  phyllotaxy  of  the 
shoot  attacked  remains  normal.     Owing  to  interruption  of  the  terminal 
growth,  lateral  branchlets  become  developed.     After  the  departure  of 
the  parasite,  growth  is  sometimes  resumed  in  the  shoot  affected,  and  the 
internodes  become  elongated. 

Regeneration  in  Passion-Flower.f — Hans  Winkler  describes  the 
formation  in  Passiflora  cccrulea  of  adventitious  shoots  on  tendrils  which 
had  been  cut  from  the  plant  and  kept  moist  in  sand.     After  several 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  ser.  8,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  219-385  (289  figs,  in  text). 
t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Geaell.,xxiii.  (1905)  pp.  45-8  (1  fig.  in  text). 


328  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

months  two  shoots  and  a  root  had  developed  from  the  callus,  which  was 
formed  at  the  cut  end  of  the  tendril.  Roots  and  shoots  will  develop 
also  on  the  leaves  of  the  same  plant,  and  on  isolated  portions  of  inter- 
nodes. 

Reproductive. 

Gametophyte  and  Embryo  of  Torreya  taxifolia.*— J.  M.  Coulter 
and  W.  J.  G.  Land  have  studied  these  stages  in  the  life-history  of  this 
plant,  which  occurs  in  a  narrow  belt  on  the  east  side  of  the  Apalachicola 
River,  extending  from  the  southern  boundary  of  Georgia  for  about  30 
miles  southward.  It  grows  associated  with  mesophyte  vegetation,  such 
as  characterises  the  beech-maple-hemlock  forms  of  the  woods  of  the 
northern  States,  and  has  a  great  capacity  for  vegetative  reproduction. 

The  staminate  strobilus  consists  of  a  series  of  closely  overlapping 
sterile  bracts,  in  four  vertical  rows,  enveloping  the  tip  of  the  axis,  which 
bears  numerous  stamens.  The  large  adaxial  resin  cavity  which  occurs  in 
the  stamen  occupies  the  site  of  three  abortive  sporangia.  The  male 
gametophyte  has  no  prothallial  cell,  and  the  male  cells  are  very  unequal, 
resembling  those  of  Taxus.  The  pollen-tube  is  very  variable  in  the  rate 
and  direction  of  its  advance  through  the  nucellar  cap,  sometimes 
pushing  in  the  embryo-sac  while  it  is  in  an  early  free-nucleate  stage. 
The  ovulate  strobilus  consists  of  four  enveloping  bracts,  and  a  single 
terminal  ovule  with  two  integuments.  Extensive  intercalary  growth 
below  the  mother-cell  forms  the  bulk  of  the  mature  ovule  and  seed. 
There  is  no  special  digestive  layer  around  the  mother-cell.  The  solitary 
archegonium  initial  appears  as  soon  as  walls  are  formed,  is  always  at  one 
side  of  the  central  axis  of  the  gametophyte,  and  forms  a  two-celled  neck. 
The  nucleus  of  the  central  cell  was  not  seen  to  divide,  and  no  trace  was 
found  of  a  ventral  nucleus.  In  fertilisation  the  male  cytoplasm  invests 
the  fusion  nucleus,  and  seems  to  remain  distinct  until  wall-formation  at 
the  four-nucleate  stage  of  the  pro-embryo. 

In  the  development  of  the  pro-embryo,  four  free  nuclei  appear  before 
wall-formation,  and  the  pro-embryo  completely  fills  the  egg,  having  no 
"  open  cells."  A  pro-embryo  of  12-18  cells  is  the  winter  stage.  In  the 
spring  the  suspensor  is  formed  by  what  may  be  called  a  wave  of  elonga- 
tion, beginning  with  the  uppermost  tier  of  the  pro-embryo  and  extending 
gradually  downward,  tier  after  tier,  until  it  includes  the  upper  region  of 
the  meristematic  cylinder  formed  by  the  terminal  cell.  Small  embryos 
are  formed  in  the  second  season  in  the  suspensor  region  of  the  normal 
embryo,  but  whether  they  arise  from  the  prothallial  or  suspensor  cells 
was  not  determined.  The  rumination  of  the  endosperm  peculiar  to 
Torreya,  among  the  Gymnosperms,  arises  from  the  extremely  irregular 
encroachment  of  the  endosperm  upon  the  perisperm. 

Parthenogenesis  in  Wikstrcemia  indica.f— Hans  Winkler  describes 
the  occurrence  of  parthenogenesis  in  this  member  of  the  Thymelreaceae. 
The   pollen  is   apparently  incapable   of   germinating.      In  absence  of 

•  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  161-78  (4  pis.), 
t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  573-80. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  329 

pollination  embryos  developed,  and  were  proved  to  arise  from  the  un- 
fertilised oospheres. 

Di  Candolle,  Acgcstin —  La  parthenogenese  chez  les  plantes  d'apres  les 
travaux  recents.  [A  review  of  recent  work  on  parthenogenesis  in  plants,  with  some 
general  remarks.]  Arch.  Set.  Phys.  et  Nat.  Geneve,  ex.  (1905)  pp.  259-72. 

•GuiGNARD,  L. — La  double  fecondation  chez  les Malvacees.  (Double  fertilisation  in 
the  Malvaceae.) 

[The  author  describes  the  details  of  the  process  of  double  nuclear  fusion  in 
members  of  this  order,  especially  Hibiscus  Trionum.'] 

Jowrn.  de  Bot.,  1904,  pp.  296-308,  figs,  in  text. 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Mechanical  Adjustment  in  Cereus  giganteus  to  Varying  Quan- 
tities of  Stored  Water.*  —  Effie  S.  Spalding  has  made  a  series  of 
measurements  and  observations  at  the  Desert  Laboratory  in  the 
•Southern  United  States,  to  determine  the  relation  of  the  fluted  colum- 
nar cactus  type  to  varying  amounts  of  water-storage.  The  strong  ribs 
and  corresponding  furrows  suggest  a  ready  adjustment  by  a  bellows-like 
action  of  the  ribs  and  furrows  to  changes  in  bulk  due  to  varying  amounts 
•of  stored  water.  A  cross-section  of  a  stem  of  a  giant  cactus  shows  a 
heavy  band  of  thick-walled,  sub-epidermal  tissue,  which  is  very  strong 
and  elastic.  Beneath  this  is  a  band  of  thin-walled  chlorophyll  cells,  and 
all  the  tissue  between  this  and  the  ring  of  fibro- vascular  bundles  is  made 
up  of  thin-walled  water-storing  cells.  The  construction  suggests  that  a 
change  in  bulk  corresponding  to  varying  quantities  of  stored  water  could 
hardly  affect  the  central  mechanical  cylinder,  but  would  probably  mani- 
fest itself  externally  by  expansion  or  contraction  of  the  circumference 
effected  by  folding  or  unfolding  of  the  ribs  and  furrows.  These  sug- 
gestions were  borne  out  by  the  results  of  experiment — changes  in  the 
circumference  were  found  to  be  accompanied  by  such  action  of  the  ribs, 
and  these  movements  are  directly  correlated  with  increase  and  decrease 
in  the  amount  of  water  supplied  to  the  plant.  Variations  in  the  circum- 
ference of  the  stem,  due  to  changes  of  water-content,  are  not  the  same 
•at  all  heights,  but  are  least  pronounced  at  the  base  and  top. 

Study  of  Endotropic  Mycorhiza.t — J.  Gallaud  begins  with  an  his- 
torical account  of  Mycorhiza  generally,  of  its  discovery,  and  of  the 
many  papers  that  have  been  published  on  this  much-debated  subject. 
He  then  gives  an  account  of  his  own  research  on  endotropic  forms.  He 
•distinguishes  four  series  or  types :  (1)  The  Arum  series,  in  which  the 
roots  are  usually  invaded  by  the  fungus,  though  occasionally  free.  The 
infected  roots  are  more  opaque,  rigid,  and  hard  ;  they  are  bent  and 
twisted,  and  break  more  easily  at  those  points  where  the  hyphae  are  most 
abundant.  The  mycelial  filaments  pierce  the  cells  of  the  three  outer 
layers  of  the  root ;  they  are  intra-cellular.  They  then  spread  through 
the  intra-cellular  spaces,  but  branches  from  the  hyphaB  pierce  the  cells 

•  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  57-68  (2  pis.  and  9  figs,  in  text). 
t  Kev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xvii.  (19U5)  pp.  5-48,  66-85  (4  pis.). 


330  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

and  form  in  the  interior  ramifications  of  very  slender  filaments.     The- 
same   type  is  found    in   the   larger  number  of   Monocotyledons.      In 
Dicotyledons  it  occurs  in  Stachys,  Teucrium,  Bellis  permim,  Orohus 
tuberosus,  Frayaria  resect,  etc. 

The  second  series  is  typified  by  Paris  qaadri folia.  The  mycelium  is. 
constantly  intracellular,  infection  being  limited  to  the  four  outer  layers, 
of  cells.  Much-branched  hyphae  forming  tufts  are  constantly  present. 
Colchicam  autumnale,  several  Eanunculaceas  and  Yiolacere,  etc.,  belong 
to  the  Paris  series.  In  the  Hepatics,  which  form  a  third  series,  he  finds, 
that  the  fungus  is  intra-cellular,  and  inhabits  the  thallus,  which  spreads 
over  the  surface  of  the  soil ;  tufts  and  sporangioles  are  formed  by  the 
mycelium.  The  OrchideEe  present  yet  another  type  ;  the  intra-cellular 
hyphre  form  compact  coils,  which  remain  intact  (Pilzwirthzellen),  or 
become  digested  by  the  host  (Verdauungzellen).  The  author  finds  a 
somewhat  similar  condition  of  growth  in  the  roots  of  Tamus  communis 
and  Psilotum  triquetrum. 

It  has  been  impossible,  in  the  absence  of  fructification,  to  identify 
any  of  the  fungi.     In  each  series,  which  embraces  a  varied  collection  of' 
host  plants,    the   fungus   is   throughout   of    the   same   nature.      And 
probably  it  will  be  found  that  there  are  only  a  few  species  that  form 
Mycorhiza. 

Hemicellulose  as  a  Reserve  Substance  in  European  Forest- Trees.* 
— H.  C.  Schellenberg  points  out  that  the  mucilaginous,  or  cellulose,, 
layers  described  in  the  interior  of  the  bast  fibres  in  various  trees  during 
the  period  of  winter  rest  is  really  hemicellulose,  and  is  to  be  regarded  as. 
a  carbohydrate  reserve,  which  disappears  in  the  spring.  The  author  has. 
demonstrated  the  existence  of  similar  reserves  of  hemicellulose  elsewhere., 
as  in  the  parenchyma  of  the  cortex  and  in  the  collenchyma. 

Heterorhizy  in  Dicotyledons.! — A.  Tschirch  finds  that  the  roots  of 
many  dicotyledonous  plants  show  a  differentiation  into  nutritive  and 
attaching.     The  attaching  roots,  those  that  is,  which  serve  to  fasten  the 
plant  in  the  soil,  are  characterised  by  the  presence  of  mechanical  tissue,. 
by  the  absence  of  pith,  and  by  their  larger  stele. 

Irritability. 

Geotropic   Response   in   Stems4  —  Julia  A.  Haynes  conducted  a. 
series  of  experiments  with  a  view  to  determine  the  angle  of  deviation 
from  the  normal  vertical  position  at  which  stems  show  the  strongest , 
geotropic  response.      Unbranched  stems  and  actively  growing  young 
plants  formed  the  subject  of  experiment.     Two  methods  were  used — 
that  of  " alternating  stimulation "  and  the  "after-effect"  method.     In 
the  former,  by  means  of  a  special  frame  devised  for  the  purpose,  plants 
were  set  first  at  an  angle  of  1)0°  on  one  side  of  the  vertical,  and  then  at. 
an  angle  of  135°  on  the  other  side,  or  vice  versa.     Of  the  395  plants, 
used,  53  did  not  respond  in  the  time  given  to  the  experiment.     Of  the- 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxiii.  (1905)  pp.  36-45. 

t  Flora,  xciv.  (1905)  pp.  68-78. 

X  Amer.  Nat,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  77-85  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  331 

remainder,  381,  or  9fi'S  p.c.,  responded  better  for  the  deviation  of 
90°  ;  11,  or  3*2  p.c,  for  the  deviation  of  135°.  In  the  second  method, 
orthotropic  plant  members  are  exposed  to  the  one-sided  action  of  gravi- 
tation by  being  placed  out  of  their  normal  position  ;  but  before  a 
geotropic  curve  has  time  to  appear,  the  plant  is  put  upon  the  klinostat, 
and  so  revolved  that  the  further  curving  effect  of  gravitation  is  neu- 
tralised during  the  revolution.  Thus,  any  geotropic  influence  induced 
in  the  plant  before  it  was  placed  on  the  klinostat,  has  opportunity  to. 
show  itself.  If  the  gravitation  effect  on  plants  differs  according  to  the 
deviation  of  the  plant  from  its  normal  position,  we  may  expect  the  size 
of  the  after-effect  angle  attained  on  the  klinostat  to  be  greatest  when 
the  previous  exposure  of  the  plant  was  made  at  the  angle  of  optimum 
stimulation.  The  results  obtained  were  less  satisfactory  than  with  the 
previous  method,  but  when  any  difference  in  after-effects  could  be 
observed,  it  was  in  agreement  with  the  results  of  the  alternation  experi- 
ments. Hence  there  is  strong  evidence  that  stems  respond  better  to  the 
gravity  stimulus  when  their  angle  of  deviation  from  the  normal  position 
is  one  of  90°  than  when  it  is  one  of  135°  ;  and  since  the  question  seems 
to  have  been  narrowed  to  these  two  angles  by  previous  workers,  it  may 
be  claimed  that  the  angle  of  deviation  from  the  vertical  at  which  stems, 
show  the  strongest  geotropic  response  is  one  of  90°. 

Distribution  of  Statoliths  in  Roots.* — G.  Tischler  has  studied  the- 
distribution  of  starch  grains  in  ageotropic,  or  slightly  geotropic  roots. 
He  finds  that  in  adventitious  roots  which  are  constantly  ageotropic, 
starch-grains  are  either  not  present  in  the  root-cap,  or,  if  present,  are 
irregularly  distributed  ;  and  the  same  holds  for  temporarily  ageotropic- 
roots.  When  roots  become  slightly  geotropic,  the  starch-grains  appear 
and  function  as  statoliths.  The  author  suggests  that  in  certain  aerial 
roots  of  orchids,  which  are  slightly  geotropic  but  do  not  contain  starch- 
grains,  the  chloroplasts  of  the  root-cap  act  as  statoliths. 

The  Effect  of  Low  Temperature  on  Zoospores  of  Algae.j — E.  C. 
Teodoresco  describes  four  experiments  made  by  him  on  the  zoospores  of 
Dunaliella  in  very  low  temperature.  In  one  case  zoospores  of  the 
alga  were  placed  in  very  concentrated  salt  water,  and  exposed  for  three- 
months  to  a  temperature  which  at  times  went  as  low  as  20°  below 
zero.  The  zoospores  remained  alive  and  in  good  condition.  They  did 
not  encyst,  nor  pass  into  the  Protococcoid  state.  In  another  experiment, 
zoospores  of  the  same  alga  were  placed  in  a  tube  of  salt  water  concen- 
trated to  38°  Baume,  and  the  tube  was  sunk  for  six  minutes  into  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  snow  and  alcohol.  The  temperature  varied 
between  —  30°  and  —29°,  but  the  zoospores  remained  alive  and  swam 
about  with  ease.  The  same  tube  was  then  placed  in  the  freezing  mixture 
for  thirty  minutes,  during  which  time  the  temperature  varied  between 
—  30°  and  —  263.  The  salt  formed  a  transparent  layer  at  the  bottom 
of  the  tube,  while  the  water  above  it  was  transformed  into  a  sort  of 
opaque,  whitish,  soft  snow.  After  30  minutes  the  tube  was  removed 
to  a  temperature  of  —2°,  where  the  snow  melted.  The  zoospores  were 
found  to  be  for  the  most  part  alive  and  mobile  ;  and  when  placed  in  a 

*  Flora,  xciv.  (1905)  pp.  1-68.  t  Comptea  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  522-4. 


332  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

hanging  drop,  they  collected  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  light.  The  dead 
zoospores  were,  doubtless,  those  which  had  been  pierced  by  or  imprisoned 
in  the  crystals  formed  by  the  low  temperature.  Those  zoospores  which 
had  been  in  the  layer  of  separating  water,  were  still  in  good  condition. 

Chemical  Stimulation  of  a  Green  Alga.*- — B.  E.  Livingston 
describes  his  experiments  on  a  species  of  SUgeoclonium  and  their  results. 
Thirty  different  reagents  were  tried  on  the  filaments,  and  the  author 
comes  to  the  following  conclusions  :  Nitrate  and  sulphate,  in  the  case 
•of  a  large  number  of  metallic  elements,  act  in  the  same  way  and  at  the 
same  concentration  upon  the  filamentous  form  of  this  alga.  He  con- 
cludes that  the  stimulation  is  due  to  the  cations.  At  high  enough 
concentrations  death  is  produced.  The  change  produced  at  somewhat 
lowerconcentrations  is  strictly  parallel,  in  form  of  cells  and  manner  of 
■cell  division,  to  that  caused  by  extraction  of  water,  or  inhibition  of  its 
■absorption.  At  this  lower  concentration,  and  at  a  still  lower  one,  there 
is  a  marked  acceleration  in  the  production  of  zoospores.  This  is 
exactly  the  opposite  of  what  results  from  water- extraction.  The 
acceleration  in  zoospore  activity  gradually  decreases  with  weaker  solu- 
tions until  the  normal  behaviour  is  reached.  The  work  and  results  of 
•other  authors  are  compared  with  the  present  research. 

Germination  of  Spores.f— F.  W.  Neger  finds  that  the  spores  of 
Bulgaria  polymorphs  germinate  readily  under  the  chemical  stimulus  of 
plant-remains,  such  as  bark,  leaves,  or  wood  of  oak  or  pine.  It  is  suffi- 
cient if  the  bark,  etc.,  be  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  though  the 
influence  is  more  marked  when  they  form  part  of  the  culture  medium. 
He  notes  also  the  influence  of  temperature  on  germination. 

Chemical  Changes. 

Action  of  Wood  on  Photographic  Plates.}  —  H.  Marshall  Ward 
refers  to  W.  J.  Russell's  recent  memoir,§  in  which  is  described  the 
■action  of  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  woods  on  a  photographic  plate 
in  the  dark  ;  after  a  period  of  varying  length,  during  which  the  smooth 
•dry  face  of  a  wood  block  has  been  in  contact  with  the  plate,  the 
latter,  on  development,  may  show  an  image.  Russell  had  suggested 
hydrogen  peroxide  as  the  active  agent,  and  the  resin  in  the  wood  as 
probably  the  indirect  causal  agent,  in  support  adducing  the  experimental 
result  that  while  gum-like  bodies  are  inactive,  those  of  a  more  resinous 
nature  are  active.  The  author,  as  the  result  of  a  number  of  experi- 
ments, concludes  that  the  activity  is  due  not  merely  to  resin  or  resin-like 
bodies,  but  that  tannin  and  tannin-like  bodies,  as  well  as  some  others, 
may  be  responsible.  It  is  at  any  rate  clear  that  some  body  or  bodies 
in  the  liquefied  cell-walls  reduce  silver-salts  in  the  plate,  and  that  these 
bodies  are  either  shot  off,  as  if  volatile,  or  diffuse  readily,  seems  clear 
from  the  want  of  sharpness  in  the  microscopic  details. 

*  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  1-34  (17  figs.). 

t  Naturwiss.  Zeitschr.  Land.  Forstw.,  ii.  (1904)  p.  484-90.    See  also  Ann.  Mrcol.. 
Hi.  (1905)  pp.  116-17. 

X  Broc.  Camb.  Phil.  Soc,  xiii.  (1905)  p.  3-11. 

§  Phil  Trans.  Boy.  Soc.,cxcvii.  ser.  B  (1904)  pp.  281-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  33<> 

General. 

Botany  of  Funafuti.* — J.  H.  Maiden  gives  a  short  account  of  the 
botany  of  this  island,  based  on  collections  made  by  Mrs.  Edgeworth 
David.  The  plants  enumerated  comprise  38  species  of  Dicotyledons, 
12  Monocotyledons,  5  Vascular  Cryptogams,  and  1  Lichen,  all  more  or 
less  widely  distributed  in  the  Pacific  Islands  as  inhabitants  of  other 
coral  islands,  or  of  the  coastal  tracts  of  the  larger  islands.  As  regards 
the  means  by  which  the  island  was  populated,  the  author  enumerates 
21  species  which  have  floating  seeds,  6  with  succulent  fruits  which  are 
eaten  by  birds,  and  3  the  fruits  of  which  form  a  burr.  The  seeds  of 
the  grasses  (4  in  number),  a  Scirpus  and  Jussieua,  may  have  been 
brought  on  the  feet  of  birds,  or  the  roots  of  various  introduced  plants.. 
The  4  ferns  and  Psilotum  probably  arrived  as  wind-borne  spores. 
Several  plants  have  been  purposely,  and  others,  widely  diffused  weeds,, 
probably  accidentally  introduced  by  man. 

West  Australian  Droseras.j  —  A.  Morrison  describes  a  new  bulb- 
forming  Drosera  (D.  bulbigena)  from  West  Australia,  and  discusses  the 
the  formation  of  the  bulb  in  this  and  other  West  Australian  species.  In 
D.  bulbigena  the  bulb,  when  enveloped  in  thick  dark  brown  scales,  is 
developed  from  the  enlarged  extremity  of  the  root-stock  by  a  process  of 
budding  from  its  lower  surface.  Where  several  bulbs  arise,  the  process 
has  been  repeated,  each  successive  one  being  formed  on  the  end  of  a. 
prolongation  of  the  axis  from  the  base  of  the  preceding  bulb. 

Autophytography :  A  Process  of  Plant  Fossilisation.J  —  C.  H. 
White  discusses  the  process  of  plant  fossilisation,  whereby  the  plant 
undergoing  decomposition  reproduces  itself  in  outline  on  the  rock  sur- 
face upon  which  it  rests,  or  upon  the  matrix  in  which  it  is  enclosed, 
either  by  the  precipitation  of  coloured  mineral  matter,  or  by  the  altera- 
tion or  removal  of  the  colouring  matter  already  in  the  rock.  For  such 
plant  pictures  the  author  proposes  the  name  "  autophytograph,"  and 
discusses  their  formation  in  certain  individual  cases.  A  black  adherent 
deposit,  insoluble  in  water,  but  slowly  attacked  by  mineral  acids,  probably 
contains  an  oxide  of  iron.  It  is  suggested  that  the  plants  may  yield  on 
decomposition  a  precipitant  of  iron,  which  extracts  iron  from  the  sur- 
rounding solutions,  and  deposits  it  in  a  manner  analogous  to  one  of  the 
artificial  ink-making  processes,  and  on  exposure  to  air  the  precipitate  is 
changed  to  an  oxide.  Or  the  conditions  of  decay  may  be  such  that 
ammonia  is  liberated  in  presence  of  iron  in  solution,  precipitating  the 
iron  on  the  rock,  upon  which  the  plant  rests  during  decay.  Another 
case  is  described  in  which  rootlets  have  in  recent  time  affected  a  block 
of  sandstone,  dissolving  the  iron  pigment  which  stained  the  stone  a 
yellow  brown,  giving  an  autophytograph  of  lighter  colour  on  a  dark 
background. 

Randolph,  C.  B. — The  Mandragora  of  the  Ancients  in  Folk-lore  and  Medicine. 

Proc.Amer.  Acad.  Arte  and  Sci.,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  488-537. 

*  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  New  South  Wales  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  539-55tJ. 
+  Trans,  and  Proc.  Bot.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  417-24. 
X  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  231-6  (5  tiga.  in  text). 


"334  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 
(By  A.  Gepp,  M.A.,  F.L.S.) 

'Bailey,  C. — The  British  Horsetails. 

[A  simple  account  of  the  structure  of  Equisetum.'] 

Proc.  Manchester  Field  Club,  I.  ii.  (1905)  pp.  316-21. 

■Real,  W.  J. — Michigan  Flora:  a  list  of  the  fern  and  seed-plants  growing  without 
cultivation.  Reprinted  from  Fifth  Rep.  Michigan  Acad.  Sci. 

(Lansing,  1904)  147  pp. 
Christ,  H. — Filioes  Cadierianae. 

[Ferns  collected  by  P.  L.  Cadiere  in  French  Annam.  Contains 
some  new  species.] 

Journ.  de  Bot.,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  58-68. 

„        „       Primitiae  Florae  Costaricensis.    Filices  et  Lycopodiaceae.  III.    (First- 
fruits  of  the  flora  of  Costa  Rica.     Ferns  and  Lycopods.] 
[Conclusion,  with  an  appendix  and  corrections.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Bois.,  v.  (1905)  pp.  248-60. 

"Cheistensen,  C. — On  the  American  species  of  Leptochilus,  sect.  Bolbitis. 

[The  author  criticises  Underwood's  resuscitation  of  certain 
old  generic  names  for  ferns,  and  shows  that  Leptochilus 
Kauif.  (1824)  Las  precedence  of  Anapausia  Presl,  re- 
vived by  Underwood  for  the  group  of  Acrosticha  with 
irregularly  netted  veins.  The  section  Bolbitis  contains 
eight  tropical  American  species,  for  which  a  key  is  given ; 
it  is  followed  by  detailed  descriptions  and  critical  notes 
and  figures.] 

Bot.  Tidskr.,  xxvi.  (1904)  pp.  283-97  (figs.). 
„  „  A  new  Elaphoglossum  from  Brazil. 

[_E.  didymoglossoides,  with  proliferous  sterile  leaves,  and  very 
thin  texture.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  299-300. 
•Co  pel  and,  E.  B. — Ferns  in  Perkins'  Fragmenta  Florae  Philippines. 

[Contains  descriptions  of  1  new  genus  (Christopteris),  38  new  species,  and 
3  new  varieties  of  ferns,  collected  by  the  author.] 

Borntraeger  (Leipzig,  1905)  pp.  175-94  (1  pi.). 

Diels,  L. — Die  primitivste  Form  von  Lygodium.  (The  most  primitive  form  of 
Lygodium.) 

[This  is  not  L.  articulatum,  but  the  little-known  L.  hians  Fourn.,  which  is 
simpler  in  its  branching  and  less  differentiated.] 

Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  133-6  (1  fig.). 
Fischer,  H. — Die  Fame  in  Hohen  Venn.     (Ferns  of  the  Hohe  Venn.] 

Verh.  Naturh.  Ver.  pr.  Rheinlande,  etc.,  lxi.  (1905)  pp.  1-9. 

Hieronymus,  G. — Einige  Berichtigungen  zu  der  Abhandlung:  "Plantae  Lehman- 
nianae  in  Guatemala,  Columbia  et  Ecuador  regionibusque  finitimis  collectae.additis 
quibusdam  ab  aliis  collectoribus  ex  iisdem  regionibus  allatis  determinatae  et 
descriptae.  Pteridophyta,"  in  Engler's  Bot.  Jahrbuchern,  Bd.  xxxiv.  pp.  417-582. 
(Some  corrections  of  the  paper,  "  Plants  collected  by  Lekmann  in  Guatemala, 
Columbia,  Ecuador,  and  the  neighbouring  regions,  determined  and  described, 
together  with  some  additions  brought  from  the  same  regions  by  other  collectors. 
Pteridophytes.")  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  179-80. 

Maxon,  W.  R. — On  the  names  of  three  Jamaican  species  of  Polypodium. 

[An  identification  of  the  true  P.  myosuroides  ot  Swartz,  Schkuhr's  plant  beinc 
re-named  P.  delitescens.  Also  P.  saxicola  Sw.  is  maintained  as  distinct 
from  P.  saxicolum  Baker,  here  re-named  P.  induens.'} 

Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  73-5. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  335 

Paulsen,  O. — Lieutenant  Olufsen's  second  Pamir-Expedition.  Plants  collected  in 
Asia-Media  and  Persia.   II. 

[Contains  nine  ferns.]  Botan.  Tidsskr..  xxvi.  (1904)  pp.  251-74. 

•Prain,  D. — The  Vegetation  of  the  districts  of  Hughli-Howrah  and  the  24- 
Pergunnahs. 

[Annotated  list,  containing  31  vascular  cryptogams.] 

Becords  Bot.  Survey  of  India,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  143-339. 

"Schnarf,  K. — Beitrage  zur  Kentniss  des  Sporangienwandbaues  der  Polypodiaceen 
und  der  Cyatheaceen  und  seiner  systematischen  Bedeutung.  (Contributions  to 
a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  sporaugial  wall  in  Polypodiaceas  and  Cyatlieaceae, 
and  its  systematic  significance.) 

SB.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  cxiii.  pp.  549-72  (1  pi.). 

:Shibata,  K. — Studien  fiber  die  Chemotaxis  von  Isoetes-Spermatozoiden.  (Studies 
of  the  chemotaxis  of  the  spermatozoids  of  Isoetes.) 

Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  xxii.  (1904)  pp.  478-84. 

TJnderwood,  L.  M. — The  early  writers  on  Ferns  and  their  Collections.    IV.  Presl, 
1794-1852;  John  Smith,  1798-1888  ;  Fee,  1789-1874;  and  Moore,  1821-1887. 
[Brief  biographical  sketches  of  these  authorities,  with  critical  estimates  of  the 
value  of  their  work.]  Torreya,  v.  (1905)  pp.  37-41. 

"Wigglesworth,  G. — The  papillae  in  the  epidermoidal  layer  of  the  Calamitean  root. 

Ann.  Bot,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  645-8  (3  figs.). 


Bryop  hy  t  a. 
(By  A.  Gepp.) 

53 a gn all,  J.  E. — Zygodon  Forsteri  in  Worcestershire. 

[Records  the  discovery  of  this  rare  moss  near  Harvington  ;  previously  it  was 
known  only  from  Essex,  Sussex,  and  Somerset.] 

Journ.  Bot.,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  129-30. 

Barth,  J. — Die  Flora  des  Hargita-Gebirges  und  seiner  nachsten  TJmgebung.    (The 
flora  of  the  Hargita  Mountains  and  their  immediate  environs.) 
[Contains  lists  of  28  hepatics  and  of  96  mosses.] 

Magyar  Bot.  Lapok,  iv.  (1905)  pp.  8-18. 

'Bauer,  E. — Bryotheca  Bohemica.  Bemerkungen  zur  dritten  Centurie,  ein  Beitrag 
zur  Kentniss  der  Laub-  und  Lebermoose  Bdhmens.  (Bohemian  moss  herbarium. 
Remarks  on  the  third  century,  a  contribution  to  a  knowledge  of  the  mosses  and 
hepatics  of  Bohemia.)  SB.  Deutsch.  Nat.  Med.  Ver.  Buhmen  "  Lotos" 

xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  134-43. 
•Best,  G.  N. — A  Lesson  in  Systematic  Bryology. 

[Having  found  Thuidium  hystricosum  in  the  United  States,  and  examined 
many  specimens  of  T.  abietinum,  the  author  shows  the  former  to  be  simply 
a  form  of  the  latter ;  and  then  proceeds  to  discuss  the  meaning  of  the 
species  in  mosses,  the  uncertainty  caused  by  variability,  and  the  crime  of 
founding  a  species  on  a  single  specimen.  The  true  conception  of  a  species 
is  only  to  be  acquired  from  a  study  of  many  specimens  from  many  localities. 

Bryohgist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  17-22  (1  pi.). 

'Borgesen,  F.,  &  C.Jensen — Utoft  Hedeplantage.  En  floristisk  Undersogelse 
af  et  Stykke  Hede  i  Vestjylland.  (Open  heath  vegetation.  A  floristic  investiga- 
tion of  a  piece  of  heath  in  "West  Jutland.) 

[An  analysis  of  the  plants,  including  mosses,  hepatics,  and  lichens.] 

Botan.  Tidsskr.,  xxvi.  (1904)  pp.  177-221. 

sBhothekus.V.  F. — Engler  und Prantl's  Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien.  Lief.  222. 
Musci.    (Engler's  and  Prantl's  The  natural  families  of  plants.    Part  2li2.  Mosses. 
[Continuation,  treating  of  Polytrichacese,   Dawsoniacea3,   Erpodiaceae,  Hed- 
wigiaeese,  and  containing  an  artiticial  key  to  the  Pleurocarpi.] 

Leipzig  :  Engeluiann,  1905,  pp.  673-720  (30  figs.). 


336  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Cardot,  J. — Grimmia  glauca  Card.  Espece  nouvelle,  ou  forme  hybrids  1   {G.  glauca,. 
a  new  spccit-8,  or  a  hybrid  form  ?) 

[A  new  moss  from  the  French  Ardennes,  possibly  a  hybrid  be- 
tween G.  leucophsea  and  G.  montana  or  G.  trichophylla.~] 

Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  17-19  (fig.). 

„        ,.       Nouvelle  Contribution  a  la  Flore  Bryologique  des  lies  Atlantiques. 
(Fresh  contribution  to  the  moss-flora  of  the  Atlantic  islands.) 

[A  list  of  52  species  collected  in  the  Azores  by  B.  Carreiro ; 
13  being  new  to  the  islands,  2  new  to  science,  with  a  new  genus 
— Ahphosia — founded  on  Lyellia  azorica  Ren.  et  Card.  The 
flora  of  these  islands  now  contains  105  species,  16  of  which 
are  endemic  and  31  Atlantic] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  ser.  2,  v.  (1905)  pp.  201-15  (2  pis.). 

Cabdot,  J..  &  I.  Theriot. — New  or  unrecorded  Mosses  of  North  America. 

[Descriptions  of  two  new  species,  translated  from  Bot.  Gazette,  May  1904.] 

Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  p.  36. 

Crockett,  A.  L. — Rhacomitrium  heterostichum  gracilescens. 

[Found  on  Bald  Mt.,  Camden,  Maine.]  Tom.  cit.,  p.  33. 

Da  vies,  J.  H. — Some  Mosses  from  County  Down. 

[Contains  a  list  of  25  rare  Irish  mosses,  with  critical  notes.  The  species 
were  collected  in  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Bann,  near  the  coast  at  New- 
castle, and  near  Killou°;h.  Fiesidens  rufulus  (with  fruit)  was  found  in 
abundance.  Aho  F.  decipiens.  Weisia  calcarea,  W.  crispata,  Trichostomum 
inutabUe  var.  cophocarpum,  Amblystegium  fallax.  etc.,  were  gathered.] 

Irish  Naturalist,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  1-5. 

Douin.  I. — Les  Anthoceros  du  Perche.     (Anthoceros-species  of  the  Perche  district.) 
[Descriptions  of,  and    summary  of  distinguishing  characters  of,  A.  Ixvis,  A^ 
punctatus,  and  A.  crispulus.~] 

Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  25-33  (figs.). 

Elenkin,  A. — Notes  Bryologiques.     (Notes  on  mosses.) 

[Chiefly  concerned  with  the  moss-flora  of  the  Caucasus.] 

Bull.  Jard.  Imper.  Bot.  St.  Petersbourg,  v.  (1905)  pp.  23-40. 

Evans,  A.  W. — Notes  on  New  England  Hepaticae. 

[Critical  notes  on  six  species,  the  more  important  being  on  Lophozia  Kunzeana, 
Chiloscyphus  pallescens,  Jubula  pennsylvanica.  Also  some  lists  of  addition* 
to  the  New  England  Flora.]  Rhodora,  vii.  (1905)  pp.  52-8. 

Ha  gen,  J. — Ein  Beitrag  zur  Kentniss  der  Brya  Deutschlands.    (Contribution  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  Brya  of  Germany.) 

Norshe  Vid.  Selsk.  Skr.  Trondhjem  (1904)  17  pp. 

Haines,  C.  C. — Notes  on  a  Colony  of  Hepatios  found  Associated  on  a  Dead  Fungus. 
[On  an  old  sodden  Forties  fomentarius  in  the  Adirondacks  were  found  Scapania 
(1  species),   Cephalozia  (3),  Riccardia  (1),  Jamesoniella  (1),  Kantia  (1), 
Lophozia  (2),  Blepharostoma  (1),  and  2  mosses.] 

Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  31-2. 

Herzog,  Th. — Die  Laubmoose  Badens.  Eine  bryogeographische  Skizze.  (The moss- 
flora  of  Baden.     A  bryogeographic  sketch.) 

[Continuation.]  Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  ser.  2,  v.  (1905) 

pp.  268-83,  375-90. 

»  „        Ein  Beitrag  zur  Kenntnis  der  Barbula  sinuosa.     (Contribution  to  a 

knowledge  of  B.  sinuosa.) 

[A  criticism  of  the  views  of  Juratzka  and  of  Correns  about 
the  vegetative  reproduction  of  this  species,  together  with 
an  account  of  laboratory  cultures  of  various  fragments  of 
the  plant,  and  a  note  on  its  distribution  from  Britain  to 
the  Caucasus.     It  is  a  plant  of  the  Atlantic  type.J 

Beth.  Bot.  CentralbL,  xviii.  (1905)  pp.  115-18. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  337 

Holzinger,  J.  M. — Some  recently-described  North  American  Polytricha. 

[Insists  upun  the  differences  between  P.  oln'oenxe  and  P.  decipiens.  Gives 
H.  Lindbenr's  description  of  P.  anguntidena,  and  reproduces  his  plate  from 
Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxi.  No.  50.]  Bryolognt,  viii.  (1005)  pp.  28-31  (1  pi.). 

Kindberg,  N.  C. — New  North  American  Bryineae. 

[Descriptions  of  5  new  species  from  the  Yukon,  17  from  British  Columbia,  and 
1  from  Canada,  all  collected  by  J.  Macoun  :  also  2  from  the  United  States, 
collected  by  Nelson.]  Rev.  Bryolog..  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  33-8. 

Lidforss,  B. — TJeber  die  Reizbewegungen  der  Marchantia-Spermatozoiden.     (On 
the  re-action  of  the  spermatozoids  of  Marchantia  to  stimulus.) 

Privgsheim's  Jahrb.,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  65-88. 

Lillie,  D.- — Hepatics  of  Caithness. 

[List  of  100  species  p.nd  4  varieties,  with  indication  of  distribution  on  hills, 
plains,  or  coast.]  Journ.  Bot.,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  124-7. 

Loeske,  L.— Zweiter  Nachtrag  zur  " Moosflora  des  Harzes."     (Second  supplement 
to  the  "  Moss-flora  of  the  Harz.") 

[A  series  of  critical  notes  and  lists,  with  two  new  species.] 

Verh.  Bot.  Ver.  Prov.  Brandenburg,  xlvi.  (1905)  pp.  157-201. 

Mac  vicar,  S.  M. — New  and  Rare  British  Hepaticae. 

[Critical  notes  on  Marsupella  Boeckii,  M.  Pearsoni  Schiffn.  (new  species), 
Nardia  Breidleri,  Sphenolobusexsectus.  Lophocolea  heterophylla  var.  paludosa, 
Odontotchisma  denudatum  var.  elongatum.  Kantia  sphagnicola,  Scapania 
nemorosa  f.  uliginosa  Jensen  (new  form),  S.  paludosa  CM.  The  author 
states  that  Nardia  Breidleri  forms  part  of  the  highest  vegetation  in  t\u- 
British  Isles.]  Journ.  But,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  117-20. 

Matouschek,  F. — Additamenta   ad    Floram  bryologicam    IstriaB   et    Dalmatiae. 

(Additions  to  the  moss-flora  of  lstria  and  Dalmatia.) 
[Continuation.] 

Magyar  Bot.  Lapok,  iv.  (1905)  pp.  24-7. 

„  .,  Bryologisch  -  floristische    Beitrage    ans    Mahren    und   Oest 

Schlesien.     (Bryological    floristic    contributions    from 
Moravia  and  Austrian  Silesia.) 
[List  of  77  hepatics  and  232  mosses,  of  which  8  hepatics 
and  17  mosses  are  new  to  the  district.] 
Verh.  Naturf.  Verein.  Briinn,  xlii.  1903  (1904)  pp.  5-24. 

M  igliorato,  E. — Per  la  ricerca  d'un  nuovo  genere  di  epatica  (Rhizocephala) 
rimasto  inedito  dal  Gasparrini.  (A  plea  for  the  investigation  of  a  new  genus  of 
hepatics,  Rhizocephala,  left  unpublished  by  Gasparrini.) 

[Caporale's  catalogue  of  Gasparrini's  manuscripts  records  Rhizocephala,  and 
alludes  to  a  drawing  of  it,  but  does  not  state  its  place  of  origin.  Where 
these  manuscripts  are  preserved  is  uncertain,  though  the  herbarium  is  at 
Pavia.  Rhizocephala  is  not  included  by  Massalongo  and  Barsali  in  then- 
lists  of  Italian  hepatics.]  Annali  di  Botanica,  Roma,  ii.  (1905) 

pp.  219-220. 

Mildbraed,  J.,  &  E.  TJlbrich— Zwei  exkursionen  nach  dem  Lnbow-See.  (Two 
excursions  to  the  lake  of  Lubow.) 

[Contains  lists  of  5  hepatics  and  24  mosses.] 

Verh.  Bot.  Ver.  Prov.  Brandenburg,  xlvi.  (1905)  pp.  204-10. 

Monkemeter,  W.— Beitrage  zur  Moosflora  des  Erzgebirges.  (Contributions  to 
the  moss-flora  of  the  Erzgebirge.) 

[The  author  compares  the  flora  with  that  of  the  Fichtelgebirpe,  the  latter 
beinsj  richer  in  mosses,  the  former  in  phanerogams.  He  gives  lists  of 
16  hepatics,  8  sphagna,  108  mosses,  of  whicli  31  are  new  to  the  district, 
and  5  are  varieties  or  forms  new  to  science.  A  note  on  the  relationship  of 
Hypnum  purpura  teens  to  II.  llotx.'] 

Eedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  181-92. 

June  21st,  1905  2  a 


338'  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Nicholson,  W.  E. — Notes  on  two  forms  of  hybrid  Weisia. 

[Careful  descriptions  of  reciprocal  hybrids  between 
W.  crispa  and  W.  critpata,  found  ;it  Lyme  Begi-t, 
Maidstone,  and  Lewes.] 

Hev.  Bryolog.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  19-25  (2  pis.). 

„  „  Tortula  montana  var.  calva.     A  correction. 

[T.  aciphylla  var.  mucronata,  reported  from  Sion(Valaia) 
by  i he  author,  proves  to  be  as  above.] 

Tom.  cit.  p.  40. 

Peklo,  J.— Einigesueber  die  Mycorhiza  beiden  Muscineen.  (Facts  about  Mycorhiza 
in  the  Muscinese.) 

Bull.  Interned.  Acad.  Set.  Boheme  (1903)  22  pp.  (1  pi.). 

Pit  a  in,   D. — The  Vegetation   of   the   Districts   of   Hughli-Howrah    and   the  24- 
Pergunnahs. 

[Annotated  list,  containing  six  mosses  and  two  hepatics.] 

liecords  Bot.  Survey  of  India,  iii.  (,1905)  pp.  143-339. 

Renaild,  F.,  et  J.  Cardot — Musci  exotici  novi  vel  minus  cogniti.    X.     (New or 
litile  known  exotic  mosses.)  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Belgique  (1904)  110  pp. 

Schiffser,   V. — Eine   neue   europaische   Art   der  Gattung  Lophozia.      (A   new 
European  species  of  the  genus  Lophozia.) 

[A  detailed  description  of  an  hepatic  intermediate  between  L.  alpestris  and 
L.  Wenzelii;  found  in  Tyrol  and  Styria;  specimens  will  be  issued  in  the 
author's  Hepat.  Europ.  exsicc] 

Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  lv.  (1905)  pp.  47-50. 

Smith,  A. — Cryptogams  in  the  Grimsby  District. 

[Contains  a  list  of  17  mosses  and  5  hepatics  from  Brocklesby.] 

Naturalist,  No.  578  (1905)  p.  83-4. 

Stephasi,  F. — Species  hepaticarum.     (Species  of  Hepaticse.) 

[Monograph  of  Plagiochila  continued ;  descriptions  of  30  South-American 
species,  10  of  which  are  new.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boi$s.,  ser.  2,  v.  (1905)  pp.  351-00. 

Watts,  W.  Walter— Some  Melbourne  Mosses. 

[A  list  of  30  species,  4  of  which  are  new;  also  a  new  hepatic.  A  few  other 
Victorian  and  Tasmanian  mosses  are  added.] 

Victorian  Naturalist,  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  140-2. 

Wheldon,  J.  A.,  &  A.  Wilson — Additions  to  the  West  Lancashire  Flora. 
[List  containing  24  mosses  and  G  hepatics.] 

Journ.  Bot.,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  94-G. 


Thallophyta. 

Algae. 

(By  Mrs.  E.  S.  Gepp.) 

Marine  Algse  of  North  and  West  France.* — J.  Chalon  has  pub- 
lished a  list  of  the  marine  algae  of  the  coasts  of  Belgium,  France,  and 
the  north  of  Spain,  extending  from  the  mouth  of  the  Escaut  to  Corunna, 
and  including  the  Channel  Islands.  The  list  is  compiled  from  his  own 
and  other  collections,  as  well  as  from  the  records  in  literature,  and  the 
number  of  species  given  in  his  book  reaches  <S44,  besides  377  forms  and 
varieties.  He  also  mentions  92  species  which  are  known  from  our  side 
of  the  Channel  or  from  the  Mediterranean,  often  from  both  ;  and  are 

*  Liste  d.  Algues  marines,  etc.,  Anvers  (1905)  259  pp.  '5  figs,  m  text). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  330 

probably  present  on  the  coasts  of  France,  with  which  he  deals.  Addi- 
tional information  has  been  gathered  from  the  MS.  of  Van  llenrck's 
Prodromus  of  the  marine  alga?  of  north-west  France  and  from  Malard's 
notes  on  Tatihou,  which  were  both  at  the  disposition  of  the  author.  A 
Florule  of  Tatihou  forms  an  appendix  to  this  volume.  Interesting 
topographical  and  distributional  notes  are  given  in  the  introductory 
portion. 

Algae  of  Lake  Baikal.*  —  V.  Dorogostai'sky  has  made  a  careful 
examination  of  the  alga?  of  Lake  Baikal  and  its  basin.  He  finds  that 
the  monotony  and  small  number  of  species  represented  form  a  marked 
feature.  This  want  of  variety  does  not  apply  to  Diatomaceae,  which 
forms  87  ■  5  p.c.  of  all  the  vegetable  organisms.  He  notes  the  extra- 
ordinary size  attained  by  Draparnaldia,  which  surpasses  its  ordinary 
length  by  2-?>  times.  Ulothrix  zonata  is  also  widely  spread,  as  well  as 
Tetraspora  bullosa,  var.  cyJindracea.  Species  of  Conjugatae  are  very 
rare  ;  as  also  Pkycochromaceaa,  with  the  exception  of  Microcystis  olivacea, 
which  occurs  in  masses  in  certain  parts  of  the  lake  at  certain  seasons. 
The  author  divides  the  area  of  Lake  Baikal  into  four  zones — the  shore, 
the  bottom,  the  open  deep  water,  and  the  plankton,  and  treats  of  the 
characteristic  forms  of  each.  The  flora  of  adjacent  lakes,  springs  and 
rivers  is  described.  The  systematic  portion  of  the  paper  includes 
records  of  850  species,  of  which  200  are  diatoms,  a  few  being  new. 

Antarctic  Algae,  f — A.  and  E.  S.  Gepp  publish  a  list  of  the  marine 
algae  brought  home  from  the  South  Orkneys  by  the  Scottish  Antarctic 
Expedition.  These  represent  12  species,  of  which  4  are  new,  one  being 
the  type  of  a  new  genus  (Leptosarca).  A  second  species  of  that  genus 
is  Halosaccion  dumontioides  Harv.,  which  has  hitherto  only  been 
recorded  from  the  far  north.  A  new  species  of  Lessonia  is  described, 
with  laminae  1-8  metres  long.  Some  of  the  algae  here  described  were 
brought  back  by  the  British  Antarctic  Expedition,  among  them  being  a 
new  species  of  PhyUopltora,  not  found  by  the  '  Scotia.' 

Acrochaetium  and  Chantransia.J— Ed.  Bornet  begins  by  pointing  out 
that  Ghantransia  corymbifera  Thuret,  described  in  the  '  Liste  des  Algues 
Marines  de  Cherbourg '  of  Le  Jolis  (p.  107),  really  includes  two  different 
species.  One  is  epiphytic  on  Geramium  rubrum,  and  the  other  grows  as 
a  semi-endophyte  on  Hehninthocladia.  The  latter  is  the  true  Ghantransia 
corymbifera,  while  to  the  former  is  now  given  the  name  of  C.  e(/!orescens 
var.  Thuretii.  Both  are  figured.  The  remainder  of  the  paper  is  devoted 
to  an  analysis  of  the  genera  Ghantransia  and  Acroclmtium.  The  author 
considers  that  both  names  should  be  retained  as  genera :  Achrochcetium 
to  designate  those  species  which  are  reproduced  by  monospores  only  ; 
Ghantransia,  for  those  species  which  have  also  sexual  reproductive 
organs.  A  table  is  given  of  the  sections  into  which  both  genera  may  be 
divided,  with  the  species  contained  in  each  ;  and  references  to  specimens 
published  in  all  the  principal  exsiccata  are  appended  to  the  species- 
names. 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Imp.  Nat.  Moscow,  ii.  and  iii.  (1904)  pp.  229-65  (1  pi.). 

t  Journ.  of  But.,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  105-9  (1  pi.). 

X  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  li.  (1904) pp.  xiv.-xxiii.  (1  pi.). 

_'   A    2 


340  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

A  New  Genus  of  Squamariacese.*  —  P.  Heydrich  describes  a  new 
genus  of  this  Order,  Poll/strata,  which  contains  one  species,  P.  dura, 
with  the  forms  nigra  \iw\fnsra.  It  grows  on  corals  and  pieces  of  calci- 
fied matter  in  the  Tami  Islands,  German  New  Guinea.  The  thallus 
spreads  like  a  crust  over  the  substratum.  It  is  formed  of  from  2-30 
horizontal  layers,  composed  of  several  individual  plants,  attached  in  the 
centre  by  a  few  short  rhizoids.  Tetraspores  are  described,  but  the  cysto- 
carps  and  antheridia  are  still  unknown.  It  differs  from  already  known 
genera  in  the  peculiar  form  of  attachment,  the  covering  of  the  old 
thallus  by  new  growth,  and  the  unequally  divided  tetrasporangia.  Its 
nearest  ally  is  Cruoriella. 

Dunaliella,  a  New  Genus  of  Polyblepharideae.f— E.  C.  Teodoresco 
has  made  a  special  study  of  Chlamydomonas  Dunalii  Colin,  and  finds  it 
sufficiently  unlike  Chlamydomonas  as  to  form  a  new  genus,  Dunaliella. 
He  describes  in  detail  the  form  of  the  zoospores,  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  changed  during  certain  experiments.  The  structure  is  then 
described,  the  dimensions,  the  mode  of  division,  and  the  sexual  repro- 
duction. It  is  noted  that  Dunaliella  exhales  a  most  agreeable  odour 
of  violets.  A  full  diagnosis  is  given  of  the  new  genus,  of  which  the 
salient  points  are  :  cells  possessing  slightly  metabolic  properties  ;  enve- 
lope containing  no  cellulose,  elastic  and  accommodating  itself  to  the 
changing  form  of  the  contents  ;  two  long  flagella ;  multiplication  by 
longitudinal  division  into  two  individuals.  The  author  removes  this 
genus  from  Chlamydomonadeaj  to  Polyblepharidese,  placing  it  beside 
Polyblepharides,  Pyramimonas  and  Chloraster,  as  representing  a  type 
with  two  flagella. 

Cladophoraceae.^ — F.  Brand  gives  an  account  of  his  studies  on  the 
mode  of  attachment  of  Cladophoracese,  and  describes  several  Polynesian 
forms  of  the  family.  As  regards  the  rhizoids  of  Cladophora  and  other 
genera,  he  finds  that  they  are  more  fully  developed  in  marine  than  in 
fresh-water  species.  Direct  attachment  by  means  of  unaltered  vegetative 
cells  occurs  in  C.  basiramosa  Schmidle  only.  The  author  treats  also  of 
the  fibula?  of  Valonia,  Boodlea,  etc.  Several  new  varieties  and  forms  of 
existing  species  are  described,  as  well  as  the  new  species  Pithophora 
macrospora,  Cladophora  senta,  C.  Tildenii,  and  Boodlea  Romania.  Clado- 
phora composita  Hook,  et  Harv.  is  removed  to  Boodlea. 

Plankton  Investigation  Round  Iceland.§ — 0.  Paulsen  has  made  a 
study  of  the  Plankton-associations  and  their  relations  to  each  other  and 
to  the  currents.  The  material  on  which  the  investigation  was  founded 
was  collected  from  the  Danish  Government  steamer  and  an  Icelandic- 
mail  steamer.  To  the  south  of  Iceland  Asterionella  plankton  prevails 
in  early  summer,  and  Lonyipes  plankton  in  late  summer  and  autumn. 
The  boundary  line  of  plankton  associations  off  the  south-east  coast  of 
Iceland  is  very  marked,  and  the  areas  of  these  associations  are  shown  on 

»  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxiii.  (1905)  pp.  30-6. 
t  Beih.  Bot.  CentralR,  xviii.  (1905)  p.  215-32  (2  pis.). 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  16.1-93  (2  pis.). 

§  Merldel.  Konini.  for  Havundersogelser.  Plankton,   i.  (Copenhagen,  1901)  r>T>. 
1-11  (11  figs.,  2  maps). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  341 

maps.  The  presence  of  whaling  stations  does  not  seem  to  diminish  the 
quantity  nor  change  the  quality  of  the  plankton.  Five  new  species  are 
described  in  the  systematic  part  of  the  paper. 

Studies  on  Cyanophycese.* — F.  E.  Fritsch  gives  the  result  of  his 
studies  on  the  structure  of  the  investment  and  spore-development  in 
some  Cyanophycea3.  He  finds  that  each  cell  of  the  sporogenous  filament 
of  an  Anabama  has  two  envelopes,  and  when  cell-division  takes  place 
the  outer  envelope  is  split  into  two  by  an  intercellular  septum.  The 
The  nature  of  the  two  envelopes  is  described  in  detail.  The  exospore 
and  endospore  of  the  spore  are  merely  the  outer  cell-sheath  and  inner 
investment  respectively,  both  of  which,  in  the  mature  condition,  com- 
pletely envelop  the  protoplast.  In  Oscillaria,  the  transverse  septa  are 
less  developed  than  in  Anabama,  and  the  cell-sheath,  instead  of  splitting 
during  division,  forms  a  coherent  whole  round  the  entire  filament.  The 
sheath  of  Oscillaria  and  that  of  Lyngbya,  are  entirely  different  struc- 
tures, the  former  being  a  coherent  cell-sheath,  while  the  latter  is 
homologous  with  the  external  mucilage  of  Anabcma.  In  Tolypothrix 
and  Rivularia,  the  actual  filament  is  provided  with  a  cell-sheath,  wmich 
is  only  in  part  coherent,  and  shows  a  very  marked  moniliform  structure. 
The  intercellular  protoplasmic  connections  of  many  observers  are  due  to 
changes  produced  in  the  gelatinous  transverse  portion  of  the  inner 
investment  during  staining.  Under  the  heading  of  "  General  Conclu- 
sions," the  author  discusses  the  mode  of  development  of  filamentous  from 
unicellular  forms. 

Bkand,  F. — Ueber  Spaltkorper  und  Konkavzellen  der  Cyanophyceen.    (On  so-called 
fission-bodies  and  concave  cells  in  Cyanophycese.) 

Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  GeselL,  xxiii.  (1905)  pp.  62-70. 

C lerici,  E. — Sopra  una  trivellazione  eseguita  presso  Roma  sulla  via  Casilina.    (On 
a  boring  effected  near  Rome  in  Via  Casilina.) 

[In  a  depth  of  from  31 -50  and  34  metres  from  the  surface  diatoms  were  found, 
which  included  36  species.] 

Atti  Beal.  Accad.  Line,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  224-S. 

Dippel,  L. — Diatomeen  der  Rhein-Mainebene.     (Diatoms  of  the  basin  of  the  Rhine 
and  Main.)  Braunschweig  (Vieweg)  1905,  170  pp.,  372  col.  figs. 

Foslie,  M. — Algologiske  Notiser.     (Alerological  notes.) 

[On  the  systematic  position  of  certain  genera  and  species  of  Litho- 

thamnionese.  Two  new  species  and  a  new  variety  are  described.] 

Kgl.  Norske  Vidensk.  Selsk.  Skrift.  Trondhjem,  1904,  pp.  1-9. 

,i        „       Two  new  Lithothamnia.  Op.  cit.,  1903,  pp.  1-4. 

Gepp,  A.  &  E.  S.— Atlantic  Algae  of  the  '  Scotia.' 

[A  list  of  13  species  collected  by  Rudmose  Brown  off 
the  coast  of  Brazil,  at  St.  Paul  Rocks,  and  St.  Vincent, 
Cape  de  Verde.] 

Journ.  Bot,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  109-10. 
„  „  Rhipidosiphon. 

[A  note  on  the  distribution  of  this  plant,  now  known  as 
TJdotea  javensis.  It  has  hitherto  only  been  found  in  the 
Eastern  tropics,  but  is  here  recorded  as  having  been 
found  by  K.  Yendo  in  the  province  of  Hiuga,  Japan.] 

Tom.  cit.,  p.  129 

*  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xviii.  (1905)  pp.  194-214  (1  pi.). 


•'!42  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

HiBEONTMTJS,  G.  —  Bemerkungen  iiber  Chlamydomyxa  labyrinthuloides  Archer 
und  Chlamydomyxa  montana  Lankester.  (Remarks  <m  C. labyrinthuloides  Archer 
and  C.  montana  Lankester.) 

[Criticisms  on  papers  by  E.  Penard  in  Arlciv  f.  Protislenhunde,  iv.  (1904) 
pp.  296-334,  and  by  E.  Kay  Lankester  in  Q.J.M.S.,  xxxix.  (1897)  pp. 
233-243.]  Iledwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  137-57. 

Keissleh,  K.  von — Mitteilungen  iiber  das  Plankton  des  Ossiachersees  in  Earnten. 
(Notes  on  the  plankton  of  Lake  Ossiach  in  Carinthia.) 

[List  of  the  species  collected  in  the  SDring  and  summer  of  1904.] 

Oester.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  Iv.  (1905)  pp.  101-G. 

Kbaemeb,  H. — The  Copper  Treatment  of  Water. 

[An  account  of  the  method  of  G.  T.  Moore  for  the  destruction  of  algae  and 
pathogenic  organisms  in  water  supplies.] 

American  Journ.  Pharm.,  lxxvi.  (1904)  574-9. 
Man  gin,  L. — La  Cryptogamie.     (Cryptogamy.) 

[Opening  lecture  at  the  Paris  Museum  of  Natural  History.  A  short  historical 
account  of  cryptogamie  work  during  last  century — algae,  etc.] 

Extr.  from  Itevue  Scientif.  (Dec.  1904)  36  pp. 

Migula.  W. — Thome's  Flora  von  Dentschland,  Oesterrich,  und  der  Schweiz.  VI. 
Eryptogamen.  (Thome"s  Flora  of  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland.  VI. 
Cryptogams.) 

[Algre — continued.]  Gera  :  Zezschwitz,  1904-5,  lief  19-21, 

pp.  17-112  (14  pis.). 

Mueller,  O. — Bacillariaceen  aus  dem  Nyassalande  und  einigen  benachbarten  Ge- 
bieten.  (Bacillariacese  from  Xyassaland  and  some  neighbouring  regions.  Dis- 
tribution tables  are  appended.] 

[Continuation.]  Engler's  Bot.  Jahrb.,  xxxvi.  (1905)  pp.  137-205  (2  pis.). 

Pascher,  A. — Eleine  Beitrage  zur  Eenntniss  unserer  Siisswasseralgen.  (S mall  con- 
tributions to  a  knowledge  of  our  fresh-water  algae.) 

[Treats  of  the  conditions  of  reproduction  of  Draparnandia  glomerata.'] 

SB.  Naturw.-med.  Verein.  Wien,  "  Lotos"  1904,  5  pp. 

1'rain,  D. —  The  Vegetation  of  the  Districts  of  Hughli-Howrah  and  the  24- 
Pergunnahs. 

[Annotated  list,  containing  84  fresh -water  and  marine  algae,  including  10 
Floridese,  4  Diatoms,  and  7  Characeaj.] 

Records  Bot.  Surrey  of  India,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  143-339. 

Simmons,  H.  G. — Den  farb'iska  hafsalgflorans  slagtskaps fdrhallanden.  (An  account 
of  the  affinities  of  the  marine  flora  of  the  Faerues.) 

Bot.  Notiser,  1904,  pp.  199-236. 
Weiss,  F.  E.— Seaweeds. 

[A  popular  lecture  on  the  main  groups  of  algae,  their  colouring  matter,  repro- 
duction, and  economic  uses.] 

Proc.  Manchester  Field  Club,  I.  ii.  (1905)  pp.  142-4. 

Yen  do,  K. — Investigations  on  "Isoyake"  (decrease  of  sea-weed). 

Journ.  Imp.  Fisheries  Bureau  Japan,  xii.  (1903) 

pp.  1-33. 

,,        „        "Isoyake"  in  the  Prefecture  of  Chiba.  Tom.  cit,  pp.  34-8. 

„        .,        Relation  between    the  Current  and  the   Distribution  of  the  Marine 

Vegetation  of  Tokyo  Bay.  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  39-47. 

[The  above  three  papers  are   in  Japanese,  and  refer  to  the 

decrease  of  seaweeds  caused,  as  the  author  believes,  by  a 

sudden  increase  of  river  water  owing  to  imprudent  felling 

of  forest  trees.] 

Zachakias,  O. — Beobachtungen  iiber  das  Leuchtverniogen  von  Ceratium  tripos. 
(Observations  on  the  light  capacity  of  C.  tripos.) 

Biol.  CentraM.,  xxv.  (1905)  pp.  20-30. 

„  Ueber  eine  Wasserbliite  von  Volvox  minor  und  Volvox  globator. 

(On  a  water-bloom  of  Y.  minor  and  V.  globator.) 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  95-6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  343 

Fungi. 
(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Biology  of  Saprolegniese.* — Gaston  Bonnier  made  artificial  cultures 
of  Scvprolegnia  ThureU  in  a  solution  of  glucose  with  a  slight  addition  of 
citric  acid.  When  grown  anaerobically  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen, 
all  development  ceased.  In  aerobic  conditions  it  grew  vigorously,  and 
produced  a  somewhat  complex  fermentation.  He  found,  also,  that  the 
fungus  could  live  in  a  medium  containing;  a  mere  trace  of  mineral 
substances. 

Development  of  Ascomycetes.f — In  following  out  the  development 
of  Boucliera,  P.  Clausen  describes  first  of  all  his  methods  of  culture,  the 
appearance  of  Boucliera  at  different  stages,  and  the  reagents  used  by  him 
to  fix  and  stain  the  fungus  so  as  to  obtain  the  best  results.  He  grew 
the  fungus  from  the  spore  stage  to  the  ripe  fruit  on  agar  with  dung 
solution.  No  conidial  form  was  produced.  At  an  early  stage  of  growth, 
short  thick  lateral  branches  are  formed  on  the  main  hyphre,  which  im- 
mediately branch  again  somewhat  irregularly.  From  the  same  filament, 
or  from  one  near,  arise  other  branches  which  wind  round  those  already 
described.  The  first  formed  branch  becomes  3-celled — the  upper  cell 
is  the  trichogyne,  the  one  immediately  below  is  the  ascogonium.  An 
opening  is  now  visible  between  the  trichogyne  and  the  winding  filament, 
or  antheridium,  and  from  the  ascogonium  the  asci  begin  to  grow  out. 
A  blunt  outgrowth  is  first  formed,  which  bends  over  like  a  crook  ;  the 
tip  and  base  are  cut  off,  and  the  central  cell — the  upper  cell  of  the  bend 
— forms  the  ascus.  A  large  nucleus,  or  sometimes  two  nuclei,  are  visible 
at  this  stage  in  the  ascus  cell.  The  number  of  asci  arising  from  one 
ascogonium  could  not  be  accurately  determined  :  there  are  probably  four 
or  five.  No  difference  in  development  or  appearance  could  be  dis- 
tinguished between  the  hypha?  forming  the  outer  wall  of  the  fruit  and 
those  forming  the  paraphyses ;  the  latter  are  septate,  and  each  cell 
encloses  several  small  nuclei,  similar  to  those  of  the  mycelial  cells. 

The  author  then  proceeds  to  a  more  detailed  description  of  the  cells 
and  their  contents.  These  are  multinucleate  from  the  beginning  ;  the 
fertile  branches  are  also  multinucleate.  The  ascogonium  contains  five 
to  six  nuclei ;  there  were  fewer  in  the  end  cell,  the  trichogyne,  and  these 
degenerate  at  the  time  when  fusion  takes  place  between  the  trichogyne 
and  the  antheridium.  No  opening  was  seen  between  trichogyne  and 
ascogonium,  but  the  nuclei  of  the  latter  increase  to  double  the  number, 
no  nuclei  being  left  in  the  antheridium,  and  the  author  concludes  that 
the  antheridial  nuclei  have  passed  over  to  the  ascogonium.  The  nuclei 
in  the  ascogonium  then  fuse  in  pairs,  the  resulting  nuclei  being 
distinctly  larger.  When  the  ascogenous  hyphas  grow  out  from  the 
ascogonium  they  are  at  first  bi-nucleate,  then  after  bending  over  the 
basal  and  terminal  cells  are  both  seen  to  contain  one  nucleus  only,  the 
central  cell — the  young  ascus — is  bi-nucleate.  These  two  nuclei  ulti- 
mately fuse,  and  the  uninucleate  stage  of  the  ascus  persists  for  some  time 

*  Couiptea  Rend  us,  cxl.  (190.'))  pp.  454-5. 
t  Bot.  Zeit ,  lxiii.  (1905)  pp.  1-28  (3  pis.). 


344  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

before  spore  formation  begins.  The  ascus  elongates,  the  plasma  is 
vacuolate  in  the  upper  and  lower  portions ;  it  is  homogeneous  in  the 
middle,  and  within  it  lies  the  nucleus,  which  is  at  first  globose,  then 
slightly  drawn  out  parallel  with  the  longer  axis  of  the  ascus.  When 
division  begins,  the  spindle  is  formed  within  the  nuclear  membrane.  At 
the  poles,  darker  bodies  appear,  but  whether  within  or  without  the  nuclear 
membrane  was  not  quite  clear.  A  small  beak  or  polar  radiation  was  dis- 
tinctly visible  after  the  third  division  of  the  nuclei.  The  radiating  fibrils 
bend  over  and  enclose  the  nucleus,  forming  the  very  thin  first-formed  spore 
membrane  which  for  a  time  remains  open  opposite  the  beaked  end. 
Finally  it  closes  up  and  increases  in  thickness,  and  the  characteristic 
marks  begin  to  form  on  the  Boudiera  spores.  The  mature  spore  nucleus 
contains  a  nucleolus  and  finely  granular  chromatin. 

The  author  reviews  all  the  work  hitherto  done  on  the  same  subject, 
and  discusses  the  facts  for  and  against  the  sexual  theory.  His  own 
observations  lead  him  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  sexuality  in  at  least 
some  of  the  Ascomycetes.  He  classifies  them  in  two  groups  :  (1)  those 
where  one  ascogonium  gives  rise  to  the  whole  fruit,  as  in  Dipodascus, 
Gymnoascus,  Sphccrotheca,  Erysiphe,  and  Monascus ;  (2)  those  where 
several  ascogonia  take  part  in  the  fruit  formation,  as  in  Pyronema  and 
Boudiera. 

Development  of  Monascus.*- — H.  P.  Kuyper  presents  his  work  on 
3Ionascus  in  three  chapters.  In  the  first,  he  describes  the  researches  on 
Monascus  by  Barker  and  Ikeno.  In  the  second  he  gives  the  results 
observed  by  himself  both  on  M.  purpureus  and  31.  Barkeri ;  and  finally 
he  masses  together  the  work  and  views  of  the  various  students  of 
sexuality  in  the  Ascomycetes,  and  gives  the  general  conclusions  at  which 
he  has  himself  arrived.  He  sums  up  as  follows  :  («)  The  perithecial 
development  of  3Ionascus  purpureus  and  31.  Barkeri  begins  with  the 
formation  of  pollinodium  and  ascogonium  wThich  are  in  open  communi- 
cation with  each  other,  (b)  In  the  ascogonium  of  both  species,  nuclear 
fusion  takes  place  :  in  31.  purpureus  in  free  cells  which  are  formed 
within  the  ascogonium  ;  in  M.  Barkeri  before  or  during  the  formation 
of  the  free  cells,  (c)  The  single  nucleus  of  the  free  cells,  which  has 
resulted  from  the  copulation  of  two  nuclei,  divides  in  31.  purpureus  into 
a  large  number  of  very  small  nuclei ;  in  31.  Barkeri  there  occur  only 
three  successive  divisions  into  eight  nuclei,  (d)  In  the  free  cells  the 
spores  are  formed  ;  in  31.  purpureus  there  is  no  constant  number,  usually 
six  to  eight,  sometimes  one  or  two,  in  one  observed  case  there  were  six- 
teen ;  in  31.  Barkeri  eight  spores  were  constantly  formed.  Each  spore 
contains  at  first  one  nucleus,  which  subsequently  divides,  and  the  mature 
spore  is  multinucleate,  (e)  In  the  free  cells  there  are  remains  of 
epiplasm  during  spore-formation.  (/)  The  free  cells  disappear.  The 
spores  lie  against  the  wall  of  the  ascogonium.  Between  the  spores  lies  a 
substance  that  does  not  stain  in  the  same  way  as  the  spores  do. 

Kuyper  concludes  from  these  observations  that  3Ionascus  is  an 
Ascomycete  of  a  new  order  Endascineas  in  which  the  ascus  is  developed 
inside  the  ascogonium.     He  states  further  that  though  the  Ascomycetes 

*  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  32-81  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  345 

may  be  derived  from  forms  possessing  pollinodiuni  and  ascogonium,  yet 
in  place  of  fusion  between  the  nuclei  of  these  two  organs  there  is  now 
fusion  between  two  ascogonial  nuclei.  This  fusion  takes  place  in 
Monascus  in  the  ascogonium  ;  in  Py  rone-ma  confiuens  and  some  species 
of  Ascobolus  it  takes  place  in  hyphae  which  arise  from  the  ascogonium. 
In  most  of  the  Ascomycetes  the  distinction  between  pollinodiuni  and 
•ascogonium  is  partly  or  entirely  lost,  and  nuclear  fusion  takes  place  in 
the  ends  of  the  ascogenous  hyphas. 

White  Mildew  of  Euonymus.* — Euonymus  japonica  is  one  of  the 

commonest  evergreens  of  Italian  gardens.  V.  Peglion  describes  the 
attack  of  the  mildew  Oidium,  which  destroys  the  leaves.  As  the  sys- 
tematic position  of  this  conidial  form  is  somewhat  doubtful,  the  author 
names  it  0.  Euonymi-japonicm.  He  found  a  species  of  Cicinnobolus 
parasitic  on  the  mould.  The  fungus  winters  in  the  tissues  of  the 
Euonymus,  and  grows  in  spring  with  the  new  vegetation. 

Erysiphacese.f — E.  S.  Salmon  records  results  obtained  in  his  cultural 
•experiments  with  Erysiphe  on  Euonymus  japonicus.  The  same  plant  has 
been  frequently  infested  by  a  similar  parasite  in  Japan,  and  it  seems 
probable  that  the  fungus  has  been  introduced  here  from  that  country, 
though  in  the  absence  of  perithecia  it  has  been  found  impossible  to 
identify  it  with  absolute  certainty.  It  has  been  proved  'by  experiment 
not  to  be  identical  with  the  Erysiphe  on  Euonymus  europceus.  The 
leaves  of  E.  radicans  and  some  of  its  varieties,  were  the  only  other 
■species  of  host  plants  that  were  susceptible  to  the  fungus.  All  other 
species  inoculated  proved  to  be  immune. 

In  another  paper,J  the  author  adds  Erysiphe  taurica,  conidial  stage, 
to  the  number  of  Erysiphaceas  that  have  been  found  to  be  parasites  or 
hemiparasites.  The  mycelium  of  the  fungus  is  endophytic  ;  it  branches 
freely  in  the  intercellular  spaces  of  the  host  tissue,  and  may  invest  the 
mesophyll  cells  closely.  The  conidiophores  pass  out  through  the  stomata, 
and  bear  the  chains  of  conidia  on  the  surface  of  the  leaf. 

Aspergillus.§ — 0.  Wehrner  has  studied  this  genus  in  its  morpho- 
logical, physiological,  and  systematic  aspects.  He  finds  20  species  in 
Germany  and  Switzerland,  which  he  classifies  in  three  groups,  according 
to  the  colour  of  the  young  conidia — green,  dark  brown,  or  yellow.  There 
•are  also  two  white  species — A.  candidus  and  A.  alb  us. 

North  American  Ustilagineae.|| — G.  P.  Clinton  has  written  a  mono- 
graph of  the  fungi  of  this  natural  order  that  occur  in  North  America. 
Of  the  24  genera  recorded,  19  have  been  found  in  America,  and  are 
described  by  the  author.  He  describes  nine  new  species,  and  gives  a 
key  to  genera  and  species. 

*  Atti  Eeale  Accad.  Lincei,  cccii.  (1905)  pp.  232-4. 

+  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  1-15(1  pi.).  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  82-3. 

§  Mem.  Soc.  Phys.  Hist  Nat.  Geneve,  xxxiii.  No.  4  (1904)  157  pp.  (5  pis.).  See 
also  Ann.  Mycol.  iii.  (1905)  pp.  117-18. 

11  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xxxi.,  No.  9  (1904)  pp.  329-529.  See  alt«o 
Hedwieria,  xlvi.  (1905)  p.  61. 


340  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

The  Genus  Phragmidium.*  — P.  Dietel  has  been  occupied  in 
determining  the  distribution  and  identity  of  species  of  Phragmidium^ 
especially  of  those  recorded  from  America.  Only  three  forms  have  been 
found  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  ;  25  forms  are  reported  from 
America.  Dietel  describes  these,  and  adds  four  to  the  North  American 
flora.  He  notes  many  peculiarities  of  distribution,  as,  for  instance,  the 
Australian  Ph.  Bamardi,  which  grows  on  Rubus  parvifolius,  and  of 
which  the  spores  germinate  at  once  on  the  same  host.  This  same  type 
of  fungus  has  been  found  in  Japan,  also  on  Rabus  parvifolius,  and 
differing  only  in  the  number  of  cells.  Dietel  considers  it  to  be  a  variety 
of  the  same  species.  He  discusses  the  probable  methods  of  transport  of 
the  spores.  Many  American  forms  supposed  to  be  identical  with  those 
of  Europe,  have  been  found,  on  more  careful  examination,  to  be  distinct 
species. 

Notes  on  Uredinese.f  —  Luigi  Mentemartini  found  the  Oncidium 
plants  in  Padua  attacked  by  a  Uredo  ;  he  watched  its  growth  for  a  year, 
but  only  uredospores  were  produced.  The  sori  occupied  both  sides  of 
the  leaf.  He  noted  that  the  plant-cells  immediately  adjoining  the 
fungus  retained  their  green  colour  longer  than  the  rest  of  the  leaf.  The 
new  species  is  called  Uredo  aurantiaca. 

M.  A.  CarletonJ  has  investigated  the  rusts  of  a  number  of  plants  in 
order  to  arrive  at  more  definite  knowledge  of  their  life-histories.  Uro- 
myces Euphorbia  produced  all  the  different  stages  on  the  one  host-plant. 
Puecinia  Helianthi  is  peculiar  to  some  of  the  species  of  the  genus 
Helianthus  ;  the  iEcidium  is  of  rare  occurrence,  the  Uredo  form  often 
growing  from  a  teleutosporic  infection.  The  crown  rust  of  oats  was 
found  to  form  its  iEcidiuin  !on  Rhamnus  lanceolata.  Among  other 
results  he  notes  that  it  is  possible  for  a  perennial  rust  to  exist  in  an 
annual  host,  the  mycelium  being  carried  over  in  the  seed  of  the  plant. 
"  Such  an  instance  is  practically  certain  in  the  Euphorbia  rust." 

W.  Tranzschel  §  has  established  several  new  cases  of  hetercecism  in 
rusts.  JEcidium  Trientalis,  he  finds,  is  identical  with  Puecinia  Karelica,. 
on  Carex;  JEeidium  coruscans  with  Chrysomyxa  Ledi,  the  teleutospores 
inducing  a  witch's  broom  on  Ledum.  He  has  also  identified  Ochrospora 
fiorbi  with  JEcidium  leucospermum. 

In  another  paper  jj  he  points  out  how  the  morphological  form  may 
aid  in  determining  the  biological  relationship.  Thus  he  finds  that  the 
teleutospores  of  Puecinia  Amphibii  agree  exactly  with  those  of  Puecinia. 
Morthieri,  which  inhabits  Geranium  silvaticum.  He  therefore  looks  for 
its  iEcidiurn  on  the  G.  silvaticum,  and  finds  JEcidium  sanguinolentum 
the  related  form.  The  teleutospores  of  Uromyces  Rumicis  and  those  of 
Uromyces  Eicariee  are  identical,  and  he  finds  the  iEcidiuni  of  the  forms 
also  on  Ranunculus  Ficaria.  Several  other  similar  instances  are  given 
of  this  rule  of  identity. 

*  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  112-32  (1  pi.). 
t  Atti  Ist.Bot.  Pavia.  viii.  (1904)  pp.  99-101  (1  pi.). 
t  U.S.  Dept.  Agric,  Bull.  63  (1904)  29  pp.  (2  pis.). 

^  Travaux  du  Muse'e  bot.  Acad.  Imp.  Sci.  St.  Petersburg,  ii.  (1904)  17  pp. 
II  Arb.  K.  St.  Petersburg  Natur.  Geaell.,  xxxv.  (1904)  13  pp.     See  also  Bot.  Zeit.„ 
lxiii.  (1905)  pp.  75-6. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY",   ETC.  347 

Tranzschel  *  adds  several  other  cases  of  ketercecism  that  he  has  more 
recently  established  ;  that  Puccinia  Polygoni  belongs  to  an  yEcidium  on 
Geranium  pusillum  •  Uromyces  Veratri  is  connected  with  JE.  Adeno- 
stylis  ;  Uromyces  Rumicis  with  JE.  Ficaria,  etc. 

Theophil  AVurthf  has  completed  a  study  of  the  Puccinia;  on 
Rubiaceae.  He  finds  that  several  distinct  species  exist  instead  of  only 
one.  He  gives  an  account  of  his  experiments  to  establish  his  facts,  and 
describes  each  species  in  detail.  He  also  found  on  Galium  Mollugo  an 
iEcidium  that  had  no  connection  with  the  Puccinia.  It  evidently 
belonged  to  a  heteroecious  species.  Infection  experiments  have  so  far 
failed  to  determine  the  alternative  host. 

Oscar  Mayus  J  has  made  a  comparative  study  of  the  peridial  cells  of 
certain  JEcidia  that  grow  in  different  localities.  Where  the  conditions 
of  habitat,  temperature,  etc.,  are  the  same,  there  is  no  distinguishable 
difference  between  one  plant  and  another.  In  cases  where  the  cell-wall 
is  thicker  or  thinner,  the  influence  of  nutrition  accounts  for  the  varia- 
tion. 

Swiss  Uredinese.§ — Ed.  Fischer  has  published  that  part  of  the  Swiss 
flora  dealing  with  plant  rusts,  the  classification  followed  being  that  of 
Dietel  in  Engler  and  Prantl's  Pjianzenfamilien.  The  earliest  mention 
of  Uredineas  in  Switzerland  occurs  in  Albrecht  von  Haller's  "  Historia 
stirpium  Helvetia?,"  published  in  1768.  Since  then  many  have  taken  part 
in  collecting  and  studying  these  fungi,  and  Fischer  gives  a  short 
account  of  the  different  workers.  He  discusses  the  distribution  with 
reference  to  position  and  climate,  the  period  of  time  during  which 
Uredineas  have  been  present  in  Switzerland,  and  the  appearance  of 
stranger  forms,  such  as  Puccinia  malvacearum.  He  explains  his  method 
of  grouping  the  different  species,  and  gives  the  lines  on  which  he 
differentiates  species  morphological  and  biological.  Full  descriptions  of 
genera  and  species  are  given  ;  in  many  cases  spores,  etc.,  are  figured. 
Bibliography  and  host-index  are  added,  as  also  the  source  of  the 
materials  used  in  compiling  the  monograph. 

Amphispores  of  Grass  and  Sedge  Rusts.|| — J.  C.  Arthur  gives  an 
account  of  amphispores,  first  described  by  Carleton  in  1901.  They  are 
modified  uredospores  possessing  thick  indurated  walls  and  semi-persistent 
pedicels.  They  have  been  found  mostly  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of 
America.  One  species  is  recorded  from  the  Himalayas.  They  have  been 
often  confounded  with  the  teleutospores  of  Uromyces,  but  they  differ 
from  those  in  possessing  two  or  more  germ-pores,  while  teleutospores 
have  only  one.  They  also  share  with  uredospores  the  power  of  infecting 
the  plant  on  which  they  have  grown.  Teleutospores  infect  only  the 
alternate  host.  Their  advantage  to  the  fungus  lies  in  their  capacity  to 
withstand  adverse  conditions  for  a  considerable  time  ;    they  are  really 

*  Arb.  bot.  Mus.  K.  Akad.  Wiss.  St.  Petersburg,  1904,  pp  14-30.  See  also  Ann. 
Mycol.,  iii.  (1904)  p.  107. 

t  Cenlralbl.  Bakt.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  209-24,  309-20  (14  figs.). 

j  Dissert.  (1904)  3:3  pp.     See  also  Bot.  <  entralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  340. 

§  Beitr'age  zur  Krypt.-FIora  der  Schwciz,  Bd.  ii.  Heft  ii.,  Berr.  K.  J.  Wyss.,  1904, 
xciv.  and  590  pp.,  342  ligs. 

||  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  35-41  (9  figs.). 


348  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

resting  nredospores.     Arthur  describes  a  number  of  species  that  possess 
amphispores,  nine  species  in  all. 

Potato  Diseases.* — F.  M.  Rolfs  has  made  a  careful  study  of  a 
disease  of  potatoes  caused  by  Corticivm  vagum  var.  solani.  He  has 
established  the  connection  of  this  fungus  with  Rhizoctonia,  of  which  it  is 
the  fruiting  form.  There  are,  therefore,  three  stages  of  the  disease,  the 
Rhizoctonia,  the  sclerotial,  and  the  Corticium.  The  latter  usually  occurs 
at  the  edge  of  a  diseased  portion  next  the  living  tissues.  It  bears 
basidia  and  spores.     Rhizoctonia  is  a  mycelial  stage. 

Diseases  of  Trees.f — 0.  Appel  has  investigated  a  disease  of  Red 
Alder  trees.  He  found  dead  branches  beset  with  the  fruits  of  Valsa 
oxystoma.  Infection  experiments  with  Valsa  spores  failed  to  reproduce 
the  fungus,  and  the  author  concludes  that  the  damage  is  due  to  several 
factors,  such  as  frost,  failure  of  water,  etc.,  which  render  the  young  trees 
peculiarly  liable  to  attack  from  fungi.  Other  observers  have  detected 
several  other  fungi  causing  the  same  disease,  Cytosjwra,  Meianconium 
and  Cryjrfospora,  which  attack  dry  twigs  and  enter  the  tissues  through 
wounds.  A  change  of  trees  is  recommended,  as  also  altering  the 
conditions  of  moisture  by  draining,  etc. 

A.  Moller  J  reports  that  Trametes  Pini  causes  loss  to  German  foresters 
yearly  of  some  1,000,000  marks.  He  has  examined  the  manner  of 
propagation,  and  insists  on  the  effort  to  stamp  it  out.  Pines  are  safe 
until  the  heart-wood  is  formed,  because  only  in  the  heart-wood  does  the 
fungus  develop,  infection  taking  place  by  a  broken  branch,  and  always 
by  means  of  spores.  The  spores  may  be  formed  during  the  whole  year, 
but  in  most  abundance  from  September  to  January.  The  mycelium 
does  not  live  saprophytically.  Moller  recommends  breaking  off  the 
fruiting  bodies  and  brushing  the  base  with  a  preparation  of  lime.  It 
does  not  kill  the  fungus,  but  it  greatly  retards  spore-production. 

H.  C.  Schellenberg  §  writes  on  the  occurrence  of  Hypodermella  Laricis. 
It  attacks  the  leaves  of  the  lower  branches  of  the  Larch  more  vigorously 
than  those  higher  on  the  tree,  causing  them  to  turn  brown.  It  does  not 
cause  great  damage. 

Adolf  Aeslar  |j  gives  his  views  on  the  cause  of  Larch  disease.  The 
fungus  Peziza  WiUlcommii  is  not  a  pure  parasite  ;  it  attacks  through 
wounds  or  in  weakened  conditions  of  the  host-plant. 

Plant  Diseases  in  India  during  1903.1F — E.  J.  Butler,  Cryptogamic 
Botanist  to  the  Government  of  India,  records  the  chief  cases  of  disease 
that  came  under  his  notice.  He  gives  a  very  short  account  of  the 
parasite  and  the  host-plant.     The  most  destructive  on  tea  was,  he  found, 

*  Colorado  Agric.  Exp.  Stat.  Bull.,  xci.  (1904)  pp.  1-33  (5  pis.).  See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  255-6. 

t  Naturwiss.  Zeitschr.  Land.  Forstw.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  313-20.  See  also  Aim. 
Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  p.  111. 

I  Zeitschr.  Forst.  und  Jagdw.,  xxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  C77-715  (2  pis.).  See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  147-8. 

§  Naturwiss.  Zeitschr.  Land.  Forstw.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  330-7.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol., 
iii.  (1905)  p.  115. 

|  Centralbl.  Ges.  Forstw.  (1904)  27  pp.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp. 
111-12.  <J  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xv.  (1905)  pp.  44-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  34l> 

an  alga  which  kills  the  twigs  or  forms  a  lichen  which  is  equally  fatal  to 
the  leaves.  A  large  number  of  fungi  are  recorded  on  grasses  and  cereals. 
Potatoes,  tomatoes,  sugar-cane,  and  palms  have  all  suffered  from  various 
parasitic  fungi.  Calms  Deodora  was  destroyed  by  Polyporas  annosus. 
Acacia  arabica  was  killed  by  Fames  Passianus,  not  hitherto  considered 
a  parasite.  Trichosporium,  Pcridermium  and  Uredo  have  also  attacked 
various  trees. 

Plant  Diseases  during  the  Year  1903." — M.  Hollrung  has  just 
issued  the  "  Jahresbericht,"  dealing  with  diseases  of  plants  caused  by 
animals,  plants,  or  unfavourable  conditions.  He  treats  the  latter  first, 
as  general  injury  due  to  temperature,  light  and  shade,  poisons, 
wounds,  crowding,  etc.  The  larger  part  of  the  volume  is  occupied  by 
an  account  of  special  cases  of  disease,  first  of  the  agents  causing  disease, 
and  secondly  of  the  different  plants  that  have  been  recorded  as  attacked 
during  the  year. 

A  chapter  is  devoted  to  plant  hygiene,  and  the  conditions  that  are 
most  favourable  to  the  healthy  development  of  plants  in  enabling  them 
to  withstand  the  attacks  of  fungi,  insects,  etc.  The  author  finally  deals 
with  various  remedies,  the  encouragement  of  certain  fungi  that  prey  on 
insects,  or  of  birds  that  devour  insects,  which  are  included  under 
"organic"  remedies.  The  inorganic  remedies  are  the  chemical  com- 
pounds, applied  as  sprays,  etc.,  which  have  been  found  to  destroy  the 
pests  without  injuring  the  host-plant.  The  editor  gives,  in  this  work,  the 
results  of  2207  original  papers,  the  bibliography  of  which  is  published 
after  each  section  to  which  they  relate. 

Diseases  of  Cultivated  Plants.j — M.  C.  Cooke  has  collated  the 
different  fungus  pests  of  the  ornamental  shrubbery.  He  describes  a 
large  number,  mostly  leaf  diseases,  so  that  they  may  be  recognised  by  the 
gardener.  In  many  cases  he  advises  as  to  the  remedies  to  be  used.  In 
another  contribution  %  he  describes  the  disease  called  Apple  and  Pear 
Scab,  due  to  the  fungus  Fusidadium  pirininm  and  F.  dendriticuni. 
These  diseases  have  been  very  destructive  in  Tasmania. 

E.  S.  Salmon  §  gives  an  account  of  the  American  Gooseberry  Mildew, 
of  which  the  first  recorded  appearance  was  in  Ireland  in  1900.  It  has. 
spread  to  a  number  of  localities ;  since  that  date  it  has  been  found  in 
various  parts  of  Russia,  and  more  recently  in  Denmark.  Besides  the  use 
of  fungicides,  Salmon  recommends  burning  the  affected  parts. 

Geo.  Massie  ||  writes  on  some  diseases  of  the  Potato.  He  describes  the 
havoc  wrought  by  Phytophthora,  Nectria,  JEdomyces  and  Sorosporium. 
He  also  describes  a  disease  due  to  Bacteria,  which  has  been  very  destructive 
in  America,  and  which  has  occurred  once  or  twice  in  this  country. 

Plant  Diseases. — G.  LustnerlT  has  examined  a  large  number  of  leaves 
of  the  vine  affected  by  the  "  red  brand."  He  has  failed  to  find  the 
fungus  Pseudopeziza,  and  thinks  the  disease  must  be  due  to  some  other 

*  Jahresber.  Pflanzenkr.,  vi.  (1903),  Paul  Parey  (Berlin,  1005)  viii.  and  374  pp. 
t  Journ.  Roy.  Hort.  Soc,  xxix.  (1004)  pp.  1-25  (3  col.  pis.). 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  91-2.  §  Tom.  cit.  pp.  102-10. 

H  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  139-45  (6  figs.). 

\  Ber.  K.  Lehr.  fiir  Wein.  Obst.  Garten,  zu  Geisen.  a  Rh.  fur  das  Etatsjidir  19"3, 
pp.  190-1.     See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  147-8. 


350  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

cause.  He  has  also  watched  *  the  development  of  the  sclerotia  of 
Monilia  fructigena  on  apples  till  they  have  attained  a  considerable  size. 
He  compares  them  with  those  described  by  Woronin. 

In  another  communication  |  he  gives  his  views  on  the  occurrence  of 
Peronospora  viticola,  which  usually  makes  its  appearance  in  July,  while 
most  other  fungi  of  that  genus  develop  in  March,  April,  and  May.  He 
considers  that  the  decaying  leaves  in  the  tissues  of  which  the  fungus 
is  imbedded  are  dug  into  the  ground  and  rot  there.  Then  at  the 
second  period  of  cultivation,  in  June-July,  the  ground  is  turned  over, 
and  the  diseased  leaves  are  again  exposed,  and  infection  follows — due 
to  wind  or  other  agencies  conveying 'the  spores.  These  facts  should 
form  a  guide  as  to  the  best  time  for  spraying  the  vines. 

Heinrich  Uzel  X  recounts  the  diseases  of  plants  in  Bohemia  during 
1904  Chief  among  these  he  reckons  Puccinia  glumarum,  which  in  some 
districts  destroyed  half  the  crops.  Pear  trees  suffered  from  Venturia 
pirinum.  Apples  were  cankered  by  Nedria  ditissima.  These  and  other 
fungi  did  great  damage  to  cultivated  plants.  The  author  also  gives 
cases  of  insect  attack. 

K.  Posch  §  writes  on  the  mischief  caused  to  Cncurbitaceae  by  the 
fungus  Pseudo-jjeronosjjora  cubensis.  It  has  been  specially  hurtful  to 
Melons. 

Diseases  of  Beet.|| — L.  Hiltner  and  L.  Peters  have  conducted  various 
experiments  having  for  aim  the  prevention  of  disease  in  the  sugar- 
beet.  Infection  experiments  with  Plioma  Betm  and  Bacillus  mycoides 
were  without  result,  and  they  concluded  that  these  organisms  only 
attacked  roots  that  were  weakened  by  the  presence  of  oxalates.  These 
were  produced  in  the  plant  by  stormy  weather  and  other  adverse  con- 
ditions. The  authors  recommend  the  use  of  lime  to  combat  the  disease, 
as  it  has  been  found  more  effective  than  sulphuric  acid. 

F.  KriigerlF  has  examined  another  disease  of  beets,  a  formation  of 
cork  causing  scabs  on  the  roots.  It  is  due,  he  finds,  to  the  presence  of 
both  animal  and  fungal  organisms.  Several  species  of  Oospora  were 
found  infesting  the  beets,  but  they  were  wound  parasites,  and  entered 
the  tissues  after  they  had  been  attacked  by  Nematodes,  etc.  The  author 
recommends  drainage  and  lime  as  preventive  measures. 

French  Mycology. — M.  Boudier**  describes  four  new  species  of  the 
larger  fungi,  found  in  peat-moss.  He  thinks  that  such  soil  is  rich  in 
fungi  and  has  not  been  properly  worked. 

P.  Vuillemin  ft  describes  a  new  species  of  Pyrenomycete,  Seuratia 
pinicola.     He  thinks  the  genus  distinctive  enough  to  be  placed  in  a  new 

*  Ber.  K.  Lehr,  fur  Weill.  Obst.  Garten,  zu  Geisen.  a  Rh.  fur  das  Etatsjahr  1903, 
pp.  188-90.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  187-8. 

J  Wiener  Landw.  Zeit.,  1904,  p.  917.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiv.  (1905), 
pp.  L52-3. 

§  Zeitschr.  "  Kert,"  1904,  No.  244  (2  figs.).  (Magyar.)  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl., 
xcviii.  (1905)  p.  255. 

II  Arb.  Biol.  Abt.  Land,  und  Forstw.  K.  Gesundh.,  iv.  (1904)  p.  207  (253).  Sec 
also  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  108-9. 

1[  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  253-318.     See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  109-10. 
**  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  09-73  (1  pi.). 
+t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  74-80  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  351 

family,  the  Seuratiacese.  Instead  of  a  peritkecium,  the  asci  are  protected 
by  a  mucilaginous  coating  composed  of  the  swollen  ends  of  the  kyphrc, 
forming  a  brown  granular  layer.     The  spores  are  colourless. 

1ST.  Patouillard*  has  received  a  fungus  from  Tonkin,  which  he  has 
determined  to  be  a  new  genus  Rollandina  (Gymnoascere).  It  is  stalked 
something  like  an  Onygena,  but  the  outer  covering  of  the  fruit  is  loose 
and  filamentous.     The  spores  are  minute  and  colourless. 

A.  Maublanc  f  examined  some  apples  covered  with  rather  large  light- 
coloured  spots,  which  were  dotted  with  small  black  tubercles.  He  found 
that  they  were  caused  by  a  fungus  which  he  names  and  describes  as 
Trichoseptoriafructigena.  The  mycelium  penetrates  deeply  into  the  fruit 
between  the  cells,  which  become  dissociated  and  brown. 

F.  Gueguen  %  has  reviewed  the  species  of  Dictyosporium  and  Speira. 
He  finds  that  these  two  genera  are  alike,  the  former  name  being  retained. 
He  considers  the  fruit  to  be  an  aggregation  of  conidia,  the  terminal 
member  of  each  filament  possessing,  usually,  germinating  power  alone. 
He  describes  the  germination  and  development  of  the  fungi  in  artificial 
culture. 

"W.  Harlay§  describes  cases  of  poisoning  due  to  Amanita  phalloides. 
He  is  anxious  to  get  details  of  all  such  cases. 

Trehalose  in  Fungi.|| — This  enzyme,  which  acts  on  trehalose  as  do 
invertase  or  sucrase  on  saccharose,  has  been  already  detected  in  several 
fungi.  Em.  Bourquelot  and  H.  Herissey  have  examined  a  further 
number  of  plants,  and  they  find  that  the  results  vary  considerably, 
according  to  the  age  and  condition  of  the  fungus  at  the  time  of  examina- 
tion, but  they  have  proved  that  the  enzyme  is  generally  present  in 
fungus  tissues,  and  indispensable  for  the  utilisation  of  trehalose,  a  sub- 
stance that  corresponds  to  the  saccharose  of  the  higher  plants. 

Effect  of  Turgesence  in  Fungi.l — F.  Gueguen  records  an  instance 
of  a  fungus,  Agar  km  campestris,  that  raised  an  asphalte  walk  to  a  height 
of  several  centimetres  over  a  diameter  of  30  centimetres.  The  mushroom 
was  split  across  the  top  and  the  stalk  was  distorted  by  the  pressure,  but 
the  gills  had  formed  almost  normally  and  had  produced  an  abundance  of 
spores. 

New  Parasitic  Fungi.** — C.  A.  J.  A.  Oudemans  describes  a  Lrpt»- 
stroma  that  was  living  on  the  needles  of  Finns  austriaca.  Sclerotiopsis 
pityophila  (Spha3ropsidea3)  he  found  on  the  needles  of  Pinus  silvestris, 
and  on  the  withered  leaf-sheaths  of  Typha  latifolia  there  occurred  a 
hitherto  insufficiently  described  member  of  the  Tubercular iacese, 
Hymenopsis  Typhcc. 

Edible  and  Poisonous  Fungi.jt — The  economic  aspect  of  fungi  has 
been  studied  by  G.  F.  Atkinson.     He  gives  popular  descriptions  of  a 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  sxi.  (1905)  pp.  81-3  (1  pi.)- 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  95-7  (1  fi-.).  I  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  9S-106  (2  pis.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  107-10.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  50-7. 

f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  39-41. 

**  Kon.  Akad.  Wetensch.  Amsterdam,  vii.  (1904)  pp.  200-13  (3  pis.).     See  also 
Hcdwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  p.  62. 

ft  Studies  of  American  Fungi:  Mushrooms,  Edible,  Poisonous,  etc.     Henry  Holt 
and  Co.  (New  York,  1903)  v.  and  323  pp.,  230  photos.,  and  col.  plB. 


352  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

great  number  of  the  larger  fungi,  with  special  reference  to  their  edible  or 
poisonous  qualities.  He  devotes  one  chapter  to  the  cultivation  of  mush- 
rooms. A  number  of  recipes  for  cooking  them  are  given  by  Sarah 
Tyson  Rores.  The  Chemistry  and  Toxicology  of  Mushrooms  is  added 
by  J.  F.  Clark.  The  results  of  Atkinson's  analyses  correspond  with  those 
arrived  at  by  European  chemists,  and  all  prove  that  the  fungi  are  much 
less  nourishing  than  they  were  at  one  time  supposed  to  be.  The  poisons 
found  in  fungi  are  also  described.  The  author  adds  a  key  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  genera. 


&v 


Immunity  from  the  Poison  of  Fungi.* — Rene  Ferry  has  experimented 
with  the  poison  of  Amentia  phalloides  on  rabbits,  in  order  to  discover  a 
cure  for  the  cases  of  poisoning  that  occur  through  eating  this  fungus. 
He  found  that  iodide  of  potassium  was  not  so  effective  as  it  was  supposed 
to  be.  He  then  tried  immunising  animals  by  repeated  doses,  and  he  not 
only  rendered  these  animals  immune,  but  the  serum  had  the  effect  of 
rendering  other  rabbits  immune.  It  had,  however,  no  effect  as  a 
curative  agent,  and  the  author  considers  that  such  a  serum  may  be 
neglected,  considering  the  comparatively  few  cases  of  poisoning  that 
occur. 

Abnormalities  in  Fungi.f — J.  Lutz  describes  some  cases  in  which 
supernumerary  hymeniums  are  formed  in  the  larger  fungi.  A  certain 
number  of  cases,  he  considers,  are  explained  by  the  close  contact  and 
attachment  of  two  fungi  at  an  early  stage  of  growth  ;  the  more  vigorous 
plant  pushes  ahead  and  hoists  the  less  developed  individual  with  it, 
sometimes  carrying  it  reversed  on  the  pileus  or  attached  to  the  edge. 

Technical  Mycology  .J — Franz  Lafar  has  published  a  further 
instalment  of  his  Handbook  of  Technical  Mycology  for  technical  and 
agricultural  chemists,  brewers,  etc.  Part  III.  is  a  continuation  of 
part  I.,  and  concludes  the  work  of  Lindau  on  Eumycetes.  The  author 
describes  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  fungoid  hyphas  and  cells,  and 
discusses  reproductions  in  fungi  entirely  from  Brefeld's  standpoint,  that 
no  sexuality  exists  among  the  higher  fungi,  agreeing  thus  with  Dangeard. 
He  regards  the  Mucor  sporangium  and  the  ascus  as  closely  related. 

Hugo  Fischer-Bonn  gives  the  chemistry  of  fungi  and  bacteria,  both 
of  cell-membrane  and  of  contents.  The  subjects  of  assimilation  and 
metabolism  are  dealt  with  by  W.  Benecke.  Alfred  Koch,  L.  Hiltner, 
P.  Miquel,  M.  Hahn,  A.  Spickermann,  S.  Winogradsky,  and  H.  Jensen 
tell  what  is  known  of  the  various  processes  of  nitrification  and  nitrogen 
assimilation,  the  action  of  acids,  etc.  Cladotrichere,  Streptotricheai,  etc., 
are  described  by  W.  Rullman. 

Arthur,  J.  C— Baeodromus  Holwayi  Arth.,  a  new Uredineous  Fungus  from  Mexico. 
[The  teleutospores  of  the  new  genus  Bxodromus  are  eatenulate.    The  germina- 
tion resembles  that  of  Coleosporium.'] 

Ann.  Mycol,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  18-20. 


*  Rev.  Mycol..  xxvii.  (1005)  pp.  1-4. 

t  Bull.  noc.  Mycol.  France,  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  47-9  (3  figs.). 

t  Handbuch  der  technischen  Mykologie,  G.  Fischer,  Jena.  Part  II,  112  pp., 
2  pis.  and  IS  figs. ;  part  III.  JM  pp.,  41  tigs.;  part  IV,  112  pp.,  4  pis.  and  5  figs. 
See  also  Bot.  Zeit.,  lviii.  (1905)  Art.  ii,  pp.  56-S. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  353 

Behbens,  J.— Mebltau  der  Quitte.    (Mildew  of  the  Quince.) 

[The  fungus  was  found  to  be  a  species  of  Splnerotheca,  which 
had  passed  to  the  Quince  from  another  host.] 

Ber.  Groszherzogl.  badisch.  landivirtsch.  Versuch- 
sanst.  Augustenburg  uber  Tiitigkeit  im  Jahre 
1903,  pp.  39-40. 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bald.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  145. 

,.        „        Krankheitserscheinungen  am  Flieder.     (Disease  of  the  Alder.) 

[Pltoma  depressa  was  found  in  abundance  on  the  dead  twigs.] 

Tom.  cit..  pp.  42-3. 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bald.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  148. 

„  Einfluz  auzerer  Verhaltnisse  auf  die  XTeberwinterung  parasitischer 
Pilze.  (Influence  of  external  conditions  on  the  wintering  of 
parasitic  fungi.) 

[The  writer  thinks  that  a  mild  winter  is  more  unfavourable 
than  a  severe  one  to  the  life  of  the  fungus,  as  other  in- 
fluences come  into  play  which  are  hurtful.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  28-30. 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  146. 

„         „        Beobachtungen   uber    Brandkrankheiten.      (Observations   on    rust 

diseases.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  40-1. 

See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  146. 

„  Untersuchungen  uber  die  Scbwankungen  bei  Keimkraftprufungen 
und  ihre  Ursachen.  (Researches  on  variation  in  germination,  and 
the  causes  of  it.) 

[The  writer  passes  in  review  a  number  of  cases  of  germinat- 
ing seeds.  He  rinds,  that  the  germinating  power  is  de- 
stroyed b,v  the  attacks  of  small  fungi.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  43-8.     See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt. 

xiv.  (1905)  p.  146. 

„        „        Das  Teigigwerden  der  Mispeln.     (The  over-ripeness  of  Medlars.) 

[Behrens  finds  that  this  condition  is  induced  by  various 
moulds — Mticor,  Mondia,  and  Botrytis.'} 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  38-9. 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  146-7. 

.,        „        Der  rote  Brenner  der  Kuben.     (The  red  brand  of  the  vine.) 

[The  perfect  fruits  of  the  fungus  Pseudopeziza  traclieiphila 
were  found  on  the  diseased  leaves.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  36-7. 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  147. 

Busse,  "W. — Beisebericht  der  pflanzenpathologischen  Expedition  des  kolonialwirts- 
chaftlichen  Komitees  nacb  Westafrika.  (Travelling  report  of  the 
plant-pathological  expedition  of  the  Colonial  Committee  for  West 
Africa.) 

[The  report  deals  with  diseases  caused  by  fungi  and  by  animals.] 

Der  Tropenpflanzer,  No.  1  (1905). 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  235-6. 

„  „  Untersuchungen  uber  die  Krankheiten  der  Sorghum-Hirse  Ein  Beitrag 
zur  Pathologie  und  Biologie  tropischer  Kulturgewacb.se.  (Re- 
searches on  the  diseases  of  Millet.  A  contribution  to  the  pathology 
and  biology  of  tropical  cultivated  plants.) 

[The   writer  discusses  the  various  insect  pests,  etc.,  also  the 
species  of  Ustilago  that  attack  Millet  plants.] 

Arb.  biol.  Abt.  Land.  Forstic.  Kais.  Ges.,  iv.  (1904) 

p.  319-426  (2  pis.). 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,xiv.  (1905)  pp.  141-5. 

June  21st,  1905  2  b 


354  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Copeland,  E.  Bingham — Fungi  esculentes  Philippinenses.  (Edible  fungi  of  the 
Philippines.) 

[One  puff-ball  and  a  large  number  of  Agaricinese  are  described,  all  new  to 
science.]  Ann.  Mycol,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  25-9. 

Dietel,  P. — Uredineae  Japonicae.    V. 

[A  number  of  new  species  are  included  in  the  list.] 

Engler's  Bot.  Jahrb.,  xxxiv.  (1904)  pp.  583-92. 

Gillot,  X. — Empoisonnement  par  les  Champignons.     (Poisoning  by  fungi.) 

[The  author  notes  the  increase  of  illness  due  to  the  eating  of 
poisonous  fungi.  He  strongly  urges  education  by  pic- 
tures, etc.,  in  all  schools,  especially  in  the  country.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxi.  (TJ05)  pp.  58-63. 

Gillot,  X.,  &  N.  Patouillar  d — Contribution  a  Thistoire  naturelle  de  la  Tunisie. 
•    Notes  botaniques  et  mycologiques.    (Contribution  to  the  natural  history  of  Tunis. 
Botanical  and  mycological  notes.) 

[A  number  of  new  species  of  fungi  are  recorded  by  N.  Fatouillard.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Hist.  Nat.  Autun,  xvii.  (1904)  42  pp.,  5  pis. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  144. 

Harz,  0.  O. —  Oospora  cretacea  sp.  n.     ;(Diagnosis  of  the  new  species,  and  com- 
parison with  related  forms.) 

Bot.  Centralbl,  Orig.,  xviii.  (1905)  pp.  113-14. 

Halgand,  Feli  x — FLtude  sur  les  trichophyties  de  la  barbe.  ( Study  of  Trichophyton 
of  the  beard.)  Arch,  de  Parasitol,  viii.  (1904)  pp.  509-622  (4  figs.). 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  279. 

Hennings,  P. — Einige  schadliche  parasitische  Pilze  auf  exotischen  Orchideen 
unserer  Gewachshauser.  (Some  harmful  parasitic  fungi  on  the 
exotic  Orchidacese  of  our  hot-houses.) 

[The  fungi  described,  all  of  which  are  new,  belong  to  the 
Uredinaceae,  Pyrenomycetes,  Sphaaropsidacefe,  Nectroi- 
deaceae,  Excipulaceae,  Melanconiaceaj,  Stilbaceas,  and 
Tuberculariaceae.] 

Hedicigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  168-78. 

.,        „  Fungi  amazonicL    IV.     A  cl  Ernesto  TJle  collecti.     (Fungi  from  the 

Amazon  collected  by  Ernest  Ule.) 

[Many  new  species  are  described  by  the  author.  The  new 
genera  are  Phseosacardinula  (Microthyriacea3)  and  Phrag- 
mographum  (Hysteriaceae). 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  57-61  (3  figs.). 
Holway,  E.  W.  D. — North  American  Uredineae. 

[The  paper  contains  descriptions  of  a  number  of  new  species.] 

Ann.  Mycol,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  20-4. 
Horne,  W.  T. — A  New  Species  of  Lembosia. 

[The  fungus  was  parasitic  on  stems  of  Vanilla  planifolia. 

Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  69-71. 

Ideta,  A  rat  a — Lehrbuch  der  Pfianzenkrankheiten  im  Japan.  Ein  handbuch  fur 
Land,  und  Forstwirte,  Gartner,  und  Botaniker.  (Text-book  of  plant  diseases  in 
Japan.     A  handbook  for  landowners,  foresters,  gardeners,  and  ^botanists.) 

Shokwabo  (Tokio,  1903)  8vo,  144  text  figs!  and  13  pis.,  2  col. 
See  also  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.,  xv.  (1905)  pp.  54-5. 

J  a  a  p,  O. — Erster  Beitrag  zur  Pilzflora  der  Umgegend  von  Putlitz.  (First  contribu- 
tion to  the  fungus  flora  of  Putlitz.) 

Verhandl  Bot.  Ver.  Prov.  Brandenburg,  xlvi.  (1904)  pp.  122-41. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  32-3. 

Kusano,  S.  —  Einige  neue  Taphrina-Arten  aus  Japan.  (Some  new  species  of 
Taphrina  from  Japan.) 

[Three  new  species  are  described.] 

Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  30-1. 


ZOOLOGY  AND  BOTAN  V,   MICROSCOPY,  ETC.         355 

Laurence,  "\V.  H.— The  Apple-scab  in  Western  Washington. 

[This  disease  is  caused  by  a  species  of  Veuturia  ;  the  conidial  or  summer  form 
belongs  to  the  genus  Fusicladium.'] 

Ball.  Washington  Agric.  Expt.  Station,  lxiv.  (1904)  pp.  1-24. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  201-2. 
Mc  Alpine,  D. — Nature  or  Blackfellows'  Bread. 

[A   description  of  the   sporophores  of  Folypor'nis  myllitm,  the  underground 
sclerotium  of  which  is  eaten  by  the  natives.] 

Joum.  Depart.  Agric.  Victoria,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  1012-20  (4  figs.). 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  228. 

Magnaghi,  Angelo — Contribuzione  alio  studio  della  Micologia  Ligustica.  (Con- 
tribution to  the  study  of  the  Mycology  of  Liguria.) 

[The  writer  deals  only  with  microfungi ;  there  are  several  new  species  de- 
scribed.] Atti  1st.  Bot.  Pavia,  viii.  (1904)  pp.  121-33. 

■Magnus,  Paul— Ein  kleiner  Beitrag  zur  Zenntnis  der  parasitaren  Pilze  von 
Mitterfels  in  Niederbayern.  (A  small  contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  parasitic 
fungi  in  Mitterfels,  Niederbayern.) 

[23  species  of  parasitic  fungi  are  described.] 

17  Ber.  Naturwiss.  Ver.  Land,  uber  die  Vereinsjahre  1900-3, 

Land  shut,  1904,  pp.  1-3. 
See  also  Hedicigia,  xliv.  (1905)  p.  62. 
^Magnin,  L. — La  Cryptogamie.     (Cryptogamy.) 

[A  short  historical  sketch  of  Cryptogamie  Botany,  including  Fungi,  Lichens,  etc.] 

Extr.  from  Rev.  Scientif.,  Dec.  1904,  36  pp. 

Massee,  G. — Discovery  of  the  Fruit  of  the  Apple  Mildew  in  England. 

[The  fungus  is  Spltierotheca  Mali ;    the  perfect  fruit  is  now  recorded  for 
Britain.]  Gardener's  Chronicle,  xxxvi.  (1904)  p.  349. 

M  a  u  b  l  a  n  c,  A. — Especes  nouvelles  de  Champignons  inf  erieurs.  (New  species  of  the 
lower  fungi.) 

[The  species,  mostly  parasites,  infested  various  leaves  and  twigs.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  87-94  (2  pis.). 

Muller-Thurgau,  H. — Nachweis  von  Saccharomyces  ellipsoideus  im  Wembergs- 
boden.  (Proof  of  the  existence  of  Saccharomyces  ellipsoideus  in  the  ground  of 
vineyards.)  Centralbl.  Bald.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  296-7. 

Murrell,  W.  A. — The  Polyporaceae  of  North  America.  X.  Agaricus,  Lenzites, 
Cerrena,  and  Favolus.  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  83-103. 

Ofpner,  Jules — Les  Spores  des  Champignons  au  point  de  vue  Medico-legal.  (The 
spores  of  fungi  from  a  medico-legal  point  of  view.) 

[A  study  of  spores   that  may  help  to  distinguish  poisonous  from  harmless 
forms.]  Allier  (Grenoble,  1904)  67  pp.  (2  pis.)  8vo. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  228. 

Patouillard,  N.,  &  P.  Hariot — Fungorum  novorum  decas  prima.  (First  decade 
of  new  fungi.)  Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  84-6. 

Peck,  C.  H. — New  Species  of  Fungi. 

[Twelve  species  of  the  larger  fungi  are  described.] 

Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  77-81. 

Poirault,  J.— Liste  des  Champignons  superieurs  observes  jusqu'a  ce  jour  dans  la 
Vienne.     (List  of  fungi  observed  in  Vienue.) 

[The  author  describes  63  species  of  Hynienomycetes.] 

Bull.  Acad,  intern.  Grog.  Bot.,  No.  ISO  bis  (1904)  pp.  302-S. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  2-JS. 

Kick,  J. — Fungos  do  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  (Brazil).      (Fungi  from  the  Rio  Grande.) 
[The  author  describes  a  number  of  new  species,  and  gives  notes 
and  observations  on  those  already  known.     Laschia  tremellosa 
he  finds  is  identical  with  Aurioidaria  Auricula-judx. 

Broteria,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  276-93. 
See  also  Hedtoigia,  xliv.  (19<>5)  p.  63. 

2  b  2 


356  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Rick,  J. — Fungi  austro-americani,  Fasc.ii. 

[The  author  lists  21  species;  several  of  them  are  new  and  are  full \- 
described.]  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  15-18. 

Roll  and,  L. — Champignons  des  iles  Baleares  recoltes  principalement  dans  la  region 
montagneuse  de  Sdller.  (Fungi  uf  the  Balearic  Islands,  collected  chiefly  in  the 
mountainous  regiou  of  Soller.) 

[A  number  of  new  species  are  recorded  ;  310  plants  arc  included  in  the  list.] 
Bull.  Soc.  Mycol.  France,  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  21-38  (2  pis.). 

Stddeb,  B. — Die  Pilzsaison  von  1904  im  der  umgegend  von  Bern.  (The  fungus 
season  of  1904  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Berne.) 

[Prolonged  drought  followed  by  heavy  storms  produced  abnormal  developments- 
both  of  species  and  individuals.] 

Sckw.  Woch.fiir  Chemie  und  Pharmacie,  No.  44,  1904,  8vo,  2  pp. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  280. 

Sums  tine,  D.  R. — The  Boletaceae  of  Pennsylvania. 

Torreya,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  184-5. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  280. 

Szabo,  Zoltan  von — Ueber  eineneue  Hyphomyceten-Gattung.  (A  new  genus  of 
Hyphomycetes.) 

[The  new  genus  is  called  Tetracoccosporium  (Dematiacese).  It  grew  on  dung 
in  the  laboratory.  Spores  and  fertile  hyphsa  are  brown,  the  sterile 
mycelium  is  colourless.]  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  76-7  (1  fig.). 

Trotter,  A. — Ascochyta  Salicorniae  P.  Magnus  var.  Salicorni®  patulae  Trotter, 

[Two  species  have  been  recently  described  under  the  same  name;  the  latter  is 
not  identical,  but  is  a  variety  of  the  former.] 

Ann.  Mycol.  iii.  (1905)  p.  30. 

Will,    H. — Vergleichende    Untersuchungen    an    vier    Untergarigen    Arten    von 
Bierhefen.     (Comparative  researches  on  four  species  of  fermenting  beer  yeasts.) 
[A  description  of  the  behaviour  of  the  different  yeasts  in  artificial  cultures.] 

Centralbl.  Bald.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  129-135. 

Wurth,  Th.  —  Beitrage  zur  Kenntnis  der  Pilzflora  Graubundens.    (Contribution 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  fungus  flora  of  Graubundens.) 
[Notes  are  given  on  many  of  the  species.] 
Jahresb.  Naturforsch.  ges.  Graubundens,  neue  Folge,  Bd.  46  (1904)  pp.  19-28. 

See  also  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  p.  64. 


Lichens. 

Theory  of  Endosaprophytism  in  Lichens.*  —  This  subject  is 
thoroughly  discussed  by  A.  Elenkin.  He  gives  an  historical  review  of 
the  whole  question  of  the  relationship  between  algas  and  fungi  in  the 
lichen  thallus,  and  states  that  as  yet  the  theory  of  mutabilism  or  sym- 
biosis remains  an  hypothesis.  The  parasitic  action  of  the  fungus  haustoria 
on  the  algal  cells  has  been  more  or  less  proved  in  comparatively  few 
cases.'  He  quotes  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  Wanning,  that  the  algai 
are  passive  agents,  and  give  to  the  fungus  more  than  they  receive  :  they 
are  "  helots  "  rather  than  symbionts. 

The  author  then  gives  the  results  of  his  own  research.  He  finds  in 
all  lichens  more  or  fewer  dead  algal  cells  that  outnumber  the  living. 
A  few  of  these  can  be  accounted  for  as  being  the  empty  cells  after 
division  and  escape  of  the  daughter  cells,  and  some  have  died  probably 
from  the  absence  of  light  and  air.     The  large  bulk  have  been  destroyed 


*  Bull.  Sec.  Imp.  Natural.  Moscou,  1904,  Nos.  2  and  3  (1905)  pp.  1G4-S6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  357 

by  the  fungus.  He  gives  the  general  name  of  nekral  layer  to  these  dead 
cells  ;  they  are  most  numerous  where  the  hypb.se  are  strongest.  The  empty 
cells  are  deposited  in  the  medulla  and  gradually  absorbed  by  the  hyphai. 
Elenkin  describes  the  methods  he  employed  to  stain  and  determine  the 
different  layers  of  gonidia,  and  then  he  describes  the  examination  of  a 
large  number  of  species,  all  tending  to  strengthen  his  theory  of  endo- 
saprophytism,  and  this  theory  he  considers  sufficient  to  explain  the 
relation  between  alga}  and  fungi  in  lichens.  A  descriptive  list  of  papers 
on  this  subject  is  added. 

New  Lichen  Type.* — G.  Briosi  and  R.  Farneti  describe  a  plant  that 
grew  on  the  stems  of  the  vine,  resembling  Pionnotes  Biasolettiana.  A 
thorough  examination  showed  that  the  mycelial  elements  were  mixed 
with  algal  cells,  thus  placing  the  plant  among  the  lichens.  On  the 
surface  of  the  lichen  they  found  the  Pionnotes  conidia,  fusiform  septate 
bodies.  In  addition  there  were  imbedded  in  the  thallus  perithecia  with 
asci.  The  writers  examine  and  meet  the  various  objections  that  could 
be  offered  to  this  solution  of  the  problem  ;  they  find  that  it  is  not  formed 
of  the  union  of  two  fungi,  and  that  the  plant  is  not  a  fungus  sapro- 
phytic on  a  lichen  or  other  fungus.  The  lichen  is  gelatinous  in  texture 
and  homoiomerous,  and  falls  under  the  division  Pyrenocarpi.  The 
authors  place  it  in  a  new  family  Chrysoglutenacese,  with  the  name 
Chrysogluteii  Biasohttianum. 

How  to  Collect  and  Study  Lichens.t — Bruce  Fink  advises  the 
student  as  to  the  method  of  beginning  the  study  of  lichens.  The  outfit 
necessary  for  collecting  is  described,  and  the  places  most  likely  to  yield 
good  specimens.  Further  advice  is  given  as  to  the  microscopic  study, 
and  the  pressing  and  drying  of  the  plants  for  the  herbarium.  The 
writer  recommends  envelopes  for  holding  the  specimens  and  brown 
paper  mounts  for  the  larger  forms. 

Notes  on  Lichens.J — Max  Britzelmayer  gives  a  description  of 
Sagedia  augustaaa,  a  lichen  that  grows  on  calcareous  sandy  soil ;  he  has 
found  it  a  second  time.  The  same  author  publishes  §  the  description 
and  figures  of  the  plants  of  the  "  Lichenes  exsiccati  aus  der  Flora  von 
Augsburg,"  which  was  issued  during  1!)02  and  1908.  The  lichens  are 
carefully  described,  and  notes  on  the  different  species  are  given.  The 
figures  represent  the  natural  appearance  of  the  plants,  spores,  etc.,  and 
are  magnified  and  their  colour  indicated. 

H  e  6 s e,  O. — TJeber  einige  Orseilleflechten  und  deren  Chromogene.   (On  some  Orchill- 
Lichens  and  their  Chromogene.)  Ber.  Chem.  Ges.  xxxvii.  pp.  4693-6. 

Ledebeb,  M. — Die  Fleohtenflora  der  Umgebung  von  Amberg.    (The  Lichen  Flora 
of  the  neighbourhood  of  Amberg.)  Amberg,  1904,  8vo.  48  pp. 

See  also  Ann.  My  col.  iii.  (1905)  p.  121. 


*  Atti  1st.  Bot.  Pavia,  viii.  (1904)  pp.  103-19  (2  pis.). 

t  Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  22-7. 

%  36  Ber.  Naturwiss.  Schwaben  und  Neuburg  a  Y.,  1904,  pp.  127-8. 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  23-89  (30  pis.)     fc>ee  also  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  64-5. 


358     SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

Picquenard.  C.  A.— Lichens  du  Finistere.     (Lichens  of  Finistere,) 

[The  author  gives  notes  on  the  influence  of  clim;ite,  etc.,  on  distribution  ; 
there  is  one  new  species  recorded,  Biatora  erysibetta.} 

Hull.  Acad.  Intern.  Geogr.  Bot.  xiii.  (1004)  pp.  1-48,  108-32. 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol.  iii.  (1005)  p.  121. 

Stamatis,  M. — Contribution  a  la  flore  Lichenologique  de  la  Roumanie.     (Contri- 
bution to  the  Lichen  Flora  of  Roumania.)         Ann.  Sci.  Univ.  Juxxy,  1904,  17  pp. 

See  also  Ann.  Mycol.  iii.  (1905)  p.  12L 

Zopf,  W. — Zur  Kenntnis  der  Flechtenstoflfe.     (Knowledge  of  Lichen  substances.) 

Justus  Liebig's  Ann.  Chemie,  cccxxxviii.  pp.  35-7 L 

Mycetozoa. 

Lister,  A.  &  G. — Mycetozoa  from  New  Zealand. 

[The  specimens,  including  one  new  to  science,  were  collected  by  Miss 
Hibbert-Ware.  Graphic  notes  of  the  localities  are  given  with  descriptions 
and  lists  of  the  species.]  Joum.  Bot.  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  111-14. 

Schizophyta. 
Schizomycetes. 

Bacillus  hypothermos,  a  Micro-organism  Pathogenic  for  Cold- 
blooded Animals.* — C.  Scharz  isolated  this  organism  from  a  lizard, 
Hatteria  punctata.  The  animal  had  died,  and  the  autopsy  shaved  abscess 
cavities  about  the  sternum,  filled  with  caseating  contents  resembling 
tuberculous  deposit ;  microscopic  examination  of  this  caseous  matter 
showed  a  large  number  of  small  rods  1  /a-1  '  4  //.  long,  which  from  their 
small  size  and  their  frequent  arrangement  in  pairs,  gave  the  impression 
of  diplococci  ;  they  stained  by  the  ordinary  dyes,  but  were  decolorised 
by  Gram's  method  ;  when  freshly  obtained  and  stained  with  Loeffier's 
blue,  they  showed  deep  polar  stainings.  They  were  actively  motile, 
having  numerous  long  peritrichal  flagella.  Spore  formation  was  never 
observed.  The  optimum  temperature  was  between  15°  and  20°  C. 
The  bacillus  grew  readily  on  ordinary  media,  under  both  aerobic  and 
anaerobic  conditions,  a  slight  alkalinity  of  the  medium  apparently 
enhancing  the  vigour  of  its  growth.  Its  peptonising  action  on  gelatin 
was  very  much  diminished  under  anaerobic  conditions.  After  20  hours 
on  a  gelatin  plate  it  formed  round,  scarcely  visible,  membranous,  super- 
ficial colonies,  at  first  resembling  those  of  B.  typhosus  ;  later  these 
became  brown  in  the  centre  with  clear  transparent  margins,  and  floated 
in  the  cup  of  liquefaction  ;  on  agar  plate  after  a  few  hours,  it  formed 
small,  round,  membranous,  finely  granular  colonies,  the  centres  coloured 
brown,  fading  away  to  the  periphery  ;  the  deep  colonies  being  round  or 
whetstone  shaped  with  smooth  margins  of  a  yellow-brown  colour  ;  cultures 
in  broth  and  in  pepton  water  became,  after  a  few  hours,  uniformly 
clouded,  and  a  pellicle  was  never  formed  ;  milk  was  firmly  coagulated 
after  48  hours,  but  no  acid  was  produced  ;  on  blood  serum  there  was 
abundant  growth  and  rapid  liquefaction.  The  growth  on  potato  was 
very  remarkable  ;  whereas  the  earlier  growth  appeared  as  a  quite  un- 
characteristic yellowish-white  membrane.     After  five  or  six  days  small 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1'-  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxviii.  (1905)  p.  11. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  3."9 

bubble-like  outgrowths  appeared  oil  the  surface,  and  these  slowly  grew 
to  large  gas-containing  bladders,  which  later  ruptured.  Indol  reaction 
was  observed  in  pepton  water  cultures  after  three  days,  and  gas  forma- 
tion occurred  in  glucose  broth  after  two  days ;  a  strong  reducing  action 
was  manifested  by  the  addition  of  methylen-blue  to  the  media  ;  the 
production  of  H2S  was  never  observed.  It  showed  no  pathogenicity  for 
warm-blooded  animals,  but  Tritons,  Lizards,  Salamanders,  and  Tortoises 
were  found  to  be  very  susceptible,  dying  after  three  to  four  days  ;  the 
susceptibility  of  frogs  was  variable,  being  greater  in  March  and  April 
than  in  the  summer  months. 

Distribution  of  the  Microbes  in  the  Intestines  of  Infants.* — 
H.  Tissier  finds  that  the  bacteriological  aspect  of  the  meconium  period 
before  the  definite  milk  stools  have  become  established,  comprises  three 
phases :  (1)  an  aseptic  phase  when  the  digestive  tract  is  sterile,  the 
first  bacteria  commencing  to  appear  only  about  the  tenth  to  twentieth 
hour ;  (2)  "  phase  d'infection  croissante  "  commencing  with  the  first 
appearance  of  microbes  before  any  attempt  at  alimentation  has  occurred, 
and  lasting  to  the  middle  of  the  third  day  ;  it  is  preceded  by  a  discharge 
of  epithelial  cells  from  the  mouth  accompanied  by  cocci  {Staphylococcus 
albus),  soon  followed  by  a  cocco-bacillus  not  staining  by  Gram  (B.  coli), 
large  rods  (B.  perfringms),  slender  rods  (23.  III.  Bodella),  diplococco- 
bacilli  not  staining  by  Gram's  method  (B.  perfoetens,  B.  lactis  aerog.), 
diplococci  staining  by  Gram's  method  and  sarcinse,  and  later  B.  mesen- 
tericus,  B.  acidophilus  and  B.  bifidus  ;  (:!)  "  phase  de  transformation," 
which  lasts  12  to  2-1  hours,  during  which  the  flora  become  simplified,  the 
microbes  gradually  disappearing  in  a  fairly  constant  order,  until  by  the 
fourth  day,  when  the  meconium  period  has  ended  and  the  milk  stool  has 
become  established,  the  flora  of  the  intestine  is  constituted  by  one  species 
only,  B.  bifidus ;  and  in  the  breast-fed  child  this  aspect  will  be  main- 
tained until  it  is  weaned ;  it  is  usual  to  find  besides  this  strictly 
anaerobic  bacillus,  a  limited  number  of  facultative  anaerobes  (B.  coli 
communis,  Enterococcus,  and  B.  lactis  aerogenes).  In  the  case  of  the 
bottle-fed  child,  the  second  phase  of  the  meconium  period  is  longer,  and 
yeasts  and  varieties  of  sarcinse  are  met  with  that  are  rare  or  unknown 
in  the  stools  of  the  breast-fed  infant ;  the  third  phase  also  is  prolonged, 
even  to  the  fifteenth  day  after  birth  ;  the  bacteria  are  very  various, 
varying  in  the  same  child  from  one  stool  to  another. 

The  microbes  of  the  meconium  period  were  found  to  provide  mixed 
proteolytic  and  peptolytic  ferments,  which  as  the  result  of  their  action  on 
sugars  and  albuminoids,  give  rise  to  a  process  identical  with  putrefaction. 
The  microbes  of  the  meconium  are  the  same  in  animals  as  in  children, 
but  the  microbes  of  the  milk  stools  are  slightly  different. 

The  microbes  forming  the  intestinal  flora  of  the  infant  can  be 
isolated  from  all  parts  of  the  digestive  canal,  but  they  are  not  distributed 
equally  in  every  part.  They  are  less  numerous  in  the  stomach,  become 
very  rare  in  the  duodenum  and  in  the  first  portion  of  the  small  gut, 
then  they  progressively  increase,  attaining  a  maximum  in  the  caecum 
and  rectum.     Passing  from  the  stomach  to  the  rectum,  the  microbes. 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  six.  (1905)  p.  109. 


360  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

predominate  in  the  following  order,  B.  coli,  B.  lactis  aerogenes,  Eatero- 
coccus,  B.  exilis,  B.  acidophilus,  and  B.  bifidus  •  that  is,  in  the  order  of 
their  sensibility  to  oxygen,  and  according  to  the  strength  of  their 
fermentation.  The  distribution  of  microbes  in  the  intestine  is  the 
result  of  three  causes :  {a)  the  sterilising  action  of  the  secretion  of  the 
duodenum  ;  {b)  the  greater  or  less  degree  of  oxygenation  of  the  region  ; 
and  (c)  the  greater  or  less  ferment  action  of  the  bacteria. 

Spirillum  pyogenes  Mezincescu.* — R.  Doerr  isolated  after  death 
from  a  case  of  cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  an  organism  which  he  regarded  as 
similar  if  not  identical  with  the  spirillum  of  Mezincescu.  From  the 
purulent  contents  of  the  bile-ducts  he  prepared  smears  which  showed 
only  solitary  uon-Gram-staining  rods,  and  which  in  culture  resembled 
the  Bacillus  coli  communis.  Smear  preparations  from  the  pus  of  the 
pleural  cavities  and  from  the  pericardium  stained  with  warm  dilute 
carbol-fuchsin  showed  numerous  comma-like  curved  rods  1  /x  long  and 
very  thin,  two  often  attached  sigma-like  together,  and  frequently  4-f» 
individuals  united  into  a  spirillum ;  these  forms  were  partly  free  and 
partly  included  in  the  leucocytes  ;  they  stained  very  badly  with  other 
stains,  and  were  decolorised  by  Gram's  method. 

The  author's  original  cultures  having  failed,  he  injected  2  c.cm.  of 
the  pus  intraperitoneally  into  a  white  mouse.  The  animal  died  within 
48  hours  ;  in  the  peritoneal  effusion  he  found  great  numbers  of  spirilla 
identical  in  form  and  staining  reaction  with  those  observed  in  the  pus. 
Cultures  were  made  from  this  peritoneal  exudate  on  agar,  blood  agar, 
broth,  ascitic  broth,  and  glucose  broth  ;  after  48  hours  the  broth  showed  a 
faint  cloudiness,  which  later  increased,  and  after  a  week  there  was  a 
greyish-white  sediment  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube  ;  similar  cultures  grew 
in  ascitic  broth  and  glucose  broth,  no  gas  being  formed.  No  growth 
was  obtained  in  pepton-salt  solution,  milk,  on  potato,  glycerin-agar, 
glucose-agar,  or  gelatin  ;  nor  was  there  any  growth  under  anaerobic 
conditions,  nor  at  22°  C.  It  was  not  pathogenic  for  ordinary  animals, 
the  apparent  exception  in  the  case  of  the  mouse  being  due  to  the  large 
dose  of  the  pus  that  was  inoculated  ;  a  similar  dose  inoculated  into  a 
guinea-pig  was  without  result.  In  spite  of  this  he  considers  that  this 
organism  was  the  cause  of  the  purulent  pericarditis. 

Micro-Organism  causing  an  Epidemic  Disease  among  Cats.t — 
N.  Mori  describes  the  clinical  and  pathological  appearances  found  in  a 
cat  dying  from  an  epidemic  disease,  which,  during  the  summer  of  11)03, 
was  attacking  a  number  of  cats  in  Sienna. 

On  agar  cultivations  made  from  the  blood,  the  liver,  and  the  spleen, 
he  obtained  pure  cultures  of  an  organism  —  a  round-ended,  motile 
bacillus  with  6-8  long  peritrichal  flagella,  staining  by  the  ordinary  dyes, 
but  not  by  Gram  nor  Claudius  ;  a  potential  anaerobe,  with  an  optimum 
temperature  between  30°  and  37° ;  it  was  killed  by  exposure  to  45°  C.  for 
30  minutes  or  50°  C.  for  5  minutes  ;  it  was  very  resistant  to  drying  ; 
spore  formation  was  never  observed.  Grown  in  broth  at  30°-37°  C, 
after  G  hours  a  uniform  clouding  appeared,  and  later  a  pellicle  formed 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  l'«  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxviii.  (1905)  p.  15. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  42  and  1S6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  361 

which  became  thick  and  dry  and  sank  to  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  a  frcsli 
pellicle  being  re-formed  and  the  process  repeated  ;  the  medium  had  an 
•alkaline  reaction,  and  possessed  an  unpleasant  odour.  On  gelatin  yellow 
disc-like  colonies  appeared  within  48  hours ;  no  liquefaction  of  the 
medium  occurred.  No  indol  reaction  could  be  obtained,  but  a  reduction 
•of  nitrates  was  demonstrated.  With  glucose,  maltose,  and  mannite  it  pro- 
duced acid  and  gas ;  with  saccharose,  lactose,  and  glycerin  neither  acid 
nor  gas  formation  occurred  ;  neutral  red  was  completely  decolorised 
within  24  hours.  It  was  pathogenic  to  guinea-pigs,  rabbits,  pigeons, 
white  mice,  cats,  and  hedgehogs,  and  was  obtained  from  the  blood  of 
these  animals  after  death.  The  author  describes  the  methods  he  adopted 
for  immunising  and  for  obtaining  serum  ;  from  a  rabbit,  after  a  series  of 
injections,  he  obtained  a  serum  that  agglutinated  the  bacilli  in  80  minutes, 
with  a  1-500  dilution  ;  the  bacillus  was  also  clumped  by  anti-typhoid 
■serum  in  dilutions  of  1-30.  He  considers  that  the  organism  belongs  to 
•a  new  species,  and  he  has  named  it  Bacillus  catkida. 

Thermophilic  Microflora  of  the  Human  Intestine.* — G.  Bruini 
reports  a  number  of  bacteriological  examinations  of  human  fasces. 
From  an  adult  he  isolated  9  thermophilic  micro-organisms,  7  varieties  of 
bacilli,  and  2  varieties  of  streptotricheae ;  4  bacilli  and  1  streptothrix 
were  absolute  thermophils,  all  were  essential  aerobes,  grew  well  on  potato, 
stained  by  Gram's  method,  and  showed  spore  formation ;  none  were 
pathogenic.  From  the  faeces  of  a  new-born  child  he  isolated  6  thermo- 
philic micro-organisms,  3  varieties  of  bacilli  and  3  varieties  of  strepto- 
tricheas,  only  one  of  which  agreed  with  any  of  those  he  had  isolated  from 
the  fasces  of  the  adult ;  they  were  all  essential  aerobes,  and  stained  by  Gram's 
method,  and  only  one  did  not  show  spore  formation  ;  none  were  patho- 
genic. He  gives  details  of  the  morphology  and  cultural  characteristics 
•of  the  micro-organisms  he  has  isolated,  and  adds  notes  referring  to  the 
researches  by  other  workers  on  the  thermophilic  bacilli  and  streptotricheas 
•occurring  in  nature. 

Biology  of  the  Cholera  Spirillum.f — W.  B.  Wherry  has  made  a 
study  of  the  variations  which  occur  in  one  culture  of  cholera  spirillum, 
and  compared  it  with  cultures  from  different  sources.  He  finds  that  the 
•  morphology  of  the  different  cultures  does  not  markedly  vary  if  precautions 
•are  taken  to  make  preparations  from  corresponding  portions  of  growths. 
His  cultures  were  found  to  be  specifically  the  same  as  shown  by  the 
•Griiber-Durham  and  Pfeiffer  reactions. 

The  cholera  spirillum  is  not  a  nitrifying  organism,  and  the  successful 
•demonstration  of  the  cholera  red  reaction  in  a  solution  of  Witte's  pepton 
•depends  upon  the  presence  of  a  trace  of  nitrates.  He  finds  that  the  type 
•of  liquefaction  produced  in  gelatin  is  influenced  by  the  reaction  and 
melting-point  of  the  gelatin.  Growth  in  the  presence  of  carbohydrates 
showed  that  the  acids  produced  from  glucose,  maltose,  and  saccharose 
•rapidly  kill  the  cholera  spirillum,  whilst  those  produced  from  lactose  and 
starch  are  not  toxic,  at  least,  within  a  given  time. 

*  Centralbl.  B;ikt.,  lie  Abt.  Orig..  xxxviii.  (1905)  pp.  177  and  298. 
t  Bureau  Gov.  Lab.  Mauila,  No.  19,  Oct.  1904. 


362  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Streptothrix  pseudo-tuberculosis.* — P,  Sanfelice  compares  the- 
morphology,  cultural  aspects,  and  pathogenic  action  of  the  various 
members  of  the  Streptothrix  group  with  the  Bacillus  tuberculosis  ;• 
especially  referring  to  their  acid-fast  properties  and  to  the  similar 
morbid  anatomical  changes  produced,  and  to  the  analogous  histogenetic- 
characters  of  pseudo-tuberculosis  and  tuberculosis.  He  refers  to  a 
number  of  cases  described  by  various  authors,  of  Streptothrix  infection 
occurring  in  man.  He  considers  that  a  real  distinction  beween  pseudo- 
tuberculosis and  true  pulmonary  consumption  can  only  be  established 
after  cultures  of  the  organism  have  been  obtained.  His  experiments  on 
serum  immunisation  and  serum  therapy  have  as  yet  been  unsuccessful. 

Bacillus  acidificans  presamigenes  casei.t — C.  Gorini  describes  an 
organism  which  he  has  designated  from  its  power  of  peptonising  milk  in 
the  presence  of  lactic  acid  ferments,  B.  acidificans  presamigenes  casei.  It 
is  from  8-10  ft  long  and  2/x.  broad.  It  is  motile,  spore-forming,  poten- 
tially anaerobic,  and  Gram  staining.  It  grows  well  in  the  usual  media, 
and  at  ordinary  temperature.  It  turns  broth  turbid,  and  forms  a  pellicle- 
on  the  surface.  On  gelatin  the  colonies  are  white,  liquefying,  and  round, 
with  irregular  contour. 

Vibrio  Cardii4— E.  Klein  confirms  the  statement  of  Hirschbrucli 
and  Schever,  who  found  that  the  Drigalski-Conradi  medium  was  useful 
for  isolating  vibrios.  By  its  aid  the  author  isolated  from  the  Cockle, 
Cardium  edule,  a  vibrio  which  liquefies  gelatin,  very  much  like  V^ 
Cholercc.  The  Cockle  vibrio  grows  well  in  pepton- water  and  in  broth. 
It  does  not  form  indol.  Litmus  milk  is  reddened,  but  the  milk  remains 
fluid  for  8  days,  coagulation  only  occurring  later.  V.  Cardii  is  pathogenic- 
to  guinea-pigs. 

Bacillus  violaceus  Manilse.§ — P.  G.  Woolley  isolated  an  organism 
from  three  Carabaos  which  died  suddenly  but  without  noteworthy 
symptoms.  This  organism,  designated  B.  violaceus  Manila,  is  from 
1-1 '5  p  long  by  0'5  /u,  broad.  It  stains  easily,  but  not  by  Gram's 
method.  It  does  not,  however,  stain  uniformly,  showing  clear  spaces, 
somewhat  resembling  spores ;  it  is  motile,  and  possesses  one  polar  flagel- 
lum.  It  grows  well  on  the  usual  media,  and  forms  a  blue  pigment  which 
is  soluble  in  alcohol,  slightly  soluble  in  water  and  ether,  and  insoluble 
in  chloroform  It  liquefies  gelatin,  is  an  essential  aerobe,  its  optimum 
temperature  is  37°  C,  it  is  easily  killed,  and  does  not  form  spores.  It  is. 
pathogenic  to  animals. 

Bacillus  jasmino-cyaneus  and  Bacillus  flavo-aromaticus.|| — Wv 
Gaehtgens  reports  on  two  chromogenic  bacteria  which  were  met  with  in 
typhoid  stools.  B.  jasmino-cyaneus  is  an  extremely  motile  rodlet,  an 
essential  aerobe,  and  non-Gram-staining.  It  grows  well  at  24°  and 
37°  C.  It  does  not  form  spores  or  acid.  Colonies  of  gelatin  are  iridescent,, 
the  medium  becoming  liquefied  and  stained  of  a  dark  green  hue.     The- 

•  Centralbl.  Bakt,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxviii.  (1905)  p.  30. 

t  Bendiconti  R.  Istit.  Lombardo  Sci.  e  Let.,  xxxvii.  (1904^  pp.  939-45. 

X  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  l,e  Abt.  Oris,'.,  xxxviii.  (1905)  pp.  173-4. 

§  Johns  Hopkins  Hosp.  Bull.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  89-93. 

||  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  l*e  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxviii.  (1905)  pp.  129-31. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  363 

agar  colonies  are  also  iridescent,  the  medium  becoming  of  an  emerald 
green  colour.  Milk  is  coagulated  and  peptonised.  It  forms  indol,  but 
no  gas.     It  is  pathogenic  to  small  animals. 

B.  flavo-aromaticus  is  a  medium-sized  rodlet,  of  moderate  motility, 
and  strictly  aerobic.  It  does  not  form  spores  or  stain  by  Gram's  method. 
It  grows  in  rosette-shaped  yellow  colonies.  It  liquefies  gelatin  and 
serum.  It  coagulates  and  peptonises  milk,  imparting  an  alkaline  re- 
action to  the  medium.     All  the  colonies  exhale  a  fruity  odour. 

Bacillus  conjunctivitidis  subtiliformis.* — J.  Michelski  isolated 
from  numerous  cases  of  conjunctivitis  a  bacillus  which,  from  its 
resemblance  to  the  hay  bacillus,  is  designated  B.  conjunctivitidis 
subtiliformis.  It  is  a  motile  rodlet,  2-2  ■  5  \x  long  and  about  0 ■  5  \x  thick. 
The  ends  are  rounded.  It  stains  easily,  and  is  not  decolorised  by 
Gram's  method.  In  old  cultures  the  bacilli  are  ovate  with  central 
spores.  The  optimum  temperature  is  37°  C,  but  there  is  copious  growth 
at  room  temperature.  It  forms  a  thick,  yellowish-brown  surface  scum 
on  bouillon.  Gelatin  and  blood-serum  are  liquefied.  It  grows  well  on 
most  media.     On  potato  it  forms  a  moist  brown  overlay. 

Formation  of  Volatile  alkaloids  by  Bacillus  nobilis.j — L.  Adanietz 
and  T.  Chszaszek  report  that  prolonged  cultivation  (22  months)  of 
Bacillus  nobilis  in  milk  yields  a  basic  substance  when  distilled.  This 
substance,  termed  tyrothrixin,  also  found  in  Emmenthal  cheese,  is. 
white,  crystalline,  and  readily  soluble  in  ether,  alcohol,  or  dilute  acids,, 
and  volatile  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

Freudeureich,  Ed.  vox. — Ueber  die  Wirkung  verschiendener  Milchsaure^ 
fermente  auf  die  Kasereifung.  (Effect  of  different  lactic  acid  ferments  on  cheese 
ripening.)  Centralbl.  Bakt.  2te  Abt.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  34-43  (1  pi.). 

Adeney,  W.  E. — Chemical  Changes  attending  the  Aerobic  Bacterial  Fermentation 
of  Simple  Organic  Substances.  Part  I.  Urea,  Asparagin,  Albumose,  Rochelle 
Salt.  Proc.  Buy.  Irish  Acad.,s.s.\.,  section  13  (1905)  pp.  6-24  (2  pis.). 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  212-14. 
t  Milchw.  Zeutr.,  1905,  i.  78-80.     See  Journ.  L'heni.  Soc,  lxxxvii.  and  lxxxviii., 
1905,  ii.  p.  273. 


364 


SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.  Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 
(1)  Stands. 

Engineer's  Metallurgical  Microscope.f — This  instrument  (fig.  57) 
\vas  designed  by  J.  E.  Stead,  F.R.S.,  for  use  in  engineering  works,  where 
large  forgings  require  examination  when  in  the  lathe,  or  when  laid  on 


Fig.  57. 

•  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives;  (3)  Illu- 
minating and  other  Apparatus;  (4)  Photomicrography;  (5)  Microscopical  Optics 
and  Manipulation;  (G)  Miscellaneous. 

t  J-  Swift  and  Son's  Catalogue,  1904,  p.  35. 


mu 


Fig.  58. 


366 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


the  ground.  It  is  specially  massive.  A  solid  stage  is  made  to  swing 
round,  so  that  the  object-glasses  can  be  brought  into  focus  on  the 
forging  or  casting  upon  which  the  foot  or  fork  rests.  To  effect  this, 
an  inside  tube  carrying  the  object-glasses  slides  within  the  outer  barrel 
and  can  be  lowered  to  a  sufficient  distance.  By  means  of  a  simple  wire 
rope  strap  the  stand  is  rigidly  held  in  any  required  position  on  the  piece 
of  metal  under  examination.  "When  in  focus  the  position  of  the  barrel 
is  fixed  by  a  screw  at  one  side  of  the  rack  and  pinion.  When  so  fixed  a 
\  plate  conical  camera  may  be  placed  on  the  top  of  the  barrel  and  photo- 
graphs taken. 

Swift's  New  Compound  Metallurgical  Microscope.* — In  this  in- 
strument (fig.  58),  specially  designed  for  the  Royal  Arsenal,  Woolwich, 
the  optical  tube  is  2\  in.  in  diameter,  and  is  divided  to  show  the  posi- 
tion at  which  any  objective  will  allow  of  an  object  being  tilted  without 
going  out  of  focus.  The  stage  is  so  designed  that  after  focussing  the 
object  in  the  horizontal  position  it  may  be  tilted  or  turned  in  any 
direction  without  affecting  the  focussing.  The  ordinary  slide  is  held 
on  the  top  of  the  stage  by  means  of  steel  springs,  while  pieces  of  metal 
are  held  in  position  by  four  clamping  dogs  sliding  in  dovetails  and  fixed 
by  small  clamping  screws. 


Fig.  59. 


Reichert's  Medium  Dissecting  Microscope.! — This  instrument 
(fig.  59)  has  a  rack  and  pinion  adjustment,  large  stage,  and  a  couple 
of  leather-covered  hand-rests.  The  doublet  has  a  magnification  of 
10  times. 

*  J.  Swift  and  Son's  Catalogue,  1904,  pp.  36-7. 

t  C.  Reichert's  Special  Catalogue,  No.  25  (1904)  fig.  19. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


367 


Reichert's  New  Microscope  for  Brain  Sections.* — This  large  model 
Microscope,  shown  in  rig.  00,  is  made  with  an  unusually  large  equip- 


*£5»M( 


Fig.  CO. 


ment  and  with  an  extra-size  stage,  for  the  thorough  exploration  of  such 
large  objects  as  brain-sections,  etc.     The  object-slides  are  moved  by 

*  C.  Ecichert  (Vienna)  Catalogue  No.  25  (Mikroskopie,  1904)  p.  36,  fig.  17d. 


368 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


hand  motion.  The  coarse  adjustment  is  by  rack  and  pinion  ;  the  fine- 
by  micrometer  screw.  The  Microscope  is  fitted  with  the  Abbe  illuminating- 
apparatus,  hollow  and  plane  mirrors. 

Tafner's  New  Preparation  Stand.* — This  is  made  by  G.  Reichert,. 
and  is  shown  in  fig.  61,  about  one-third  full  size.  The  arrangement 
will  be  easily  understood  from  the  illustration. 


Fig.  61. 


Imperial  Standard  Yard.f — A  description  of  the  Comparator,  and 
the  method  of  using  it,  would  be  outside  the  range  of  our  work,  but  we 
may  legitimately  examine  the  micrometer  Microscopes  by  which  the 
measurements  are  made.  These  seem  to  be  of  a  most  elementary  type, 
and  as  such  wholly  inadequate  for  the  work  in  hand.  The  N.A.  of  the 
objectives  is  something  under  0  *  1,  their  greatest  separating  power  is  there- 
fore less  than  '0001,  so  that  tottoo  m-  must  be  taken  as  the  limit  of  the 
accuracy  of  this  comparator.  All  refinements,  such  as  an  error  of  '01°  C. 
in  a  thermometer,  or  the  compression  of  the  rod  due  to  a  change  in  the 
barometric  pressure,  are  meaningless  when  such  elementary  microscopical 
micrometers  are  employed.  Apparently  the  whole  of  the  apparatus  was 
made  abroad. 

(2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Reichert's  New  Erect  Image  Preparation  System  for  Preparation 
Microscopes.^ — This  system  of  lenses,  as  applied  to  Reichert's  Large 
Model  Preparation  Microscope,  is  shown  in  fig.  G2.  The  arrangement 
of  Porro  prisms  by  which  an  erect  image  is  obtained  is  seen  in  section. 

*  C.  Reichert  (Vienna),  Catalogue  No.  25  (Mikroskopie,  1904)  p.  41,  fig.  20a. 
f  Memorandum  on  the  Construction  and   Verification  of  a   new   copy  of  thf- 
Imperial  Standard  Yard.     Part  I.     London,  1905,  57  pp.,  4  pis. 

X  C.  Reichert  (Vienna)  Catalogue  No.  25  (Mikroskopie,  1904)  p.  40,  fig.  20. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


369 


The  Microscope  itself  is  of  large  size,  and  is  equally  fit  for  the  exami- 
nation of  brain  sections  or  of  small  objects.  It  has  a  glass  stage 
10  cm.  by  10  cm.,  which  may  be  replaced  by  an  accompanying  metal 
plate.  The  base  is  a  heavy  horseshoe  :  the  hand-rests  are  mahogany 
and  of  large  size.     The  lens-carriers  have  both  horizontal  and  vertical 


Fig.  62. 


adjustments,  and  there  is  provision  for  a  second  carrier  of  weak 
magnification.  There  is  a  sub-stage  arrangement  for  reducing  the  light 
at  pleasure  ;  the  mirrors  are  plane  and  concave,  and  can  be  placed  so  as 
to  illuminate  from  above. 

New  Method  of  using  the  Plankton  Searcher.* — P.  Mayer  has 
found  a  simple  means  for  obviating  the  difficulties  attendant  on  the  use 
of  the  Plankton  Searcher.f  These  difficulties,  more  or  less  attendant 
•on  the  great  working  distance,  have  been  got  over  by  means  of  a  glass 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1901)  pp.  447-9  (2  fijrs). 
t  See  this  Journal,  1898,  pp.  677-8  ;  1899,  pp.  111-12. 

June  21st,  1005  2  c 


Ol  0 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


tube  from  35-50  mm.  long,  and  having  an  outside  measurement  of 
about  15  mm.  (fig.  (J:!)  which  is  inserted  for  a  distance  of  about  5  mm. 
into  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  20-25  mm.  long,  and  just  wide  enough  to 
grip  the  objective  firmly.  The  parts  are  fitted  together  as  follows  : — 
Screw  the  objective  on  to  the  Microscope  barrel,  push  up  the  tube, 
reverse  the  barrel,  fill  the  tube  slowly  with  water,  put  a  cover-glass  or 
piece  of  paper  on  the  top,  and  then  insert  the  barrel  in  the  stand.  As 
soon  as  the  free  end  of  the  tube  is  immersed  in  the  vessel,  the  cover- 
glass  or  paper  falls  off.  By  shifting  the  rubber  tubing  on  the 
objective,  the  operator  can  adapt  the  apparatus  to  the  height  of  the 
water  in  the  vessel  and  the  objects  therein.     A  depth  of  10  mm.  is 


1 

r 

4                            \. 

Fig.  63. 


Fig.  64. 


sufficient,  but  if  the  objects  are  thick,  or  at  a  distance  from  the  bottom,, 
more  water  is  necessary. 

If  the  operator  prefers  to  work  with  a  closed  tube,  the  rubber  tubing 
must  have  a  small  perforation  (fig.  64)  to  allow  water  to  escape  when 
the  objective  is  pushed  down. 

The  cover-glass  forming  the  bottom  of  the  tube  may  be  stuck  on 
with  marine  glue  or  with  Mendelejeff's  cement.  An  advantage  of  this 
method  is  that  the  objective  may  be  surrounded  with  distilled  water. 
The  cover-glass  does  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  sharpness  of  the 


image. 


Simple  form  of  Index  Ocular.* — CI.  C.  van  Walsem,  after  descanting 
on  the  usefulness  of  the  index  ocular  for  demonstration  purposes,  point- 
out  that  a  simple  and  effective  index  eye-piece  can  be  made  by  merely 


Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  174-7  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


371 


drilling  a  hole  in  the  ocular  just  above  the  diaphragm.  The  aperture 
should  be  of  such  size  that  it  will  admit  the  passage  of  a  medium-sized 
pin  (about  3  cm.  long)  to  serve  as  indicator. 

(3)  Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus. 

Pfeiffer's  Hot-Air  Chamber.*— This  apparatus,  made  by  C.  Reichert, 
is  seen  in  fig.  G5.  It  is  intended  for  the  heating  of  the  whole  Micro- 
scope.    It  is  fitted  with  a  thermometer  and  a  gas  thermo-regulator. 


"' 


Fig.  65. 


Reichert's    New    Achromatic    Condenser.|  —  This    illuminating 
apparatus  has  an  aperture  of  1*30,  and  as  will  be  seen  from  the  illnstra- 

*  C.  Reichert  (Vienna)  Catalogue  No.  25  (Mikroskopie,  1904)  p.  53,  fig.  266. 
t  C.  Reichert's  Catalogue,  No.  25  (1901)  p.  13. 

2   C   2 


372 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


tion  (fig.  06)  the  iris  diaphragm  has  a  scale  marked  above  the  slit,  a 

tie 

c 


feature  often  of  great  convenience 


c    t 


Fig.  66. 

J.  E.  Stead's  Illuminator  for  Opaque  Objects.* — This  is  a  simple 
and  effective  apparatus  for  illuminating  me- 
tallurgical specimens  by  reflected  light,  but  is 
only  intended  for  use  with  low-power  objec- 
tives, 1^-3  in.  The  illustration  (fig.  67)  suffi- 
ciently explains  the  principle  of  illumination. 
The  metal  box  has  one  of  its  sides  cut  at  an 
angle  of  45°,  this  being  faced  with  a  small 
square  of  glass,  the  surface  of  which  is  illu- 
minated by  means  of  a  lamp  with  or  without 
the  intervention  of  a  bull's-eye  condenser. 
The  circular  collar  pushes  on  to  the  body  of 
the  objective. 


Fig.   67. 


Siedentopf  &  Szigmondy's  New  Microscopic  Apparatus  for  rendering  visible 
Ultra-microscopic  Particles  in  Glasses  and  Liquids. 
[This  apparatus  is  now  made  by  C.  Reicliert] 

C.  Reichert  (Vienna)  Special  Circular. 

(6)   Miscellaneous. 

High  Power  Microscopy  .f — In  an  address  at  the  Royal  Institution 
J.  W.  Gordon  observed  that  in  the  exhibition  of  a  microscopic  object 
under  high  magnifying  power  there  are  three  stages  in  which  difficulties 
have  to  be  met  and  surmounted — (1)  In  the  preparation  of  the  object 
for  exhibition  under  suitable  conditions  of  illumination  ;  (2)  in  the 
representation  of  the  object  by  means  of  an  image  ;  (3)  in  the  trans- 
mission of  the  image  so  found  in  the  instrument  to  the  eye  of  the 
observer.  Professor  Wright  classified  the  preparation  of  objects  into 
colour  pictures  by  means  of  stains  and  outline  pictures.  The  method  of 
staining  having  manifest  limitations,  Mr.  Gordon  proceeded  to  refer  to 
the  use  of  cross-lighting  or  "  dark-ground  illumination  "  in  order  to  show 
outlines,  with  especial  reference  to  Dr.  Siedentopf's  application  of  this 
principle  to  the  exhibition  of  so-called  "  ultra-microscopical  particles." 


*  J.  Swift  and  Son's  Catalogue  (1904)  p.  35. 
+  Knowledge,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  114-15. 


o^O 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  613 

In  ruby  glass,  for  instance,  the  colour  is  due  to  minute  particles  of  gold 
diffused  through  the  glass,  so  small  as  to  be  beyond  the  powers  of  the 
Microscope  as  ordinarily  used.  By  special  methods  of  illumination, 
however,  at  right  angles  with  the  optical  axis  of  the  Microscope,  and  by 
limiting  the  plane  of  such  illumination,  the  particles  come  into  view  as 
diffraction  discs.  Mr.  Gordon  then  dealt  with  some  experiments  of  his 
own,  originally  suggested  by  a  paper  of  Lord  Rayleigh's,  but  which 
were  still  incomplete,  which  consisted  especially  of  a  method  of  lighting 
up  the  object  by  means  of  diffracted  light,  the  principle  being  explained 
by  a  diffraction  slit  formed  by  the  edges  of  two  knives  stuck  in  a  board 
so  that  their  edges  overlapped  towards  the  points,  but  were  about  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  apart  near  the  handles.  It  was  such  a  piece  of 
apparatus  that  Sir  Isaac  Newton  worked  when  he  made  his  first  precise 
recorded  observations  on  the  subject  of  diffracted  light.  Mr.  Gordon 
referred  to  the  observation  of  Helmholtz,  as  far  back  as  1874,  that  the 
limit  of  a  useful  power  in  a  high-power  objective  is  reached  when  the 
lens  of  the  objective  is  of  such  focal  length  that  its  diameter  is  rather  less 
than  the  diameter  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  and  that  beyond  that  point- 
there  was  no  advantage  in  increasing  the  magnifying  power  of  the 
objective,  but  that  further  magnification  was  best  obtained  by  increasing 
the  power  of  the  eye-piece.  But  this  method  had  also  drawbacks  owing 
to  the  smallness  of  the  emergent  pencil  of  light ;  such,  for  instance,  as 
the  greater  prominence  of  dust  upon  the  lens  or  of  floating  particles  in 
the  eye.  Mr.  Gordon  considered  that  this  was  responsible  for  the 
limitation  of  magnifying  powers  at  present  in  use  by  microscopists  to 
1500  or  2000  diameters,  whilst  most  good  work  was  done  with  magnifi- 
cations of  from  400  to  600 — a  statement,  however,  which  surely  needs 
some  qualification,  whatever  may  be  the  incidental  disadvantages  due  to 
high  eye-piecing.  However,  Mr.  Gordon's  method  of  getting  over  the 
difficulty  is  by  the  interposition  in  the  tube  of  the  Microscope  of  a  ground- 
glass  screen  on  which  the  image  is  received  from  the  objective,  so  as  to 
scatter  the  incident  rays  of  light,  the  screen  being  made  to  oscillate  in 
order  to  prevent  its  grain  from  becoming  visible  and  so  impairing  the 
details  of  the  picture.  This  picture  can  then  be  magnified  again  by 
means  of  a  second  Microscope  in  place  of  an  ordinary  eye-piece,  with 
consequent  greatly  increased  magnification.  It  may  not  perhaps  be 
superfluous  to  recall  that  the  mere  magnification  of  an  object,  or  even  the 
rendering  visible  of  what  could  not  otherwise  be  seen  to  be  existent,  as 
under  Siedentopf's  experiment,  does  not  give  any  optical  solution  as  to 
its  true  shape  and  size.  In  fact,  it  has  been  mathematically  proved,  and 
remains  true,  to  quote  Lord  Rayleigh's  own  words,  "  In  the  Microscope 
there  is  nothing  except  lack  of  light  to  hinder  the  visibility  of  an  object 
however  small.  But  if  its  dimensions  be  much  less  than  half  a  wave- 
length, it  can  only  be  seen  as  a  whole,  and  its  parts  cannot  be  distinctly 
separated,  although  in  cases  near  the  border-line  some  inference  may 
possibly  be  founded  upon  experience  of  what  appearances  are  presented 
in  various  cases.  .  .  .  What  has  been  said  about  a  luminous  point 
applies  equally  to  a  luminous  line.  If  bright  enough  it  will  be  visible, 
however  narrow  ;  but  if  the  real  width  be  much  less  than  the  half  wave- 
length, the  apparent  width  will  be  illusory." 


374  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Elements  of  Applied  Microscopy.* — The  author,  C.  E.  A.  Wilson, 
in  an  apologetic  introduction,  remarks  that  this  little  work  which  is 
intended  for  the  teacher  and  the  beginner  with  the  Microscope,  contains 
very  few  original  data,  and  treats  no  single  subject  with  completeness. 
In  less  than  170  pages,  divided  into  twelve  chapters,  the  author  flits 
over  the  following  fields,  functions  and  parts  of  the  Microscope  : — Its 
manipulation  ;  mounting  and  preparation  ;  micrometry ;  common 
starches  ;  foods  and  drugs ;  textile  fibres ;  paper  ;  the  Microscope  in 
medicine  and  forensic  medicine ;  microchemistry  ;  petrography  and 
metallography.  To  those  who  desire  a  superficial  glance  at  the  possibi- 
lities of  the  Microscope  and  its  practical  application,  this  elementary 
treatise  may  be  of  service. 

Optical  Dictionary.! — This  new  glossary  of  terms  chiefly  relating  to 
optics  and  optical  instruments  is  mainly  intended  for  the  use  of  students 
and  members  of  the  optical  industry.  It  will,  however,  be  found  helpful 
to  a  wider  circle,  as  it  deals  with  terms  used  in  ophthalmology,  photo- 
graphy, mathematics,  and  closely  allied  sciences.  The  volume  is  edited 
by  C.  Hyatt- Woolf. 

Microscopist's  Screen.} — J.  Peiser  describes  a  screen  for  protecting 
the  eyes  of  microscopists  against  the  light.  The  framework  clips  on  to 
the  ocular  and  to  the  ring  is  attached  a  T-shaped  piece  of  wire  to  which 
is  fixed  a  piece  of  black  satin. 


B.  Technique. § 
(1)  .Collecting1  Objects,  including-  Culture   Processes. 

Flagella  of  Bacillus  Typhosus.  —  W.  J.  Dibdin  exhibited  photo- 
graphs of  the  Bacillus  typhosus  at  the  April  meeting,  showing  the 
flagella  in  a  more  marked  manner  than  usual.  It  was  found  as  the 
result  of  a  considerable  number  of  cultures  of  this  organism,  that  the 
flagella  are  most  highly  developed  in  cultures  which  are  between  12  and 
20  hours  old.  In  the  photograph  the  considerable  extensions  of  the 
flagella  are  shown. 

The  method  of  preparation  was  as  follows  : — The  culture  used  was  a 
lG-hour-old  agar  streak  sub-culture  from  a  gelatin  streak  culture. 
Some  of  the  growth,  as  much  as  was  obtained  by  touching  the  culture 
with  a  sterile  wire,  was  smeared  on  a  watch-glass  and  1  c.cm.  of  sterile  tap- 
water  added.  Without  mixing  in  any  way,  the  watch-glass  and  contents 
were  then  incubated  at  40°  C.  for  30  minutes.  Drops  of  the  water, 
throughout  which  the  more  active  of  the  flagellated  bacilli  had  spread, 
were  taken  from  the  edges  and  spotted  on  cover-glasses.     These  cover- 

•  New  York,  John  Wiley  and  Sons;  London, Chapman  and  Hall  (1905)  xii.  and 
108  pp.,  CO  figs. 

t  London,  Gutenberg  Press,  Limited  (1905)  77  pp. 

X  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  467-9  (2  figs.). 

§  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses ;  (2)  Preparing  Objects ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting  ;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  &c. ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  375 

glass  preparations  were  set  aside  until  they  had  become  thoroughly  air- 
dry,  and  were  then  fixed  in  the  usual  way  by  passing  through  a  flame. 

The  dried  and  fixed  preparation  on  the  cover-glass  was  next  flooded 
with  a  tannate  of  iron  mordant,  and  heated  till  the  mordant  steamed, 
when  the  latter  was  removed  by  washing  in  distilled  water.  After 
drying,  the  mordanting  process  was  repeated,  and  finally  the  preparation 
was  stained  with  Ziehl  fuchsin  solution.* 

The  photographs  were  taken  by  means  of  a  Powell  and  Lealand  V-r  m- 
apochromatic  1*43  N.A.  and  No.  10  compensating  eye-piece.  Messrs. 
Powell  and  Lealand's  apochromatic  condenser  was  used  together  with 
Gifford's  light  screen,  the  latter  more  particularly  to  absorb  some  of 
the  heat-rays  from  the  condensed  beam  of  the  limelight  employed, 
before  they  reached  the  condenser.  By  means  of  this  arrangement  the 
photographs  were  obtained  with  an  exposure  of  three,  minutes.  The 
magnifications  are  approximately  equal  to  2500  and  5000  diameters 
respectively. 

With  regard  to  the  question  of  employing  high  magnifications,  it 
may  be  of  interest  to  point  out  that  in  the  print  taken  with  only  2500 
diameters  magnification,  the  appearance  in  one  case  is  such  that  it  might 
easily  be  assumed  that  the  fiagella  were  bifurcated,  and  at  first  this  was 
taken  to  be  the  case,  but  the  higher  magnification  clearly  shows  that 
this  appearance  is  due  merely  to  juxtaposition  of  the  bent  middle 
portion  of  a  detached  fiagellum,  with  the  terminal  of  an  attached 
flagellum. 

The  fact  that  the  fiagella  seem  to  reach  their  maximum  growth  in  from 
12  to  20  hours  and  then  are  soon  lost,  combined  with  their  number  and 
character,  suggests  the  possibility  that  they  are  used  in  the  manner  of 
tentacles  for  attachment  until  certain  functions  are  discharged,  where- 
upon the  fiagella  cease  to  be  required,  and  are  lost. 

Quantitative  Estimation  of  the  Bacillus  Coli  in  Drinking  Water.f 
A.  Gautie  considers  that  it  is  not  the  mere  presence  of  B.  coll,  but  its 
abundance  or  rarity  that  should  be  regarded  as  an  index  of  the  fffical 
contamination  of  drinking  water  ;  a  great  increase  in  the  number  of 
this  microbe  in  a  water  that  usually  contains  only  a  small  number,  is  of 
•equal  importance  with  the  sudden  appearance  of  this  organism  in  a  water 
in  which  it  never  existed  previously.  For  this  quantitative  analysis  he 
employs  the  method  of  Pere,  which  consists  in  the  addition  to  the 
suspected  water  of  a  small  quantity  of  pepton  broth  and  a  known 
proportion  of  carbolic  acid.  He  gives  details  of  the  technique  carried 
out  by  Pere ;  this  he  modifies  in  practice,  by  working  not  only  with 
100  c.cm.  of  water,  but  with  decreasing  amounts  from  100  c.cm.  to  1  drop, 
adding  always  proportionate  amounts  of  carbolic  acid. 

Rothberger's  Neutral  Red  Reaction.^ — Otto  Heller  describes  Roth- 
berger's  neutral  red  reaction  which  is  used  as  a  differential  diagnosis 
between  B.  typhosus  and  B.  coli.     He  refers  to  the  several  modifications 

*  Fuchsin  solution :  5  p.c.  solution  of  phenol  in  water.     To  this  add  1  grm. 
fuchsin  and  shake  well,  and  add  slowly,  drop  by  drop,  10  c.cm.  absolute  alcohol, 
t  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xix.  1905)  p.  124. 
X  Lentralbl.  Bakt.,  Orig.,  1*  Abt,  xxxviii.(iyOo)  p.  117. 


'II- 


$76  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

of  the  method  as  suggested  by  different  workers,  which  depend  on  the 
variations  in  the  nature  or  composition  of  the  media  employed.  He- 
contrasts  the  media  of  Rothberger  and  Oldenkop  with  media  prepared 
with  ordinary  broth  and  gelatin  to  which  neutral  red  in  similar  amounts 
has  been  added.  The  details  of  his  observations  on  80  different  strains 
of  organisms,  mostly  belonging  to  the  Coll  group,  are  given  in  tabular 
form.  From  these  results  he  concludes  that  the  neutral  red  reaction  is 
best  obtained  by  [the  use  of  ordinary  laboratory  gelatin  with  the 
addition  of  sterilised,  saturated,  aqueous  solution  of  neutral  red,  and 
incubating  at  37°  C. ;  under  these  circumstances  he  finds  that  the 
reaction  appears  quickly  within  G  hours,  is  uniform  and  reliable,  and 
remains  permanent,  being  influenced  neither  by  the  medium  nor  by  the 
oxygen  of  the  air. 

Methods  for  Isolating  the  Micro-organisms  of  Nitrification.*— 
R.  Perotti  uses  blocks  of  commercial  carbonate  of  magnesium,  which 
are  sawn  up  into  slices  about  10  cm.  long,  2  -5  cm.  broad,  and  1  cm. 
thick.  Of  course  any  other  size  or  shape  will  do.  The  slices  are  first 
polished  with  glass,  and  afterwards  rubbed  down  quite  smooth  with  the 
finger. 

The  nutritive  medium  is  composed  of  three  solutions.  (1)  Ammonium 
sulphate,  2  grm.  ;  potassium  phosphate,  1  grm.  ;  magnesium  sulphate, 
0-5  grm.  ;  distilled  water,  1000  grm.  (2)  Sulphate  of  iron,  2  grm.; 
distilled  water,  100  grm.  (3)  Saturated  solution  of  sodium  chloride. 
To  50  c.cm.  of  (1)  are  added  one  drop  of  both  (2)  and  (3).  The  solution 
must  be  made  fresh  when  required  for  use. 

The  magnesium  carbonate  slab  is  placed  in  a  tube,  and  then  as  much, 
of  the  medium  poured  in  as  will  suffice  to  soak  the  block  and  allow  a 
deposit  of  from  5-10  c.cm.  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube.  The  whole  is. 
then  steam-sterilised. 

It  is  important  to  have  some  of  the  medium  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tube  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  slab  moist. 

The  surface  of  the  block  is  inoculated  by  running  over  it  a  few 
drops  of  the  fluid  containing  the  micro-organisms. 

The  presence  of  the  organisms  is  detected  by  the  appearance  of 
minute  excavations  of  a  dirty  yellow  hue  on  the  surface  of  the  medium. 

Bndo's  Method  for  Detecting  Typhoid  Bacilli.f — The  medium 
devised  by  S.  Endo  is  composed  of  the  following  ingredients  : — 100O 
c.cm.  neutralised  nutrient  agar  (3  p.c.  agar)  ;  10  grm.  chemically  pure 
lactose  ;  5  c.cm.  alcoholic  solution  of  fuchsin  ;  25  c.cm.  10  p.c.  sodium 
sulphite  solution  ;  10  c.cm.  10  p.c.  soda  solution. 

The  medium  is  prepared  as  follows  : — 500  grm.  of  chopped  beef„ 
1  litre  of  water,  10  grm.  of  pepton,  5  grm.  of  salts,  and  30  grm.  of 
agar  are  well  boiled,  filtered,  neutralised,  and  alkalinised  by  the  addition 
of  10  p.c.  soda  solution. 

The  lactose  and  fuchsin  solution  are  then  added.  This  makes  the 
medium  red,  but  after  the  addition  of  the  sodium  sulphite  it  gradually 
loses  colour,  and  when  the  agar  is  set  it  is  quite  colourless. 

*  Atti  R.  Accad.  Lincei,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  22S-31  (1  fig.), 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt,  1*  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxv.  (1903)  pp.  109-10. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  37? 

The  medium  is  next  distributed  into  test  tubes,  and  steam-sterilised 
for  about  30  minutes.  Plates  are  made  from  these,  and  the  plates 
inoculated  after  the  manner  recommended  by  Drigalski  and  Conradi. 
Coli  colonies  are  red  and  the  typhoid  colourless.  The  latter  eventually 
become  larger  than  the  Coli  colonies.  The  explanation  offered  as  to 
the  redness  of  the  Coli  colonies  is  very  plausible  ;  the  rosanilin  salt 
loses  its  colour  through  the  action  of  the  sodium  hyposulphite  ;  hence,, 
as  the  Coli  bacteria  produce  acid,  they  restore  the  colour. 

Simple  Medium  for  Cultivating1  Gonococcus.*  — P>.  Lipschiitz 
recommends  a  nutrient  medium  which  contains  a  2  p.c.  solution  of  white 
of  egg. 

The  method  of  making  the  medium  is  as  follows  :  A  2  p.c. 
solution  of  white  of  egg  in  tap-water  is  placed  in  a  glass  flask,  and  to 
every  100  c.cm.  are  added  20  c.cm.  of  a  y1,,  normal  caustic  soda.  After 
half-an-hour,  during  which  time  the  mixture  should  be  carefully  shaken 
a  few  times,  the  raw  medium  is  filtered  in  quantities  of  30-50  c.cm. 
into  Erlenmeyer's  flasks,  and  sterilised  two  or  three  times.  The  albumen 
mixture  should  be  colourless  to  pale  yellow,  quite  clear,  and  alkaline 
to  litmus. 

The  albumen  mixture  thus  prepared  may  be  added  to  agar 
(agar  1  p.c,  NaCl  h  p.c,  pepton  1  p.c),  or  to  bouillon  in  the  proportion 
of  one  part  of  the  solution  to  2  or  3  parts  of  agar.  The  broth  may  be 
used  first  and  transfers  made  to  the  agar  in  about  48  hours. 

The  gonococcus  colonies  are  said  to  be  easily  distinguished  from 
contaminations. 

For  the  method  of  obtaining  the  infective  material  the  original 
should  be  consulted. 

New  Method  for  obtaining  Pure  Cultivation  of  Yeast.f  — 
H.  Wichmann  and  H.  Zickes  first  take  a  droplet  from  a  suspension  of 
yeast  in  beerwort  and  with  this  make  a  surface  culture  on  wort-gelatin. 
In  this  way  droplet-plates  are  made  on  square  cover-glasses,  and  placed 
in  a  Bottcher's  chamber,  or  over  a  hollow-ground  slide  ringed  round  with 
thin  vaselin.  The  authors  find  that  this  droplet-plate  method  is  suitable- 
for  obtaining  cultivations  of  almost  all  kinds  of  Blastomycetes. 

Effect  of  Coffein  on  Typhoid  and  Coli  Cultures 4 — F.  Kloumann 
finds  that  when  coffein  is  added  in  slight  amount  to  nutrient  media  it 
inhibits  the  growth  of  both  Coli  and  typhoid  bacteria,  acting,  however, 
more  strongly  on  the  former  than  on  the  latter.  In  stronger  concentra- 
tion the  number  of  Coli  bacteria  is  diminished,  the  effect  on  typhoid  being 
negative.  In  still  stronger  concentration  the  Coli  bacteria  die  off 
altogether,  while  the  number  of  the  typhoid  bacteria  are  more  or  less 
diminished.  The  author  did  not  find  any  degree  of  concentration  which 
would  simultaneously  inhibit  the  growth  of  Coli  and  promote  that  of 
typhoid  bacteria. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1">  Abt.  Orig..  xxxvi.  (1904")  pp.  743-7. 

t  Allgem.  Zeitschr.  f.  Bierbrauerei  u.  Malzfabrik.,  xxxiii.  (1905)  No.  1.  See- 
Centralbl?  Bakt.,  2ta  Abt.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  244. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  Orig.  1*  Abt.,  pp.  :'>12-17. 


378  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES  RELATING   TO 

Fuchsin-Agar  as  a  Diagnostic  Medium  for  Typhoid  Bacteria.* — 
D.  S.  Petkowitsch  recommends  a  medium  with  the  following  composition 
for  differentiating  Bacillus  typhosus  from  B.  coll  and  allied  organisms. 
1000  grrn.  neutral  agar  (:»  p.c.)  ;  10  grm.  (1  p.c.)  milk-sugar ;  5  c.cm. 
'(0*5  p.c.)  alcoholic  solution  of  fuchsin  ;  25  c.cm.  (2*5  p.c),  10  p.c. 
sodium  sulphite  solution  ;   10  c.cm.  (1  p.c),  10  p.c.  soda  solution. 

The  alkalinity  should  be  at  least  0 '  1  p.c  ;  usually  it  amounts  to 
0*1-0  "15  p.c  pure  soda,  titrated  with  litmus  paper  as  indicator.  On 
this  medium  the  typhoid  colonies  are  colourless,  while  those  of  the 
Volt  group  are  red  or  reddish  in  from  15  to  24  hours. 

Cultivation  of  the  Leishman  Body.f— J.  C.B.Statham  successfully 
cultivated  the  Leishman  bodies  from  a  case  of  Dum-Dum  fever  in 
■citrated  blood,  obtained  from  the  spleen  and  liver.  Apparently  about 
4  c.cm.  of  blood  was  mixed  with  1  c.cm.  of  4  p.c.  solution  of  sodium 
citrate,  and  the  tubes  incubated  at  20°  C. 

Subcultures  on  the  same  lines  were  also  successful,  but  the  life-period 
of  the  cultivated  parasite  appears  to  be  limited  to  14-21  days. 

The  ordinary  body  is  roundish,  with  macro-  and  micronucleus  ;  after 
a  period  of  growth  the  body  elongates  and  develops  a  flagellum  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  micronucleus.  The  motility  of  these  flagellated  forms  is 
sluggish,  and  the  parasites  advance  with  the  flagella  end  foremost. 
The  flagellated  parasites  may  give  rise  to  spirillar  forms  by  a  process  of 
unequal  longitudinal  fission. 

Use  of  Acid  Media  in  Isolation  of  the  Plague  Bacillus.J  — 
W.  C.  C.  Parkes  and  F.  H.  Joseph  find  that  by  the  use  of  acid  media 
the  growth  of  pneumococcus  is  inhibited  in  cultures  of  sputum  of  cases 
affected  with  plague.  By  this  means  the  pneumococcus  has  been 
eliminated,  and  the  animals  which  had  been  inoculated  with  acid  broth 
culture  died  of  plague  infection. 

Bacteriology  of  Plague.§ — H.  Watkins-Pitchford  makes  the  following 
interesting  observations  on  the  plague  bacillus  :  (1)  The  Bacillus  jwstis 
grows  vigorously  between  15°  C.  and  40°  C,  showing  the  ease  with  which 
the  organism  can  adapt  itself  to  the  varying  seasonal  temperature. 
(2)  Growth  of  the  bacillus  seems  to  be  almost  inhibited  in  carbonic 
dioxide.  (3)  After  50  days'  culture  in  bouillon,  with  2*5  p.c.  sodium 
chloride,  the  plague  organism  is  incapable  of  further  growth  when  re- 
transplanted  upon  other  media.  (4)  The  same  observation  held  true 
after  a  lapse  of  75  days  for  glucose  agar  and  glucose  bouillon.  (5)  After 
100  days,  however,  the  cultures  on  glycerin  agar,  ox  serum,  salt  agar, 
glycerin  bouillon,  and  plain  bouillon  proved  fatal  to  guinea-pigs.  (6)  An 
animal  may  retain  plague  bacilli  alive  within  its  tissues  and  not  manifest 
signs  of  the  disease.  This  was  proved  by  an  experiment  in  which  an 
inoculated  rat  showed  no  signs  of  illness,  but  when,  after  23  days  sub- 
sequent to  inoculation,  the  rat  was  killed,  a  drop  of  pus  was  found  in  a 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Orig.  l'«>  Abt.,  pp.  304-12. 

t  Journ.  Roy.  Army  Med.  Corps,  iv.  (1905)  pp.  13-15,  321-34  (1  pi.  and  2  rigs.). 
X  Brit.  Med.  Journ.  (1905)  i.  p.  130. 

§  Report  on  the  Plague  in  Natal,  1902-3.  By  Ernest  Hill.  London,  Cassell 
and  Co.,  1904,  192  pp.,  with  map,  charts,  and  photomicrographs. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


379 


gland  of  the  groin,  and  in  the  pns  a  few  plague  organisms ;  cultures 
therefrom  proved  virulent  for  guinea-pigs.  (7)  The  liability  to  con- 
fuse the  Bacillus  j)estis  with  such  germs  as  those  of  chicken-cholera, 
rabbit  septicaemia,  swine  plague,  pneumopleurisy  of  calves,  etc.,  is 
insisted  upon  by  the  author.  He  holds  that  the  Microscope  alone  is 
incapable  of  distinguishing  between  these  bacilli,  and  that  it  is  only  by 
bacteriological  investigations  and  by  testing  the  virulence  and  behaviour 
•of  the  bacillus  experimentally  in  animals  that  a  definite  and  conclusive 
diagnosis  can  be  made. 

(2)  Preparing  Objects. 

Apparatus  for  the  Automatic  Fixation  of  Embryos.*— L.  Sanzo 
describes  an  apparatus  which  he  has  devised  for  the  purpose  of  automa- 


Fig.  68. 


tically  fixing  embryos  at  any  desired  stage  of  development.  The 
•essential  points  are  a  clockwork  motor  and  a  special  kind  of  stopcock  or 
tap  (fig.  G8).     The  drum  B  which  contains  the  motor  is  surmounted  by 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrotk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  449-57  (4  fig6.). 


380  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

u  plate  C.  This  acts  both  as  a  dial  and  a  support  for  the  framework 
and  the  bottle  I).  The  dial  face  C  is  perforated  near  the  periphery  by 
a  series  of  holes  for  pegs,  which,  as  the  drum  revolves,  strike  a  lever,, 
and  so  cause  the  tap  E  to  open  and  let  out  some  of  the  fixative  from 
the  Marriotte's  bottle  into  the  beakers.  The  beakers,  which  contain  the 
embryos,  are  ranged  round  the  margin  of  a  divided  circle  drawn  on  the 
table  F.  It  may  be  seen  that,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  fixative,, 
the  amount  of  fluid  in  the  beakers,  and  the  number  of  pegs  inserted  in 
the  dial  face,  almost  any  desired  fixation  may  be  obtained  for  any  one 
or  more  sets  of  embryos.  For  further  details  of  this  ingenious 
apparatus  the  original  should  be  consulted. 

Preparing  Geim  Cells  of  Pedicellina  Americana.* — L.  I.  Dublin 
fixed  the  material  in  corrosive  sublimate  with  5  p.c.  acetic  acid.  The 
stains  employed  were  Heidenhain's  haematoxylin,  Auerbach's  fluid, 
thionin,  and  Flemming's  triple  stain  ;  but  the  first  gave  by  far  the  best 
results.  The  colonies  were  imbedded  and  sectioned  en  masse,  and  in 
this  way  there  were  obtained  on  the  same  slide,  male  and  female 
individuals  of  all  ages. 

Removing  Avian  Blastoderms.f — E.  A.  Andrews  finds  that  by  the 
following  method  good  preparations  of  blastoderms  can  be  obtained.  It 
consists  essentially  in  separating  the  blastoderm  from  the  vitelline 
membrane  and  of  fixing  it  partially,  and  then  separating  it  from  the 
yolk  while  the  latter  is  still  fluid. 

To  accomplish  this  result,  picro-sulphuric  acid  is  injected  between 
the  blastoderm  and  the  vitelline  membrane.  When  the  blastoderm  is. 
partially  fixed  and  become  coherent,  it  is  removed  with  the  yolk. 

The  pipette  used  has  the  upper  part  of  sufficient  size  to  hold  a  fair 
quantity  of  fixative,  while  the  lower  end  is  drawn  to  a  point,  the- 
extremity  being  bent  at  an  angle. 

Examination  of  Bone  Marrow.J — C.  Price  Jones  obtains  marrow 
from  ribs  or  vertebrse  by  squeezing  it  out  of  the  bone  with  forceps  and 
transferring  on  a  platinum  loop  to  the  following  dissociating  fluid.  The 
latter  is  prepared  by  diluting  glycerin  with  ammonia-free  distilled 
water  to  form  a  10  p.c.  solution,  and  titrating  this  against  decinormal 
sodium  hydrate,  using  phenolphthalein  as  indicator.  The  initial  reaction 
of  this  solution  varies  from  +0*1  to  -f-0'5  (Eyre's  scale),  and  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  1*029  at  15 '7°  C.  A  loopful  of  10  p.c.  glycerin  is 
placed  on  a  coverslip,  and  to  this  a  loopful  of  the  marrow  emulsion  is. 
added  and  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  slip.  The  film  is  then  air- 
dried  and  afterwards  fixed  and  stained  with  the  Jenner  bloodstain.  It. 
is  then  washed  with  distilled  water,  dried,  and  mounted.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  avoid  making  the  emulsion  too  concentrated  or  the  films 
too  thick. 

Fixation  of  Tissues  by  Injection  into  the  Arteries.§ — B.  D.  Myers, 
is  enthusiastic'  over  the  procedure  he  adopts  for  fixing  tissues.     The 

*  Ann.  New  York  Acad.  Sci.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  1-G4  (3  pis.), 
t  Zeitschr.  wies.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  177-9  (1  fig.). 
J  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1905.  i.  p.  400. 
§  Johns  Hopkins  Hosp.  Bull.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  6G-S  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   M1CRJSOPY,   ETC. 


381 


animals  arc  injected  by  means  of  an  airblast  apparatus  or  aspirator  to 
which  a  manometer  is  attached  for  indicating  the  pressure. 

The  vascular  system  is  first  washed  out  with  normal  saline  and  then 
injected  with  the  fixative  heated  to  -40°  C.  The  solutions  used  were 
sublimate,  formalin,  and  Hermann's  fluid.  The  results  appear  to  have 
been  excellent.         | 

Vasoin,  B. — TJeber  die  Verauderungen  des  Ruckenmarkes  bei  der  Fixierung. 

[Calls  attention  to  the  different  histological  appearances  in, the  peripheral  and 
central  portions  of  spinal  cord  after  fixation.] 

Zeitschr.  wiss.  Milcroslc,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  420-31  (1  pi.) 


(3)  Cutting-,  including-  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 

Paraffin  Imbedding  Bath.* — The  paraffin  bath,  invented  by  F. 
Fuhrmann,  is  designated  a  universal  paraffin  imbedding  thermostat,  as  it 
is  adapted  for  in  vacuo  as  well  as  the  ordinary  impregnation.     The  con- 


Fig.  69. 

stractionis  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustrations  (figs.  60,  70).  R  is 
the  ordinary  and  E  the  vacuum  bath.  0,  O  are  openings  for  thermo- 
meter and  thermo-regulator.  Z  is  the  water-level,  and  H  the  outflow-tap. 
D  is  the  lid  of  the  vacuum  bath,  and  the  two  holes  therein  are  for  a 
thermometer  and  the  exhaust  tube  which  is  provided  with  two  stop- 
cocks and  a  manometer.     The  case  is  made  of  copper  and  is  covered 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  4G2-7  (2  figs.). 


382 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


with  linoleum.  Fig.  00  shows  the  bath  in  section.  Fig.  70  gives  the 
outside  view  of  the  apparatus.  The  air  pump  and  other  accessories, 
thereto  are  omitted. 


Fig.  70. 


Reichert's  Medium  Microtome.* — The  section-cutting  in  this 
apparatus  (fig.  71)  is  regulated  by  the  draw-back  of  the  knife,  so  that, 
at  pleasure,  a  thickness  of  from  0*002-0  "02  mm.  may  be  automatically 
obtained,  and  a  series  of  uniformly  thick  sections  produced.  As  the 
object  is  only  moved  vertically,  a  much  shorter  bed-length  will  suffice- 
than  in  oblique  microtomes.  The  object  can  be  directly  inserted,  or 
imbedded  in  paraffin,  or  celloidin,  in  the  usual  way.  The  bed  and  frame 
are  made  of  cast-iron.  The  micrometer  screw  is  worked  with  especial 
care,  and  has  a  diameter  of  10  mm.  and  a  pitch  of  0-4  mm.     A  zinc- 

*  C.  Keichert  (Vienna),  Catalogue  No.  25  (Mikroskopie,  1904)  p.  58,  fig.  29. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


383: 


plate  tray  is  provided   to  catch  droppings  from  the  machine  and  keep, 
the  working  table  clean.     The  bed-length  is  28  cm. 


Use  of  Iodine  after  Fixation  in  Sublimate.* — R.  Pirone  finds  that 
sublimate  is  more  rapidly  removed  when  the  material  is  treated  in  the 

•  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  179-S1. 


v»84  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

section  Btage,  than  in  bulk.  The  sections  are  left  for  20-25  minutes 
in  iodo-potassic  iodide  solution  (Mayer's  formula),  diluted  with  distilled 
water  to  a  wine-colour  or  in  7<>  p.c.  alcohol  mixed  with  the  same 
iodine  solution.  On  removal  the  sections  are  washed  in  .alcohol  to 
remove  the  iodine,  and,  in  ease  they  remain  yellow,  they  are  treated 
with  magnesium  water. 

(4)    Staining:  and  Injecting. 

Method  of  Differentiating  the  Cortical  from  the  Medullary  Portions 
of  Adrenals.* — 0.  V.  Sdrinko  fixes  the  adrenals  of  man  and  other 
mammals  in  4-5  p.c.  formalin  (commercial  formalin,  5  parts  ;  distilled 
water,  1)5  parts').  The  solution  is  renewed  every  two  days  for  a  week  to 
a  fortnight.  The  material  is  then  washed  for  about  half  an  hour  in 
-distilled  water,  and  after  treatment  with  70  and  90  p.c.  alcohol,  is 
imbedded  in  celloidin  or  paraffin.  The  celloidin  sections  are  stained 
with  equal  parts  of  ripe  Bohmer's  hasniatoxylin  and  distilled  water  for 
about  five  minutes.  They  are  then  washed  and  mounted,  or  they  may  be 
•contrast-stained  with  eosin.  By  this  method  the  medullary  portion  is 
stained  much  darker  than  the  cortical,  and  removes  any  difficulty  of 
distinguishing  between  the  cells  of  the  two  parts. 

Fugent :  a  New  Stain.! — F.  H.  Joseph  communicated  a  note  on 
the  above  at  the  January  meeting  of  the  Pathological  Society.  The 
stain  consisted  of  a  mixture  of  alcoholic  solutions  of  methylen-blue, 
f  uchsin,  and  gentian-violet.  The  following  formula  was  arrived  at  after 
many  trials  : — (1)  Methylen-blue,  saturated  alcoholic  solution,  4  parts  ; 
(2)  basic  fuchsin,  saturated  alcoholic  solution,  3  parts  ;  (3)  gentian- 
violet,  saturated  alcoholic  solution,  5  parts.  The  mixture  is  allowed  to 
stand  for  from  three  weeks  to  a  month.  One  part  of  the  stain  is  diluted 
with  2  parts  of  distilled  water,  and  allowed  to  remain  on  the  dried  cover- 
slip  for  45  seconds,  washed  in  water,  dried,  and  mounted.  Bacteria 
appear  of  a  deep  red  colour,  whilst  the  capsules  are  of  a  light  violet  tint. 

Staining  Arteries.}— T.  B.  Savill  recommends  acid  orcein  for 
staining  sections  of  arteries.  The  solution  gave  better  results  after  fix- 
ation with  alcohol  than  with  bichromate  or  other  fluids.  The  mixture 
consists  of  neutral  orcein,  2  grm.  ;  hydrochloric  acid,  2  c.cm.  ;  alcohol 
(70  p.c),  96  c.cm.  The  sections  are  removed  from  60  p.c.  alcohol,  and 
immersed  in  the  filtered  stain  for  4  or  5  minutes.  After  washing  in 
weak  spirit,  the  sections  are  dehydrated  in  absolute  alcohol  and  mounted 
in  balsam. 

Demonstrating  the  Finer  Structure  of  the  Nervous  System. § — 
E.  S.  London  adopted  the  following  procedure  for  studying  the  finer 
nerve-structures  of  the  leech,  white  mice,  and  dogs.  Pieces  were  placed 
in  ammoniated  alcohol  (4  c.cm.  ammonia  in  96  p.c.  alcohol).  After  24 
hours  the  pieces  were  cut  up  into  slices  2-3  mm.  thick,  and  placed  in 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  172-4  (1  fig.). 

t  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  1905,  i.  p.  13G. 

1  Trans.  Path.  Soc,  lv.  (1904)  p.  412. 

§  Archiv  Mikrosk.  Anat.,  lxvi.  (1905)  pp.  111-15  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,   ETC.  385 

fresh  ammonia-alcohol  for  1-2  days.  On  removal  they  were  washed  for 
5-10  minutes  in  distilled  water,  and  then  impregnated  with  1  p.c.  silver 
nitrate  (3-6  days  at  35°-37°  C).  On  removal  the  pieces  were  dried 
with  blotting  paper,  and  then  developed  in  diffused  light  in  pyrogallol 
solution  (pyrogallol  2,  formalin  5,  distilled  water  100).  This  was  followed 
by  alcohol,  chloroform,  imbedding  in  paraffin,  sectioning.  The  sections 
were  placed  in  1  p.c.  gold  chloride  solution  for  5-10  minutes,  and  then 
in  5  p.c.  sodium  hyposulphite  for  5-10  minutes,  after  which  they  were 
mounted.  If  the  sections  be  too  thick  it  is  advisable  to  omit  the  gold 
stage.    Pieces  thus  treated  are  free  from  precipitate. 

Differential  Staining  of  Typhoid  Bacilli  in  Sections.* — H.  Bonhoff 
recommends  a  modification  of  Pick  and  Jacobsohn's  method  of  demon- 
strating gonococci  in  tissues  for  the  differential  staining  of  Bacillus 
typhosus  in  sections.  Instead  of  8,  he  uses  4  drops  of  a  saturated 
alcoholic  solution  of  methylen-blue,  and  adds  these  to  15  drops  of  Ziehl's 
solution,  and  10  c.cm.  of  distilled  water.  The  stain  is  first  allowed  to 
act  for  2  minutes  cold,  and  is  then  gently  warmed.  1  p.c.  acetic  acid  is 
used  for  differentiating.  After  washing,  the  section  is  dehydrated  in 
anilin-xylol  (equal  parts).  The  typhoid  bacilli  are  deep  blue  on  a  red 
background. 

Spore  Staining.f — E.  Thesing  mordants  the  films  with  hot  1  p.c. 
platinum  chloride  solution.  After  washing  and  drying,  the  film  is  hot 
stained,  and  then  thoroughly  washed  with  33  p.c.  alcohol.  The  film  is 
again  dried  and  contrast-stained  in  the  cold  for  3  minutes. 

New  Method  of  Spore  Staining.^ — Scagliosi  recommends  that  the 
material  should  be  fixed  with  van  Gehuchten's  or  Hermann's  fluid. 
After  staining  with  carbol-fuchsin,  wash  in  water  or  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  and  contrast-stain  with  methylen-blue. 

Method  of  Staining  Sensory  Nerve  Sheaths.§ — A.  Ruffini  describes 
a  method  for  staining  the  subsidiary  sheath  of  sensory  nerves.  (1)  Small 
pieces  of  skin  or  muscle  are  left  for  half  an  hour  or  more  in  a  solution 
composed  of  20  p.c.  formic  acid  66  parts,  and  hot  saturated  aqueous 
solution  of  sublimate  34  parts.  This  mixture  must  be  prepared  some 
time  in  advance.  (2)  The  pieces  are  washed  quickly  in  running  water. 
(3)  They  are  placed  for  20-40  minutes  in  1  p.c.  solution  of  gold 
chloride.  (4)  They  are  mopped  up  with  blotting  paper,  and  placed  in 
2  p.c.  solution  of  formic  acid,  and  kept  in  the  dark  for  12-15  hours. 
(5)  The  vessel  is  then  exposed  to  sunlight  for  6-8  hours.  (6)  The 
pieces  are  dried  carefully  and  placed  in  glycerin.  (7)  After  8-10  days 
they  are  teased  out  and  mounted  in  glycerin. 

New  Method  for  Staining  Glycogen. || — A.  Fischer  describes  the 
following  method  for  staining  glycogen,  which  was  tested  on  the  liver 
of  the  pig  and  mouse.     Fixation  in  alcohol :   the  paraffin  sections  are 

*  Archiv  Hygien,  1.,  No.  3.     See  also  Zeitsch.  angew.  Mikr.,  x.  (1905)  p.  301. 
+  Loo.  cit.     See  also  Zeitschr.  angew.  Mikr.,  x.  (1905)  p.  306. 
%  Riforma  Med.,  1904,  No.  49.     See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt,   lte  Abt.  Ref.,  xxxvi. 
(1905)  pp.  2K3.  §  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxix.  (1905)  p.  151  (2  pis.). 

||  Anat.  \nzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  399-400. 

June  21st,  1905  2  d 


386      SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

placed  in  alcohol  and  passed  straight  away  to  a  10  p.c.  aqueous  solution 
of  tannin  for  10-15  minutes.  The  sections  are  washed  in  1  p.c.  solution 
of  potassium  bichromate  and  then  placed  for  10-15  minutes  in  10  p.c. 
potassium  bichromate  for  fixation.  The  glycogen  is  by  this  time  almost 
insoluble,  and  will  stand  washing  with  water  and  staining  with  aqueous 
solutions.  Staining  for  lo  minutes  in  safranin-anilin  water  solution  gives 
beautiful  pictures.  After  staining,  the  preparation  is  rapidly  treated 
with  alcohol  and  xylol,  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

Other  basic  anilin  dyes,  such  as  gentian-violet,  methylen-blue,  etc., 
may  be  used  ;  these  stain  only  the  glycogen.  The  acid  anilin  dyes  do 
not  stain. 

Pyronin  Methyl-Green.* — Whitney  recommends  a  1  p.c.  solution  of 
these  two  pigments,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  4  parts  of  the  pyronin  to 
1  part  of  the  methyl-green  solution,  as  an  effective  double  stain  for  cells 
and  bacteria. 

Methods  of  Staining  the  Diphtheria  Bacillus.! — J.  M.  Blumenthal 
and  M.  Lipskeron  in  an  interesting  and  useful  contribution  on  the 
comparative  value  of  the  differential  methods  for  staining  the  diphtheria 
bacillus,  award  the  palm  to  the  methods  of  Falieres  and  of  Ljubinsky. 
In  the  former  the  staining  solution  is  composed  of  methylen-blue  2, 
borax  0*5,  distilled  water  100,  absolute  alcohol  8  drops. 

After  washing  in  tap-water  the  stained  film  is  further  treated  for  half- 
a-minute  with  a  1  :  1000  aqueous  solution  of  vesuvin.  The  granules 
of  the  bacteria  are  stained  blue,  and  show  up  well  on  the  brown  back- 
ground. 

Ljubinsky's  method  consists  in  staining  the  fixed  fihn  for  ^-2 
minutes  with  a  solution  composed  of  Merck's  pyoktanin  0'25;  acetic 
acid  (5  p.c.)  loo. 

After  washing  with  water  the  preparation  is  after-stained  for  half-a- 
minute  with  a  1  :  100  >  solution  of  vesuvin. 

The  results  are  stated  to  be  excellent,  but  the  authors  think  they 
have  improved  on  it  by  substituting  chrysoidin  for  vesuvin,  using, 
however,  a  solution  three  times  as  strong. 

Eleven  other  methods  are  described,  but  for  these  the  original  should 
be  consulted. 

Staining  Negri's  Bodies  in  Hydrophobia.} — G-.  Fasoli  adopts  the 
following  method.  The  material  is  fixed  in  sublimate  solution,  and  the 
sections  first  stained  with  aqueous  eosin.  After  washing  with  water 
they  are  differentiated  with  alcohol,  made  alkaline  with  a  few  drops  of 
1  p.c.  soda  solution.  The  sections  are  again  washed,  and  then  stained 
with  methylen-blue,  until  they  are  of  a  pale  blue  colour.  After  dehy- 
dration they  are  cleared  up  with  xylol,  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

New  Yolk  Stain.§  —  K.  Peter  gives  the  following  modification  of 
Spuler's  iron  cochineal  stain.  10  grm.  of  powdered  cochineal  are  boiled 
in  250  c.cm.  distilled  water,  and  the  decoction  evaporated   down   to 

*  Boston  Med.  and  Surg.  Journal,  May  1903. 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1^  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxviii.  (190f>)  pp.  359-G6. 
t  Policlinico  sez.  Med..  1904,  No.  7.     See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  l,e  Abt.  Ref., 
xxxvi.  (1905)  p.  385.  §  Zeitschr  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  314-20. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  387 

50  c.cm.  After  rilling  up  to  150  c.cm.  with  distilled  water,  it  is 
filtered,  and  to  every  40  c.cm.  of  the  filtrate,  3  drops  of  pure  hydrochloric 
acid  are  added.  After  the  precipitate  has  subsided,  the  clear  orange- 
red  fluid  is  ready  for  use. 

Paraffin  sections  are  incubated  in  the  stain  for  18-24  hours,  and 
then,  after  a  washing  with  distilled  water,  are  treated  for  h-2  minutes 
with  1  p.c.  iron-alum  solution,  which,  should  they  turn  black,  is  changed. 
The  sections  are  again  washed  and  then  passed  through  graded  alcohols 
to  xylol  and  balsam. 

For  staining  en  masse  the  pieces  are  incubated  for  48  hours,  and 
mordanted  with  the  iron-alum  solution  ;  if  a  2k  p.c.  be  used,  then  for 
15-60  minutes  ;  if  a  1  p.c,  for  12-24  hours. 

The  preparations  show  the  chromatin  of  the  nuclei  black,  the 
protoplasm  grey,  the  yolk  granules  red,  nucleoli  red. 

If  the  centrosomes  are  to  be  stained,  the  following  modification 
must  be  adopted.  The  sections  are  stained  for  one  day  in  the  cochineal 
decoction,  and,  after  a  short  mordanting,  are  placed  in  Weigert's  haemato- 
xylin  solution  for  two  days,  after  which  they  are  differentiated  in  2£  p.c. 
iron-alum  solution. 

The  material  used  was  chiefly  the  larvae  of  rana  esculenta,  and  the 
best  fixative  was  found  to  be  Zenker's  fluid. 

Demonstrating  Fatty  Infiltration  in  Tissue.* — P.  Foa  has  aban- 
doned the  method  of  fixing  the  material  with  Flemming's  fluid  and 
staining  with  safranin  and  picric-alcohol,  for  Marchi's  method,  which 
he  finds  more  effective. 

The  pieces  are  placed  for  3  or  4  days  in  Muller's  fluid,  and  then 
transferred  for  a  similar  period  to  the  osmic-bichromate  mixture.  On 
removal  they  are  washed  and  then  hardened  in  alcohol.  By  this  pro- 
cedure the  elasticity  of  the  tissues  is  well  preserved,  the  osmic  acid 
penetrates  thoroughly,  and  the  sections  can  be  stained  with  hematoxylin 
and  eosin,  or  by  Van  Gieson's  method. 

Kappers,  C.  U.  A. — Ein  kleiner  apparat  fur  die  Gesamtbehandlung  vieler  Objekt- 
trager.  (A  clamp  for  holding  together  and  simultaneously  treating  several 
slides.)  Zeitschr.  wins.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  1S5-8  (1  rig.). 

Lichtenbebg,  S. — Objekttragergestell  zur  gleichzeitigen  Behandlung  zahlreicher 
Schniffe.     (A  frame  for  the  simultaneous  treatment  of  numerous  sections.) 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  321-4  (1  fig.). 

(5)  Mounting,  including-  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  &c. 

Copal  as  a  Mounting  Medium. f — J.  G.  P.  Powell  recommends 
copal  dissolved  in  absolute  alcohol  for  mounting  vegetable  sections. 
Though  somewhat  difficult  to  prepare,  it  acts  well.  It  is  not  suitable  for 
diatoms.     Apparently  it  takes  about  two  months  to  dissolve  properly. 

Method  for  Removing  Small  Quantities  of  Centrifuged  Deposit.} — 
O.  C.  Van  Walsem  uses  a  Pravaz's  syringe,  and  fills  the  canula  and 

*  Atti  R.  Acad.  Sci.  Torino,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  65-78  (1  pi.). 

t  English  Mechanic,  lxxxi.  (1905)  p.  133. 

j  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk..  xxi.  (1901)  pp.  172-4  (1  fig.). 

2   D   2 


388 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


lower  part  of  the  syringe  with  olive  oil.  The  whole  or  any  part  of  the 
deposit  is  sucked  up  by  turning  round  the  screw  ring  on  the  piston  rod. 
The  canula  should  be  quite  4  cm.  long,  and  have  the  ends  rounded  off. 


(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Modification  of  Cornet's  Forceps.* — V.  Schliipfer  describes  the 
following  modification  of  Cornet's  forceps.  One  half  of  the  instrument 
(fig.  72)  is  at  the  same  time  the  spring  and  the  handle.  To  the  rounded 
ends  are  jointed  on  the  grips,  the  ends  of  which  are  curved  so  that 
when  closed  they  form  an  ellipse.     The  great  advantage  of  this  form  of 


V  ^ 


Fig.  72. 

grip  is  that  the  staining  fluid  does  not  run  under  as  it  does  in  the 
ordinary  pattern.  It  will  serve  to  hold  capillary  pipettes  as  shown  in 
the  illustration,  as  well  as  cover-glasses. 

Simple  Method  for  Distinguishing  between  Human  and  Animal 
Blood. f — H.  Marx  and  E.  Ehrnrooth  describe  a  method  for  distinguishing 
between  the  blood  of  man  and  the  lower  mammalia.  It  depends  on 
the  observation  that  the  action  of  homologous  and  heterologous  sera  on 
fresh  human  blood  is  recognisable  under  the  Microscope.  Human  red 
corpuscles  are  rapidly  agglutinated  by  an  alien  serum,  the  erythrocytes 
becoming  pale  and  accumulating  in  clumps  directly  after  contact  with 
the  foreign  serum.  The  technique  is  simple.  A  solution  of  the  sus- 
pected blood  is  made  with  0  ■  6  p.c.  salt  solution.  Some  of  this  is  placed 
on  a  slide,  and  to  it  is  added  a  droplet  of  fresh  human  blood.     The  two 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  458-60  (1  fig.). 
t  Miiuchener  Med.  Wocheuschr.,  li.  (1904)  p.  293  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


389 


are  stirred  together  with  a  glass  rod,  and  the  mixture  having  been 
covered  with  a  slip,  is  observed  under  the  Microscope. 

The  fresher  the  heterologous  blood,  and  the  more  concentrated  the 
solution,  the  more  rapid  is  the  reaction. 

Permanent  preparations  showing  the  reaction  may  be  made  in  the 
usual  way. 

Apparatus  for  Making  Wax  Plates  for  Reconstruction  Models.* — 
A.  Fleischmann  uses  a  smooth  cast-iron  plate  (<><)  by  90  cm.),  levelled  by 
means  of  adjusting  screws  as  a  surface  for  rolling  out  wax 
plates.  The  roller  is  50  cm.  long,  and  4  cm.  in  diameter, 
and  is  made  of  steel.  A  circular  disc  is  inserted  between 
the  handles  and  each  end  of  the  roller  for  the  purpose  of 
regulating  the  thickness  of  the  plate.  This  device  is  far 
more  effective  than  placing  strips  of  glass  or  metal  on  the 
table. 

Needle  for  obtaining  Blood  for  Examination.! — J.  Pies 
describes  a  needle  which  he  has  invented  for  the  purpose 
of  pricking  the  skin  to  obtain  blood  for  microscopical  and 
other  examinations.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration 
(fig.  73),  the  head,  which  is  perforated  for  the  reception 
of  the  needle,  is  actuated  by  a  spring.  The  needle  is  fixed 
by  a  screw,  the  head  of  which  is  pressed  into  the  side 
groove.  By  exerting  slight  pressure  on  the  knob  the  spring 
is  released,  and  a  rapid  and  painless  incision  made  in  the 
skin.  The  upper  end  of  the  case  serves  to  keep  spare 
needles  in. 


Fig.  73. 


Examining  Caoutchouc  by  the  Aid  of  the  Microscope.^ 
P.  Breuil  examines  caoutchouc  by  reflected  and  by  trans- 
mitted light,  by  the  aid  of  a  Microscope  which  is  also  fitted 
up  for  photographing  the  preparations.  Thin  films  are 
obtained  by  evaporating  solutions  of  caoutchouc  in  divers 
solvents.  Delicate  transparent  strips  may  also  be  used.  For 
examining  with  reflected  light,  an  arc  light  of  20  amperes 
is  necessary,  and  the  specimens  used  are  prepared  after  the 
manner  used  in  metallography,  i.e.  the  pieces  are  shaped, 
polished,  and  etched  with  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids.  Microscopical 
inspection  enables  the  observer  to  detect  the  nature  and  purity  of  the 
rubber,  as  well  as  the  presence  of  impurities  and  adjuvants. 

Schapkr,  A. — Eine  Methode  zur  Durchschneidung  grober  Wachsplatten  Modelle.) 
(Method  for  cutting  through  large  wax  plates  by  means  of  a  thin  metal  wire 
heated  bv  the  electric  current.)  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904) 

pp.  200-6  (4  figs.). 


•  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  479-80  (2  figs.). 

+  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  445-6  (1  fig.) 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.,  (1905)  pp.  1142-3. 


o90  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Metallography,  etc. 

The  Defects  in  Ingot-Iron  Castings.* — K.  H.  "Wedding  classifies 
the  defects  in  ingot-iron  castings,  usually  termed  steel  castings,  as  (1) 
blowholes,  (2)  shrinkage  cavities,  (3)  gas  cavities  from  other  sources, 
(4)  surface  markings,  (5)  cracks.  The  ingot-iron  is  generally  made  in 
the  open  hearth  furnace,  or  in  the  crucible,  seldom  in  the  Bessemer 
converter.  Blowholes  are  caused  by  the  liberation  of  gas  during  solidi- 
fication of  the  molten  metal,  all  carbonised  iron  when  fluid  having  the 
property  of  absorbing  gases.  The  addition  of  silicon  or  aluminium 
prevents  the  formation  of  blowholes  by  causing  the  gases  to  remain 
alloyed  with  iron,  manganese  having  a  contrary  effect.  Shrinkage 
cavities — "  pipes  " — are  a  consequence  of  the  contraction  of  iron  during 
solidification  and  cooling,  and  are  usually  unavoidable.  Small  pores 
between  the  crystals,  only  visible  by  means  of  the  Microscope,  may  be 
attributed  to  the  separation  of  gas,  and  are  essentially  harmless.  Surface 
markings  have  been  attributed  to  segregation.  Cracks  are  caused  by 
contraction,  and  their  formation  is  influenced  by  chemical  composition. 
Cavities  may  be  filled  by  electric  welding,  by  pouring  molten  iron  over 
the  defective  part,  by  thermit  treatment,  or  by  hammering  in  iron  at  a 
welding  temperature.  The  results  of  filling  by  these  methods  are  fre- 
quently not  satisfactory. 

Notes  on  the  Etching  of  Steel  Sections.! — W.  C.  Smeaton 
distinguishes  the  processes  by  which  the  micro-constituents  may  be 
differentiated  on  the  polished  surface  of  a  metal,  as  (1)  heat-tinting, 
(2)  electro-deposition,  (3)  polishing  in  bas-relief,  (4)  use  of  solvent 
etches.  The  last  method  is  the  only  one  fully  dealt  with  by  the  author. 
The  nature  of  the  polished  surface  affects  the  etch  :  crystals  of  the  same 
constituent  may  be  differently  coloured  by  a  reagent  owing  to  the  plane 
surface  of  the  section  cutting  them  in  different  relations  to  their  crystallo- 
graphic  axes.  Solid  solutions  are  attacked  most  rapidly,  a-,  f3-,  and  y- 
iron  are  attacked  at  different  rates  by  the  same  reagent.  Beilby  has 
shown  that  surface  flow  on  metals,  caused  by  the  mechanical  work  involved 
in  polishing,  results  in  the  formation  of  a  surface  film,  differing  from 
the  mass  of  the  metal.  This  film  must  be  removed  by  the  etching 
agent  in  order  to  develop  the  true  micro-structure.  Carborundum  and 
wet  rouge  used  as  polishing  agents  on  surfaces  at  high  speeds,  lead  to  the 
formation  of  pronounced  films.  Alumina  is  not  so  liable  to  cause  films. 
Surface  flow  may  be  diminished  by  care  in  polishing.  2  p.c.  sulphuric 
acid,  acting  at  60°  C.  for  2  minutes,  removes  films,  producing  only  a 
very  light  etch.  The  etching  action  is  approximately  proportional  to 
the  degree  of  electrolytic  dissociation  of  the  active  etching  agent  in  the 
case  of  water  solutions  of  nitric  acid,  ammonium  nitrate,  etc.  The 
author  adds  an  indifferent  substance  with  a  common  ion,  e.g.  potassium 
or  sodium  nitrate  with  nitric  acid,  to  alter  the  electrolytic  dissociation. 
Solutions  of  potassium  and  sodium  salts  are  without  noticeable  etching 
action.   Ammonium  salts  have  an  etching  action  ;  concentrated  solutions, 

*  Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,  ix.  (1905)  pp.  209-21. 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  222-30  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  391 

however,  do  not  give  good  results  :  2  p.c.  ammonium  nitrate  has  been 
found  most  satisfactory,  especially  at  40°  C.  Persulphates  have  also 
been  employed.  Reaction  velocity  is  of  importance,  and  is  in  most 
cases  increased  by  rise  of  temperature. 

The  Effects  of  Momentary  Stresses  in  Metals.* — B.  Hopkinson  gives 
the  results  of  his  experiments  in  which  the  extension  of  copper  and  iron 
wires,  subjected  to  momentary  stresses,  was  measured.  A  piece  of  wire, 
of  No.  10  gauge,  and  about  30  ft.  long,  was  hung  vertically,  being 
fixed  at  its  upper  end.  It  was  kept  taut  by  a  tension  (20  to  200  lbs.) 
applied  at  the  lower  end,  and  a  cylindrical  1  lb.  weight  allowed  to  fall 
down  the  wire,  being  arrested  by  a  stop  fixed  to  the  end  of  the  wire. 
The  extension  on  20  in.  was  determined  by  an  arrangement  devised  for 
the  purpose,  and  was  found  to  be  in  close  agreement  with  the  extension 
calculated  from  J.  Hopkinson's  formula.  The  author  concludes  that 
iron  and  copper  wires  may  be  stressed  much  beyond  the  static  elastic 
limit,  and  even  beyond  their  static  breaking  loads  without  the  pro- 
portionality of  stresses  and  strains  being  substantially  departed  from, 
provided  that  the  time  during  which  the  stress  exceeds  the  elastic  limit 
is  of  the  order  of  T^g-o  second  or  less. 

Further  Observations  on  Slip-Bands  in  Metallic  Fractures.  Pre- 
liminary Note.t — W.  Rosenhain  has  employed  a  new  method  of  investi- 
gating the  micro-structure  of  metals,  to  meet  the  criticisms  of  F.  Osmond 
and  others  on  the  conclusions  reached  by  J.  A.  Ewing  and  the  author, 
as  to  the  nature  of  slip-bands.  The  difficulties  met  with  in  the  exarni- 
ation  of  a  transverse  section  of  a  metallic  surface,  upon  which  slip- 
bands  had  been  produced,  were  overcome  by  electro-deposition  of  another 
metal  on  the  surface.  The  piece  of  metal  was  then  cut  through  and 
polished,  a  sectional  elevation  of  the  surface  being  thus  obtained. 
Strips  of  the  mildest  steel  were  polished  along  a  short  portion  of  their 
length,  and  were  then  strained  in  tension  to  produce  slip-bands  on  the 
polished  surface.  A  thin  film  of  copper  was  deposited  from  a  bath  of 
copper  cyanide.  The  pieces  were  then  removed  to  the  usual  copper 
sulphate  bath,  and  a  thicker  layer  (4-5  mm.)  deposited.  Sections  were 
made,  roughly  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  original  tensile  strain, 
at  right  angles  to  the  surface  showing  slip-bands.  Calcined  magnesia 
was  used  as  the  final  polishing  medium,  as  rouge  eroded  the  surface. 
The  film  of  metal  smeared  over  the  boundary  was  removed  by  slight 
etching  with  picric  acid.  A  clearly  defined  boundary  line  between  iron 
and  copper  was  then  visible,  showing  well  marked  steps  or  serrations. 
The  author  concludes  that  the  sectional  views  of  slip-bands  thus  obtained, 
strongly  confirm  the  theory  of  deformation  by  slip.  He  suggests  that 
the  method  of  investigation  described  might  be  applied  to  the  study  of 
a  number  of  questions,  and  has  employed  it  in  obtaining  sections  of 
fractures,  with  satisfactory  results. 

Effects   of    Stress   upon   Metals. % — E.   G.   Crocker  describes   the 
behaviour  of  metals  when  subjected  to  stress.     The  recovery  of  over- 

•  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxxiv.  (1905)  pp.  49S-50G  (2  figs.). 

t  Tom.  cit..  pp.  557-62  (4  tigs.). 

I  English  Mechanic,  lxxxi.  (1905)  pp.  146-7. 


392  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

strained  specimens  is  hastened  by  raising  the  temperature,  and  retarded 
or  arrested  by  lowering  the  temperature.  The  formation  of  slip-hands 
on  a  polished  surface,  subjected  to  tensile  stress,  is  described. 

Metallography  of  Quenched  Steels.*— M.  Kourbatoff  has  experi- 
mented with  a  large  number  of  etching  reagents,  to  determine  which  are 
the  most  useful  for  the  differentiation  of  the  constituents  of  quenched 
steels.  Three  samples  of  steel,  selected  to  give  a  great  variety  of  con- 
stituents, were  etched  with  the  different  solutions ;  they  were  (1)  steel 
containing  1  ■  8  p.c.  carbon,  quenched  during  the  recalescence  ;  (2)  the 
same,  quenched  when  one  end  of  the  specimen  was  at  its  melting  point, 
the  other  end  being  cold;  (3)  steel  containing  15  p.c.  nickel,  0*8  p.c. 
carbon.  The  possible  causes  of  the  varying  colorations  of  different 
constituents  upon  etching  are  discussed,  the  author  concluding  that  the 
colorations  are  probably  due  to  the  formation  of  complex  organic  com- 
pounds, in  which  the  nitro  groups  present  in  many  reagents  are  con- 
cerned. The  rapidity  of  action  of  solutions  of  nitric  or  picric  acids 
appears  to  depend  on  the  electric  conductivity  of  the  liquid.  The  most 
suitably  reagents  for  distinguishing  the  constituents  are  :  (a)  solution  of 
4  p.c.  nitric  acid  in  iso-amyl  alcohol ;  (J)  solution  of  20  p.c.  hydrochloric 
acid  in  iso-amyl  alcohol,  to  which  is  added  I  of  its  volume  of  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  nitraniline  or  nitro-phenol  in  ethyl  alcohol.  The  best 
reagents  for  colouring  sorbite  and  troostite  without  acting  upon  other 
constituents  are  :  (c)  equal  parts  of  a  solution  of  4  p.c.  nitric  acid  in  acetic 
anhydride,  methyl  alcohol,  ethyl  alcohol,  and  iso-amyl  alcohol ;  (d)  3  parts 
of  a  saturated  solution  of  nitro-phenol,  1  part  of  a  4  p.c.  solution  of 
nitric  acid  in  ordinary  alcohol. 

From  experiments  on  re-heating  quenched  samples,  the  author  con- 
cludes that :  (1)  during  re-heating  austenite  changes  to  sorbite  ;  (2) 
martensite  decomposes  into  layers  of  cementite  and  crystals  of  sorbite  ; 
(3)  at  800°  the  whole  of  the  martensite  and  austenite  are  changed 
to  sorbite  and  cementite  ;  (4)  troostite  remains  unchanged  up  to  400°. 
The  hardness  of  austenite  appears  to  be  variable  in  different  samples 
and  in  different  parts  of  the  same  sample. 

The  Cooling  of  Steel  in  Quenching.!— P.  Lejeune  gives  a  number 
-of  cooling  curves,  obtained  by  the  Saladin  photographic  method— in 
which  two  galvanometers  are  employed— of  samples  of  steel  quenched  in 
different  liquids.  The  author  concludes  that  quenching  in  small  volumes 
of  mercury  is  less  rapid  than  quenching  in  water.  The  influence  of  the 
viscosity,  boiling-point,  and  specific  heat  of  the  quenching  liquid  were 
also  investigated. 

Aluminium  Steels. J  —  L.  Guillet  has  continued  his  researches  on 
alloy  steels.  Two  series  were  employed,  one  containing  0*15  p.c,  the 
other  0*75  p.c.  carbon,  the  aluminium  varying  in  each  series  from 
0  to  15  p.c.  Physical  properties  and  microstructure  were  studied  in  the 
steel  (1)  as  forged,  (2)  quenched,  (3)  annealed.  Up  to  2  p.c.  the 
influence  of  aluminium  is  slight.     The  pearlite  appears  to  be  more 

*  Rev.  Metallurgie,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  169-86  (23  figs.). 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  299-311  (10  figs.). 

J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  312-27  (24  photomicrographs). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  393 

■compact  and  to  lose  its  lamellar  structure,  these  effects  being  more  pro- 
nounced as  the  percentage  of  aluminium  increases.  With  the  higher 
proportions  of  aluminium  a  new  constituent,  exhibiting  all  the  charac- 
teristics of  cementite,  is  distinguished.  The  belief  that  aluminium 
•causes  the  separation  of  graphite  in  steel  is  shown  to  be  erroneous. 
Steel  containing  3  p.c.  or  more  of  aluminium  is  brittle.  Aluminium  also 
causes  some  increase  in  hardness.  The  aluminium  appears  to  exist  in  the 
state  of  solution  in  the  iron,  and  when  notable  quantities  of  aluminium 
are  present,  this  solution  is  incapable  of  dissolving  carbon,  even  at  high 
temperatures. 

Flat  her,  D. — Case-hardening. 

[Describes  the  most  modern  methods  of  carrying  out  this  operation.] 

Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,  ix.  (1905)  pp.  305-22  (1  fig.) 

Oiracd — Constitution  du  Cuivre  Oxyde.  Rev.  Metallurgie,  ii.  (1905). 

pp.  297-8  (5  figs.). 

Special  Nickel-Steel  Alloys.  Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,  ix.  (1905)  pp.  256-60. 

■Stead,  J.  E. — Science  in  the  Iron  Foundry.  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  322-34. 


394 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  19th  of  Apeil,  1905,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W., 
D.  H.  Scott,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  etc.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes   of   the  Meeting  of  the  15th  of  March,  1905,  were 
read  and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society,  exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints,  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 
Hyatt-Woolf,  C.     The  Optical  Dictionary.     (8vo,  London,)        y^g  Publishers 

1904) / 

Winslow,  C.  E.  A.     Elements  of  Applied  Microscopy.    (New)        y^g  Publishers 

York,  1905)       / 

An  Old  Portable  Microscope.     By  W.  &  S.  Jones Mr.  W.  S.  Sogers. 

The  Old  Portable  Microscope  by  W.  &  S.  Jones,  presented  by  Mr.. 
W.  S.  Rogers,  was  described  by  Mr.  Pousselet  in  a  short  paper  read  by 
the  Secretary. 

Mr.  W.  J.  Dibdin  exhibited  a  slide  of  Bacillus  typhosus,  and  ex- 
plained the  method  adopted  in  staining  and  mounting.  He  also. 
exhibited  some  photomicrographs  of  this  organism  with  well-displayed 
flagella,  taken  by  lime-light  with  a  8  minutes  exposure  under  a  TV  in. 
apochromatic  objective  x  5000  diameters.  He  stated  that  he  had 
found  the  flagella  to  be  much  more  frequent  in  cultures  incubated  at 
a  temperature  of  40°,  and  that  they  were  only  present  in  the  young 
specimens,  the  average  length  of  the  flagella  being  about  ten  times  the 
length  of  the  body.  He  suggested  that  the  use  of  this  might  be  to 
enable  the  bacillus  to  hold  on  to  the  tissues  until  a  more  mature  stage 
was  attained.  In  one  case  he  thought  some  of  the  flagella  were  bifur- 
cated,  but  examination  under  a  power  of  5000  diameters  proved  that 
this  was  not  the  case. 

The  President,  after  inspecting  the  slide  referred  to,  said  he  bad 
never  seen  the  flagella  so  well  previously  as  they  were  shown  under  the 
Microscope  on  the  table.  In  the  photographs,  also,  they  were  re- 
markably distinct,  and  he  thought  Mr.  Dibdin  was  to  be  congratulated 
upon  his  success.  The  flagella  were  important  as  bearing  on  the 
affinities  of   the  Bacteria.      Ciliated  zoospores  were  known  in  certain 


PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    SOCIETY.  395 

fungi,  but  they  were  very  different  from  the  flagellate  cells  of  the 
Bacteria,  The  presence  of  the  flagella  quite  removed  the  Bacteria 
from  the  mould  fungi,  with  the  oidia  of  which  they  were  once  com- 
pared. It  was  a  very  puzzling  thing  that  these  flagella  should  only  he 
found  in  the  case  of  young  cultures. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Dibdin 
for  his  exhibit. 


Mr.  A.  E.  Conrady  gave  a  resume  of  his  paper,  "  On  the  Application 
of  the  Undulatory  Theory  to  Optical  Problems,"  diagrams  in  illustra- 
tion of  the  subject  being  shown  upon  the  screen.  He  said  that  as 
the  paper  itself  was  largely  mathematical,  it  was  not  quite  suitable 
for  reading,  but  by  the  aid  of  the  diagrams  he  was  able  to  give  a 
general  idea  of  its  contents  in  a  manner  which  would,  perhaps,  be 
more  clearly  understood. 

Dr.  Spitta  said  it  was  not  given  to  everyone  to  understand  a  mathe- 
matical formula,  but  when  they  had  the  subject  reduced  to  a  graphical 
representation  such  as  Mr.  Conrady  had  shown  them  upon  the  screen, 
what  was  otherwise  too  abstruse  now  became  intelligible  to  most  people. 
He  was  curious  to  know  if  the  method  of  explaining  this  subject  had 
originated  in  Mr.  Conrady's  fertile  brain,  as  he  did  not  remember  to  have 
met  with  it  in  any  of  the  text-books. 

Mr.  Conrady  said  that  this  very  interesting  analogy  was  not  originally 
devised  by  himself,  but  would  be  found  in  the  article  on  the  Wave 
Theory  by  Lord  Rayleigh  in  the  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica."  It  might 
have  found  its  way  into  some  text-book,  but  he  could  not  give  a 
reference  to  one. 

The  President  said  he  felt  very  strongly  that  papers  of  this  kind, 
dealing  with  Optics  as  bearing  on  Microscopy,  were  among  the  most 
valuable  of  the  contributions  made  to  the  Society.  The  present  paper, 
though  put  before  them  so  clearly,  was  one  which  few  Fellows  would 
feel  able  to  discuss  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  but  it  would  certainly 
be  read  with  great  interest  when  it  appeared  in  the  Journal. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  cordially  voted  to  Mr.  Conrady  for 
his  communication. 


The  Secretary  read  a  letter  from  Mr.  Alfred  Mark  Webb,  Secretary 
of  the  Selborne  Society,  inviting  the  assistance  of  Fellows  of  the  R.M.S. 
as  exhibitors  at  the  Selborne  Society's  soiree  at  the  rooms  of  the  Civil 
Service  Commission  in  Burlington  Gardens  on  May  3rd. 

Also  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Manchester  Microscopical  Society, 
calling  attention  to  the  publication  of  their  Proceedings,  and  the  terms 
on  which  copies  could  be  obtained. 

He  also  mentioned  that  some  slides  of  Bacteria  had  been  received 
from  Mr.  C.  J.  Pound,  of  the  Stock  Institute,  Brisbane,  for  distribution 
to  Fellows  interested  in  the  study  ;  these  could  be  obtained  on  applica- 
tion to  the  Assistant  Secretary  after  the  holidays. 

At  the  close  of  the  Meeting  the  President  made  special  reference  to 


396  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

the  large  and  interesting  exhibition  of  objects  from  pond  life,  and  on 
behalf  of  the  Society  gave  cordial  thanks  to  those  gentlemen  who  had 
contributed  so  largely  to  the  success  of  the  evening. 


The  following  Objects,  Instruments,  &c,  were  exhibited  : — 

The  Society : — An  old  portable  Microscope  by  W.  &  S.  Jones,  said 
to  have  belonged  to  Dr.  Jenner. 

Mr.  A.  E.  Conrady  : — Diagrams  shown  on  the  screen  in  illustration 
of  his  Paper. 

Mr.  W.  J.  Dibdin  : — A  slide  of  Bacillus  typhosus,  and  photographs 
of  the  same  X  2500  and  5000  diameters. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Watson  Baker  : — Lophopus  crystallinus,  Melicerta  ringens, 
Stephanoceros  Eichhorni. 

Mr.  T.  N.  Cos  : — Anacharis  alsinastrum,  showing  cyclosis. 

Mr.  A.  Downs  : — Stentor  niger,  Volvox  globator,  Vorticelli. 

Mr.  W.  C.  Flood  : — Volvox  globator. 

Mr.  E.  Hinton  : — Ghcetophora  sp. 

Mr.  J.  T.  Holder  : — Lophopus  cry  stall  inus. 

Mr.  E.  Leonard  : — Daphnia  vetula. 

Mr.  J.  Milton  Offord  : — Stephanoceros  Eichhorni. 

Mr.  G-.  H.  J.  Rogers  : — Volvox  globator. 

Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet : — Brachionus  pala,  B.  angularis,  Limnias 
annulatus,  Melicerta  ringens,  Stephanoceros  Eichhorni,  Synchceta  pec- 
tinata,  S.  oblonga,  Brachionus  pala  (mounted),  Lophopus  crystallinus, 
zorea  stage  of  a  marine  crustacean. 

Mr.  Geo.  Tilling  : — Stephanoceros  Eichhorni. 

Mr.  H.  Taverner  : — Arrenurus  maculator  $  . 

Mr.  W.  R.  Traviss  : — Carchesium  sp. 


New  Fellows  : — The  following  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows  : — 
Messrs.  Edward  Phelps  Allis,  jun.,  Charles  Poulett  Harris,  M.D.,  and 
Joseph  Kitchin. 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY.  397 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  17th  of   May,  1905,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  "W., 
Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  etc.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  19th  of  April,  1905,  were  read 
and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society  since  the  last  Meeting  (exclu- 
sive of  exchanges  and  reprints)  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of  the  Meeting 
were  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 
[  Mr.  J.  E.  Hasehcnod 

An  Old  Microscope,  by  Nathaniel  Adams       <  per 

I     Mr   C.  Jjees  Curties 
24  Micro  Slides Mr.  W.  Mountier  Bale 


Mr.  C.  F.  Rousselet  gave  a  description  of  an  Old  Microscope  of  the 
Culpeper-Scarlet  type,  made  by  Nathaniel  Adams,  date  about  1740, 
presented  to  the  Society  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Haselwood,  through  Mr.  Charles 
Lees  Curties,  and  differing  from  others  of  the  period  by  having  four 
brass  legs  instead  of  the  usual  three — on  which  account  it  was  regarded 
as  a  very  interesting  addition  to  the  Society's  collection. 

Mr.  Rousselet  also  described  a  "  Lucernal "  Microscope,  exhibited  in 
the  room,  and  presented  to  the  Society  by  Colonel  Tupman.  This 
instrument — made  by  W.  and  S.  Jones — had  its  various  parts  mounted 
on  a  long  board,  the  eye-piece  consisting  of  a  lens  about  5  inches  in 
diameter,  mounted  at  the  end  of  a  pyramidal  wooden  box  forming  the 
body  of  the  Microscope.  The  arrangement  gave  a  very  fair  image  when 
seen  through  a  rins;  fixed  at  a  distance  of  about  1-t  in.  from  the  eve- 
lens,  but  it  was  obviously  a  very  inconvenient  instrument  to  adjust 
and  use. 

Mr.  D.  D.  Jackson's  paper,  "  On  the  Movements  of  Diatoms  and 
other  Microscopic  Plants,"  was  read  by  the  Secretary. 

The  President  said  it  was  evident  that  they  had  in  this  paper  a 
communication  of  very  great  interest,  upon  a  subject  which  had  been 
discussed  ever  since  these  organisms  had  been  known.  He  did  not 
think,  however,  that  the  author  had  mentioned  all  the  theories  which 
had  been  put  forward  to  account  for  these  movements.  It  had  been 
suggested  by  Max  Schultze  that  they  were  due  to  a  kind  of  amoeboid 
motion  of  the  protoplasm  on  the  exterior  of  the  diatom,  by  which  it 
was  moved  along  the  surface  of  any  body  with  which  it  was  in  contact, 
but  it  had  since  been  found  that  diatoms  also  moved  when  quite  free. 
Otto  Miiller  also  referred  the  motion  to  currents  of  protoplasm,  but 
found  that  they  had  a  curved  screw-like  course — a  reacting  on  the 
surrounding  water.     He  worked  out  the  theory  with  great  elaboration. 


398  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETT. 

Mr.  Jackson's  gas  theory  was  one  which  he  had  not  met  with  before, 
though  he  was  not  sure  that  the  idea  was  altogether  new. 

Mr.  Karop  suggested  that  it  might  be  possible  to  apply  some 
harmless  test  or  indicator  of  free  oxygen,  although  he  confessed  he  did 
not  know  of  any. 

Mr.  W.  J.  Dibdin  said  that  the  evolution  of  free  oxygen  might  be 
easily  detected  by  chemical  reaction.  In  the  presence  of  alkaline 
hyposulphite  of  soda,  indigo  was  completely  decolorised,  but  in  the 
presence  of  free  oxygen  the  indigo  at  once  resumed  its  blue  colour  ;  the 
reaction  took  place  with  great  rapidity,  and  testing  for  oxygen  in  this 
way  was  perfectly  feasible,  provided  the  diatoms  were  not  injured  by  the 
medium. 

The  President  thought  there  could  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  evolution 
of  oxygen  by  chlorophyll-containing  vegetable  organisms  :  this  was 
admitted  by  everybody  ;  but  whether  the  emission  of  the  gas  was  me- 
chanically efficient  in  producing  the  motion  was  another  matter.  The 
somewhat  crude  objection  might  be  made  that  so  many  other  aquatic 
organisms  likewise  evolved  hydrogen,  but  in  the  case  of  diatoms  this 
process  might  conceivably  be  regulated  by  the  peculiarities  of  the  silicious 
cell-wall  so  as  to  modify  the  mechanical  effect.  He  should  very  much 
like  to  see  the  sham  diatoms  which  had  been  mentioned  in  the  paper 
as  having  been  constructed  by  the  author. 

Mr.  Michael  said  the  number  of  people  who  were  specially  diatomists, 
in  the  true  sense  of  the  term,  was  unfortunately  becoming  extremely 
small,  and  it  was,  therefore,  not  easy  to  obtain  opinions  of  value  con- 
cerning them,  but  it  appeared  to  him  that  it  was  rather  difficult  to 
understand  how  the  escape  of  free  oxygen  was  competent  to  account 
for  some  of  the  peculiar  movements  observed  amongst  diatoms,  such 
as  vibratory  movements  ;  or  how  it  could  account  for  the  opening  and 
shutting  of  the  fan-like  forms  which  grew  on  a  stalk.  It  was,  how- 
ever, possible  that  it  might  be  effected  in  some  way  by  the  position 
of  the  channels  through  which  the  oxygen  had  to  pass  in  escaping. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were,  on  the  motion  of  the  President, 
unanimously  voted  to  Mr.  Jackson  for  his  communication. 


The  President  said  they  had  upon  the  table  an  interesting  exhibition 
of  Oribatidas,  and  as  Mr.  Michael,  who  had  originally  presented  the 
specimens  to  the  Society,  was  present,  he  would  no  doubt  be  able  to  say 
a  few  words  in  reference  to  them. 

Mr.  A.  D.  Michael  said  he  had  been  rather  surprised  to  hear  that 
there  was  to  be  an  exhibition  of  slides  which  he  had  presented  to  the 
Society  about  twenty  years  ago.  He  could  no  doubt  say  something  on 
the  subject,  but  it  was  not  so  easy  to  say  something  new,  as  all  he  knew 
about  the  subject  was  contained  in  his  papers  read  before  this  Society 
and  his  book  published  by  the  Ray  Society.  It  was  a  long  time  since 
that  book  was  written,  and  seeing  that  it  referred  only  to  the  specimens 
in  one  man's  collection,  he  then  thought  that  there  would  in  course 
of  time  be  many  additions  to  the  list  of  British  Oribatidre,  but  up  to 
the  present  only  one  specimen  had  been  added  to  it.  The  Oribatidaa 
in  their  adult  form  were  rather  beetle-like  creatures  and  not  specially 


PROCEEDINGS  OF    THE    SOCIETY.  399 

attractive,  but  in  the  immature  form  many  of  them  were  very  remark- 
able  indeed.     In  the  nymphal  form  there  were  some  which  were  very 
curious.     There  was  a  large  number  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  which 
two  or  three  concentric  rings  would  be  found  bordered  with  handsome 
spines,  or  hairs  changed  not  into  spines  but  into  scales  with  nervures 
running  through  them  almost  like  those  of  a  dragon-fly's  wing.     How 
these  concentric  rings  arose  was  a  matter   of  considerable    interest. 
Like  almost  all  other  Acarina,  although  they  were  eight-legged  things 
in  their  adult  form  the  larva  was  almost  always  hexapod,  a  very  re- 
markable fact,  because  when  the  embryo  was  forming  in  the  egg  it 
was  clearly  octopod,  but  it  was  hexapod  when  it  emerged,  and  when  it 
arrived  at  the  nymphal  stage  it  was  octopod  again  ;   these  two  con- 
ditions were  at  one  time  regarded  as  different  species.     The  hexapod 
larva  being  drawn  upon  the  board,  Mr.  Michael  showed  how  the  process 
of  changing  the  skin  took  place,  the  old  skin  splitting  all  round  slightly 
under  the  edge,  and  the  legs  being  drawn  out ;  the  skin  of  the  ventral 
surface  and  that  of  the  legs  was  dropped,  whereas  on  the  dorsal  surface 
it  remained  adherent,  so  that  after  going  through  its  several  changes  the 
fully  grown  nymph,  or  occasionally  the  adult,  walked  about  with  three 
or  four  skins  on  its  back,  with  a  row  of  spines  round  the  edge  of  each. 
This  was  one  of  the  most  interesting  points  for  observation.     Another 
species  was  then  drawn  on  the  board,  showing  a  curious  chitinous  process 
on  each  side  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  abdomen.    These  creatures,  it 
was  explained,  were  vegetable  feeders,  having  very  little  means  of  pro- 
tecting themselves,  except  a  hard  chitinous  coat,  so  that,  if  attacked  by  a 
predatory  insect,  it  would  probably  be  seized  by  the  leg,  and  its  only 
chance  of  avoiding  capture  would  be  to  hide  its  legs.     On  the  side  of 
the  body  there  was  a  series  of  trenches  like  ridges  and  furrows,  and  in  a 
time  of  danger  each  leg  was  put  into  one  of  these  trenches,  and  the 
chitinous,  wing-like  processes  of  the  abdomen  were  folded  down  over 
them.     This  was  a  feature  which  could  not  be  well  understood  unless 
the  creatures  were  seen  alive.     By  means  of  further  drawings  on  the 
board,  the  structure  of  a  curious  pair  of  organs  situated  on  the  cephalo- 
thorax,  near  to  the  abdomen,  was  explained.     No  one  now  doubted  that 
these  were  sense-organs,  but  at  first  they  were  thought  to  be  stigmata 
with  protective  hairs.     On  dissecting  them  out,  he  found  that  they  had 
no  connection  with  the  trachea,  and  it  seemed  probable  that  they  were 
organs  of   hearing ;    the    name   he  had    given  them — pseudo-stigmatic 
organs — had  been  adopted  all  over  Europe,  but  he  did  not  know  that 
the  investigation  had  been  carried  further.     As  far  as  he  knew,  they  did 
not  occur  outside  the  Acarina,  and  very  few  similar  organs  were  known 
outside  the  Oribatidse,  but  in  the  Oribatidse  they  were  almost  universal, 
so  that  if  they  were  not  found  upon  any  creature  under  examination,  it 
might  be  presumed  that  it  was  not  one  of  the  Oribatida?. 

The  President  thought  they  were  very  fortunate  to  have  Mr.  Michael 
present  that  evening  to  give  them  these  very  interesting  remarks  upon  a 
subject  on  which  he  was  an  acknowledged  authority. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  cordially  voted  to  Mr.  Michael  for 
his  communication. 

The  Meeting  was  then  adjourned  to  June  21st. 


400  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited  :— 
The  Society : — An  Old  Microscope,  by  Nathaniel  Adams ;  An 
Adams's  Lucernal  Microscope,  made  by  W.  and  S.  Jones,  presented  to 
the  Society  on  January  l<sth,  1905,  by  Lieut.-Col.  Tupman.  The 
following  Slides  of  Oribatida3,  from  the  Collection  presented  to  the 
Society  by  Mr.  A.  D.  Michael : — Gepheus  bifidatus,  nymph ;  C.  tegeo- 
cranus  9  ;  Dammis  davipes ;  Eremczus  cymba  and  nymph  ;  Leiosorna 
palmkinctum  ;  ditto,  nymph  ;  Leiosorna  simile  9  ;  Nothrus  biverrucatus  ; 
N.  palustris  ;  N.  segnis  ;  N.  spinirjer  ;  N.  sylvestris  ;  N.  tlieleproctus, 
nymph  ;  Oribata  alata  ;  0.  alata  9 ,  small  variety  ;  0.  punctata  and 
nymph;  Tegeocranus  cepheiformis,  adult  and  cast  natogastral  skin  of 
nymph  ;  Tegeocranus  lotus  and  nymph. 


New  Fellows. — The  following  were   elected  Ordinary  Fellows : — 
Messrs.  Alfred  Jaffe  and  Andrew  Gifford  Soutter. 


JOURNAL 

OF   THE 

ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY. 

AUGUST,   1905. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF  THE   SOCIETY. 


V. — On  the  Application  of  the   Undulatory   Theory  to  Optical 

Problems. 

By  A.  E.  Conrady,  F.R.A.S.,  F.E.M.S. 

(Read  April  19th,  1905.) 

The  discussions  which  have  arisen  over  recent  theoretical  papers 
seem  to  show  that  the  simple  applications  of  the  undulatory  theory 
which  have  to  b«  called  into  requisition  in  the  explanation  of 
optical  images  are  not  so  well  and  so  generally  known  as  they 
deserve  to  be ;  and  as  it  seriously  disturbs  the  continuity  of  a 
paper  and  leads  to  tiresome  digressions  if  explanations  of  this  kind 
have  to  be  interspersed,  a  short  collection  of  the  principal  facts 
may  be  acceptable  and  useful  for  future  reference,  and  may  also 
assist  many  in  understanding  and  appreciating  the  papers  and  dis- 
cussions referred  to. 

Whenever  we  try  to  get  the  utmost  resplution  out  of  any  optical 
instrument  by  increasing  the  magnifying  power  beyond  a  certain 
moderate  limit,  we  are  confronted  with  facts  which  run  counter  to 
the  theories  of  geometrical  optics,  and  which  can  only  be  accounted 
for  by  taking  into  consideration  the  undulatory  nature  of  light,  i.e. 
by  rejecting  the  fiction  of  geometrical  optics  according  to  which 
light  consists  of  infinitely  thin  rays  which  can  be  united  in  points, 
and  by  applying  instead  the  principle  of  interference  to  these 
problems. 

It  has  been  proved  by  direct  experiment  that  light  travels  at  a 
finite — though  very  great — speed  ;  the  phenomena  of  interference 
prove  light  to  be  of  an  undulatory  or  periodic  nature,  and  the 
further  phenomena  of  polarisation  force  us  to  assume  that  the 
vibrations  are  transverse  ones,  i.e.  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of 
Aug.  16th,  1005  2  E 


402 


Transactions  of  the  Socirti/. 


progression  :  for  the  fact  that  polarised  light  behaves  differently  in 
different  azimuths  can  only  be  explained  by  the  assumption  of 
transverse  disturbances.  These  three  experimental  facts,  in  con- 
junction with  some  others,  lead  to  the  equation  expressing  light 
undulations,  which  for  our  present  purposes  may  be  put  into  the 
simple  form 


(I) 


£  =  A  sin  2?r  (V.t  -  x) 
\ 


where  f  is  the  disturbance  at  the  time  t  in  a  given  point  at  the 
distance  x  from  a  fixed  point.  V  is  the  velocity,  and  X  the  wave- 
length of  the  light,  whilst  A,  the  "  amplitude,"  introduces  the 
brightness  of  the  light  which  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  A. 
The  equation  shows  that  at  any  one   point  the  disturbance    at 

regular  intervals  of  time  f  =—  )  attains  a  maximum  value  equal 

to  A ;  that,  having  attained  this  value,  it  gradually  diminishes  and 
passes  through  zero  ;  that  it  next  assumes  negative  valves  down 
to  —  A  ;  and  thence  returns  gradually  to  the  maximum  value  -f-A. 


<r 


A 


Fig.  74. 


It  also  shows  that  for  different  values  of  x,  i.e.  for  different 
points  in  the  line  of  propagation,  the  disturbance  is  different  at  the 
same  instant,  and  passes  through  the  complete  cycle  of  values  for 
each  increase  of  x  by  \,  hence  the  "  ether-particles  "  at  any  given 
instant  lie  in  a  wave-line  like  fig.  1,  and  the  wave  propagation  is 
equivalent  to  this  curve  travelling  along  at  the  velocity  V. 

When  two  or  more  such  wave-motions  meet,  each  one  causes 
disturbances  in  the  ether,  or  "  displaces  the  ether- particles  "  as  if 
the  latter  were  at  rest,  and  the  resultant  disturbance  is  that  which 
follows  if  each  wave  is  assumed  to  have  moved  the  particles  the 
proper  amount  resulting  from  its  own  equation,  independently  of 
the  other  waves.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  must  often  lead  to  very 
complicated  disturbances  ;  but  the  result,  as  far  as  human  eyes  can 
realise  it,  may  be  brought  under  one  or  other  of  two  heads,  i.e. 
either  there  is  some  permanent  relation  between  the  two  or  more 
undulations  that  meet,  and  then  we  have  the  possibility  of  inter- 
ference phenomena,  or  the  several  undulations  are  independent  of 


Application  of  Undulatory  Theory.     By  A.  E.  Conrady.     403 

one  another,  and  then  their  relations  to  each  other  will  change 
with  such  lightning-like  rapidity  that  the  human  eye  cannot 
realise  these  relations  separately,  but  receives  only  an  average 
impression. 

It  becomes  at  once  apparent  that  light  from  two  independent 
points  cannot  have  any  permanent  relationship  when  we  consider 
that  two  such  points  may,  and  probably  will,  at  any  one  instant 
be  sending  out  light  of  different  wave-length,  which  latter  more- 
over is  subject  to  gradual  change  in  either  point,  and  further,  that, 
if  we  imagine  ourselves  looking  towards  any  such  point,  the  trans- 
verse vibrations  may  be  taking  place  in  any  direction  whatever 
across  the  line  of  sight,  thus  opening  another  source  of  great  and 
changeable  differences  between  the  light  from  such  independent 
luminous  points.  The  common  experience  is  therefore  that  we 
cannot  obtain  interference  phenomena  when  light  from  different 
sources  is  intermingled ;  each  source  contributes  its  own  share  to 
the  total  brightness  of  the  illumination,  the  latter  being  simply 
the  sum  of  the  individual  intensities. 

No  formula  which  contains  a  phase-relation  and  which  deals 
with  amplitudes  can  therefore  apply  to  the  combination  of  undula- 
tions which  have  originated  in  independent  sources  of  light,  and  to 
assign  such  a  formula  to  such  a  purpose  would  clearly  prove  a 
complete  unaccpuaintance  with  the  elementary  principles  of  physical 
optics. 

The  case  of  the  combined  effect  of  light  from  a  number  of 
different  independent  sources  is  thus  settled,  and  nothing  that 
follows  must,  or  can,  be  applied  to  such  a  case ;  and  as  interference- 
phenomena  thus  become  limited  to  cases  where  light  from  the 
same  source  reaches  a  certain  point  by  paths  of  different  lengths, 
we  see  that  it  is  the  study  of  the  resultant  brightness  in  such  cases 
that  must  provide  the  solution  of  the  problems  of  the  action  and 
resolving  power  of  optical  instruments. 

Any  luminous  particle  sends  out  spherical  waves,  and  as  these 
are  the  result  of  the  vibration  of  the  particle,  we  see  at  once  that 
the  light  must  at  any  given  time  and  distance  be  performing  the 
same  kind  of  vibrations  within  a  wide  angular  extent,  and  that  for 
tins  reason  light  from  a  distant  point  must  be  capable  of  inter- 
ference even  though  the  portions  brought  together  formed  widely 
separated  parts  of  a  wave.  This  is  indeed  borne  out  by  the  ex- 
perience with  large  telescope  object-glasses,  for  in  these  it  is  found 
that  the  light  from  a  distant  star  passing  the  different  zones  pro- 
duces diffraction-phenomena  precisely  similar  to  those  obtained 
with  small  apertures.  A  more  difficult  question  is  the  one  as  to 
how  great  the  difference  of  phase  may  become  before  the  gradual 
changes  in  the  rate  and  direction  of  the  vibrations  become  manifest 
and  prevent  regular  interferences.  All  we  can  say  is  that  experi- 
ence with  large  diffraction  gratings  and  still  more  with  interfero- 

2  E  2 


404 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


meters  proves  that  differences  of  phase  of  tens  of  thousands  and  in 
some  cases  even  of  millions  of  wave-lengths  do  not  prevent  regular 
interference ;  and  as  in  microscopical  optics  the  differences  of 
phase  that  have  to  be  reckoned  with  amount  at  most  to  a  few 
hundred  wave-lengths,  we  need  have  no  fears  in  that  direction. 
These  were  the  considerations  which  led  Professor  Abbe  to  drop  * 
the  restriction  of  his  diffraction  theory  to  small  objects  which  he 
had  mentioned  in  his  paper  of  1873,  and  to  claim  instead  that  his 
theory  really  applied  to  all  objects  which  were  seen  by  borrowed 
light,  in  his  own  words :  "  even  to  fencepoles." 

We  now  proceed  to  deduce  the  resultant  of  the  combination  of 
different  portions  of  the  light  from  a  common  source  when  there 
are  differences  of  phase  between    them,  on  the  principle  stated 


Fig.  75. 


above — that  the  resulting  disturbance  is  the  algebraical  sum  of 
all  the  contributing  portions.  It  is  evident  that  if  we  can  combine 
two  disturbances,  we  have  the  means  of  combining  any  desired 
number  by  repeating  the  process  the  necessary  number  of  times. 
Hence  the  case  of  two  combining  waves  is  of  especial  interest. 

The  easiest  solution  is  a  graphical  one.     In  fig.  75  let  X  and  Y 
be  the  two  waves  to  be  combined,  the  difference  of  phase  being 


*  The  "  disclaimer"  here  referred  to  was  first  published  by  Professor  Abbe  in  a 
paper  of  1S80,  which  is  reprinted  in  "  Ernst  Abbe,  Gesammeltc  Abhandungen,  Jena 
19(14."  Hero,  on  page  290,  we  read  :  "  Froin  my  present  standpoint  I  must  there- 
fore abandon  the  distinction  of  two  modes  of  microscopical  imape-formation  existing 
side  by  side,  and  also  the  assumption  of  any  kind  of  direct  image-formation  except  in 
the  case  of  self-luminous  object*.  Even  fencepoles  have  their  images  formed  by  a 
secondary  process  after  the  same  manner  as  bacteria  and  the  most  delicate  diatom- 
structures."  And  there  is  a  footnote  which  states  :  "  But  this  is  the  only  point  on 
which  I  have  to  correct  my  former  explanations."  The  italics  are  Abbe's,  and  the 
translation  is  as  nearly  literal  as  is  possible. 


Application  of  Undvlatory  Theory.     Bij  A.  E.  Conrady.      405 

equal  to  the  length  G — D.  To  obtain  the  resultant  of  the  two  we 
have  merely  to  add  the  two  displacements  which  become  super- 
posed in  each  point. 

On  the  line  E — H1  we  see  that  wave  X  has  a  displacement  E  F 
in  the  positive  sense,  whilst  wave  Y  has  a  displacement  G  H  in 
the  negative  sense  ;  hence  we  obtain  the  resultant  displacement 
by  marking  off  F1  E1  =  E  F,  and  then  from  E1  going  back  by  the 
amount  E1  H1  =  G  H.  The  resultant  displacement  here  is  there- 
fore =  F1  H1. 

In  the  position  I — M1  the  result  is  different,  for  here  both 
combining  waves  have  displacements  in  the  same  negative  sense, 
hence  we  get  a  large  resulting  displacement  =  I1  M1. 

By  carrying  out  this  process  in  a  sufficient  number  of  points, 
we  get  the  result  of  the  combination  in  the  form  of  a  new  wave 
(X  -j-  Y),  which  differs  in  phase  and  in  amplitude  from  the  com- 
bining portions,  but  retains  the  same  wave-length. 

Mathematically,  the  solution  is  arrived  at  by  bearing  in  mind 
that  in  our  wave-equation  (I)  a  difference  of  phase  is  expressed  by 
a  change  in  the  value  of  X.     If  we  solve  the  bracket  in  (I)  we  get  — 


=  A  sm  <  —  V  t X    \ 

\  \  x      i 


For  simplicity's  sake  we  will  introduce  simple  symbols  for  the 
two  parts.  The  first  contains  the  time  t  and  is  an  ever-growing- 
angle ;  in  my  paper  of  November  1904  I  called  it  a,  but  in  order 
to  make  it  easier  to  remember  that  this  angle  involves  the  time,  I 
will  now  and  henceforth  call  it  t  ;  the  second  angle  is  the  difference 
of  phase  compared  with  that  at  some  fixed  distance  from  the  source 
of  light,  and  1  will  retain  the  symbol  fi  for  this.  We  may  thus 
write  two  combining  wave-motions  as — 


'8 


&  =  Ai  sin  (t  -  fr) 
A2  sin  (t  -  (32) 


and  we  can  combine  these  by  solving  the  sines  ;  we  obtain — 

C  fi  =  Ax  sin  t  cos  /3X  -  Ax  cos  t  sin  & 
*•  \  £2  =  A2  sin  t  cos  /32  -  A2  cos  t  cos  #, 

and  these  give  the  sum — 

3.       £  +  f2  =  sin  t  (Ax  cos  /3X  +  A2  cos  /32)  -  cos  t 
(Ax  sin  @i  +  A2  sin  /32) 

All  the  quantities  in  brackets  are  independent  of  the  time  ;  we 
can  simplify  them  by  utilising  a  general  trigonometrical  theorem, 


406  Tr<m$aetion&  of  the  Society. 

according  to  which  it  is  always  possible  to  find  a  quantity  A  and 
an  angle  ft  such  thai  the  equations  are  fulfilled — 

f  A  ens  /3  =  Aa  cos  /3j  +  A 2  cos  fa 
\  A  sin  /3  =  Aj  sin  &  +  A2  sin  fa 

and  it'  we  substitute  these  values  in  (3)  we  obtain — 

5.  £  =  £x  +  £2  =  A  cos  /3  sin  t  —  A  sin  /3  cos  t  =  A  sin  (t  —  j3) 

This  represents  a  new  wave  of  amplitude  A;  the  value  of  A 
can  be  obtained  by  squaring  equations  (4)  and  adding  them  together ; 
for  the  squaring  gives — 

]  A2  cos2  /3  =  A^  cos2  fa  +  A22  cos2  fa  +  2  A,  Ao  cos  fa  cos  fa 
)  A2  sin2  /3  =  Ai2  sin2  fa  +  A22  sin2  £2  +  2  Ax  A2  sin  fa  sin  fa 

and  remembering  that  sin2  +  cos2  of  any  angle  is  equal  to  one,  the 
addition  gives — 

A2  =  Ax2  +  A22  +  2  Ax  A2  {cos  fa  cos  fa  +  sin  fa  sin  /32} 

The  terms  in  brackets  represent  cos  (fti  —  /32),  hence  we  get  the 
general  solution  of  our  problem — 

6.  A  =  J  AS  +  A22  +  2  Aj  A2  cos  (fa  -  fa) 

and  having  obtained  A  from  this,  we  can  get  the  phase-angle  from 
(4),  for  dividing  the  second  by  the  first,  we  obtain — 


A!  sin  fa  +  A2  sin  fa  ^ 
tg  P  ~  Ax  cos  fa  +  A2  cos  fa 


It  hardly  needs  stating  that  equations  (6)  and  (7),  being  a  per- 
fectly general  solution,  include  all  special  cases  that  may  occur. 
That  they  cannot,  however,  be  applied  to  light  from  independent 
sources  has  already  been  laid  down,  and  needs  no  further  mention. 

Equation  (6)  is  identical  in  form  with  the  one  obtained  in 
mechanics  for  the  resultant  of  two  forces  ;  and  as  this  is  a  remark- 
able and  sometimes  convenient  relationship,  I  will  briefly  prove  it. 

Let  Fx  and  F2  in  fig.  7G  be  the  two  forces  acting  at  point  G,  let 
their  direction  be  defined  by  the  angles  /3X  and  /32  respectively 
which  they  form  with  some  fixed  direction  C  Z.  Then  it  is  well 
known  that  the  resultant  force  corresponds  in  magnitude  and 
direction  to  the  diagonal  C  E  of  the  "  parallelogram  of  forces  " 
C  I)  E  F. 

*  It  may  be  pointed  out  that,  if  A  is  always,  as  is  usual,  given  the  positive  sign, 
the  quadrant  in  which  /3  is  to  be  taken  must  be  determined  by  the  sign  of  the  right 
hand  sides  of  equations  (4)  in  the  usual  manner. 


Application  of  Undulatory  Theory.     B/j  A.  E.  Conrady.      407 


In  this  parallelogram  we  have  the  angle  F  C  D  =  (/3,  —  /32), 
hence  angle  0  D  E  =  180  -  (/3,  -  /32). 

In  the  triangle  C  I)  E  there  are  therefore  known  side  C  D  =  F2, 
side  DE=  FXj  and  the  included  angle  ODE  =  180  -  (&  -  /32). 
To  tind  the  third  side  we  apply  one  of  the  fundamental  equations 
of  plane  trigonometry  (a2  =  b-  -f  c2  —  2  o  c  cos  a),  which  gives — 

F  =  x/Fi2  4-  F22  -  2  Fx  F2  cos  {180  -  (fr  -  &)} 

but  for  any  angle  we  have  cos  (180  —  a)  =  —  cos  a,  hence — 

F  =  */¥{>  -4-  F22  +  2  Fx  F2  cos  (ft  -  &)" 

which  becomes  identical  with  (6)  if  letter  F  is  changed  to  A. 

If  we  assume  the  angle  j3  between 
C  Z  and  the  resultant  to  have  also  been 
determined,  the  triangle  C  D  E  gives  us 
another  interesting  relation,  for  as  angle 
E  C  D  =  (/3  -  £2)  and  angle  DEC 
=  F  C  E  =  (/3x  —  J3),  we  have,  remem- 
bering that  cos  (a  —  /3)  =  cos  (/3  —  a) — 

F  =  Y1  cos  (£  -  A)  +  F2  cos  (/3  -  /33) 

an  interesting  relation  which  may  be 
used — when  applied  to  amplitudes — to 
check  the  accuracy  of  a  calculation,  but 
which  is  in  no  sense  a  solution  of  the 
problem,  as  it  requires  the  phase- 
relation  between  the  resultant  and  the 
components  to  be  known. 

It  is  very  important  to  remember  when  making  use  of  this 
relationship  between  the  combination  of  forces  and  that  of 
amplitudes,  that  the  angles  yS  have  really  a  totally  different 
significance  in  the  two  cases ;  in  the  case  of  forces  they  really 
measure  angles  between  the  direction  of  forces,  whilst  in  the  case 
of  amplitudes  the  direction  of  the  disturbances  is  always  the  same 
(up  and  down  in  our  figures),  the  /3  measuring  the  difference  of 
phase  in  the  sense  of  our  fig.  75. 

The  formulae  (6)  and  (7)  can  easily  be  extended  to  combine  any 
number  of  disturbances.  The  formula  corresponding  to  (6) 
becomes  the  square  root  of  a  squared  polynomial  in  which  each 
double  product  has  a  corresponding  cos  (^„  —  /3m)  as  factor,  and 
the  equation  for  tg  /3  becomes  the  quotient  of  the  sum  of  all 
terms  Am  sin  fim  divided  by  the  sum  of  all  terms  Awl  cos  /3m.  In 
concrete  cases,  the  numerical  determination  is  really  simpler  if  the 
equations  (4)  with  the  proper  number  of  terms   have  their  right 


Fig.  76. 


408  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

sides  determined  numerically ;  the  solution  for  A  and  (3  then 
becomes  a  very  simple  matter.  Examples  of  this  will  probably 
occur  in  a  future  paper  which  I  hope  to  bring  forward  later  on. 

The  cases  of  interference  which  are  of  the  most  frequent 
occurrence,  and  which  are  of  the  greatest  importance,  are  those 
which  lead  to  so-called  diffraction-phenomena  ;  and  a  few  words  on 
problems  of  this  kind  may  save  many  digressions  hereafter,  besides 
shedding  some  light  on  cases  already  dealt  with  in  this  Journal. 

These  cases  may  be  stated  thus  : — 

Light  from  a  luminous  point  passes  through  certain  apertures 
— wanted,  the  intensity  and  phase  of  the  light  at  any  point  beyond 
those  apertures. 

The  solution  is  obtained  by  applying  the  Huyghenian  principle 
and  its  extension  by  Fresnel. 

According  to  the  former,  we  obtain  the  light-effect  at  any  point 
beyond  a  given  wave-front  by  considering  each  point  in  the  wave- 
front  as  a  new  source  of  light,  but  so  that  all  of  these  points  are  at 
any  moment  in  the  same  phase  and  state  of  vibration,  and  by 
combining  the  disturbances  reaching  the  given  point  from  all 
these  points  of  the  wave-surface,  according  to  the  universal  rule 
stated  above.  Fresnel  extended  this  principle  to  any  surface  con- 
taining the  diffraction  apertures,  whether  this  surface  coincide  with 
the  wave-fronts  or  not,  by  stipulating  that  the  fictitious  luminous 
points  in  that  surface  must  have  assigned  to  them  the  relative 
phases  of  the  direct  light  reaching  those  points,  and  that  the 
combined  effect  at  any  point  beyond  the  surface  must  be  deduced 
with  due  regard  to  these  phase-relations. 

I  will  not  attempt  to  deal  with  the  difficulties  in  connection 
with  both  these  principles  which  have  been  raised  on  theoretical 
grounds,  nor  with  the  way  in  which  they  have  been  overcome ; 
those  who  are  interested  in  that  are  strongly  recommended  to  look 
the  subject  up  in  Drude's  "  Theoretical  Optics."  *  Suffice  it  to  state, 
that  these  investigations  justify  the  applications  of  those  principles 
which  are  here  dealth  with. 

The  application  of  these  principles  which  is  of  most  interest 
in  the  theory  of  microscopical  vision  is  that  which  leads  to  the 
explanation  of  the  peculiar  effects  produced  by  gratings  and  other 
regular  structures. 

As  I  have  dealt  with  this  very  fully  from  the  mathematical 
point  of  view  in  my  paper  of  November  1904,  and  in  the  reply  to 
the  "  discussion  "  of  that  paper,  I  need  not  repeat  the  mathematical 
treatment.  But  it  may  be  once  more  insisted  upon  that  in  all 
these  cases  the  result  of  the  interference-phenomena  is  completely 
characterised  by  the  resulting  amplitude,   i.e.   the   maximum   dis- 

*  Drude.  "Theory  of  Optics."  translated  by  G.  R.  Mann  and  R.  A.  Milliken- 
Longmans,  Green  and  Co.,  1902. 


Application  of  Undulatory  Theory.     By  A.  E.  Conrady.     409 


placement  peculiar  to  the  diffracted  waves,  or,  briefly,  the  magnitude 
of  their  elongation,  and  by  the  relative  phase,  which  latter  is  ex- 
pressed either  by  the  value  of  the  phase  angle,  or  else  by  the  sign 
of  the  computed  amplitude ;  the  angle  t,  or  a  in  my  previous 
communications,  merely  expresses  the  undulatory  nature  of  the 
phenomena,  but  does  not  affect  either  the  intensity  or  the  relative 
phase  of  the  light.  The  idea  that  its  presence  in  a  formula  must 
cause  embarrassment  could  only  occur  to  one  totally  devoid  of 
mathematical  instinct. 

But  the  application  of  the  graphical  method  to  this  problem 
may  be  of  considerable  interest 
to  those  who  cannot  or  will  not 
study  a  mathematical  proof. 

The  principal  result  of  the 
mathematical  investigation  re- 
ferred to  was  that  diffraction- 
spectra  from  plane  gratings  have 
either  the  same  or  else  the  op- 
posite phase  of  that  simulta- 
neously existing  in  the  direct 
light,  and  this  can  be  shown  gra- 
phically in  the  following  manner. 

It  is  desired  to  determine  the 
amplitude  and  phase  of  the  light 
reaching  Q1  from  a  slit  S  (fig.  77) 
lighted  from  a  distant  point  P, 
the  amplitude  to  be  compared 
with  that  which  would  obtain  at 
point  Q  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  slit  as  Q1,  but  in  a  direct 
line  with  P,  and  the  phase  to  be 
referred  to  that  which  light  from 
the  centre  of  the  slit  would  pro- 
duce at  Q1. 

Both  P  and  Q,  being  at  a  distance  which  is  assumed  to  be  great, 
as  compared  with  the  width  of  the  slit,  all  the  light  will  reach  Q 
in  the  same  phase,  and  we  shall,  therefore,  get  a  resulting  ampli- 
tude at  Q,  which  is  the  simple  sum  of  all  the  disturbances  proceeding 
from  the  slit.  But  otherwise  at  Q1.  For  here  we  have  obvious 
differences  of  the  paths,  by  which  light  from  P  through  the  different 
portions  of  the  slit,  reaches  Q1 ;  hence  there  will  be  more  or  less 
weakening  of  the  light  at  Q1  through  interference.  If  we  now 
divide  our  slit  into  a  number  of  equal  parts  so  narrow  that  the 
light  from  any  one  part  may  be  assumed  to  reach  Q1  in  the  same 
phase,  we  shall  be  able  to  combine  the  light  from  these  parts 
in  pairs  by  the  simple  process  shown  in  fig.  75.  Such  a  pair  close 
to  the  centre  will  have  an  inappreciable  difference  of  phase,  and 


Fig.  77. 


410 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


we  shall  get  a  resulting  amplitude  nearly  equal  to  the  simple  sum 
of  the  two  (fig.  78,  a).  But  if  we  take  a  pair  with  a  considerable 
difference  of  phase,  one  being  behind,  the  other  an  equal  amount 
in  front  of  the  light  from  the  centre  of  the  slit,  then  there  will  be 


a 


Fig.  78. 


interference.  And  an  inspection  of  fig.  78,  b,  immediately  shows  a 
striking  peculiarity ;  for  as  one  wave-curve  recedes  just  as  much 
from  any  of  the  nodes  of  the  central  light  as  the  other  exceeds  it, 
the  displacements  of  the  two  waves  at  those  nodes  must  always  be 
equal  to  each  other,  but  in  opposite  directions ;  on  the  principle  of 


Application  of  Undulatory   Theory.     By  A.  E.  Conrady.     411 

combination  illustrated  in  fig.  75  and  again  here,  the  two  waves  will, 
therefore,  invariably  produce  a  node  in  the  same  p>osition  as  light 
from  the  centre  of  the  slit.  In  fig.  78,  b,  there  results  a  small  com- 
bined wave  still  in  the  same  sense  as  that  from  the  centre.  But 
proceed  to  fig.  78,  c,  where  the  difference  of  phase  of  either  wave  is 
more  than  {  wave-length  as  compared  with  the  wave  from  the 
centre  of  the  slit.  We  still  get  the  same  position  of  the  nodes, 
but  these  two  waves  produce  a  resultant  wave  of  the  opposite  character 
to  that  of  the  wave  from  the,  centre  of  the  slit,  and  this  shows 
graphically  what  I  proved  mathematically  in  my  paper. 

If  we  apply  this  process  to  all  the  successive  pairs  and  then 
combine  the  resultants  of  these,  we  shall  get  the  complete  result ; 
without  going  into  the  details,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  if  the 
differences  of  phase  between  the  extreme  edges  of  the  slit  and  its 
centre  do  not  exceed  \  wave-length,  all  the  resultants  are  in  the 
same  sense,  and  reinforce  each  other ;  for  a  wider  slit,  the  pairs 
further  removed  from  the  centre  combine  to  the  opposite  effect — 
hence  the  total  light  is  weakened,  and  eventually  becomes  zero 
when  the  edges  of  the  slit  are  £  wave-length  out  of  phase  compared 
with  the  centre.  With  still  wider  slits  the  light  reappears,  but  in 
the  opposite  phase,  in  the  manner  described  in  my  paper. 


412 


NOTES. 

The  Tubercle  Bacillus. 
By  Edward  M.  Nelson. 

Twenty-four  years  have  now  passed  since  the  publication  by 
Dr.  E.  Koch  of  his  discovery  of  the  tubercle  bacillus.  He 
differentiated  it  from  its  surrounding  material  by  staining  it  with 
methylen-blue  and  vesuvin.  He  described  the  bacilli  as  being 
very  small  rods,  in  length  about  \  the  diameter  of  a  red  blood  cor- 
puscle, and  in  breadth  about  \  of  their  length.*  In  the  same  year 
these  rod-shaped  organisms  were  resolved  by  me  into  beaded 
structures.!  At  that  time,  owing  to  the  imperfections  of  the 
staining  method,  the  beading  on  these  bacilli  was  very  difficult  to 
demonstrate  ;  but  shortly  after  a  new  method  of  staining  was 
introduced  by  Dr.  Ehrlich  (Dr.  Koch's  assistant)  which  enabled 
the  organisms  to  be  seen  with  a  dry  lens.J  Ehrlich's  method  was 
further  improved  by  Dr.  H.  Gibbes,§  and  so  distinct  were  the 
bacilli  in  his  preparations  that  I  was  able  to  bead  them  with  a 
^q  objective. 

An  average  specimen  of  this  organism  as  prepared  by  Dr.  Koch 
was  in  appearance  like  a  row  of  rounded  beads,  eight  in  number, 
but  in  a  preparation  by  Dr.  Gibbes  there  would  only  be  four  beads  ; 
they  would,  however,  be  larger  and  more  widely  separated ;  so 
that  on  the  Koch's  slide  they  would  count  70  to  80,  and  on  the 
Gibbes'  slide  35  to  40  in  one-thousandth  of  an  inch  ;  therefore  beads 
which  were  difficult  to  demonstrate  on  a  Koch's  were  easy  to  see 
on  a  Gibbes'  slide.  This  may  be  explained  by  supposing  that  an 
average  specimen  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  consists  of  four  cells, 
and  that  with  Koch's  method  the  stain  only  enters  the  ends  of  the 
cells,  leaving  the  centres  unstained,  while  in  Gibbes'  preparations 
only  the  central  portion  of  the  cell  is  stained.  Fig.  79  shows  a 
bacillus  stained  by  Koch,  and  fig.  80  one  by  Gibbes  ;  in  fig.  79 
the  edges  of  the  cells,  and  in  fig.  80  the  edges  and  divisions  between 
the  cells,  have  been  inserted  to  illustrate  the  above  supposition. 

Further  improvements  in  the  technique  of  staining  were  made, 
notably  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Pound,  F.E.M.S.,  who  in  1889  prepared  some 

*  Vcrh.  Physiol.  Geaell.  Berlin,  1882,  p.  65;  Lancet,  1882,  pp.  (>55-b\-  J.R..VLS. 
1882,  pp.  385-8;  Naturforscher,  xv.  1882,  pp.  149-50. 

t  Kng.  Mech.,  xxxv.  (1882)  p.  378(2  figs.). 

X  Bull.  Snc.  Belg.  Micro.,  vii.  (1882)  pp.  cxvii.-cxxii. ;  Berl.  Klin.  Wochenachrift, 
May  6,  1882  :  J.R.M.S.,  1882,  pp.  572-4. 

§  Luncet,  1882,  ii.  pp.  183-4;  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  No.  1137  (1882)  pp.  735-6 ; 
J.E  M.S.,  1882,  pp.  895-7,  aud  1883,  pp  704-5  ;  Lancet,  1883,  i.  p.  771. 


Notes.  413 

very  beautiful  slides.  The  heads  appeared  much  more  elongated  ; 
and  there  was  distinctly  less  distance  between  bead  and  bead ;  in 
brief,  it  was  evident  that  the  cell  contents  were  being  more  per- 
fectly stained. 

Quite  recently  further  improvements  in  the  methods  of  staining 
have  permitted  a  still  better  picture  of  the  bacillus  to  be  obtained, 
as  fig.  81  illustrates. 

A  unit  cell  now  appears  to  be  square  ended,  showing  that  its 
contents  have  been  pretty  fully  stained,  the  apparent  distance 
between  one  cell  and  the  next  is  much  reduced,  and  the  whole 
bacillus  looks  something  like  a  jointed  bamboo  ;  the  resolution  of 
these  joints  has  now  become  more  difficult,  and  can  no  longer  be 
performed  by  quite  low  powers.  At  one  end  a  flagellum  is  seen  ; 
this  flagellum  is  very  similar  both  in  its  appearance  and  also  with 
regard  to  its  visibility,  to  that  of  the  cholera  bacillus,  which  I 
figured  in  the  "  British  Medical  Journal "  for  May  1885,  p.  878. 

6 

a 

o 

0 


Fig.  79.  FlG.  SO.  Fig.  81. 

Only  a  single  flagellum  is  seen  in  fig.  81  ;  there  were  many 
similar  examples  on  the  slide,  but  it  is  only  after  some  searching 
that  a  bacillus  with  a  visible  flagellum  can  be  found.  It  requires, 
however,  a  very  formidable  search  to  find  one  with  a  flagellum 
visible  at  both  ends.  On  one  specimen  I  thought  I  glimpsed  a 
second  flagellum,  and  perhaps  also  on  another  besides,  but  an 
example  thoroughly  typical  of  many  others  on  the  slide  was 
selected  for  illustration.  The  preparation  was  of  sputum  from  a 
phthisical  patient. 

The  specimen  in  fig.  81  is  of  average  size. 

Length  without  flagellum  S(;Vo  m-  =2*94/4 
„  of  flagellum  .  20400  "  =1'24» 
„      of  one  joint       .      5^0   »     =  °"71  » 

Breadth     .  .  .      73500   »    ="=0"34„ 

The  joint  measured  is  one  of  the  larger  ones. 

The  W.  A.  was  0  ■  95,  the  length  corrected  for  anti point*  is,  there- 
fore, -8^00-  in.  =  3-03  ft,  and  the  breadth  .-,7!,„-n-  i».  =  0-44  /a. 

The  figures  are  drawn  with  a  magnification  of  5000  diameters. 

Since  this  was  written  many  tubercle  bacilli  with  a  flagellum 
at  each  end  have  been  observed. 

*  J.R.M.S.,  1903,  pp.  579-82,  and  1904,  p.  271. 


414  Notes. 


The  Ashc-Finlayson  "  Cow  para  scope." 

(An  instrument  to  facilitate  comparisons  being  made  between  different  objects 
by  projecting  their  images  together  into  the  field  of  the  Microscope.) 

By  D.  Finlayson,  F.L.S. 

The  desirability  of  some  method  whereby  two  objects  may  be 
simultaneously  examined  in  the  same  field  of  view,  is  often  ex- 
perienced by  microscopists  and  analysts,  especially  by  those  who 
are  engaged  in  work  which  necessitates  frequent  comparisons  being 
made  between  objects  which  present  very  similar  appearances. 

It  seems  strange,  therefore,  that  no  attention,  so  far  as  can  be 
ascertained,  has  hitherto  been  directed  towards  the  construction 
and  perfecting  of  apparatus  to  serve  this  purpose. 

In  examining  objects  of  a  totally  different  appearance  and 
structure,  the  use  of  such  an  adjunct  would  be  obviously  un- 
necessary— in  fact,  its  employment  would  be  a  positive  disad- 
vantage, by  its  limiting  the  area  of  the  object  seen  to  one-half  of 
the  field  of  view  ;  but  when  the  differences  of  structure  or  variations 
of  form  are  too  slight  to  be  readily  perceived,  then  the  ability  to 
place  by  instrumental  means  the  subject  to  be  examined,  and  the 
standard  by  which  it  is  to  be  compared,  side  by  side,  in  the  same 
field,  is  an  advantage  so  great  that  its  value  need  not  be  dwelt 
upon. 

The  purpose  in  view  could  be  carried  out  most  effectively  by 
the  construction  of  a  complete  Microscope  specially  built  for  the 
purpose,  but  as  such  an  instrument  would  necessarily  be  expensive, 
and  limited  in  the  scope  of  its  general  utility,  it  seems  desirable 
to  confine  the  problem  to  the  construction  of  an  apparatus  which 
can  be  used  as  an  adjunct  to,  and  in  conjunction  with  any  existing 
type  of  Microscope,  of  which  it  should  not  require  the  alteration  or 
special  adaptation  of  any  part,  nor  interfere  with  its  use  as  an 
ordinary  instrument  when  required. 

The  device  now  described  (fig.  82)  fulfils  these  conditions  in 
a  manner  that  promises  complete  success. 

The  construction  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  if  an  objective 
be  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  a  Microscope,  any  rays 
of  light  passing  through  it  may  be  deflected  up  the  tube  to  the 
ocular  by  means  of  a  mirror  placed  at  a  suitable  angle,  and  that 
any  object  in  the  focus  of  the  secondary  objective  will  be  seen 
simultaneously  with  the  image  produced  by  the  direct  rays  from 
the  primary  objective. 

Two  images  will  thus  be  transmitted  to  the  ocular,  and  appear 
superimposed  upon  each  other,  and  consequently  blurred. 


Notes. 


415 


To  prevent  this  overlapping  and  confusion  of  images,  it  is 
necessary  to  confine  each  set  of  rays  to  one  side  of  the  tube  and 
one  segment  of  the  field  of  view.  This  is  accomplished  by  insert- 
ing into  the  draw-tube  a  removable  diaphragm  or  division  plate, 


Fig.  82. 


which  extends  from  the  fitting  containing  the  reflector  to  within 
an  inch  or  so  of  the  ocular,  the  tube  thereby  being  divided  into 
two  semi-cylindrical  sections,  each  of  which  transmits  rays  from  a 
different  object,  and  the  image  of  which  will  occupy  separate 
segments  of  the  field  of  view. 


416  Notes. 

The  instrument  is  the  joint  invention  of  Messrs.  Ashe  and 
Finlayson,  and  was  designed  to  suit  the  special  requirements  of 
the  latter  in  his  examination  and  comparison  of  food  materials, 
meals,  starches,  and  fibres ;  also  for  use  in  the  medical  pro- 
fession for  those  engaged  in  research  work,  such  as  the  comparison 
and  identification  of  bacteria  and  disease  germs  of  every  kind. 
Hence  the  name  "  Comparascope,"  which  has  been  given  to  the 
invention. 

It  consists  of  a  vertical  pillar  fixed  in  a  heavy  case.  To  this 
pillar  is  clamped  at  any  required  height  a  horizontal  bar,  which 
carries  at  one  end  an  objective,  and  at  the  other  a  mirror  capable 
of  universal  motions,  whilst  between  the  two  there  is  a  stage  or 
slide-clip,  which  traverses  the  bar  by  a  rack-and-pinion  movement 
for  focussing  purposes,  as  the  position  of  the  objective  is  required 
to  be  a  fixture. 

On  the  nose-piece  of  the  Microscope  is  screwed  a  fitting  con- 
sisting of  a  tube  an  inch  long,  with  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  one 
side.  Inside  this  aperture  is  fixed  a  reflector  of  tinted  glass, 
worked  to  a  perfect  plane  on  its  upper  surface.  It  is  placed  at  an 
angle  of  45°  to  the  axis  of  the  tube,  beyond  which  it  does  not 
extend,  in  order  to  allow  free  passage  for  the  light  from  the  primary 
objective. 

A  prism  might  be  employed,  but  a  reflector  is  more  simple — in 
fact  the  inventors  in  their  early  experiments  used  a  Becks'  vertical 
reflector,  with  a  prism  turned  to  project  the  light  upwards  instead 
of  downwards,  and  they  found  the  result  was  quite  satisfactory. 

For  use  with  high  powers  and  wide-angled  lenses  a  condenser 
will  necessarily  have  to  be  employed  to  illuminate  the  secondary 
objeetive,  and  this  is  best  effected  by  attaching  a  condensing  system 
to  the  movable  stage,  instead  of  giving  it  independent  movement 
on  the  same  bar. 

In  use  the  instrument  is  very  simple,  and  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  getting  the  fields  equally  illuminated,  and  if  the  lenses  are 
duplicates,  the  definition  and  magnification  should  be  the  same. 


Notes.  417 


An  Optical  Paradox* 
By  Lord  Rayleigh,  O.M.,  F.R.S. 

Consider  the  following  combination : — A  point  source  A  of 
approximately  homogeneous  light  (A,)  is  focused  by  the  lens  LL 
upon  the  object-glass  of  a  telescope  T.  In  its  turn  the  telescope 
is  focused  upon  L.  According  to  geometrical  optics  the  margin 
of  the  lens  L  should  be  seen  sharp  by  an  eye  applied  to  the 
telescope ;  but  when  we  consider  the  limitation  of  aperture  at  the 
object-glass  of  the  telescope,  we  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
definition  must  be  very  bad.  The  image  of  A  at  C  constitutes 
the  usual  diffraction  pattern  of  which  most  of  the  light  is  concen- 
trated in  the  central  disc.  The  diameter  of  this  disc  is  of  the  order 
X.LC/LL.  If  this  be  regarded  as  the  effective  aperture  of  T,  the 
angular  resolving  power  will  be  found  by  dividing  X  by  the  above 


Fig.  83. 

quantity,  giving  LL/LC;  so  that  the  entire  angular  magnitude  of 
the  lens  LL  is  on  the  limits  of  resolving  power. 

If  this  be  admitted,  we  may  consider  next  the  effect  of  en- 
larging the  source  A,  hitherto  supposed  to  be  infinitely  small.  If 
the  process  be  carried  far  enough,  the  object-glass  of  T  will  become 
filled  with  light,  and  we  may  expect  the  natural  resolving  power 
to  be  recovered.  But  here  we  must  distinguish.  If  the  enlarged 
source  at  A  be  a  self-luminous  body,  such  as  a  piece  of  white-hot 
metal  or  the  carbon  of  an  electric  arc,  no  such  conclusion  will 
follow.  There  is  no  phase-relation  between  the  lights  which  act  at 
different  parts  of  the  object-glass,  and  therefore  no  possibility  of 
bringing  into  play  the  interferences  upon  which  the  advantage  of  a 
large  aperture  depends.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  however  large 
the  self-luminous  source  at  A  may  be,  the  definition  is  not  im- 
proved, but  remains  at  the  miserably  low  level  already  specified. 
If,  however,  the  source  at  A  be  not  a  real  one,  but  merely  an 
aperture  through  which  light  from  real  sources  passes,  the  case 
may  be  altered. 

Returning  to  the  extended  self-luminous  source,  we  see  that  the 
inefficiency  depends  upon  the  action  of  the  lens  L.     If  the  glass 

*  Reprinted  by  permission  of  the  author  from  Phil.  Mag.,  June  190.5,  pp.  779-81. 
Aug.  16th,  1905  2  F 


41: R  Notes. 

be  removed  from  its  seat,  so  that  A  is  no  longer  focused  upon  the 
object-glass,  the  definition  must  recover. 

I  do  not  know  how  far  the  above  reasoning  will  seem  plausible 
to  the  reader,  but  I  may  confess  that  I  was  at  first  puzzled  by  it. 
I  doubt  whether  any  experimenter  would  willingly  accept  the 
suggested  conclusion,  though  he  might  be  unable  to  point  out  a 
weak  place  in  the  argument.  He  would  probably  wish  to  try  the 
experiment ;  and  this  is  easily  done.  The  lens  L  may  be  the 
collimating-lens  of  an  ordinary  spectroscope  whose  slit  is  backed 
by  a  flame.  The  telescope  is  removed  from  its  usual  place  to  a 
distance  of  say  10  feet  and  is  focused  upon  L.  The  slit  is  at  the 
same  time  focused  upon  the  object-glass  of  the  telescope. 
Although  the  image  of  the  slit  is  very  narrow,  the  definition  of  L 
as  seen  in  the  telescope  does  not  appear  to  suffer,  the  vertical  parts 
of  the  circular  edge  (parallel  to  the  slit)  being  as  well  defined  as 
the  horizontal  parts.  If,  however,  at  the  object-glass  a  material 
screen  be  interposed  provided  with  a  slit  through  which  the  image 
of  the  first  slit  can  pass,  the  definition  at  the  expected  places 
falls  off  greatly,  even  although  a  considerable  margin  be  allowed 
in  the  width  of  the  second  slit. 

This  experiment  gives  the  clue  to  the  weak  place  in  the 
theoretical  argument.  It  is  true  that  the  greater  part  of  the  light 
ultimately  reaching  the  eye  passes  through  a  very  small  area  of 
the  object-glass  ;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  the  remainder  may  be 
blocked  out  without  prejudice  to  the  definition  of  the  boundary  of 
the  field.  In  fact,  a  closer  theoretical  discussion  of  the  diffraction 
phenomena  leads  to  conclusions  in  harmony  with  experiment. 

In  the  case  of  a  point-source  and  the  complete  circular  aperture 
LL,  the  question  turns  upon  the  integral 


/. 


J0  (a  x)  J\  (/3  a?)  d  x, 


J0,  Ji  being  the    Bessel's   functions   usually   so   denoted.       The 
integral  passes  from  0  to  1//3,  as  a  passes  through  the  value  /?*. 

If  the  aperture  of  LL  be  reduced  to  a  narrow  annulus,  the 
integral  to  be  considered  is 


L 


J0  (a  x)  J0  (/3  x)  xdx. 


This  assumes  an  infinite  value  when  a  =  /3  f- 

If  the  apertures  be  rectangular,  the  integrals  take  still  simpler 
forms. 

*  A  theorem  attributed   to  Weber      See  Gray  and  Matthews'  "  Bessel's  Func- 
tions," p.  228. 

t  See  "  Theory  of  Sound,"  §  203,  equations  (14).  (16). 


Notes.  419 

New  Hot  Stage. 
By  W.  S.  Lazarus-Barlow,  M.P.,  F.E.C.P. 

Plate  VII. 

The  inventor  exhibited  and  described  at  the  June  Meeting  a  new 
form  of  warm  stage,  which  can  be  heated  by  either  gas  or  oil. 
The  principle  of  the  apparatus  is  that  of  a  balance  and  a  mano- 
meter combined.  The  stage  itself  is  a  brass  box,  which  contains 
a  series  of  flattened  and  communicating  glass  bulbs,  connected 
with  a  mercury  manometer  of  particular  shape.  A  glass  tap  is 
fused  into  the  manometer  between  it  and  the  stage  itself.  Over 
the  mercury  in  the  open  limb  of  the  manometer  is  an  iron  float, 
suspended  by  silk  from  one  arm  of  the  beam  of  a  balance.  This 
beam  is  supported  on  a  knife-edge,  and  is  provided  with  an  ad- 
justable weight  at  the  end  distal  from  the  warm  stage,  and  a  silver 
rod  suspended  by  loops  of  platinum-iridium  at  the  proximal  end. 
The  silver  rod  is  bent  downwards  at  one  end,  and  is  placed  at 
right  angles  with  the  beam,  both  being  in  the  horizontal  plane. 
The  bent  portion  of  the  silver  rod  dips  into  a  small  bath,  which 
is  brazed  to  the  side  of  the  warm  stage,  and  contains  paraffin  of 
M.P.  about  58°. 

The  apparatus  works  as  follows.  Heat  from  a  flame  is  applied 
to  the  silver  rod  at  the  unbent  end,  and  is  conducted  to  the 
paraffin  in  the  bath  at  the  side  of  the  stage,  and  thence  to  the  stage 
itself.  Variations  in  the  temperature  of  the  stage  are  conveyed  to 
the  air  in  the  glass  bulbs  within  the  stage,  and  express  themselves 
by  expansion  or  contraction  of  that  air,  and  therefore  by  varia- 
tions in  the  level  of  the  mercury  in  the  manometer.  These 
variations  of  the  level  of  the  mercury  allow  the  entire  weight  of 
the  iron  float  in  the  distal  limb  of  the  manometer  to  act  upon  the 
beam  (when  the  mercury  recedes  sufficiently  to  lose  contact  with 
the  float),  or  remove  the  entire  weight  of  the  float  from  the  beam 
(when  the  mercury  rises  sufficiently  to  slacken  the  silk  thread 
connecting  the  beam  and  the  float).  Intermediate  positions  of 
the  mercury,  of  course,  allow  intermediate  proportions  of  the 
weight  of  the  float  to  act  upon  the  beam.  Hence  the  weight  on 
the  side  of  the  beam  towards  the  warm  stage  varies  inversely  as 
the  volume  of  the  air  within  the  glass  bulbs,  i.e.  inversely  as  the 
temperature  of  the  stage  itself.  Consequently  (the  beam  being 
free  to  move  about  its  fulcrum)  the  cooler  the  stage  the  deeper 
the  heated  silver  rod  is  plunged  into  the  bath  of  paraffin,  and 
vice  versa ;  this  greater  immersion  of  the  heated  silver  rod  heats 
the  stage,  expands  the  air  in  the  bulbs,  raises  the  mercury  in 
the  distal  limb  of  the  manometer,  supports  the  iron  float,  and 
allows  the  beam  to  revert  to  its  original  horizontal  position — or 

2  F  2 


420  Notes. 

even  become  somewhat  tilted  in  the  opposite  direction — with  the 
result  that  less  heat  is  given  to  the  stage,  the  stage  cools  some- 
what, and  the  cycle  of  events  re-commences. 

It  will  have  appeared  from  the  last  paragraph  that  the  con- 
struction of  the  beam  and  its  component  parts  is  of  some  im- 
portance. The  beam  itself  is  made  of  magnalium  —  a  newly- 
discovered  alloy  of  magnesium  and  aluminium,  which  is  rigid  and 
of  low  specific  gravity — in  order  to  re-act  readil}'  to  slight  varia- 
tions in  weight  at  either  end.  In  commencing  work,  the  beam  is 
so  adjusted  by  means  of  the  adjustable  weight  and  the  silk  thread 
attached  to  the  float,  that  when  the  entire  weight  of  the  float  is 
acting  the  beam  is  inclined  downwards  towards  the  stage,  and  the 
bent  portion  of  the  silver  rod  is  well  immersed  in  the  paraffin  ; 
when  the  iron  float  is  supported,  the  inclination  of  the  beam  is 
such  that  the  silver  rod  is  just  above  the  level  of  the  paraffin, 
and  when  the  float  just  touches  the  surface  of  the  mercury,  the 
beam  is  horizontal. 

Having  arranged  the  beam  satisfactorily,  the  glass  tap  con- 
nected with  the  glass  bulbs  is  turned  full  open,  and  heat  is  applied 
to  the  silver  rod.  As  soon  as  the  desired  temperature  has  been 
reached,  as  indicated  by  a  thermometer  inserted  in  one  side  of  the 
stage,  the  glass  tap  is  turned  off,  and  the  oscillations  about  that 
temperature  commence.  The  stage  shown  had  been  kept  at  a 
temperature  not  varying  more  than  l°on  either  side  of  100°  F.  day 
and  night  for  a  week. 

In  describing  the  apparatus  (fig.  84,  pi.  VIT.)  the  author  referred 
to  many  difficulties  met  with  during  its  evolution,  and  particu- 
larly that  dependent  upon  the  existence  of  an  irregular  expansion 
of  copper  about  the  temperature  of  100°  F.  It  was  this  which 
necessitated  the  employment  of  glass  bulbs  to  contain  the  air,  in- 
stead of  allowing  the  stage  itself  to  act  as  the  air-containing  closed 
box  connected  with  the  manometer. 

The  Bunsen  burner  for  the  apparatus  is  of  a  new  model,  being 
provided  with  a  safety  cock  for  shutting  off  the  gas  in  case  of 
accidental  "  firing  back."  This  cock  is  situated  close  to  the  base 
of  the  burner  on  the  horizontal  tube,  and  is  provided  with  a  long 
arm,  to  which  a  spring  is  attached.  This  arm  is  soldered  with 
soft  solder  to  the  bottom  of  the  vertical  tube  of  the  burner,  and 
in  this  position  the  gas  is  full  on  and  the  spring  is  stretched. 
If  the  Bunsen  fires  back,  the  lower  part  of  the  burner  becomes 
rapidly  heated,  the  solder  melts,  and  the  recoil  of  the  spring  turns 
the  cock  and  shuts  off  the  gas. 

The  author  acknowledged  the  great  help  he  had  received  in  the 
preliminary  stages  from  Mr.  W.  T.  Hillier,  M.R.C.S.,  his  former 
assistant  in  the  Cancer  Research  Laboratories  of  the  Middlesex 
Hospital,  and  from  Mr.  Swift,  of  Tottenham  Court  Road,  who 
made  the  finished  apparatus  from  rough  models  and  drawings. 


JOURN.   R.  MICR.  SOC.    1905.     PI.  VII 


Fig.  84. 


A.  Points    to  the    paraffin  bath  brazed    to  the  stage,   into  which   dips  the 

bent  end  of  the  silver  heat-eondueting  rod. 

B.  The  thermometer. 

C.  The  manometer,  with  its  glass  tap  on  the  limb  (nearer  the  observer), 

and  its  open  limb,  over  which  hangs  the    iron    float    (further    from 
the  observer). 

D.  The    spring    safety  cock    attached    to    the    gas   supply  of    the    Bunsen 

burner. 

E.  The  adjustable  weight  at  the  distal  end  of  the  beam. 


f  lo  lac  p.  420. 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY       AND       BOTANY 

(PRINCIPALLY    INVERTEBRATA   AND   CRYPTOGAMIA), 

MICROSCOPY,    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 
a.  Embryology.  + 


Ovarian  Eggs  of  Guinea-pig.!  —  L.  Loeb  discusses  very  fully  a 
number  of  points  relating  to  the  ovarian  egg,  such  as  the  oocytes  of  the 
medullary  strands  (Markstrange)  of  the  ovary,  follicle  atresia,  and  the 
progressive  changes  in  the  eggs.  He  found  that  in  10  p.c.  of  the 
ovaries  of  guinea-pigs  of  less  than  six  months,  follicle-like  bodies  with 
Plasmodia  and  syncytia  were  present.  Other  cells  near  the  centre  of  the 
follicles  had  a  cylindrical  or  cubical  form.  Of  ninety-eight  ovaries, 
mostly  older,  only  one  possessed  such  a  follicle-like  body.  They  are 
probably  unruptured  follicles  in  atresia.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  these 
formations  similar  alterations  of  ovarian  tissue  are  traceable  in  different 
directions  ;  they  appear  to  be  in  the  course  of  the  blood  and  lymph 
vessels.  Various  transformations  of  these  bodies  are  described  ;  they 
finally  degenerate,  and  are  destroyed  by  the  ingrowth  of  connective 
tissue.  Oocytes  in  all  stages  of  development  were  found  in  the  "  medullary 
canals"  of  the  ovary  of  the  young  guinea-pig.  They  never  show 
progressive  alterations,  and  do  not  reach  the  size  of  the  matured  egg, 
but  degenerate  early  and  leave  behind  them  an  often  thickened  mem- 
brana  pellucida.  The  canal  may  alter  cystically,  and  the  cysts  may 
reach  a  considerable  size.  In  the  ovary  mitoses  may  occur  in  segmented 
egg-cells,  and  two  contemporaneous  mitoses  may  be  found  in  two  distinct 
segments.  The  author  looks  upon  this  as  the  beginning  of  a  partheno- 
genetic  development  which  soon  comes  to  an  end.  Various  mechanical 
and  chemical  stimuli  failed  to  induce  progressive  alterations  in  the 
ovarian  egg. 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  !>y  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of  this  part  of 
■the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  to 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are  either  new  or  have 
not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  Section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so  called, 
but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and  allied  subjects, 

J  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  lxv.  (1905)  pp.  728-53  (1  pi.). 


422  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Follicles  and  Egg-envelopes  of  Belone  acus.*  —  S.  Comes  has 
studied  the  question  of  the  functional  nature  of  the  follicles  and  the 
differentiation  of  the  egg-envelopes  in  Belone  with  the  following  results. 
He  finds  that  the  vitelline  membrane  appears  double  in  tlie  mature  egg  ; 
the  interior  portion  rests  upon  a  vitelline  layer  differentiated  from  tin- 
rest  of  the  vitellus.  The  follicle  secretes  at  the  appearance  of  the  eggs 
of  the  second  category  (classification  of  Van  Bambeke)  a  special  mucus 
which  condenses  and  becomes  the  chorion.  This  structure  in  mature 
eggs  is  two-layered,  the  outer  stratum  giving  rise  to  the  filaments  of  the 
egg. 

Nucleolar  Dissolution.! — A.  Cerbuti  discusses  the  nucleinic  nucleoli 
which  he  has  observed  in  the  oocytes  of  Selachians  and  the  wall  lizard, 
and  in  Bidder's  organ  in  the  toad.  He  thinks  they  may  be  associated 
with  complicated  "  nucleolar  resolutions,"  such  as  Carnoy  and  Lebrun 
have  described  in  the  nucleoli  of  the  oocytes  of  Batrachians.  They  have 
a  short  duration  and  are  dissolved  into  granules,  but  they  may  give  rise 
to  new  nucleoli. 

Experimental  Researches  on  Egg  of  Rana  fusca.f — A.  Brachet 
finds  that  in  Ranafusca  the  structure  and  constitution  of  the  fertilised 
egg  is  fixed  in  the  sense  that  the  germinal  substance  is  divided  sym- 
metrically on  each  side  of  a  vertical  plane.  This  plane  determines  the 
place  of  origin  of  the  primitive  embryonic  organs.  Whatever  the 
orientation  of  the  first  plane  of  segmentation  in  relation  to  the  plane  of 
bilateral  symmetry  of  the  egg,  it  is  maintained  integrally  during  the 
whole  course  of  development.  All  parts  and  all  primitive  organs  of  the 
embryo  are  built  up  a  Vendroit  and  at  the  expense  of  the  materials 
fixed  for  them  by  the  material  and  dynamic  constitution  of  the  whole 
egg.  The  destiny  of  the  first  blastomeres  depends  in  normal — and  in 
some  experimental — conditions,  not  upon  their  connections  or  their 
reciprocal  influence,  but  upon  the  place  they  occupy  in  the  unsegmented 
egg,  since  on  this  place  depends  the  quality  of  the  germ  material  and  its 
energies. 

Motion  of  Spermatozoa.§ — H.  Adolphi  has  observed  the  movements 
of  the  spermatozoa  of  man,  sheep,  and  ox,  has  timed  the  rapidity  of  their 
swimming,  and  has  noticed,  as  Lott  did  for  dog,  and  Hensen  for  guinea- 
pig,  that  they  move  persistently  against  the  current.  Thus  they  are  the 
better  able  to  pass  upwards  from  the  vagina  in  spite  of  opposed  ciliary 
activity. 

Structure  and  Movements  of  Spermatozoa.|| — A.  Roth  argues  that 
there  are  mechanical  reasons  for  the  way  in  which  spermatozoa  persist- 
ently move  against  a  current.  Even  under  a  cover-glass,  when  a  current 
is  induced  by  blotting-paper  at  one  end,  the  spermatozoa  all  arrange 
themselves  with  the  head  against  the  current.  The  author  maintains 
that  all  spermatozoa  have  a  spiral  structure  which  effects  this  orientation. 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  9-17.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  613-22  (16  figs). 

%  Arch.  Biol.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  103-60  (1  pi.). 
§  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  549  59  (2  figs.). 

||  Arch.  Anat.  Physiol.  /Physiol.  Abth.)  1904,  pp  366-70.     See  Zool.  Zentralbl. 
Xll.  (1905)  pp.  158-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  423 

Accessory  Nuclear  Structures  in  Spermatozoa.* — G.  Retzius  finds 
in  the  spermatozoa  of  Polychasts  and  Molluscs  peculiar  spherules  which 
lie  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  head.  They  are  definite  in  number,  and 
regular  in  arrangement.  He  calls  them  accessory  nuclear  organs,  and 
compares  them  to  the  mitochondrial  body. 

Influence  of  Ovariotomy  in  Goat.| — P.  Oceanu  and  A.  Babes  find 
that  the  removal  of  the  ovaries  has  the  following  advantages  :— (1)  the 
hircine  odour  of  the  milk  disappears,  (2)  the  duration  of  lacteal  secretion 
is  increased,  (3)  there  is  fattening  and  an  improvement  in  the  quality 
of  the  flesh,  (4)  the  quantity  of  milk  is  increased,  and  (5)  the  quantity 
of  butter,  casein  and  phosphoric  acid  is  increased,  while  that  of  lactose 
is  decreased. 

Influence  of  Nervous  System  in  Regeneration.^  —  E.  Godlewski 
has  made  many  experiments  on  newts  which  lead  him  to  conclude,  like 
Rubin  and  G.  Wolff,  that  the  presence  of  the  central  nervous  system  is 
absolutely  essential  to  the  normal  course  of  regeneration.  The  spinal 
ganglia  cannot  replace  the  formative  influence  of  the  spinal  cord  centres 
in  instituting  the  regenerative  process.  A  breach  of  continuity  in  the 
central  nervous  system  has  no  influence  on  the  normal  course  of  re- 
generation. The  presence  of  the  central  nervous  system  conditions  the 
activity  of  the  prospective  potencies  of  those  elements  which  are  stimulated 
by  an  operative  effect  to  the  realisation  of  their  regenerative  capacity. 

Regeneration  of  Limbs  in  Tadpoles  of  Frog.S— A.  Bauer  finds 
that  the  regenerative  power  decreases  with  age  ;  that  it  is  more  effective 
when  the  amputation  is  near  the  distal  end  ;  and  that  it  may  be  exhibited 
twice  or  three  times  in  regard  to  the  same  limb.  There  seems  to  be  a 
considerable  difference  in  the  regenerative  power  according  to  the  time 
of  birth,  for  it  is  much  more  intense  in  young  tadpoles  hatched  in  April 
than  it  is  in  those  of  July.  In  the  latter  there  is  a  marked  enfeebling 
of  the  "  biogenetic  activity  "  throughout  the  tissues,  as  shown  in  the 
retardation  or  the  arrest  of  development.  Thus  the  regenerative  power 
may  be  a  function  of  the  power  to  accomplish  metamorphosis. 

Origin  of  Subclavian  Artery  in  Chick.|| — C.  G.  Sabin  finds  that 
in  the  chick  the  earliest  circulation  to  the  wing  region  (from  the  third 
to  the  sixth  day)  is  derived  from  the  dorsal  aorta,  and  that  the  main 
vessel  of  this  circulation  corresponds  to  the  sub-clavian  in  mammals. 
A  secondary  wing  circulation  derived  from  the  ventral  end  of  the  third 
arch,  not  existing  previous  to  the  sixth  day,  is  at  that  time  established, 
and  both  vessels  carry  blood  to  the  wing  for  a  time.  Further,  at  some 
time  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  day,  or  the  first  part  of  the  eighth, 
the  primary  vessel  atrophies  and  disappears,  while  the  ventral  artery 
increases  in  size  and  develops  into  the  adult  condition  of  the  subclavian. 

Origin  of  Lungs.f— Alfred  Greil  objects  to  the  view  of  Goette, 
Spengel,  and  others,  that  the  lungs  may  be  traced  to  posterior  (sixth) 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  Erganzungsheft,  pp.  154-6. 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  172-4. 

j  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracoyie,  1904,  pp.  492-505  (1  pi.). 
§  Journ.  de  l'Anat.  Phyaiol.,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  288-99  (22  figs.). 
||  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  817-32. 
K  Tom.  cit,  pp.  625-32  (5  figa.). 


424  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

bronchia]  pouches,  and  brings  forward  new  arguments  in  support  of  the 
view  that  lungs  are  homologous  with  the  swim-bladder. 

Lens  Formation  in  Frog.* — H.  Spemann  removed  the  primary  lens- 
forming  cells,  with  a  view  to  discover  whether  the  lens  and  cornea  are 
formed  independently  of  the  nervous  part  of  the  eye.  Retinal  influence 
was  found  necessary,  but  it  was  not  determined  whether  the  primary 
lens-forming  cells  are  differentiated  as  such  before  the  cells  of  the  eye- 
cup  use  them  in  lens-formation. 

Early  Stages  of  Pleuronectes  cynoglossus.f — H.  C.  Williamson 
describes  a  series  of  post-larval  and  early  stages  of  P.  cynoylossus. 
There  is  a  long  post-larval  period,  and  a  large  size  is  reached  before  the 
bottom  habitat  is  adopted.  Sketches  are  given  which  ought  to  aid  in 
the  diagnosis  of  preserved  examples. 

b-  Histology. 

Hydraulic  Theory  of  Ciliary  Action.^ — E.  A.  Schiifer  describes 
simple  models  which  he  has  devised  to  illustrate  ciliary  action.  The 
conclusion  to  which  a  study  of  these  models  leads  him,  is  that  the  theory 
of  the  action  of  a  cilium  which  assumes  that  the  movement  is  caused  by 
the  inflow  and  outflow  of  fluid,  or,  in  other  words,  by  the  increase  and 
diminution  of  the  fluid  pressure,  within  a  simply  or  spirally  curved, 
hollow  extension  of  the  cell,  is  adequate  to  explain  the  phenomenon, 
and  in  the  absence  of  any  other  physically  possible  theory,  may  be 
provisionally  adopted. 

Interconnections  of  Epidermal  Cells.§ — L.  Merk  brings  forward 
evidence  to  show  that  there  is  more  than  mechanical  connection  between 
the  epidermal  cells  of  the  human  skin,  both  inter  se  and  with  the  sub- 
jacent corium.  They  are  attached  to  one  another  like  the  eggs  and  their 
gelatinous  envelopes  in  frogs'  spawn.  They  are  attached  to  the  corium 
as  a  drop  of  sputum  to  the  surface  to  which  it  clings. 

Regeneration  of  Nerves.fl — Oskar  Schultze  concludes  that  the  pro- 
cesses of  regeneration  in  peripheral  nerves  agree  with  those  of  ontogenesis. 
The  peripheral  nerve  arising  from  its  special  energids  has  the  power  of 
repairing  a  defect  by  means  of  these  same  elements,  namely  the  peri- 
pheral neuroblasts,  the  nuclei  of  which  are  the  so-called  Schwann's 
nuclei.  The  regeneration  of  a  peripheral  nerve  is  not  merely  auto- 
genous, it  is  also  isogenous,  like  that  of  epithelium,  gland,  or  muscle. 
The  nerve  grows  and  regenerates  itself  like  a  muscle.  It  seems  from 
the  pathological  results  also  that  the  neuron-theory  must  be  given  up. 
The  peripheral  fibre  is  no  cellular  process  with  apposed  ensheathing 
cells  ;  it  is  a  syncytium  with  innumerable  "  trophic  "  and  regenerative 
centres  proper  to  itself.  If  there  is  a  hole  made  in  the  syncytium,  the 
surfaces  of  the  wound  seek  to  close  it  up  from  both  sides.     If  the  hole 

•  Zool.  Anzeip.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  419-82. 

t  Rep.  Fishery  Board.  Scotland,  1904  pp.  270-4. 

t  Anal.  Anzoig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  517-21  (2  figs.). 

§  RB  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  cxii.(1903)  received  1905,  pp.  899-412  (1  pl.and  1  fig.). 

||  Verb.  Phys.  Med.  Gea.  Wurzburg.  xxxvii.(1905)  pp.  267-9C  (10  figa.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  425 

remains  the  peripheral  portion  dies,  for  lack  of  the  stimulus  coming  from 
or  going  to  the  centre  essential  to  its  continued  life. 

Ganglion  Cells  of  Cerebellum  of  Pig.* — K.  Takasu  has  studied 
the  development  of  these  in  the  cortex  of  the  cerebellum.  The  Golgi 
cells  and  basket-cells  appear  clearly  only  in  a  embryo  of  195  mm.,  and 
grow  steadily  to  the  end  of  embryonic  life.  The  Purkinje  cells  are  dis- 
tinguished from  all  other  cells  in  the  earliest  stages  only  by  the  bright- 
ness of  their  relatively  large  nucleus.  Only  in  embryos  of  from 
182-150  mm.  do  they  possess  much  protoplasm,  and  from  this  stage  they 
grow  rapidly.  In  the  later  stages  their  branched  processes  develop  a 
finely  striped  tigroid  substance.  The  development  of  the  ganglion  cells 
in  the  interior  of  the  medullary  mass  is  always  further  advanced  than 
that  of  the  Purkinje  cells.  Medullated  nerve  fibres  in  the  medullary 
layer,  and  in  the  inner  granular  layer,  appear  first  in  embryos  of 
220  mm. 

Central  Nervous  System  of  Torpedo.f — M.  Borchert  describes 
certain  hitherto  unknown  peculiarities  in  the  manner  of  exit  of  those 
cranial  nerves  which  have  clearly  separated  anterior  and  posterior  roots. 
The  anterior  roots  uniformly  join  the  posterior  on  their  ventral  side. 
In  the  case  of  the  lateral  nerves  of  the  trigeminus-facialis-acusticus- 
complex,  and  also  in  the  trigeminus  and  facialis,  the  anterior  root  joins 
first  the  medial  and  then  the  ventral  side  of  the  posterior. 

Structure  of  Red  Blood  Corpuscles  in  Amphibians. J — Fr.  Meves 
discusses  in  the  first  place  the  reticular  structure  which  is  certainly 
demonstrable  in  the  red  blood  corpuscles  of  the  frog,  though  many 
appearances  so  described  are  artefacts.  He  then  discusses  the  granular 
inclusions,  e.g.  the  "  chromatoid  "  spherules  ;  the  alleged  occurrence  of 
two  concentric  zones,  which  he  regards  as  artificial ;  and  the  alleged 
presence  of  an  external  membrane,  which  he  denies. 

Structure  of  Erythrocytes^ — E.  A.  Schafer  gives  detailed  evidence 
to  show  that  the  erythrocyte,  both  in  mammals  and  in  oviparous 
vertebrates,  is  a  vesicle  consisting  of  a  thin  membrane  enclosing  fluid 
contents.  The  membrane  of  the  erythrocyte  is  composed  of  a  soft, 
yielding,  elastic  material,  mucus-like  in  consistence  and  chemically 
resembling  protoplasm  ;  containing  nucleo-proteids,  lecithin  and  choles- 
terin  in  almost  the  same  relative  amount  as  protoplasm.  He  calls 
attention  to  the  important  observations  of  Norris,  which  have  been 
unjustly  ignored.  Norris  not  only  proved  that  the  blood  corpuscles 
must  be  regarded  as  invested  by  a  surface  film  of  a  material  notmiscible 
with  water,  but  also  concluded  for  the  myelinic  nature  of  that  film,  and 
ascribed  to  this  the  flattened  form  of  the  corpuscle. 

Absorption  of  Fat  by  Chorionic  Villi. || — J.  Hofbauer  discusses 
the  minute  structure  of  the  chorionic  villi,  and  the  evidence  which 
shows   that  fat   is   taken  into    the  villus-syncytium  under   conditions 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  225-32. 

t  Tom.  cit,  pp.  289-92.  J  Tom.  cit..  pp.  529-49. 

§  Tom.  cit ,  pp.  589-600. 

1|  SB.  Akad.  Wis*.  Wien,  cxii.  (I9U3)  received  1905,  pp.  204-29 


426  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

similar  to  those  which  obtain  in  the  case  of  the  intestinal  epithelium. 
The  protoplasm  of  the  cells  does  not  remain  passive  in  relation  to  the 
surrounding  medium,  but  actively  regulates  the  absorption  of  fat 
globules.  Fat  coloured  with  sudan  was  traced  from  the  maternal 
alimentary  system  to  the  foetal  blood. 

Crystalloids  in  Amphioxus.*—  H.  Joseph  finds  in  the  epidermal 
cells  of  Amphioxus  peculiar  "  crystalloids  "  in  the  form  of  granules  or 
of  rods  which  often  fill  the  whole  cell. 

Tentacle  Apparatus  of  Dactyletra  calcarata.t  —  L.  Cohn  has 
made  a  detailed  study  of  the  tentacles  in  this  anourous  amphibian.  They 
occur  one  below  each  eye,  are  differently  developed  in  different  species, 
and  have  been  used  accordingly  in  species  diagnosis.  When  the  tentacle 
is  extended  an  end  opening  may  be  seen  with  the  unaided  eye  ;  they  are 
tubular,  and  Cohn  finds  that  their  canal  is  continuous  with  a  special 
diverticulum  of  the  nasal  cavity.  Their  walls  possess  well  developed 
circular  muscles,  and  it  is  suggested  their  function  may  be  the  ejection 
of  nasal  secretion,  but  no  definite  conclusion  can  at  present  be  stated. 

Cytological  Changes  in  Kidney.J — F.  Schmitter  has  investigated 
a  variety  of  structural  appearances  of  pathological  kidney  tissue.  He 
finds  that  the  kidney  of  the  cat  exhibits  vesicles,  foam-structure,  im- 
brication, brush  borders,  vacuoles  and  canals,  under  different  conditions 
of  treatment  by  maceration  in  distilled  water  and  salt  solution  of  varying 
strengths. 

Chromaffin  Tissue  in  Birds.§ — W.  Kose  has  investigated  this 
tissue  in  a  number  of  birds,  and  gives  a  summary  of  his  results  on  the 
paraganglion  caroticum,  the  paraganglion  suprarenal,  the  chromaffin 
tissue  of  the  sympathetic,  and  paraganglia  unconnected  with  the  sym- 
pathetic system. 

Elastic  Tissue  of  Prostate. || — A.  Cosentino  gives  a  full  account  of 
the  distribution  of  this  tissue  in  man  and  various  mammals.  On  the 
whole  there  is  very  little  variation.  In  the  cat  and  dog  the  prostate 
surrounds  the  whole  of  the  urethra,  and  the  seminiferous  ducts  traverse 
the  whole  as  in  man.  There  is  a  very  intimate  connection  between  the 
prostate  fibres  and  those  of  the  urethra.  In  other  animals  the  prostate 
only  touches  the  dorsal  face  of  the  urethra  and  most  of  the  gland  is 
quite  independent  of  the  ejaculatory  ducts  and  of  the  urethra.  The 
only  point  at  which  there  is  a  certain  similarity  of  distribution  of  the 
elastic  tissue  in  these  two  types  is  in  the  tract  nearest  to  the  verumon- 
tanum.  The  periurethral  elastic  fibres  in  the  latter  group  at  the  level 
of  the  verumontanum  debouch  into  the  urethra,  but  in  part  it  appears 
they  re-enter  the  elastic  system  of  the  prostate.  This  distribution 
modifies  the  acinose  structure.  Numerous  other  details  are  given  in  the 
paper. 

*  Auat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  Erg'anzungsheft,  pp.  105-12  (8  figs.). 
t  Zeiischr.  wiss.  Zool.,  Ixxviii.  (1905)  pp.  620-44  (1  pi.). 
X  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  347-51. 
§   Op.  cit..  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  609-17. 
||  Op.  cit,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  293-317. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  427 


0.  General. 

Evolution  of  Tertiary  Mammals.* — Charles  Deperet  maintains  that 
the  makers  of  pedigrees  have  been  too  hasty,  e.g.  in  establishing  lines  of 
descent  on  the  basis  of  the  progressive  functional  adaptation  of  a  par- 
ticular part,  such  as  a  limb,  or  a  bone,  or  a  tooth.  The  evolution  of 
European  horses  has  been  traced  from  Palwotherium  and  Paloplotherium, 
through  Aachitherium  and  Hipparion  to  the  modern  horse.  But  there 
is  good  reason  to  believe  that  neither  Pakeotherium  nor  Hipparion  nor 
Anchitherium  were  in  the  direct  line  of  our  horse's  ancestry.  The 
alleged  filiation  is  fallacious,  though  it  indicates  the  mode  of  the  evolu- 
tionary process.  The  same  is  true  with  the  history  of  bears  as  given  by 
Gaudry  and  Boule. 

Artificial  filiations  have  been  mistaken  for  real  genealogies,  and  far 
too  little  time  has  been  allowed.  The  evolution  of  a  horse  from  a 
Pakeotherium  since  the  Oligocene,  of  a  bear  from  Amphicyon  since  the 
middle  Miocene,  does  not  correspond  to  reality. 

The  author  proposes  to  show  that  in  each  family  and  large  genus 
there  have  been  several  parallel  series  ;  that  pre-occupation  with  in- 
dividual parts  is  sure  to  mislead  ;  that  in  most  cases  there  is  a  progressive 
augmentation  in  size,  leading  on  to  giants  which  end  the  series  ;  that 
the  greater  number  of  phyletic  branches  terminate  brusquely  ;  that  con- 
vergence or  fusion  of  branches  is  very  exceptional.  These  and  other 
principles  are  to  be  illustrated  first  of  all  by  a  study  of  the  Anthraco- 
theridse. 

Variation  in  Tiger's  Skull.f — Dr.  Hilzheimer  has  made  a  number 
of  measurements  upon  the  skulls  of  Indian  and  Chinese  tigers,  and  finds 
grounds  for  believing  that  there  exists  an  osteological  foundation  for 
the  colour  varieties  which  are  recognised,  and  advocates  the  study  of 
such  correlated  variations.  He  finds,  further,  that  numerous  very  small 
and  so-called  "  unimportant "  variations,  such  as  are  held  necessary  on 
the  Darwinian  Theory,  are  actually  present. 

Ossification  of  Pterygoid  in  Man.J — E.  Fawcett  finds  that  the 
internal  pterygoid  plate  is  the  first  part  of  the  sphenoid  to  become 
ossified.  There  is  no  evidence  that  it  appears  in  cartilage.  The  hamular 
process  undergoes  chondrification  before  ossification,  the  cartilage 
resembles  that  which  at  the  same  time  appears  in  the  condyle,  neck  and 
base,  of  the  coronoid  process  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  external  pterygoid 
plate  is  ossified  in  membrane  as  can  be  seen  during  the  early  part  of  the 
third  month  ;  it  is  not  a  downward  continuation  of  the  cartilaginous 
great  wing. 

Guide  to  Fossil  Mammals  and  Birds  in  the  British  Museum.§— 
We  have  received  the  eighth  edition  of  the  useful  guide  to  the  fossil 
mammals  and  birds  in  the  department  of  geology  and  paleontology  in 
the  British  Museum   (Natural   History).     Since   the  last  edition   was 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1517-21. 
t  Zool.  Anzeig,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  594-9. 
\  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp  "280-G. 
§  London  (1904)  100  pp.,  6  pis.  and  88  fige. 


428  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

published  in  1806,  the  additions  to  the  collection  have  been  so  numerous, 
and  knowledge  has  advanced  so  much,  that  the  book  has  been  entirely 
re-written  by  Dr.  Arthur  Smith  Woodward,  the  Keeper  of  Geology.  It 
is  an  interesting  and  finely  illustrated  guide,  useful  even  to  those  who 
cannot  follow  it  from  case  to  case. 

Brain  of  the  Chrysochloris.* — W.  Leche  describes  the  unique  ap- 
pearance of  this  brain,  and  compares  it  with  that  of  other  Insectivora. 
Looked  at  from  above  the  brain  shows  nothing  of  corpora  quadrigemina, 
cerebellum,  or  medulla  oblongata  ;  all  are  hidden  by  the  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres, the  longitudinal  axis  of  which  is  almost  at  right  angles  to  that 
of  the  other  parts.  This  is  associated  with  the  peculiar  position  of  the 
foramen  magnum  and  the  peculiar  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  basis 
cranii.  Of  peculiar  interest,  as  illustrating  convergence,  is  the  resem- 
blance between  the  brain  of  Chrysochloris  and  that  of  Notoryctes. 

Comparative  Osteology  of  the  Accipitres.f — P.  Suschkin  con- 
tributes a  large  memoir  on  this  subject.  He  discusses  the  classification 
of  Accipitres  in  general  and  the  characteristic  modifications  of  the 
skeletal  and  other  systems  in  the  chief  subdivisions.  His  chief  attention 
has  been  given  to  the  Falconidae,  in  which  he  recognises  four  sub- 
families : — Falconinae,  Poliohieracinse,  Polyborinse,  and  (the  most 
primitive  forms)  Herpetotherinaj. 

Genera  of  Frogs. $ — J.  Roux  points  out  that  in  twenty-three  years 
the  number  of  genera  in  the  family  Ranidaa  has  been  doubled.  It  now 
amounts  to  thirty-six.  He  gathers  together  the  diagnoses  of  recent 
additions  to  the  list  with  bibliographic  references,  and  gives  a 
diagnostic  table  of  all  the  known  genera  up  to  the  end  of  11)04. 
Following  Boulenger's  advice,  he  divides  the  family  into  two  sections, 
according  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  an  intercalary  bone  between  the 
two  last  phalanges,  a  point  to  which  Peters  first  directed  attention. 
Another  useful  basis  of  classification  is  found  in  the  state  of  the  sternum 
and  the  omosternum  ;  both  may  be  cartilaginous,  or  both  may  be  ossified, 
or  only  the  omosternum  may  be  ossified. 

Arrhenoid  Changes  in  a  Fish.§ — E.  Philippi  reports  an  observation 
on  Glaridichthys  caudimaculatus,  one  of  the  Cyprinodonts,  in  which  a 
female  fish  donned  external  masculine  characters. 

Ichthyological  Notes.  || — L.  Dan  tan  publishes  a  number  of  details 
regarding  the  eggs  and  larval  stages  of  Clupea  pilchardus,  C.  harmgus, 
Ammodytes  tobianus,  A.  lanceolatus,  Rhombus  maximus,  and  Belone 
vulgaris,  which  will  be  of  service  in  the  difficult  work  of  identification  of 
fish-eggs  and  larva?. 

Action  of  Radium  on  Torpedo.f — M.  Mendelssohn  finds  that  the 
application  of  radium  to  the  electric  organ  either  directly  or  through 

»  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  577-89  (13  figs.). 
t  Nuot.  Mem.  Soc.  Imp.  Nat.  Moscou,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  1-247  (4  pis.). 
X  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  778-85. 
§  SB.  Ges.  Natur.  Freunde  Berlin  (1904),  pp.  196-7. 

|   Arch.  Zool.  Exp.  (Notes  et  Revue),  No.  4,  ser.  4,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  lxi.-lxxvii. 
*j  Coinptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  40:5-6. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    KTC.  429 

the  skin,  did  not  immediately  affect  the  ordinary  discharges.  After  an 
hour  the  intensity  of  discharge  was  slightly  modified,  and  by  the  end  of 
five  or  six  hours  it  was  reduced  by  one  half.  There  was  never  complete 
suppression  even  up  to  the  end  of  eight  days,  and  on  being  returned  to 
the  water  recovery  took  place. 

Geographical  Variation  in  Pleuronectids.* — M.  A.  Cligny  has 
made  some  observations  on  the  dorsal  and  anal  fin  rays,  and  finds  that 
the  variations  which  exist  do  not  depend  on  either  age  or  sex,  but  that 
there  is  a  progressive  multiplication  of  rays  ;  the  forms  with  fewest 
occur  furthest  north,  and  these  are  more  primitive. 

Comparative  Description  of  Lepadogaster  bimaculatus  Pennant 
and  microcephalus  Brook,  f — F.  Guitel  has  given  a  very  exhaustive 
description  of  these  two  species,  comparing  the  two  sexes  in  each,  and 
devoting  a  chapter  to  sexual  differences.  These  two  species  which 
formerly  were  confounded,  are  easily  separated  in  the  male  sex  ;  the 
females  are  very  similar,  and  in  the  young  state  are  like  the  male  of 
microcephalus.  In  L.  bimaculatus  the  interesting  discovery  has  been 
made  that  forms  inhabiting  the  laminarian  zone  have  in  their  kidney  no 
tubuli  contorti,  while  those  dredged  from  deeper  water  possessed  those 
tubules  in  varying  degrees. 

Reproductive  Organs  of  Amphioxus.J — B.  Zarnik  gives  an  account 
of  the  development  of  the  gonad  in  both  sexes,  a  statement  of  its  struc- 
tural relations,  and  also  some  histological  details.  He  describes  an  ex- 
cretory function  which  he  finds  is  possessed  by  both  ovary  and  testis, 
and  in  discussing  their  morphological  significance  claims  Amphioxus  as 
a  very  valuable  connecting  link  between  segmental  invertebrates  and 
vertebrates.  He  claims  that  the  gonads  arise  from  the  mesoderm  which 
in  Selachii  produce  the  primitive  kidney  ;  they  are  themselves  excretory  ; 
their  blood  supply  may  be  homologised  with  that  of  the  Selachian 
primitive  kidney ;  and  there  are  other  points  all  of  which  support  the 
view  that  the  gonads  of  Amphioxus  are  homologous  with  this  organ. 

Phylogeny  of  Post-caval  Vein.§ — W.  Woodland  describes  a  specimen 
of  Rana  temporaria  in  which  the  post-caval  vein  was  absent,  and  replaced 
by  a  persistent  right  posterior  cardinal.  This  abnormality  has  led  him 
to  seek  a  phylogenetic  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  post-caval  vein. 
He  finds  it  is  related  to  the  development  of  limbs  which  are  locomotor 
(Tetrapoda)  rather  than  balancing.  So  long  as  the  trunk  and  the  tail 
constitute  one  continuous  locomotor  body,  so  long  is  there  little  chance 
of  the  two  posterior  cardinals  approaching  the  median  line  and  com- 
pletely fusing  at  a  point  midway  in  the  length  of  the  trunk,  since  this 
point  is  necessarily  anterior  as  regards  the  body  as  a  whole,  and  ante- 
riorly flexion  is  of  small  degree.  With  locomotor  limbs  flexion  of  the 
trunk  becomes  accentuated,  and  acquires  a  new  distribution.  The  primi- 
tive posterior  cardinals  are  subject  to  a  new  distribution  of  forces,  and, 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  526-9. 

t  Arch.  Zool.  Exp.,  ser.  4,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  357-495  (1  pi.). 

X  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  253-338  (5  pla.). 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  737-47. 


430  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

tending  to  converge  in  the  region  of  greatest  flexion,  in  consequence 
are  replaced  midway  in  the  length  of  the  trunk  by  a  median  vein,  the 
post-caval. 

Causes  of  Senility.* — C.  Henry  and  L.  Bastien  state  that  in  man 
at  senility  there  is  a  dehydration  and  consequent  mineralisation.  The 
mechanism  of  dehydration  is  to  be  found  in  the  diminution  of  energy 
of  the  hydrolytic  ferments,  which  fix  water  chemically  on  the  nutriment 
and  render  it  assimilable.  On  the  diminution  in  intensity  of  these 
chemical  actions,  a  part  of  the  water  held  in  the  tissues  now  only  by 
capillary  action,  tends  to  evaporate,  and  hence  the  dehydration.  Loss 
in  weight  is  further  a  direct  result  of  the  growing  inactivity  of  these 
ferments.  The  problem  of  senility  thus  assumes  a  new  phase  ;  its  solu- 
tion becomes  practicable  by  the  co-operation  of  chemists  and  biologists. 

Fresh-water  Biological  Stations.! — D.  J.  Scourfield  gives  a  short 
account  of  what  has  been  done  in  the  United  States  and  on  the  Continent 
in  the  way  of  instituting  Fresh-water  Biological  Stations.  So  far  the 
Sutton  Broad  Laboratory  is  the  only  fresh-water  station  that  has  been 
established  in  this  country,  but  it  is  only  fair  to  call  attention  to  the 
good  work  which  has  been  carried  out  in  Scotland  since  1892  by  the 
Lake  Survey  under  Sir  John  Murray.  Mr.  Scourfield  makes  a  well 
justified  plea  for  development  in  this  direction,  and  just  indicates  what 
an  ideal  fresh-water  biological  station  should  aim  at. 

Tunicata. 

Tunicate  Blood  System.; — <M.  Fernandez  has  studied  the  micro- 
scopic anatomy  and  histological  relations  of  the  vascular  system  in  Tuni- 
cates,  and  discusses  the  phylogeny  of  vascular  systems  in  general.  In 
Salpa  the  vessels  are  bounded  by  a  thick  membrane  of  connective 
tissue  in  which  cells  occur.  In  Ascidia  muscle-fibres  in  addition  occur 
around  the  larger  vessels  ;  these  fibres  originally  belonged  to  the  mesen- 
chymatous  body  musculature,  and  are  not  homologous  with  the  heart 
muscle.  The  blood  cells  in  both  Ascidia  and  Salpa  are  very  variable  in 
shape,  and  numerous  types  may  be  recognised,  all  of  which  arise  by 
growth,  or  storing  of  nutrient  material,  or  vacuolisation  from  small 
amoebocytes. 

Pelagic  Tunicates  of  the  San  Diego  Region.§ — W.  E.  Ritter  reports 
on  these,  excepting  the  Larvacea.  He  describes  Cyclosalpa  baker i  sp.  n., 
C.  affinis,  six  species  of  Salpa,  three  of  Doliolum  (including  the  hitherto 
undescribed  trophozooid  of  D.  tritonis),  and  Pyrosoma  giganteum. 

INVEBTEBRATA. 

Mollusca. 
"■  Cephalopoda. 

Notes  on  Anatomy  of  Cephalopoda.|| — C.  Chun  describes  a  hitherto 
overlooked  ciliated  canal  which  opens  into  the  end  divisions  of  the 

*  Comptes  Renilus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  811-14. 

t  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  1905.  pp.  129-36. 

t  Jenaische  Zeitsclir..  xxxix.  (1904)  pp.  323-422  (4  pie.). 

§  Univ.  California  Publications  (Zoology)  ii.  No.  3  (1905)  pp.  51-112  (2  pie.). 

II  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  644-54. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  431 

vesicula  seminalis  where  the  latter  bends  round  to  the  prostate  gland. 
It  was  first  observed  in  Pteri/gioteuthis,  but  is  present  in  Abraliopsis  and 
in  Illex.  It  is  of  considerable  length,  and  can  be  followed  almost  to 
the  tip  of  the  prostate  (in  Abraliopsis  it  projects  beyond  it)  ;  it  ends  in 
a  ciliated  funnel,  which  is  2  ram.  long.  The  direction  of  the  stream 
caused  by  the  cilia  could  not  be  made  out,  and  its  function  is  doubtful. 
The  author  further  discusses  the  morphology  of  the  "  genital  pocket " 
which  surrounds  the  sexual  glands.  It  has  no  genetic  connection  with 
the  body  cavity,  and  is  lined  with  ectoderm. 

■y.  Gastropoda. 

Maturation  in  Enteroxenos  bstergreni.*— Kristine  Bonnevie  has 
made  a  detailed  study  of  the  maturation  divisions  in  this  remarkable 
Gastropod  parasite  of  Holothurians.  The  general  conclusions  are  the 
following.  The  apposition  of  each  two  homologous  chromosomes  in 
pairs  in  the  synapsis  stage  is  not  transitory,  but  persists  through  both 
maturation  divisions,  and  leads  ultimately  to  complete  fusion  of  the 
two  conjugating  chromosomes.  Both  maturation  divisions  are  equation 
divisions,  the  process  being  complicated  by  the  relatively  large  size  of 
the  spindles  and  by  the  doubling  of  the  chromosomes.  By  the  two 
rapidly  succeeding  divisions  the  double  chromosomes  are  reduced  to  the 
normal  size,  while  the  reduction  in  number  occurs  in  the  synapsis. 

Nervous  System  and  Subradular  Organ  in  Solenogastres.f — 
Harold  Heath  has  studied  these  in  a  species  of  Proneomenm  and  a 
species  of  Rhopalomenia.  On  the  ventral  pharyngeal  wall  of  the  former 
the  well-developed  polystichous  radula  is  placed,  and  immediately 
beneath  its  anterior  border  are  two  patches  of  high  columnar  cells,  each 
group  being  capable  of  retraction  within  a  sheath,  or  of  being  everted 
and  fully  exposed.  Both  are  innervated  from  ganglia  not  hitherto 
described,  and  the  author  seeks  to  show  that  they  are  probably  to  be 
considered  as  the  homologue  of  the  sub-radular  organ  of  the  Chitons 
and  some  of  the  Prosobranchs.  The  nervous  system  is  described  in 
detail. 

Tidal  Periodicity  in  Littorina  rudis.  J — Gr.  Bohn  finds  that  Littorina 
rudis,  which  lives  in  a  zone  upon  the  shore  reached  by  the  sea  only  once 
a  fortnight,  affords  a  clear  case  of  periodicity.  It  alternates  between  a 
period  of  slowed-down  life,  the  result  of  anhydrobiosis,  and  active  life. 
This  vital  rhythm  persists  for  months  in  aquaria,  where  the  conditions 
are  quite  different  from  its  natural  haunt.  During  high  tides  the  least 
shock  provokes  movement,  and  the  animal  is  both  geotropic  and  photo- 
tropic,  while  at  low  tide  the  opposite  is  the  case. 

Anatomy  and  Phylogeny  of  Haliotis.§  —  H.  J.  Fleure  describes 
some  details  of  the  minute  structure  of  certain  organs,  discussing  blood- 
vessels, stomach,  left  kidney,  the  branch  of  the  pleuro-visceral  loop,  and 
the  otocysts.  Regarding  these  and  other  structures,  various  new  points 
have  been  brought  out.     The  commissure  between  the  anterior  pedal 

♦  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  497-517  (33  figs.). 

t  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xx.  <  1904)  pp.  399-408  (1  pi.). 

\  Comptei  Rendus,  cxxxix.  (1904)  pp.  U10-11. 

§  Jenaische  Zeitschr.,  xxxix.  (1904)  pp.  245-322  (6  pla.). 


432  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

nerves  and  the  ventre-- lateral  skeleton  of  the  tongue  apparatus  are  like- 
wise described  for  the  first  time.  Regarding  the  phylogeny,  it  is  stated 
that  the  Trochidas  and  Turbinidse  are  doubtless  nearly  related  to 
Haliotis,  which  shows  a  similar,  though  not  so  marked  asymmetry  and 
a  like  specialisation  of  the  nervous  system.  Regarding  the  radula  and 
nervous  system,  Pleurotomaria  is  probably  more  primitive  than  Haliotis, 
but  with  reference  to  the  heart  and  branchial  cavity  the  opposite  is  the 
case.  They  are  probably  nearly  related,  and  have  very  early  arisen 
independently  from  the  same  branch  as  the  Prosobranchs,  but  not  so 
early  as  the  Docoglossids  and  Fissurellids.  The  relations  of  the  nervous 
system  and  of  the  left  kidney,  suggest  that  the  Monotocardia  have  not 
arisen  from  the  Trochidas  and  Haliotidae. 

Nematoblasts  of  Eolids.* — P.  Abric  gives  some  notes  on  the  phases 
in  the  stinging  cells  of  Eolids.  The  nematocysts  are  grouped  upon  the 
surface  of  the  nematoblasts,  and  to  these  he  gives  the  name  of  "  agglu- 
tinating cells."  Later,  they  pass  within  the  agglutinating  cells,  whose 
reactions  change  ;  they  are  now  stainable  with  eosin,  and  are  functional. 
There  appears  to  be  a  periodicity  in  the  agglutinating  cells,  for  in 
Acanthopsoh  they  were  found  inactive  at  the  end  of  spring. 

5.  Lamellibranchiata. 

Gill  of  Pearl  Oyster.f  —  W.  A.  Herdman  calls  attention  to  some 
points  of  interest  in  the  structure  of  the  gill  of  the  Ceylon  pearl-oyster. 
The  first  of  these  is  the  presence  of  extensive  ciliated  junctions  (1)  in 
the  median  line  between  the  inner  gills  of  the  two  sides,  and  (2)  laterally 
between  each  outer  gill  and  the  mantle-lobe.  The  second  is  the  presence 
of  somewhat  extensive  organic  connections  between  the  adjacent  gill- 
filaments  of  a  plica  at  the  level  of  the  ciliated  discs.  In  this  character 
of  the  interfilamentar  junctions,  as  well  as  in  that  taken  from  the  con- 
nections of  the  gills  with  neighbouring  parts,  this  member  of  the 
Eleutherorhabda  shows  an  approach  to  the  Eulamellibranchiate  con- 
dition. 

Arthropoda. 
a-  Insecta. 

Synopsis  of  Families  of  Palaearctic  Lepidoptera.f  —  K.  von 
Hormuzaki  furnishes  a  useful  analytical  synopsis  of  the  families  of 
Palaearctic  Lepidoptera,  for  the  most  part  in  the  form  of  diagnostic 
tables,  with  illustrations  of  venation. 

Variation  in  Melitaea  aurinia.§— V.  P.  Kitchin  discusses  the  chief 
tendencies  to  variation  in  this  butterfly,  as  noted  from  a  series  of  110 
Irish  specimens.  There  are  three  principal  variations  in  general  appear- 
ance, according  as  the  chestnut,  or  the  yellow,  or  the  black  colour 
predominates.  Variations  on  the  upper  wing,  on  the  under  wing,  and 
so  on,  are  noted,  as  well  as  a  few  pathological  aberrations. 

*  Cnmptes  Rendus,  exxxix.  (1904)  pp.  611-13. 
t  Jnurn.  Linn.  Soc.  (Zool.)  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  226-9  (1  pi.).. 

X  Analytisclie  Ucbersicht  der  psilaarktischen  Lepidopterenfaruilien,  8vo,  Berlin 
(1904)  68  pp.,  45  figs.     See  Verb.  Zool.  Bot.  Ges.  AVien,  lv.  (1905)  p.  128. 
§  Trans.  Hertfordshire  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  xii.  (1905)  pp.  165-7  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  433 

Structure  and  Development  of  the  Compound  Eye  of  the  Honey 
Bee.* — E.  P.  Phillips  has  made  a  careful  study  of  this,  and  comes  to  the 
following  conclusions.  The  primitive  arrangement  of  the  ommatidia  is 
tetragonal.  The  hairs  over  the  lens  are  secreted  by  bi-nucleated  hair- 
cells,  with  intracellular  ducts,  which  lie  between  the  ommatidia.  The 
ommatidium  arises  as  a  group  of  cells  with  superimposed  nuclei,  which 
later  become  arranged  as  a  spindle  surrounded  by  smaller  cells.  This 
spindle  is  the  retinula,  and  the  cone  cells  and  pigment  cells  assume  a 
distal  position  by  a  morphological  invagination. 

The  retinula  is  the  centre  of  the  ommatidium,  and  the  cone  cells, 
corneal  pigment  cells  and  outer  pigment  cells,  follow  in  the  order  named. 
The  ommatidium  is  composed  of  eight  or  nine  retinular  cells  around 
the  rhabdome,  four  cone  cells,  two  corneal  pigment  cells,  and  about 
twelve  outer  pigment  cells. 

The  rhabdome  and  cone  are  intracellular  secretions,  while  the  lens  is 
an  extracellular  secretion  of  the  pigment  cells.  The  corneal  pigment 
cells  are  homologous  with  the  corneal  hypodermal  cells  of  crustacean  and 
apterygote  ommatidia.  The  innervation  of  the  ommatidium  is  by  a 
differentiation  of  part  of  the  retinular  cells  into  nerve  fibrils,  and  these 
extend  to  the  retinular  ganglia.  The  lens  is  secreted  by  the  corneal 
pigment  cells,  which  early  in  the  pupa  stage  are  distal  to  the  cone,  and 
possibly  also  by  the  outer  pigment  cells.  Pigment  is  formed  inside  all 
the  cells  of  the  ommatidium,  except  the  cone  cells,  by  a  cytoplasmic 
differentiation. 

The  ommatidium  arises  from  a  strictly  one-layered  epidermis,  which 
passes  directly  from  the  larva  to  the  pupa  without  the  loss  of  any  cells 
or  additions  from  other  tissues. 

Foot  of  House-Fly.f  —  A.  A.  C.  Eliot  Merlin  describes  what  is  in 
all  probability  the  orifice  from  which  exudes  the  viscous  fluid  which 
.may  be  seen  adhering  to,  and  often  entirely  enveloping,  the  sickle 
filament.  With  a  magnification  of  3200  diameters  he  discovered  an 
excrescence  which  protrudes  from  the  side  of  the  sickle  just  midway 
between  the  point  and  the  haft. 

New  CEstrid  Larva  from  Hippopotamus.} — K.  Griinberg  describes 
Rhiniestrus  hippopotami  from  the  cranial  cavity  of  the  hippopotamus.  It 
differs  chiefly  in  its  spines  from  Rh.  purpureas  from  the  nasal  chamber 
of  horse  and  zebra. 

Metamorphosis  of  Lebia  scapularis.§ — F.  Silvestri  describes  the 
metamorphosis  and  habits  of  this  small  carabid  beetle,  which  attacks  the 
eggs,  larva3,  and  nymphs  of  Galerucella  luteola.  It  is  remarkable  in 
exhibiting  a  hypermetaniorphosis — having  two  well  defined  larval  forms 
— and  it  is  unique  in  constructing  a  silken  cocoon  which  is  secreted  by 
the  malpighian  tubes. 

*  Prnc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1905,  pp.  123-57  (3  pis). 

t  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club,  1905,  pp.  167-8  (6  figs).1! 

j  SB.  Ges.  Natur.  Freuude,  Berlin,  1904,  pp.  35-9  (2  tigs.). 

§  Redia,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  69-84  (5  pie.). 

Aug.  16th,  1905  2  G 


434  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Function  of  the  Follicular  Epithelium  in  Melolontha  vulgaris.* 
— Th.  Mollison  finds  that  the  terminal  chamber  of  the  ovarian  tube 
contains  only  oocytes  and  young  epithelial  cells,  and  that  the  latter  alone 
have  to  do  with  the  nutrition  of  the  growing  eggs,  sometimes  using  the 
debris  of  superfluous  oocytes.  This  nutritive  activity  of  the  epithelial 
cells  rinds  structural  expression  in  pseudopodium-like  processes  which 
penetrate  into  the  egg,  and  in  the  formation  of  nutritive  strands,  or  it 
may  be  a  nutritive  zone,  around  the  egg.  The  egg  also  takes  an  active 
part  in  forming  its  cytoplasmic  reserves. 

Monograph  of  Australian  Cicadidae.f — P.  W.  Goding  and  W.  W. 
Froggatt  have  done  a  useful  piece  of  work  in  monographing  the 
Cicadidse  of  Australia.  The  paper  contains  descriptions  of  119  species 
included  in  *J1  genera.  The  new  genus  Pauropsalta  is  separated  off  from 
Melampsalta.  Attention  is  directed  to  the  very  wide  distribution  of 
some  of  the  forms,  e.g.  Tibkm  willsi  and  Melanqisalta  annalata.  The 
appearance  of  members  of  the  genera  Gfeana  and  Huechys  is  interesting 
as  showing  the  relation  of  Australian  forms  with  those  of  the  Indo- 
Malayan  region. 

Salivary  Glands  in  Nepa  cinerea4 — L.  Bordas  describes  (1)  the 
posterior  salivary  glands,  which  consist  of  numerous  acini  opening  into 
a  central  canal,  and  resemble  elongated  bunches  of  grapes,  and  (2)  the 
maxillary  or  cephalothoracic  glands,  which  have  no  connection  with  the 
alimentary  tract,  but  are  associated  with  the  posterior  maxillse. 

Glands  of  Hemiptera.§ — L.  Bordas  gives  an  account  of  the  salivary, 
cephalic  and  metathoracic  glands  of  various  Hemiptera.  One  or  two 
notes  on  the  last  of  these  may  be  here  given.  They  are  paired  organs 
consisting  of  ramified  tubes  situated  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the 
sternal  arch  of  the  metathorax  of  Gerridaj.  The  central  canal  possesses 
a  thick  chitinous  coat  supporting  the  epithelial  layer.  The  proximal 
extremity  of  each  glandular  tube  ends  in  a  median  ovoid  mass,  acting  as 
a  reservoir.  This  last  opens  to  the  exterior  by  a  transverse  slit  on  the 
median  line  of  the  metathorax.  The  interior  lining  of  the  reservoir  has 
long  and  fine  denticulations  with  silky  horns. 

Thorax  of  Gryllus  domesticus.||  —  F.  Voss  continues  and  con- 
cludes his  investigations  on  the  thorax  of  Gryllus  domesticus  and  of 
insects  generally.  Some  of  the  more  important  conclusions  arrived 
at  may  be  briefly  stated.  Homologies  in  the  skeleton  extend  to  the 
wing  and  its  joints ;  muscles  of  meso-  and  meta-thorax  are  completely 
homologous,  those  of  the  pro-thorax  are  so  on  a  somewhat  more  general 
basis.  The  "  micro-thorax  "  is  the  epimeral  section  of  the  segment  of 
the  second  maxillas ;  dorsal  parts  of  the  prothorax  are  included  in  the 
occipital  ring.  Both  pairs  of  wings  are  of  equal  morphological  value ; 
they  are  purely  tergal  outgrowths,  and  are  not  homologous  with  tracheal 

*  Ztitsehr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  529-45. 

t  Proc.  Linn.  Soc,  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  561-069  (2  pis.). 

\  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  403-6  (3  figs.). 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  ( 1905)  pp.  595-7. 

||  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxviii.  (1905)  pp.  620-759  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  435 

gills.     GrijUus  has,  although  a  degenerate  form,  a  primitive  organisation 
which  serves  as  a  link  connecting  most  insect  orders. 

Species  of  Poeciloptera.*— A.  Jacobi  discusses  this  genus,  and  in 
particular  the  series  of  forms  which  may  be  ranked  under  P.  phakcnokles, 
with  the  aim  of  showing  that  the  facts  support  the  theory  of  the  origin 
of  species  by  spatial  isolation.  He  indicates  that  this  view  is  gradually 
supplanting  the  theory  of  the  origin  of  species  by  natural  selection. 

5.  Arachnida. 

Ticks  as  Transmitters  of  Bovine  Diseases.f — A.  Laveran  and  M. 
Vallee  report  that  they  received  from  M.  Theiler,  a  veterinarian  at  Pre- 
toria, some  larvae  of  the  tick  Rhipicephdlus  decoloratun,  which  he  had 
found  to  be  the  transmitter  of  spirillosis  in  cattle.  The  mother-tick 
had  been  taken  from  an  infected  beast.  Messrs.  Laveran  and  Vallee 
have  verified  the  experiment ;  the  ticks  were  put  on  healthy  beasts,  and 
spirillosis  soon  resulted.     Piroplasmosis  also  ensued. 

Fertilisation  in  Mites.J — E.  Trouessart  describes  the  mode  of 
insemination  in  Sarcoptidas  and  Tyroglyphidse.  The  sperm  is  stored 
in  a  special  receptaculum  seminis  ;  the  coitus  occurs  through  a  special 
opening  in  the  female,  remote  from  the  genital  opening,  which  serves 
only  for  the  liberation  of  eggs  or  embryos.  Usually  the  male  unites 
not  with  an  adult  female  but  with  a  sexually  mature  nymph.  The  ex- 
ternal sperm-sac  opening  in  the  nubile  nymphs  of  Sarcoptidie  and 
Tyroglyphidaj  appears  after  and  in  consequence  of  copulation.  The 
male  must  pierce  the  opening  with  his  pointed  chitinous  penis. 

Arachnological  Notes. § — VI.  Kulczynski  describes  some  new  species, 
e.g.  Rhomphma  longa,  Lephthyphantes  Jcotulai,  Saitis  grcvca,  and  makes  a 
note  on  the  stridulatory  organs  in  both  sexes  of  many  Theridiidas. 

New  Breathing  Organ  in  Mites. || — K.  Thon  describes  in  the  genus 
Holothijrus  Gerv.  a  new  respiratory  structure.  Behind  the  stigma  slits 
there  is  a  roomy  vestibulum,  which  through  a  narrow  passage  leads  to  a 
larger  atrium.  Both  chambers  are  covered  with  epidermis,  and  from 
the  atrium  there  arise  a  number  of  tracheal  branches.  The  atrium 
appears  to  be  connected  by  muscle  strands  to  the  dorsal  wall  of  the 
body.  There  are  other  peculiarites  reserved  for  future  consideration,  in 
view  of  which  the  author  removes  the  genus  from  the  order  Mesostig- 
mata,  establishing  a  new  order,  Holothyrida,  for  its  reception. 

<•  Crustacea. 

Notes  on  Crustacea. *[ — H.  Coutiere  gives  some  notes  on  certain 
oceanic   Macrura   obtained   on   a   cruise   of    the   'Princess   Alice'    by 

*  SB.  Ges.  Natur.  Freunde,  Berlin,  1904  pp.  1-14  (2  figs.), 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1515-17. 

X  Comptes  Rendus  Soc.  Biol.,  lvi.  (1904)  pp.  367-8.     See  also  Zool.  Zentralbl.. 
xii.  (1905)  pp.  32-3. 

§  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  (1904)  pp.  533-G8  (1  pi.). 
U  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  585-94. 
f  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1113-15. 

2   G   2 


436  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING  TO 

means  of  a  wide-mouthed  vertical  net.  This  net  acts  so  as  to  capture 
animals  living  at  different  levels  of  the  vertical  column  through  which 
it  works.  The  results  were  remarkable  as  regards  the  new  species  obtained, 
and  notes  regarding  some  of  these  are  given,  e.g.  Hymenodora  parva  sp.  n. 
from  a  depth  of  3000  metres,  and  Oplophorus  Grimaldii  sp.  n.,  a  mag- 
nificent crustacean,  from  2000  metres. 

Structure  of  Heart  in  Malacostraca.* — W.  Gadzikiewicz  has  ex- 
amined the  heart  in  a  large  number  of  types,  and  finds  it  possesses  an 
inner  muscularis  and  an  outer  adventitia.  An  endocardium  is  not  present. 
As  an  illustration,  some  details  concerning  Nebalia,  one  of  the  forms  ex- 
amined, may  be  given.  Here  the  inner  muscularis  is  differentiated  into 
muscle  fibres  lying  close  to  one  another,  each  having  an  independent 
sheath.  The  fibrillae  lie  peripherally  in  the  protoplasm  of  the  fibres. 
The  blood  corpuscles  lie  on  the  inner  layer,  blend  with  it,  forming 
irregular  and  often  marked  thickenings  of  the  protoplasmic  substance 
(sarcolemma)  of  the  muscle  fibres.  The  outer  envelope  (adventitia) 
consists  in  Nebalia  of  very  large  cells  with  gigantic  nuclei ;  in  Gammarus 
•dnd^Squilla  it  forms  a  cellular  membrane. 

Structure  and  Development  of  Poecilasma  aurantium.f  —  Kurt 
Hoffendahl  has  made  a  study  of  this  barnacle  found  on  the  crab  Geryon 
affinis  by  the  German  Deep  Sea  Expedition.  The  following  are  some  of 
his  results.  The  basal  joints  of  the  attaching  antennas  are  lost  with  the 
bivalve  shell,  and  do  not  contribute  to  the  peduncle.  The  bivalve  shell 
is  in  close  connection  with  the  mantle  by  means  of  a  strong  insinking 
of  chitinous  substance.  All  the  muscles,  except  that  closing  the  shell, 
are  striped.  The  pancreas  is  a  modified  portion  of  the  stomach  ;  there 
are  no  other  stomachic  glands,  but  there  are  noteworthy  diverticula  from 
the  oesophagus  and  from  the  stomach.  The  chitinous  tube  often  found 
in  the  stomach  of  Lepadidae  is  the  isolated  cuticle.  The  mantle-gland 
and  the  cement-gland  are  closely  connected  ;  their  secretions  pass  out  by 
a  common  duct ;  the  mantle-gland  is  a  larval  cement-gland.  The  kidney 
is  a  modified  portion  of  the  body-cavity,  and  retains  its  connection  with 
it.  Nussbaum's  "  undefinierbare  organ"  is  a  salivary  gland.  Darwin's 
"auditory  organ  "  at  the  base  of  the  first  cirrus  is  in  direct  connection, 
through  the  oviduct,  with  the  ovary,  which  lies  in  the  mantle.  The 
peculiar  homogeneous  mass  in  the  widened  terminal  part  of  the  oviduct 
is  a  hardened  secretion.  The  absence  of  heart  and  blood-vessels  is 
confirmed. 

Indian  Ocean  Paguroids.J — A.  Alcock  continues  his  study  of  the 
Indian  Decapod  Crustacea  in  the  Indian  Museum.  The  new  instalment 
is  an  elaborate  memoir  on  the  Paguroidre,  or  Paguridea,  a  group  which 
includes  four  families,  namely,  Pylochelida?,  Paguridaa,  Ccenobitidaa,  and 
Lithodidaa.  The  author  begins  with  an  interesting  chapter  of  general 
observations  on  the  Paguridea  and  with  a  discussion  of  their  distribution. 
Then  follows  the  systematic  account  of  the  first  three  families  named 

*  Jeuaische  Zeitschr.,  xxxix.  (1904)  pp.  203-34  (4  pis.). 
t  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  363-98  (4  pis.). 

X  Catalogue  of  the  Indian  Decapod  Crustaceans  in  the  Collection  of  the  Indian 
Museum,  part  ii.  fasc.  i.  (Calcutta,  1905)  197  pp.,  16  pis. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  437 

above,  the  deep-water  Lithodidae  having  been   previously  dealt  with. 
At  the  end  there  is  a  table  of  the  genera  and  species  of  recent  Paguridea. 

New  Species  of  Cymonomus.* — A.  Alcock  describes  Cymonomus 
aadamanicus  sp.  n.,  a  small,  blind,  deep-sea  crab,  belonging  to  the 
Oxystome  family  Dorippidae.  He  also  discusses  the  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  the  family,  which  raises  some  interesting  inquiries  ;  and  has 
some  remarks  to  make  on  the  allied  genus  Gymonomops. 

Life  of  Salt -Marsh  Amphipod.f— Mabel  E.  Smallwood  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  the  behaviour  of  Orchestia  palustris  from  the  salt 
marsh  of  Cold  Spring  Harbor.  Both  their  colour  and  their  shape  when 
quiet  are  highly  protective.  Adults  were  mating  and  carrying  young 
during  July  and  August.  The  male  carries  the  passive  female  for  hours 
or  even  days  during  the  mating  period,  a  habit  found  in  many  aquatic 
forms  and  retained  by  this  terrestrial  one. 

They  swim  and  slide  around  on  one  side,  they  also  hop,  not  as  often 
nor  as  far  as  Tal orchestia  longicornis,  but  with  more  judgment,  and  they 
run  well  and  rapidly. 

They  orient  readily  in  response  to  gravity  ;  they  are  photokinetic, 
and  usually  negatively  phototactic  ;  they  are  very  sensitive  to  contact. 
They  can  endure  great  variations  in  salinity  and  humidity.  They  eat 
any  waste  organic  matter.  They  do  not  burrow,  but  rest  in  accidental 
crevices,  depressions,  or  frail,  dome-covered  excavations.  Their  chief 
animal  enemies  are  probably  little  fishes,  birds,  spiders,  and  beetles. 

We  have  here  a  fine  example  of  a  simple  etiological  memoir. 

Fresh-water  Plankton  Crustacea.^ — V.  Brehm  and  E.  Zederbauer 
report  on  the  Plankton  of  Alpine  lakes,  and,  inter  alia,  direct  attention 
to  the  differences  in  the  size  of  Bosmina  coregoni  in  September  and  in 
December,  and  to  the  marked  age-variations  and  seasonal  variations 
in  the  head-region  of  (Hyalo-)  Daphnia  cucullata  Sars. 

So-called  "  Olfactory  SetaB  "  of  CladoceraJ— D.  J.  Scourfield  dis- 
cusses the  varied  structure,  size,  and  distribution  of  the  chemically- 
sensitive  setae  in  different  types  of  Cladocera,  and  notes  especially  their 
frequently  greater  development  in  the  males.  He  regards  them  not 
merely  as  gustatory,  but  as  organs  of  a  more  generalised  chemical  sense. 

Fixation  of  Lernseenicus  Sardinae.|| — Marcel  Baudouin  gives  a 
precise  account  of  the  manner  in  which  this  parasitic  Oopepod  fixes  itself 
on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  sardine,  near  the  middle  lateral  region  of 
the  dorsal  fin.  The  actual  fixing  is  effected  by  the  cephalothorax,  but 
after  insertion  the  cephalothorax  and  the  tail  disappear  in  the  muscle, 
leaving  the  swollen  genital  region,  which  has  a  red  colour. 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xv.  (1905),  pp.  565-77  (1  pi.). 

t  Cold  Spring  Harbor  Monographs,  iii.  (1905)  21  pp..  2  pla.  and  a  map. 
t  Verh.  Zool.  Bot.  Ges.  Wien.  lv.  (1905)  pp.  222-40  (7  figu.). 
§  Ploner  Forschunga.,  xii.  (1905)  pp.  340-53  (2  pis.). 
||  Coniptea  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  32C-7. 


438  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Annulata. 

Maturation  in  Allolobophora  fcetida.* — K.  Foot  and  E.  C.  Sfcrobell 
give  a  number  of  facts  regarding  the  prophase  and  metaphase  of  the  first 
maturation  spindle  of  Allolobophora,  only  a  few  of  which  can  be  quoted. 
Daring  the  prophases  there  is  a  marked  change  in  the  structure  of  the 
cytoplasm,  a  decrease  in  the  size  of  the  egg,  and  an  increase  in  the 
amount  of  the  substance  between  the  egg  membrane  and  the  outer 
membrane.  The  centrioles  are  first  seen  at  opposite  poles  of  the  ger- 
minal vesicle,  indicating  that  they  arise  independently.  The  nucleolus 
is  intact  at  this  stage  ;  the  centrioles  do  not  arise  from  it.  The  func- 
tional value  of  the  nucleolus  is  probably  confined  to  the  nucleus.  There 
is  some  evidence  to  support  the  theory  of  the  individuality  of  the 
chromosomes,  and  in  general  the  authors'  observations  on  the  division 
of  the  chromosomes  appear  to  confirm  the  work  of  previous  workers 
on  other  forms. 

Phagocytary  Resorption  in  Seminal  Vesicles  of  Lumbricus.f  — 
L.  Brasil  points  out  that  the  presence  of  numerous  amoebocytes  in  the 
seminal  vesicles  of  Lumbricus  is  normal  and  constant.  They  exercise 
an  intense  phagocytary  resorption  upon  the  unutilised  reproductive 
elements,  and  also  upon  their  empty  cytophores.  They  completely 
clean  these  elements  after  emissions.  Their  action  upon  the  cysts  of 
Gregarines  is  secondary,  and  these  are  not  the  direct  cause  of  their 
presence. 

Setal  Pockets  in  Polychaets.f — A.  Schepotieff  has  studied  these  in 
Nereis  cultrifera,  Protula  intestinum,  Nephthys  scalopendroides,  and 
Eunice  viridis,  the  palolo-worm.  There  is  no  great  difference  between 
the  setal  pockets  in  those  Polychasts  and  the  similar  structures  in  Oligo- 
chasts.  Typically,  each  seta  is  the  product  of  a  single  formative  cell, 
which  lies  at  the  base  of  an  epithelial  invagination — the  setal  pocket. 
The  differences  in  the  various  forms,  and  as  regards  the  various  kinds  of 
setae,  are  described. 

New  Species  of  Sea-Mouse.§— J.  Percy  Moore  describes  Aphrodite 
hastata  sp.  n.,  from  eastern  Massachusetts,  which  differs  in  many  and 
striking  characters  from  A.  aculeata,  e.g.  in  the  altogether  different  form 
of  the  large  notopodial  spines.  It  is  really  less  closely  related  to 
A.  aculeata  than  to  other  species  of  the  genus,  and  probably  finds  its 
nearest  ally  in  A.  japonica  Maren.,  which  is  widely  distributed  in  the 
Northern  Pacific.  There  is  doubt,  therefore,  where  the  true  A.  aculeata 
really  occurs  on  the  American  Atlantic  coast,  as  has  been  generally 
assumed. 

Regeneration  in  Protodrilus.||  —  N.  Lignau  has  studied  the  re- 
generation of  the  anterior  and  posterior  regions  of  the  gut,  and  the 

*  Anier.  Journ.  Anat.,  iv.  (1905)  pp.  199-243  (9  pis.). 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  597-9. 

\  Zeitsclir.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  586-605  (3  pis.  and  7  figs  ). 
§  Proo.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia.  1905,  pp.  294-8  (4  figs.). 
Mem.  Soe.  Nat.  Nuuv-Russie,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  1-40  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  439 

regeneration  of  the  head-ganglia  in  Protodrilus  flavocapitatus  Uly.  The 
process  is  very  rapid  and  the  restoration  is  complete,  except  that  the 
eyes  were  only  regenerated  in  3  out  of  "200  cases.  In  the  restoration  of 
the  anterior  end  of  the  gut,  there  is  a  co-operation  of  ectodermal  and 
endodermal  cell-groups.  The  head-ganglia  appear  as  a  group  of  spheri- 
cal cells  on  the  ventral  side  below  the  mouth,  and  are  gradually  shunted 
upwards,  separating  off  from  the  epidermis,  and  differentiating  Punkt- 
substanz  on  the  posterior  inner  side.  In  the  regeneration  of  the  tail 
end  the  tip  is  first  formed,  and  new  segments  are  interpolated  from 
behind  forwards  between  the  tip  and  the  old  segments. 

Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Thalassema  mellita.* — George 
Lefevre  finds  that  the  eggs  of  this  worm  can  be  induced  to  develop 
without  fertilisation  by  immersion  for  a  few  minutes  in  very  dilute 
solutions  of  nitric,  hydrochloric,  sulphuric,  carbonic,  acetic,  and  oxalic 
acids.  In  favourable  experiments  50-60  p.c.  of  the  eggs  developed 
into  active  trochophores  which  were  strikingly  normal  in  appearance  and 
structure. 

An  egg-membrane  invariably  forms  shortly  after  removal  from  the 
acid  solutions,  and  maturation,  identical  with  the  normal  process, 
frequently  occurs.  In  a  number  of  cases  polar  bodies  were  not  extruded, 
but  sections  showed  that  the  maturation  process  had  taken  place 
internally.  In  some  cases  four  nuclei  are  formed  in  the  cytoplasm, 
which  represent  the  egg-nucleus  and  the  nuclei  of  three  polar  bodies. 
These  four  nuclei  fuse  to  form  a  cleavage-nucleus. 

The  egg-centrosome  disappears  after  the  formation  of  the  second 
polar  body,  and  the  cleavage  centrosomes  are  formed  de  novo.  It  was 
frequently  observed  that  the  polar  bodies  continue  to  divide  and  form  a 
morula-like  cluster  of  minute  cells.  Cell-divisions  take  place  mitotically, 
and  in  many  cases  the  early  cleavage  is  perfectly  normal,  although  a 
great  variety  of  abnormal  cleavages  also  occur. 

Sexual  Forms  in  Fresh-water  Nereids.j — Ch.  Gravier  discusses  a 
new  fresh- water  Nereid  (Perinereis  Kinberg  char,  emend.)  found  by 
G.  Seurat  in  a  rain-water  basin  in  one  of  the  low  islands  (Tarauru-roa) 
of  the  archipelago  of  Gambier.  Some  specimens  of  this  Periaereis 
seurati  sp.  n.,  have  ova  in  various  stages  of  development,  and  the  body- 
wall  is  reduced  to  a  delicate  semi-transparent  sac  with  little  musculature. 
There  is  a  very  slight  trace  of  parapodial  modification,  namely,  very 
vascular  foliaceous  lobes,  a  mere  hint  of  the  epigamous  transformation 
of  marine  relatives. 

Crystals  in  Hirudo  and  Pontobdella.J— W.  Kolmer  found  in 
preparations  of  ganglion  cells  of  these  leeches  which  had  been  fixed  in 
5  p.c.  formalin,  numerous  crystals  of  a  clear  ruby  colour,  strongly  re- 
fractive and  in  most  cases  apparently  belonging  to  the  rhombic  system. 
No  hint  of  them  was  found  in  any  other  tissue,  and  it  is  not  known 
whether  they  are  present  during  life. 

*  Science,  xxi.  (1905)  p.  379.  t  Comptes  Rendus.  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  15G1-2. 

X  Anut.  Anzeig.,  xxv  (1904)  pp.  018-21. 


440  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Nematohelminth.es. 

New  Genus  of  Terrestrial  Nematode.* — L.  A.  Jagerskiold  describes 
a  small  free-living  terrestrial  Nematode  from  Kerguelen,  Bunonema 
richtersi  g.  et  sp.  n.  Along  the  ventral  side  of  the  body  it  bears  two 
parallel  rows  of  relatively  large  wart-like  bodies.  The  mouth  is  pro- 
vided with  bristles,  is  small,  and  may  be  absent.  There  are  longitudinal 
ridtres  along  the  sides,  and  the  cuticle  between  the  warts  is  smooth  or 
coarsely  granular. 

Notes  on  Nematodes.!— A.  E.  Shipley  reports  1 5  Nematodes,  mostly 
species  of  Asearis,  from  fishes,  seals,  dolphins,  etc.,  all  from  the  museum 
of  University  College,  Dundee. 

Platyhelminthes . 

Bactericidal  Action  of  Cestodes.J — L.  Jammes  and  H.  Mandoul 
note  that  the  extract  of  tapeworms  has  a  bactericidal  power,  varying  in 
different  species,  and  in  relation  to  different  microbes.  The  parasites 
resemble  the  wall  of  the  intestine  in  their  absorptive  capacity  and  in 
their  bactericidal  power.  This  is  an  adaptation  to  intra-intestinal 
parasitism.  Sometimes  the  parasite  may  aid  its  host  in  the  bactericidal 
function.  In  Nematodes,  where  there  is  a  continuous  cuticle,  there  is 
no  bactericidal  power. 

Notes  on  Cestodes.§ — A.  E.  Shipley  has  notes  on  the  curious 
twisted  tapeworm  Anthobothrium  tortum  v.  Lins,  from  the  stomach  of 
Phoca  barbate.  The  edges  of  the  animal  are  thickened,  and  the  whole 
is  twisted  or  coiled  round  its  longitudinal  axis.  The  head  bears  firm 
cushions  and  in  the  centre  a  maze  of  convoluted  ridges.  Two  good 
figures  are  given.  Nine  other  forms  are  noted,  all  from  the  museum  of 
University  College,  Dundee. 

New  Bird  Tapeworm. || — M.  Szymanski  gives  a  description  of 
Hymeaolepis  (Drepanidotienia)  podicipina  sp.  n.,  from  the  crested  grebe. 
In  the  same  host  he  found  young  forms  of  Tcenia  furcifera  Krabbe  with- 
out proglottides. 

Arctic  Cestodes.f — F.  Zschokke  finds  that  in  the  far  North  the 
Cestode  fauna  includes  typically  polar  forms  as  well  as  cosmopolitan 
types.  The  genera  Dibothriocephalus  and  Tetrabothrius  are  examples  of 
the  former,  and  to  these  may  be  added  with  some  probability  certain 
species  of  the  genera  Diplogonoporus  and  Diplobothrivm.  The  wander- 
ings of  the  hosts,  viz.  birds  and  fishes,  introduce  uncertainty  in  the  cases 
of  other  Cestodes  occurring  in  the  far  North,  as  well  as  in  some  of  those 
quoted.  In  Mammals  there  occur  Moniezia  expansa,  Taenia  serrata,  and 
Tcenia  camurus  ;  in  Birds,  Dilepis  undulate,  Fibriaria  fascial  art's,  Dre- 
pa/udotcenia  filum,  Anomotcenia  microrhynchus,  and  many  others ;  and 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  557-61. 
t  Proc.  Cambridge  Phil.  Soc.  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  95-102. 
\  Comptes  Rendua,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  '271-3. 
§  Proc.  Cambridge  Phil.  Soc.,  xiii.  '  1905)  pp.  95-102  (2  figs.). 
||  Bull.  Internat.  Akad.  Sci.  Cmcovie,  1904,  pp.  733-5  (1  pi.). 
J   Faunu  Arctica,  Bd.  iii.  (1903,  pp.  1-32  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  441 

in  Fishes,  Schistocephalus  nodosits,  Tricenophorus  nodulosus,  Abothrium 
rugowm,  etc.  There  is  a  remarkable  parallelism  between  this  and  the 
Antarctic  fauna,  and  a  bipolar  distribution  of  the  Cestodes  is.recognisable. 

New  Helminths.* — 0.  v.  Linstow  describes,  mostly  from  mammals, 
several  new  species  of  Helminths.  An  interesting  form  is  Tetrarhynchus 
Jluviatih  sp.  n.,  from  a  thick  walled  cyst  in  the  connective  tissue  of 
Malapt&rurus  ehctricus  from  the  Nile.  The  scolex  measured  0*^5  mm. 
long  and  posteriorly  0*088  mm.  broad  ;  there  are  four  long  oval  suckers 
and  four  proboscides,  which  appear  to  be  without  bulbs.  The  genus  in 
its  sexual  phase  is  marine,  occurring  in  sharks  and  rays,  and  the  Malap- 
terurus  must  occasionally  leave  the  Nile  for  the  sea  and  there  be  infected. 

Anatomy,  Development  and  Habits  of  Geonemertes  agricola.| — 
W.  R.  Coe  gives  a  general  account  of  the  anatomy  and  fuller  particulars 
of  the  development  and  habits  of  this  terrestrial  Nemertean.  The  species 
occurs  at  several  places  on  the  Bermuda  Islands,  but  is  known  only  along 
the  shores  of  mangrove  swamps  and  on  the  adjacent  hillsides.  The 
worms  do  not  burrow,  but  lie  beneath  stones  ;  they  are  very  hardy,  and 
survived  immersion  in  salt  water  for  several  weeks  without  food  or 
change  of  water.  They  can  live  in  comparatively  dry  earth  without 
injury  ;  they  cannot  live  in  fresh-water  alone,  although  they  survive  its 
addition  to  the  soil  or  salt  water  in  which  they  may  be  placed.  This 
species  has  probably  arisen  directly  from  a  marine  ancestor. 

North  American  Nemerteans.J — W.  R.  Coe  publishes  an  account 
of  the  Nemerteans  of  the  West  and  North- West  Coast  of  North  America. 
The  data  are  obtained  from  a  study  of  a  large  number  of  collections  from 
many  localities,  and  include  an  anatomical  and  histological  survey  with 
special  reference  to  the  Pacific  coast  species,  notes  on  development  and 
geographical  distribution.  A  systematic  account  of  the  genera  and 
species  with  descriptions  of  new  forms,  together  with  keys  to  the  groups 
and  species,  is  also  included. 

Incertee  Sedis. 

Position  of  Rhabdopleura.§ — A.  Schepotieff  directs  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  three  segments  of  this  interesting  type — (1)  the  head-shield, 
(2)  the  neck  portion  from  which  the  lophophore  arises  dorsally,  and  (3) 
the  oval  trunk  portion,  to  the  endodermic  notochord  and  to  the  branchial 
grooves.  He  gives  an  account  of  the  whole  structure  of  the  animal 
based  on  his  own  investigations,  and  also  describes  the  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  buds.  He  believes  that  Rhabdophura  and  Cephalo- 
discus  are  nearly  related,  that  Brachiopods  and  Chastognatha  are  also 
related  to  both,  and  that  Rhabdophura  has  more  remote  affinities  with 
Phoronis  and  the  Bryozoa  on  the  one  hand,  and  through  the  Entero- 
pneusta  with  Echinoderms  and  Chordates  on  the  other.  In  short, 
Rhabdophura  and  Cephalodiscus  are  primitive  "  Trimetamera." 

•  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  678-83. 

t  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xxxi.(1904)  pp.  531-70  (3  pis.). 

X  Bull.  Mus.  Compar.  Zool.  Harvard,  xlvii.  (1905)  pp.  1-320  (25  pis). 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  795-806  (7  figs.). 


442  SUMMARY   OF   CITHUENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Notes  on  Young  Enteropneusta.* — W.  E.  Ritter  and  B.  M.  Davis 
give  an  account  of  a  number  of  interesting  features  in  the  development 
;ind  habits  of  Tornaria  ritteri  and  others.  Diminution  of  size  marks 
the  metamorphic  period  during  which  both  retrogressive  and  progressive 
changes  are  baking  place.  It  appears  that  the  difference  in  size  and 
form  assumed  by  the  larva  at  different  times  in  its  career  is  more  a  ques- 
tion of  the  distribution  of  a  nearly  constant  quantity  of  body  substance 
than  of  the  addition  and  distribution  of  new  substance.  Their  researches 
have  strengthened  the  suggestion  of  a  general  functional  similarity 
between  the  oesophageal  ciliated  band  previously  described  by  Ritter 
and  the  prochordate  endostyle,  although  the  question  of  true  homology 
remains  as  doubtful  as  ever.  The  vital  activities  of  this  animal  are  at 
a  very  low  level ;  food-taking  seems  to  be  wholly  wanting  for  a  large 
part  of  the  larval  period  ;  respiration  and  excretion  are  on  the  simple 
protoplasmic  level  ;  responses  to  stimuli  are  detected  only  with  difficulty  ; 
body  movements  are  effected  exclusively  by  cilia.  The  eggs  are  deposited 
on  the  sea  bottom,  while  the  larva?  are  pelagic.  The  larvae  rise  by  a 
reduction  of  their  specific  gravity  and  by  the  action  of  their  cilia.  They 
swim  upward  in  a  spiral  manner.  Tornaria  appear  to  react  but  slightly 
if  at  all  to  light  of  normal  intensity.  Particulars  of  a  new  species, 
Tornaria  hvbbardi,  are  given,  and  some  notes  on  the  direct  development 
of  DoJichogJossus  pusillus  Ritter. 

Germ-Cells  in  Pedicellina  americana.t — L.  I.  Dublin  has  studied 
the  history  of  the  chromatin  of  the  germ-cells,  and  finds  that  oogenesis 
and  spermatogenesis  are  in  general  identical  processes.  The  normal 
number  of  chromosomes  is  probably  twenty-two,  and  full  details  of  the 
maturation  divisions  are  given.  The  eggs  are  fertilised  internally,  and 
the  pronuclei  do  not  unite  intimately  ;  the  chromosomes  are  very  early 
re-formed  and  give  rise  to  twenty-two  V's  of  the  first  somatic  mitosis  ; 
they  split  longitudinally  and  preserve  this  form  up  to  the  last  sperma- 
togonial  and  very  probably  oogonial  generation,  where  they  are  converted 
into  dumb-bell  shaped  rods.  The  egg  nucleolus  appears  early  during 
the  oocytic  growth-period,  and  increases  in  size  at  the  expense  of  the 
cleavage  products  of  the  chromatin  ;  later  it  becomes  vacuolated,  stains 
throughout  as  a  plastin  body,  and  with  the  approach  of  the  first  matura- 
tion division  disintegrates,  the  remains  being  cast  out  as  a  meta- 
nucleolus. 

Echinoderma. 

Variability  and  Autotomy  of  Phataria.J  —  Sarah  P.  Monks  dis- 
cusses Phataria  (Linckia)  vnifascialis  Gray,  var.  bifascialis,  a  starfish 
remarkable  for  the  variability  in  the  size  and  number  of  its  rays. 
Regularity  is  the  exception.  In  over  400  specimens,  not  more  than  four 
were  symmetrical,  and  no  two  were  alike. 

The  breaking  is  automatic,  and  is  effected  by  pulling  apart  or  frac- 
ture without  strain  ;  there  is  co-ordination  of  parts  in  producing  the 
separation  ;  the  tissues  relax  at  the  plane  of  rupture  ;  this  plane  may  be 

•  Univ.  California  Publications,  i.  (1904)  pp.  171-210  (8  pis.), 
t  Aimals  N.Y.  Ac-ad.  Sei.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  1-64. 

*  Proc.  Acad.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1904,  pp.  596-600  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  443 

near  the  disc,  or  at  a  variable  distance  along  the  ray  ;  the  pyloric  caeca 
are  always  pnlled  out  and  much  stretched  ;  the  break  of  the  caecum 
occurs  at  the  tube  connecting  the  stomach  and  glandular  portion  ;  the 
pyloric  caecum  is  generally  taken  back  into  the  arm  ;  the  severed  ray 
may  live  more  than  a  week  without  signs  of  regeneration  ;  rays  cut 
at  various  distances  from  the  disc  make  discs,  mouths  and  new  rays  in 
about  six  months. 

Sea-urchins  of  German  Deep-Sea  Expedition.*  —  L.  Doderlein 
describes  fifteen  forms,  all  of  which,  excepting  one,  are  new  species, 
and  amongst  which  are  representatives  of  five  new  genera. 

The  Origin  of  the  Water- Vascular  System  of  Echinoderms.f  — 
E.  Meyer  seeks  to  throw  some  light  on  this  question.  He  homologises 
the  two  ccelome  divisions  in  the  Prosopygia  with  the  two  pairs  of  ccelome 
vesicles  of  the  echinoderm  Dipleurula  larva.  These  cavities  are  not  to 
be  regarded  as  ccelome  metameres.  They  are  comparable  in  origin,  rather 
to  the  anterior  and  posterior  thoracic  cavity  of  Terebellids,  through  the 
disappearance  of  regular  intersegmental  septa,  and  equivalent  to  the  sum 
of  several  segment  cavities.  The  hydrocoelic  vesicles  of  echinoderm 
larvae,  on  the  contrary,  have,  since  they  correspond  to  the  diaphragm 
sacs  of  Terebellids,  merely  the  significance  of  a  muscular  hollowing  out 
of  a  dissepiment  which  has  remained  between  the  anterior  and  posterior 
ccelome.  The  ontogeny  of  echinoderms  bears  this  out,  since  both  hydro- 
ccels,  rudimentary  and  definitive,  arise  typically  as  eversions  of  the 
hinder  epithelial  wall  of  the  anterior  ccelome.  The  evolution  of  the 
complex  hydraulic  apparatus  of  the  adult  echinoderm  from  such  open 
diaphragm  sacs,  is  partly  to  be  understood  by  reference  to  certain  Anne- 
lids, for  example,  Saccocirrus,  in  which  in  the  head  and  tentacles  there 
exists  a  canal-  and  ampullae-system  comparable  to  the  echinoderm  water- 
vascular  system. 

South  African  Echinoderms.J — F.  Jeffrey  Bell  reports  on  Asteroidea 
and  Ophiuroidea  found  off  the  coast  of  South  Africa.  The  Cape  Star- 
fishes show  an  alliance  with  those  of  the  North  Atlantic,  but  there  are 
also  indications  of  the  presence  of  species  best  known  as  yet  from  the 
Indian  Ocean  ;  this  is,  indeed,  only  to  be  expected  when  we  examine  the 
trend  of  the  currents  round  the  southern  peninsula  of  the  Old  World. 
A  new  Pahnipes  (P.  novemradiatus)  is  described,  the  only  one  known 
with  more  than  five  rays,  and  the  total  list  mounts  up  to  a  score.  The 
author  notes  the  variability  of  Astropecten  pontopormus,  and  the  growth- 
stages  of  the  previously  rare  and  little  known  Pentagonaster  tuberculatus 
of  Gray. 

The  Ophiuroids  number  eleven,  including  Ophiozona  capensis  sp.  n., 
and  Ophiura  trime/ri  sp.  n.,  and  a  good  series  of  the  hitherto  rare 
Ophiothamnvs  remotus,  which  was  dredged  by  the  'Challenger'  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Cape.  Professor  Bell  notes  that  the  study  of 
Ophiuroids  has  suffered  much  from  the  description  of  isolated  "  species  " 
based  on  one  or  a  few  specimens.     This  is  notably  the  case  with  Ophio- 

*  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  621-4. 

t  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  339-78. 

I  Marine  Investigations  in  South  Africa,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  241-53,  255-60  (1  pi.). 


444  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

thrix,  of  which  a  revision,  based  on  a  long  series,  ought  to  be  made 
before  ever  another  species  of  it  is  described. 

Antarctic  Holothuroids.* — Remy  Perrier  reports  on  the  Antarctic 
Holothuroids  from  Patagonia  and  New  Zealand  in  the  museums  at  Paris 
and  Vienna.  He  describes  19  species  from  Patagonia,  and  11  from  New 
Zealand  —  e.g.  Synallactes  moseleyi  (Theel)  Remy  Perrier,  Stichopus 
(?  Holothurm)patagonicus  Remy  Perrier, Psolidium  co/irergens  {Kerowdrd) 
Remy  Perrier,  Pseudopsolus  macquariensis  (Dendy)  Ludwig,  Gaudina 
pulchella  sp.  n.,  Trochodota  purpurea  (Lesson)  Ludwig,  and  Ghiridota 
marmzelleri  Remy  Perrier. 

Deep  Sea  Holothuroids  of  Indian  Ocean.f — R.  Kcehler  and  C.  Vaney 
report  on  a  large  collection  of  75  species  of  deep-sea  Holothuroids,  of 
which  59  are  described  as  new. 

Ccelentera. 

List  of  Irish  Ccelentera. J — Jane  Stephens  has  compiled  a  useful  list 
of  Ccelentera  from  the  Irish  marine  area.  It  includes  about  250  species, 
excluding  many  doubtful  ones.  The  hydroids  are  mostly  widely  dis- 
tributed species,  some  of  them  having  been  recorded  for  North  America, 
India,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand.  On  the  other  hand,  Tubklava 
Interna,  T.  cornucopia,  and  Heterocordgle  conybearei  have  been  recorded 
for  two,  or  at  the  most,  three  localities  ;  while  Perigonimus  gelatinosus, 
P.  inflatus,  and  GampanuJina  tvrrita  seem  to  have  been  found  hitherto 
only  off  the  Irish  coast. 

The  overlapping  of  species  characteristic  of  the  northern  and 
southern  faunas  on  the  south-west  coast  of  Ireland  is  illustrated.  Thus, 
among  the  Hydromedusse,  Melicertidium  octocostatum  and  Margelis  pyra- 
midata  are  northern  forms,  while  the  Siphonophore  Mugghea  atlantica  is 
southern.  The  Trachomedusae  and  Narcomedusa?  are  essentially  Atlantic 
forms.  Among  the  Sea-anemones  Epizoanthus  iacrustatus,  Parazoanthus 
anguicomus,  and  perhaps  Actinauge  richardi,  may  be  regarded  as  northern 
species,  while  Gephyra  dohraii  is  distinctly  southern. 

Bougainvillia  fruticosa  Allm. — a  Variety  of  B.  ramosa,  Van 
Ben.§ — P.  Hallez  states  that  these  are  two  varieties  of  the  same  species. 
B.  ramosa  is  a  calm-water  form,  and  B.  fruticosa  a  product  of  water  in 
continuous  agitation.  He  regards  this  instance  as  a  further  proof  of 
the  morphogenic  action  of  water  in  motion,  as  has  been  quoted  by  Giard 
in  the  case  of  Gampanularia  caliculata  Hincks. 

Classification  of  Medusae. ||— 0.  Maas  has  revised  Haeckel's  family 
of  the  Cannotidae,  and  finds  it  a  heterogeneous  group.  He  rearranges 
the  members  thus : — Anthomedusaj  (near  the  Tiaridae),  families, 
Bythotiaridse,  Williadae.  Leptomedusaa  (near  the  Thaumantiadae) 
families,  Berenicidae,  Polyorchida3. 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  (Zool.)  ser.  9,  i.  (1905)  pp.  1-80  (10  figs.). 

t  An  Account  of  the  Deep-Sea  Holthuroidea  collected  by  R.I. M.S.   '  Investi- 
gator,' (Calcutta,  190.".)  123  pp.,  15  pis. 

%  Proc.  R.  Irish  Acad.,  xxv.  Sect.  B,  No  ?<  (1905)  pp.  25-92. 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  457-9. 

||  SB.  K.  Akad.  Wiss.  Miinchen,  1904,  pp.  421-45. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  445 

New  Cavernularid  from  Ceylon.* — J.  J.  Simpson  describes  an 
interesting  new  type  found  by  Professor  W.  A.  Herdman  in  Ceylonese 
waters.  He  names  it  Fusticularia  herdmani  g.  et  sp.  n.,  and  gives  the 
following  diagnosis  :  a  somewhat  sponge-like  Cavernularid,  with  a 
flattened  ovoid  stock  separated  by  a  constriction  from  a  comparatively 
slender  sterile  trunk ;  with  dimorphic  retractile  polyps,  the  autozooids 
not  exceeding  1  mm  in  length,  the  much  smaller  siphonozooids 
scattered  irregularly  among  the  autozooids  ;  with  abundant  densely 
spiculate  ccenenchyma,  traversed  by  three  longitudinal  central  canals 
passing  down  into  the  trunk  ;  with  smooth  hyaline  spicules  bearing 
peculiar  digitiform  terminal  processes,  and  showing  very  characteristic 
annulations,  especially  near  the  ends. 

Deep-Sea  Alcyonaria  from  Indian  Ocean.f — J.  Arthur  Thomson 
and  W.  D.  Henderson  make  a  preliminary  report  on  a  collection  of 
deep-sea  Alcyonarians  dredged  by  R.I.M.S.  '  Investigator  '  in  the  Indian 
Ocean.  About  15  new  forms  are  noted,  e.g.  Clavularia  decipiens,  grow- 
ing on  a  silicious  axis,  which  is  probably  a  large  sponge  fibre ; 
Sarcophytum  fungiforms,  a  large  mushroom-shaped  colony ;  several 
species  of  Dasygorgia  or  Chrysogorgia ;  Primnoisis  alba ;  Muricella 
bengalensis  ;  and  Scirpearella  alba. 

Among  the  Pennatulacea  there  are  new  species  of  Protocaulon, 
Protoptilum,  and  Stachyptilum,  and  what  seems  to  be  a  new  genus 
(Juncoptilum)  which  is  viviparous. 

Primitive  Germ-Cells  of  Ctenophora.J — K.  C.  Schneider  finds  that 
in  Bero'd  ovata  the  primitive  germ-cells  are  large  elements  which  originate 
in  the  mesoderm,  diffusely  within  the  gelatinous  substance,  and  especially 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  epithelium.  They  give  origin  to  the 
muscle-cells  and  to  the  connective-tissue  cells,  as  well  as  to  the  genital 
cells,  and  they  may  be  called  embryonic  mesoderm-cells,  and  compared 
to  Sottas'  "  archaaocytes  "  in  sponges. 

Protozoa. 

Dimorphism  in  the  Nummulites.§ — J.  J.  Lister  finds  that  when  a 
number  of  species  of  Nummulites  are  arranged  in  order  of  the  sizes  of 
the  megalospheres,  this  coincides  with  the  order  of  the  volumes  of  the 
microsphere  tests.  In  Potystomella  crispa,  the  only  member  of  the 
Nummulitidge  of  which  the  details  of  the  life-history  are  approximately 
known,  the  only  mode  of  origin  of  the  megalospheric  form  which  has 
been  observed  is  by  an  asexual  process  of  reproduction,  from  a  micro- 
spheric  parent.  Hence  it  would  appear  that  in  this  mode  of  reproduction 
the  size  of  the  offspring  is  approximately  proportional  to  the  volume  of 
protoplasm  of  the  parent. 

The  microsphere  probably  arises  as  a  zygote  formed  by  the  conjuga- 
tion of  the  zoospores  produced  by  the  megalospheric  individuals ;  and 
the  size  of  the  microsphere  is  found  not  to  vary  outside  15-20  fi  in  the 
four  species  in  which  it  has  been  measured.  The  two  modes  of  repro- 
duction are  thus  contrasted  in  the  size  of  the  offspring. 

*  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xv.  (1905)  pp.  361-5  (1  pi.).  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  547-57. 

X  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  889-99  (1  pi.). 
§  Proc.  Cambridge  Phil.  Soc.xiii.  (1905)  pp.  92-3. 


446  SUMMARY    OF   CURKKNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Dimorphism  in  English  Species  of  Nummulites.* — J.  J.  Lister  has 
examined  the  characters  of  Nummulites  Ueviyata  Brag.,  N.  variolnria 
Lam.,  and  N.  eleyans  Sow.,  with  respect  to  dimorphism.  His  results 
are  in  complete  accord  with  the  conclusion  that  the  species  of  Nummulites 
are  dimorphic.  We  have,  however,  to  recognise  that  while  in  many 
species  of  the  genus  the  microspheric  form  attains  a  much  larger  size 
than  the  megalospheric,  in  others  the  two  forms  attain  the  same  size— a 
condition  which  is  indeed  the  rule  in  the  great  majority  of  the 
Forarninifera. 

Notes  on  Infusorians.f — W.  D.  Henderson  communicates  a  number 
of  brief  notes  on  a  large  number  of  Infusorians  collected  round  Freiburg. 
Over  eighty  species  were  collected  in  a  short  time.  Most  of  the  notes 
corroborate  previous  descriptions,  but  a  few  observed  differences  of 
interest  are  recorded,  e.g.  the  apparent  absence  of  a  micronucleus  in 
Spirostomum  am  biguum. 

Flagellata  in  Blood  of  Fresh-water  Fishes.  J — Keysselitz  reports 
on  a  large  number  of  cases  in  which  he  has  found  in  the  blood  and 
lymph  of  fresh-water  fishes  representatives  of  the  genera  Trypanoplasma 
and  Trypanosoma. 

Movements  of  6regarines.§ — 'Howard  Crawley  discusses  the  various 
movements  of  Gregarines,  and  lays  all  emphasis  on  the  "  myocyte,"  the 
layer  of  fibrils  which  encircles  the  animal  in  a  slightly  spiral  direction, 
with  circular  fibres  united  by  longitudinal  and  diagonal  connectives,  the 
whole  system  forming  a  net.  After  discussing  the  various  interpretations 
and  stating  his  observations,  he  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  all  the 
motor  phenomena  which  the  Polycystidea  display  may  be  directly  credited 
to  contractions  of  the  myocyte,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
amoeboid  movements  of  certain  species,  and  the  rotation. 

Metameric  Cytoplasm  in  6regarine.|| — L.  Leger  describes  from  the 
intestine  of  the  larva  of  Ceratopogon  solstitialis  Winn.,  from  marshes 
near  Cavaliere,  a  remarkable  new  cellular  type,  which  he  names  Tcenia- 
cystis  mira  g.  et  sp.  n.  It  is  a  Gregarine  of  long,  worm-like  shape, 
whose  cytoplasm  is  divided  into  numerous  compartments  by  transverse 
septa  ;  it  resembles  a  small  Cestode.  The  number  of  segments  increases 
with  the  size  of  the  animal,  which  reaches  300  p.  As  many  as  twenty- 
nine  segments  have  been  observed.  Anteriorly  the  shape  undergoes 
change  of  form,  becoming  beak-shaped  :  this  is  probably  for  adhesion. 
A  single  spherical  nucleus  is  present  in  the  sixth  or  seventh  segment. 
The  cell  is  covered  by  a  thin  cuticle,  and  there  is  no  ectoplasmic  layer. 

Anisogamy  in  Monocystis.1[ — L.  Brasil  finds  that,  contrary  to  the 
general  view,  conjugation  in  Monocystis  is  anisogamous,  although  not  to 
the  same  degree  as  in  Stylorhynchus  and  Pterocephalus.  Isogamy,  he 
considers,  is  probably  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule  in  Monocystids. 

*  Proc.  Cambridge  Fhil.  Soc,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  1-2. 

t  Zool.  Anzei*;.,  xxix.  (1905)  21  pp.  and  6  figs. 

J  SB.  Ges.  Natur.  Freunde  (Berlin,  1901)  pp.  285-1)6. 

§  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1905)  pp.  89-99. 

||  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  521-6.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  7^5-6. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  447 

Biology  of  Piroplasma  canis.* — G.  Nuttall  reviews  the  known  facts 
of  geographical  distribution,  pathological  effects,  and  mode  of  dissemi- 
nation of  Piroplasma  canis.  Cattle,  sheep,  horses,  and  man  all  serve  as 
hosts  for  this  parasite.  It  occurs  in  the  blood  in  all  parts  of  the  body, 
most  abundantly  in  the  internal  organs,  within  the  blood-cells,  and  also 
free  in  the  plasma.  The  author  infected  dogs  in  England,  where  piro- 
plasmosis  does  not  occur,  through  the  medium  of  ticks  (Hccmophysalis 
leachi),  the  reputed  intermediate  host  in  Africa. 

Trypanosomes  of  Nagana  and  Mai  de  Caderas.f — W.  L.  Jakimoff 
finds  that  infection  with  these  parasites  causes  very  acute  sickness  in 
mice  and  rats ;  ih  dog,  fox,  guinea-pig,  rabbit,  and  cat,  the  disease  is 
slower,  lasting  from  one  to  six  weeks ;  frogs  and  pigeons  are  immune. 
The  virulence  of  the  trypanosome  is  increased  by  frequent  passage 
through  the  animal  organism,  while  extremely  small  numbers  are  suffi- 
cient to  accomplish  infection.  Besides  the  blood,  the  cerebro-spinal 
fluid,  pleural,  peritoneal,  and  pericardial  exudations,  as  well  as  other 
body  fluids  contain  the  infection  substance.  House-flies  do  not  act  as 
transmitters  of  these  diseases. 

Leucocytozoan  of  the  Dog. J — @.  A.  Bentley  describes  what  seems 
to  be  a  new  and  hitherto  undescribed  parasite  of  the  leucocytes  of  the 
dog.  The  subjects  were  of  English  breed,  born  in  Assam,  and  showed 
a  slight  anasmia,  and  some  little  febrile  disturbance.  It  may  be  that  the 
parasite  is  a  Hsemogregarine,  which  would  be  remarkable  in  the  blood 
of  a  mammal  and  in  the  leucocytes  thereof. 

Coelosporidium  Blattellae.§ — Howard  Crawley  describe*  this  new 
Sporozoon,  one  of  the  Haplosporidia,  which  occurs  in  great  abundance 
in  the  Malpighian  tubules  of  the  so-called  Croton  bug,  Blattella  ger- 
manica  L.  He  gives  an  account  of  its  life-cycle  as  far  as  he  has  been 
able  to  trace  it. 

Diseases  of  Fishes. || — 0.  Fuhrmann  discusses  in  a  brief  note  the 
causes  of  some  of  these.  Diseases  due  to  bacteria  and  sporozoa  are 
furonctdose  of  Salmonids,  the  loosening  of  scales  in  white-fish,  bubonic 
disease  of  barbels,  and  small-pox  of  carp.  An  interesting  epidemic 
malady  of  the  female  sexual  organs  of  the  pike  of  Lake  Neuchatel  is 
caused  by  a  myxosporidian  (Henneguya  psorospermica  var.  oviperda). 
The  disease  destroying  carp  is  probably  caused  by  a  parasite  of  the 
genus  Trypanosoma,  which  causes  sleeping  sickness  in  man. 

Pseudo-Hsematozoa.lF — A.  Laveran  directs  attention  to  a  number  of 
appearances  which  may  be,  and  have  been,  mistaken  for  intra-corpuscular 
Ha3inatozoa,  e.g.  (1)  vacuolated  corpuscles,  common  in  anaemic  subjects; 
(2)  nucleated  corpuscles,  also  frequent  in  anasmia ;  (3)  granular 
("  mouchetee  ")  corpuscles  ;  and  (4)  hasmatoblasts. 

*  Jouru.  HyK.,  iv.  (1904)  p.  219. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  668-78. 

X  Brit.  Med.  Journ.,  May  6,  1905,  p.  988  (2  figs.). 

§  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  1905,  pp.  158-61  (6  figs.). 

||  Arch.  Sci.  Phys.  et  Nat.,  xix.  (1905)  p.  205. 

i  Cuiiiptes  Rendos,  cxc.  ( 1905)  pp.  121 1-16  (4  figs.). 


448  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 
Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including-  Cell-Contents. 

General  Cytology.* — B.  M.  Davis  continues  his  interesting  "  Studies 
on  the  Plant  Cell,"  in  which  he  is  giving  a  general  resume  and  dis- 
cussion of  cell  problems.  In  this  part,  No.  5  of  the  series,  he  deals 
with  cells-unions,  and  nuclear  fusions  in  plants. 

Heterotype  division.f — V.  Gregoire  and  J.SBerghs  J  have  made 
further  observations  on  the  exact  meaning  of  the  first  apparent  split 
which  appears  in  the  chromosomes  of  this  division  in  microspore-mother- 
cells.  They  believe  that  in  synapsis  two  threads  become  arranged  side 
by  side  to  form  the  thick  spireme  thread.  The  chromosomes  are 
thus  double  in  nature,  but  duality  is  not  produced  by  the  bending  on 
itself  of  a  segment  of  the  spireme  thread,  as  Dixon,  Farmer  and  Moore 
believe,  or  in  other  words  the  double  chromosomes  are  produced  by  the 
somatic  chromosomes  from  the  first  lying  side  by  side,  not  by  these 
chromosomes  joining  end  to  end  and  later  bending  over  parallel  to  one 
another.  Berghs  describes  the  process  of  formation  of  the  double 
spireme  thread  in  detail  in  Allium  fistulosum. 

Cell-Structure  of  the  Cyanophycese.§ — Alfred  Fischer  has  brought 
forward  a  new  work  on  this  much-discussed  subject.  His  most  im- 
portant points  are  that  the  "  central  body  "  contains  large  quantities  of  a 
carbohydrate  (derived  from  the  chromatophore),  either  glycogen,  or 
anabamin  which  can  be  converted,  at  least  partially,  into  glycogen  or 
dextrin  by  treatment  with  acid.  The  mitosis  which  was  observed  by 
various  workers  is  not  a  process  by  which  chromatin  is  distributed  to 
the  daughter-cells,  but  a  mere  equal  distribution  of  granules  of  an  inert 
assimilatory  product,  or  carbohydrates.  The  mitosis  of  the  older 
observers  is  thus  nothing  more  than  carbohydrate-mitosis  (kohlehydrat- 
mitose).  The  chromatin  lately  described  by  Olive,  in  the  form  of 
chromosomes  and  threads,  is  nothing  more  than  anabamin  which  takes 
nuclear  stains  like  chromatin.  The  interesting  possibility  that  this 
carbohydrate-mitosis  is  the  phylogenetic  forerunner  of  the  nuclear 
mitosis  of  higher  plants,  is  suggested. 

Cytology  of  Araiospora.|| — C.  A.  King  has  investigated  the  cytology 
of  A.pulchra,  a  somewhat  rare  aquatic  fungus  first  described  by  Thaxter, 
and  placed  doubtfully  either  in  the  Peronosporacea?  or  Saprolegniaceas. 

*  Aiuer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  217-68  (8  figs.). 

t  La  Cellule,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  297-314.  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  384-397,  pi.  1. 

§  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxiii.  (1905)  pp.  51-130,  pis.  4-5. 

||  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xxxi.  (1903)  pp.  211-45,  pis.  11-15. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  449 

The  vegetative  cells  are  ccenocytic,  and  the  zoospores  are  formed  by  an 
almost'  simultaneous  constriction  of  the  strands  which  connect  the 
various  masses  of  cytoplasm  round  the  individual  nuclei.  When  the 
oogonium  develops  there  are  35-55  nuclei  included  in  the  cell  which 
migrate  to  the  periphery  and  peripheral  vacuoles  arise  between  them.  At 
the  same  time  many  small,  isolated  fine-meshed,  patches  arise  in  the 
central  cytoplasm  ;  these  then  migrate  to  the  centre  of  the  oogonium, 
where  they  fuse  into  one  conspicuous,  deeply-staining,  fine-meshed  mass. 
The  periplasm  becomes  divided  by  anticlinal  walls  into  a  great  number 
of  cells,  which  are  hexagonal  in  surface  view  ;  the  cells  are  bounded 
only  by  a  plasma  membrane  at  the  outer  surface,  which  is  directed 
towards  the  oogonium  wall.  The  mature  oosphere  is  uninucleate.  The 
antheridium  contains  numerous  nuclei,  but  only  a  single  sperm  nucleus 
is  introduced  into  the  egg.  No  antheridial  tube  was  observed,  but  the 
egg  shows  a  distinct  receptive  papilla  which  develops  a  tube  from  the 
inner  margin  of  the  peripheral  cells  to  the  oogonial  wall.  As  the  sexual 
nuclei  approach  they  invariably  put  out  a  pointed  beak  upon  their 
adjacent  surfaces,  and  these  beaks  may  come  in  contact ;  actual  fusion 
seems  to  be  delayed  until  some  point  not  ascertained,  after  the  oospore 
wall  has  thickened.  Araiospora  is  placed  between  Pythium  and  the 
Saprolegniaceae.  < 

"  Bios  "  of  Wildiers.* — It  was  shown  in  1901,  by  Wildiers,  that 
pure  beer-yeast  is  not  able  to  develop  and  ferment  rapidly  in  Pasteur's 
solutions  with  sugar,  unless  a  sufficient  quantity  of  an  extract  obtained 
by  boiling  the  same  yeast  is  added  to  the  solution.  The  unknown 
substances  contained  in  this  extract  were  termed  by  the  discoverer 
"bios."  A.  Amand  has  made  further  investigations  of  this  peculiar 
action,  but  without  throwing  any  light  on  the  nature  of  the  active 
substance. 

Sexual  Reproduction  in  the  Rusts. f  — ■  A.  H.  Christman  has  in- 
vestigated the  early  stages  of  development  of  the  gecidium  in  Phrag- 
midium  speciosum  and  Gceoma  nitens.  The  early  stages  of  development 
were  the  same  as  those  described  by  Blackman  for  Phragmidium  viola- 
ceum,  but  after  the  sterile  cells  have  been  cut  off  the  "  fertile  cells " 
fuse  in  pairs  by  the  breaking  down  of  the  upper  part  of  the  wall  that 
lies  between  them.  Only  the  cytoplasmic  masses,  however,  fuse  ;  the 
nuclei  remain  separate,  but  divide  by  the  well  known  method  of  "  con- 
jugate" division,  which  takes  place  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cell  ;  there 
the  aecidiospores  and  intercalary  cells  are  formed.  Similar  fused 
"fertile  cells"  were  observed  in  Uromyres  Caladii,  but  the  early  stages 
were  not  traced. 

Structure  and  Development. 

Vegetative. 

Stipular  Formations. J — J.  Schiller  t^ives  the  results  of  his  observa- 
tions on  the  relation  between  true  stipules  and  pseudo-stipules  ;  the 

*  La  Cellule,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  329-346. 

t  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (19  >5)  pp.  '2<J7-7  .  pi.  8. 

X  SB.  K.  Akad.  Wiss.,  cxii.  (1903;  re-eived  May  1905)  pp  703-819  (3  pis.;. 

Aug.  16th,  1905  2  h 


450  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

former  are  outgrowths  from  the  leaf-base,  while  the  latter  are  developed 
from  the  blade.  Pseudo-stipules  are  distinguished  not  only  by  this 
difference  of  development,  but  in  their  occurrence.  Whereas  stipules 
are  remarkably  constant  in  their  occurrence,  pseudo-stipules  are 
generally  found  on  plants  the  leaves  of  which  bear  no  stipules,  and  only 
on  certain  parts  of  such  plants,  where  they  perform  some  special  function. 
Their  function,  like  that  of  most  true  stipules,  is  associated  with  the 
protection  of  more  delicate  organs.  The  author  finds  that  they  occur 
on  plants  with  lobed  or  pinnate  leaves  ;  either  on  the  primary  leaves  of 
a  shoot,  or  on  the  bracts  and  in  the  leaves  in  the  vicinity  of  the  flower 
region  ;  more  rarely  are  they  found  on  the  leaves  of  the  whole  plant,  as 
in  Canarium.  Occasionally,  as  in  Anthyllis,  Lotus,  and  other  members 
of  the  Papilionaceas,  both  stipules  and  pseudo-stipules  are  present  on 
one  and  the  same  leaf. 

Reproductive. 

Structure  of  the  Flower  in  Cruciferae.* — As  a  result  of  the  study 
of  the  arrangement  of  the  vascular  bundles  in  the  parts  of  the  flower. 
Gerber  considers  the  floral  diagram  of  the  typical  crucifer  to  be  as 
follows  :  S  2  +  2,  P  4  (diagonal),  St  2  +  4,  G  2  +  2.  The  gyncecium  is 
composed  of  four  leaves,  two  valvular  and  sterile,  two  placental  and 
fertile.  These  four  leaves  are  concrescent  by  their  margins,  and  in 
addition  the  two  placental  leaves  are  concrescent  by  their  median  nerve 
with  the  axis  of  the  flower,  causing  a  division  of  the  ovary  into  two 
chambers. 

Inflorescence  of  Boraginaceae  and  Solanacese.f — W.  Muller  adds 
yet  another  to  the  numerous  discussions  on  the  character  of  the  so-called 
boragoid  inflorescence  in  these  two  families.  While  the  greater  number 
of  writers  on  the  subject,  including  De  Candolle,  Eichler,  Celakovsky  and 
Schumann  have  regarded  the  inflorescence  as  of  a  monochasialcymose  type,, 
others,  including  Schleiden  and  Goebel,  have  referred  it,  as  a  whole  or  in 
part,  to  a  monopodial  development.  The  present  writer  has  studied  the 
development  of  the  inflorescence  in  species  of  the  following  genera  of 
Boraginacea?,  Tiaridium,  Heliotropium,  Symphytum,  Mertensia,  Myosotis, 
and  Omphalodes,  and  concludes  that,  generally  speaking,  it  is  a  dorsiven- 
tral  monopodium,  with  in  some  cases  a  tendency  towards  a  dichotomous 
development.  Similarly  he  finds  that  the  inflorescence  of  Hyoscyamus 
niger  is  a  dorsiventral  monopodium. 

Structure  and  Function  of  the  Antipodal  Cells.J — P.  K.  Lotscher 
has  investigated  a  number  of  species  of  seed-plants,  and  as  a  result  dis- 
tinguishes three  anatomical-physiological  types  of  antipodal  cells.  In 
the  first  type  the  antipodals  show  the  lowest  grade  of  differentiation, 
remaining  as  naked  protoplasts  or  unattached  cells.  Their  function 
consists  mainly  in  the  solution  or  absorption  of  the  nucellus.  To  this 
type  belong  the  orchids,  Cruciferge,  Geraniaceaa,  Linaceae,  Papilionaceae, 
Primulaceas,  Poleinoniacese,  and  Scrophulariacese.     In  the  second  type 

*  Comptea  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1148-6. 

t  Flora,  xciv.  (1905)  pp.  385-419  (11  figs,  in  text). 

%  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  213-62  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  451 

the  cells  are  well  differentiated  arid  form  a  roundish  cell-complex,  the 
chief  function  of  which  is  the  conversion  of  the  material  stored  in  the 
embryo-sac.  It  is  represented  by  the  Graminege,  Aracea?,  Ranunculaceie, 
Mimoseae,  Caasalpiniese,  and  occurs  also,  in  combination  with  the  third 
type,  in  the  Liliacese,  Iridacese,  Zingiberacese,  Boraginaceaj,  and 
Solanaceaj.  In  the  third  type  the  cells  form  individually  or  together  an 
elongated  structure  serving  as  haustoria  for  the  embryo-sac  ;  this 
type  is  exemplified  mainly  in  Rubiacese  and  Compositse. 

Apogamy  in  Alchemilla.* — E.  Strasburger  comes  to  the  following 
conclusions  as  the  result  of  the  study  of  this  phenomenon  in  several 
species  of  the  section  Eu- Alchemilla.  Thirty-two  bivalent  chromosomes 
are  present  at  the  reduction  division  of  the  pollen-mother-cells.  In  the 
ovule  of  apogamous  species  one  or  several  archesporial  cells  appear  as 
embryo-sac  mother -cells.  Their  nuclei  pass  through  the  prophase 
stage  of  the  reduction  division  as  far  as  the  synapsis  stage.  At  this 
point  the  embryo-sac  mother-cell  becomes  vegetative,  its  nucleus  passing 
over  from  the  synapsis  into  the  typical  method  of  division.  The  pro- 
ducts of  division  of  the  thus  altered  archesporium  cell  are  due  to  a 
vegetative,  not  to  a  generative  process.  They  must  be  regarded  not  as 
the  beginning  of  a  new  generation,  as  macrospores,  but  as  tissue  cells  of 
the  parent ;  and  the  resulting  development  is  apogamous.  The  embryo- 
sacs  which  are  formed  from  this  tissue  contain  an  apogamous  egg-cell,, 
the  nucleus  of  which  has  a  vegetative  number  of  chromosomes,  and  the 
embryo  is  an  apogamous  development  of  this  egg-cell. 

Some  of  the  subnival  species  have  normal  pollen,  and  these  also 
develop  in  their  ovules,  by  the  process  of  reduction  division,  macrospores 
from  embryo-sac  mother-cells.  The  embryo-sac  which  develops  from 
the  macrospore  contains  a  generative  egg  with  a  reduced  number  of 
chromosomes  in  the  nucleus,  and  produces  an  embryo  only  as  the  result 
of  fertilisation.  The  author  also  finds  that  the  normal  sexual  species 
are  chalazogamic,  and  that  some  of  them  hybridise.  He  suggests  that 
excessive  mutation  has  caused  the  weakening  of  the  sexual  power  in  the 
Eu-Alchemilleae,  and  with  failure  of  fertilisation  apogamous  reproduction 
has  been  adopted.  The  genera  Rubus  and  Rosa,  in  spite  of  their  strong 
polymorphism,  have  hitherto  remained  sexual ;  the  author  finds  that 
the  macrospore  develops  from  the  embryo-sac  mother-cell  by  a  process  of 
reduction  division,  and  the  egg  is  a  generative  one.  It  is  also  pointed 
out  that  dicecism  has  in  many  cases  formed  the  stimulus  to  the  assump- 
tion of  apogamy,  the  separation  of  male  and  female  individuals  tending 
to  a  suppression  of  fertilisation. 

Notes  on  the  Fruits  of  Opuntia.f  —  J.  W.  Tourney  has  studied 
various  species  of  this  genus,  which  is  evidently  of  comparatively  recent 
origin  and  development.  Owing  to  the  instability  of  the  characters 
available  for  the  systematist,  no  one  has  been  able  to  make  a  satisfactory 
taxonomic  arrangement  of  the  species,  nearly  one  hundred  of  which 
(including  varieties)  have  been  described  from  the  arid  regions  of  the 
south-western  United  States  and  north-western  Mexico.     The  shoot  is 

*  Jahrb.  wiss.  Botan.,  xli.  (1904)  pp.  88-164  (4  pis.). 

t  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  235-9  (2  ph.). 

•1   H  2 


452  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

more  or  less  condensed  and  fleshy  ;  the  roots  are  generally  of  two  sorts, 
long  surface  ones  for  rapid  absorption  of  moisture,  and  short  deeper  ones 
for  support.  As  regards  the  fruit,  from  the  study  of  many  species  from 
the  stain! point  of  structure,  from  the  similarity  in  external  appearance 
between  the  fruit  and  the  ultimate  vegetative  branches,  and  from  terato- 
logical  evidence,  the  author  concludes  (1)  that  the  fruit  is  caulome  in 
structure  ;  (2)  Its  caulome  nature  is  probably  of  recent  development ; 
(3)  It  has  become  caulome  by  its  once  superior  ovary  receding  into  a 
vegetative  branch,  thus  making  it  at  present  inferior  ;  (4)  The  branch, 
winch  now  becomes  the  ovary,  is  usually  modified  and  ripens  into  the 
structure  which  we  term  the  fruit.  It  may,  however,  become  but  little 
modified,  resembling  the  ultimate  branches,  and  continuing  as  a  vegetative 
part  of  the  plant. 

Throughout  the  genus  the  fruit  in  its  early  development  bears 
numerous  leaves  in  the  axils  of  which  vegetative  branches  as  well  as 
flowers  occur.  The  fruit  of  the  flat-stemmed  species  deviates  farthest 
in  form  from  that  of  the  normal  vegetative  branch  ;  but  in  several  of 
these  the  structure  containing  the  seeds  is  sometimes  large  and  flattened, 
like  the  normal  vegetative  branches.  In  such  cases,  however,  the  whole 
member  does  not  become  pulp-like,  change  colour  and  ripen.  Only  that 
part  immediately  surrounding  the  seeds  ripens  as  the  seeds  mature  ;  the 
remainder  continues  as  a  vegetative  part  of  the  plant.  When  the  fruit 
is  sterile  it  often  does  not  ripen  at  all,  but  remains  on  the  plant  for 
months  after  the  normal  fruits  have  matured.  These  sterile  fruits  some- 
times produce  normal  flattened  branches  during  the  second  season. 

Ponzo.  V — L'autogamia  nelle  piante  fanerogame.     (Autogamy  in  seed-plants.) 

[Inclndi  s  reservations  on  species  of  Ranunculus,  Matthiola,  Brassica,  Gypso- 
phila,  Silene,  Calendula,  Linaria,  Satureia,  Euphorbia,  Crocus,  Narcissus, 
and  Scilla.']  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital,  1905,  pp.  73-87. 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Soi  Inoculation  for  Leguminous  Plants.* — G.  T.  Moore  has  made 
an  important  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  the  behaviour  of  nitro- 
genous fixing  organisms,  and  one  of  considerable  economic  value.  He 
finds  hat  the  nitrogen  is  fixed  by  the  tubercle-forming  bacteria  within 
their  bodies.  This  was  determined  by  cultures  in  flasks  containing 
nutrient  solutions  without  nitrogen,  when  no  increase  of  nitrogen  was 
founil  in  the  solution,  but  a  marked  increase  in  the  organisms  themselves. 
The  organism  is  therefore  a  parasite.  Ultimately  the  plant  overpowers 
the  parasite,  and  uses  the  fixed  nitrogen.  Grown  in  nitrogenous  media 
the  oi.;  hi  ism  lost  both  its  power  of  infecting  leguminous  plants  and  its 
power  of  tixing  nitrogen  ;  whereas  in  non-nitrogenous  media  both  these 
propei  ties  were  retained.  A  lack  of  recognition  of  these  facts  serves 
probably  to  explain  previous  failures  by  Nobbe  to  obtain  for  economic 
use  pine  cultures  of  this  organism.  The  author  has  devised  a  method 
of  pui  i  in  •   up  for  distribution  pure  cultures  of  Pseudomonas  radicicola, 

*  V    .  D.i  t  of  Agric,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bull.  71  (1905)  72  pp.,  10  pis. 
See  also  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp  371-2. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICRO  SOP  Y,   ETC.  455 

grown  in  nitrogen-free  media  and  dried  on  cotton  immersed  in  the 
culture.  These  cultures  are  sent  out  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
together  with  packages  of  nutrient  salts  to  multiply  the  organism  ;  the 
culture  thus  obtained  is  used  to  inoculate  the  seed  or  soil. 

Irritability. 

Immunity  of  Plants  to  their  own  Poison.* — G.  J.  Stracke,  as  a 
result  of  a  number  of  observations  with  various  herbaceous  plants,  con- 
cludes that  in  some  cases  the  cells  of  the  tissues  of  the  higher  plants  possess 
an  immunity  to  their  own  poison  when  presented  in  a  chemically  pure 
state,  but  that  this  is  not  a  general  rule.  Moreover,  such  cells  may  show 
immunity  to  other  injurious  substances,  which  may  or  may  not  be 
chemically  related  to  the  poison  which  they  themselves  contain.  Ex- 
periments made  with  the  liquids  expressed  from  the  cells  suggest  the 
possibility  that  these  liquids  may  contain  substances  which  are  more 
injurious  to  the  cells  in  question  than  to  others.  It  is  perhaps  not  a 
matter  of  indifference  for  the  life  of  the  protoplast  that  the  action  of 
the  poison  be  directed  from  the  vacuole  to  the  external  layer  of  the 
protoplast.  Or  it  is  quite  possible  that  in  many  cases  a  cell-fluid,  origi- 
nally innocuous,  acquires  after  its  isolation  toxic  properties  as  the  result 
of  decompositions  set  up  by  enzyme  action. 

General. 

Experiments  on  the  Attraction  of  Bees  by  Flowers.t — Josephine 
Wery  gives  an  historical  account  of  the  work  of  previous  observations  on 
the  subject  of  the  attraction  of  bees  by  flowers,  followed  by  a  descrip- 
tion of  experiments  made  by  herself  in  two  different  seasons  in  the 
Brussels  Botanic  G-arden.  The  author  concludes  that  the  brightly 
coloured  parts  of  the  flower  are  the  chief  attraction,  the  honey  and 
the  perfume  apart  from  the  colour  having  but  very  slight  attractive 
power.  If  the  total  attractive  power  of  the  flower  be  represented  by 
K>0,  the  effect  of  the  form  and  colour  will  be  represented  by  about  80 
and  that  of  the  other  factors — presence  of  pollen,  nectar  and  perfume, 
taken  together — by  about  20. 

Relation  between  Ants  and  Plants. $ — E.  Ule  gives  a  catalogue  of 
the  plants  collected  by  himself  in  the  Amazon  region  with  which  ants 
were  found  associated.  The  collection  comprised  twenty-eight  species  of 
ants  (determined  by  Professor  A.  Forel)  and  more  than  thirty  associated 
plants.  The  plants  are  included  in  the  following  families  :  Araceas 
{Anthurium),  Brorneliaceae  {Tillandsia),  Moraceae,  Polygonaceaa  {Trip- 
la  ris),  Leguminosse,  EuphorbiaceasOS'^wm),  Melastomaceaj,  Boraginaceae 
(Cordia),  and  Rubiaceas  (Duroia). 

Fossil  Fruits  from  the  Tertiary  Lignites.§ — G-.  H.  Perkins 
describes  the  results  of  his  study  of  a  large  collection  of  fossil  fruits 

*  Arch.  Ne'erland  ScL,  Ex.  and  Nat.,  ser.  2,  x.  (1905)  pp.  8-61. 
t  Bull.  CI.  Sci.  Acad.  Roy.  Belg.,  1904,  pp.  1211-61. 
t  Flora,  xciv.  (1905)  pp.  491-7. 

§  Rep.  State  Geologist  Vermont.  1004,  pp.  174-212  (7  pis.).    See  also  Bot.  Gazetto, 
xxxix.  (1905)  p.  371.; 


454  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

from  the  lignites  of  Brandon,  Vermont,  U.S.A.  One  hundred  and 
eighteen  species  are  recorded,  and  many  new  forms  of  more  or  less 
doubtful,  affinities  are  described,  including  several  new  genera,  such  as 
MonocarpeUites  (11  species),  Hicoroides  (5  species),  Bkarpellites  (5  species), 
Brandonia,  Rubioides,  Sapindokles  (6  species)  and  Prunoides. 

Explorations  in  Georgia.* — Poland  Harper  gives  an  account  of 
his  botanical  work  in  the  coast  plain  of  Georgia  in  1903.  He  studied 
especially  the  Altamaha  Grit,  one  of  the  most  botanically  interesting  and 
extensive  geological  formations  in  the  State,  covering  an  area  of  at  least 
11,000  square  miles.  It  is  a  gently  rolling  region,  nine-tenths  of  which 
in  its  natural  condition  is  pine-barrens,  and  the  remainder  mostly  swamps, 
which  border  the  numerous  streams  and  sand-hills  which  occur  along 
most  of  the  creeks  and  rivers.  The  author  gives  notes  on  the  more 
interesting  plants,  including  a  bibliographical  account  of  Carina  flaccida, 
a  species  confined  to  the  south-eastern  United  States,  about  which  there 
has  been  some  confusion,  both  as  to  name  and  geographical  distribution. 

CBYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 

(By  A.  Gepp,  M.A.,  F.L.S.) 

Index  Filicum.t — C.  Christensen  publishes  the  first  fascicle  of  an 
index  to  all  the  genera  and  species  of  ferns  and  fern-allies  described 
between  1753  and  l'J05,  with  their  synonyms  and  geographical  dis- 
tribution. The  manuscript  is  all  ready  for  printing,  and  will  make  a 
book  of  about  750  pages,  in  11  or  12  parts,  issued  in  quick  succession. 
The  author  has  been  engaged  upon  the  preparation  of  the  Index  for 
many  years,  and  has  taken  every  precaution  to  ensure  the  accuracy  of 
his  citations  and  dates.  The  work  is  divided  into  three  sections  :  I.  a 
systematic  enumeration  of  the  genera  based  on  the  arrangement 
elaborated  in  Engler  and  Prantl's  "  Die  Natiirlichen  Pflanzenfamilien." 
II.  An  alphabetical  enumeration  of  the  species  and  synonyms  published 
between  1753  and  1005,  including  garden  names.  III.  An  alphabetical 
catalogue  of  literature,  wherein  new  genera  and  species  are  described  or 
examined. 

Affinities  of  Ophioglossacese  and  MarsiliacesB.I — D.  H.  Campbell 
discusses  in  detail  F.  O.  Bower's  view  that  the  whole  spike  of  Ophio- 
fflossum.  is  the  equivalent  of  a  single  sporangium  of  Lycopodium,  and 
that  all  the  pteridophytes  are  reducible  to  a  common  strobiloid  type,  as 
seen  in  the  Lycopods  or  Equisetaceae.  Campbell,  on  the  contrary,  holds 
to  his  own  published  view  that  the  direct  origin  of  the  Ophioglossacese 
was  from  an  Anthoceros-like  prototype,  the  hypothetical  ancestral  form 
being  almost  realised  in  Ophioglossum  simplex,  with  its  long  stalked 
sporangiophore,  and  scarcely  traceable  sterile  segment.  Further,  he 
traces  in  detail  the  close  relationship  between  the  Ophioglossacese  and 

*  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  141-71  (5  figs.). 
t  Copenhagen  :  Hagerup,  1905,  Fasc.  i.,  pp.  1-64. 
%  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  761-75. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  455 

• 

Marattiaceae,  and  holds  that  the  former  should  be  associated  with  the 
latter  among  the  eusporangiate  ferns.  As  to  the  Marsiliacege,  he  thinks 
that  recent  work  justifies  the  assumption  that  their  relationship  with 
the  Schizaeacese  is  not  very  remote,  the  resemblance  between  the  sporo- 
carp  of  Marsilia  and  the  fertile  leaf-segment  of  Schizcm  being  specially 
marked. 

Asplenium  Seelosii  Leybold.* — M.  Calegari  has  found  this  rare  fern 
near  the  village  of  Rasa,  on  the  mountain  called  "  Campo  dei  Fiori,"  a 
hill  to  the  north  of  Yarese,  in  Lombardy.  It  occurred  at  a  height  of 
850  m.,  considerably  lower,  therefore,  than  the  lowest  limit  given  by 
Hartinger  and  Dalla  Torre  (1300-2000  m.).  The  author  believes  that 
the  record  of  this  species  from  Istria,  found  in  certain  books,  is  erroneous ; 
and  he  points  out  that  in  Arcangeli's  "  Compendio,"  the  name  of 
Salorno,  a  locality  for  A.  Seelosii  between  Trento  and  Balzano,  has,  by 
a  printer's  error,  been  changed  to  Salerno. 

Anonysioos — Notes  on  Fern  Culture.  Bull.  Dept.  Agric.  Jamaica, 

iii.  (1905)  pp.  71-2. 

Arber,   E.   A.   N. — A  new  feature   in  the  Morphology  of   the  Fern-like   Fossil 

Glossopteris.  Rep.  Brit.  Ass.  Adv.  Sci.  1904 

(1905)  p.  781. 

,,  „  On  the  Sporangium-like   Organs  of  Glossopteris    Browniana 

Brongn. 

[Morphology  of  these  organs,  evidence  of  their  connec- 
tion with  this  genus,  and  historical  sketch.] 

Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  lxi.  (1905) 
pp.  324-38  (2  pis.). 

Barsanti,  L. — Secondo  contributo  alio  studio  della  flora  fossile  di  Jano.     (Second 
contribution  to  the  study  of  the  fossil  flora  of  Jano.] 

Atti  Soc.  Tosc.  Sc.  Nat,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  115-31  (fig.). 

Boodle.  L.  A. — On  Reduction  of  the  Gametophyte  in  Todea. 

Rep.  Brit.  Ass.  Adv.  Sci.  1904  (1905)  p.  781. 

Bibtrasd,  C.  E.,  &   F.  Cornaille— Observations  on  Structure  of  the   Leaf- 
trace  of  Inversicatenate  Filicinae.  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  778-80. 

Christ,  H. — Quelques  remarques  concernant  une  collection  de  Fougeres  duBhotan. 
(Some  remarks  concerning  it  collection  of  ferns  from  Bhotan.) 

Ann.  Conserv.  el  Jard.  Bot.  Geneve,  1904,  pp.  330-2. 

Clete.  W.  N. — The  Bound-leaved  Maiden-hair  (Adiantum  reniforme). 

Fern  Bulletin,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  49-50  (1  pi.). 

.,        „         What  constitutes  a  species  in  the  genus  Isoetes  1 

[A  discussion  of  the  value  of  characters,  drawn  from  habitat, 
trunk,  stomata,  leaves,  indusium,  sporangia,  bast-bundles, 
spores,  and  soil.  Spore-markings  appear  to  be  the  least 
variable  character  for  the  North  American  species.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  41-7. 
T)  a  v  en  fort,  G.  E. — A  new  type  of  Aneimia. 

[Description  of  A.  Brandegeea  Davenport,  a  new  species  from  Mexico,  re- 
markable for  the  conversion  of  its  lower  pinnae  into  sporophylls,  and 
thereby  constituting  a  new  section  of  the  ^renus.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  18-21  (1  pi.). 
Eaton,  A.  A. — Notes  on  Isoetes. 

[Description  of  a  new  species  and  two  new  varieties.]  Tom.  cit..  pp.  51-3. 


*   Malpighia,  xix.  (1905)  p.  121. 


456  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

Eggleston,  W.  W. — The  Fern  Flora  of  Vermont. 

[List  of  82  specie*  and  varieties  of  ferns  and  fern-allies,  with  notes  on  their 
distribution.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  33-41. 

Flett,  J.  1!.— Observations  on  Lycopodium  Selago-lucidulum. 

[L.  Selago  ;it  a  high  altitude  grades  imperceptibly  into  the  large  forest  form, 
L.  lucidulum,  in  North  America.]  Tom.  cit.,  p.  48. 

Ford,  S.  O. — The  Anatomy  of  Psilotum  triquetrum. 

Rep.  Brit.  Ass.  Adv.  Sci.  1904  (1905)  p.  780. 

G  rand'Eury — Sur  les  graines  trouvees  attachees  au  Pecopteris  Pluckeneti  Schlot. 

(On  the  grains  found  attached  to  Pecopteris  Pluckeneti  Schlot.) 

Compt.  Rend.  Acad.  Sci.  Paris,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  920-3. 

Gx  1'FKOY.  Cn. — Les  Aspidium  aculeatum  et  A.  Lonchitis,  constituent-ils  deux 
especes  distinctes?  (Do  A.  aculeatum  and  A.  Lonchitis  constitute  two  distinct 
species?)  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  lii.  (1905)  pp.  77-84  (1  pi.). 

Hamilton,  A. — On  abnormal  developments  in  New  Zealand  Ferns. 

Trans.  Proc.  New  Zealand  Inst.,  xxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  334-72. 

Harper,  E.  M. — The  Fern  Flora  of  Georgia. 

[An  annotated  list  of  58  Pteridophytes,  with  an  account  of  the  geological  and 
botanical  features  of  the  State  ot  Georgia.] 

Fern  Bulletin,  xiii.  (1905)  p.  1-17. 

Hieronymus,  G. — Aspleniorum  species  novae  et  non  satis  notae.  Beschreibungen 
von  neuen  Arten  und  Bemerkungen  zu  alteren  Arten  der  Gattung  Asplenium. 
(New  and  insufficiently-known  species  of  Asplenium.  Descriptions  of  new  species 
and  remarks  on  old  species  of  the  genus  Asplenium.) 

[A.  galipanense  is  split  off  from  true  A.  Karstenianum.  Both  are  described  in 
great  detail.]  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  193-8  (1  pi.). 

Hill,  E.  J. — Equisetum  scirpoides  in  Illinois. 
[Note  on  the  distribution  of  the  species.] 

Fern  Btdletin,  xiii.  (1905)  p.  21-3. 

Hill,  T.  G. — On  the  presence  of  Parichnos  in  Recent  Plants. 

[Comparison  of  certain  mucilage-cavities  in  Isoetes  hystrix  with  the  parichnos 
of  Lepidodendron,  etc.  Rep.  Brit.  Ass.  Adv.  Sci.  1904 

(1905)  p.  780. 

Kidstox,  R. — On  the  Divisions  and  Correlation  of  the  Upper  Portion  of  the  Coal- 
Measures,  with  special  reference  to  their  Development  in  the  Midland  Counties  of 
England. 

[Contains  several  lists  of  fossil  ferns,  utilised  for  the  classification  of  the 
different  strata.]  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  lxi.  (1905)  pp.  308-23. 

Kligh,  A.  B. — The  Flora  of  the  Puslinch  Lake  District. 

Guelph  Herald,  No.  18  (1904) ;  Fern  Bulletin,  xiii. 

(1905)  p.  27. 

Kohne,  W. — Sigillarienstamme,  unterscheidungsmerkmale,  Arten.  geologische 
Verbreitung.  (Distinguishing  characteristics,  species,  and  geographical  distribu- 
tion of  the  stems  of  Sigillaria.)  Dissert.  (Erlangen,  1904)  72  pp. 

Kummerle,  J.  B. — Der  vierblattrige  Kleefarn  in  der  Flora  von  Budapest.  {Mar- 
silia  quadrifolia  in  the  flora  of  Budapest.) 

[Specimens  of  this  plant  exist  in  the  Hungarian  National  Museum.  It  was 
gathered  formerly  in  the  Riikos  brook,  but  cannot  now  be  found.] 

Magyar  Bot.  Lapok,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  322-9. 

Maxon,  W.  R. — A  New  Botrychium  from  Jamaica. 

[The  description  of  a  new  species,  B.  Under woodianum,  belongiug  to  the 
ternatum  group  and  most  nearly  related  to  B.  Jenmani  Underw.  and  B. 
decompositum  Mart,  and  Gal.  The  type  of  the  new  species  is  preserved  in 
the  Herbarium  of  the  New  York  Botanical  Gardens.] 

Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  219-22  (1  pi.). 

Parish,  S.  B. — Ophioglossum  californicum  in  Central  California. 

Fern  Bulletin,  xiii.  (1905)  p.  4£. 

Parlin,  J.  C. — Asplenium  Trichomanes  in  Maine.  Rhodora,  vii.  (1905)  p.  13. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  457 

Peola,  P. — Sulla  Flora  carbonifera  del  Piccolo  S.  Bernardo.  (On the  carboniferous 
flora  of -the  Little  St.  Bernard.)  Mem.  Carta  Geol.  Italia,  xii.  (1904) 

24  pp.  (1  pi.). 
Prain,  D. — Flora  of  the  Sundribuns. 

[Contains  some  Pteridophyta.]  Rec.  Bot.  Surv.  India,  ii.  (1903)pp.  3G1-5. 

Rippa.  G.— La  Peteridofite  raccolte  da  G.Zenker  al  Congo.  (The  Pteridophyta 
collected  by  G.  Zenker  on  the  Congo.)  Bull.  Ort.  Bot.  Napoli,  ii.  (1904) 

pp. 109-14. 
Robinson,  B.  L. — A  Connecticut  Station  for  Lycopodium  Selago. 

Shodora,  vii.  (1905)  p.  20. 

Rota-Rossi,  G. — Alcune  considerazioni  sulla  ontogenia  delle  cormofite  vascolari. 
(Some  views  on  the  ontogeny  of  the  vascular  cormophytes.) 

Atti  1st.  Bot.  Pavia.  x.  (1904)  4  pp.,  1  pi. 

Rudolph,  K. — Psaronien  und  Marattiaceen.  Vergleichend  anatomische  Unter- 
suchungen.  (Psaronite  and  Marattiacese.  Researches  into  their  comparative 
anatomy.)  K.  Akad.  Wis*.  Wien  Sitz.  Anz.  Math.  Nat.,  Feb.  10,  1905. 

Schaffner,  J.  H.— Lycopodium  porophilum  in  Ohio. 

Ohio  Naturalist,  v.  (1905)  p.  301. 

„  „  The  Life-Cycle  of  a  Heterosporous  Pteridophyte. 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  255-60  (fig.). 

Scott,  D.  H. — A  New  Type  of  Sphenophyllaceous  Cone  from  the  Lower  Coal  Mea- 
sures. 

[Sphenophyllum  fertile,  from  Shore  Littleborough,  in  Lanca- 
shire.] Hep.  Brit.  Ass.  Adv.  Sri.  1904  (1905) 

pp.  777-8. 

„        „  On  the  structure  and  affinities  of  fossil  plants  from  the  Palaeozoic 

rocks.     V.  On  a  new  type  of  Sphenophyllaceous  cone  (Spheno- 
phyllum  fertile)  from  the  Lower  Coal  Measures. 

Proc.  R.  Soc.  London,  lxxiv.  (19D4)  pp.  314-15 ; 
Ann.  of  Bot.,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  168-9. 

„        „  What  were  the  Carboniferous  Ferns  ? 

Journ.  R.  Micr.  Soc,  1905,  pp.  137-49  (3  pis.). 

Scott,  J.  G. — History  of  Asplenium  ebenoides  [in  North  America]. 

Germantown  Independent  Gazette,  Jan.  13,  1905  (fig.). 

St o ring,  J. — Een  vreemde  Varen:  Platycerium  alcicorne. 

[An  exotic  fern.]  '  Be  Natuur,  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  365-6. 

Ta  ylor,  A.  P. — How  and  where  Ferns  grow  in  South-West  Georgia. 

[Field  notes.]  Fern  Bulletin,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  53-60. 

Terry,  E.  H. — Dicksonia  pilosiuscula  forma  schizophylla  in  Vermont. 

Rhodora.  vii.  (M05)  p.  99. 

Van  Hook,  M.  L. — Illinois  Ferns  near  Lake  Michigan. 

[Field  notes.]  Fern  Bulletin,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  23-5. 

\Y acker,  A.  H. — Ecological  Notes  on  Ohio  Pteridophytes. 

Ohio  Naturalist,  v.  (1905)  pp.  295-7. 

Weiss,  F.  E.— The  Vascular  Supply  of  Stigmarian  rootlets. 

Ann.  of  Bot.,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  180-1  (fig.). 

White,  D. — The  seeds  of  Aneimites. 

[The  author  describes  and  figures  the  seeds  of  the  fossil  Adiantites, 
which  plant  he  removes  in  consequence  to  Aneimites  Dawson.  The 
fruits,  which  are  true  seeds,  are  named  Wardia  fertilis,  and  are 
borne  singly,  or  rarely  plural ly.  at  the  apices  of  lax.  flexuose, 
ramose,  and  slightly  dilated  terminal  extensions  of  the  peripheral 
pinnae.  The  group  of  hitherto  supposed  ferns  to  which  these  seeds 
belong  is  now  to  be  referred  to  the  Pteridosperinae  of  Oliver  and 
Scott,  the  "  Cycadofilices  "  of  Potonie'.] 

Smithson.  MUcell.  Coll.,  ii.  'J 905)  pp.  322-3 1  (2  pis.). 


458  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

"White,  D. — Fossil  plants  of  the  group  Cycadofilices. 

[Descriptions  are  given  of  ten  types  generally  regarded  as  ('ycadofilic. 
after  which  the  author  treats  of  certain  types  which  are  also 
probably  Cycadofilic.  Finally,  he  discusses  shortly  the  origin  of 
the  group.]  Tom.  tit.,  pp.  377-90  (3  pis.). 

Yabe.  Y. — Trichomanes  Formosense  et  Loochooense. 

[A  list  of  15  species  of  Trichomanes  collected  by  K.  Miyake  in  Formosa  and 
the  Liukiu  Islands,  with  descriptions  of  three  new  species — T.  formosanum. 
T.  Miyakei,  and  T.  liukiuense.~\  Tokyo  Bot.  Mag.,  xix.  (1905) 

pp.  31-5  (1  fig.). 

Zeiller,  K.— Sur  la  decouverte  de  stations  nouvelles  des  Trichomanes  radicans 

dans  les  Basses-Pyrenees.     (On  the  discovery  of  new  localities  for  T.  radicans  in 

the  Lower  Pyrenees.)  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  Hi.  (1905)  pp.  (35-7. 

Bryophyta. 

(By  A.  Gepp.) 

Researches  on  some  Liverworts.*  —  E.  Lampa  publishes  further 
results  of  her  studies  on  the  Hepaticae.  She  finds  that  the  stem  of  a 
hepatic,  whether  thalloid  or  leafy,  arises  by  division  of  a  cell  of  the 
germinating  filament,  generally  the  apical  cell,  into  three  segments — not 
into  four  as  is  generally  believed.  The  division  takes  place  by  the 
formation  of  two  more  or  less  vertical  walls  in  the  apical  cell,  dividing 
it  into  three  ;  and  from  the  third  segment  a  typical  growing  point  is 
formed  by  a  further  division  into  two.  The  author  has  never  seen  any 
instance  of  the  quadrant-division  described  in  literature.  She  has  grown 
many  cultures  from  spores,  both  under  a  top  light  and  a  side  light,  and 
she  describes  her  results.  She  finds  that  the  formation  of  germinating 
threads  from  the  plant  under  unfavourable  conditions  of  light  is  by  no 
means  confined  to  quite  young  stages  of  the  plant,  for  she  has  observed 
such  threads  arising  from  large  plants  of  Hepatics,  as  well  as  from  fairly 
large  fern-prothallia.  The  germinating  filaments  of  Hepatic^  are  com- 
pared with  the  protonema  of  mosses.  The  development  of  the  following 
species  from  the  spore  is  dealt  with  in  detail  : — Duvalia  rupestris,  Riceia 
glanca,  Pellia  endivkefolia,  Blyttia  Lyellii,  Lophocolea  het&rophylia.  The 
author  has  also  studied  the  question  of  the  position  of  the  sexual  genera- 
tion of  Hepaticas,  and  compares  the  youngest  stage  of  the  gametophyte 
of  certain  acrogynous  Jungermanniacese  with  a  similar  stage  in  Mosses. 
She  passes  on  to  the  thalloid  and  other  Hepatics,  and  discusses  the  early 
stages  of  their  development,  the  three-sided  segmentation  and  the  reduced 
foliar  organs  tristichously  arranged,  which  are  found  in  the  early  stage 
of  Marchantia  and  other  thalloid  genera,  but  disappear  subsequently. 
This  tristichous  development  characterises  the  early  stages  of  all  Hepatics, 
though  it  disappears  later  in  the  thalloid  forms.  Fern-prothallia  show 
signs  of  division  into  stem  and  leaf,  the  explanation  of  which  is  forth- 
coming from  a  study  of  the  ontogenesis  of  Marchantiaceae. 

Moss-Sporogonium  Compared  with  Fern  -  Plant.f  —  Leclerc  du 
Sablon  publishes  an  account  of  some  researches  on  the  development  of 
the  sporogonium  of  Mosses  in  continuation  of  Kienitz-Gerloff's  work, 
and  with  a  view  to  confirming  Vuillemin's  comparison  of  the  moss- 

*  SB.  K.  Akad.  Wiss.  Math.  Nat.  Wien,  cxii.  (1903)  pp.  779-92  (4  pis.). 
t  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xvii.  (1905)  pp.  193-7  (figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  459 

sporogonium  with  the  stem  of  Ferns.  In  particular  he  has  studied  the 
succession  of  segments  cut  off  from  the  apical  cell  and  their  subsequent 
•divisions  ;  and"  also  the  formation  of  the  sheath  of  parenchymatous 
tissue  which  surrounds  the  spores  in  the  adult  capsule.  The  material 
studied  was  Funaria  hygrometrica  and  Bryum  nutans.  He  shows  in 
■detail  and  with  figures  how  the  amphithecium  and  endothecium  arise  ; 
and  how  in  the  former  the  subsequent  differentiation  is  centrifugal,  the 
outermost  layer  corresponding  to  epidermis  being  the  last  to  be  differ- 
entiated ;  and  the  innermost  and  oldest  layer  corresponds  to  the  endo- 
dermis.  The  differentiation  of  the  endothecium,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
centripetal,  its  outermost  and  oldest  layer  being  the  sporiferous  layer. 
The  endodermis  layer  subsequently  divides  centripetally  into  three,  and 
forms  the  outer  spore-sac  ;  and  the  layer  outside  it  splits  and  forms  air- 
spaces. The  endodermis  of  fern-stems  is  comparable  in  that  it  retains  a 
generative  activity,  employed  in  the  formation  of  lateral  roots,  and  in 
the  stolons  of  Nephrolepis  it  splits  into  two  or  three  layers.  The  epi- 
dermal layer  in  both  the  moss-sporogonium  and  the  fern-stem  is  so 
slowly  differentiated  off  that  it  is  not  comparable  to  the  epidermis  of 
Phanerogams. 

Nematode  Galls  in  Mosses.* — V.  Schiffner  has  already  published 
some  information  on  this  subject,  and  in  the  present  paper  he  adds  the 
result  of  further  study.  Professor  Matouschek  had  found  Nematode 
galls  only  on  pleurocarpous  mosses ;  those,  excepting  Pterigg  nan  drum 
Jiliforme,  were  all  hygrophilous  species.  The  present  author  finds  similar 
galls  formed  plentifully  on  Dicranum  longifolium,  D.  montanum,  D.  sco- 
parium,  D.  majus,  and  Hypnum  cupressiforme.  He  is  of  opinion  that 
the  Nematode  in  question  is  Tylenchus  Davainii  Bast.,  or  a  nearly  allied 
new  species  ;  and  he  is  sure  that  the  animal  is  not  by  any  means  par- 
ticular as  to  the  species  of  moss  it  attacks,  but  is  passed  on  to  any  moss 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  He  also  shows  that  the  galls  are  not 
formed  on  the  fertile  shoots,  as  has  been  supposed,  since  in  Hypnum 
cupressiforme  they  occur  even  on  the  apex  of  the  main  stem.  He 
describes  the  galls  themselves  and  their  effect  on  the  growth  of  the 
affected  moss-plant. 

New  and  Rare  Scottish  Mosses.f  —  J.  Stirton  publishes  detailed 
descriptions  of  the  following  six  new  or  little  known  British  mosses 
gathered  by  himself  at  various  times  in  Scotland : — Plagiothecium 
Kinlayanum,  Gampylopus  pergrarilis,  Ceratodon  vialis,  Baroida  limosa, 
Ulota  scotica,  Isothecium  per  simile  ;  and  adds  brief  notes  on  14  other 
rare  species  collected  in  the  Island  of  Skye. 

Scottish  Hepaticse.J — S.  M.  Macvicar  publishes  numerous  additions 
to  his  census  of  Scottish  Hepaticas  of  1904.  There  are  368  entries, 
arranged  under  the  respective  counties  in  which  the  plants  were  found. 
The  largest  contribution,  45  species,  is  from  the  Clyde  Isles.  Five  are 
.additions  to  the  British  flora — Nardia  Breidleri,  Lo2)hozia  guttulata, 
Odontoschisma  Macounii,  Kantia  sphagnicola,  Scapania  paludosa  ;  and 
three  more  are  new  to  Scotland. 

*  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  218-22. 
t  Ann.  Scot.  Nat.  Hist.,  1905,  pp.  104-8.  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  108-16. 


460  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Hepaticae  from  Florida.*— A.  W.  Evans  publishes  some  notes  on 
new  or  noteworthy  Hepaticae  from  southern  Florida,  based  on  collections 
made  under  the  direction  of  the  New  York  Botanical  Garden.  The 
majority  of  specimens  were  gathered  in  the  region  south  of  Miami.  The 
author  remarks  on  the  intimate  relationship  which  exists  between  the 
hepatic  flora  of  Florida  and  that  of  the  "West  Indies,  more  than  half 
the  species  of  the  collections  under  discussion  being  common  to  both 
regions.  Three  new  species  are  described,  Plagiochila  Small Hi,  Colo- 
lejeunea  diaphana,  and  Lejeunea  floridana.  Six  others  are  here  definitely 
recorded  for  the  first  time  from  the  United  States. 

Allen,  C.  E. — Some  Hepaticae  of  the  Apostle  Islands. 

[List  of  21  species  gathered  on  these  islands  of  Lake  Superior.] 

Trans.  Wisconsin.  Acad.,  xiv.  (1904)  pp.  485-6. 

A  knell,  H.  W. — Phaenological  observations  on  Mosses. 

[The  author  shows  how  the  species  of  Polytrichum  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups,  according  to  the  time  required  for  the  development  of  their  sporo- 
gonia.  He  appeals  to  bryologists  to  collect  records  of  the  dates  when  some 
32  selected  species  bloom  and  ripen  their  spores,  and  gives  instructions  as 
to  how  these  observations  should  be  made.  The  dates  and  times  vary  with 
the  latitude  and  longitude.  The  author  gives  a  table  of  comparative 
results  for  Sweden  and  Germany,  selected  from  papers  published  by  him- 
self in  1875,  and  by  A.  Grimme  in  1903.] 

Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  41-4. 

Bauer,  E.— Bryotheca  Bohemica,  Bemerkungen zur  dritten  Centurie,  einBeitrag  zur 
Kenntnis  der  Laub-  und  Lebermoose  Bbhmens.  (Bohemian  moss-flora :  remarks 
on  Century  III.,  a  contribution  to  a  knowledge  of  the  mosses  and  liverworts  of 
Bohemia.) 

[Critical  remarks  on  and  corrections  of  the  third  fascicle  of  exsiccati,  pub- 
lished in  January  1902.]  SB.  Deutsch.  Nat. -Med.  Ver.  Bokmen, 

"  Lotos:'  Prag,  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  134-43. 

Blonski,  F  r.— Conomitrium  Julianum  (.Savi)  Montg.  ante  portas.  (Conomitrium 
julianum  at  Posen.)  Zeitschr.  Naturw.  Abt.  (Bot.)  Deutsch.  Gesell. 

Eunst.  n.  Wiss.  Posen,  xi.  (1904)  Heft  l. 
Britton,  E.  G— Bryological  notes.     II.  Some  changes  in  generic  names. 

[Nechera  domingensis  C.  M.  is  made  the  type  of  a  new  genus, 
and  named  Pseudo-Cryphxa  flagellifera ;  Nechera  abietina 
Hook,  is  made  the  type  of  the  new  genus  Dendroalsia. 
which  takes  for  its  second  species  Leptodon  circinalis 
Sull.,  and  for  its  third  species  Ahia  longipes  Sull.  and 
Lesq. ;  Macouniella  Kindb.  is  reduced,  and  its  species 
restored  to  Antitrichia.  Two  new  American  species  of 
Erpodium  are  described.] 

Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  261-S. 

„  „  Notes  on  Nomenclature.     V. 

[Gives  the  synonymy  of  Fissidens  decipiens,  and  shows  that 
F.  floridanus  is  identical,  and  must  be  suppressed.] 

Bryologist.  viii.  (1905)  p.  49. 

Cardot,  J. — Notes  on  some  North  American  Mosses.     II. 

[Grimmia  lamellosa  C.  M.  is  the  same  as  G.  subsulcata  Limpr. 
Papillaria  pendula  R.  et  C.  isjknown  from  Java  under  the 
name  Nechera  capilliramea  C.  M.,  and  from  China  and 
Japan.  Anomodon  Toccose  is  the  type  of  a  new  genus, 
Herpetineuron.  A  variety  of  the  wide-spread  Thuidium 
glaucinum.  of  the  East  Indies  is  now  recorded  from 
Louisiana.]  Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  49-51. 


*  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  179-91  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  461 

Cardot,  J. — Notice  preliminaire  sur  les  Mousses  recueillies  par  l'Expedition 
antarctique  suedoise.  Deux  genres  nouveaux  de  Mousses  aero- 
carpes.  (Preliminary  notice  on  the  mosses  gathered  by  the 
Swedish  Antarctic  Expedition.  Two  new  genera  of  Acrocarpous 
mosses.) 

[These  plants  were  collected  by  C.  Skottsbere  in  South 
Georgia.  One  is  like  Didichium,  but  has  pentastichous 
leaves :  it  is  called  Pseudodidichium  austro-georgicum. 
The  other,  Skotsbergia  paradoxa,  is  allied  to  Angstrwmia, 
but  has  an  asymmetric  capsule,  and  a  very  remarkable 
asymmetric  peristome  formed  of  two  dissimilar  halves — a 
fact  hitherto  unknown  in  the  Mosses.] 

Rev.  Bryoloy.,  xxsii.  (1905)  pp.  45-7. 

„        „       Quelques  mousses  nouvelles  pour  la  flore  Beige.    (Some  mosses  new  to 
the  Belgian  flora.)  Bull.  Soc.  Hoy.  Bot.  Belgigue,  1904, 

pt.  2  (6  pp.). 

Claassen,  E. — Key  to  the  Liverworts  recognised  in  the  sixth  edition  of  Gray's 
"  Manual  of  Botany." 

[This  key  to  the  genera  aims  at  simplifying  the  determination  of  the  kepaticse 
of  the  north-eastern  United  States  described  in  Gray's  Manual.  Other 
characters  have  been  added  to  those  of  the  perianth,  in  order  that  the 
genus  of  sterile  plants  may  be  recognised.] 

Ohio  Naturalist,  v.  (1905)  pp.  312-15. 

Cozzi,  C. — Frammento  di  briologia  milanese.     (Fragment  of  Milanese  bryology.) 

Boll.  NaL  Siena,  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  109-12. 

Douin,  I. — Hepatiques  nouvelles  pour  la  France.     (Hepatics  new  for  France.) 

[Notes  on  Scapania  calcicola  and  S.  obliqua.  their  resemblances,  differences, 
and  relations  to  other  species.]  Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  47-51. 

Eichlek,  B. — Conomitrium  Julianum  (Savi)  Mont.,  nowy  nabytek  dla  flory  krajowej 
mehow  lisciastyck.     (A  novelty  for  the  mo.-sfloraof  the  country.) 

[In  Polish.]  Wszechiswat,  1904,  No.  17,  p.  269. 

Farmar,  L. — Monoclea  Forsteri.  Knowledge  and  Sci.  News.  ii.  (1905) 

p.  78  (fig.). 

Friren,  A. — Promenades  bryologiques  en  Lorraine  III.     (Bryological  excursions 
in  Lorraine.)  Bull.  Soc.  Hist.  Nat.  Metz,  1904  25  pp. 

Geneatj  de   Lamarliere,  L. — Supplement  aux  notes  bryologiques  sur  les  en- 
virons de  Reims.     (Supplement  to  bryological  notes  on  the  environs  of  Rheims.). 

Bull.  Soc.  Etude  Sci.  Nat.  Reims,xiii.  (1904)  pp.  14-44. 

Gonse,  E. — Les  Muscinees  de  la  Somme  de  l'Herbier  Boucher  de  Crevecceur.    (The 
Muscineae  of  the  Somme  in  the  herbarium  of  Boucher  de  Crevecceur.) 

[A  list  of  85  mosses  and  14  hepatics.  being  a  revision  of  an  old  list  published 
in  1803.]  Bull.  Mem.  Soc.  Linn.  Nord  France,  xv.  (1901)  pp.  258-65. 

Grout,  A.  J. — Notes  on  Vermont  Bryophytes. 

[List  of  mosses  and  hepatics  not  previously  recorded  for  the  State.] 

Bryologid,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  51-4. 

Hag  en,  J. — Ein  Beitrag  zur  Kenntnis  der  Brya  Deutschlands.     (A  contribution  to 
a  knowledge  of  the  Brya  of  Germany. ) 

[Critical  notes  on  the  species,  of  which  four  are  new  to  science, 
and  three  new  to  Middle  Europe.] 

K.  Norske  Vidensk.  Skrifter.  Trondhjem,  1904,  No.  1. 

Musci  Norvegiae  borealis.  Bericht  iiber  die  in  ndrdlichen  Norwegen 
von  Arnell,  Fridtz.  Kaalaas  und  anderen  1886-1897.  gesammelten 
Laubmoose.  III.  (Mosses  of  Northern  Norway.  Report  on  the 
mosses  gathered  in  Northern  Norway  by  Arnell,  etc.,  in  1886-97. 
Part  III.)  Mus.  Aarsk.  Tromso,  1904,  pp.  1-24,  241-382  (2  ^ls.). 

Henry,  Rene.— Au  sujet  de  la  station  d'Epinal  du  Dilaena  hibernica  Dum.     (On 
the  question  of  the  record  of  D.  Hibernica  from  Epinal.) 

[This  hepatic  seems  to  have  been  wrongly  reported  from  Epinal.] 

Bull.  Assoc.  Vosgienne  Hist.  Nat.  No.  7  (1904)  pp.  110-112. 


462  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Herzog,  Th. — Die  Laubmoose  Badens.      Eine   bryogeographische   skizze.     (The 
Mo88-floru  of  Baden  :  a  bryogeographic  sketch.) 
[Continuation,  Eurhynchium  to  Amblyttegium.~] 

Bull.  Herb.  Botes,  v.  (1905)  pp.  465-180. 

Holzingek.  J.  M. — Musci  acrocarpi  Boreali-Americani.     (North  American  acro- 
carpous mosses.) 

[With  100  dried  specimens.] 

Winona  (1004)  Fasc.  1-4. 

„  „        Two  changes  of  name. 

[Grimmia  Fhttii  and  Bryutn  Baileyi.] 

Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  p.  54. 

Janzen,  P. — Ein  Beitrag  zur  Laubmoosflora  Badens.     (A  contribution  to  the  moss 
flora  of  Baden.)  Mitt.  Badisch.  Bot.  Ver.  (1905)  pp.  29-40. 

Lang,  W.  H— On  the  Reduction  of  the  Marchantiaceous  Type  in  Cyathodium. 

[Comparison  of  the  structure  of  C.  fcetidissimum,  C.  aureonitens,  and  C. 
cavernarum,  with  that  of  Targionia,  etc.] 

Rep.  Brit.  Ass.  Adv.  Sci.  1904  (1905)  pp.  782-3. 

Larteb,  C.  E. — North  Devon  Cryptogams. 

[Barbula  gracilis,  a  new  record  for  the  county.] 

Journ.  Bot,  xliii.  (1905)  p.  188. 

Letier,  E. — Appunti  di  briologia  Italiana.     (Contributions  to  the  Italian  moss- 
flora. 

[The  first  part  of  a  list  of  new  or  rare  mosses  annotated  and  alphabetically 
arranged.]  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.  (1905;  pp.  115-125. 

Lewis,  F.  J.  —  Interglacial  and  Postglacial  Beds  of  the  Cross  Fell  District. 
(Mention  of  a  few  mosses.)  Rep.  Brit.  Ass.  Adv.  Sci.  for  1904  (1905) 

pp.  798-9. 

Lidforss,  B. — TJeber  die  Reizbewegnngen  der  Marchantia-Spermatozoiden.  (On 
movement  of  spermatozoids  of  Marchantia  in  response  to  stimulation.) 

[An  account  of  some  experiments  with  various  solutions  of  albumens,  globu- 
lins, nucleo-albumens,  proteids  and  ferments,  to  determine  the  attraction 
they  exert  upon  the  spermatozoids  of  Marchantia.'] 

Jahrb.  wiss.  Bot.,  xli.  (1904),  pp.  65-87. 

Luisier,  A. — Revista  de  Bryologia  1903.     (Review  of  Bryology  for  1903.) 

Broteria,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  254-63. 

Magnin,  A. — Bryologie  jurassienne.  Recherches  a  faire  sur  les  Mousses,  les 
Sphaignes,  et  les  Hepatiques  du  Jura.  (Bryology  of  the  Jura. 
Researches  to  be  made  on  the  mosses,  sphagna,  and  hepatics  of 
the  Jura.)  Arch.  Flor.  Jurats.,  vi.  (1905)  pp.  81-7. 

,,  „      Additions  aux  recherches  a  faire  sur  les  Mousses  du  Jura.     (Ad- 

ditional researches  to  be  made  on  the  mosses  of  the  Jura.) 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  92-3. 

Matodschek,  F. — Additamenta  ad  Floram  bryologicam  Hungariae.  III.  Deter- 
minationes  muscorum  a  Dre.  A.  de  Degen  a.  1902  in  Carpathis  alibique  lectorum. 
(Additions  to  the  moss-flora  of  Hungary.  III.  Determinations  of  mosses 
gathered  by  Dr.  A.  de  Degen  in  the  Carpathians  and  elsewhere.) 

[Records  arranged  geographically  ;  also  a  note  on  the  gemmiferous  thread*  of 
Bryum  capillare.']  Magyar  Bot.  Lapok.,  iv.  (1905)  pp.  78-82  (fig.). 

Matnard,  C.  J.— Methods  in  Moss  Study.  Boston  (1905)  120  pp.  (col.  pis.). 

Miyake,  K. — On  the  Centrosome  of  the  Hepaticae. 

[It  is  nothing  but  a  centre  of  cytoplasmic  radiation.] 

Rep.  Brit.  Ass.  Adv.  Set.  1904  (1905)  p.  820. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  463 

Nave,  J.— Collector's  Handbook  of  Algae,  Desmids,  Fungi,  Lichens,  Mosses,  etc. 
[Instructions  for  their  preparation  and  for  formation  of  herbarium.  ] 

London  (1905)  214  pp.  (figs.). 

Xkmbc,  B. — Die  Induktion  der  Dorsiventralitat  bei  einigen  Moosen.     (Induction 
of  dorsiventrality  in  some  mosses.) 

[Observations  on  Fi^idens  decipiens,  Hypnnm  cnpressiforme,  H.  cristaca- 
streme,  Hylocomium  *plenden$.] 

Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Set.  Prague,  ix.  (1904)  pp.  126-30. 

Nicholson,  W.  E. — Cephaloziella  Limprichtii  Warnst.  in  Britain. 

[Description  of  this  plant,  which  was  collected  near  Lewes  in  Sussex,  and 
previously  had  been  found  at  one  place  only,  near  Neuruppin  in  Branden- 
burg.    It  is  paroicous  and  has  entire  bracts.] 

Journ.  Bot.,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  186-7. 

Paris,  E.  G. — Index  Bryologicus. 

[Index  to  the  genera,  species,  and  varieties  of  the  mosses  of  the 
world]  Paris,  1905,  ed.  II.  vol.  iii.  fasc.  1,  2,  pp.  1-136. 

„  „        Muscinees  de  Madagascar.     (Muscinese  of  Madagascar.) 

[A  list  of  11  mosses,  3  hepatics,  and  7  lichens  from  Ambosika  in 
eastern  Madagascar.     One  new  moss  is  described.] 

Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  51-3. 

Pall,  H. — Beitrag  zur  Moosflora  Oberbayerns.    (Contribution  to  the  moss-flora  of 
Upper  Bavaria.) 

Mitt.  Bay.  Bot.  Ges.  Er/orsch.  heim.  Flora,  1905,  pp.  447-8. 

.,  „  TJeber  den  gegenwartigen  Stand  der  Torfmoosforschung  in  Oberbayern. 
(On  the  present  condition  of  the  investigation  of  the  Sphagna  in 
Upper  Bavaria.) 

Ber.  Bay.  Bot.  Gee.  Erf.  heim.  Flora,  x.  (1905)  pp.  1-12. 

Petkrfi,  M. — Die  Torfnioose  TJngarns.     (The  Sphagna  of  Hungary.) 
[Monograph  of  30  species.] 

Nbve'nytani  Kozlemenyek.  iii.  (1904)  pp.  137-69. 

„  „      Einige  Beitrage  zur  Moosflora  des  Kaukasus.    (Some  contributions 

to  the  moss-flora  of  the  Caucasus.) 

Ann.  Hist.  Nat.  Mus.  Nation.  Hungaricit 
ii.  (1904)  pp.  396-400. 

Sebille,  R. — Tine  hypnee  nouvelle  pour  les  Alpes  francaises.  Amblystegium 
curvicaule.     (A  Hypnaceous  moss  which  is  new  for  the  French  Alps.) 

[Critical  notes  and  figures  of  this  high  Alpine  moss  discovered  last  summer 
in  Dauphine'.     It  is  very  closely  related  to  A.  filicinum.] 

Rev.  Bryolog.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  41-4  (I  pi.). 

Step hani,  F. — Hepatioae  amazonicae  ab  Ernesto  Ule  collectae.  (Hepatics  of  the 
Amazon  river  collected  by  E.  Ule.) 

[A  list  of  54  species  from  Brazil ;  9  of  them  are  described  for  the  first  time.] 

Bedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  223-9. 

Tore  a,  V. — Wahrend  des  Ausflugs  am  Aug.  14,  1904,  bei  Krammfliess  und  Promno 
in  der  Nahe  von  Pudewitz  beobachtete  Moose  und  Algen.  (Mosses  and  Algae 
observed  during  the  excursion  of  Aug.  14,  1904,  to  Krammfliess  and  Promno  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Pudewitz.) 

Zeitschr.  Naturw.  Abt.  Deutsch.  Ges.  Kunst  u.  Wiss.  Posen., 

xi.  (1904). 

Towle,  P.  M. — Notes  on  the  Fruiting  Season  of  Catharinea. 
[Observations  extending  from  March  to  December.] 

Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  44-5. 

Warnstorf,  C. — Kryptogamenflora  der  Mark  Brandenburg.  Band  ii.,  Heft  3. 
Lanbmoose.  (Cryptogainic  flora  of  Mark  Brandenburg.  Vol.  ii..  Part  3. 
Mosses.) 

[Continuation  :  Pohlia — Pterigynandrum.~\ 

Leipzig:  Borntraeger.  1905,  pp.  433-672  (pis.). 


464  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Waiinstobp,  K. — Neue  europaische  und  exotische  Moose.     (New  European  and 
exotic  mosses.) 

[Detailed  descriptions  of  17  species.] 

Beih.  Botan.  Centralbl,  xvi.  (1904)  pp.  237-52. 
Wheldon,  J.  A. — Bryum  neodamense. 

[One  station  for  this  species  on  the  South  Lancashire  coast  lias  been  destroyed. 
At  another  station,  near  Formby,  fruiting  specimens  were  found,  a  pheno- 
menon not  recorded  in  Britain  for  30  years  past. 

Journ.  Bot,  xliii.  1905  (p.  188). 

Thallophyta. 
Alg-se. 
(By  Mrs.  E.  S.  Gepp.) 

Marine  Algae  of  Barbadoes.* — A.  Vickers  has  spent  two  winters  in 
Barbadoes  collecting  marine  algae,  and  publishes  the  results.  She  records 
215  species,  of  which  56  were  Chlorophyceas  and  Cyanophyceae,  34 
Phasophyceas,  and  125  Florideae.  Among  these  she  describes  16  new 
species,  and  includes  14  species  already  known  to  science  but  never 
hitherto  recorded  from  the  Antilles  ;  thus  adding  30  species  to  the  flora 
of  that  region.  Descriptions  are  given  of  the  various  places  on  the  coast 
where  the  best  collections  were  made,  and  the  principal  species  growing 
.at  each  of  them  are  mentioned.  Dredging  and  diving  were  employed  as 
methods  of  collection,  as  well  as  shore  collecting. 

Parasitic  Florideae  of  California.! — W.  A.  Setchell  gives  a  short 
and  interesting  summary  of  the  parasitic  Florideae  recorded  from  Cali- 
fornia since  the  publication  of  C.  N.  Nott's  paper  in  1897.  A  species  of 
HarveyeUa,  apparently  H.  mirabilis  Schmitz,  grows  on  Gracilaria  multi- 
partita, an  Actinococcus,  nearly  related  to  A.  latior  Schmitz,  occurs  on 
Gymnoyonyrus  linearis  J.  Ag.,  and  a  small  parasite,  possibly  the  type  of 
a  new  genus,  has  been  found  by  the  author  on  Mychodea  episcopalis. 
Ceramium  codicola  J.  Ag.  grows  on  C odium  mucronatumvar.  californicum. 
The  author  shows  also  that  Erythrocystis  Grevillei  J.  Ag.  is  nothing 
more  than  Ricardia  Montaynei  var.  yigantea  Farlow  ;  and  Chrysymenia 
dolichopoda  J.  Ag.  is  C.  pseudodichotoma  Farlow.  Finally  a  diagnosis  is 
given  of  Peyssomieliopsis,  a  new  genus  of  Squamariaceae,  differing  only 
from  Cruoria  in  its  parasitic  habit  and  consequent  possession  of 
rhizoidal  filaments  penetrating  the  host  plant.  The  single  species 
P.  epiphytica  Setchell  and  Lawson  is  parasitic  on  fronds  of  Colly - 
menia  sp.  and  was  distributed  as  No.  1049  of  the  Phycotheca  Boreali- 
Americana. 

Leptosarca.J — A.  and  E.  S.  Gepp  give  further  details  as  to  the 
structure  of  this  new  Antarctic  alga,  which  was  too  diagrammatically 
figured  in  tab.  470  of  "  Journal  of  Botany."  They  specify  the  points  in 
which  the  figures  are  at  fault,  and  recapitulate  the  most  striking  features 
of  the  plant,  viz.  the  extremely  thin  walls  of  the  large  interior  cells  and 
the  monostromatic  arrangement  of  the  cortical  layer  ;  and  they  give  cell 
measurements. 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  Ixxxi.  (1905)  pp.  45-66. 
t  Nuov.  Notar.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  59-63. 
t  Journ.  Bot.,  xliii.  (1905)  p.  162. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  4G5 

New  Chlorophyceae.* — M.  A.  Howe  issues  the  first  of  his  phycologicat 
studies  and  describes  in  it  three  novelties  :  Halimeda  scabra,  Siphono- 
cladus  rigidus,  and  Petrosiphon  adherens — the  latter  representing  a  new 
genus.  Halimeda  scabra  differs  from  all  the  known  species  of  the  genus 
by  having  always  strongly  galeate-cuspidate  peripheral  utricles,  and  these 
spines  are  so  large  that  they  can  be  seen  under  a  lens.  The  author  finds 
the  plant  in  various  exsiccata  under  the  name  of  H.  Tuna,  which  it 
resembles  in  outward  form.  The  fruit  is  described  and  figured.  A 
septum  usually  cuts  off  the  contents  of  the  sporangium  from  the 
sporangiophore,  recalling  Codium.  Siphonocladus  rigidus  has  been  found 
distributed  under  the  name  of  S.  tropicus,  and  is  also  closely  related  to 
8.  brachyartrus  Svedelius.  Petrosiphon  is  a  genus  of  Valoniaceae,  and  is 
allied  to  Siphonocladus,  but  differs  from  it  by  having  a  flat,  compact, 
crustaceous,  more  or  less  calcareous  thallus.  The  last  two  species 
described  are  infested  by  a  fungus,  which  appears  to  be  parasitic. 

Siphonocladus.j — F.  Borgesen  publishes  some  contributions  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  genus  Siphonocladus.  He  holds  that  the  genus  should 
be  divided,  and  he  forms  from  it  a  new  genus  Cladophoropsis.  This  is 
to  include  S.  membranaceus,  S.  fasciculatus,  S.  brachyartrus,  S.  voluticola, 
S.  Zollingeri,  S.  modonensis,  S.  psyttaliensis,  and  possibly  some  other 
species.  The  original  genus,  Siphonocladus,  includes  only  S.  pusillus 
and  S.  tropicus.  (It  may  be  added  as  a  parenthesis  that  the  plant 
published  as  No.  1081  in  Phycotheca  Boreali-Americana  under  the  name 
of  S.  tropicus,  is  not  that  species  but  a  new  one,  S.  rigidus  M.  A.  Howe.) 
The  principal  characters  of  Siphonocladus  and  Cladophoropsis  are  drawn 
up  and  printed  side  by  side,  and  the  author  describes  in  detail  a  species 
of  each  genus,  S.  tropicus  and  C.  membranacea.  Figures  are  given  of 
various  points  of  structure. 

Chlorochytrium.l — F.  S.  Collins  makes  some  interesting  remarks  on 
this  genus  and  on  G.  Lemnce,  in  particular.  He  gives  the  distribution  of 
the  three  marine  species  known  in  America,  and  then  describes  the  life 
history  of  the  fresh-water  species,  G.  Lemnm,  which  he  has  found  in 
specimens  of  Lemna  trisulca  from  Seabrook,  New  Hampshire.  He 
recommends  a  search  for  Chlorochytrium  in  other  host-plants  than  those 
already  known. 

Polarity  and  Organ-Formation  in  Caulerpa  prolifera.§  —  J.  M. 
Janse  has  made  a  series  of  careful  experiments  with  a  view  to  elucidating 
these  points.  Polarity  in  the  cell  being  very  difficult  to  investigate,  he 
chose  for  experiment  the  large  unicellular  green  alga,  Caulerpa  prolifera, 
and  studied  the  streaming  currents  of  its  protoplasm  both  in  the  normal 
state  and  after  local  injuries.  There  are  two  sorts  of  current ;  one  is 
green  and  nutritive  ;  the  other  colourless  and  composed  of  meristem- 
plasm.  Both  are  basipetal,  and  not  easy  to  reverse  by  artificial  means  ; 
but  in  leaves  cut  off  and  planted  upside  down  the  green  current  was 
more  or  less  capable  of  reversal,  the  results  being  interfered  with  by  the 

*  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  241-52  (5  pla.). 

t  Overs.  Kgl.  Dansk.  Vidensk.  Selek.  Forh.,  1905,  pp.  259-91  (13  figs,  in  text). 

\  Khodora,  vii.  (1905)  pp.  97-9. 

§  Proc.  K.  Akad.  Wetensch.  Amsterdam,  vii.  (1905)  pp.  420-35. 

Aug.  16th,  1905  2   I 


466  SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

action  of  gravity.  A  local  wound  diverts  the  currents,  and  these 
endeavour  to  repair  the  injury.  By  judicious  crushing,  the  formation 
of  a  transverse  wall  can  be  induced.  Rootlets  and  rhizomes  originate  at 
points  of  junction  of  the  white  currents,  the  rootlets  arising  on  the  dark 
side,  the  rhizomes  and  leaves  in  the  light.  The  leaves  appear  to  arise 
independently  of  the  meristem-current. 

Zygospores  of  Desmids.* — J.  A.  Cushman  describes  and  figures  the 
zygospores  of  thirteen  species  and  varieties  of  New  England  desmids. 
Two  of  these  are  new  species,  Cosmarium  pseudo-orbiculatum  and 
Sphcerozosma  reading  ensis,  and  three  of  them  are  new  varieties.  The 
author  remarks  on  the  necessity  for  further  work  on  the  various  stages 
in  the  formation  of  zygospores,  and  the  possibility  that  such  a  study 
may  throw  light  on  the  validity  of  one  or  other  of  the  two  classifications, 
one  based  on  form  alone,  the  other  on  arrangement  of  cell-contents. 
The  question  also  remains  to  be  solved  whether  or  not  the  zygospores  of 
a  single  species  are  always  constant  in  their  characters. 

Diatoms  of  the  Orba.f — E.  Morteo  enumerates  a  list  of  forty-one 
diatoms  collected  in  six  samples  taken  during  December  1904  and 
January  1905,  from  the  Orba  torrent  between  Casalcermelli  and  Porta- 
nuova.  He  found  a  peculiar  form  of  Pinnularia  mesohpta,  which  he 
thinks  may  be  new.     Specimens  of  Synedra  were  specially  numerous. 

Trochiscia  moniliformis.^ — A.  M.  Edwards  has  examined  this  alga 
in  its  various  stages  of  growth,  and  finds  that  the  species  has  been 
described  and  figured  by  various  authors  under  as  many  as  twenty-nine 
different  names.  It  occurs  as  a  fossil  as  well  as  in  a  living  state,  and 
has  been  recorded  from  many  parts  of  the  world.  In  growth  it  resembles 
Hyalodlscus,  while  in  spore-formation  it  resembles  Melosira. 

Algse  of  the  Weser  Districts — J.  Suhr  begins  a  list  of  the  algae  of 
the  eastern  hill  district  of  the  Weser,  an  area  of  about  1900  square 
kilometres,  and  one  of  the  largest  stretches  of  woodland  country  in 
Germany.  The  highest  point  is  517  m.  In  the  present  paper  five  species 
of  Peridinese  are  enumerated,  and  twenty-three  Desmidiaceae,  with  the 
localities  where  each  occurs.  As  regards  systematic  method,  the  author 
follows  De  Toni  in  the  main,  and  for  Cyanophyceae,  Gomont,  Bornet, 
and  Flahault.  He  describes  his  methods  of  preparation  and  examina- 
tion of  the  samples  collected,  and  gives  a  list  of  literature. 

Fresh-water  Algae  of  East  Greenland. || — E.  Larsen  has  worked 
out  the  collections  made  by  Kruuse  and  Hartz  on  the  East  Greenland 
Expedition,  and  by  Kruuse  in  the  Angmagsalik  district.  The  author 
finds  125  Chlorophyceae,  of  which  47  species  are  new  to  Greenland,  and 
1  Phaeosporea.  The  fresh-water  algae  of  East  Greenland  number  at  the 
present  time  188,  of  which  150  are  Desmidiaceae.     Two  new  species  and 

*  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  223-29(2  pis.). 

+  Malpighia,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  117-20. 

J  Nuov.  Notar.  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  54-8. 

§  Hedwigia,  xliv  (1905)  pp.  230-40. 

||  Meddel.  GrSnland,  xxx.  (1904)  pp.  77-110  (10  figs,  in  text). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  467 

two  new  forms  are  described,  and  certain  of  the  more  interesting  species 
are  figured  in  the  text. 

Fresh-water  Algae  of  the  East  Indies.* — E.  Lemmermann  has 
examined  the  collections  of  fresh-water  algae  made  by  Dr.  Volz  at 
Sumatra,  West  Java,  the  Singapore  Botanical  Garden,  the  environs  of 
Bangkok  in  Siam,  and  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Eight  new  species  and 
varieties  are  described,  and  lists  are  given  of  the  species  found  in  the 
fifteen  samples  taken  by  Dr.  Volz.  The  flora  of  the  tropics  is  compared 
with  that  of  Europe,  and  a  list  is  given  of  the  more  widely  distributed 
forms  found  in  the  collections. 

Peroniella  gloeophila.f— J.  L.  Serbinow  has  studied  the  structure 
and  polymorphism  of  this  fresh-water  species.  He  collected  it  on  a  peat- 
bog in  Finland,  growing  in  the  transparent  sheaths  of  the  Desmid 
Hyalotheca  mucosa,  as  well  as  in  the  filaments  of  Gymnozyga  Brebissonii. 
He  finds  that  the  form  of  the  vegetative  cells  is  of  two  kinds.  On 
Hyalotheca  mucosa  it  is  provided  with  a  very  long,  filamentous,  solid 
stalk,  the  base  of  which  is  widened  out  to  form  a  disc  of  attachment. 
On  the  filaments  of  Gymnozyga,  which  has  no  mucilaginous  sheath, 
Peroniella  has  no  stalk,  or  at  the  most  a  very  short  one.  The  structure 
of  P.  gloeophila  consists  of  a  fairly  thin  cell-membrane,  with  a  nucleus 
and  lamella-like  chromatophores  with  no  pyrenoids.  The  absence  of 
pyrenoids  is,  in  the  opinion  of  the  author,  the  result  of  the  chromato- 
phores being  formed  from  several  distinct  portions  or  lainelnc.  Crystals 
of  calcium  sulphate  occur  among  the  cell-contents.  The  author  suggests 
that  species  of  Fulminaria,  described  by  Gobi,  Lagerheim,  and  Atkinson, 
are  merely  reduced  forms  closely  allied  to  Peroniella. 

Plankton  of  Lake  Laceno.J — A.  Trotter  has  made  a  study  of  the 
plankton  of  this  lake  in  the  Avellino  district,  S.S.E.  of  Bagnoli  Irpino. 
Its  area  comprises  about  three  square  kilometres,  and  the  depth  is  about 
a  metre  and  a  half,  except  in  one  part,  where  it  varies  from  4-15  m.  A 
sample  of  benthon  contained  24  species  of  diatoms,  while  the  plankton 
contained  35  species  of  Myxophyceas,  Chlorophyceas,  and  Bacillariege,  and 
2  species  of  Peridineas.  A  few  animals  were  also  taken.  Altogether 
the  author  considers  that  the  lake  is  rich  in  forms,  both  qualitatively 
and  quantitatively  ;  and  that  the  general  character  of  the  plankton  may 
be  described  as  that  of  stagnant  water,  heleoplankton. 

A  New  Chlamydomonas.§  —  H.  Bachmann  publishes  his  second 
paper  on  botanical  investigations  of  the  Lake  of  Lucerne.  Among  the 
phytoplankton  of  that  lake  there  occurs  very  plentifully  Anabcena  Jlos 
aquce  in  ball-like  masses.  These  are  enclosed  in  a  grey,  felty  substance 
composed  of  numerous  Vorticellae,  and  the  Anabcena  is  very  rarely  seen 
without  this  covering.  As  a  regular  accompaniment  of  these  two 
organisms,  the  author  finds  a  species  of  Chlamydomonas,  which  he 
describes  here.     He  has  not  succeeded  in  cultivating  it,  on  account  of 

*  Abh.  Nat.  Ver.  Bremen,  xviii.  (1901)  pp.  143-74  (1  pi.). 

t  Script.  Bot.  Hort.  Univ.  Petrop,  xxiii.  (1905)  18  pp.,  1  pi. 

t  Nuov.  Notar.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  39-53  (1  pi.). 

§  Ber.  Deutscu.  Bot.  Gesell.,  xxiii.  (1905)  pp.  156-62  (1  pi.). 

2   I   2 


468  SUMMABY   OF   CURRENT   RESEABCHES   RELATING   TO 

bhe  speedy  death  of  both  Vorticella  and  Anakena.  Chlamydomonas 
inheerms  grows  in  nests  of  four  or  more  cells  in  the  coils  of  Anabmia. 
The  cells  arc  ovate,  7-13  p  long  and  3-12  /x  broad,  and  they  all  lie 
with  the  pointed  anterior  ends  turned  towards  each  other.  The 
posterior  end  contains  a  green,  bell -shaped  chromatophore,  within 
which  is  a  large  pyrenoid.  In  the  angle  of  the  chromatophore  lies  the 
nucleus,  and  in  the  anterior  end  are  two  pulsatile  vacuoles.  Motile  cells 
possess  a  distinct  eye-spot.  The  author  quotes  Dill's  and  Chodal's 
synopsis  of  the  species,  points  out  wherein  his  species  differs,  and  gives  a 
diagnosis  of  it. 

Chlamydomonas.*  —  J.  L.  Serbinow  describes  a  new  method  of 
cultivating  species  of  this  genus,  with  the  help  of  its  symbiosis  with 
Saprolegniacea?  and  their  accompanying  bacteria.  He  pours  spring 
water  into  a  large  Koch  basin,  adding  water  which  contains  Chlamy- 
domonas. In  this  he  places  ants'  eggs  or  meal-worms,  which  are  infected 
with  Saprolegniaceaa.  After  a  time  the  culture  of  Chlamydomonas 
develops  strongly,  and  lasts  a  considerable  time. 

The  author  describes  in  the  same  paper  a  new  form  of  Chlamy- 
domonas stellata,  which  is  devoid  of  pyrenoids.  He  regards  C.  reticulata 
as  representing  merely  a  form,  without  pyrenoids,  of  another  species  of 
the  genus. 


&* 


Bisschop  van  Tuinen,  K. — Tets  over  de  Diatomaceen.  (Remarks  on  Diato- 
macese.)  Het  Nederl.  Zeewezeiu  iv.  (1905)  pp.  65-8. 

Borgesen,  F. — Om  Faerbernes  Algevegetation.  Et  Gensvar.  (On  the  algal  vege- 
tation of  the  Faeroes.     A  reply.)  Bot.  Notiser.  Lund,  1905,  pp.  25-6. 

Borzi,  A. — Generi  nuovi  di  Chroococcacee.     (New  genera  of  Chroococcaceae.) 

[The  author  establishes  the  two  new  genera  Planosphxrula  with  species  P. 
nutans,  and  Bacularia  with  species  B.  coerulescens.  The  former  is  allied 
to  Microcystis,  Ccelosphterium,  and  Gomphosph&rea,  and  occurs  in  fresh 
water.  The  latter  resembles  Dactylococcopsis,  and  occurs  on  fronds  of 
marine  algaa  in  Sicily.]  Nuov.  Notar.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  20-1. 

Breemen,  P.  J.  v a n.— Plankton  van  Noordzee  en  Zuiderzee.  (Plankton  of  the 
North  Sea  and  Zuiderzee.)  Akad.  Prwfschr.  Univ.  Amsterdam 

(Leiden,  1905)  182  pp.,  2  pis. 

Brehm,  V.,&  E.Zederbauer  —Das  September-Plankton  des  Skutari-sees.  (The 
September  plankton  of  the  Scutari  lake.)  Verh.  It.  k,  Zool.  Bot.  Ges.  Wien, 

lv.  (1905)  pp.  47-53. 

Bulletin  des  resultats  acquis  pendant  les  courses  periodiques  publie  par  le  bureau  du 
Conseil  (permanent  international  pour  l'exploration  de  la  mer)  avec  l'assistance 
de  M.  Enudsen.  (Bulletin  of  the  results  obtained  during  the  periodic  cruises, 
published  by  the  office  of  the  Permanent  International  Committee  for  the  ex- 
ploration of  tho  sea,  with  the  assistance  of  M.  Knudsen.) 

Sect.  D..  Plankton,  Copenhagen,  1904-5. 

Oubhman,  J.  A. — A  few  Ohio  Desmids. 

[A  list  of  20  species  collected  from  still  water  near  Youngstown,  Ohio.  One 
new  species  is  described,  Cosmarium  Amesii,  and  some  of  the  other  species 
are  rare  in  America,  and  new  to  Ohio. 

Ohio  Naturalist,  v.  (1905)  pp.  349-50. 


*  Bull.  Jard.  Imp.  Bot.  St.  Petersburg,  v.  (1905)  13  pp.,  2  pis. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  469 

Dalla  Torre,  K.  W.  von. —  Bericht  iiber  die  Litteratur  der  biologischen  Erfor- 
schung  des  Siisswassers  in  der  Jahren  1901  und  1902.  (Report  mi  the  literature  of 
biological  investigation  of  fresh-water  in  the  years  1901  and  1902.) 

Fortch.  Ber.  Biol.  Stat.  Plan.,  xii.  (1905)  pp.  354-418. 

Eiohlek,  B. — Chromatophyton  Rosanowii  Woron. 

Wszechiwiat,  1904,  pp.  524-5.     (Polish.) 

„  „       Niezwykty  gatunck  oscylaryi.    (On  a  peculiar  species  of  0*cillarui.) 

Tom.  oU.,  p.  668.    (Polish.) 

Fitschen,  J. — Das  pflanzliche  Plankton  zweier  nordhannoverschen  Seen.  (Phyto- 
plankton  of  two  lakes  in  North  Hanover.) 

Aus  der  Heimat,  fur  die  Heimat.     Jahrb.  Ver.  Naturh.  a.  <l.  Unterweter, 

1904  (Bremerhaven,  1U05),  21  pp. 

Fuchs,  Th. — Xritische  Besprechung  einiger  im  Verlaufe  der  letzten  Jahre 
erschienenen  Arbeiten  iiber  Fucoiden.  (Criticism  of  certain  works  on  Fucoidcw 
published  during  the  last  few  years.) 

Jahrb.  Kais.  Kgl.  Geol.  L'eichsanst.  liv.  (1904)  pp.  :)59-88. 

•Goroschankin,  J.  N.— Beitrage  zur  Kenntnis  der  Morphologie  und  Systematik 
der  Chlamydomonaden.  (Contributions  to  a  knowledge  of  the  morphology  and 
systematic  position  of  the  Chlamydomonadse.) 

[Continuation,  describing  Chlamyilomona*  cocci/era,  a  new  species.] 

Flora,  xciv.  (1905)  pp.  420-:;  (1  pi.). 

H eering,  \V.  &  H.  Homfeld. — Die  Algen  des  Eppendorfer  moores  bei  Hamburg. 
(The  algae  of  the  Eppendorf  Moor,  near  Hamburg. 

Verh.  Nat  uric.  Ver.  Hamburg,  xii.  (1904)  pp.  77-97. 

H  T,  F. — Sur  le  Nitella  confervacea  Braun. 

Butt.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  lii.  (1905)  pp.  88-94. 

Keissler,  K.  von.— Mittheilungen  ueber  das  Plankton  des  Ossiacher-sees  in 
Karnten.     (Keport  on  the  Plankton  of  Lake  Ossiach  in  Carinthia.) 

[Concluding  portion.]  Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeit..  lv.  (1905)  pp.  1S9-U2. 

Ktjlwiec,  K. — Materyaly  do  fizyografii  jeziora  Wigierskiep.  (Contributions  to 
the  physiography  of  the  Wigry  Lake.) 

Pam.  Fizyogr.,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  2-42  (3  pis.,  12  figs.). 

Larter,  C.  E—  North  Devon  Cryptogams. 

I  Five  parasitic  algse.  additional  records  for  the  county.] 

L  Joum.  Bot.,  xliii.  (1  ltd."))  p.  188. 

Livingston,  B.  E.— Notes  on  the  Physiology  of  Stigeoclonium. 

[Gives  an  account  of  two  series  of  experiments  :  (1)  witlt  low  temperatures, 
(2)  with  sea- water.  From  the  first  series  the  author  concludes  that  low  tem- 
peratures act  upon  the  vegetative  growth  of  this  alga  with  the  same  result 
as  do  high  osmotic  pressure  and  poison  cations.  As  to  the  second,  filaments 
placed  in  undiluted  sea-water  take  the  typical  Fahwlla  form,  as  in  other 
solutions  of  high  pressure.  Zoospores  are  not  produced,  nor  do  those 
previously  produced  germinate. 
v  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  297-800  (figs.). 

Lorenzi,    A.— Alcone  notizie   biologiche   sul   laghetto  di   Comino   nelle   Prealpi 

Carniche.     (Biological  notes  on  the  lake  of  Comino  in  the  Carnic  sub-Alps.) 

.        g  In  Al(o   xv  ( l9M }  60  pp 

Makpmann    G.— Ueber   die  Preparation  der  Diatomeen,  Foraminiferen,  Polycy- 

stineen,  and  Spongillen.     (On  the  preparation  of  Diatoms,  etc.) 

ZeiUch.  Angew.  Mikroak,,  x.  (1904)  p.  141. 

Ueber  das  Vorkommen  und  die  Aufnahme  des  Siliciurus  in  den 
Kieselalgen  und  iiber  einige  Fort  Schritte  der  Diatomaceen- 
knnde.  (On  the  occurrence  and  absorption  of  silica  in 
Diatoms,  and  on  certain  advances  in  the  knowledge  of  the 
Diatomacese.)  Zeittehr.  Angexc.  Mikroek.  Klin.  Chemie, 

xi.  (1905)  pp.  29-41. 


470  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Mater,  P. — Ueber  die  Verwendung  des  Planktonsuchera.  (On  the  employment  <»f 
the  seeker  for  Plankton.)  Zeitsch.  Wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  447-!*. 

Mazza,  A. — Noticine  algologiche.     (Al^ological  notes.) 

[The  author  enumerates  certain  algae  found  at  Leghorn  and  at  Naples,  and 
discusses  the  question  whether  or  not  Halurus  equisetifolius  Kiitz.,  has 
been  found  at  Leghorn  by  Corinaldi.  In  an  abstract  of  this  paper  in  the 
Centralblatt,  .1.  B.  de  Toni  states  that  he  has  seen  an  authentic  specimen 
of  H.  equiseti folius  collected  by  J.  Agardh  at  Leghorn  in  Herb.  Treviranin 
Hot.  Inst,  at  Genoa]  Nuov.  Notar.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  15-19. 

Centralblatt,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  412. 

MlOTJLA,  W. — Characeae  Rossicae  ex  herbario  Horti  Petropolitani.  Russian 
Characese  from  Herb.  St.  Petersburg.)        Act.  Hort.  Petrop.,  xxiii.  (1994)  fasc.  3. 

Mouti,  R. — Physiobiologische  Beobacbtungen  au  den  Alpenseen  zwischen  dem 
Vigezzo  und  dem  Onsernonethal.  (Physiobiological  observations  on  the  Alpine 
lakes  between  the  Vigezzo  aud  Onsernone  valleys.) 

Forsch.  Ber.  Biol.  Stat.  PlSn.,  xii.  (1905)  pp.  63-89. 

Murray,  J. — Microscopic  Life  of  St.  Kilda.  Ann.  Scot.  Nat.  Hist.,  1905. 

pp.  94 -C. 

Nadson,  G. — Ein  apparat  zum  Erlangen  von  Grundproben  aus  Gewassern.  (An 
apparatus  for  the  obtaining  of  samples  from  the  bottom  of  water.) 

Bull.  Jaral.  Bot.  Imp.  St.  Petersburg,  iv.  (1905)  pp.  170-1. 

Nave,  J. — Collector's  Handbook  of  Algae, Desmids,  Fungi,  Lichens,  Mosses,  etc. 
[Instructions  for  their  preparation  and  for  formation  of  herbarium.] 

London,  1905,  214  pp.  (figs.). 

Pampaloni,  L. — Sul  comportamento  del  Protococcus  caldariorum  Magnus  in  varie 
soluzioni  minerali  ed  organiche.  (On  the  behaviour  of  P.  caldariorum  Magnus- 
in  various  mineral  and  organic  solutions.) 

[The  residt  of  various  experiments  in  laboratory  cultures,  and  a  tabulated 
summary  of  the  author's  results  on  P.  caldariorum  compared  with  those 
of  Grintzesco  on  Scenedesmus  acutus  Meyen,  and  Chlorella  vulgaris 
Beyerinck.]  Annali  di  Bot.  ii.  (1905)  pp.  231-50  (1  pi.). 

Riddle,  L.  O— Brash  Lake  Algae.  Ohio  Naturalist,  v.  (190))  pp.  268-9. 

Ruttner,  F. — Ueber  das  Verhalten  des  Oberflachenplanktons  zu  verschiedenen 
Tageszeiten  im  Grossen  Ploner  See  und  in  zwei  nordbb'hmischen  Teichen.  (On 
the  state  of  the  surface  plankton  at  various  times  of  day  in  the  Great  Plon  Lake 
and  in  two  ponds  in  N.  iiohemia.  Forsch.  Ber.  Biol.  Stat.  Plon.,  xii.  (1905; 

pp.  35-62  (1  pi.  2  tables,  1  text  fig.). 

Schmidle,  W. — Algologische  Notizen.     (Algological  notes.) 

Alg.  Bot.  Zeitsch.,  xi.  (1905)  pp.  63-5. 

Torka,  V. — Wahrend  des  Ausflugs  am  Aug.  14,  1904,  bei  Kramfliess  und  Promno 
in  der  Nake  von  Pudewitz  beobochtete  Moose  und  Algen.  (Mosses  and  algse 
observed  during  the  excursion  of  Aug.  14,  1904,  to  Krammtiiess  and  Promno  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Pudewitz.)  Zeit.  Naturw.  Abt.  DeuUch.  Ges.  Kunst  u. 

Wiss.  Posen,  xi.  (1904j  _ 

Voglkr,  P. — Bisherige  Resultate  variationsstatistischer  Untersuchungen  au 
Planktondiatomaceen.  (Results  obtained  hitherto  by  investigations  on  the 
statistics  of  variation  in  ITankton-diatoms. 

Forsch.  Ber.  Biol.  Stat.  Plon.  xii.  (1905)  pp.  90-101  (2  tabs.,  8  figs.). 

Wager,  H—  The  Present  State  of  our  Knowledge  of  the  Cytology  of  the  Cyano- 
Phyceae.  Rep.  Brit.  Ass.  Adv.  Sci.  1904  (1905)  pp.  802-3. 

Yendo,  K. — On  Coccophora  Langsdorfii  Grev. 

[The  author  shows  that  C.  Langsdorfii  and  C.  phyllamphora,  are  one  and  the 
same  plant,  the  former  being  a  fertile,  the  latter  a  sterile  specimen.  He 
considers  the  genus  to  be  most  nearly  related  to  Sargassum.] 

Bot.  Mag.  Tokyo,  xviii.  (1904)  pp.  237-41  (Japaneso). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  471 

Zacharias,  O. — Hydrobiologische und Fischereiwirthschaftliche Beobachtungen au 
einigen  seen  der  Schweiz  und  Italiens.  (Observations  on  the 
hydrobiology  und  fishery  economy  of  certain  lakes  in  Switzer- 
land and  Italy.)  Forseh.  Ber.  Biol.  Stat.  PIdn,  xii.  (1905) 

pp.  169-302  (18  BgS.). 

„  „      TTeber  die  systematische  Dnrchforschung  der  Binnengewasser  und 

ihre  Beziehung  zn  den  Aufgaben  der  allgemeinen  Wissenohaft 
vom  Leben.  (On  the  systematic  investigation  of  inland  waters 
and  their  relation  to  the  problems  of  the  general  science  of 
life.)  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1-34. 

Fungi. 
(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Chytridiaceae.* — W.  Loewenthal  describes  the  species  of  a  new  genus 
Zygorhizidium  Willei,  which  is  a  parasite  of  the  alga  Cylindrocystis. 
The  main  part  of  the  fungus  remains  outside  the  host  tissue  into  which 
penetrate  short,  delicate  rhizoids.  Besides  the  usual  formation  of 
sporangium  and  zoospores  there  is  a  sexual  form  of  reproduction.  Certain 
individuals — antheridia — form  fertilisation  tubes  which  grow  towards 
the  female  cell,  the  latter  having  produced  a  small  protuberance.  Fusion 
takes  place,  and  a  zygote  is  formed.  The  later  history  of  the  zygote  was 
not  followed.  If  no  fertilisation  occurs  the  antheridium  may  become  a 
zoosporangium. 

Monoblepharideae.t — M.  Woronin  left  behind  him  a  series  of  obser- 
vations and  researches  on  the  genus  Monoblepharis,  which  have  since 
been  published.  He  reviewed  first  the  work  done  by  others  on  the  same 
subject,  and  then  proceeded  to  describe  more  especially  M.  sphcerica. 
The  chief  characteristic  of  this  species  is  the  hypogynous  antheridium. 
He  found  that  frequently  the  oospheres  issue  from  the  oogonium  after 
fertilisation.  The  development  of  the  antheridia  and  the  process  of 
fertilisation  have  been  carefully  followed.  He  observed  that  the  oogonium 
was  always  closed  until  fertilisation,  and  that  the  spermatozoids  pierced 
the  oogonial  papilla.  The  wall  of  the  oospore  is  formed  of  two  layers, 
and  the  warts  on  its  surface  arise  from  the  inner  sheath  of  the  outer 
membrane. 

Culture  Experiments  with  Morchella.J— Marin  MoUiard  published 
some  time  ago  the  results  of  his  culture  experiments  with  the  spores  of 
Morchella.  He  at  that  time  succeeded  in  producing  sterile  mycelium 
in  pure  cultures,  and  on  adding  certain  organic  substances  to  the  medium 
the  conidial  form  Gostantinella  cri&tata  grew  abundantly.  He  had 
noted  that  Morchella  was  often  found  in  places  where  fruits  such  as 
apples  and  pears  had  been  buried,  so  he  planted  the  sterile  mycelium  in 
earth  along  with  apples.  In  one  case  Morchella  was  produced  ;  in 
another  both  Morchella  and  Gostantinella.  Milliard  thinks  these  facts 
might  be  utilised  in  the  culture  of  the  Morel. 

*  Arch,  fur  Protisteukunde,  v.  (1905)  pp.  221-39  (2  pis.  . 
f  Mem   Acad.  Imp.  Sci.  St.  Petersburg,  ser.  8,  xli..  No.  4  (1904)  21  pp..  b  pis. 
Bee  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  587. 
X  Comptes  Rendus.  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1 I4f.-S. 


472  SUMMARY   OF   CUERENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

G.  Fron  *  in  another  note  reports  on  the  same  subject  from  a 
chemical  point  of  view.  His  aim  was  to  find  out  which  were  the  organic 
substances  most  favourable  to  the  growth  of  Morchella.  He  finds  that 
the  mycelium  requires  nourishment,  largely  of  hydrocarbons  and  inulin, 
as  well  as  glucose,  and  starch  is  peculiarly  favourable  to  their  develop- 
ment. The  mineral  constituents  are  less  important,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  furnish  phosphates,  nitrates,  and  salts  of  calcium  in  neutral  or  only 
slightly  alkaline  media. 

Ch.  Prepin  f  calls  attention  to  his  publication  in  the  Comptes  Rendus 
1901,  of  results  obtained  in  the  culture  of  Morchella,  exactly  comparable 
with  those  now  published  by  Marin  Molliard.  He  got  good  growths  of 
the  fungus  from  a  compost  of  apples  and  also  from  branches  buried  in 
a  silo.  He  could  not  succeed  in  producing  ascospores  in  pure  cultures, 
and  his  opinion  is  that  bacteria  are  necessary  for  their  development. 
He  has  proved  also  that  the  nutrition  of  these  fungi  is  afforded  by  some 
cellulose  substance.  In  the  case  of  the  apples  the  sugar  must  disappear 
quickly,  and  only  the  cellulose  of  the  pulp  can  be  present  to  provide  for 
prolonged  growth  of  the  fungus. 

Fermentation  with  Mucor.J — C  Wehmer  has  experimented  with 
Mucor  yeast,  as  to  the  effect  of  oxygen  in  hindering  the  fermentation 
process.  He  finds  that  this  is  not  the  case,  and  that  exclusion  of  air  is 
as  unnecessary  in  the  case  of  Mucor  as  in  Saccharomyces.  He  gives  an 
account  of  the  experiments  he  carried  out,  the  fungus  being  Mucor 
racemosus. 

Stearophora  radicicola.f — L.  Mangin  and  P.  Yiala  describe  a 
fungus  that  they  found  again  and  again  in  the  roots  of  vines  that  had 
been  attacked  by  Phylloxera  and  other  diseases.  The  mycelium  of  the 
fungus  Stearophora  penetrates  into  the  tissues  of  the  cortex  and  the 
wood.  In  the  vessels  it  becomes  massed  into  dark  looking  clumps  or 
sclerotia.  In  artificial  cultures  sclerotia  are  also  formed.  Two  organs 
of  fructification  were  noted.  On  the  artificial  cultures,  after  much  in- 
tricate growth,  very  fine  hair-like  filaments  were  produced,  dark  coloured 
like  the  rest  of  the  mycelium,  but  the  end  cell  was  colourless,  and  the 
spores  were  produced  inside  the  cell.  They  are  extremely  small,  resem- 
bling minute  bacteria.  The  second  method  of  fructification  also  results 
in  endospores  produced  in  the  larger  hyphee.  A  swelling  takes  place 
often  at  the  insertion  of  a  branch,  and  in  the  cell  thus  formed  spores 
are  produced  similar  to  the  others.  The  authors  think  that  the  fungus 
represents  a  group  of  primitive  ascomycetes  with  dissociated  asci. 

Charrin  and  Le  Pley  have  experimented  on  animals  with  this  fungus, 
and  find  that  it  has  interesting  pathogenic  properties.  It  causes  pseudo- 
tumours  and  anaemia,  and  also  induces  the  formation  of  nodosities  and 
deformations  of  the  bones  with  a  diminution  of  water,  lime  and  phos- 
phoric acid.  The  extreme  minuteness  of  the  spores  enables  them  to 
traverse  the  tissues  and  to  spread  in  all  directions. 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1187-9. 

T  Tom.  cii,  pp.  1274-5. 

X  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  GeselL,  xxiii.  (1905)  pp.^122-5. 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1477-82. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  473 

Sclerotinia  Crataegi.* — P.  Magnus  describes  the  entire  development 
of  this  fungus,  which  in  the  Man  ilia  stage  attacks  and  mummifies  the 
fruits  of  .the  hawthorn  and  also  destroys  the  leaves.  Sclerotia  thus 
arising  from  the  fruit  were  kept  in  suitable  conditions,  and  the  Peziza 
fruit  was  formed.  On  the  same  sclerotia  there  grew  layers  of  conidio- 
phores  which  bud  off  at  the  apex  rows  of  small  globose  conidia.  This  is 
the  microspore  form  that  has  been  described  for  other  Sclerotinia.  The 
ascospores  differ  from  others  of  the  genus  in  the  apiculate  ends.  A 
comparison  is  drawn  between  various  Sclerotinia  species  as  regards  their 
life  history  and  spore  formation. 

Cytological  Researches  on  some  Ascomycetes.f — Rene  Maire,  in 
a  few  words,  states  the  present  extent  of  our  knowledge  of  nuclear  fusion 
and  nuclear  division  in  the  Ascomycetes,  quoting  the  work  of  Dangeard, 
Harper,  Barker,  Guillermond,  and  others,  and  then  proceeds  to  give  the 
result  of  his  own  research  on  the  subject.  He  is  occupied  chiefly  with 
the  behaviour  of  the  nuclei  in  the  ascus.  He  has  worked  over  a  number 
of  species,  Galactinia  succosa,  Acetabula  acetabulum,  Pustular ia  vesiculosa, 
and  species  of  Morchella,  Rhytisma,  Hypomyces,  and  two  Lichens,  Pelti- 
yera  canina  and  Anaptychia  ciliaris.  He  finds  that  there  are  two  pro- 
cesses of  formation  of  the  ascus  :  (1)  by  the  "  hook  "  formation,  where  the 
median  cell  of  the  hypha  becomes  the  ascus  ;  and  (2)  by  the  branching 
of  a  hypha  with  synkarions,  the  terminal  cells  of  the  branches  becoming 
the  asci.     Galactinia  succosa  belongs  to  the  latter  type. 

After  fusion  of  the  two  nuclei  in  the  ascus  of  Galactinia,  the  first 
nuclear  division  is  "  heterotypique,"  proved  by  the  synapsis  condition  at 
the  prophase  stage,  and  because  of  the  behaviour  of  the  chromosomes, 
which  divide  during  their  ascent  to  the  poles.  The  second  division  of 
the  nucleus  is  "  homotypique  ;"  there  are  eight  protochromosomes  repre- 
senting the  half -chromosomes  that  were  formed  during  the  anaphase  of 
the  preceding  division.  The  third  division  is  "  typique  " — there  are  only 
four  chromosomes  formed  in  the  early  stage.  He  finds  from  his  own 
work  and  that  of  others,  that  this  number,  however,  varies  in  different 
species  of  Ascomycetes.  He  gives  an  account  also  of  the  formation  of 
centrosomes  and  spindle  which  have  an  intranuclear  origin  ;  the  polar 
irradiations  first  described  by  Harper  have  an  extranuclear  origin.  He 
has  also  examined  the  secretions  of  latex  in  Galactinia ;  certain  hypha? 
are  laticiferous,  as  in  the  Basidomycetes.  In  the  ascus  there  is  also  a 
secretion  of  latex,  which  is  not  utilised  by  the  nuclei,  and  is  expelled 
along  with  the  spores.  There  are  in  addition  minute  oil  drops  in  the 
cytoplasm  of  the  ascus,  which  gather  round  the  nuclei  and  unite  in  the 
spore  into  two  large  guttse. 

Bi-nucleate  Cells  in  Ascomycetes.^— G.  Maasee  finda  bi-nucleate 
cells  in  the  hypha  and  conidia  of  Hypomyces  perniciomm,  and  that  the 
two  nuclei  present  in  the  conidium  fuse  at  an  early  stage  of  develop- 
ment ;  on  germination,  the  germ-tube  is  uninucleate.  He  gives  other 
instances  of   binucleate  cells  in  the  Ascomycetes,  and  points  out  the 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gcsell.,  xxiii.  (1905)  pp.  197-202  (1  pi.). 
t  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  128-54  (If  pis.). 
X  Ann.  Bot.,xix.  (1905)  pp.  325-6. 


474  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

great  variation  to  be  found  as  to  the  number  of  nuclei  in  the  cells  of 
Ascomycetes  and  in  other  fungi  in  closely  related  forms. 

Willow  Canker.* — So  long  ago  as  1899  specimens  of  diseased  rods 
from  the  osier-beds  in  Connemara  have  been  sent  to  Dublin  for  examina- 
tion. T.  Johnson,  who  has  recently  had  opportunities  of  visiting  the 
district  and  seeing  the  extent  of  the  disease,  now  gives  an  account  of  its 
origin  and  spread,  and  the  methods  he  considers  best  for  destroying  the 
fungus.  The  plants  had  been  infested  when  they  were  first  planted. 
The  disease,  due  to  a  Pyrenomycete,  Physalospora  gregaria  Sacc,  appears 
as  black  specks  or  canker-spots  on  the  rods,  destroying  the  tissue  and 
causing  the  rods  to  break  at  the  damaged  areas.  Besides  the  ascosporous 
stage  there  are  two  other  forms,  which  he  calls  Tetradia  salicicola  and 
Macrodendrophoma  salicicola,  both  pycnidial  stages  of  the  fungus.  All 
three  forms  propagate  the  disease.  Formalin  has  proved  a  good  fungi- 
cide.    Burning:  of  all  diseased  sets  is  recommended. 


V- 


Specialisation  of  Parasitism  in  the  Erysiphacese.f — E.  S.  Salmon 
has  carried  out  a  further  series  of  experiments  in  connection  with  his 
study  of  biologic  species  of  parasites.  He  has  proved  that  the  results  of 
the  inoculation  experiments  are  the  same,  whether  he  works  with  asco- 
spores  or  with  the  conidial  forms.  The  recent  experiments  were  made 
with  the  conidia  of  the  biologic  form  of  Ergsiphe  graminis  on  wheat. 
With  these  he  successfully  infected  young  leaves  of  Hordeum  silvaticum, 
and  kept  the  fungus  growing  through  five  generations ;  after  that  the 
conidia  readily  infected  wheat,  while  their  power  of  infecting  their 
original  host  had  not  been  weakened.  Another  discovery  was  that  the 
successive  generations  had  a  weakened  power  of  infecting  Hordeum 
silvaticum.  The  spores  seemed  to  lose  vigour  away  from  their  normal 
host.  Throughout  this  experiment  only  young  leaves  could  be  success- 
fully infected. 

Research  on  Yeast.J — W.  Henneberg  has  been  experimenting  with 
yeast  cells  to  test  life  duration  and  the  effect  of  foreign  organisms  in 
the  cultures,  etc.  He  concludes  that  the  duration  of  vitality  depends 
largely  on  the  "  race  "  ;  some  races  being  specially  long-lived.  .  A  some- 
what low  temperature  is  conducive  to  longevity  ;  at  30°  the  cells  persisted 
only  a  week,  at  10°  they  lived  for  about  four  weeks,  also  on  the  surface 
of  a  large  mass  the  cells  persist  longer  than  those  deeper  down.  The 
readier  access  of  oxygen  would  account  for  the  difference.  In  all  cases 
some  few  cells  would  be  more  vigorous  and  resistant  than  the  bulk  of 
the  culture.  Certain  bacteria  have  a  fatal  effect,  such  as  the  bacteria 
of  lactic  acid  and  of  acetic  acid.     Other  bacteria  are  harmless. 

Hyphomycetes.§ — G.  Lindau  concludes  in  this  fourth  part  the 
description  of  Gliocladium  begun  in  the  third  part,  p.  176.  He  then 
follows  with  the  Botrytidere,  under  which  he  includes  all  those  forms 

•  Sci.  Proc.  Roy.  Dublin  Soc,  x.  (1904)  pp.  153-66  (3  pis.). 

t  Ann.  Mycol.,  'iii.  (1905)  pp.  172-84. 

\  Wochensch.  Brauerei,  Nos.  41-8  (1904)  46  pp.  ;  published  1905.  See  also 
Hedwigia,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  106. 

§  Rabenhorst's  Kryptogamen-Flora,  I.,  Abt.  viii.  Pilze,  Lief  95,  Leipzig,  1905, 
pp.  177-256. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  47cV 

in  which  "  the  conidia  are  borne  directly  on  the  mycelium,  or  on  conidio- 
phores  that  are  side  branches  of  the  mycelium,  but  have  not  yet  pro- 
duced specialised  conidiophores."  The  division  includes  such  genera 
as  Clmotoco nidium,  Acremoniinn,  Sporotrichum,  etc.,  down  to  Botrytis, 
( -ylindrophora,  Cylindrodendrum,  Sporodiniopsis,  and  Tolypomyria.  The 
different  genera  are  well  illustrated  by  figures  in  the  text. 

Agricultural  Microbiology.*— Under  this  title  J.  Arthaud-Berthel 
gives  the  results  of  his  study  of  the  fungus,  Outturn  lactis.  It  is  known 
as  a  frequent  saprophyte  of  organic  matter,  and  has  been  found  to  affect 
injuriously  the  production  of  cheese.  The  author  worked  with  Pasteurised 
cream  in  which  the  fungus  had  been  destroyed.  The  oidium,  it  is  found, 
turns  the  cream  rancid,  though  it  is  of  service  in  the  maturation  of  cer- 
tain cheeses.  Lactic  ferments  create  lactic  acid  in  the  cheese,  and  the 
acid  prevents  the  growth  of  moulds.  The  moulds,  when  they  do  succeed 
in  growing,  consume  the  lactic  acid  and  produce  an  alkaline  condition 
which  encourages  the  growth  of  certain  bacteria,  and  is  otherwise  detri- 
mental to  the  cheese. 

Uredineae.t — P.  and  H.  Sydow  have  issued  the  fifth  fascicle  of  their 
work  on  Uredineas,  which  completes  the  account  of  the  genus  Puccinia, 
and  forms  the  final  instalment  of  the  first  volume.  They  have  written 
a  preface  to  the  volume  and  a  short  general  account  of  the  genus.  They 
reject  Diorchidium  and  Uropyxis,  the  characters  given  not  being  of 
generic  importance.  A  sketch  is  given  of  the  geographical  distribution 
and  of  the  economical  importance  of  the  Uredineae.  Indices  of  hosts 
and  parasites  are  appended. 

Klebahn  %  records  results  of  experiments  on  30  different  forms  of 
Uredineas.  He  draws  special  attention  to  the  influence  of  Cronart&um 
ribicola  on  Pinus  Strobus,  which  causes  the  leaves  attacked  to  revert  to 
the  early  single  form  of  seedling  Pines. 

Dry-rot.§ — H.  Duchaussoy  describes  the  dry-rot  fungus,  Meruliva 
Ittchrymans,  and  gives  various  instances  of  the  damage  it  has  caused  in 
various  localities ;  he  describes  also  the  effect  produced  by  it  on  the 
wood  that  it  attacks.  He  finds  there  is  no  certain  method  of  detecting 
contaminated  wood  until  the  fungus  has  gone  too  far  to  save  the  sub- 
stratum, but  much  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  prevention.  Good  ventila- 
tion is  very  efficacious,  and  impregnating  the  wood  with  some  form  of 
creosote  is  a  certain  preservative. 

Chemistry  of  Amanita  muscarius.|| — W.  Heiniscfa  and  .1.  Xellner 
tested  the  component  substances  of  a  large  number  of  Bpecimens  of 
A.  muscarius.  The  ash  analysis  gave  a  high  percentage  of  potassium 
and  phosphates,  with  a  smaller  amount  of  calcium.     Chlorine  waa  more 

*  Comptes  Rendus,cxl.  (190;"))  pp.  1475-7. 

t  Monographia  Uredinearum,  i.,  Fasc.  v.  (Borntraeger,  Leipzig,  1904)  pp.  xxxv. 
and  769-97'2  (4  pis.). 

X  Zeitschr.  Pnanzenkr.,  xv.  (1905)  pp.  66-108  (1  pi.  and  4  figs.). 

§  Bull.  Hoc.  Linn.  Nord  de  la  France,  xvi.  (1902  ::)  pp.  L75  -1 

||  Anz.  Kais.  Wisscnsch.  Wien.  ix.  (1904)  pp.  89-90  St*  also  Bot.  Contralbl., 
xcviii.  (1905)  p.  46:'-. 


476  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

abundant  than  in  other  fungi.     Extracts  with  petroleum-ether  gave  fats 
very  ricli  in  palmitin  and  oleic  acid. 

Mycological  Notes.* — C.  G.  Lloyd  prints  No.  18  of  these  papers, 
with  photographic  plates  of  the  plants  described.  The  genera  Trichuster, 
Lanopila,  LasiospJucra,  Schizostoma,  Broomeiu,  Buttureopsis,  and  Gyro- 
phragmium  are  passed  in  review.  The  latter  genus  is,  he  considers, 
identical  with  Polyplocium,  and  is  not  a  true  gastromycete.  Notes  are 
added  on  various  other  subjects,  on  micro-photographs,  an  albino 
Geaster,  a  colourless  form  of  G.  triplex,  etc.  He  has  also  issued  recently 
"  The  Lycoperdaceae  of  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  neighbouring 
Islands,"!  with  illustrations  of  the  type  specimens  he  has  found  in  the 
museums  of  Europe  and  elsewhere. 

Effects  of  Copper  on  Fungi.} — W.  Ruhland  has  studied  the  question 
as  to  the  exact  effect  of  Bordeaux  mixture  when  used  as  a  spray  on  the 
leaves  and  on  the  fungal  parasites.  In  the  latter  case  he  considers  that 
the  excretions  of  the  hyphas  due  to  metabolism  dissolve  the  copper  and 
thus  induce  fatal  poisoning.  Experiments  with  spores  of  Aspergillus 
niger,  Botrytis  vulgaris  Cephulothecium,  roseum,  and  Cluster osporium  gave 
similar  results.  In  some  cases  washing  the  poisoned  spores  with  a  weak 
solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  restored  their  vitality. 

Nomenclature  of  the  Organs  of  Pyrenomycetes  and  Deuteromy- 
cetes.§ — G.  B.  Tra verso  goes  carefully  through  the  different  groups  and 
genera  of  fungi  in  these  two  classes,  explaining  and  exemplifying  the 
terminology  of  the  many  forms  to  be  found  in  the  fruiting  bodies  and 
in  the  spores.  He  adopts  the  method  of  classification  followed  by 
Saccardo  and  by  almost  all  mycologists,  that  of  arranging  the  genera 
according  to  the  type  of  spore.  He  gives  an  index  of  the  Latin  terms 
used  in  his  paper. 

Sylloge  Fungorum.|| — P.  A.  Saccardo  has  brought  his  great  work 
well  up  to  date  in  this  latest  issue,  which  includes  all  recently  published 
species  from  Hymenomycetes  to  Laboulbeniacere,  S225  species  in  all. 
There  are  17  species  described  for  the  first  time  in  this  volume.  A 
Bibliotheca  mycologica  by  G.  B.  Traverso  is  added.  There  are  also 
host  or  habitat,  generic,  and  species  indices.  The  volume  containing 
Discomycetes  and  Deuteromycetes  is  promised  early  in  1906. 

Physiological  Anatomy  of  Fungus  Galls.! — H.  Bitter  von  Gutten- 
berg  has  studied  the  alteration  of  tissues  or  new  growths  induced  by 
fungus  parasites  in  the  host  plant.  The  fungi  he  examined  were  species 
of  Albugo,  Exouscus,  Ustilugo,  Pucciniu,  and  Exobasidium.  He  describes 
the  galls  formed  by  the  fungi  and  the  process  by  which  the  cells  change 
their  function  or  are  destroyed  altogether. 

*  Myeological  Notes,  No.  18,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1904,  pp.  189-204  (7  pis.  and 
6  figs.). 

t  Lloyd  Library.  Cincinnati.  Ohio.  April,  1905  (15  pis.  and  49  figs.). 

X  Arb.  biol.  Abt.  Land,  und  Forstw.  K.  Gesundheitsamt,  1904,  p.  157.  See  also 
Bot.  Zeit.,  lxiii.  (1905)  pp.  139-41. 

§  Nuovo  Giorn.  Bot.  Ital.,  xii.  (1905)  pp.  261-S0  (67  figs.). 

||  Sylloge  Fungorum.  Supplementum  universale,  xvii.  part  vi.  (Patavii  1905) 
991  pp.  \  W.  Engelmann  (Leipzig,  1905)  70  pp.,  4  pis. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  477 

Witches'  Brooms  of  Quercus  rubra  and  other  Woody  Plants.* — 
The  case  of  Witches'  Broom  examined  by  H.  Solereder  represented  small 
trees  growing  upright  from  a  branch  of  the  host.  The  origin  of  the 
growth  could  not  be  detected  ;  no  fungus  mycelium  was  discovered  in 
the  tissues.  The  author  gives  a  careful  list  of  all  recorded  cases  of 
similar  growths  with  references  to  the  literature  of  the  subject.  These 
abnormal  growths  are  due  in  most  cases  to  species  of  Exoascus,  to 
Uredinete,  or  to  insects.  In  some  cases,  as  the  above,  their  origin  has  not 
been  discovered. 

The  Fungus  of  Lolium  temulentum.f  —  Anton  Nestler  has  been 
examining  Lolium  plants,  and  finds  the  fungus  in  the  fruits  of  L.  perenne 
and  L.  italicum,  as  well  as  in  that  of  L.  temulentum.  The  infected 
fruits  of  the  latter  germinate  more  readily  than  in  the  two  former  cases. 
Culture  experiments  were  made  with  the  fungus  on  beerwort  gelatin 
with  Lolium  extract.  Only  once  was  a  hyphal  growth  observed,  and  it 
stopped  very  soon.     Further  cultures  are  desirable. 

British  Mycology.! — The  Transactions  of  the  Mycological  Society 
have  just  been  issued  under  the  editorship  of  Carleton  Rae,  the  Hon.  Sec. 
and  Treasurer.  He  gives  an  account  of  the  annual  fungus  foray  in  the 
autumn,  and  an  account  of  the  rarer  species  of  fungi  that  were  gathered. 
A  complete  list  of  these  fungi  is  added. 

C.  B.  Plowright  contributes  a  sketch  of  Eriksson's  Mycoplasma 
hypothesis.  He  withholds  judgment  until  more  is  known  of  the  matter, 
though  he  thinks  such  a  theory  might  explain  much  that  is  obscure  in 
the  outbreaks  of  rust  and  potato  diseases.  He  also  publishes  a  descrip- 
tion of  a  new  Peniophora  that  has  proved  a  very  harmful  disease  of 
Chrysanthemum.  It  attacks  the  lower  part  of  the  stem.  The  disease 
was  first  noticed  many  years  ago,  and  recently  there  has  been  a  fresh 
development  of  the  fungus. 

Saccardo's  rules  of  nomenclature  have  been  translated  by  C.  Rea,  and 
commented  on  by  the  members  of  the  society.  R.  H.  Biffen  contributes 
a  paper  on  Parasitism.  He  describes  the  recent  advances  in  our  know- 
ledge of  the  subject  as  regards  biologic  forms,  bridging  species,  etc. 
The  fungi  new  to  Britain  form  the  subject  of  a  paper  by  A.  Lorrain 
Smith  and  Carleton  Rea.  A  large  number  have  been  added  to  the 
British  flora  during  the  year. 

Mycology.§ — Franz  von  Hohnel  publishes  a  series  of  descriptions 
and  corrections  of  fungi  records.  There  are  critical  notes  on  classifica- 
tion and  nomenclature,  and  descriptions  of  new  genera  and  species. 
Garcinodochium  g.n.  found  on  decaying  plants  and  on  the  ground  is 
allied  to  Daeryodochium  and  Lachnodorhiinn.  Dendrostilbella  g.n.  is 
a  Stilbella  with  branched  sporophores  ;  the  spores  are  very  small.  This 
genus  forms  a  transition  between  Stilbella  and  Pirobasidium.      It  is  the 


* 


Naturwiss.  Zeitschr.  Land.  Forstw.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  17-23.  See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  464-5. 

t  SB.  K.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  cxiii.,  Abt.  1  (1904)  pp.  530-40  (1  pi.).  See  also 
Hedwigia,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  109. 

\  Trans.  Brit.  Mycol.  Soc,  1904  (Worcester,  1905)  100  pp.  (4  col.  pis.). 

§  Oesterr.  bot.  Zeitschr.,  liv.  (1904)  pp.  425-39:  lv.  (1905)  pp.  13-24,  51-5.  See 
also  Bot.  Centralbl..  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  416-17. 


478  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

conidial  form  of  a  Coryne.     The  author  cites  a  number  of  genera  and 
species  that  are  identical  with  others  previously  described. 

Sowerby's  Drawings  of  Fungi.* — Worthington  G.  Smith  takes 
occasion  to  publish  various  notes  that  he  has  made  in  looking  over  these 
plates,  which  clear  up  various  puzzling  remarks  of  Sowerby's.  These 
unpublished  remarks  answer  many  of  Fries's  queries.  In  one  instance 
descriptions  of  two  important  plates  had  been  transposed.  In  others, 
notes  by  Sowerby  had  been  added  after  printing.  W.  G.  Smith 
describes  under  each  fungus  the  changes  that  have  been  made,  and  adds 
any  information  bearing  on  the  drawings. 

Fungal  Parasites  of  Insects. f — Casimir  Wize  gives  an  account  of 
a  number  of  fungi  that  are  economically  of  great  importance,  as  they 
live  on  the  larvae  of  insects  that  destroy  turnips,  etc.  Cleonus  punc- 
tiventris  is  one  of  these  destructive  larvae,  and  it  is  attacked  most 
virulently  by  Oospora  destructor,  a  white  mould,  which  often  destroys 
100  per  cent,  of  the  larvae.  Sorosporella  uvella  and  Massospora  Cleoni, 
two  closely  allied  fungi,  are  only  a  little  less  effective.  Species  of  Isariu, 
Botrytis,  Acremonium  and  Strumella  have  also  been  found  preying 
on  the  insects.  Gymnoascus  umbrinus,  which  was  found  on  larvae, 
seems  to  be  parasitic  on  the  Isaria  that  destroyed  the  larva.  Wize 
describes  a  new  form  of  Chytridineae,  Olpidiopsis  ucrainica,  which  he 
discovered  in  the  larvas  of  Cleonus  and  in  the  pupa  of  Anisoplia  austriaca. 
He  gives  detailed  accounts  of  all  these  fungi,  and  of  their  action  on  the 
insects. 

Myxobacterise.J — E.  Zederbauer  revises  Thaxter's  work  on  the 
Myxobacterise,  and  reports  observations  and  culture  experiments  he 
himself  has  made  on  these  organisms.  He  finds  that  they  are  a  simple 
order  of  bacteria,  but  that  they  are  symbiotic,  and  the  bodies  described  by 
Thaxter  are  composed  of  both  fungi  and  bacteria,  as  Lichens  are  com- 
posed of  fungi  and  algae.  He  has  succeeded  in  two  cases,  Myxococcus 
incrustans  and  Chondromyces  glomeratus,  in  separating  the  component 
plants  and  growing  them  independently.  The  spores  of  Myxococcus 
developed  hyphal  filaments  which  produced  conidia.  The  bacterium 
also  developed  on  gelatin  and  agar-agar,  and  produced  characteristic 
spores.  The  same  results  were  obtained  in  the  cultures  of  Chondromyces. 
Zederbauer  proposes  to  call  the  group  bacterio-hchens  (Spaltpihflechten). 
The  cysts  are  composed  of  both  fungus  and  bacterium.  This  is,  he  con- 
siders, a  case  of  symbiosis,  as  both  the  organisms  are  healthy  and  capable  of 
separate  development.  Probably  the  fungus  gains  some  advantage  by 
living  on  the  mucilage  of  the  bacterium,  or  the  bacterium  again  is 
nourished  by  substances  excreted  by  the  fungus.  The  separate  species 
developed  are  described  in  detail,  the  symbionts  of  Myxococcus  as 
Torula,  and  the  Bacterium  as  Myxococci  incrustantcs. 

Notes  on  Mycetozoa.§ — A.  and  G.  Lister  publish  a  series  of  notes 
on  species  already  recorded.      They  discuss  the  supposed  relationship 

*  Journ.  Bot.,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  156-60. 

t  Bull.  Inter.  Acad.  Sci.  C'racovie,  No.  10,  1904,  pp.  713-27  (1  pi.  and  11  figs.). 

t  SB.  Akad.  Wins.  Wien,  cxii.  (1903)  pp.  447-82  (1  pi.). 

§  Journ.  Bot..  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  150-6. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  479 

between  Chondrioderma  ochraceum  and  Lepidoderma  tigrinum.  The  two 
are  not  identical,  though  in  some  respects  very  near  akin  to  each  other. 
A  large  gathering  of  Chondrioderma  lucidum  is  noted,  the  capillitium  of 
which  is  constant  in  what  was  supposed  to  be  an  abnormal  development. 
Badhamia  populina  was  again  discovered  two  years  after  the  date  of 
the  first  gathering,  on  both  occasions  in  Wanstead  Park.  A  third 
gathering  of  the  species  has  been  made  in  France.  New  localities  are 
given  for  other  rare  species.  A  note  is  added  on  Bedfordshire  Mycetozoa. 
Straw  heaps  had  been  found  there  to  be  exceptionally  suitable  feeding- 
ground.  Many  new  species  have  been  discovered,  and  the  records  of 
growth  kept  from  year  to  year.  The  forms  appear  one  year  in  more 
or  less  abundance  and  disappear  another. 

Boudieb. — Icones  Mycologicae.  Serie  1,  Livraisons  2,  3.  (Published  drawings 
with  explanations  of  the  plates.     Two  new  species  are  described.) 

Klincksieck,  Paris,  1904.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.  xcviii. 

(1905)  pp.  494-5. 

Citron,  J. — Verhalten  der  Favus  und  Trichophyten-Pilze  im  Organismus.  (Be- 
haviour of  Favus  and  Trichophyte  fungi  in  the  organism.) 

Zeitschr.  Hyg.,  xlix.  (1905)  p.  120. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  517. 

Diettbich-Kalkhoff,  Ejiil. — Beitrage  zur  Pilzflora  Tirols.  (Contribution  to 
the  Fungus  Flora  of  the  Tyrol.) 

[Many  of  the  species  have  been  determined  by  J.  Bresadola.] 

Verh.  K.  K.  Zool.-Bot.  Ges.,  lv.  (1905)  pp.  203-11. 

Elenew,  Paulus. — Enumeratio  fungorum  in  provincia  Smolenskiensi  aestatibus 
1897  et  1899  annorum  collectorum.  (List  of  fungi  collected  in  the  province  of 
Smolensk.)  Ann.  Inst.Agron.  Motcou,  x.,  livr.  3  (1904)  pp.  507-44  (Russian). 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  517-18. 

Gabotto,  L. — Contribuzione  alia  Florae  Micologica  Pedemontana.  (Contribution 
to  the  mycological  flora  of  Piedmont.) 

[The  list  comprises  130  species.]  Nuovo  Giorn.  Bot.  Ital,  xii.  (1905) 

pp.  53-77. 
Holland,  J.  N. — Economic  Fungi. 

[Lists  ol  edible  fungi  with  notes  on  some  of  the  species.] 

Naturalist,  1905,  pp.  93-6,  121-5. 
Hennings,  P. — Fungi  Japonici.    V. 

[A  continuation  of  lists  already  published ;   several  new 
species  of  niicrof  ungi  are  described.] 

Engler's  Bot.  Jahrb.,  xxxiv.  (1905)  pp.  593-60C. 
See  also  Hedwigia,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  10o\ 

„       Zwei  neue  Cudonieen   aus  der  Umgebung   Berlins.     (Two    new 
Cudoniese  from  near  Berlin.) 

Abhandl.  Bot.  Ver.  Prov.  Brandenb.,  xlvi.  (1904),  pp.  115-19 
(2  figs.).        See  also  Hedwigia,  xcviii.  (1905).  p.  107. 

„  „      Phaeosporella  Marchantiae  P.  Henn.  sp.  n. 

[The  fungus  was  growing  on  dead  thallus  of  Marchantia, 

and  was  associated  with  a  pyenidial  stage    very  like 

Phyllosticta  Marchantise.  Tom.  cit..  pp.  120-1. 

See  also  Hedwigia,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  107. 

Hohnel,  Fbanz  v.— Mycologische  Fragmente.  lxxvi. 

[The  paper  deals  with  the  synonymy  of  various  fungi.) 

L         r  r  Ann.  Mycol,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  187-90. 

Hone,  D.  S. — Minnesota  Helvellineae. 

[Full  description  of  the  different  species  occurring  in  Minnesota.] 

Minn.  Bot.  Studies,  ser.  iii.,  part  3  (1904)  pp.  309-21  (3  pie.). 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol,  iii.  (1905)  p.  198. 


480  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Lindkoth.  J.  I. — Mycologische  Mitteilungen  11-15.    ( My cological  contributions.) 
[Notes  on  known  species,  and  descriptions  of  new  forms. 

Acta  Soc.  pro  Fauna  et  Flora  Fenn.,  xxvi.  (1904)  18  pp.  (7  figs.). 

See  also  Ann.  Mycol,  iii.  (1905)  p.  198. 
M  thrill,  W.  A. — Terms  Applied  to  the  Surface  and  Surface  Appendages  of  Fungi. 
[A  glossary  of  botanical  terms,  more  especially  in  their  reference  to  fungi.] 

Torreya,  v.  ( 1905)  pp.  60-6. 

Reum — Psilopezia  Berk.  (Peltidium  Kalchbr.)  eine  in  Wasser  lebende  Discomy- 

ceten  Gattung.     (Psilopezia  syn.  Peltidium,  a  water-inhabiting  Discomycete.) 

[Discussion  of  the  different  species  of  the  genus,  not   all   growing  under 

water.]  Mitteil.  No.  34,  Bayer.  B<>t.  Ges.  Erforsch.  heim.  Flora,  1905, 

pp.  424-5.         See  also  Hedwigia,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  110. 

Rick,  J. — Fungi  austro-americani  exsiccati.     Fasc.  i.  Nos.   1-20;    Fasc.  ii.  Nos. 

20-40. 

[The  list  includes  Basidiomycetes  and  Ascomycetes.     There  are  a  number  of 
new  species.]  Berlin,  1905. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  586. 
Rostrup,  B. — Fungi  Groenlandiae  orientalis  in  expeditionibus  G.  Amdrup.  1898- 
1902,  a  G.  Amdrup,  N.  Hartz,  et  C.  Kruuse  collecti.     (Fungi 
from  Eastern  Greenland.) 

[Some  90  species  are  recorded ;  3  of  these  are  new.] 

Medd.  om  Gronland,  xxx.  (Copenhagen)  1904,  pp.  113-21. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  548. 

„         „      Mykologische  Meddelelser,  ix.  Spredt.  jagttagelser  fra  1889-1903. 

(Mycological  contributions,  ix.,  scattered  observations  from  1899- 

1903.) 

[A  number  of  new  species  are  described.] 

Bot.  Tidsskr.,  xxvi.  Heft  3  (Copenhagen)  1905, 

pp.  305-17.     (Re'sume'  in  French.) 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  548-9. 

„         „      Norske  Ascomyceter.     (Norwegian  Ascomycetes.) 

Videns-Selsk.  Skrift  L  Math.  Naturw.  KL,  1904.  No.  4. 
See  also  Zeitschr.  Pflanzenkr.  xv.  (1905)  p.  115. 
Saccardo,  P.  A. — Le  relequiae  dell'erbario  micologico  di  P.  A.  Micheli.     (Myco- 
logical herbarium  of  P.  A.  Micheli.) 

[The  author  has  published  a  revised  list  of  fungi  found  among  the  papers  of 
Micheli.]  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital,  No.  5  (1904). 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  464. 

Saccardo,  P.  A.   e   G.    B.    Traverso. — Micromiceti  italiani  nuovi  o  inter- 
essanti.     (New  or  interesting  Italian  Micrornycetes.) 

[Diagnoses  of  new  species,  and  observations  on  species  already  known.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  207-21  (1  fig.). 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  440. 
Scalia,  G. — Micrornycetes  aliquot  siculi  novi.     (Some  new  Micrornycetes.) 
[A  number  of  new  species  are  described.] 

Rend,  del  Congress.  Nazion.  di  Palermo,  1903,  pp.  177-88. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  440. 

St dow,  H.  &  P. — Novae  Fungorum  species  ii.  (Diagnoses  of  eight  new  species 
of  fungi.)  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  185-6. 

Tubeuf,  von. — Infectionsversuche  mit  Uridineen.  (Infection  experiments  with 
Uredineas.) 

[Experiments  were  made  with  Cxoma  spores  on  species  of  Salix,  and  with  the 
spores  of  Mcidium  strobilinum  on  Prunus  Padus.~\ 

Naturw,  Zeitsch.  Land  und  Forstw.,  iii.  (1905),  pp.  42-6  (8  figs.). 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  466. 

Ule,  E.— Mycothecea  Brasiliensis.  Cent.  1.  Fungi  exsiccati  praecipue  in  regione 
fluminis  Amazonici  et  nonnulli  apud  urbem  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  annis  1899-1903 
collecti.  (Fungus  exiccata,  chiefly  from  the  region  of  the  river  Amazon  and 
from  near  the  town  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  collected  during  the  years  1899-1903.) 

Berlin,  1905.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  549. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  481 

Lichens. 
(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Multi-nucleate  Condition  of  Lichen  Spores.* — In  the  genera 
Pertusaria,  MycoUastus  and  Ochrolechia,  the  ascus  spores  are  very  large, 
and  in  some  of  the  species  there  is  only  one  spore  in  the  ascus.  It 
seemed  probable  that  such  spores  would  be  multi-nucleate,  and  W.  Zopf 
has  proved  this  by  suitable  fixation  and  staining  of  fresh  material.  The 
nuclei  lie  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  and  are  connected  by  fine 
strands.  Zopf  calculated  that  in  the  spore  of  MycoUastus  sanguinarius 
there  were  300-400  nuclei.  Tulasne  and  De  Bary  have  already  found 
that  these  spores  germinated  by  a  large  number  of  pores  and  with  very 
fine  germ-tubes.  Such  tubes  would  allow  passage  into  them  of  the 
small  nuclei  of  the  spore. 

Lichenological  Notes.f — Max  Britzelmayer  publishes  a  list  of 
Lichens  collected  in  the  Bavarian  Alps,  with  notes  as  to  their  habitat. 
He  deprecates  the  splitting  of  species  where  the  difference  is  only  slight. 
Under  Gladonia  he  gives  examples  of  alterations  in  the  plant  induced  by 
change  of  environment.  CI.  gracilis  in  the  shade  of  the  woods  is 
whitish,  in  sunlight  it  becomes  brown  or  olive-coloured,  in  addition  to 
differences  of  form.  He  describes  various  forms  of  CI.  rangiformis  and 
the  varieties  of  Lecidella  goniophila  to  the  number  of  twenty. 

Studies  of  Usnea.l — Alceste  Arcangeli  gives  an  historical  sketch  of 
Usnea  sidphurea  with  its  geographical  distribution.  He  then  describes 
the  structure  and  anatomy  of  the  plant  and  its  colour,  the  gonidia  and 
the  reactions  to  various  chemicals.  He  is  inclined  to  unite  with  this 
species  the  genus  Neuropogon. 

In  another  paper  §  he  describes  Usnea  articulata,  and  criticises  the 
results  arrived  at  by  Jatta  in  his  study  of  this  species.  He  does  not 
look  on  the  thallus  as  peculiar  in  the  development  of  the  central 
cylinder  ;  he  considers  it  to  be  only  a  variety  of  U.  barbata. 

Britzelmayer,  M.— Lichenes  exsiccati  florae  Augsburgensis.     Supplementum  i. 
et  ii.     (Lichen  exsiccata  of  the  Augsburg  Flora.) 
[The  numbers  published  are  from  421  to  520.] 

Berlin :  R.  Friedlander  &  Sohn,  1904. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xeviii.  (1905)  pp.  420-1. 

Zahlbruckner,  A. — Vorarbeiten  zu  einer  Flechtenflora  Dalmatiens. 

[The  list  includes  diagnosis  of  several  new  species, 
with  a  critical  review  of  Dalmatian  specie* 
published  by  Rorber  in  1867.) 

Hester.  Bot.  Zeitschr.  lv.  (1905)  pp.  1-6  and 

55-69  (1  pi.). 


*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell..  xxiii  (1905)  pp.  121-2. 

t  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  199-217. 

t  Atti  Soc.  Tosc.  Sci.  Nat.  Memorie,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  152-66  (1  pi.),  bee  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  xeviii.  (1905)  p.  496.  _         ,      _  J 

§  Proc.  Verb.  Soc.  Tosc.  Sci.  Nat.,  xiv.  (1904)  No.  2,  pp.  46-52.  See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  xeviii.  (1905)  p.  466. 

Aug.  16th,  1905  -  K 


482  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Zaiilbri'ckner.  A. — Kryptogamae  exsiccatse  editaB  a  Museo  Palatino  Vindoben- 

ensi.     Cent.  x.-xi.     (Cryptogamic  exsiccata  issued  from 
the  Vienna  Museum.) 

[Cent.  x.  is  entirely  fun<ji,  and  mostly  microfun^i. 

Decades  25-8  of  Cent.  xi.  include  Lichens.    The 

plants  are  both  European  and  extra-European.] 

Ann.  K.  K.  Nat.  Hofmus.  Wien  Bd.,  xix. 

(1904)  pp.  379-427. 

See  also  Bot.  CentraJbl,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  334-7. 

,.  Lichenes  Oranenses   Hochrentinerani.     (Lichens   collected 

by  Hochreutiner  in  Oran.) 

[The  lichen  flora  resembles  that  of  Algiers.     Two 
new  forms  are  described.] 

Ann.  Conserv.  Jard.  Bot.  Geneve,  vii.-viii. 

(1903-4)  pp.  244-7. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  466. 

Lichenes  a  cl  Damazio  in  montitms  serra  do  Onro  Preto 
Brasilia  lecti  in  herb.  Barbey  -  Boissier  asservati. 
(Lichens  collected  by  Damazio  in  Brazil  and  preserved 
in  the  Barbey-Boissier  herbarium.) 

[27  Lichens  are  recorded.     Two  varieties  are  new.] 
Bull.  Herb.  Boiss.,  2nd  series,  iv.  (1905)  pp.  134-6. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.  xcviii.  (1905),  p.  467. 

Sch.izoph.yta. 
Schizomycetes. 

Bacterial  Origin  of  Macrozamia  Gum.* — It.  Greig  Smith  found  in 
a  film  preparation  made  from  a  transparent  colourless  and  gelatinous 
gum  exuding  from  the  fruit  of  the  Macrozamia  Spiralis,  a  short  rod- 
shaped  bacillus.  A  portion  of  the  stalk  attached  to  the  fruit  was  cut  off 
and  incubated  in  glucose-gelatin  for  two  days  at  30°  C.  The  molten 
medium  was  then  smeared  over  plates  of  laevulose-asparagin-tannin- 
agar,  and  from  the  slime  that  formed  an  organism  was  isolated.  A  gum 
prepared  from  the  slime  was  tested  and  compared  with  the  natural  gum  ; 
at  first  these  did  not  entirely  agree,  but  after  an  interval  of  six  months, 
during  which  the  organism  was  under  cultivation  in  the  laboratory,  it 
was  found  that  the  gums  both  gave  upon  hydrolysis  the  same  sugar-like 
body,  and  the  author,  considering  that  this  was  a  most  important  indi- 
cation of  their  identity,  has  no  doubt  that  the  bacillus  was  the  producer 
of  the  gum  exuded  from  the  fruit.  He  named  the  organism  the  Bacillus 
macrozamia}.  It  exists  as  short  rods  or  cocco-bacteria,  that  vary  in 
length  from  0  *  9  /x  to  2  •  2  /x,  and  in  breadth  from  0  ■  4  /*  to  0  •  8  yu. ;  they 
are  motile,  and  possess  numerous  peritrichous  flagella,  and  do  not  stain 
by  Gram.  It  forms  slime  at  ordinary  temperature  ;  it  does  not  grow 
under  anaerobic  conditions  ;  on  glusose-gelatin  plates  it  forms  white, 
glistening,  moist,  nipple-shaped  colonies,  and  there  is  no  liquefaction  of 
the  medium  ;  in  gelatin  stab  there  is  a  rough  white  growth  in  the 
track,  and  gas  bubbles  are  formed  in  the  medium  ;  on  saccharose  potato 
agar  a  raised  white  slime  is  produced,  and  the  medium  is  cleft  in  all 
directions  from  the  formation  of  gas  ;  in  broth  the  medium  is  rendered 
turbid,  and  carries  floating  broken  films  ;  indol  reaction  is  obtained,  and 

*  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  New  South  Wales,  xxix.  (1904)  p.  863. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  483 

nitrates  are   reduced   to   nitrites ;    milk   becomes    strongly   acid,   and 
"  appears  to  thicken." 

Researches  on  the  Bacteria  found  in  the  Intestine  of  the  Larva 
of  Mosca  Olearia.* — L.  Petri  describes  the  characters  of  an  organism 
isolated  from  the  proventrieular  caxsi  of  this  larva.  Cultures  were  made 
from  dilutions  of  the  contents  of  the  caeci,  and  grown  aerobically  on 
ordinary  media  ;  all  cultures  grown  under  anaerobic  conditions  remained 
sterile.  The  colonies  obtained  on  peptonised  agar  at  30°  C.  have  a 
circular  contour,  increasing  from  1  mm.  to  a  very  great  diameter ;  they 
are  of  a  yellow  ochre  colour  ;  they  have  a  central  conglomerate  portion, 
consisting  of  capsulated  elements  and  alternating  rings  of  freely  motile 
bacteria  and  capsulated  elements.  Growth  on  gelatin  is  very  slow,  and 
the  medium  is  liquefied.  The  yellow  colonies  are  composed  of  very 
short  cocco-bacilli,  which  attain  a  greater  length  on  media  containing 
large  quantities  of  fatty  matter,  and  in  the  intestine  of  the  larva.  The 
motile  forms  show  five  long  peritrichous  flagella  ;  the  yellow  pigment  is 
not  soluble.  From  its  possessing  a  voluminous  capsule  enclosing  often 
great  numbers  of  bacilli  and  resembling  a  true  Zoof/kea,  he  assigns  this 
organism  to  the  group  of  capsulated  bacteria  described  by  Babes  as  the 
genus  Ascobacterium.  The  bacillus  is  common  in  moist  soils,  and  is  con- 
stantly found  in  the  soil  of  the  olive,  and  has  been  isolated  from  the 
cortex  of  the  same  olive  plant,  and  at  the  end  of  the  larval  period,  from 
the  channels  excavated  by  the  larva  ;  the  larvae,  1^  mm.  long,  have 
their  four  caeci  completely  full  of  these  bacilli,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that 
this  accumulation  of  bacilli  constitutes  a  tenth  of  the  entire  volume  of 
-the  larva. 

The  resistance  of  the  bacillus  to  acids  is  very  weak  ;  a  0*01  p.c.  solu- 
tion of  tartaric  acid  is  sufficient  to  arrest  or  impede  its  development ;  its 
resistance  to  fatty  acids  is  much  greater.  It  produces  oxalic  acid  by  its 
oxidising  action  on  hydrocarbons  ;  nitrates  are  not  reduced  ;  it  does  not 
form  indol ;  it  secretes  a  proteolytic  enzyme  that  dissolves  gelatin  and 
peptonises  milk  ;  during  its  capsulated  state  it  produces  a  substance  of 
mucilaginous  consistence  that  has  the  properties  of  pectin.  From 
experiments  made  to  ascertain  the  nature  of  its  action  on  olive  oil,  it  is 
suggested  that  the  lipolytic  action  of  the  bacillus  is  effected  by  an  ecto- 
enzyme  poured  out  into  the  fluid  culture,  since,  if  this  latter  is  filtered 
and  placed  in  contact  with  a  monobutterine,  it  shows  a  very  energetic 
lipolytic  action.  The  abundant  secretion  by  this  organism  of  a  lipase, 
and  its  localisation  in  the  intestine  of  the  larva,  whose  nourishment  is 
composed  chiefly  of  fatty  substance,  makes  it  probable  that  between  the 
larva  and  the  bacterium  there  exists  a  symbiotic  relationship. 

Micro-organism  showing  Rosette  Formation.!  -  -  Mabel  Jones 
describes  a  spirillum-like  organism  isolated  from  water  and  sewage. 
Twenty-four  hours'  old  cultures  on  agar  consist  of  short,  plump  commas 
1'5/i  —  S/i  long,  and  0'5fi  —  0'7 fi  broad,  with  pointed  ends,  and 
arranged  as  spiral  filaments,  sigmaa  and  rosettes,  which  last  are  in  no 
way  an  agglutination  phenomenon ;  the  single  polar  flagellum  of  each 

*  Atti  Reale  Accad.  Lincei,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  399. 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2to  Abt.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  459. 

2    K   2 


484  SUMMARY    OF  CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

organism  i.s  pointed  towards  an  unseen  centre,  and  the  flagella  take 
ordinary  stains  readily;  rosette  formation  is  favoured  by  culture  on 
glucose  agar  under  anaerobic  conditions.  The  unattached  organism  is 
actively  motile,  the  flagellnm  varying  in  length  from  two  to  five  times 
that  of  the  single  cell  ;  the  rosettes  are  non-motile.  The  organism  is 
reproduced  by  transverse  division  ;  spore  formation  was  never  observed  ; 
it  does  not  stain  by  Gram  ;  growth  on  gelatin  shows  creamy  white  to 
yellow  colonies,  and  there  is  slow  late  liquefaction  of  the  medium  ;  in  a 
gelatin  stab,  a  third  of  the  medium  is  liquefied  after  a  month  ;  grown 
in  glucose  agar,  it  formed  no  gas,  but  the  flagella  were  much  elongated  ; 
litmus  lactose  agar  is  decolorised  after  2  weeks,  but  no  alteration 
occurs  in  neutral  red  agar  ;  on  blood  serum  at  87°  C.  there  is  formed  a 
delicate  glistening,  slightly  opaque  line,  and  occasionally  distinct  round 
colonies  8  mm.  in  diameter  ;  no  liquefaction  of  the  medium  occurs  ;  on 
potato  it  forms  moist  patches,  and  shows  many  involution  forms,  but  no 
rosette  formation  ;  broth  cultures  are  uniformly  clouded  after  24  hours 
at  37°  C,  and  show  a  blue-white  pellicle  clinging  to  the  walls  of  the 
tube  ;  hanging  drops  show  abundant  rosette  formation  :  litmus  milk  is 
decolorised  after  3  weeks,  and  after  44  days  it  becomes  intensely  alka- 
line and  very  viscid  ;  indol  formation  was  not  observed  ;  no  fermentation 
takes  place  when  grown  in  dextrose,  saccharose,  or  lactose  ;  it  is  a 
potential  anaerobe,  but  growth  is  slower  and  less  abundant  in  the  absence 
of  oxygen  ;  its  optimum  temperature  is  37°  C. ;  it  is  killed  by  moist  heat 
at  55°  C.  for  10  minutes  ;  experiments  to  test  its  pathogenicity  on 
guinea-pigs  and  pigeons  were  negative. 

Bacterial  Niveau  of  Beijerinck.* — K.  B.  Lehman  and  H.  Curchod 
have  studied  the  formation  of  these  niveaus  in  B.  typhi,  B.  coli,  Vibrio 
cholera,  B.  pyocyanem,  and  others.  The  term  "  niveau  "  is  applied  only 
to  a  collection  of  bacteria  stretching  as  a  horizontal  skin  across  the  fluid 
of  the  tube  ;  besides  the  niveau  they  also  distinguish  the  diffuse  cloudi- 
ness of  more  or  less  compact  collections  of  bacteria  that  are  formed  either 
above  or  below  the  niveau  ;  between  the  niveau  and  the  cloudiness  there 
is  a  more  or  less  well  developed  clear  zone.  They  employed  the  follow- 
ing method  : — 5  c.cm.  of  ordinary  nutrient  gelatin  was  poured  into  a 
sterile  tube,  and,  after  solidifying,  this  was  inoculated  with  a  pure  culture 
of  an  organism  and  covered  with  16  c.cm.  of  sterile  distilled  water,  so 
that  the  surface  of  the  water  stood  at  the  height  of  about  8  cm. ;  the 
tubes  were  placed  (upright)  at  room  temperature  and  guarded  against 
shaking. 

With  B.  typhi,  B.  coli  and  B.  putidus  the  niveau  is  well  developed 
after  24  hours,  and  above  it  is  seen  a  strong  cloudiness  ^  cm.  high  which 
is  not  separated  from  the  niveau  by  any  clear  zone,  and  which  disappears 
after  2-3  days  ;  below  the  niveau,  especially  with  B.  typhi  and  B.  coli, 
there  is  a  thick  cloudiness  ;  with  Vibrio  cholera  there  is  a  cloudiness 
above  and  below  the  niveau,  but  the  niveau  lasts  at  most  only  18  days. 

AVith  B.  pyocyaneiis  there  is  at  first  a  thin  niveau  with  an  underlying 
cloudiness  and  no  intermediate  clear  zone,  but  after  the  seventh  day, 
when  the  niveau  has  risen  to  its  highest  point  and  has  begun  to  sink,  a 
cloudiness  commences  to  form  above  the  niveau. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2to  Abt.  xiv.  (1905)  p.  U9. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  485 

With  B.Jiuorescens  a  distinct  cloudiness  is  present  under  the  niveau, 
■which  is  separated  by  a  sharp  clear  zone  ;  there  is  also  a  cloudiness  above 
the  niveau,  but  this  is  feeble  after  30  days. 

With  B.  subtil  is  there  is  formed  at  first  a  niveau  with  a  very  slight 
underlying  cloudiness,  the  clear  zone  not  being  well  marked  ;  the  niveau 
soon  disappears,  and  flocculi,  consisting  of  sporulating  threads,  appear  in 
the  fluid. 

The  authors  never  observed  double  niveaus.  They  found,  as 
Beijerinck  had  seen,  that  the  niveaus  develop  first  in  the  lower  strata 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  nutrient  material  and  then  rise  slowly,  but 
that  after  9-12  days  they  begin  to  sink  again.  Sharp  niveaus  are  seen 
to  form  only  with  motile  varieties.  The  niveaus  appear  where  the 
amount  of  underlying  nutriment  and  overlying  oxygen  form  an  opti- 
mum for  the  bacterial  development.  By  pipetting  off  samples  at 
different  levels  and  making  plates,  they  showed  that  the  number  of 
bacilli  were  much  greater  in  the  niveau  than  in  the  cloudiness  above  or 
below  ;  thus  in  the  case  of  B.  typhi  the  average  for  three  observations 
showed  2  colonies  from  the  upper  cloudiness,  43  colonies  from  the  niveau, 
and  23  from  the  underlying  cloudiness  ;  and  for  B.  coli  2,  100,  and  ;">7 
respectively. 

Comparative  Study  of  Sixty-six  Varieties  of  Gas-producing  Bac- 
teria found  in  Milk.* — F.  C.  Harrison  finds  that  the  gas-producing 
bacteria  of  milk  belong  to  a  large  group  of  organisms,  consisting  of 
varying  sized  rods  with  rounded  ends,  that  stain  unevenly  and  are 
decolorised  by  Gram  ;  they  grow  well  on  ordinary  media  at  room  tern 
perature,  better  at  37°  C. ;  they  do  not  liquefy  gelatin  ;  they  produc* 
acid  in  milk,  which  is  usually  coagulated  ;  they  are  potential  anaerobes 
reduce  nitrates  and  ferment  lactose,  glucose,  and  other  saccharoses.  Severai 
are  typical  B.  coli  and  B.  lactis  aerogenes,  and  between  these  extremes 
there  are  manifold  varieties.  The  author  attempts  to  classify  these  into 
seven  groups.  He  found  that  the  neutral  red  test  was  of  no  value  in 
separating  the  members  of  the  coli  group,  and  the  agglutination  test  was 
only  of  limited  value  in  diagnosing  closely  related  varieties  of  B.  coli 
and  B.  lactis  aerogenes.  The  percentage  of  gas-producing  forms  to  the 
total  bacterial  content  of  milks  varied  from  a  fraction  of  1  p.c.  to  31  '  8 
p.c. ;  the  organisms  probably  came  from  manure,  flies,  and  in  some  cases 
from  the  udder  of  the  cow.  Gas-producing  bacteria  tainted  cheese,  and 
the  coloured  cheeses  gave  the  appearance  known  as  "  mottled,"  which  is 
probably  the  result  of  the  bleaching  action  of  the  gases  generated. 

Bacillus  Involutus.t— L.  Waelsch  describes  the  bacterial  aspects  of 
an  organism  obtained  from  non-venereal  preputial  secretion.  On  glyce- 
rin-agar  and  gelatin-agar  plates  inoculated  with  smegma,  there  appeared 
after  24  hours  shining  dew-drop  colonies  the  size  of  millet  seeds  ;  these 
were  round,  sharply  ^contoured  with  toothed  margins,  and  contained 
strongly  retractile  granules,  which  were  seen  to  consist  of  short  rods 
lying  in  various  directions.  The  rods  were  of  various  sizes  and  shapes, 
with  rounded  ends,  and  showed  extraordinary  involution  forms ;  they 

•  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2<e  Abt.  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  349  and  472. 
t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  l,e  Abt.,  xxxviii.(1905)  p.  645. 


486  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

stained  by  Gram,  but  at  times  they  ended  in  long  threads  which  were 
decolorised  l>y  this  method  ;  with  Loeffler's  methylen-blue  the  body  of 
the  organism  was  only  faintly  stained,  but  showed  the  presence  of  dark- 
bine  grannies.  On  gelatin  plates  after  two  days  there  appeared  minute, 
coarsely  granular  colonies  with  finely  toothed  margins,  which  by  the 
fifth  day  showed  yellow-brown  centres,  and  later  developed  into  flowery 
rosettes  with  black-brown  centres ;  the  gelatin  is  not  liquefied.  On 
glycerin-agar  slope  there  appeared  a  dirty  yellowish-white  streak  with  a 
finely  toothed  margin  which  became  more  marked  in  older  growths  ;  in  the 
water  of  condensation  were  yellow-white  soft  thread-like  masses.  There 
was  similar  growth  on  glucose  agar  with  no  formation  of  gas.  On 
human  blood  serum-agar  there  was  very  rapid  growth,  the  entire  surface 
of  the  medium  after  48  hours  being  covered  by  a  grey-white  shining 
membrane,  consisting  of  coccal  forms,  short  threads  and  stout  bacilli, 
also  many  long  rods  and  spindles.  Broth  cultures  after  five  days  showed 
uniform  cloudiness  and  a  thread-like  deposit,  but  no  pellicle  formation  ^ 
the  culture  consisted  chiefly  of  threads,  but  there  were  also  many  involu- 
tion forms.  There  was  good  growth  on  litmus  milk  which  remained 
neutral  and  uncoagulated,  and  consisted  chiefly  of  mono-,  diplp-,  and  short 
streptococcal  forms.  On  potato  there  was  a  slow  and  scanty  growth, 
only  with  difficulty  to  be  differentiated  from  the  medium.  The  organism 
was  not  pathogenic  for  rabbits,  guinea-pigs,  rats,  or  white  mice. 

Micro-organisms  of  Meat  Poisoning.* — H.  de  R.  Morgan  records 
his  observations  on  these  organisms.  He  gives  details  of  the  cultural 
reactions  of  41  different  strains  of  intestinal  and  food-poisoning  bacilli. 
He  found  that  culturally  and  biologically  the  bacilli  of  the  enteriditis 
group  and  of  the  paratyphoid  group  include  most  of  the  organisms 
that  give  rise  to  food  poisoning,  and  to  cases  of  disease  resembling 
typhoid  fever.  To  determine  whether  the  bacilli  of  these  two  groups 
were  represented  by  analogous  types  in  the  intestines  of  normal  animals, 
he  examined  fa3ces  obtained  from  guinea-pigs,  rabbits,  sheep  and  pigs, 
and  scrapings  from  the  mucous  surfaces  of  the  small  and  large  intestines 
of  three  pigs,  three  sheep,  two  bullocks,  one  horse,  one  calf,  and  one 
child  dead  from  broncho-pneumonia.  Emulsions  from  each  in  distilled 
water  were  made,  and  |  c.cm.  added  to  tubes  of  bile  salt  dulcit  broth 
coloured  with  neutral  red,  and  incubated  at  42°  C.  for  24  hours.  Of 
these  cultures  4  c.cm.  were  injected  subcutaneously  into  a  number  of 
guinea-pigs ;  from  the  heart  blood  of  these  animals,  that  died  within 
four  days,  cultures  were  made  on  bile  salt  dulcit  broth  and  incubated  at 
42°  C.  for  24  hours ;  if  gas  and  acid  were  produced  then  neutral  red 
bile  salt  agar  plates  were  made  and  incubated  at  42°  C  for  24  hours  ; 
from  the  colourless  colonies  bile  salt  dulcit  broth  tubes  were  inoculated 
and  incubated  at  42°  C.  for  24  hours,  and  those  tubes  that  gave  gas 
and  acid  were  used  to  inoculate  broths  containing  glucose,  dulcite, 
mannite,  lactose,  cane-sugar  and  pepton,  also  tubes  of  litmus  milk, 
agar  and  gelatin.  By  this  process  he  isolated  21  cultures  of  the 
enteriditis  type,  namely,  motor  rods  like  B.  enteriditis  of  Gaertner,  not 
staining  by  Gram,  showing  cream-coloured  growth  on  agar  and  gelatin, 

*  Brit.  Med.  Journ..  1905,  i.  p.  1257. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  487 

which  latter  is  not  liquefied,  giving  acid  and  gas  on  glucose,  dulcite  and 
mannite  broths,  not  affecting  lactose  or  cane-sugar  broths,  rendering 
litmus  milk  at  first  acid  and  later  alkaline,  but  producing  no  clotting. 
He  also  obtained  10  cultures  of  the  paratyphoid  A  type,  which  agreed 
culturally  with  those  of  the  other  group,  excepting  that  the  litmus  milk 
remained  acid  without  clotting,  and  indol  was  produced  at  the  end  of 
five  days.  The  scrapings  from  the  intestines  yielded  a  larger  number 
of  positive  results  than  the  fasces,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  bacilli  are 
parasitic  on  the  mucous  surface  of  the  intestine.  As  regards  patho- 
genicity, the  cultures  of  the  B.  enteriditis  type  were  uniformly  fatal  in  a 
few  hours,  whereas  those  of  the  paratyphoid  A  group  were  much  less 
virulent,  25  p.c.  of  the  inoculated  guinea-pigs  recovering.  The  presence 
of  a  toxin  in  the  enteriditis  cultures  was  demonstrated  by  injecting 
filtered  broth  cultures  intraperitoneally,  the  animals  dying  within 
24  hours. 

He  repeated  his  experiments,  but  made  direct  cultivations  from  the 
scrapings  of  the  intestines  without  previously  passing  them  through 
guinea-pigs  ;  in  this  series  out  of  38  colonies  25  were  of  the  para- 
typhoid A  group  and  none  of  the  B.  enteriditis  type,  showing  that  these 
latter  are  really  much  less  common  in  the  normal  intestine  of  animals 
than  those  of  the  other  type,  and  that  their  apparently  greater  frequency 
in  the  first  series  of  experiments  was  due  to  their  greater  virulence. 

He  gives  details  of  his  agglutination  experiments,  and  concludes 
that  in  this  respect  the  organisms  fall  into  three  groups,  namely,  (1) 
B.  enteriditis  Aertryche,  or  hog  cholera  type,  (2)  B.  enteriditis,  psitta- 
cosis type,  (3)  B.  paratyphoid  A,  unknown  type,  not  agreeing  with  either 
the  bacillus  of  Schott  Muller  or  that  of  Brion  and  Kayser. 

New  Microbe  of  Pulmonary  Phthisis.* — v.  Schreen  finds  that  tuber- 
culosis and  phthisis  are  two  different  processes  resulting  from  two 
organisms  that  differ  in  structural  and  biological  characters.  The 
microbe  of  phthisis  is  a  branched  sporulating  thread,  which  under 
185  magnifications  appears  about  1  mm.  thick.  At  first  the  soft  threads 
penetrate  the  alveolar  epithelial  cells,  then  throwing  out  lateral  buds 
they  form  a  fine  network  ;  the  cell  protoplasm  is  drawn  up  by  the  or- 
ganism, and  the  atrophic  nucleus,  deprived  of  its  chromatin,  appears 
suspended  in  the  centre  of  the  transparent  mesh.  Neighbouring  mycelia 
unite  to  form  a  tangled  mass.  The  threads  are  hollow  and  without 
septa ;  on  the  end  branches  there  appear  small  capsules,  which  at  first 
are  homogeneous,  but  later  have  a  cavity  with  granular  contents,  which 
in  the  mature  state  are  transformed  into  bundles  of  branched  threads, 
which,  leaving  the  capsule,  attack  the  epithelial  cells  of  the  nearest 
alveolus.  The  author  considers  that  this  microbe  does  not  form  true 
spores,  and  that  it  is  not  to  be  classed  with  the  Hyphomycetes.  He  did 
not  obtain  it  in  pure  culture,  and  he  gives  no  details  of  his  methods 
of  staining. 

Tuberculosis  and  Pseudo-tuberculosis.f — F.  Sanfelice  has  isolated 
from  the  air  a  number  of  cultures  of  Streptotriche*,  and  has  examined 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt..  ltu  Abt.  Ref.,  xxxvi.  (11)05)  p.  561. 
t  Tom.  cit.  p.  572. 


488  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    KKSEAKCHES    RELATING   TO 

them  as  to  their  morphology,  pathogenicity,  and  their  relation  to  the 
tubercle  bacillus.  He  classes  them  according  to  their  pigment  produc- 
tion on  artificial  media  into  three  groups:  Str.  albus,  Str.  flavus,  and 
Str.  violaceus.  Those  of  the  first  group  are  not  acid-fast,  those  of  the 
second  group  only  slightly  so,  whereas  those  of  the  third  group  are 
completely  acid-fast.  Among  the  first  series  two  were  pathogenic  for 
animals  with  lesions  indistinguishable  from  tuberculosis  ;  in  the  second 
group  none  were  pathogenic  ;  and  in  the  third  group  almost  all  gave 
virulent  cultures  pathogenic  for  animals,  and  producing  tuberculous 
lesions  containing  acid-fast  organisms. 

Renal  Tuberculosis  in  a  Carp.* — Hautefeuille  describes  a  case  of 
tuberculosis  in  a  carp.  For  some  weeks  it  had  presented  a  tumour  the 
size  of  a  nut,  on  either  side  of  the  body  about  the  region  of  the  posterior 
orifice,  and  below  the  lateral  line  ;  the  tumour  was  covered  by  the  in- 
teguments, was  soft  and  fluctuating,  that  on  the  left  side  was  slightly 
larger,  and  had  two  small  ulcerations,  from  which  exuded  a  thick 
yellowish  liquid  which  was  found  to  contain  a  large  number  of  small 
bacilli  3  /i  to  6/1  long,  some  being  free,  others  being  included  in  the 
cells  ;  these  rods  stained  only  faintly  by  ordinary  dyes,  but  after  half  an 
hour  in  warm  or  cold  carbol-fuchsin  they  resisted  decoloration  by  chlor- 
hydrate  of  anilin.  Various  media  were  inoculated  from  the  contents  of 
the  tumour,  and  incubated  at  37°  C.  and  25°  C.  The  autopsy  of  the 
animal  showed  that  the  alimentary  canal,  liver,  spleen,  and  branchii  were 
healthy,  but  in  the  heart  blood  were  found  many  bacilli.  The  kidneys 
were  found  to  be  incorporated  in  the  pathogenic  tissue  of  the  tumour  on 
either  side  ;  this  tissue  consisted  of  a  gelatinous  mass  of  small  embryonic 
cells  and  many  giant  cells,  all  containing  bacilli,  and  side  by  side  with 
these  were  renal  glomeruli. 

The  cultures  that  were  incubated  at  37°  C.  gave  negative  results,  but 
those  at  25°  C.  commenced  on  the  third  day.  In  broth  there  was  no 
cloudiness,  but  a  flocculent  deposit,  which  was  more  vigorous  in  glycerin- 
glucose  broth  ;  on  potato  there  appeared  on  the  fourth  day  round  yellow- 
white  granular  colonies  with  a  wrinkled  and  slightly  fatty  aspect ;  growth 
was  less  vigorous  on  agar,  the  milky  white  colonies  not  appearing  till 
the  fifth  day  ;  no  growth  was  obtained  on  gelatin  direct,  but  by  sub- 
culturing  on  gelatin  from  the  first  broth  tube,  and  incubating  at  12°  C, 
faintly  visible  colonies  appeared  on  the  eighteenth  day  ;  the  gelatin  was 
never  liquefied  ;  sub-cultures  on  potato  at  32°  C.  grew  at  the  end  of  four 
days.  The  bacilli  of  the  cultures  presented  the  same  characters  as  those 
seen  in  the  tissue  ;  in  the  older  cultures  they  were  larger  and  sometimes 
showed  branched  forms ;  they  stained  very  feebly  with  the  ordinary 
dyes,  but  resisted  the  decoloration  by  dilute  acids  ;  the  odour  of  the 
older  cultures  reminded  one  of  that  of  peach  blossom. 

Carp  of  the  same  species  inoculated  with  the  pulp  of  the  tumour 
died  at  the  end  of  six  days,  with  bacilli  in  the  heart  blood,  liver,  kidney, 
and  spleen,  but  no  reproduction  of  a  similar  tumour  could  be  obtained. 
A  frog  inoculated  intraperitoneally  with  the  pulp  of  the  tumour  died 
after  two  months  with  bacilli  in  the  blood,  and  numerous  granulations 
in  the  peritoneum  ;  a  second  frog  survived  only  three  weeks  ;    a  sub- 

*  Mem.  Soc.  Linn.  (Amiens,  1904),  p.  223. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  489 

sequent  inoculation  of  a  carp  showed  that  by  the  passage  of  the  organism 
through  the  frog  its  virulence  had  been  increased.  A  guinea-pig  sur- 
vived the  inoculation  from  the  initial  pulp  for  three  months.  The 
bacillus  appeared  to  be  pathogenic  for  cold-blooded  animals,  but  in- 
nocuous to  the  warm-blooded.  The  author  considers  that  the  original 
infection  was  by  the  ingestion  of  human  tuberculous  expectoration  in 
the  aquarium  water. 

"  Barszcz."* — M.  K.  Panek  describes  the  bacteriological  and  chemical 
aspects  of  "  Barszcz,"  a  fermentation  product  of  beetroot,  largely  used  as 
a  food,  especially  in  invalid  diet,  in  certain  parts  of  Poland.  The  beet- 
root is  cleaned,  peeled  and  cut  in  slices,  and  placed  in  an  earthen  vessel, 
and  covered  two  or  three  fingers  deep  with  soft  water  ;  after  standing 
in  a  warm  place  for  several  days  fermentation  sets  in,  and  after  a  week 
the  process  is  complete,  and  the  Barszcz  is  filtered  through  linen  and 
placed  in  the  cellar  ;  it  is  a  viscid  thread-like  fluid  of  a  raspberry-red 
colour,  aromatic  smell,  and  pleasant,  sweet,  acid  taste.  The  author  finds 
that  this  fluid  is  the  result  of  a  slime  fermentation  caused  by  a  specific 
micro-organism,  B.  betm  viscosum,  present  in  the  macerating  liquid  of 
the  beetroot  at  18°-20°  C. ;  at  a  higher  temperature  than  25°  C,  the 
beet  juice  undergoes  lactic  fermentation,  which  makes  it  sour.  B.  beta, 
viscosum  is  a  non-motile  short  rod  0 ' 5 //.  broad  by  0  •  H  /a  - 1  •  0  /*  long, 
with  rounded  ends,  and  is  often  arranged  in  pairs  and  chains,  and  on 
sugar-free  media  has  a  coccal  appearance  ;  it  stains  well  by  aniline  dyes, 
and  by  Gram.  On  sugar-free  broth  there  is  but  slight  growth,  the  fluid 
remains  clear,  and  after  several  days  only  a  very  small  deposit  is  formed ; 
in  2  p.c.  dextrose  broth  there  is  cloudiness  and  abundant  deposit ;  in 
saccharose  broth  at  17°-20°  C,  the  medium  is  clouded  and  converted 
into  a  slimy  mass  from  the  production  of  dextran.  On  gelatin  plates  it 
grows  minute  colonies  0-3  mm.-0'5  mm.  in  diameter,  which  are  readily 
removed  from  the  surface,  have  a  golden-yellow  colour  by  transmitted 
light,  show  a  finely  granular  structure,  and  round,  regular,  transparent 
margins  ;  the  gelatin  is  not  liquefied.  On  cane-sugar  gelatin  plates  after 
48  hours,  transparent  drop-like  surface  colonies  are  formed,  which  later 
become  irregular  in  shape  from  the  production  of  slime,  they  unite  with 
each  other,  become  cloudy,  and  appear  as  a  slimy,  stringy  fluid.  On 
ordinary  agar,  small  dewdrop  colonies  are  formed,  that  later  run  together 
but  do  not  produce  slime.  On  10-20  p.c.  cane-sugar  agar  slime  is 
formed,  and  later  there  is  softening  and  liquefaction  of  the  agar.  Milk 
is  coagulated  after  the  sixth  day.  On  potato  there  is  a  barely  perceptible 
growth  and  no  slime  production  ;  but  on  beetroot  after  two  days,  there 
appears  a  shining  carmine-red  slimy  film  that  spreads  over  the  surface. 
The  optimum  temperature  is  between  17°  and  20°  C. ;  at  30°  C.  there  is 
good  growth,  but  only  slight  production  of  slime  ;  at  37°  C.  the  growth 
is  slight,  and  there  is  no  formation  of  slime  ;  it  is  killed  after  five 
minutes  at  64°  C.     It  is  a  potential  anaerobe. 

Bacterial    Infection   of  Cabbages.t  —  G.    Delacroix    describes    a 
disease  occurring  in  several  varieties  of  cabbage,  especially  in  the  cauli- 

*  Anzeig.  Akad.  "Wiss.,  i.  (Krakau,  1905)  p.  5. 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (190:>)  p.  1356. 


490  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

flower,  but  not  found  in  the  Brussels  sprout,  and  characterised  by  a 
necrosis  and  livid  coloration  of  the  leaves  affected.  On  microscopic 
examination  the  diseased  cells  were  seen  to  contain  a  number  of  bacteria 
which  the  author  has  shown  to  be  the  cause  of  the  disease.  The 
organisms  are  motile  rods  with  blunt  ends,  1  ■  25  //.-l  ■  75  fx  long  and 
0'5  //.-()•  75  fi  broad  ;  they  grow  well  on  ordinary  media,  which  acquire 
a  pale  green  fluorescent  colour  after  the  second  day,  and  later  become 
brown  and  lose  their  fluorescence.  Broth  becomes  clouded,  has  a  dirty 
white  deposit,  and  in  young  cultures  there  is  a  delicate  pellicle ;  on 
gelatin  it  forms  small  shining  convex  circular  colonies  of  a  dirty  white 
colour,  the  gelatin  not  being  liquefied  ;  on  agar  similar  colonies  are 
formed,  but  the  green  coloration  of  the  medium  is  less  than  on  the 
gelatin  ;  potato  is  coloured  a  vivid  brown  ;  no  production  of  gas  was 
observed  on  any  medium.  The  organism  stains  by  ordinary  dyes  but 
not  by  Gram.  The  presence  of  spores  or  flagella  could  not  be  demon- 
strated. The  author  has  assigned  it  the  name  of  Bacillus  brassiccevori/s. 
Several  species  of  cabbage  were  successfully  infected  both  from  the  pulp 
of  the  diseased  plant  and  from  the  first  culture  of  the  bacillus  ;  the 
pathogenic  action  of  the  tissue  is  probably  caused  by  a  bacterial  secre- 
tion. The  author  considers  that  this  disease  is  distinct  from  that  caused 
by  Pseudomonas  campestris  (Erwin  F.  Smith),  aud  also  from  that  pro- 
duced by  B.  oleracece,  (F.  C.  Harrison),  since  it  differs  from  these  both 
in  the  appearance  of  the  disease  and  in  the  characters  of  the  organism. 

Swine  Septicaemia.* — Grips,  Glage,  and  Nieberle  have  made  a 
detailed  study  of  this  subject,  and  give  a  description  of  the  symptoms  and 
course  of  the  disease,  also  its  morbid  anatomy,  epidemiology  and  bac- 
teriology. They  find  that  it  affects  young  animals,  chiefly  pigs  ;  that 
cold,  change  of  food,  and  rough  weather  increase  the  severity  of  the 
disease,  and  that  its  prevalence  rises  with  the  onset  of  winter.  The 
incubation  period  is  3-17  days  ;  fever  and  increased  frequency  of  the 
pulse  is  not  the  rule  :  indeed,  in  fatal  cases  the  temperature  is  usually 
subnormal.  The  infection  is  characterised  by  catarrh  of  the  mucous 
membranes,  suppurations  and  severe  inflamations,  nervous  symptoms, 
digestive  disturbances,  and  skin  eruptions.  The  authors  find  that  the 
disease  is  caused  by  the  Grips  bacillus,  varying  sized  rods  that  exhibit 
neither  motility  nor  spore  formation  ;  it  stains  well  by  basic  anilin  dyes, 
especially  with  carbol-f uchsin,  but  only  feebly  by  Gram  ;  it  grows  either 
aerobically  or  anaerobically,  but  with  frequent  subculture  it  loses  its 
vitality  ;  it  grows  best  at  blood  heat,  and  serum  and  milk  are  the  most 
favourable  media ;  colonies  appear  on  serum  after  2-7  days,  and  later 
the  medium  is  almost  completely  liquefied  ;  in  serum  broth  a  grey 
flocculent  deposit  is  formed.  Sterilised  milk  appears  to  be  a  more 
certain  medium  than  serum  ;  in  24  hours  there  is  a  good  growth,  and 
after  48  hours  the  milk  has  begun  to  clot,  and  a  clear  whey  separates 
out  after  4  or  5  days.  This  organism  is  only  rarely  pathogenic  for 
guinea  pigs ;  for  white  mice  it  is  fatal  after  intraperitoneal  injection  ; 
rabbits  die  in  3-5  days  after  an  intra-peritoneal  injection  of  7  c.cm. 
showing  at  the  autopsy  numerous  encapsuled  abscesses  in  the  abdominal 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  Kef.  1 te  Abt..  xxxviii.  (1905)  p.  4S8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY.    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  491 

cavity  ;  from  these  abscesses  pure  cultures  of  the  bacillus  can  ^  readily  be 
obtained. 

Clostridium  Polymyxa  Prazmowski.* — M.  Gruber  identifies  with 
this  organism  a  bacillus  that  he  isolated  from  pasteurised  milk,  tin- 
decomposition  of  which  he  attributes  to  this  organism.  Pasteurised 
milk  was  kept  in  sterile  Erlemeyer  flasks  at  18°-20°  C. ;  after  decom- 
position had  taken  place  and  the  clear  whey  had  separated  from  the 
casein  clot,  he  distributed  portions  of  these  into  tubes  of  broth,  and 
after  shaking  them  up  thoroughly  they  were  exposed  to  98°  C.  for  one 
minute,  and  from  these  broths  were  made  anaerobic  shake  cultures  and 
three  dilutions  of  aerobic  glucose-agar  plates  ;  the  shake  cultures  after 
several  days  at  :-U°  C.  showed  a  number  of  colonies  of  the  same  variety 
of  bacillus,  all  of  which  produced  the  characteristic  decomposition  of 
sterilised  milk.  The  bacillus  varies  in  length  from  3  •  50  /*  to  7  ■  0  /»  ; 
the  young  individuals  are  distinctly  motile,  and  peritrichous  flagella  can 
be  demonstrated  with  difficulty  ;  spore  formation  occurs  in  aerobic 
cultures,  but  growth  is  better  under  anaerobic  conditions.  On  gelatin 
the  surface  colonies  have  peculiar  irregular  fantastic  margins  with  small 
worm-like  processes  ;  after  a  few  days  the  gelatin  commences  to  liquefy  ; 
in  broth  after  24  hours  there  is  a  general  cloudiness  and  a  formation 
of  gas,  and  after  2  or  3  days  a  pellicle  and  a  slimy  thready  deposit  are 
noticeable ;  in  the  pellicle  the  rods  are  spindle-shaped  and  exhibit 
spores  that  are  either  central  or  polar  ;  it  ferments  mannite,  glucose, 
maltose,  galactose,  xylose,  arabinose,  raffinose,  and  methylglycosid,  and 
cane  sugar,  but  does  not  ferment  lsevulose. 

Herzog,  M. — The  Plague,  its  Bacteriology,  Morbid  Anatomy,  and  Histopathology, 
including  a  consideration  of  Insects  as  Plague  Carriers. 

Pub.  Bureau  Govt.  Lab.  Manila,  No.  23  (1904)  149  pp..  27  figa. 

Wherby,W.  B. — Glanders,  its  Diagnosis  and  Prevention,  together  with  a  Report  on 
Human  Glanders,  and  notes  on  the  Bacteriology  and  Polymorphism  of  Bacillus 
mallei.  Op.  cit..  No.  24  (1904)  27  pp..  7  pis. 

Wright,  J.  H. — Biology  of  the  Micrc-organism  of  Actinomycosis. 

Pub.  Massachusetts  Gen.  Hosp.,  i.  (1905)  pp.  1-56  (10  pis.). 


Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2*  Abt,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  353. 


492  SUMMARY    OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES. 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.    Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 
(1);  Stands. 

Koristka's  Large  Model  Mineralogical  Microscope.! — This  instru- 
ment (fiir.  85),  fitted  with  the  most  recent  improvements,  was  constructed 
under  the  direction  of  Professor  L.  Brugnatelli. 

The  upper  end  of  the  pillar  is  elongated,  in  order  to  allow  the  use  of 
auxiliary  apparatus,  such  as  a  Klein's  or  Federow's  plate. 

The  rotatory  stage  has  a  diameter  of  120  mm.,  is  divided  into  degrees, 
and  has  a  vernier  reading  to  10'  and  even  6'.  It  also  has  rectangular 
movements,  with  micrometer  adjustments,  the  milled  heads  of  which 
J  K  are  divided  up  to  O'Ol  mm.  and  0-04  mm.  respectively. 

The  illuminating  apparatus  has  a  special  fitting  for  instantly  re- 
moving the  condenser,  and  for  changing  from  convergent  to  parallel 
light,  or  vice  versa. 

The  polariser  is  raised  by  a  rack-and-pinion  N,  and  has  an  iris 
diaphragm  with  graduated  collar  R.  The  screw-head  H  is  for  centring 
the  objectives,  and  the  slit  I  for  a  Klein's  quartz  or  other  accessory. 

The  analyser  G  is  easily  thrown  out  of  the  field,  has  a  rotation  of  9<>° 
and  a  graduated  scale  F.  It  is  supplied  with  a  special  lens  for  main- 
taining the  focal  length  of  the  optical  system.  The  ocular  tube  is  moved 
up  and  down  by  rack-and-pinion  B  ;  it  has  a  displacement  of  36  mm. 
and  has  mm.  divisions  for  marking  its  position. 

At  its  lower  end  it  is  fitted  with  a  diaphragm  D,  and  also  has  a  slit 
C,  with  a  Bertrand  lens  for  observing  the  axial  image. 

The  upper  end  of  the  ocular  tube  is  adapted  for  the  reception  of  a 
second  analyser,  having  a  circular  graduated  scale,  and  also  for  the 
insertion  of  any  kind  of  eyepiece. 

Leitz'  Mineralogical  Stand  No.  I.J  —  This  instrument  (fig.  «6) 
corresponds  in  its  dimensions  to  Stand  No.  I.  in  the  maker's  catalogue. 
The  coarse  adjustment  is  by  rack-and-pinion  ;  the  fine,  by  Leitz'  new 
fine  adjustment  with  side-knobs,§  the  drum  being  divided  into  100  parts, 
so  that  one  graduation  means  a  movement  of  0  •  001  mm.  Condenser,  iris 
diaphragm,  and  polariser  are  raised  and  lowered  by  a  lateral  screw.  A 
three-limbed  condenser  with  iris  diaphragm  facilitates  convenient  obser- 
vation of  the  axial  pictures  in  the  Microscope.  Both  the  upper  lenses  of 
the  condenser  can  be  drawn  out  by  a  lateral  lever  if  one  wants  to  change 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives;  (3)  Illu- 
minating and  other  Apparatus;  (4)  Photomicrography;  (5)  Microscopical  Optics 
and  Manipulation  ;  (<!)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Koristka's  Catalogue,  No.  12,  Turin,  1905,  p.  31,  fig.  15. 

:  Catalogue  No.  41  (Mikroskope)  1905,  pp.  59-61. 

§  J.R.M.S.  1903,  pp.  G67. 


Fir,.  85. 


494  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Fig.  86. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


49.: 


from  convergent  to  parallel  light.  By  a  connecting-piece  applied  to  the 
tube  end,  the  objective  is  centred  on  the  rotation  centre  of  the  rotatory 
object  stage,  which  is  graduated  into  860°  with  a  vernier.  The  stage 
has  orientation  marks,  and  there  are  two  drum-graduations  at  the  side 
of  the  stage  for  reading  off  lateral  movements,  which  can  be  performed 
up  to  20  mm.  The  Nicol  polariser  can,  after  the  removal  of  the  iris 
carrier,  be  drawn  out  of  the  screw  from  below,  and  an  illuminating 
apparatus  with  iris  can  be  inserted  instead.  The  zero  of  this  Nicol  is 
marked,  as  well  as  the  90°,  180°  and  270°.  The  analyser,  in  a  metal 
collar,  is  placed  above  the  ocular,  and  rotates  on  a  rim  rigidly  connected 
with  the  ocular  mount.  This  rim  is  graduated  into  360°.  On  the  front 
side  of  the  tube  is  a  flap,  which  can  be  opened  or  closed,  and  through 
which  access  can  be  had  to  the  inner  tube.  In  this  flap  is  a  slit  for  the 
Bertrand  lens,  and  under  the  lens  is  an  iris  for  the  sharp  delimitation  of 
the  interference  figures. 

Leitz'  Demonstration-Microscope.* — This  instrument,  shown  in 
fig.  87,  is  intended  for  weak  and  medium  magnifications.  The  stage  is 
rectangular  with  rotatory  diaphragm.  The 
tube-adjustment  is  by  push  action  and  a 
clamp-ring.  A  fine  adjustment,  condenser, 
and  iris  can  be  adapted  if  desired. 

Leitz'  Mineralogical  Stand  No.  Il.f — 
The  instrument  (fig.  88)  now  issued  with  this 
title  (maker's  series,  No.  38)  is  a  somewhat 
simplified  and  smaller  form  of  the  same 
firm's  Mineralogical  Stand  No.  I.,  previously 
described  in  this  Journal,!  their  former 
No.  II.  having  now  become  Stand  No.  III. 
The  coarse  adjustment  is  by  rack-and-pinion, 
the  fine  by  micrometer  screw,  a  division 
signifying  a  movement  of  0'01  mm.  The 
condenser,  iris  and  polariser  can  be  raised 
and  lowered  by  a  lateral  screw.  A  three- 
limbed  condenser  allows  the  convenient 
observation  of  the  axial  images  in  the 
Microscope  ;  both  the  upper  lenses  can  be 
put  out  of  action  by  a  lever.  By  means  of 
an  intermediate  piece  applied  to  the  tube- 
end  the  objective  can  be  centred  on  the 
centre  of  the  rotatory  object-stage,  which  is 
graduated  into  360°  and  fitted  with  a  vernier. 
The  stage  also  has  graduations  for  orienta- 
tion. The  polarising  Nicol  can  after  the  Fig.  87. 
expansion     of     the     iris     be     drawn     out 

from  underneath.     The  zero  of  this  Nicol  is  marked,  as  also  the  90®, 
180°,  270°.      The  analyser  rotates  on  a  disc,  whose  circumference  is 


*  Catalogue  No.  41  (Mikroskope)  1905,  p.  51. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  p.  63.  :  J.R.M.S.,  1903,  p.  758,  fig.  It;:'.. 


496 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING  TO 


Fig.  88. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


497 


divided  into  360°. 
Bertrand  lens. 


On  the  front  of  the  tube  is  a  slit  for  receiving  the 


Leitz'  Mechanical  Stage.*— This  (fig.  89)  is  an  improvement  on 
the  earlier  form  noticed  in  this  JournaLf  It  will  be  seen  that  the  hori- 
zontal pinion  goes  right  through  the  stage  and  carries  a  milled  head  at 
each  end.  The  previous  pattern  had  the  screw-head  only  on  the  right- 
hand.  The  two  rectangular  movements  are  fitted  with  scales  and  verniers. 
The  ranges  are  respectively  50  and  30  mm. 

Object-stage,  with  Sliding  Measurement  Adjustment.^— J.  Tuz- 
son  and  M.  Herrmann  have  sought  to  produce  a  measuring  apparatus 
which  should  be  accurate,  easy  to  manage,  and  independent  of  the  lens 


Fig.  89. 

system.  The  principle  of  their  method  consists  in  pushing  the  object 
under  the  fixed  cross-threads  of  the  ocular  by  means  of  a  specially  con- 
structed micrometer  screw.  The  amount  of  the  push-movement  is 
obtained  by  direct  reading  and  without  calculation. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  apparatus  is  shown  in  fig.  90,  and  in 
section  in  fig.  91.  The  rotatory  object-stage  A  is  of  ordinary  construc- 
tion, and,  by  means  of  a  hollow  circular  flange  (conical  in  section), 
works  in  the  slide-rest  B  without  play.  This  slide  can  be  urged  back- 
wards and  forwards  in  a  straight  line  in  a  prism-groove  of  the  ground 
plate  C,  which  is  rigidly  attached  to  the  Microscope  stand.  The  arrange- 
ments are  such  that  the  Abbe  illumination  is  unaffected,  and  the  movable 

*  Catalogue  No.  41  (Mikroskope)  1905,  pp.  83-4. 

t  J.K.M.S.,  1904,  p.  105. 

%  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  1S9-99  (4  figs.). 

Aug.  16th,  1905  2  L 


408 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


parts  have  a  push-range  relative  to  the  motionless  parts  of  5-6  mm.  The 
movement  of  slide  and  rotatory  object-stage  is  actuated  by  the  micro- 
meter screw  D  working  in  a  bearing  which  is  of  same  piece  as  the  ground 


Fig.  90. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


499 


plate.  The  slide  is  actuated  by  the  rounded  end  of  this  micrometer 
screw,  and  at  the  other  end  presses  against  the  spring  and  rod  E.  All 
movements  involved  are  exact  and  free  from  looseness.  The  screw  and 
rod  are  accurately  co-axial.  A  graduated  drum  F  regulates  the  move- 
ment of  the  micrometer  screw,  and  a  pointer  attached  to  the  ground 
plate  facilitates  reading.  The  graduations  are  so  arranged  that  zero 
corresponds  to  the  position  where  the  tube-axis  coincides  with  the  centre 
of  the  rotatory  stage  (i.e.  the  medium  position) ;  whole  rotations  of  the 
micrometer  screw  are  read  off  on  the  pointer,  while  fractions  are  given 
by  the  drum.  One  rotation  of  screw  gives  a  length-movement  of  0  •  5  mm. 
The  drum  is  66  mm.  in  diameter,  and  its  circumference  is  divided  into 
500  parts,  so  that  a  rotation  of  one  division  gives  a  slide-movement  of 


-»>*8*|*- 18  — * 


Fig.  91. 

about  1  ft ;  thus  readings  can  be  taken  directly  to  the  thousandth  of  a 
millimetre,  and,  by  estimation,  to  the  ten-thousandth.  The  apparatus 
affords  five  complete  rotations  of  the  drum  forwards  and  backwards, 
and  therefore  a  total  movement  of  the  stage  of  5  mm.,  which  is  sufficient 
for  the  purpose.  The  authors  point  out  that  the  apparatus  would  also 
be  serviceable  for  centring  objective  and  ocular,  and  for  orientating 
objects.     Satisfactory  tests  of  accuracy  were  made. 

Hirschwald,  J. — Tiber  einneues  Mikroskopmodell  und  ein  "  Planimeter-Okular  " 
zur  geometrischen  Gesteinanalyse.  CentralbL  f.  Mineral.,  1904,  p.  626. 

Kase-vturm  — Neue  Trichinenschaumikroskope. 

Zeit.f.  Fleisch.  u.  Milchhygien,  Bd.  xiv.  (1904)  p.  269. 

jNIeyer — Das  Ultramikroskop.  Kosnios,  Bd.  i.  Heft  i. 

Rinne,  F. — Le  Microscope  polarisant.    Traduit  par  L.  Pervinguiere,  avec  preface 

par  A.  de  Lapparent.  Paris,  1904,  160  pp. 


(2)  Eye-pieces  and   Objectives. 

New  Formula  Object-glass. — Messrs.  Leitz,  of  Wetzlar,  have  lately 
introduced  two  new  object-glasses,  viz.  a  \  and  ^,  on  an  entirely  new 
plan.  They  may  be  described  as  semiapochromats  containing  fluorite. 
In  these  we  have  a  new  type  of  lens,  which  is  neither  a  semiapochromat 

2  t    2 

£t    Lt    m 


500 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


nor  an  apochromat,  but  something  between  the  two.  They  might,  there- 
fore, be  appropriately  called  |  apochromats.  These  glasses  are  of  very 
high  quality,  and  their  price  is  but  little  in  advance  of  that  of  the 
makers'  ordinary  lenses. 

Leitz'  New  Objectives.*  —  The  Wetzlar  firm  has  now  produced 
achromatic  fluorite  objectives,  numbered  6a  and  7a  respectively.  The 
colour  correction  is  more  perfect  than  in  Nos.  6  and  7,  but  the  magnifi- 
cation and  numerical  quantities  are  unaltered.     The  details  are— 


Focal  Length. 

N.A. 

Micrometer  Value. 

No.  6a     

4*4  mm. 

3-2      ., 

0-82 
0-85 

3-5  n 

2-6  n 

The  Notation  of  Microscopical  Objectives.f — L.  Malassez  inquires 
whether  it  may  not  be  possible  to  evolve  a  uniform  system  of  notation 
applicable  to  all  objectives.  He  points  out  how  various  and  defective 
all  existing  methods  are,  and  expresses  the  opinion  that  objectives  should 
evidently  be  designated  by  some  indication  of  their  magnifying  power. 
The  differential  character  of  objectives  depends  chiefly  upon  the  range 
along  the  principal  axis  of  the  ultimate  position  of  their  characteristic 
(i.e.  the  line  forming  the  limit  of  all  the  magnifications  which  the  objec- 
tive is  capable  of  producing).  The  more  remote  this  ultimate  position 
the  greater  the  magnification  produced.  To  a  smaller  extent  the  differ- 
ential character  depends  also  upon  the  position  of  posterior  focus  of  the 
objectives ;  the  more  remote  this  focus,  the  greater  the  magnification. 
The  objective  notation  should  then  be  based  upon  these  qualities.  As 
regards  the  distance  of  characteristic,  the  author  proposes  to  represent  it 
by  what  he  calls  the  specific  magnification,  viz.  that  produced  by  the 
objective  at  each  increasing  unit  of  distance,  or,  in  other  words,  that 
which  it  produces  at  unit  distance  from  its  posterior  focus.  The  deci- 
meter should  be  taken  as  the  unit  of  distance.  This  specific  magnifica- 
tion y  can  be  evaluated  in  various  ways  :  it  may  be  obtained  by  merely 
using  micrometric  oculars  and  taking  any  two  magnifications  whatever 
(G,  g),  and  noting  the  distance  8  between  them  ;  it  can  be  shown  that 


G-g 


Among;  other  methods  the  author  recommends  the  use  of 


y  = 

the  Weiss  focimeter.  As  regards  the  position  of  the  posterior  focus, 
the  author  proposes  the  epithet  posterior  foco-facial  for  the  distance 
between  this  focus  and  the  posterior  (or  issuing)  face  of  the  objective. 
Moreover,  as  this  posterior  focus  is  sometimes  behind  this  face  (weak 
objectives),  sometimes  in  front  of  it  (strong  objectives),  he  employs  the 
letters  p  (post)  and  a  (ante)  to  express  the  two  cases  respectively.  This 
distance,  <f>p  or  </>„,  can  be  easily  calculated  if  one  knows  the  specific 
magnification  y  of  the  objective,  any  magnification  0  produced  by  it, 
and  the  distance  d  between  the  position  of  magnification  and  the  pos- 


*  Catalogue  No.  41  (Mikroskope)  1905,  p.  14. 

t  Arch.  Anat.  Micr.,  vii.,  fuse.  ii.  pp.  270-350  (8  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  501 

terior  face  of  the  objective.     It  can  be  shown  that  <f>p  =  d  —  *L  and 

y 

<£„  =  -  —  d.  These  relationships  can  also  be  obtained  by  graphic  con- 
structions. The  notation  is  thus  established  by  means  of  two  figures, 
without  complicated  formulas  or  special  apparatus — merely  by  help  of 
ordinary  microscopic  auxiliaries.  A  number  of  interesting  facts  regard- 
ing a  lens  may  be  easily  deduced  from  y  and  <f>,  including  a  graphic 
diagram.  Again,  the  first  of  the  two  figures  would  be  the  ordinary  title 
of  the  lens,  the  second  (<£)  could  be  engraved  on  the  mount.  Thus 
objectives  would  be  known  by  figures  giving  their  magnifying  power  at 
the  same  distance,  viz.  1  decimetre  from  their  posterior  face.  The 
author  suggests  that  makers  should,  in  anticipation  of  the  universal 
adoption  of  his  scheme,  supplement  their  ordinary  descriptions  of  objec- 
tives by  two  columns  recording  the  new  notation.  This  is  now  actually 
being  done  by  one  maker,  Stiassnie,  of  Paris,  who  has  materially  helped 
the  author  with  the  necessary  information  and  apparatus  for  drawing  up 
the  lists  and  tables  in  the  treatise. 

Theory  of  Symmetrical  Optical  Objectives.* — S.  D.  Chalmers,  as 
the  result  of  his  investigation,  concludes  that,  subject  to  the  errors 
introduced  by  the  want  of  correspondence  of  the  stop  and  its  image,  the 
combined  system  is  completely  corrected  for  astigmatism,  curvature  of 
field,  and  spherical  aberration,  provided  the  back  component  is  so 
corrected.  This  want  of  correspondence,  however,  introduces  some 
slight  errors,  but  in  practical  systems  these  are  almost  negligible. 

Construction  of  Aplanatic  Combinations  of  Lenses  with  or 
without  Achromatism. f — "  H  "  discusses  this  subject  in  a  series  of 
four  letters  to  the  "  English  Mechanic,"  illustrated  by  very  clear  dia- 
grams.  He  takes,  as  his  model,  the  lens  figured  by  Engel  in  plate  xi.  of 
Schellbach's  "  Geometrical  Optics."  The  writer's  design  is  to  simplify 
the  subject  as  much  as  possible,  and  his  method  is  a  combination  of 
graphics  with  calculations  from  Halley's  formulas.  These  classic 
formulas  have  the  advantages  of  (1)  great  simplicity  and  clearness  ; 
(2)  absence  of  all  error  from  incomplete  recognition  of  the  effect  of 
"  thickness  "  ;  (3)  the  comparatively  small  number  of  figures  needed  in 
working  out  the  details  ;  (4)  the  accurate  way  in  which  they  may  be  got 
to  supplement  a  partly  graphic  method,  as  both  deal  with  one  surface  at 
a  time.     The  formulas  are — 

f  m  dr  f  m  d  r 


(m  -  n)  d  -  nr  (m  -  n)  d  +  nr 

,  m  f       m  d 

J3      m-n  n 

where  —  =  ratio  of  refraction,  d  =  distance  of  radiant,  r  =  radius  of 
a 

curvature  of  surface. 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxxiv.,  No.  482,  pp.  267-72  ;  No.  504,  pp.  396-9  (3  figs.). 
t  English  Mechanic,  Nos.2068,  pp.  321-2  ;  2069,  p.  340  ;  2072,  pp.  406-8  ;  2080, 
pp.  595-6. 


502 


SUMMARY    OF    CUKIIKNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Leitz'  Camera  Ocular.* — This  auxiliary  apparatus  (scries  No.  98)  is 
shown  in  fig.  92.  The  distinction  between  this  and  other  forms  of  such 
apparatus  made  by  the  Wetzlar  firm,  is  that  the  drawing  plane  lies 
horizontally  on  the  work-table  directly  in  front  of  the  observer.     This 


Fig.  92. 

is  effected  by  inclining  the  Microscope  at  an  angle  of  45°,  and  by  em- 
ploying a  somewhat  changed  form  of  prism.  The  diminution  of  the 
light  is  attained  by  the  use  of  two  neutral-tinted  glass  discs  set  in 
movable  arms. 

Blakeslet,  T.  H. — Single-piece  Lenses. 

Proc.  Phys.  Soc,  London,  xviii.  (1903)  p.  591. 
Conbadt,  A.  E. — On  the  Chromatic  Correction  of  Object-glasses. 

Monthly  Not.  Boy.  Astron.  Soc,  lxix.  (1904)  p.  274. 
Fery,  Ch. — Methode  nouvelle  pour  la  Determination  des  Constantes  des  Lentilles. 

Bull.  Soc.  Franc,  de  Phys.,  1903.  p.  226. 
Spitta,  E.  J. — Improvements  in  Modern  Objectives  for  the  Microscope  Popularly 
Explained. 

[The  author  reviews  the  chief  defects  of  lenses,  and  shows  how  Jena  glass  is 

adapted  to  neutralise  them.      He  emphasises  Abbe's  labours  in  this  field.] 

President'*  Address.  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club.  Feb.  1905. 

pp.  141-52  (2  pis..  12  figs.). 
Trozewitsch,  S.  E. — Anfertigung  von   Objecktiven  fur  Teleskope,  Mikroskope 

nnd  Photographische  Apparate,  die  Optische  Technik 
der  Mikroskope  und  Teleskope  (Russisch). 

Warsaw  (1903)  322  pp. 
„  „  Zur  Frage  uber  das  Apian  atische  System. 

Zeits.f.  Math.  u.  Phys.,  li.,  (1904)  p.  100. 

(3)  Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus. 

Leitz'  Apparatus  for  Observation  of  Ultra-Microscopical  Par- 
ticles.!— This  apparatus  is  shown  in  fig.  93.  It  consists  of  a  plate 
applied  to  the  object-stage  and  clamped  to  the  pillar.  This  plate  con- 
tains a  small  chamber  through  which,  by  means  of  an  india-rubber  tube, 
the  liquid  for  examination  is  conducted.  The  rate  of  flow  is  controlled 
by  a  stop-cock,  and  a  small  window  admits  light  into  the  chamber. 
The  fluid  may  be  observed  bare  or  protected  with  a  cover-glass.     The 

*  Catalogue  No.  41  (Mikroskope)  1905,  p.  80.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  66-67. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


f,u3 


chamber  can  be  replaced  by  a  small  stage  for  the  examination  of  solid 
bodies  such  as  ruby  glass.  Illumination  is  by  arc-light,  or  by  mirror- 
reflected  sunlight,  and  the  light  after  passing  through  a  diaphragm  tube 
is  concentrated  by  a  lens  on  a  slit  arrangement,  which  is  adjustable  on 
both  sides  ;  the  length  and  breadth  of  slit  are  both  measurable  by  drum 


graduations.  The  slit  can  be  rotated  through  90  .  A  stronger,  adjust- 
able objective  focuses  the  slit  into  the  field  of  view.  The  optical  axis 
with  lenses,  etc.,  can  be  arranged  vertically  or  horizontally. 

For  obtaining  dark-ground  illumination,  a  special  objective  and 
diaphragm  are  used  (figs.  94,  95).  Behind  the  optical  part  of  an 
objective  a  spring  stamp-diaphragm  is  screwed,  which  presses  against 


504 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


the  rear  lens.  Leitz'  immersion  objectives  are  particularly  convenient 
for  this  arrangement.  The  effect  is  to  make  the  objects  (e.g.  bacteria) 
appear  bright  on  a  dark  ground  even  with  the  strongest  ocular  magni- 
fication. 


Fig.  94. 


Fig.  95. 


Leitz'  Universal  Projection  Apparatus.*— This  apparatus  is  adapted 
for  diascopic,    microscopic,    and    episcopic   projection,  the   last   being 


Fig.  96. 

attainable  with  either  downward  or  lateral  illumination.     The  essential 
characteristic  in  all  is  that,  owing  to  direct  illumination  of  the  object, 

*  Catalogue,  No,  41  (Mikroskope)  1905,  pp.  91-4. 


ZOOLOGY,    AND    BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


50;" 


an  unusually  brilliant  image  is  projected.  The  self -regulating  lam]*  has 
a  current-strength  of  30  amperes  and  48  volts  E.M.F.  ;  higher  voltages 
must  have  a  corresponding  rheostat  equipment.  The  lamp  can  be 
centred,  and  has  a  three-fold  adjustable  collective  lens  system  of  210  nun. 
diameter,  and  is  protected  from  the  heat  by  a  hard  glass  disc.  A  cooling 
chamber  stands  in  front  of  the  lenses.  The  arrangement  for  microscopic 
projection  (fig.  96)  consists  of  a  two-fold  condenser,  large  cross-stage  with 
preparation  cooler,  Microscope  tube  with  iris,  rack-and-pinion  adjustment, 
micrometer  screw,  triple  objective,  and  ocular  revolver,  all  mounted  on 
an  optical  bench. 

For   diapositive  projection  the  movable  stage  with  Microscope  tube 


Fig.  97. 


is,  by  means  of  a  hinge,  swung  aside.  Simple  projection  objectives 
are  set  up  in  lieu  of  the  Microscope  condenser.  A  dispositive  holder. 
with  exchange-frame  and  apertures  13  by  13  cm.,  and  a  plate  with 
clamps  for  projection  of  larger  section-preparations,  are  placed  before 

the  large  cooler. 

For  episcopic  projection  with  downward  illumination  (tig.  97)  the 
lamp  is  slanted  upwards  on  a  strong  axis  in  a  vertical  plane  at  an 
angle  of  45°,  and  the  object  placed  on  a  large  stage  is  thus  illuminated. 
The  projection  objective  of  400  mm.  focus  is  rotated  into  the  optical 
axis.  A  mirror  over  the  lens-system  receives  the  image  and  reflects  it 
at  90°  into  the  projection-objective. 


-,.i.; 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


For  episcopk  projection  ivith  lateral  illumination,  the  lamp  takes  a 
horizontal  position,  but  is  rotated  laterally  through  45°.  A  smaller 
object-stage,  adjustable  vertically,  is  set  up  laterally  ;  the  mirror  is 
rotated  9(r,  and  projection  takes  place  as  before  (fig.  98). 

The  whole  apparatus  is  screened  with  black  curtains,  and  on  the 
front  is  a  round  opening,  reducible,  at  pleasure,  for  the  different  kinds 
of  projection. 


Fig.  98. 


New  Vertical  Illuminator  for  Metallurgical  Examinations.* — 
The  firm  of  R.  and  J.  Beck  has  brought  out  a  new  vertical  illuminator 
of  the  prism  type,  fitted  with  an  iris  diaphragm  beneath  the  prism  for 
cutting  off  outside  light,  and  a  plate  of  stops  so  arranged  that  the  position 
of  the  beam  of  light  impinging  on  the  prism  can  be  varied  until  parallel 
light  of  the  right  angle  is  obtained  (fig.  99). 

The  principle  is  that  a  beam  of  light  sent  at  right  angles  to  the 
optic  axis  of  the  Microscope  is  reflected  by  a  prism  or  piece  of  cover-glass, 
down  upon  the  object,  so  that  each  objective  acts  as  its  own  condenser. 
It  is  probably  the  only  means  of  illuminating  objects  mounted  dry  when 

*  Knowledge,  ii.  (190o)  p.  43;  R.  and  J.  Beck's  Special  Catalogue,  1905. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


507 


they  are  examined  with  immersion  lenses,  though  in  this  case  it  is 
necessary  that  the  object  should  be  in  actual  contact  with  the  cover- 
glass. 


Fig.  99. 


Fig.   Kin. 


Monochromatic  Trough.* — This  trough  (rig.  100),  made  by  the  firm 
of  R.  and  J.  Beck,  is  4  by  3  by  0'8  in.  in  size,  and  is  easily  adjustable 
as  to  height  and  angle,  'it  may  be  filled  with  fluid  of  any  tint,  though 
the  saturated  solution  of  copper  acetate  is  that  most  often  required. 

Leitz'  Triple  Revolver  with  Large  Protection  Diaphragm.! — This 
is  clearly  shown  in  fig.  101. 


Fig.  101. 

Leitz'  Thermometry  Stages.}— The  Schultze  pattern  is  shown  in 
fig.  102.  A  metal  stage  bears  at  its  sides  wing-like  projections  under 
which  the  heating  flame  can  be  applied.     Observation  is  carried  on  by  a 

*  R.  and  J.  Beck's  Special  Catalogue,  1985. 
t  Catalogue  No.  41  (Mikroskope)  1905,  p.  110.  t  Tom.  cit.,  p.  85. 


508 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


condenser  lens  with  large  magnification.     The  temperature  is  indicated 
by  a  thermometer  and  can  be  extended  up  to  100°  C. 

In  the  Strieker  pattern  the  stage  forms  a  metal  chamber  through 
which  warm  water  can  be  passed.  A  condenser  lens  and  thermometer 
are  used,  as  in  the  last.     The  stage  can  be  screwed  to  a  table. 


Fig.  102. 


Leitz'  Drawing  Board  (Simple  Form).*  —  This  is  shown  in 
fig.  103  inclined  at  12%  at  which  angle  it  is  adapted  for  use  with  Leitz' 
camera  ocular,  series  No.  92. 


Fig.  103. 


Fig.  104. 


Fig.  104  shows  Giesenhagen's  drawing  board.  In  this  apparatus  the 
board  may  be  adjusted  at  various  angles,  and  raised  or  lowered  with 
facility. 

*  Catalogue.  No.  41  (Mikroskope)  1905,  p.  81. 


ZOOLOGY;  AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


509 


Polariscope.* — E.  Holmes  writes  that  a  good  polariscope  for  some 
purposes  may  be  made  by  black  varnishing  two  sheets  of  glass,  and  so 
placing  them  that  the  light  reflected  from  one  lying  flat  on  the  table  is 
again  reflected  to  the  eye  by  the  second  plate.  Objects  to  be  examined 
are  placed  in  the  beam  of  light.  There  is  no  gain  whatever  in  using 
a  pile  of  plates  for  a  reflecting  instrument  in  this  way.  A  dozen  micro- 
scopical cover  glasses  put  in  a  paper  tube  at  an  angle  of  about  57°  make 
a  good  analyser.  Whatever  the  number  of  plates  the  angle  remains  the 
same  for  maximum  effect. 

The  Micro-pantograph  as  a  Drawing  Apparatus.! — G-.  C.  van 
Walsem  has  re-designed  this  instrument  (fig.  105),  which  was  originally 
contrived  in  1872  by  J.  Roberts.     It  is  described  by  von  Apathy  in  his 


Fig.  105. 


"  Mikrotechnik  der  tierischen  Morphologic"!  Rooerts'  instrument,  how- 
ever, had  the  disadvantage  of  reproducing  the  microscopic  image  reversed. 
The  essential  feature  of  WaJsem's  improved  form  is  a  special  double 
ring-link  which  embraces  the  "  object-point,"  i.e.  the  Microscope  tube. 
The  diameter  of  this  ring  is  37  mm.,  so  that  the  ring  is  large  enough 
not  only  to  encircle  the  tube  and  to  be  moved  freely  about  within  cer- 
tain limits  without  jarring  it,  but  its  centre  in  the  case  of  a  weak  ocular 
and  a  correspondingly  large  ocular  diaphragm  can  be  made  to  explore 
the, whole  field.    It  is  obviously  important  to  reduce  friction  as  much  as 

*  English  Mechanic,  lxxxi.  (1905)  p.  383. 

t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  166-72  (2  tigs.).' 

X  Zweite  A  bteilung.  p.  361. 


510  SUMMARY    OK    QUERENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

possible,  and  for  this  purpose  the  upper  surface  of  the  inserted  ring  has 
been  cut  out  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  in  contact  with  the  under  surface 
of  the  other  ring  at  only  three  points.  The  upper  ring  has  in  its  rim  a 
vertical  slit  for  receiving  a  fine  needle,  or  bristle,  whose  end  should 
exactly  coincide  with  the  ring  centre.  A  ring,  corresponding  to  the 
thickness  of  the  diaphragm,  has  to  be  soldered  on  to  the  ocular  so  that, 
when  inserted  into  the  tube,  the  ocular  rests  on  this  ring.  About 
1  *5  mm.  above  this  ring  in  the  ocular  is  a  cross-slit  extending  to  about 
one-fourth  of  the  circumference  for  receiving  the  bristle,  which  should 
now  be  sharply  defined  in  the  field  of  view,  and  should,  moreover,  be  in 
its  centre  when  the  lens  rings  are  concentric.  The  apparatus  requires 
a  special  table  (85  cm.  high,  long  side  72  cm.,  short  side  51  cm.). 
The  observer  sits  at  one  of  the  short  sides  (we  will  suppose  at  the  right 
of  the  figure)  and  at  his  left  hand,  8  cm.  from  both  long  and  short 
sides,  is  a  rectangular  hole  14  by  11  cm.,  the  14  cm.  corresponding 
to  the  short  side  of  table.  The  table  legs  are  connected  by  a  horizontal 
cross-board,  whose  upper  surface  is  52^  cm.  above  the  floor.  The 
difference  of  height  between  this  surface  and  the  table-top  surface  is 
just  sufficient  for  the  object-stage  (17^  cm.)  and  extended  draw-tube 
(170  cm.).  In  addition,  the  height  of  the  pantograph  and  the  height 
of  the  upper  plane  of  the  ocular  must  be  allowed  for.  The  "  fixation- 
point  "  of  the  pantograph  is  seen  at  the  observer's  lower  left  hand.  This 
point  is  secured  by  a  knob  with  a  pointed  top,  on  which  the  pantograph 
hooks.  There  are,  in  reality,  two  of  these  fixation  points  :  the  one 
shown  in  use  in  the  figure  is  1  cm.  from  the  rectangular  hole,  and  is 
suitable  for  strong  magnifications  ;  the  other,  about  7  cm.  away,  is  for 
weak  magnifications.  In  the  "stay-joint"  (diagonally  opposite  to  the 
object-point,  or  Microscope)  of  the  pantograph  is  a  rounded  knob,  which 
moves  to  and  fro  in  the  rotations  about  the  fixation-point.  A  little 
wheel  under  this  knob  facilitates  the  motion  and  reduces  the  friction. 
The  wheel,  instead  of  moving  on  the  wooden  table-top,  moves  on  a  glass 
plate,  thereby  securing  greater  regularity  and  freedom  of  motion.  The 
other  joints  produce  a  sliding  movement  of  the  bars  relative  to  one 
another.  An  arrangement  is  made  for  artificial  illumination,  if  required. 
The  possible  range  of  magnification  was  found  to  be  between  2  and  10. 
This  is,  of  course,  quite  independent  of  the  ocular  magnification,  and, 
therefore,  a  strong  eye-piece  is  recommended  as  giving  sharper  control 
in  the  tracing  out  of  the  outline.  The  framework  should  be  made  of 
L-shaped  aluminium  bars. 

Koristka's  Illuminator  for  Opaque  Objects.* — This  apparatus  is 
principally  intended  for  the  study  of  metals.  It  is  screwed  to  the 
Microscope  tube,  and  contains  a  total  reflexive  prism  which  receives  the 
light  from  the  front  and  directs  it  by  means  of  the  objective  on  to  the 
preparation.  The  prism  occupies  only  half  the  field,  thus  leaving  the 
other  half  free  for  vision.  An  iris  diaphragm  placed  in  front  of  the 
prism  serves  to  regulate  the  light  which  it  is  to  receive.  By  pulling  out 
the  arm  which  carries  the  prism  the  latter  may  be  removed  from  the 

*  Koristka's  Catalogue,  No.  12  (1*.»05)  p.  50,  fig.  5G. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


511 


optic  field,  so  as  to  leave  it  quite  free.     For  use  with  this  illuminate] 
(fig.  106)  a  lens  of  35  rum.  diameter,  and  72  mm.  focus,  is  recommended. 


Fig.  106. 


Bausch  and  Lomb's  Improved  Form  of  Camera  Lucida.*  —  The 
construction  of  this  camera  lucida  (fig.  107)  presents  a  number  of  im- 
provements over  older  forms,  although  retaining  the  original  optical 
principle.     The  Abbe  prism  is  mounted  in  a  closed  box  provided  with  a 


Fig.  107. 


rotating  disc  carrying  a  series  of  dark  glasses  of  different  shades.  These 
glasses  come  between  the  prism  and  light  from  the  Microscope  eye-piece, 
and  serve  to  moderate  its  intensity.  A  similar  series  of  coloured  glasses 
is  arranged  to  moderate  the  light  coming  from  the  mirror.     With  the 


Catalogue  A,  1904  (Microscopes  and  Accessory  Apparatus)  p.  (JS. 


512 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT  RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


two  series,  a  clear  view  of  object  and  pencil  point  can  be  had  with  any 
combination  of  objective  and  eye-piece.  The  prism  mounting  has  a 
centring  arrangement,  so  that  the  aperture  in  the  prism  can  be  centred 
to  the  Microscope  eye-piece,  giving  a  clearly  defined  and  equally  illu- 
minated image  of  the  object.  The  prism  can  be  turned  back,  permitting 
the  use  of  the  Microscope  and  the  changing  of  eye-pieces  without  dis- 
turbing the  camera  lucida.  The  mirror  is  extra  large,  giving  large 
drawings.  The  mirror  bar  is  graduated  in  millimetres,  and  is  movable, 
so  that  the  distance  between  mirror  and  prism  may  be  varied  to  suit 
conditions.  The  camera  lucida  is  attached  to  the  Microscope  draw-tube 
by  a  collar  with  binding  screw,  so  that  the  prism  can  be  set  at  the  proper 
distance  from  the  eye-lens,  as,  without  this  adjustment,  the  camera 
lucida  cannot  be  used  with  all  eye-pieces. 

Bausch  and  Lomb's  Adjustable  Drawing  Board.* — The  necessary 
inclination  of  the  mirror  of  the  Abbe  camera  lucida  to  the  drawing 


Fig.  108. 


surface  produces  a  constantly  increasing  elongation  of  the  visual  field 
when  the  drawing  surface  is  parallel  to  the  field  of  the  Microscope, 
except  when  the  mirror  of  the  camera  lucida  is  at  45°.  It  is,  therefore, 
necessary  to  incline  the  drawing  surface  (fig.  108)  in  order  to  obtain 
accurate  reproductions  of  any  considerable  size.  The  drawing  board  is 
vertically  movable  on  a  strong  metal  axis,  to  secure  the  same  magnifica- 
tion on  the  paper  as  in  the  Microscope.  The  drawing  plane  is  inclined 
by  raising  the  right  hand  end  of  the  board,  a  ratchet  arm  holding  it 
firmly  in  any  position.  The  angle  of  inclination  is  read  off  on  the 
graduated  arc.     The  Microscope  is  held  in  place  by  a  clamp. 

Davis,   D.  J.  A. — A  Method  of  Microscopic   Observation  by  means  of  Lateral 
Illumination.  Trans.  Chicago  Pathol.  Soc,  vi.  (1904)  p.  90. 

Dowdy,  S.  E.— Attachable  Object-finder. 

English  Mechanic,  lxxix.  (1904)  p.  410. 


Catalogue  A,  1904  (Microscopes  and  Accessory  Apparatus)  p.  70. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  513 

Fedorow,  E.  v. — Einigc  neue  Hilsapparate  fiir  das  polarisationsmikroskop. 

Ann.  de  Ge'ol.  et  Mineral  de  Ihissie,  iv.  (1901)  p.  142, 
and  Zeits.f.  Kristallogr.,  xxxvii.  (1903)  p.  413, 

Glkichen,  A. — Die   Vergrdsserung   des  Mikroskops  unter  Berucksichtigung  der 
Refraktion  und  Akkommodation  des  Auges.  Mechaniker,  xii.  (19D4)  p.  135. 

Grattabola,   G. — Figure   d'interferenza   ottenute   usando  lastre   spulite    come 
analizzatore.  Atti  d.  Soc.  Tosc.  d.  Set.  Nat.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  104-71. 

Gkeil. — Beleuchtungsapparate  mit  Nernstschem  Gluhlicht. 

Anat.  Anz.  Krgdnzunrjsheft  z.,  xxv.  (Jena,  1904)  p   178. 

Kalahne,  A.— TJber  das  Woodsche  Liohtfilter  fiir  ultraviolette  Strahlen. 

Phys.  Zeits.,  v.  (1904)  p.  415. 
Pfluger,  A. — Die  Quecksilberlampe  als  ultraviolette  Lichtquelle. 

Phys.  Zeits.,  v.  (1904)  p.  414. 
Regaud,  Cl. — Lampe  electrique  pour  la  Microscopic 

Comptes  Rend.  Assoc,  des  Anatomes,  Toulouse,  1904  ; 
Billiogr.  Anatorn.  Supple'm.  p.  203. 


(4)  Photomicrography. 

Photomicrography  with  Ultra-violet  Light.* — The  equipment  for 
this  class  of  work  has  been  described  by  A.  Kohler  and  M.  von  Kohr, 
and  is  now  obtainable  from  Carl  Zeiss.f  The  results  which,  by  the 
application  of  ultra-violet  light  to  microscopical  technique,  are  likely  to 
be  attained,  are  mainly — 

1.  That  the  resolving  power  of  the  objective  is  increased  in  the  same 
proportion  as  the  wave-length  of  the  applied  light  is  reduced.  The 
apparatus  presently  described  doubles  the  value  of  an  objective  of  equal 
numerical  aperture  with  daylight. 

2.  That  numerous  colourless  organic  objects  exhibit  considerable 
differences  in  their  transparency,  although  in  white  light  they  show  no 
colouring  ;  they  behave,  in  regard  to  ultra-violet  light,  exactly  as  if  they 
were  objects  diversely  coloured. 

3.  That  on  living  and  defunct  organic  objects,  ultra-violet  light 
exerts,  to  some  extent,  marked  physiological  effects. 

Photography  is  practically  essential  to  the  attainment  of  the  first  two 
objects  ;  but  the  results  of  the  latter  can  be  observed  by  white  or  coloured 
light  and  with  ordinary  achromats  or  apochromats.  For  the  ultra- 
violet rays  the  specially  manufactured  objectives  used  are  termed  mono- 
chromats.  They  have  been  designed  by  M.  von  Rohr,  and  are  corrected 
for  wave-length  275  fx/x  (0*000275  mm.).  The  N.A.  of  the  strongest 
system  is  1*25,  while  the  resolving  power,  on  account  of  the  small  wave- 
length of  the  light  used,  becomes  equivalent  to  a  N.A.  of  '1 '  ">  with  day- 
light. A  table  of  this  relative  resolving  power  is  supplied  in  O.  Zeiss1 
catalogue.  The  lenses  of  the  monochromats  are  manufactured  out  of 
molten  quartz.  Both  the  strongest  systems  are  immersion  Lenses,  while 
the  immersion-fluid  is  a  mixture  of  suitable  refractive  index,  and  is 
composed  of  chemically  pure  glycerin  and  distilled  water.  The  cover- 
slip  is  also  of  molten  quartz,  and  the  object  slides  are  formed  from  thin 

*  Zeitschr.  f.  Instrumentenk.,  xxiv.  (1904)  pp.  341-9  (0  figs.). 
t  Special    Catalogue,    MikrophotogiaphiscUe    Einrichtung    fiir    ultraviukttes 
Licht  (wave-length  0-275  n). 

August  16th,  1905  2  m 


514  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


Fig.  109. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


515 


Fig.  110. 


'1  M  2 


516 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


slips  of  rock-crystal  or  of  ultra-violet  transparent  glass.  The  makers 
give  warning  that  the  monochromats  cannot  be  used  with  daylight ;  and 
also  that  immersion-fluids  of  other  composition,  unless  they  have  the 
same  refractive  index,  cannot  be  used  for  ultra-violet  photomicrography. 
For  projection  of  the  image  on  the  photographic  plate  a  special  series  of 
rock-crystal  oculars  has  also  been  constructed.  The  ocular  number  gives, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  compensation  oculars,  the  angular  magnification. 

K„  P.. 


,i  ii  i  ii 


V L        <ap        A ) 


p. 


K, 


Off 


J> 


Fig.  111. 

Zeiss'  vertical  camera  is  used  as  the  photographic  apparatus,  because  the 
perpendicular  position  offers  various  advantages  over  the  horizontal. 
This  is  shown  in  fig.  109,  about  one-sixth  of  the  full  size.  Sx  is  the 
screw  for  firmly  receiving  the  foot-plate  for  the  Microscope ;  P  is  the 
rock-crystal  reflexion  prism,  which  reflects  the  horizontally  incident  light 
along  the  axis  of  the  Microscope  ;  S^  is  a  plane  mirror  for  observing 
the  spark  image  on  the  uranium  glass  ;  I)  a  diaphragm  carrier  with 
inserted  uranium  glass-plate  swung  aside.  The  upper  arrangements  are 
shown  more  clearly  in  fig.  110,  which  is  also  one-sixth  of  full  size.  B  is 
the  foot  of  the  vertical  camera ;  S2  a  clamp-screw  for  securing  the 
rotatory  graduated  pillar  S  t ;  H  the  adjustable  sleeve  for  the  "  finder  " 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


517 


(see  below)  E  ;  J  and  K  adjustable  carriers  for  the  camera  ;  Z  exposure 
shutter  ;  S  c  h  draw-off  slide  of  the  dark  slide  shutter  ;  G  handle  of  the 
frame  for  inserting  the  photographic  plate.  The  "  finder  "  is  for  per- 
sonal observation  and  for  adjustment,  and  is  applied  over  the  ocular  of 
the  Microscope.  It  is  a  specially  constructed  auxiliary,  whereby  the 
image  can  be  thrown  on  to  a  fluorescent  plate  and  observed  through  a 
strong  loup.  When  the  image  is  sharply  defined  on  the  fluorescent  plate 
it  will  be  also  sharply  defined  on  the  photographic  plate  after  the  finder 
has  been  replaced  by  the  camera.  The  plate  must  be  set  up  30  cm. 
from  the  ocular  cap.     Variations,  not  exceeding  a  few  centimetres,  of 


Fig.  112. 


the  camera-length  do  not  much  affect  the  sharpness  of  the  image.  The 
spark  discharge  between  cadmium  electrodes  (in  certain  cases  mag- 
nesium electrodes)  of  a  Leyden  jar,  worked  by  an  induction  machine, 
serves  as  a  light-source.  The  spark-length  should  be  about  10  cm.  The 
spark-light  is  led  through  a  special  illumination  apparatus  of  rock- 
crystal  lenses  and  prisms,  and  the  light  of  wave-length  275/a/x  (if  «»f 
magnesium  280 /a/a)  is  separated  off  by  an  iris  diaphragm.  This  dia- 
phragm forms  the  entrance-pupil  of  a  rock-crystal  condenser,  which 
takes  the  place  of  the  ordinary  glass  condenser.  The  light  then  passes, 
as  a  cone  of  larger  or  smaller  aperture,  to  the  object.  In  fig.  Ill  then' 
is  shown  the  stage-plate  with  the  illuminating  apparatus,  one-fifth  full 
size.  F  is  the  spark-stand  ;  Kj  the  collimator  ;  Px  P2  the  rock-crystal 
prisms  for  conducting  the  rays  of  various  wave-lengths  from  the  light- 
source  F  ;  K2  the  collector,  which  gathers  the  rays  of  a  certain  wave- 


51S 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


length  for  a  Bpark-image.  The  rays  of  selected  wave-length  emerg- 
ing  out  of  the  collector  then  fall  on  the  reflexion  prism  P,  and  are 
thereby  conducted  to  the  Microscope  condenser.  Fig.  112  (one-tenth 
full  size)  shows  the  installation  of  the  entire  apparatus ;  abed  is  the 
Stage-plate  for  the  Microscope  and  camera,  with  the  slots  for  the 
position-screws  of  the  foot-plate  and  the  camera  ;  it  is  set  up  on  a  table  of 
ordinary  height ;  eff/h  is  the  stage-plate  for  the  illuminating  apparatus, 
with  slots  for  its  screws  ;  it  is  set  up  on  a  table  or  cabinet  '!'•'>  cm. 
lower  than  the  above  mentioned  table.  A  lamp  (e.g.  an  incandescent) 
is  set  up  at  Lx  or  L2  for  examination  of  the  object,  with  an  achromat. 
If  the  lamp  is  placed  at  Lx  the  rays  are  reflected  at  the  last  face  of 
the  prism  P2  laterally  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  collector  K, 
and  reach  the  condenser  of  the  Microscope  after  another  reflexion 
at  the  prism  P.  If  the  lamp  is  placed  at  L2  its  rays  fall  direct  on  the 
prism  P.  This  light  must,  of  course,  be  removed  when  the  ultra-violet 
light  is  used.  A  fluorescent  screen  i  serves,  on  setting  up  the  apparatus, 
to  orientate  in  the  spark-spectrum.  Zeiss'  catalogue  gives  full  particu- 
lars of  the  lenses  and  all  auxiliaries.  A.  Kohler,*  who  has  both  made  a 
long  series  of  investigations  and  has  designed  the  apparatus,  relates  the 
history  of  his  researches.  He  gives  six  plates,  all  of  well-known  objects, 
such  as  Pleurosigma  angulatum,  to  illustrate  his  results. 


Fig.  113. 


Leitz'   "Universal"   Microphotographic    Apparatus.! — This    is 
described  by    F.   Gr.   Kohl,  but  will  now  also  be  found  in  the  latest 


*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  129-65.  273-304  (6  plates  of  photo- 
micrographs). Also  as  a  separate  pamphlet,  with  title  Mikrophotographische 
Untersuchungen  mit  Ultraviolettem  Licht. 

t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  305-13  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


fi  19 


catalogue*  of  the  Leitz  firm.     It  is  shown  in  figs.  113-115. 


Fig. 


114 


shows  the  arrangement  for  vertical  work.  The  base-frame  rests  on  four 
feet,  two  of  which  are  fitted  with  screws.  A  large  foot-plate  with  push- 
movement  on  the  two  rails  of  the  base  carries  the  Microscope,  and  can 
be  clamped  when  in  position.  A  small  bench  is  connected  with  the 
foot-plate,  and  carries  an  adjustable  lens  and  a  lamp  with  ground-glass 
disc.  The  camera  is  supported  by  pillars,  and  can  be  clamped  at  any 
desired  height  and  inclination. 


Fig.  114. 


Fig.  113  shows  the  arrangement  for  horizontal  work.  In  this  position 
the  maximum  bellows  extension  can  be  attained — up  to  500  mm. — with 
the  help  of  a  push-arrangement,  on  both  ends  of  which  the  carrier  of  the 
camera  collar  can  be  clamped.  A  gearing  is  affixed  to  the  large  foot- 
plate for  controlling  the  fine  adjustment  of  the  Microscope,  by  means  of 
a  cord  operated  by  a  pliable  rod.  For  photographing  transparent  pre- 
parations up  to  100  mm.  diameter,  with  weak  magnification,  a  small 
erect  stage  with  diaphragms  (fig.  115)  can  be  clamped  on  to  two  sides 
of  the  large  foot-plate  so  that  it  is  at  right  angles  to  the  camera  axis. 

*  Catalogue  No.  41  (1905)  pp.  86-8. 


.20 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


The  camera-neck  is  provided  with  a  screw-thread  on  which,  by  means  of 
an  adapter  ring,  photographic  objectives  can  be  fixed.  This  arrange- 
ment also  affords  facilities  for  the  application  of  Edinger's  apparatus  as 
well  as  for  photographic  purposes.  For  stereoscopic  photography  the 
erect  stage  is  provided  with  a  cross-slit  so  that  the  preparation  can 
be  pushed  in  two  directions.  Reflected  light  can  be  used  with  the 
vertically  placed  camera,  and  the  foot-plate  with  the  object  is  then  pushed 
up  to  the  ground-glass  disc  ready  for  the  stereoscopic  arrangement. 


Fig.  115. 


Crosbie,  F. — Directions  for  Photomicrography.  Lancet,  1903,  p.  233' 

Ives,  F.  E. — Eine  photomikrographische  Vorrichtung. 

Zeits.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  xxiv.  (1903)  p.  3. 
„        Stereoscopic  Photomicrography  with  high  powers. 

Trans.  Amer.  Micr.  Soc,  xxiv.  (1902)  p.  23. 

Leiss,  C— TJber  eine  neue  Camera  zur  stereoskopischen  Abbildung  mikroskopischer 
und  makroskopischer  Objekte.  Zeitschr.  f.  Instrumentenh.,  xxiv.  (1904)  p.  61. 


(5)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Dark  Field  Illumination.* — C.  Troester  describes  this  method  for 
the  observation  of  living  and  unstained  preparations  of  bacteria.  It 
consists  in  showing  a  light  object  on  a  dark  ground,  and  is  obtained  by 
shutting  out  the  axial  portion  of  the  cone  of  light  that  comes  from  the 
condenser  by  means  of  a  centrally  placed  screen,  so  that  no  direct  light 
reaches  the  ocular.  He  obtains  excellent  results  by  allowing  sunlight 
to  pass  through  a  spherical  flask  filled  with    water,  and  placed  in  the 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2'*  Abt.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  511. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  .r>21 

focus  of  a  ground -glass  plate  ;  a  short  distance  behind  this  plate  is  the 
Microscope  that  receives  the  light  by  means  of  a  concave  mirror.  With 
this  illumination  800  magnifications  of  living  bacteria  can  be  obtained 
with  the  same  ease  as  with  a  good  stained  preparation. 

Resolution  of  Grayson's  Bands.* — A  student,  after  detailing  some 
resolutions  of  Grayson's  bands,  says  :  "  The  net  results  of  these  experi- 
ments show  that  on  a  bright  ground  a  certain  size  of  illuminating  cone 
is  required  to  develop  the  resolving  power  of  any  given  objective,  but  an 
increase  in  the  cone  beyond  that  certain  size  is  always  accompanied  by  a 
falling  off  in  resolving  power.  On  a  dark  ground  the  case  is  somewhat 
different ;  with  a  ground  just  dark  and  no  more,  the  highest  resolving 
power  of  the  lens  is  not  developed,  but  all  objects  just  short  of  the 
minimum  resolvable  are  well  seen.  When  light  of  greater  obliquity  is 
employed,  the  lens  attains  its  maximum  resolving  power,  but  the  resolu- 
tion of  objects  well  within  its  grip  is  impaired." 

Doubling  of  Lines  in  the  Abbe  Experiments  not  due  to  the 
Diaphragms  above  the  Objective.!- — J.  Rheinberg  demonstrates  this 
by  using  a  single-aperture  diaphragm,  which  he  places  in  the  upper  focal 
plane.  A  coarse  grating  of  about  100  lines  to  the  inch  (the  widths  of 
lines  and  spaces  being  equal)  is  placed  on  the  object  stage,  and  by  giving 
a  lateral  movement  of  about  TV  inch  to  the  diaphragm  the  effect  of 
single  and  doubled  lines  is  alternately  produced. 

Limit  of  Visibility  of  Isolated  Elements  in  the  Microscope. | — 
K.  Strehl  makes  some  observations  on  this  subject. 

Bright  Spots  on  a  Dark  Ground. — He  regards  the  speculations  of 
Siedentopf  and  Zsigmondy  partly  as  hypothetical,  partly  as  not  free 
from  objection,  and  therefore  attaches  more  importance  to  their  results 
as  actually  attained.  With  the  most  intense  sunlight  an  illuminating 
system  of  N.A.  0*3,  and  an  observation  system  of  N.A.  1/2,  and 
strong  oculars,  the  least  value  they  obtained  for  the  edge  of  their  cube- 
shaped  gold  particles  was  4  /jl/a  =  0- 000004  mm. 

Dark  Spots  on  a  Bright  Ground. — On  the  basis  of  the  diffraction 
theory,  with  N.A.  1  ■  5,  wave-length  500  //.  //,,  eye  sensitiveness  limit 
5  p.c,  and  a  completely  aberration-free  pencil,  the  author  has  demon- 
strated the  following  limits  of  visibility  : 

Self-luminous.      Illuminated. 
Smallest  diameter  of  round  dark  apertures      ..       48  nn  34  "5  mx 

Smallest  breadth  of  straight  dark  slits . .  ..   10*5  „  2- 5   „ 

The  comparison  of  both  methods  of  observation  is  just  as  instructive 
as  the  results  are  important  in  the  investigation  after  ultra-microscopic 
bacteria. 

Achromatisation  of  Approximately  Monochromatic  Interference 
Fringes  by  a  Highly  Dispersive  Medium,  and  the  consequent  In- 
crease  in   the   allowable    Path-difference.§— R.  W.  Wood  obtained 

*  English  Mechanic,  lxxxi.  (1905)  p.  339. 

t  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club  (1903)  p.  173  (2  figa.). 

t  Central  Zeit.  f.  Optik.  u.  Mech.,  xxvi.  (1905)  p.  117. 

§  Proc.  Amer.  Acal.  Arts  anl  Sci..  xl.  No  IG  (1905)  pp.  59.J-G  );J  (8  figs.). 


.r>22  SUMMARY    OK    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

his  results  during  the  progress  of  an  investigation  of  the  dispersion  of 
sodium  vapour.  He  had  previously  found  that  the  path-difference  under 
which  it  is  possible  to  obtain  interference-fringes  with  helium  (I)3)  light 
can  be  more  than  doubled  by  the  introduction  of  a  small  amount  of 
sodium  vapour  into  the  path  of  one  of  the  interfering  beams.  This 
development  of  fringes  far  out  in  the  system  by  the  dispersive  action  of 
the  vapour  is  accompanied  by  their  complete  disappearance  at  the  centre 
of  the  system,  where  the  difference  of  path  is  zero.  The  author  worked 
with  a  narrow  range  of  the  spectrum  symmetrical  about  the  D  lines. 
This  was  obtained  by  opening  the  slit  of  the  monochromatic  illuminator, 
bisecting  it  with  a  wire,  and  adjusting  the  prisms  so  that  the  region  of 
the  I)  lines  was  screened  off  by  the  wire.  By  means  of  a  small  screen 
either  of  the  two  narrow  portions  of  the  spectrum  bordering  the  D  lines 
could  be  screened  off.  The  effect  of  the  sodium  vapour  on  the  fringes 
formed  when  the  interferometer  was  illumined  by  either  one  or  both  of 
the  two  portions  of  the  spectrum  could  then  be  studied  at  leisure.  It 
was  found  that  when  a  considerable  amount  of  the  vapour  was  present, 
the  apparent  centre  of  the  greenish-yellow  fringe  system  was  widely 
separated  from  the  centre  of  the  orange-yellow  system.  When  both 
sorts  of  light  were  used  at  once,  there  was  a  periodic  visibility  in  the 
region  in  which  the  two  systems  overlapped. 

Crookes,  Sib  W. — Ultra-Violet  Spectrum  of  Radium. 

[The  author  has,  with  some  exceptionally  pure  material, 
repeated  the  experiments  of  Runge,  Demar<;ay,  and 
Exner  and  Haschek.  His  results  differ  materially  from 
theirs.]  Proc.  Boy.  Soc,  lxxii.,  No.  482 

pp.  295-304  (3  pis.). 

,.  „  Ultra-Violet  Spectrum  of  Gadolinium. 

[The  author's  experiments  confirm  those  of  Exner  and 
Haschek,  but  do  not  seem  to  support  Urbain's  view  that 
Gadolinium  and  Victorium  are  identical.] 

Op.  cit.,  lxxiv.  No.  504,  pp.  420-2. 

Fabre,  M.  G. — Les  perfeotionnements  du  Microscope. 

[The  author  gives  an  interesting  resume  of  recent  investigations  on  ultra- 
microscopical  bodies.]  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Sci.  de  Toulouse, 

Dixieme  Serie,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  314-20. 

Hag  a,  H.— Ein  Vorlesungsversuch  fur  die  Bestimmung  der  Wellenlange  des 
Lichtes.  Zeits.  /.  Vnterricht.,  xvii.  (1904)  p.  288. 

Marpmann,  G. — Ueber  ultramikroskopisches  Sehen. 

[The  author  reviews  our  present  knowledge  of  operating  with  ultra-violet  rays.] 
Zeits.  f.  ang.  Mikr.  u.  Klinische  Chemie,  xi.  (April  1905)  pp.  1-7 

Merlin,  A.  A.  C.  E.—Amphipleura  pellucida  (Resolution  of). 

English  Mechanic,  lxxix.  (1904)  p.  284. 

S  o  h  i  m  m  e  l  i'  e  n  n  i,n  g,  v  o  N  deb  O  y  e,  V.— Zur  Theorie  du  Doppelbrechung. 

Teil  i.  (Brunn,  1903)  29  pp. 

Schuster,  A.— Introduction  to  Theory  of  Optics. 

London  (E.  Arnold),  1904,  356  pp. 

Stone y,  Johnstone,  G— How  to  Exhibit  in  Optical  Instruments  the  Resolution 
of  Light  into  its  component  undulations  of  Flat  Wavelets,  and  how  to  employ 
this  resolution  as  our  guide  in  making  and  in  interpreting  experiments. 

Rep.  Brit.  Assoc  Southport,  1903(1904)  p.  568. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  523 

Treadle— Ampnipleura  (Resolving).  English  Mechanic,  lxxix.  (1904)  p.  83. 

„  Diatoms  (Resolving).  Tom.  cit.,  p.  84. 

„  Pinnularia  nobilis  (Resolution  of).  Op.  cit.,  lxxviii.  (1904)  p.  554  ; 

Op.  cit,  lxxix.  (1904)  pp.  14,  35. 

Vill agio— Resolution  of  Diatoms,  etc.  Tom.  cit.,  p.  193. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Comparison  of  British  and  Foreign  Students'  Microscopes.* — 
"Paterfamilias,"  under  the  heading  of  "The  Microscope  and  the  Fiscal 
Question,"  thus  compares  the  London-made  Microscopes  with  those  of 
foreign  manufacture : 

Foreign  Microscopes. 

Germany,  Jena.  In  Zeiss'  catalogue  we  find  that  the  kind  of  instru- 
ment we  require,  i.e.  one  suitable  for  a  student,  is  represented  by  Stand 
No.  VI.  a,  and  that  its  price  is  12/.  10s.  (The  focusing  of  the  sub- 
stage  condenser  is  by  a  sliding  tube.) 

America.  Messrs.  Bausch  and  Loinb  supply  an  instrument  very 
similar  in  every  respect  to  the  Zeiss  for  11/.  6s. 

Italy.  Koristka,  of  Milan,  supplies  a  Microscope  precisely  like  the 
Zeiss  for  10/.  16s. 

Austria  :  Reichert,  of  Vienna.  The  Microscope  of  this  maker  differs 
from  those  preceding  inasmuch  as  it  has  a  lever  interposed  in  the  fine 
adjustment  action,  a  sliding-bar  to  the  main  stagj,  screw  focusing  and 
centring  action  to  the  substage.  Notwithstanding  these  accessories  its 
price  is  9Z.  15s.,  or  22  per  cent,  less  than  Zeiss. 

Germany  :  Berlin.  Messrs.  Leitz  supply  a  Microscope  with  a  bent 
claw  tripod  foot  and  a  sliding-tube  focusing  substage,  but  in  other 
respects  similar  to  the  Zeiss  Microscope,  for  11.  5s.,  or  42  per  cent,  less 
than  the  Zeiss. 

British  Microscopes. 

Messrs.  0.  Baker,  of  Holborn,  quote  a  Microscope  with  a  bent  claw 
tripod  foot,  a  differential  screw  fine  adjustment,  otherwise  the  same  as 
the  Zeiss,  for  82.  15s.  Gd. 

Messrs.  Swift  and  Son,  of  Tottenham  Court  Road,  supply  a  Mien  >- 
scope  with  a  fine  adjustment  having  an  interposed  lever,  after  the  method 
of  Reichert's,  for  8/.  6s.     In  other  respects  it  is  the  same  as  the  Zeiss. 

Messrs.  Watson  and  Son,  of  Holborn,  quote  a  "  Fram  "  Microscope, 
having  a  tripod  foot  and  a  lever  fine  adjustment,  for  81.  8s. 

These  three  Microscopes,  of  BrLish  manufacture,  have  a  sliding-tube 
focusing  substage  at  the  price  quoted. 

Messrs.  Beck  and  Co.,  of  Cornhill,  make  a  "  London  "  Microscope 
with  a  screw  focusing  substage,  otherwise  similar  to  the  Zeiss  stand,  for 
11.  lis.,  or  40  per  cent,  less  than  the  Zeiss. 

In  comparing  the  prices  quoted  by  the  various  makers,  we  can  see  at 
once  that  in  the  foreign  group  of  Microscopes  the  Jena,  American  and 
Italian  are  by  far  the  most  expensive,  because  they  have  the  ordinary 

*  English  Mechanic,  lxxxi.  (19(»5)  pp.  290-1. 


524  SUMMARY    OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

direct-acting  screw  fine  adjustment,  and  a  substage  focusing  by  means 
of  a  sliding  tube. 

The  Austrian  is  more  expensive  than  the  Berlin  maker,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  gives  you  more  for  your  money.  A  lever  is  interposed 
in  the  fine  adjustment,  the  substage  has  screw  focusing  as  well  us 
centring  adjustments,  and  the  main  stage  has  a  sliding  bar. 

In  the  English  group,  Baker,  Swift  and  Watson  all  have  a  more 
complex  fine  adjustment  than  that  of  the  ordinary  Continental  type  ; 
but  they  have  only  sliding-tube  focusing  arrangement  to  their  substages. 
Beck's,  on  the  other  hand,  retains  the  Continental  form  of  fine  adjust- 
ment, but  adds  the  screw  focusing  adjustment  to  the  substage,  and  that 
at  a  price  lower  than  any  similar  class  of  Microscope  of  either  British  or 
foreign  manufacture. 


*&' 


C  z  a  p  s  k  i,  S. — Grundziige  der  Theorie  der  Optischen  Instrumente  nach  Abbe. 

Leipzig  :  Job..  Ambros.  Barth,  2nd  edition,  xvi.  and  490  pp. 

Die  prazisionsmechanik  und  optik  auf  der  Weltausstellung  im  St.  Louis. 

Deutsche  Mechan.-Zeit,  1904,  p.  181. 

Hageb,  H. — Das  Mikroskop  und  seine  Anwendung. 

Berlin:  J.  Springer,  1904,  9tb  edition,  392  pp.  (401  figs.). 

Niemann,    G. — Das  Mikroskop  und  seine  Benutzung  in  pflanzenanatomiscben 
Unterricbte.  Magdeburg  (Creutzsche  Verlagsbuchhandhing)  1904. 

Reinisch,  R. — Petrograpbisches  Praktikum.    ZweiterTeil:  Gesteine. 

Berlin,  Gebru.  Borntr'ager,  1904,  vii.  and  180  pp.  (22  figs.). 

RHEiifBERG,  J. — The  Collected  Papers  of  Abbe  and  Microscope  Theory  in  Germany. 

[The  author  has  translated  into  English  Dr.  Ambronn's  review  (Zeit.  f.  wis. 

Mikr.,  January  1905)  of  the  collected  papers  of  Professor  Abbe,  published 

last  year.]  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club  (March  1905)  pp.  153-66. 

Treadle — British  versus  Foreign  Microscopes. 

[Adversely  criticises  the  heavy  horseshoe  foot  and  spring  clips  to  stages.  He 
advocates  a  sliding  bar,  and  with  regard  to  a  tube  fitting  substage  he  says 
that  "  it  is  a  great  advantage  if  it  screws,  not  into  the  stage  itself,  but  into 
a  fiat  ring  screwed  to  the  stage,  the  holes  in  the  ring,  through  which  the 
attaching  screws  pass,  being  quite  loose  to  the  screw  shanks.  Then  the 
tube,  with  the  condenser  in  place  and  focused,  can  be  made  to  centre 
exactly,  once  for  all,  to,  say,  the  i  objective,  and.  made  fast."  He  is  of 
the  opinion  that  a  lever  fine  adjustment  is  very  much  superior  to  any 
direct-acting  screw.]  English  Mechanic,  lxxxi.  (1905)  pp.  312-13. 

B.  Technique.* 
(1)    Collecting:  Objects,  including-  Culture   Processes. 

Spontaneous  Action  of  Radio-active  Bodies  on  Gelatin  Media. f 
J.  B.  Burke  calls  attention  to  his  interesting  experiments  on  the  action 
of  radium  salts  on  nutrient  gelatin.  In  from  1-4  days  there  appears  a 
culture-like  growth,  the  nature  of  which  is  obscure.  The  bodies,  as  seen 
in  the  illustration,  are  round  and  possess  a  nucleus.  They  are  soluble  in 
water,  and  when  they  attain  a  certain  size,  subdivide.  They  disappear 
on   heating   and   on   exposure  to   sunlight,  but   reappear  after   a  few 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting   Objects,  including   Culture   Pro- 
cesses; (2)  Preparing  Objects;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting;  (5)  Mounting, including  slides, preservative  fluids,  &c. ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Nature,  lxxii.  (1905)  pp.  78-9  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


525 


days.  The  first  visible  growth  is  on  the  surface  of  the  medium,  but  in 
about  a  fortnight  the  substratum  may  be  invaded  to  the  depth  of  a 
centimetre.  As  the  bodies  are  not  microbic  or  crystalline  in  nature  the 
author  is  disposed  to  regard  them  as  colloid  substances,  and  terms  them 
radiobes  in  view  of  their  resemblance  to  microbes  and  of  their  nature  and 
origin. 

(2)  Preparing  Objects. 

Blood  Spreader.* — This  instrument,  devised  by  M.  J.  Rosenau,  is 
made  by  welding  two  pieces  of  solid  glass  rod  together  (figs.  116,  117). 


) 

Fig.  116. 

The  short  arm  should  be  true  so  as  to  lie  flat  when  applied  to  the  slide, 
and  should  be  several  millimetres  shorter  than  the  width  of  the  slide. 
A  drop  of  blood  is  taken  from  the  ear  or  finger-tip  and  placed  upon  one 


Fig.  117. 

end  of  the  slide  in  the  usual  manner.  The  spreader  is  then  applied  to 
the  drop,  and  if  the  glass  be  clean  the  blood  will  at  once  be  drawn  by 
capillary  attraction  across  its  whole  length  ;  it  is  then  stroked  gently 
along  the  slide. 

Preparing  and  Staining  Eye  of  Honey  Beef.— For  demonstrating 

the  structure  and  development  of  the  compound  eye  of  the  honey  bee, 
E.  F.  Phillips  proceeded  as  follows.     Larvae  and  pupa?  were  fixed  in 

*  Yellow  Fever  Inst.,  Bull.  14  (Washington,  1905)  pp.  52-3  (2  figs.). 
t  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  lvii.  (1005)  \\  12".. 


526  SUMMARY   OF  CUEEBNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Flemming's  fluid,  Hermann's  fluid,  picro-sulphuric,  picro-acetic  and 
picric  acid  saturated  in  50  p.c.  alcohol,  but  of  these  the  Flemming  and 
Hermann  preparations  yielded  the  best  results.  For  the  smaller  larvae 
it  was  not  necessary  to  dissect  before  fixation,  but  for  older  lavse  and 
pupas  the  head  was  removed  to  make  penetration  easier.  For  adult 
material,  where  penetration  is  difficult,  the  best  fixative  was  acetic  acid, 
generally  a  10  or  20  p.c.  acetic  solution  in  80-100  p.c.  alcohol. 
Kleinenberg's  picro-sulphuric  and  picric  acid  in  50  p.c.  alcohol  were  also 
used,  with  fair  results  when  the  head  was  cut  in  two. 

The  material  was  all  cut  in  paraffin,  and  it  was  found  that  for  adult 
material  long  imbedding  was  necessary,  4-8  hours,  to  get  the  paraffin  all 
through  the  tissues.  Some  material  was  imbedded  for  a  shorter  time  to 
see  whether  the  heat  had  produced  any  artefacts  in  the  other  material 
which  was  imbedded  for  the  longer  period,  but  in  such  cases  the  lens 
invariably  separated  from  the  retinular  layer,  no  difference  was  observed 
in  the  internal  tissues  due  to  long  heating.  In  staining,  the  best  results 
were  obtained  in  the  use  of  Heidenhain's  iron-haematoxylin,  and 
by  a  strong  mordant  for  a  long  time.  For  material  of  this  kind 
there  seems  to  be  no  better  stain.  It  was  found  that  by  destaining  to 
different  degrees  the  various  parts  of  the  eye  would  show  differences  in 
colour,  the  rhabdome,  for  example,  staining  an  intense  black  in  rather 
deeply  stained  material.  The  nerve  fibrils  of  the  retinular  cells  also 
stained  black  with  this  stain.  Other  stains,  such  as  Delafield's 
hfematoxylin  and  eosin  or  Bordeaux  red,  were  employed  with  very  good 
results. 

For  depigmenting,  Grenacher's  solution  with  a  somewhat  greater 
percentage  of  acid  was  used.  Parker's  solution  was  also  used,  though  the 
former  gave  better  results. 

Imbedding  with  Incomplete  Dehydration.* — W.  J.  V.  Osterhout 
gives  the  preference  to  a  saponaceous  medium  for  imbedding  vegetable 
tissues  over  paraffin.  He  finds  that  cocoanut  oil  and  sodium  hydrate 
when  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  70  c.cm.  of  oil  to  38*5  c.cm.  of  28  p.c. 
solution  of  caustic  soda  in  water,  makes  an  excellent  basis.  The  oil  is 
warmed  in  a  water  bath  and  the  lye  added  gradually,  the  mass  being 
stirred  the  while. 

The  tissue  to  be  imbedded  is  warmed  in  a  water  bath  and  the  soap 
added  as  long  as  it  will  dissolve.  The  whole  is  then  poured  into  a 
suitable  receptacle  until  sufficiently  firm  to  cut  into  blocks.  These 
blocks  are  treated  after  the  paraffin  method.  Perfect  sections  1  micron 
thick  and  several  feet  long  are  easily  obtained.  The  sections  may  be 
treated  in  the  usual  way  either  by  sticking  them  on  slides  or  by  im- 
mersing them  in  water  and  dissolving  out  the  soap.  But  if  they  are  to 
be  fixed  to  slides  in  serial  order,  the  ribands  are  placed  on  slides 
previously  coated  with  white  of  egg  and  then  dried  ;  they  are  moistened 
with  xylene,  which  makes  them  spread  out  and  adhere.  A  piece  of 
absorbent  muslin  is  then  pressed  gently  on  the  sections,  and  when  the 
xylene  has  evaporated  the  muslin  is  moistened  with  water.  The  slide  is 
then  cautiously  heated  to  coagulate  the  albumen  and  fix  the  sections  to 

*  Univ.  California  Pub.  But.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  87-90. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


52' 


the  slide.     The  muslin  is  now  moistened  again,  and  afterwards  carefully 
removed.     The  sections  may  now  be  treated  in  the  usual  manner. 

Instead  of  water,  alcohol  may  be  used  for  imbedding.  The  tissue 
partly  dehydrated  is  placed  in  alcohol  on  a  water  bath,  and  soap  added 
till  no  more  will  dissolve. 

Fixation  in  Vacuo.*— W.  J.  V.  Osterhout  describes  a  simple  air- 
pump  for  removing  air  from  vegetable  tissues.  The  construction  of  the 
pump  is  seen  in  fig.  118.  A  piece  of  glass  tubing  12-15  inches  long  is 
stopped  at  one  end  with  sealing  wax.  A  rubber 
disc  (r)  is  pushed  about  an  inch  down  the  tube, 
and  after  carefully  warming  the  glass,  melted 
sealing  wax  is  poured  in.  The  piston  may  be 
prepared  as  follows  :  Insert  a  rubber  stopper  at 
the  unsealed  end  of  the  tube,  press  it  in  gently  and 
then  cut  it  off  cleanly  just  at  the  top  of  the  tube. 
In  the  upper  half  of  the  stopper  make  another  cut 
just  above  the  first  so  as  to  slice  off  a  disc  about 
^  inch  in  thickness.  With  an  awl  make  a  hole 
exactly  in  the  centre  of  this  disc  and  force  through 
it  a  brass  rod  about  ^  inch  in  diameter  and  of 
the  form  shown  in  the  illustration.  This  should 
be  provided  with  a  thread  at  the  end  and  cany  a 
nut  (n)  above  the  disc  and  a  nut  and  washer  (w) 
below  it.  The  washer  should  be  a  little  smaller 
than  the  inside  diameter  of  the  tube. 

In  order  to  use  the  apparatus  the  tissue  is 
placed  in  the  tube  and  the  fixative  poured  over  it. 
When  the  piston  is  pushed  down  the  disc  springs 
back  to  allow  the  air  to  escape.  When  it  comes 
below  the  liquid  it  is  pulled  back,  the  result  being 
the  production  of  a  very  good  vacuum.  In  order 
to  inject  tissues  with  fixative,  the  pieces  are 
secured  by  means  of  wire  or  wedges  so  that  they 
cannot  rise  in  the  liquid.  The  piston  and  the 
inner  surface  of  the  tube  are  then  coated  with 
vaselin  to  prevent  the  piston  from  sticking.  The 
piston  should  be  forced  down  about  \  inch  below 
the  surface  of  the  liquid  and  then  drawn  up 
again,  when  the  springs  (s)  will  hold  it  in  place. 


Fig.  lis. 


(3)  Cutting',  including-  Imbedding  and  Microtomes. 

Agar-Agar  and  Paraffin  Method  for  Imbedding  Plant  Tissues.t- 
H.  H.  York  first  kills  tbe  tissues,  then  imbeds  in  2  and  5  p.c.  agar 
solutions,  afterwards  imbedding  in  paraffin  in  the  usual  way.     To  the 
agar  solutions  1  part  of  formalin  to  !>  parts  by  volume  of  agar  is  added. 
The  tissues  are  placed  in  the  '1  p.e.  agar  solution  at  70° C.  for  two  hours, 

*  Univ.  California  Pub.  Bot.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  78-80  (1  lig.). 
t  Ohio  Naturalist,  v.  '1905)  pp.  344-5. 


528 


SUMMARY    OK    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


and  are  then  transferred  to  the  5  p.c.  solution  for  one  hour  or  more.  In 
the  5  p.c.  solution  the  tissues  are  blocked  on  bits  of  wood  or  glass  plate, 
after  which  the  blocks  are  passed  through  graded  alcohols  to  paraffin. 
The  layer  of  agar  round  the  tissues  is  rendered  very  firm  by  the  alcohol 
and  prevents  the  material  from  being  torn.  The  sections  are  very 
satisfactory. 

If  the  material  contain  silicon  it  should  be  placed  in  water  at  70°  C. 
for  an  hour,  and  then  in  10  p.c.  hydrofluoric  acid  for  12  hours.  On 
removal  it  is  washed  in  water  and  treated  as  above. 

Accessory  for  Freezing-  Microtomes.* — This  invention  of  N.  B. 
Harman  consists  of  a  box  of  thin  metal,  the  walls  of  which  are  prolonged 
below  the  bottom  of  the  box  for  the  distance  of  a  centimetre  ;  the  box 
is  clothed  in  a  jacket  of  felt.  When  sections  are  to  be  cut  the  chamber 
is  filled  with  a  mixture  of  ice  and  salt,  and  the  box  placed  on  the  glass 
plate  of  the  microtome,  so  that  the  specimen  is  enclosed  in  an  atmosphere 
below  freezing  point.     This  device  saves  both  time  and  ether. 

Simple  Freezing  Microtome.f  —  W.  J.  V.  Osterhout  describes  a 
microtome  suitable  for  botanical  purposes.     It  consists  of  an  iron  stand 


Fig.  119. 


(fig.  110),  which  may  be  made  from  a  piece  of  heavy  T-rail  about  8  in. 
long  with  a  width  of  4  in.  at  the  top.  At  one  end  it  is  cut  away  so  as 
to  leave  the  two  projecting  arms,  between  which  the  freezing  chamber/ 
rests.     This  chamber  is  raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  the  micrometer 

*  Lancet  (1905)  i.  p.  1505,  1  fig. 

t  Univ.  California  Pub.  Hot.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  73-7  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC. 


520 


screw  s.  The  knife  is  a  carpenter's  plane-iron,  and  this  is  fitted  into 
the  carrier  a,  which  serves  also  for  the  purpose  of  sharpening  on  the 
hones.  Two  plates,  p  y,  about  ^  in.  thick,  are  fastened  to  the  bop  in 
order  to  prevent  the  edge  of  the  knife  from  coming  in  contact  with  the 
microtome.  A  small  piece  of  tin  t  bent  at  right  angles  is  so  fastened 
that  when  its  edge  comes  in  contact  with  the  milled  head  of  the  micro- 
meter screw  s  it  makes  a  clicking.  The  microtome  works  equally  well 
with  cold  brine,  carbon  dioxide,  ether,  or  rhizolene. 

A  sectional  view  of  the  attachment,  which  serves  both  as  knife-carrier 
and  handle  for  sharpening,  is  seen  in  fig.  120.  It  is  made  of  brass  or 
copper.     The  knife  k  is  firmly  held  in  place  by  means  of  the  screw  s, 


UUf 


Fig.  120. 

which  passes  through  a  collar  c  soldered  to  the  top  plate  p,  which  in  turn 
is  fastened  to  the  main  body  of  the  attachment  by  the  screws  m  m.  A 
cylindrical  piece  of  brass  r  serves  as  a  roller  and  turns  on  the  screws  w  to 
as  bearings.  When  the  knife  is  placed  for  the  first  time  on  the  hone 
the  carrier  is  so  adjusted  by  means  of  the  screw  that  the  ground  surface 
lies  flat  on  the  hone.  This  position  should  be  marked,  so  that  when 
re-sharpening  is  required  the  same  position  may  be  readily  attained. 
When  placed  in  the  microtome  for  cutting  it  is  put  J  to  \  in.  further 
back,  so  that  its  position  is  more  vertical  than  when  being  sharpened. 

(4)    Staining-  and  Injecting-. 

Staining  the  Tubercle  Bacillus  with  Eosin.* — A.  Mendoza  states 
that  the  bacilli  of  tubercle,  leprosy,  smegma,  and  others  can  be  stained  by 
means  of  eosin.  The  preparations  are  treated  for  24  hours  in  the  cold, 
or  heated  for  about  15  minutes.  The  fuchsin  is  made  up  with  carbolic 
acid  or  an  aldehyde  of  the  aromatic  series,  to  the  action  of  which  the 
author  ascribes  the  penetrability  of  the  staining  solutions.  When  stained 
the  preparations  are  decolorised  with  10  p.c.  acid  alcohol. 

Staining  the  Spirochsetae  of  Syphilis.! — E.  J.  McWccney  finds 
the  spirochetal  of  syphilis  are  negative  to  Gram,  and  that  the  results 

*  Bol.  Inst.  Alfonso  xiii.,  1  (1905)  pp.  9-11. 

t  Brit.  Med.  Journ.  (1905)  i.  pp.  1262-4  (1  fig.). 

Aug.  16th,  1905  2   n 


.»:'.(!  SUMMARY    <>K    (TKRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

from  carbol-fuchsin  arc  poor.  The  best  results  were  obtained  with 
Griemsa's  modification  of  the  Romanowsky  stain,*  which  imparted  to 
the  spirochetal  a  distinctly  reddish-violet  tinge,  while  the  bacteria  came 
out  blue.  The  films  which  were  made  from  syphilitic  sores  and  dis- 
charges were  dried  in  the  air,  fixed  for  10  minutes  in  absolute  alcohol, 
and  stained  for  some  hours.  The  movements  of  the  spirochete  may  be 
readily  observed  in  hanging  drops. 

Affinity  of  Artificial  Colouring  Matters  for  Connective  Tissue.f — 
Curtis  and  P.  Lemoult  record  experiments  which  show  that  in  order  to 
develop  the  selectivity  of  connective  tissue  for  certain  pigments,  it  is 
necessary  to  work  in  presence  of  picric  acid  or  some  other  tri-nitrite 
derivative,  and  moreover  to  use  stains  having  at  least  three  sulpho  group- 
ings (S03H)  fixed  in  the  chromogen  and  distributed  as  uniformly  as 
possible.  Satisfactory  results  are  obtained  from  the  use  of  acid  fuschin, 
red-violet,  4  RS  and  5  RS,  which  stain  connective  tissue  red,  or  from 
Ponceau  S  extra,  from  diamine  blue  2  B,  or  from  naphthol  black  B,  which 
stain  respectively  red  or  blue  and  possess  the  advantage  of  being  fast. 

Theory  of  Histological  Staining.:}: — G.  Halphen  and  A.  Riche,  when 
studying  the  theory  of  histological  staining,  tested  the  action  of  dyes  on 
sections  of  different  animal  tissues  fixed  by  means  of  alcohol.  The  stain 
was  dissolved  in  a  thousand  times  its  weight  of  water  and  used  cold. 
After  removing  excess  of  stain  with  water  the  sections  were  dehydrated 
in  a  mixture  of  1  volume  absolute  alcohol  and  3  or  4  volumes  of 
petroleum-ether.  It  was  found  that  when  slight  quantities  of  acid  were 
added  to  acid  dyes  their  staining  property  was  increased,  and  a  similar 
effect  resulted  when  basic  dyes  were  treated  with  alkali.  These  results 
are  referred  to  the  basic  and  acid  properties  of  the  albuminoids.  These 
properties  are  profoundly  altered  by  the  action  of  fixatives,  such  as 
formalin  and  Midler's  fluid  ;  so  in  order  to  prevent  these  influences  the 
tissues  to  be  experimented  with  wrere  dried  under  bell-jars  in  the  presence 
of  glycerin  or  of  sulphuric  acid.  Prepared  in  this  way,  the  sections 
failed  to  show  the  presence  of  nuclei  or  cells  of  any  sort,  and  the  tissues 
were  found  to  possess  the  property  of  energetically  decomposing  oxy- 
genated water,  a  property  which  tissues  preserved  in  alcohol  do  not 
possess. 

Multiplex  Slide-holding  Device  for  Staining  Sections.§  —  E.  F. 
Miller  describes  an  apparatus  which  consists  of  a  series  of  perforated 
vulcanised  rubber  plates,  placed  in  a  holder,  having  a  carrying  capacity 
of  26  slides,  so  that  they  maybe  clamped  against  a  metal  plate  by  means 
of  a  thumb-screw.  The  principal  advantages  claimed  for  the  apparatus 
are  the  saving  of  time  and  expenditure  of  reagents. 

(5)  Mounting-,  including:  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  &c. 

Imbedding  Microscopic  Alg«.||—  W.  J.  V.  Osterhout  remarks  that 
the  most  serious  difficulty  in  imbedding  microscopic  alge  lies  in  the  fact 

*  J.R.M.S.,  1905,  p.  115. 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1606-8.  J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1408-10. 

§  Johns  Hopkins  Hosp.  Bull.,  xvi.  Q905)  pp.  132-3(1  fig.). 

||   Univ.  California  Pub.  Bot.,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  85-6. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  531 

that  they  are  usually  mixed  with  dirt,  which  soon  ruins  the  knife  edge. 
This  may  be  got  rid  of  by  rubbing  them  up  gently  in  a  considerable 
quantity  of  water  and  then  decanting  into  a  lung  tube,  \  to  £  in.  in 
diameter,  closed  at  the  lower  end  with  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  and  a 
burette  clamp.  As  soon  as  the  dirt  has  settled  to  the  bottom  it  may  be 
drawn  off.  The  tube  may  then  be  shaken  up  and  the  process  repeated 
until  no  more  dirt  remains. 

After  being  freed  from  dirt  the  alga;  must  be  collected  into  a  small 
space  in  order  that  they  may  be  imbedded.  The  following  method  * 
has  proved  very  successful  for  this  purpose.  A  glass  tube  of  about  -]  in. 
interior  diameter  is  first  smeared  at  the  lower  end  with  glycerin  and  then 
dipped  into  a  solution  of  collodion  or  photoxylin.  As  soon  as  the  collo- 
dion film  has  become  firm  it  is  pushed  down  a  little  so  as  to  allow  the 
end  to  be  cut  off  with  the  scissors.  An  ordinary  pipette  bulb  is  now 
attached  to  the  upper  end  and  the  lower  end  is  again  dipped  in  the 
collodion  solution.  As  soon  as  it  is  withdrawn  the  bulb  is  compressed, 
with  the  result  that  a  collodion  bubble  is  blown  at  the  lower  end.  The 
bulb  is  kept  compressed  until  the  bubble  hardens  into  a  firm  sack.  The 
pipette  bulb  is  now  removed  and  the  tube  is  filled  with  the  water  con- 
taining the  algse.  These  gradually  sink  down  into  the  collodion  sack, 
which  may  then  be  compressed  at  the  top  with  a  pair  of  forceps  while 
the  water  is  poured  off.  Fixing  fluid  may  then  be  poured  into  the  tube 
and  after  an  appropriate  time  got  rid  of  in  the  same  manner.  The  alga; 
may  be  washed  with  several  changes  of  water,  in  the  same  manner,  in 
order  to  remove  the  fixing  fluid.  The  sack  may  now  be  held  with  the 
forceps  as  just  described  and  cut  off  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  tube. 
The  cut  surfaces  may  then  be  brushed  with  a  solution  of  collodion, 
which  serves  to  seal  the  sack.  It  may  then  be  dehydrated,  together  with 
the  contained  algse,  and  imbedded  in  the  usual  way. 

It  often  happens  that  the  algse  remain  suspended  in  the  water  and 
refuse  to  sink  to  the  bottom  even  after  some  days.  The  addition  of 
fixing  fluid  to  the  water  often  causes  them  to  sink,  but  even  this  some- 
times fails.  In  such  cases  the  author  has  tried  the  expedient  of  adding 
a  little  white  of  egg,  which  soon  coagulates,  both  in  the  water  and  in  the 
fixing  fluid,  forming  a  flocculent  precipitate  which  slowly  settles,  carrying 
the  alga3  down  with  it.  Very  obstinate  cases  may  be  treated  by  partly 
emptying  the  tube  of  water  and  cautiously  pouring  in  alcohol  of  any 
desired  grade.  This  gradually  diffuses  downward,  and  when  the  propor- 
tion of  alcohol  becomes  great  enough  the  algaj  sink  to  the  bottom. 

In  many  cases  it  is  possible  to  concentrate  the  alga3  rapidly  by  simply 
filtering  through  the  Schleicher  and  Schiill  Filter  paper  No.  575,  either 
with  or  without  the  use  of  a  filter  pump.  This  filter  paper  is  hard  and 
smooth,  and  the  algte,  even  when  gelatinous,  do  not  stick  to  it  and  can 
be  washed  clown  into  a  compact  mass.  Chamois  skin  may  be  used  in 
the  same  way ;  in  this  case  the  filter  pump  is  a  necessity.  The  algae 
cannot  be  washed  clown,  but  can  be  easily  removed  without  the  slightest 
injury  (even  in  the  case  of  swarm  spores)  by  simply  laying  the  wet 
chamois  skin  flat  on  a  board  and  scraping  with  a  knife.  The  knife  must 
be  pressed  clown  firmly  against  the  chamois  skin  so  as  to  squeeze  out  the 

*  See  also  Strasburger's  Pnicticuui,  3rd  ed.,  p.  366. 

■1   X   -' 


532  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

water  (and  the  contained  algae)  as  it  travels  along,  leaving  the  skin  dry 
behind  it.  It  will  then  be  seen  that  the  knife  does  not  really  come  in 
contact  with  the  alga;  at  all. 

The  collected  alga;  may  be  enclosed  in  a  collodion  sack  as  before  or 
placed  in  a  narrow  vial  and  ran  np  into  paraffin  by  carefully  decanting 
the  successive  liquids.  When  the  paraffin  is  cooled  the  bottle  is  broken 
and  the  block  cut  in  the  usual  way. 

Rapid  Method  of  Mounting  in  Aqueous  Media.* — W.  J.  V.  Ostcr- 
hout  has  found  the  following  method  very  successful.  The  examination 
is  made  in  a  drop  of  fluid  placed  on  a  cover-glass  1  in.  square,  and 
covered  by  a  smaller  one  ;  both  rest  on  an  ordinary  slide.  Excess  of 
fluid  is  removed  so  as  to  leave  the  margin  of  the  larger  cover-glass  clean 
and  dry.  A  drop  of  balsam  dissolved  in  xylene  is  placed  on  another 
slide,  and  the  cover-glasses  placed  thereon  in  an  inverted  position  so  as 
to  bring  the  smaller  one  underneath.  The  arrangement  is  shown  in 
section  in  fig.  121,  s  being  the  slide,  m  the  material,  cc  the  cover  glasses, 


Fig.  121. 

and  b  the  balsam.  The  balsam  must  be  quite  fluid,  and  pressure  and 
heat  must  be  avoided.  The  preparation  is  then  set  aside  to  dry.  Thick 
specimens,  such  as  free-hand  sections,  may  be  treated  as  follows  :  They 
are  placed  on  a  slide  in  a  drop  of  fluid,  which  is  then  surrounded  by 
broken  fragments  of  cover-glass.  A  large  cover-glass  is  then  imposed 
on  these  supports,  the  superfluous  fluid  is  removed,  and  a  drop  of 
balsam  run  in.  The  zone  of  contact  afterwards  becomes  cloudy,  but 
this  does  not  in  any  way  detract  from  the  value  of  the  preparation. 

Simple  Slide-holder.t — W.  J.  V.  Osterhout  states  that  a  very  satis- 
factory holder  for  the  simultaneous  treatment  of  numerous  slides  can  be 
made  out  of  nickel  or  copper-plated  steel  wire.  This  is  wound  round  a 
bar  from  \  to  |  the  diameter  desired  for  the  coil,  and  should  be  ham- 
mered while  still  closely  wound  on  the  bar.  As  both  sides  of  the  coil 
are  available,  and  as  two  slides  placed  back  to  back  may  be  inserted  in 
each  space,  it  is  obvious  that  a  very  large  number,  over  a  hundred,  may 
be  manipulated  at  the  same  time. 

Modification  of  the  Rousselet  Live-box.!  —  A.  A.  C.  E.  Merlin 
draws  attention  to  the  following  modification  of  Rousselet's  live-box. 
In  order  to  retard  evaporation  the  large  cover-glass  should  be  cemented 
to  the  carrier,  instead  of  being  held  loosely  in  it  by  the  screw  arrange- 
ment, which  is  intended  to  facilitate  the  replacing  of  a  fractured  cover. 

*  Univ.  California  Pub.  Bot.,  ii.  (1901)  pp.  83-4  (1  fi?.). 

+  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  81-2  (1  fig.). 

%  Journ.  Quekett  Micr.  Club.,  ix.  (1905)  pp.  169-70  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  533 

The  carrier  can  easily  be  constructed  with  a  broad  flange  to  facilitate 
this,  and  in  the  event  of  breakage  few  would  experience  any  difficulty  in 
fixing  another  cover.  In  addition  to  the  cemented  cover-glass,  it  is 
only  necessary  that  the  carrier  should  accurately  fit  into  the  box  in  such 
a  way  that  an  elastic  band  may  be  placed  round  the  rim  over  the  line 
juncture,  thus  rendering  the  appliance  practically  airtight  (fig.  122). 


Fig.  12'2.  , 


Method  for  Freeing  Paraffin  from  Cedar-wood  Oil.* — In  the  use 
of  cedar-wood  oil  for  imbedding  tissues  in  paraffin  it  is  a  disadvantage 
that  the  oil  is  not  volatile,  and  is  thus  retained  in  the  paraffin,  rendering 
it  unfit  for  further  use.  W.  Mair  has  found  that  by  the  following 
simple  method  a  large  part  of  the  paraffin  can  be  recovered  in  a  tolerably 
pure  condition.  The  contaminated  paraffin  is  allowed  to  solidify  at  room 
temperature.  It  is  then  placed  on  top  of  a  pledget  of  cotton-wool  in  a 
suitable  vessel  and  allowed  to  remain  in  the  incubator  at  body-tempera- 
ture over-night.  Next  morning  the  wool  will  be  found  saturated  with  a 
melted  mixture  containing  a  great  deal  of  oil  and  little  paraffin,  while 
the  solid  mass  of  paraffin  above  is  fairly  pure.  This  is  removed  and 
placed  in  the  paraffin  oven  to  filter,  and  the  filtrate  will  be  found  quite 
satisfactory  for  at  least  the  first  paraffin  bath. 

Method  for  Preserving  Bacterial  Cultures  for  Class  Purposes.f 
E.  S.  (x.  Fowler  writes  :  After  subcultivating  the  purer  colonies  on 
fresh  tubes  and  obtaining  results  which  show  the  main  features  of  par- 
ticular growths,  I  pour  on  to  the  sloped  or  straight  surface  (streak  and 
stab  cultures)  of  the  medium  a  covering  some  \  in.  to  f  in.  deep  of  the 
following  preparation  :  Gelatin,  50  grm. ;  formalin  (40  p.c.)  20  minims  ; 
water  (distilled),  1  fl.  oz.  The  gelatin  is  dissolved  in  the  water  by  heat, 
and  when  nearly  cool  the  formalin  is  gently  stirred  in,  so  as  to  avoid 
air-bubble  formation.  Just  before  it  sets  it  is  poured  over  the  growth 
to  the  depth  required,  and  the  plugs  replaced  and  the  tube  left  in  posi- 
tion to  cool.  I  next  cut  the  wool  plugs  level  with  the  tube  mouth,  and 
dip  the  plugged  end  into  melting  white  wax  and  so  seal  them.  The 
specimen  is  stored  preferably  in  a  cool,  dark  place.  The  preparation, 
being  transparent,  seems  to  serve  the  following  purposes:  (1)  If  the 
growth  is  not  quite  pure  no  further  growth  takes  place  after  treatment, 
so  that  the  specimen  is  fixed  with  features  required  ;  (2)  no  growth 
occurs  from  contamination,  with  ordinary  care  ;  (3)  being  transparent,  it 
does  not  interfere  with  good  viewing  of  the  growth  ;    (4)  it  checks 

*  Brit.  Med.  Journ.  (1905)  i.  p.  1381.  t  Tom.  oil,  p.  1412. 


5:34  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

drying  of  the  medium  for  a  considerable  time  ;  (5)  there  is  little  if  any 
action  on  the  specific  colour  of  the  growths  on  which  I  have  tried  it. 
Only  one  of  my  preparations  is  at  all  cracked,  and  not  so  as  to  affect  tlie 
specimen.  The  others  seem  to  have  dried  a  little,  but  have  quite  a 
glassy  surface. 

Abel,  R. — Tasohenbuch  fur  dem  bakteriologischen  Praktikanten,  enthaltend  die 
wichtigsten  technischen  Detailvorschriften  zur  bakteriologischen  Laborotoriums- 
arbeit.  Wiirzburg:  A.  Stuber,  8th  ed.  (1904)  vi.  and  144  pp. 

Bess  on,  A. — Technique  microbiologique  et  serotherapique. 

Paris  :  Bailliere  et  Ills,  3rd.  ed.  (1904)  340  figs. 

Fobsteb,  W.  H.  C. — Simple  Technique  for  the  Enumeration  of  Organisms  in  any 
fluid. 

[A  modification  of  the  method  of  A.  E.  Wright  for  the  estimation  of  the 
number  of  living  organisms  in  a  given  culture,  and  also  used  for  researches 
on  blood  serum,  Lancet  (1901)  i.  p.  1532.] 

Lancet  (1905)  i.  pp.  1641-2. 

Ledermann,  R. — Die  Mikroskopische  Technik  mit  besonderer  Beriicksichtsgung 
der  Farbertechnik.  Med.  Handbibliotheh,,  Bd.  vi.,  Wien  and  Leipzig, 

A.  Holder,  1903. 

Prenant,  A.,  Bouin,  P.,  &  Maillard,  L. — Traite  d'histologie.  I.  Cytologic 
generale  et  speciale.  Paris  :  C.  Reinwald,  Schleicher,  freres  et  Cie. 

(1904)  xxxiii.  and  977  pp.,  791  figs. 

Rothiq,  P. — Handbuchder  embryologischen  Technik. 

Wiesbaden  :  J.  F.  Bergmann,  1904. 

Stuhr,  P. — Traite  technique  d'histologie. 

Paris  :  translated  by  H.  Toupet  and  Critzmann, 
3rd  French  ed.,  514  pp.,  399  figs. 


Metallography,  etc. 

International  Committee  for  Investigating  the  Constituents  of 
Steel.* — The  confused  state  of  knowledge  on  the  subject  of  the  con- 
stituents of  steel,  and  the  want  of  agreement  as  to  their  number, 
characteristics,  and  modes  of  formation,  have  led,  at  the  instance  of 
K,.  T.  Glazebrook  and  H.  le  Chatelier,  to  the  selection  of  an  inter- 
national committee,  which  will  undertake  researches  with  the  object  of 
arriving  at  authoritative  conclusions,  and  of  drawing  up  a  common 
system  of  nomenclature.  The  difficulties  met  with  in  the  study  of  the 
constituents  of  steel  are  due  to  (1)  the  numerous  allotropic  states  in 
which  iron  exists,  (2)  the  fine  state  of  division  of  the  constituents,  (3) 
the  impossibility  of  separating  by  chemical  means  the  different  solid 
solutions  present  in  quenched  steels,  owing  to  the  similarity  of  their 
properties.  The  programme  of  preliminary  researches  proposed  to  be 
undertaken,  to  determine  the  conditions  under  which  the  various  con- 
stituents are  produced,  is  given.  The  co-operation  of  independent 
investigators  will  be  welcomed. 

Cobalt  Steels.f — L.  Guillet  finds  that  the  effect  of  cobalt  upon  iron, 
is,  contrary  to  what  has  been  supposed,  altogether  different  to  that  of 

*  Rev.  Metallurgie,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  329-34.  t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  348-9. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  f>35 

nickel.  Samples  of  steel  containing  np  to  30  p.c.  cobalt  with  0 '  8  p.c. 
carbon,  were  examined  and  found  to  be  pearlitic  without  exception.  As 
the  percentage  of  cobalt  increases,  the  breaking  load  and  elastic  limit 
are  gradually  raised,  with  a  corresponding  reduction  in  elongation  and 
contraction  of  area  ;  no  abrupt  change  in  mechanical  properties  occurs. 
Cobalt  steels  have  no  industrial  application. 

Classification  of  Ternary  Steels.*  —  L.  Guillet  recapitulates  the 
results  he  has  obtained  in  the  course  of  his  extensive  investigations  on 
alloys  of  iron  and  carbon  with  a  third  element,  and  draws  some  general 
conclusions.  The  method  adopted  was  to  examine,  micrographically 
and  mechanically,  two  series  of  alloys  in  each  group,  containing  re- 
spectively 0*2  p.c.  and  0'8  p.c.  carbon,  the  percentage  of  the  third 
element  gradually  being  increased.  The  elements,  the  effects  of  which 
upon  steel  the  author  has  thus  demonstrated,  are  nickel,  manganese, 
chromium,  tungsten,  molybdenum,  vanadium,  silicon,  aluminium,  cobalt, 
tin,  and  titanium.  The  steels  are  classified  according  to  the  results  of 
microscopical  examination  as — (1)  pearlitic  ;  (2)  martensitic  ;  (3)  con- 
taining y  iron  ;  (4)  containing  a  carbide  ;  (5)  containing  graphite. 

The  influence  of  the  third  element  upon  the  mechanical  properties  of 
the  steel  is  shown  in  a  series  of  curves,  in  which  the  abscissae  are  per- 
centages of  the  element,  and  the  ordinates  represent  the  differences 
between  the  properties  of  the  alloy  and  those  of  carbon  steel  containing 
the  same  percentage  of  carbon.  Diagrams  of  this  kind  are  given  for 
maximum  tensile  stress,  elongation,  and  brittleness.  The  correspondence 
between  micro-structure  and  mechanical  properties  is  thus  strikingly 
demonstrated.  The  author  proposes  to  take  up  the  investigation  of 
quaternary  alloys,  such  as  nickel-manganese,  nickel-chromium,  and 
nickel- vanadium  steel. 

Metallography  Applied  to  Foundry  Work.f  — In  an  article 
advocating  the  use  of  the  Microscope  in  foundry  work,  A.  Sauveur 
points  out  that  the  information  as  to  the  chemical  composition  and 
physical  properties  of  metals  obtained  by  an  inspection  of  fractures,  a 
method  which  has  been  universally  employed  in  the  foundry,  may  be 
largely  supplemented  by  microscopical  examination  of  polished  and 
etched  sections.  Chemical  analysis,  again,  while  furnishing  the  nltimate 
composition  of  the  metal,  fails  to  suggest  its  proximate  analysis; 
valuable  information  as  to  this  proximate  analysis  may  be  obtained  by 
the  use  of  the  Microscope.  The  author  describes  the  methods  which  he 
has  found  to  be  most  satisfactory  for  the  preparation  of  the  surfaces  of 
sections. 

Scientific  Development  of  the  Art  of  Polishing.^— In  the  course 
of  a  lengthy  article  on  this  subject,  P.  Osmond  and  <!.  Cartaud  show- 
how  the  preparation  of  metallic  surfaces  for  microscopical  examination 
may  affect  the  results  obtained.  The  operation  of  polishing  consist  m 
the  removal  of  metal  from   the  surface,  by  means  of  a  Hie,  emery,  or 

*  Rev.  Metallurgie,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  350-67  (13  figs.), 
t  Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,ix.  (1905)  pp.  547-53(1  fig.). 

X  Rev.  Gen.  des  Sci.,  xyi.(1905)  pp.  51-65(46  figs).  See  alao  Lug.  -Mag.,  xxx.x. 
(1905;  pp.  261-3. 


536  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES. 

other  abrasive,  which  produce  a  series  of  scratches.  These  scratches 
become  liner  and  finer  as  the  polishing  proceeds,  finer  abrading  materials 
being  used  until  ultimately  the  marks  are  invisible.  The  formation  of 
scratches  on  the  metallic  surface  sets  up  internal  stresses,  so  that  the 
skin  of  the  metal  is  in  a  different  molecular  condition  from  the  interior 
of  the  mass.  A  strained  surface  film  may  thus  result,  which  upon 
etching  gives  deceptive  appearances  not  at  all  representing  the  structure 
of  the  mass.  The  authors  state  that  by  exercising  care  in  polishing,  these 
deceptive  conditions  may  be  almost  entirely  avoided. 

Special  Constituent  Obtained  by  Quenching  Aluminium  Bronze.* 
P.  Breuil  has  obtained  some  remarkable  results  when  studying  the  effect 
of  quenching  on  an  aluminium  bronze  known  as  "  Fortior."  This  alloy 
melts  between  1010°  and  1030°  C,  and  shows  a  critical  point  between 
690°  and  730°  C.  Normally  it  is  made  up  of  large  grains  of  copper  or  a 
copper-aluminium  compound  imbedded  in  a  eutectic.  By  quenching  at 
650°  C.  and  higher  temperatures  a  constituent  having  a  microstructure 
resembling  that  of  martensite  is  obtained.  The  appearance  of  this 
martensitic  constituent  coincides  with  an  increase  in  the  elastic  limit, 
maximum  stress,  and  Brinell  hardness  number.  Quenched  at  850°  C.  the 
alloy  is  made  up  wholly  of  this  constituent. 

Anderson,  W.  C,  &  Lean,  G. — Properties  of  the  Aluminium-Tin  Alloys. 

Proc  Roy.  Soc,  lxxii.,  No.  482,  pp.  277-81  (2  Jigs,  and  1  pi.  of  photomicros.) 

Bdffet,  E.  P. — Equipment  and  Work  of  Metallographical  Laboratories  in  Germany. 

American  Machinist,  xxviii.  (1905)  pp.  348-9  (7  figs.). 

Gold8Chmidt,  H. — Effect  of  Vanadium  and  Titanium  on  Steel. 

Electrochem.  and  Metallurgical  Industry,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  168-70. 

Gradenwitz,  A.  —Methods  of  making  Tests  on  Metals. 

[The  machines  devised  by  Guillery  for  determining  hardness  by  the  Brinell 
method,  and  for  testing  metals  by  impact  on  notched  bars,  are  described.] 
Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,  ix.  (1905)  pp.  528-33  (4  figs.). 

Gumlich,  E. — Versuche  mit  Heuslerschen  ferromagnetischen  Mangan-Aluminium- 

Kupfer  Legierungen.  Electrotech.  Zeitschr.,  ix.  (1905)  pp.  203-7  (7  figs.). 

Impact  Testing  of  Notched  Bars.  Engineer,  xcix.  (1905)  pp.  249-50  (9  figs.). 

Kryloff,  de — Balance  electro-magnetique  pour  l'essai  des  proprietes  desaciers 
et  des  fers.  Rev.  Metallurgie,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  425-40  (11  figs.). 

M  a  lett  e,  J. — Special  Steels.  Rev.  Technique,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  147-50. 

Mahler,  P. — Experiences  surla  resistance  eleotrique  de  l'acier. 

Rev.  Metallurgie,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  345-7. 


Comptes  Rendcis,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  587-90. 


537 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  -21st  of  June,  1!)05,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W., 
G.  C.  Karop,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes   of   the  Meeting  of  the  17th   of   May,    1905,    were 
read  and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  Chairman. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society,  exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints,  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 
Braithwaite,  E.,  British  Moss  Flora,  pt.  xxiii.     (4to,  London, ">  T]     A  tl 

Catalogue  of  Optical  and  General  Scientific  Instruments.)  Hon.  Sec.  of  the 

(Optical  Convention,  1905) /  Optical  Convention. 

Pocket  Botanical  and  Universal   Microscope,    by  W.  and)  ,,    „    r    r,    .. 

S.Jones      ..      .        ..      ..J  ^r-CL.Curiies. 

Wilson's  Screw -barrel  Microscope  (probably  by  Adams)      ..  Ditto. 

Old  Portable  Microscope,  by  Shuttleworth     Ditto. 


Mr.  Rousselet  described  the  three  old  Microscopes  presented  to  the 
Society  by  Mr.  C.  L.  dirties— one  of  which,  by  Shuttleworth,  was  of 
uncertain  age,  but  probably  dated  from  the  beginning  of  the  last 
century  ;  another  was  a  "  Pocket  Botanical  and  Universal  Microscope  " 
by  W.  and  S.  Jones,  which  was  an  improved  form  of  one  described  by 
Adams  in  the  first  edition  of  his  work  on  the  Microscope  ;  the  third  was 
an  old  Wilson  Screw-barrel  Microscope,  made  probably  by  Adams  in 
1746.  These  were  all  interesting  examples  of  early  Microscopes,  and 
were  welcome  additions  to  the  Society's  collection.  Figures  and  descrip- 
tions of  these  old  Microscopes  will  appear  in  a  subsequent  number  of  the 
Journal. 

The  Chairman  said  they  were  greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  Curties  for 
securing  these  old  instruments  and  presenting  them  to  the  Society.  In 
reference  to  one  other  donation,  he  thought  they  ought  not  only  to 
thank  Dr.  Braithwaite,  but  also  to  congratulate  him  upon  the  completion 
of  his  monumental  work  on  "  The  British  Moss  Flora,"  the  final  plate 
of  which  he  understood  was  drawn  on  his  80th  birthday. 


Dr.  Lazarus-Barlow  exhibited  and  described  a  new  form  of  warm 
stage  which  could  be  heated  by  gas  or  oil,  and  in  which  the  regulation 
depended  upon  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  a  fixed  volume  of  air. 
The  water  form  of  warm  stage  he  had  not  found  satisfactory.  The 
method  of  regulation,  which  was  by  means  of  a  mercury  manometer  and 


53S  PROCEEDINGS  OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

a  delicately  poised  balance,  was  indicated  by  a  diagram  drawn  on  the 
board,  lie  at  first  tried  a  copper  box  to  contain  the  air,  but  this  did 
not  answer  owing  to  the  critical  expansion  of  the  copper  about  the 
temperature  of  100°  F.  which  brought  about  a  gradually  rising  tempera- 
ture in  the  stage.  He  then  successfully  tried  the  effect  of  placing 
within  the  brass  box  forming  the  stage  a  number  of  glass  bulbs  as  shown 
by  a  further  diagram.  Heat  from  the  flame  was  conducted  by  means 
of  a  silver  rod  which  dipped  into  a  paraffin  bath  attached  to  the  side  of 
the  stage  itself.  The  entire  arrangement  was  found  to  answer  admirably, 
and  an  almost  constant  temperature  could  be  maintained  for  a  very 
considerable  time. 

Mr.  Cecil  R.  C.  Lyster  also  exhibited  an  improved  form  of  electrical 
warm  stage.  He  said  that  most  of  those  previously  made  on  this  prin- 
ciple were  heated  by  means  of  resistance  coils,  but  he  found  that  it  was 
impossible  to  maintain  an  equable  temperature  in  this  way  from  the 
ordinary  house  current  on  account  of  its  constant  variations  of  intensity, 
for  though  it  was  nominally  100  volts  it  was  not  constant,  sometimes 
rising  to  103  and  at  others  falling  to  07,  which  caused  considerable 
alterations  in  the  temperature  of  the  resistance  coil.  He  had  therefore 
endeavoured  to  find  something  which  would  obviate  this  inconvenience, 
and  had  found  that  by  using  Cryptol  (A.  Gallenkamp  &  Co.)  as  a 
resistance,  a  perfectly  even  temperature  could  be  maintained  as  long  as 
the  current  was  passing.  The  amount  of  current  consumed  was  ex- 
tremely small,  not  exceeding  150  milliamperes,  a  quantity  which  was 
insufficient  to  work  an  electric  meter,  so  that  practically  the  arrange- 
ment could  be  worked  for  nothing.  He  regretted  that  he  was  unable  to 
show  the  apparatus  in  action  that  evening,  for  although  he  had  brought 
it  to  the  meeting,  he  found  that  the  current  supplied  to  that  building 
was  200  volts,  whereas  the  resistance  of  the  stage  exhibited  was  only  for 
100. 

On  the  motion  of  the  Chairman  a  hearty  vote  of  thanks  was  passed  to 
Dr.  Barlow  and  to  Mr.  Lyster  for  exhibiting  and  explaining  these  very 
ingenious  and  simple  contrivances  to  the  Society. 

Mr.  C.  L.  Curties  exhibited  an  improved  dark  ground  illuminator 
for  high  powers.  He  said  he  had  received  some  time  since  an  adapter 
from  Messrs.  Leitz,  of  Wetzlar,  having  a  central  dark  stop  for  use  near 
the  back  lens  of  one  of  their  x\2  inch  oil  immersion  objectives,  and  when 
this  was  employed  with  a  special  low-angle  condenser,  having  rotating 
diaphragms  and  centring  screws,  making  it  suitable  for  Leitz'  Micro- 
scopes, very  good  results  were  obtained.  As,  however,  this  adapter 
could  only  be  used  with  objectives  of  Messrs.  Leitz'  manufacture,  he 
had  made  an  adapter  with  interchangeable  stops  fixed  to  pins,  w7hich 
were  carried  in  the  centre  of  the  adapter,  thus  making  it  suitable  for  use 
with  objectives  of  any  make.  He  had  found  that  when  using  an 
achromatic  condenser  of  the  ordinary  type,  stopped  down  a  certain 
amount,  all  the  results  obtained  by  means  of  the  special  condenser 
were  reproduced.  He  was  showing  Pleurosigma  angulatum  with  this 
arrangement  on  a  dark  ground  under  a  ^  inch  oil  immersion  objective 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  539 

of  ordinary  make,  and  lie  thought  the  way  in  which  the  structure  was 
resolved  was  quite  satisfactory. 

Mr.  Rheinbcro;  thought  that  the  use  of  a  black  stop  over  the  objective 
might,  with  a  sufficiently  strong  source  of  light,  prove  more  useful  for 
indicating  the  presence  of  structure  beyond  the  resolving  power  of  the 
objective,  on  the  lines  of  the  Siedentopf  methods,  than  for  giving 
satisfactory  images  of  detail  which  the  objective  was  competent  to 
resolve.  Images  obtained  in  this  way  were  not  very  reliable,  as  objec- 
tionable diffraction  effects  were  introduced  by  stopping  out  the  central 
beam,  and  it  was  quite  possible  to  get  the  structure  duplicated.  This 
applied  specially  to  structures  anywhere  near  the  limit  of  resolution  of 
the  objective,  when  used  in  this  manner.  With  anyalatum,  curiously 
eaiough,  the  dots  were  seen  fairly  well  under  the  conditions  in 
question,  owing  to  the  peculiar  distribution  of  the  spectra  ;  but  if  other 
diatoms  were  tried  the  results  would  be  more  at  variance  with  the 
correct  image.  He  thought  it  would  be  better  if,  instead  of  stopping 
out  the  central  light  wholly  with  a  black  spot,  they  stopped  out  certain 
colours  only  ;  they  would  get  contrast  and  at  the  same  time  be  free  from 
the  objection  mentioned.  He  had  been  led  to  examine  the  effects  of 
black  and  coloured  stops  over  the  objective  some  years  ago  when  ex- 
perimenting on  colour  illumination,  and  had  at  the  time  referred  to  them 
in  a  paper  read  before  the  Society.* 

Mr.  dirties  said  he  quite  agreed  with  what  Mr.  Rheinberg  said,  as 
it  was  quite  true  that  he  could  only  resolve  angidatum  and  formomm 
in  this  way  ;  he  was  unable  to  do  this  with  smaller  diatoms  he  had  tried, 
except  so  far  as  the  coarse  structure  was  concerned. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  voted  to  Mr.  dirties  for  his 
exhibit. 

Mr.  Rheinberg  called  attention  to  an  experiment  in  connection  with 
the  theory  of ■ -Microscope  images,  which  he  had  fitted  up  in  the  room, 
showing  that  the  appearance  of  a  grating  could  be  produced  in  the  Held 
of  the  Microscope  without  there  being  anything  on  the  stage.  The  lines 
seen  were  achromatic  interference  bands,  produced  with  the  help  of  two 
Thorp  gratings  of  equal  pitch  placed  behind  the  objective.  A  brief 
resume  of  a  paper  on  the  subject  recently  read  at  the  Optical  Convention 
was  given. 


Mr.  Rousselet  called  attention  to  an  exhibit  in  the  room  of  a  living 
specimen  of  PlumateUa  punctata  Hancock,  sent  by  Mr.  John  Hood,  of 
Dundee.  This  seemed  to  be  a  very  rare  fresh-water  Polygon,  which 
has  not  apparently  been  recorded  in  England  since  its  first  discovery  by 
Hancock  in  1850.  It  differs  from  PI.  repens  and  its  varieties  mainly  by 
having  a  soft,  gelatinous  and  transparent  ectocyst,  which  spreads  in 
rather  stout  branches  horizontally  on  stones. 

Mr.  E.  M.  Nelson's  paper  on  "  The  Tubercle  Bacillus  "  was  taken  as 
read. 

*  "  Notes  on  Colour  Illumination,  with  special  ret',  rence  to  the  choice  of  suitable 
colours,"  J.R.M.S.,  1899,  pp.  143-4. 


540  PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

Mr.  Conrady  gave  a  resume  of  his  second  paper  on  "  Theories  of 
Microscopical  Vision,"  in  which  he  applied  to  perforation-patterns  and 
to  crossed  lines  the  principles  laid  down  in  his  first  paper  on  the  subject, 
his  aim  being  to  show  that  the  gradual  improvement  of  images  with 
increasing  aperture  could  be  fully  accounted  for  by  the  Abbe  theory. 
He  also  claimed  that  the  employment  of  wide  "  aplanatic  "  cones  of  illu- 
mination was  amply  justified  by  this  theory,  because,  on  the  one  hand, 
it  protected  the  observer  against  spurious  images  due  to  a  defective 
objective  or  bad  adjustments,  simply  because  only  a  perfectly  adjusted 
instrument  would  bear  a  wide  cone  ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  wide 
cone  gave  the  full  resolving  power  of  the  instrument  in  all  directions, 
thus  disclosing  at  one  glance  all  that  a  given  instrument  could  show. 

He  also  adduced  experimental  evidence  which  would  seem  to  dis- 
prove the  spurious  disk  theory,  whilst  upholding  the  diffraction  theory. 
Experiments  illustrating  this  were  shown  under  Microscopes  in  the  room. 

In  moving  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Conrady,  the  Chairman  said  the 
Society  was  greatly  indebted  to  him  for  his  papers  on  this  subject,  which, 
to  be  fully  appreciated,  must  of  course  be  read. 


An  exhibition  was  then  given  of  a  number  of  lantern  slides  prepared 
by  Mr.  Flatters  from  plates  illustrating  beautiful  microscopic  objects 
from  amongst  the  Radiolaria,  Foraminifera,  Infusoria,  Desmids,  etc. 
Some  extremely  fine  lantern  photographs  of  corals,  from  Mr.  W.  S.  Kent's 
work  on  the  Great  Barrier  Reef  of  Australia,  were  deservedly  admired, 
and  the  thanks  of  the  Society  were  heartily  accorded  to  Mr.  Flatters  for 
the  opportunity  afforded  to  the  Fellows  of  seeing  these  excellent  repro- 
ductions. 

Notice  was  given  that  the  rooms  of  the  Society  would  be  closed  on 
and  from  August  14th  to  September  11th. 


The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited  : — 

The  Society : — Pocket  Botanical  and  Universal  Microscope,  by  W.  &  S. 
Jones  ;  a  Wilson's  Screw-barrel  Microscope,  probably  by  Adams  ;  an  Old 
Portable  Microscope,  by  Shuttleworth  ;  Lantern  Slides,  mostly  zoological, 
lent  for  the  occasion  by  Mr.  Flatters. 

Mr.  A.  E.  Conrady  : — -Phurosiyma  angulation,  just  resolved  with 
N.A.  0*55  and  a  full  cone  of  illumination;  ditto,  with  J  in.  objective, 
N.A.  0*65,  having  spherical  aberration,  the  broken  edge  focussing  at  a 
different  level  compared  with  the  structure  ;  diffraction  spectra,  with 
curved  wave-fronts  (no  change  whatever  takes  place  on  racking  the 
condenser  up  and  down,  although  the  wave-fronts  change  from  concave 
to  convex)  ;  diagrams  shown  on  the  screen  in  illustration  of  his  paper. 

Mr.  C.  L.  dirties  : — Apparatus  for  obtaining  dark-ground  illumina- 
tion with  high  powers. 

Dr.  W.  S.  Lazarus-Barlow  : — A  warm  stage,  heated  by  gas  or  oil 
flame. 

Mr.  Cecil  R.  C.  Lyster  : — An  electrically  heated  warm  stage. 

Mr.  Rheinberg  : — The  production  of  achromatic  interference  fringes. 

Mr.  Rousselet : — PI umatella  punctata,  received  from  Mr.  John  Hood. 


JOUKNAL 

OF  THE 

EOYAL   MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY, 

OCTOBER,   1905. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


VI. — Theories  of  Microscopical   Vision. 
(Second  Paper.) 

By  A.  E.  Conkady,  F.R.A.S.,  F.R.M.S. 

{Bead  June  21«*,  1905.) 

In  a  former  paper*  I  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  explanation  of 
microscopical  images  must  always  be  sought  on  the  basis  of 
Professor  Abbe's  theory ;  in  other  words,  that  the  detail  is  brought 
out  by  the  light  diffracted  by  the  object.  I  further  showed  how 
the  formation  of  the  image  of  a  simple  plane  grating  could  be 
fully  accounted  for  on  the  basis  of  Abbe's  theory,  and  that  the 
objections  which  have  at  different  times  been  raised  against  that 
theory  are  unsound. 

In  establishing  these  results  I  introduced  two  essentially  new 
propositions,  the  first  referring  to  certain  interesting  differences  of 
phase  between  different  spectra  from  any  one  grating,  the  second 
serving  to  explain  how  the  want  of  definite  focus  in  an  elementary 
diffraction-image  is  replaced  by  the  much  desired  well  defined 
focus  under  the  usual  working  conditions. 

I  now  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  more  complicated  struc- 
tures— dot  and  cross-lined  patterns — on  the  same  basis. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  it  is  with  such  patterns  that  the 
most  startling  false  images  are  secured  in  the  experiments  with  the 
"Diffraction- plate";  it  will  therefore  be  extremely  interesting  to 
study  the  images  obtainable  with  such  gratings  under  "normal 
working  conditions,"  i.  e.  when  the  simple  circular  form  of  the 
aperture  of  the  object-glass  is  not  interfered  with. 

*  J.R.M.S.,  1904,  p.  610-633. 
Oct.  18th,  1905  2  o 


542  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

Our  first  step  must  be  to  determine  the  diffraction-spectra 
produced  by  such  structures.  We  know  that  a  grating  of  simple, 
straight,  and  narrow  slits  like  fig.  123  gives  a  row  of  diffraction- 
spectra  lying  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  slits.  Suppos- 
ing we  place  another  simple  grating  across  this  one  in  the  manner 
shown  in  fig.  124,  the  result  will  be  that  the  light  from  those  parts 
of  each  original  slit  which  are  covered  by  the  bars  of  the  second 
grating  is  cut  off;  but  the  light  from  the  portions  of  the  original 
slits  which  remain  uncovered  necessarily  continues  in  the  same 
phase-relation  as  before,  and  therefore  produces  precisely  the  same 
row  of  spectra,  only  proportionately  weakened  in  brightness. 
Hence  a  row  of  bright  dots  produces  essentially  the  same  diffraction- 
spectra  as  the  unbroken  slit,  of  which  the  dots  may  be  considered 
to  be  intermittent  portions.  But  this  deduction  immediately  leads 
us  to  another;  for  if  the  dots  are  arranged  in  any  perfectly 
regular  order,  they  will  range  themselves  into  straight  rows  in  a 
number  of  different  ways  and  directions,  and  thus  we  are  justified 
in  laying  it  down  that  a  dot-pattern  produces  rows  of  diffraction- 
spectra  corresponding  to  all  simple  line-gratings,  the  slits  of  which 
have  a  direction  in  which  the  dots  form  themselves  into  straight 
rows.  "We  will  study  two  concrete  cases  to  make  this  abstract 
proposition  clearer.  Let  us  first  take  bright  spots  (or  perforations) 
arranged  in  perfect  squares  (fig.  125).     We  can  range  these — 

1.  Into  horizontal  rows  a,  a...,  corresponding  to  a  verticaL 
row  of  diffraction-spectra  Au  A2,  etc.,  in  fig.  125a. 

2.  Into  vertical  rows  b,  b . . . ,  corresponding  to  a  horizontal 
row  of  diffraction-spectra  Bx,  B2,  etc.,  in  fig.  125a. 

3.  Into  two  oblique  rows,  c,  c  and  d,  d.  . .,  with  corresponding 
rows  Ci,  C2.  . .,  Dj,  D2...,  of  diffraction-spectra;  and  we  note 
that  the  lines  c,  c  and  d,  d  are  closer  together,  hence  the  corre- 
sponding diffraction-spectra  are  further  apart. 

4.  We  can  arrange  those  dots  into  rows  which  are  in  the 
relation  of  a  knight's  move  on  a  chessboard — with  four  possible 
directions  e,  /,  g  and  h ;  the  distance  between  these  rows  will  be 
still  smaller  than  that  found  in  case  (3),  and  the  diffraction-spectra 
E,  F,  G,  H,  will  be  correspondingly  further  apart. 

Evidently  this  may  be  carried  further  and  further ;  the  principle 
will,  however,  now  be  perfectly  clear. 

The  result  is  that  the  dot  pattern  here  considered  gives  a  set  of 
diffraction-spectra  precisely  similar  in  arrangement  to  the  pattern 
itself;  for  a  simple  mathematical  investigation  shows  that  the 
increasing  closeness  of  the  oblique  rows  of  successive  orders  is 
such  as  to  cause  the  corresponding  diffraction-spectra  to  be  spread 
out  to  the  proper  distances  to  cover  the  right  places  in  our  pattern. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  that  both  fig.  125  and  fig.  126  show 
the  dots  black  instead  of  white,  after  the  manner  of  a  photographic- 
negative. 


Theories  of  Microscopical  Vision.     By  A,  E.  Conrady.     543 

The  second  case  to  which  we  will  pay  attention  will  be  a 
dot-pattern  arranged  in  equilateral  triangles,  as  shown  in  fig.  126. 
Similar  reasoning  to  that  just  applied  to  the  square  pattern°shows 
us  three  directions,  a,  b,  c,  in  which  the  dots  arrange  themselves 
into  rows  with  a  maximum  distance  apart ;  next  three  directions, 
d,  e,f,  of  closer  rows  of  dots ;  and  so  on,  the  result  being  again  that 
a  set  of  diffraction-spectra,  as  illustrated  in  fig.  126a,  is  formed 
similar  in  arrangement  to  the  pattern  itself. 

The  reasoning  here  used  is  directly  applicable  only  to  very 
small  perforations  which  can  be  considered  as  parts  of  separate  and 
distinct  lines,  a,  b,  c,  d,  etc.     But  as  the  diffraction-spectra  are 


1 

o  o  o  O  o  o  o 

Fig.  123. 


Fig.  124. 


formed  by  light  from  all  the  perforations  meeting  with  differences 
of  phase  expressed  by  a  whole  number  of  wave-lengths,  and  as  this 
phase-relation  will  not  be  disturbed  if  all  the  perforations  are 
uniformly  increased  in  size,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  arrangement 
of  the  diffraction-spectra  must  remain  the  same  no  matter  how 
large  the  perforation  may  become ;  for  that  arrangement  is  deter- 
mined by  the  configuration  of  similarly  situated  points  in  the 
individual  perforations. 

The  relative  brightness  of,  and  the  phase-relation  between  the 
direct  light  and  the  different  spectra  will,  however,  depend  upon 
the  relative  size  and  upon  the  shape  of  the  dots  or  perforations ; 

2  0  2 


544 


'  Transactions  of  the  Society. 


this,  therefore,  remains  to  be  investigated  in  each  individual  case, 
and  will  have  to  be  attacked  by  applying  the  Huyghenian  principle 
in  the  same  manner  in  which  I  applied  it  to  simple  gratings  in 
my  first  paper. 

Before  proceeding  to  this  we  must,  however,  study  another 
class  of  gratings,  viz.,  those  consisting  of  bright  line-patterns,  or  of 
opaque  dots.  At  first  sight  this  looks  a  more  formidable  problem 
than  that  of  the  perforation-patterns,  but  it  can  be  dealt  with  at 
once  by  the  application  of  Babinet's  theorem  concerning  "  reciprocal 
gratings."      Two   gratings   are   said   to   be   reciprocal   when   the 

Fig.  125.  Fig.  125a. 


A 

ff 

•  f     •      •      • 

Cm     E,    A,    H,     Di 

•  •     •      •     • 

F,  C,    A,    D,    G, 

•  •    #    •     • 

Bz   Bf           B,    B% 

•  •     •     •     • 

G,  D,   A,     C,    F 

•  •     •     •     • 

A    B,    Am    E,    Cm 

* 

S 

,      o        A 
'9 

d 

V     is 

• 
%  Am  % 

•  E,   •  F,    • 
Bt  «  A,    •    C2 
9   B,   %   C,    # 
D,    •   w  «  4 

•  C,    %    B,    % 
Cm    •    A,    %    B, 

F   m    Et 

Am 

b     / 
i 

\                 r 

V       0       o 

^    \     ° 

\     c 

c 

Fig.  126. 


Fig.  126a. 


opaque  portions  of  one  are  precisely  similar  to  the  transparent 
portions  of  the  other,  and  when  it  is  therefore  just  possible  to  so 
superpose  one  upon  the  other  as  to  produce  uniform  opacity.  In 
other  words,  a  grating  and  its  reciprocal  stand  in  the  exact  relation 
to  each  other  of  a  photographic  negative  and  the  corresponding 
positive  transparency. 

The  simple  process  of  reasoning  first  applied  by  Babinet  then 
leads  to  the  discovery  of  a  very  simple  and  valuable  relation 
between  the  diffraction-spectra  from  reciprocal  gratings. 

Supposing  we  have  an  aperture  fitted  with  two  screens  in  such 
a  'manner  that  either  one  or  both  together  may  be  applied  or 
removed,  screen  No.  1  having  perforations  of  any  shape  and  design 


Tlieories  of  Microscopical  Vision.     By  A.  E.  Conrady.     545 

whatever,  whilst  screen  No.  2  is  so  cut  and  adjusted  that  when 
superposed  it  exactly  covers  the  apertures  in  No.  1.  Therefore,  if 
we  apply  screen  No.  1  by  itself  we  shall  have  the  set  of  apertures 
cut  in  it ;  if  we  apply  screen  No.  2  by  itself  we  shall  have  a  new 
set  of  apertures  corresponding  precisely  to  the  dark  portions  of 
screen  No.  1 ;  screen  No.  2  therefore  represents  a  grating  reciprocal 
to  that  formed  on  screen  No.  1. 

The  apertures  in  screen  No.  1  will  produce  a  set  of  diffraction- 
spectra  peculiar  to  their  shape  and  configuration  ;  the  apertures  in 
screen  No.  2  will  also  produce  a  set  of  diffraction-spectra.  If  now 
we  let  both  sets  of  apertures  act  at  the  same  time,  we  are  justified 
by  the  Huyghenian  principle  in  stating  that  the  diffraction-effects 
of  both  sets  are  now  superposed.  But  the  uncovering  of  both  sets 
of  apertures  means  the  removal  of  both  our  screens  with  the  con- 
sequent exposure  of  a  simple  large  aperture  producing  no  sensible 
diffraction-effect ;  in  other  words,  we  are  driven  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  diffraction-spectra  produced  by  the  apertures  in  screen 
No.  2  exactly  blot  out  or  neutralise  those  produced  by  the  recipro- 
cal screen  No.  1.  According  to  the  undulatory  theory,  this  can 
only  be  explained  on  the  assumption  that  the  light  diffracted  by 
screen  No.  2  is  precisely  equal  in  intensity,  but  also  exactly 
opposed  in  phase  to  the  light  diffracted  by  the  reciprocal  screen  or 
grating,  which  we  designated  as  No.  1. 

This,  then,  is  Babinet's  theorem ;  it  states  that  reciprocal 
gratings  produce  diffraction-spectra  in  the  same  directions  and  of 
the  same  intensities,  but  opposed  to  each  other — cceteris  paribus — 
in  phase. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  convenient  theorem  enables  us  to 
determine  the  complete  diffraction-pattern  produced  by  any  bright 
line  device  by  first  ascertaining  that  of  a  perforation  pattern  having 
perforations  exactly  corresponding  to  the  opaque  dots  of  the  bright 
line  device,  and  then  attributing  to  the  latter  diffraction-spectra  of 
the  same  distribution  and  intensity,  but  of  the  opposite  phase 
when  referred  to  some  definite  point  of  reference  such  as  the  centre 
of  the  dots.  Babinet's  theorem  does  not,  however,  give  us  any 
direct  information  about  the  intensity  of  the  direct  light;  this, 
therefore,  remains  to  be  determined  in  each  individual  case. 

Having  learned  how  the  diffraction  produced  by.the  complicated 
structures  now  under  consideration  may  be  completely  determined, 
we  are  in  a  position  to  discuss  the  image  resulting  from  the  co- 
operation of  a  greater  or  lesser  number  of  the  diffraction-spectra  in 
the  field  of  a  Microscope  directed  and  focused  upon  such  structures. 

We  will  first  take  a  pattern  consisting  of  relatively  small 
perforations  arranged  in  perfect  squares  such  as  we  have  repre- 
sented (as  a  negative)  in  fig.  125.  Owing  to  the  smallness  of  the 
dots,  they  may  be  considered  as  intermittent  portions  of  relatively 
narrow  slits,  and,  in  accordance  with  the  reasoning  given  in  my 


546 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


former  paper,  we  may  safely  assume  that  all  the  spectra  imme- 
diately surrounding  the  direct  light  will  leave  the  centres  of  the 
dots  in  exact  phase  with  the  direct  light,  and  will,  in  accordance 
with  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  equality  of  optical  paths, 
arrive  in  the  same  phase-relation  at  the  centres  of  the  ideal  geo- 
metrical images  of  the  dots.  Hence  we  see  that  in  this  case  also, 
in  precise  analogy  to  what  I  proved  to  be  the  case  with  simple 
line-gratings,  the  centres  of  the  bright  dots  must  be  represented  in 
the  image  by  maxima  of  brightness  exactly  coinciding  with  the 
geometrical  images  of  the  dots,  and  that  the  position  of  the  latter 
will,  therefore,  be  correctly  indicated. 


Fig.  127a. 


Fig.  127b. 


Fig.  127c. 


Fig.  127b. 


Fig.  127b. 


It  will  be  highly  instructive  to  study  the  image  in  its  gradual 
evolution  as  the  aperture  of  the  Microscope  object-glass  is  in- 
creased. 

In  order  that  any  structure  may  be  shown  at  all,  we  must  have 
at  least  two  maxima  entering  the  objective — say  the  direct  light  and 
one  of  the  innermost  spectra.  If  we  admit  the  direct  light  and  the 
spectrum  Aj  in  the  manner  illustrated  in  fig.  127a,  the  Microscope 
will  show  the  lines  a  in  fig.  125,  from  which  the  spectra  Ax,  A2, 
etc.,  are  derived.  If  we  admit  the  direct  light  and  the  spectrum 
Bj  as  shown  in  fig.  127b,  we  obtain  an  image  displaying  the  corre- 
sponding lines  b  of  fig.  125.     Evidently,  either  of  these  images  is 


Theories  of  Microscopical  Vision.     By  A.  E.  Conrady.      547 

unsatisfactory,  inasmuch  as  it  discloses  only  a  part  of  what  is 
capable  of  being  shown  by  the  object-glass.  And  this  leads  us  to 
the  discovery  of  an  important  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the  use 
of  an  extended  source  of  light — or,  in  other  words,  of  a  large  cone 
of  illumination.  For  in  that  manner  we  can  obtain  the  effects 
shown  in  fig.  127a  and  fig.  127b  simultaneously  and  superposed, 
leading  to  the  formation  of  an  image  showing  bright  lines  corre- 
sponding to  a  and  b  of  fig.  125,  and  with  the  points  of  intersection, 
which  will  be  noted  to  correspond  to  the  actual  dots,  specially 
bright  as  the  light  of  both  systems  of  lines  is  there  added  together. 
The  simple  expedient  of  using  a  wide  cone  of  illumination,  being 
equivalent  to  oblique  light  in  all  directions,  has,  therefore,  at  once 
produced  a  tolerably  good  indication  of  the  actual  nature  of  the 
object.  We  can  derive  yet  another  lesson  from  this  observation. 
-On  inspecting  figs.  127a  and  127b  it  will  be  seen  that  direct  light 
in  the  central  part  of  the  aperture  is  useless  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  any  structure,  because  no  corresponding  diffraction- 
spectrum  can  enter  through  the  available  aperture  of  the  object- 
glass.  Such  light  can,  therefore,  only  form  a  general  bright 
Illumination  of  the  field  ;  cutting  it  off  by  a  central  stop,  and  thus 
producing  annular  illumination,  must  improve  the  clearness  of 
the  image,  and  this  would  appear  to  be  a  perfectly  legitimate 
means  of  attaining  the  utmost  distinctness  in  the  image  of  struc- 
tures close  to  the  limit  of  resolution  of  an  object-glass. 

We  proceed  to  study  the  effect  of  an  increase  of  aperture. 

No  new  spectra  can  enter  unless  the  aperture  is  at  least  equal 
to  the  diagonal  of  the  squares  into  which  the  spectra  of  fig.  125a 
arrange  themselves.  When  that  aperture  is  slightly  exceeded,  we 
have  the  possibility  of  three  distinct  combinations  of  maxima 
which  can  enter  the  increased  aperture,  viz. : — 

1.  In  accordance  with  fig.  127c  we  can  have  a  beam  of  direct 
light,  and  the  two  diffracted  beams  Ax  and  Bx  derived  from  it,  We 
have  thus  three  separate  beams  capable  of  interfering  with  each 
other.  The  direct  light  and  Ai  alone  would  meet  in  equal  phase 
and  produce  bright  lines  corresponding  to  a  in  fig.  125  ;  the  direct 
light  and  Bx  would  similarly  produce  lines  like  b  in  fig.  125.  When 
all  three  are  admitted  at  once,  then  they  will  all  meet  in  the  same 
phase  and  produce  a  very  pronounced  maximum  of  brightness  at 
the  points  of  intersection  of  lines  a  and  lines  b  in  fig.  125  ;  in  other 
words,  these  three  maxima  lead  to  the  formation  of  the  correct  dot 
pattern.  When  added  to  the  crossed-line  effect— with  enhanced 
points  of  intersection— resulting  from  the  combinations  illustrated 
in  figs.  127a  and  127b,  they  will  further  accentuate  the  dots,  and 
thus  improve  the  verisimilitude  of  the  image. 

2.  We  may  have  groups  like  that  in  fig.  127d— i.e.  the  direct 
light,  the  spectrum,  Bx  (or  Ax),  and  one  of  the  remoter  spectra,  Dx 
(or  Cj).     By  similar  reasoning  we  find  that  the  points  of  inter- 


548 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


section  of  lines  b  and  lines  d  will  be  brought  out  as  bright  dots ; 
reference  to  fig.  125  shows  that  these  again  exactly  correspond  to  the 
true  position  of  the  actual  perforations  ;  this  new  combination  of 
maxima,  therefore,  further  improves  the  image. 

3.  Finally,  we  may  have  four  maxima  such  as  direct  light  and 
spectra,  Alf  Bj  and  Dx  admitted  simultaneously — fig.  127e. 

We  again  obtain  very  bright  dots  at  the  points  of  intersection 
of  lines  a,  b  and  d  in  fig.  3 — i.e.  in  the  position  of  the  actual  dots. 

This  small  increase  of  aperture  is,  therefore,  sufficient  to 
emphasise  the  bright  dots  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  them 
unmistakable. 

The  qualitative  method  of  discussing  the  results  to  which  I  am 


Fig.  128. 


at  present  limiting  myself  is  not  adapted  to  bring  out  all  pecu- 
liarities of  the  different  partial  images,  such  as  the  secondary 
maxima  (intercostals)  resulting  with  combinations  of  maxima  like 
figs.  127c,  127d,  and  127e,  nor  to  show  that  these  secondary  effects 
are  different  with  the  different  combinations,  and  are  more  or  less 
neutralised  when  they  are  all  superposed.  These  finer  points  must 
be  left  for  a  rigorous  quantitative  treatment  of  a  few  judiciously 
selected  cases  which  I  hope  to  bring  forward  on  a  future  occasion. 
What  has  been  stated  above  will  suffice  for  the  present  to  show 
that  with  a  perforation  pattern  also  there  must  be  rapid  improve- 
ment of  the  image  with  increasing  aperture. 


Theories  of  Microscojrical  Vision.     By  A.  E.  Conrady.      549 

I  purposely  chose  a  pattern  of  small  perforations ;  with  large 
perforations  we  have  the  possibility  of  reversed  phase  in  some  of 
the  spectra — in  fact,  we  may  have  perforations  such  that  even  some 
of  the  innermost  spectra  will  be  reversed  in  phase.  I  must  leave 
these  to  be  dealt  with  separately,  merely  pointing  out  now  that  it  is 
found  that  the  phase -reversals  again  prove  to  be  the  agency  through 
which  the  finer  peculiarities  of  the  structure  are  brought  out  in  the 
image.  Fig.  128  illustrates  a  possible  case  of  this  kind  :  the  long 
oblique  perforations  will  be  noted  to  be  formed  round  the  centres 
of  the  small  dots  of  fig.  125 ;  they  are,  therefore,  arranged  in  the 
same  configuration  as  fig.  125,  and  give  diffraction-spectra  arranged 
in  the  manner  of  fig.  125a,  but  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  on  reference 
to  my  former  paper  that  the  spectra  Ax  will  be  reversed  in  phase. 

We  will  next  briefly  study  the  image  to  be  obtained  of  the 
rccijyrocal  grating  corresponding  to  the  one  discussed  above,  i.e.  a 
black  dot  design  of  which  fig.  125  would  be  an  actual  (positive) 
representation.  From  what  has  been  said  concerning  Babinet's 
theorem,  it  will  be  clear  that,  referred  to  the  lines  connecting  the 
black  dots,  all  the  inner  spectra  will  now  be  opposed  in  phase  to^ 
the  direct  light,  i.e.  the  light  of  all  these  inner  spectra  will  arrive 
at  the  corresponding  lines  of  the  image  in  the  phase  opposite  to 
that  in  which  the  direct  light  reaches  them,  and  there  will,  on  the 
other  hand,  be  a  tendency  to  form  bright  lines  midway  between  the 
lines  a,  b,  c,  etc.,  of  fig.  125.  In  the  cases  represented  in  figs.  127a 
and  127b  we  shall  thus  obtain  intersecting  bright  lines  midway 
between  the  lines  a  and  b  respectively  which  leave  dark  spots 
between  them  precisely  corresponding  to  the  real  dots  of  the 
object.  Similarly,  the  combinations  of  spectra  3  and  4  shown  in 
figs.  127c,  127d,  and  127e,  now  lead  to  the  formation  of  bright  dots 
at?  various  points  between  the  dark  dots  of  the  pattern,  thus  leading  to 
a  more  and  more  uniform  filling  with  light  of  the  spaces  outside 
the  true  images  of  the  black  dots,  and  to  a  corresponding  improve- 
ment in  the  verisimilitude  of  the  image  of  the  black  dot  pattern. 

The  triangular  pattern  represented  in  fig.  126  may  be  similarly 
discussed ;  we  again  find  first  intersecting  lines  indicating  fairly 
accurately  the  position  of  the  actual  bright  or  black  dot,  and 
next,  as  soon  as  more  than  two  maxima  are  admitted  by  the  object- 
glass,  the  formation  of  bright  dot  images  which  are  so  distributed 
as  to  improve  the  resemblance  between  object  and  image.  The 
only  difference  is  that  a  very  much  smaller  increase  of  aperture 
leads  to  this  latter  result  in  the  case  of  the  triangular  pattern  than 
in  the  more  fully  discussed  case  of  a  pattern  arranged  in  perfect 
squares,  for  the  simple  reason  that  a  circle  only  slightly  larger  than 
that  required  to  enclose  say  the  direct  light  and  spectrum  Ax  of 
fig.  126a  will  suffice  to  embrace  three  adjacent  maxima,  such  as 
direct  light  and  spectra  A!  and  B^ 

On  the  other  hand,  it  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  fig.  126a  that 


550  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

the  triangular  pattern  is  at  a  disadvantage  when  a  still  further 
increase  in  the  number  of  spectra  admitted  is  aimed  at ;  it  evidently 
requires  a  very  considerable  increase  of  aperture  to  bring  into 
action  any  of  the  outer  circle  of  spectra.  Both  these  peculiarities 
of  a  triangular  design  are  well  exemplified  in  the  case  of  Pleuro- 
sigma  angulatum.  Any  objective  which  resolves  the  structure  at 
all — and  a  numerical  aperture  equal  to  0*55  will  do  this — will 
show  the  familiar  dots,  provided  the  objective  be  well  corrected. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  very  difficult  to  attain  a  pronounced 
advance  on  that  image,  even  with  oil-immersion  objectives. 

It  would  be  useless  to  attempt  a  very  precise  discussion  of  the 
image  of  any  dot-pattern  by  simple  reasoning ;  this  must  be 
left  for  another  occasion,  when  I  propose  to  treat  concrete  cases 
mathematically. 

We  will  instead  try  to  draw  some  further  conclusions  from  the 
above  general  discussion. 

In  the  previous  paper  I  showed  that  one  important  advantage 
resulting  from  the  use  of  an  extended  source  of  light,  or  of  a  wide 
illuminating  cone,  was  that  the  want  of  focus  of  an  elementary 
diffraction-image  was  overcome  and  replaced  by  a  well-defined 
focus,  such  as  one  expects  with  an  optical  instrument.  The  study 
•of  dot-patterns  enables  us  to  see  another  and  even  greater  ad- 
vantage. In  order  to  obtain  extreme  resolution  with  a  narrow 
beam  of  light,  we  must  let  it  enter  obliquely,  through  the  marginal 
zone  of  the  object-glass.  But  that  gives  us  the  high  resolving 
power  in  one  direction  only — along  the  diameter  of  the  object- 
glass  having  the  direct  light  at  one  of  its  ends ;  it  leads  to  the 
formation  of  a  misleading  image,  inasmuch  as  fine  detail  is  shown 
in  that  one  particular  direction,  whilst  detail  no  finer,  perhaps  even 
considerably  coarser,  in  other  directions  is  not  even  hinted  at.  A 
well-centred  illuminating  cone  overcomes  this;  it  gives  us  equal 
resolving  power  in  all  directions,  and  thus  brings  into  view  every- 
thing that  a  given  objective  can  resolve,  no  matter  in  what 
directions  the  structural  details  may  be  arranged.  Here,  then,  is  a 
full  explanation  of  the  necessity  of  a  uniformly  bright  and  well- 
centred  cone  of  illumination.  Any  want  of  centring,  any  dark  or 
coloured  portions  in  the  circle  of  light  at  the  back  of  the  objective, 
imply  a  want  of  symmetry  in  the  image,  and  a  corresponding 
danger  of  misleading  images.  It  will,  indeed,  be  found,  when  the 
nature  of  "  critical  illumination  "  is  impartially  examined,  that  the 
type  of  image  looked  for  with  such  illumination  is  invariably 
obtained  when,  on  looking  down  the  tube,  a  uniformly  bright  and 
perfectly  centred  circle  of  illumination  is  seen — no  matter  how 
obtained — and  that  the  critical  image  is  as  invariably  absent  when 
examination  of  the  back-lens  shows  any  want  of  uniformity  or 
symmetry  in  the  said  circle,  no  matter  how  brought  about. 


Tiieories  of  Microscopical  Vision.     By  A.  E.  Conrady.      551 

I  indeed  venture  to  suggest  that  "  aplanatic  cones  "  or  "  critical 
light  "  would  be  more  scientifically  described  and  specified  as 
"concentric  illumination." 

There  is  yet  another  advantage  accompanying  the  use  of  ex- 
tended cones  of  illumination,  viz.,  the  certainty  that  the  objective 
is  free  from  serious  rests  of  spherical  aberration,  for  only  a  well- 
corrected  objective  will  bear  a  wide  illuminating  cone.  The 
danger  of  utterly  false  images  is  a  very  grave  one,  when  only  a 
very  narrow  beam  of  light  is  employed ;  we  may  then  obtain  a 
sharp  image  although  there  is  considerable  spherical  aberration, 
and  as  the  latter  is  equivalent  to  inequality  of  the  optical  paths 
"between  conjugate  points,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  phase-relation 
between  the  direct  light  and  the  diffraction-spectra,  which  I  have 
shown  to  play  a  most  important  part  in  the  formation  of  images, 
will  be  entirely  falsified  by  spherical  aberration,  and  that  mis- 
leading images  must  result. 

It  only  remains  to  bring  forward  some  strong  evidence  in 
favour  of  the  position  which  I  took  up  in  the  early  part  of  my 
former  paper,  i.e.  the  claim  that  all  microscopical  images  were  due 
to  the  diffraction  produced  by  the  object. 

The  chief  theoretical  arguments  in  favour  of  this  somewhat 
revolutionary  postulate  were  given  in  the  former  paper,  and  have 
not  as  yet  been  called  into  question  ;  there  is,  however,  experimental 
■evidence  tending  in  the  same  direction. 

The  first  of  these  experimental  facts  is  one  of  which  I  myself 
often  make  practical  use  in  the  testing  of  Microscope  objectives. 
It  is  this :  if  we  examine  a  broken  specimen  of  Pleurosigma  angu- 
latum  (showing  the  familiar  postage-stamp  fracture)  with  a  wide 
"  aplanatic  cone  "  of  light,  using  a  dry  objective,  we  obtain  a  re- 
markable result  if  spherical  aberration  is  present,  i.e.  if  the  wrong 
tube  length  is  employed. 

At  one  focal  adjustment  the  broken  edge  is  clearly  discernible, 
whilst  by  varying  the  adjustment  the  dots  may  be  brought  into 
view.  As  the  fracture  and  the  structure  are  really  in  the  same 
plane,  this  is  utterly  inexplicable  on  the  basis  of  the  spurious  disk 
theory ;  it  is  irreconcilable  with  the  assumption  that  the  object 
behaved  as  if  it  were  self-luminous,  for  in  that  case  all  parts  of  the 
object  would  have  their  images  formed  by  the  same  process  and  in 
the  same  plane. 

The  diffraction-theory  on  the  other  hand  explains  this  quite 

easily  and  naturally. 

the  broken  edge  produces  a  narrow  fan  oi:  diffracted  light 
closely  surrounding  any  ray  of  direct  light;  the  image  of  the 
broken  edge  is  due  to"  such  confined  pencils  of  diffracted  lighl 
passing  through  the  axial  portion  of  the  object-glass ;  for  owing  to 
spherical  aberration  affecting  (when  of  fairly  moderate  magnitude) 


552  Transactions  of  the  Society. 

only  the  outermost  zone  of  an  object-glass,  a  large  central  portion 
of  the  aperture  is  capable  of  yielding  a  good  image  of  such  a  coarse 
structure,  which  is  only  "  fogged  "  by  the  scattered  light  which  has 
passed  through  the  marginal  zone.  The  dots,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  brought  out  by  the  regular  diffraction-spectra  corresponding  to 
them,  and  in  accordance  with  figs.  127a  to  127d,  combinations  of 
these  can  only  enter  through  the  marginal  zone ;  the  image  of  the 
dots  therefore  is  formed  by,  and  indicates  the  focus  of,  the  marginal 
zone,  whilst  the  image  of  the  outline  is  due  to  light  passing  through 
the  axial  portion  of  the  object-glass. 

This  peculiarity  of  the  image  formed  by  an  under-  or  over- 
corrected  objective  may  therefore  be  claimed  as  constituting  a 
proof  that  objects  do  not  behave  as  if  they  were  self-luminous. 

An  even  more  remarkable  fact  bearing  on  the  subject  is  men- 
tioned in  our  standard  handbook  of  Microscopy.*  It  is  that  with 
difficult  diatoms  resolution  is  sometimes  emphasised  when  an 
analyser  is  interposed  between  the  object  and  the  eye.  As  it  is 
universally  accepted  as  a  criterion  of  a  self-luminous  object  that 
the  light  from  it  is  quite  free  from  any  trace  of  polarisation,  this 
observation  again  proves  that  the  object  does  not  behave  like  a 
self-luminous  body.  At  the  same  time  it  is  a  remarkable  piece 
of  evidence  in  favour  of  the  Abbe  theory ;  for  when  the  effect  of 
gratings  is  studied  more  rigorously  than  by  the  usual  more  or  less 
elementary  approximation,  the  result  is  arrived  at  that  the  diffracted 
pencils  are  polarised,  the  amount  of  the  polarisation  depending 
largely  on  the  angle  between  the  direct  and  the  diffracted  light, 
but  also  on  the  nature  of  the  edges  of  the  slits,  etc.  This  observa- 
tion, which  in  the  above  quoted  passage  is  put  forward  as  a 
puzzling  one,  is  therefore  a  direct  refutation  of  the  spurious  disk 
theory  and  an  equally  direct  proof  of  the  correctness  of  the  Abbe 
theory. 

The  chief  results  of  this  inquiry  into  the  theory  of  microscopical 
vision  may  now  be  summarised  as  follows : 

1.  The  spurious  disk  theory,  being  based  on  the  inadmissible 
assumption  that  microscopical  objects  could  be  made  to  behave  as 
if  they  were  self-luminous,  must  be  abandoned. 

2.  The  images  obtainable  from  plane  gratings  of  various  types 
can  be  fully  accounted  for  by  the  Abbe  theory,  provided  that  the 
phase-relation  as  well  as  the  intensity  of  the  diffraction-spectra  is 
taken  into  consideration. 

3.  The  advantages  derivable  from  so-called  aplanatic  cones  of 
light  are : 

(a)  That  the  image  acquires  that  fixity  of  focus  which  is 
desirable  and  indeed  necessary  in  order  to  distinguish 
spurious  "  ghosts  "  from  the  image  formed  in  the  plane 
of  the  geometrical  image. 

*  Carpenter,  Dallinger,  8th  edition,  bottom  of  page  381. 


Theories  of  Microscopical  Vision.     By  A.  E.  Conrady.      553 

(b)  That  we  obtain  equal  resolving  power  in  all  directions, 

and  can  therefore  see  simultaneously  everything  that 
a  given  combination  of  condenser  and  objective  can 
show. 

(c)  That  false  images,  due  to  a  badly  corrected  object  glass, 

are  not  likely  to  deceive  the  observer,  because  such 
objectives  will  not  bear  this  mode  of  illumination. 

4.  One  other  important  result  has  been  arrived  at  since  this 
inquiry  was  opened,  and  is,  I  believe,  largely  due  to  it. 

It  is  a  warning  against  dark-ground  illumination.  In  supply- 
ing an  experimental  proof  of  the  phase-reversal  in  diffraction- 
spectra  I  also  showed  that  with  dark -ground  illumination  a  grating 
may  be  seen  reversed,  i.e.  bright  where  it  ought  to  be  dark,  and 
vice  versa. 

Mr.  Eheinberg  has  shown  an  even  more  remarkable  experiment 
at  the  Eoyal  Institution  and  again  at  the  Quekett  Club,  viz.  that 
with  dark-ground  illumination  we  may  see  a  grating  doubled  under 
otherwise  perfectly  normal  conditions. 


554 


NOTES. 

The  Movements  of  Diatoms  and  other  Microscopic  Plants.* 
By  Daniel  D.  Jackson. 

Few  subjects  in  the  domain  of  Cryptogamic  Botany  have  given  rise- 
to  more  speculation  and  conflicting  theories  than  have  the  studies 
into  the  cause  of  the  apparently  voluntary  movements  of  diatoms. 
From  time  to  time  for  the  past  twelve  years  the  author  has  been 
confronted  with  this  seemingly  fruitless  subject,  and  only  recently, 
almost  by  accident,  has  the  problem  been  solved. 

It  was  early  shown  by  examination  in  closed  cells  that  the 
phenomenon  was  not  due  to  external  currents  set  up  in  the  sur- 
rounding liquid,  but  that  the  power  of  motion  came  from  the 
organism  itself.  Largely  on  account  of  these  movements,  which 
appeared  to  be  spontaneous  and  voluntary,  the  diatoms  were- 
originally  classed  in  the  animal  kingdom. 

The  first  theory  which  naturally  presented  itself  was  that  they 
move,  as  do  the  infusoria,  by  means  of  vibrating  hair- like  processes 
called  cilia  or  flagella.  Later,  certain  authors  claimed  to  have  seen 
protoplasmic  processes  similar  to  those  of  the  rhizopods  protruding 
from  the  small  openings  in  the  frustule  of  the  organism.  Then 
came  the  theory  of  Onderdonk,f  which  described  the  progression  as 
due  to  a  thin  fluid  mass  in  rhythmical  motion  covering  the  surface 
of  the  diatom. 

Nageli  suggested  that  the  motion  is  due  to  endosmotic  and 
exosmotic  currents,  and  H.  L.  Smith.J  after  much  study  of  the 
subject,  came  to  the  conclusion  "  that  the  motion  of  the  Navicular 
is  due  to  injection  and  expulsion  of  water,  and  that  these  currents 
are  caused  by  different  tensions  of  the  internal  membranous  sac  in 
the  two  halves  of  the  frustules." 

In  order  to  prove  this  theory,  Professor  Smith  showed,  by 
means  of  suspended  indigo,  that  when  the  diatom  moves  forward 
the  particles  of  indigo  gather  around  the  central  nodule  of  the 
valve  and  form  a  small  mass,  which  turns  on  itself  just  as  if  it 
were  impelled  by  a  jet  of  water  proceeding  from  the  valve  at  this 
point.     Each  of  these  little  turbulent  spheres,  after  having  acquired 

*  ThiB  paper,  read  at  the  May  Meeting  of  the  Society,  had  been  previously 
communicated  to  the  New  York  Microscopical  Society  on  April  7,  1905. 

t  "  The  Movements  of  Diatoms,"  Microscope,  August  1890. 

X  "A  Contribution  to  the  Life  History  of  the  Diatomaceae,"  Proc.  Amer.  Soc, 
Microscopists,  1888. 


Notes.  555- 

a  certain  size,  falls  apart,  and  the  particles  which  compose  it  are 
driven  along  the  valves  from  front  to  back,  and  accumulate  behind 
the  extremity  of  the  frustule  which,  according  to  its  progression, 
would  be  considered  the  rear.  The  particles  move  as  if  they  were 
subjected  to  a  current  going  from  front  to  back,  and  reverse  when 
the  motion  is  reversed.  That  these  currents  exist  there  can  be  no- 
doubt,  but  that  the  motive  power  is  not  due  to  the  expulsion  of 
water  will  shortly  be  demonstrated. 

The  first  intimation  of  the  true  nature  of  this  motion  was 
suggested  by  the  action  of  a  lithia  tablet  in  a  glass  of  water.  The 
bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  gas  given  off  set  up  the  exact  motions  in 
the  tablet  that  have  been  so  often  described  for  the  movements  of 
diatoms — "  a  sudden  advance  in  a  straight  line,  a  little  hesitation, 
then  other  rectilinear  movements,  and,  after  a  short  pause,  a  return 
upon  nearly  the  same  path  by  similar  movements." 

Eepeated  experiments  with  compressed  pellets  evolving  gas 
have  shown  that  this  is  the  usual  motion  produced  by  the  evolution 
of  gas  bubbles ;  and  when  pellets  were  made  of  the  same  shape  as 
Naviculse,  the  movements  of  these  diatoms  were  perfectly  dupli- 
cated. Boat-shaped  pieces  of  aluminium,  2  mm.  thick,  were  then 
made,  and  on  them  were  cut  longitudinal  grooves  to  resemble 
those  of  the  diatom.  When  placed  in  strong  caustic  soda  solution, 
the  movements  of  the  metal  produced  by  the  evolution  of  hydrogen 
gas  again  duplicated  those  of  the  diatom  in  a  remarkable  manner. 
The  metal  having  the  grooves  had  a  greater  power  of  motion  than 
that  without  the  grooves. 

If  we  consider  that  the  diatom  contains  chlorophyll  bands  which, 
when  exposed  to  a  strong  light,  rapidly  evolve  oxygen,  and  if  we 
take  into  account  the  fact  that  the  motion  does  not  take  place 
unless  the  light  is  fairly  strong,  we  have  then  a  conception  of  the 
nature  of  the  movements  of  these  organisms.  Streams  of  oxygen 
may  be  readily  seen  evolving  from  all  parts  of  many  of  the  larger 
aquatic  plants  when  submerged  in  water  and  exposed  to  strong 
light ;  but  in  the  diatom,  while  the  gas  produced  is  large  compared 
with  the  size  of  the  organism,  the  actual  amount  evolved  is  so 
small  that  it  is  taken  into  solution  almost  immediately.  That 
such  evolution  takes  place,  however,  is  shown  by  Professor  Smith's 
experiments  with  indigo.  If,  now,  we  examine  the  artificial  diatom 
made  of  aluminium,  and  placed  in  strong  caustic  solution,  we  find 
that  the  bubbles  from  all  sides  come  together  and  rise  in  a  line 
corresponding  to  the  median  line  or  raphe  of  the  organism,  and 
that  if  indigo  is  placed  in  the  liquid  it  collects  and  rotates  near 
the  central  °nodule,  just  as  described  by  Professor  Smith  to  prove 
his  theory  of  the  presence  of  water  currents. 

It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  the  motion  of  diatoms  is  caused 
by  the  impelling  force  of  the  bubbles  of  oxygen  evolved,  and  that 
the  direction   of   the   movement    is   due  to  the  relatively  larger 


.556  Notes. 

amount  of  oxygen  set  free,  first  from  the  forward  and  then  from 
the  rear  half  of  the  organism.  This  accounts  for  the  hesitancy 
and  irregular  movements,  as  well  as  the  motion  forward  and  back- 
ward over  the  same  course. 

The  evolving  gas  seems  to  act  at  times  as  a  propeller  to  push 
the  organism  forward,  and  at  other  times  to  exert  a  pulling  action 
to  raise  the  growth  on  end.  The  various  movements  described 
are  the  resultants  of  varying  proportions  of  both  of  these  active 
forces. 

The  fact  that  a  longitudinal  groove  on  the  under  side  of  the 
artificial  diatom  causes  it  to  become  more  active,  due  to  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  gas  along  the  line  of  the  groove,  explains  the  reason 
for  the  greater  activity  of  the  Kaphidere. 

The  most  interesting  and  peculiar  movements  among  diatoms 
are  those  of  Bacillaria  paradoxa,  whose  frustules  slide  over  each 
other  in  a  longitudinal  direction  until  they  are  all  but  detached, 
and  then  stop,  reverse  their  motion,  and  slide  back  again  in  the 
opposite  direction  until  they  are  again  almost  separated.  When 
the  diatoms  are  active  these  alternating  movements  take  place  with 
very  considerable  regularity.  It  is  probable  that  the  individuals 
in  a  group  of  Bacillaria  are  joined  together  much  more  loosely 
than  other  laterally  attached  genera,  and  that  when  a  forward 
movement  takes  place  in  the  outer  individual  it  is  arrested  by 
capillarity  just  before  the  diatom  is  completely  detached. 

It  can  now  be  readily  seen  that  the  strange  movements  of 
the  other  microscopic  plants  may  be  explained  as  also  due  to  the 
evolution  of  oxygen  gas.  While  the  movements  of  desmids  are 
not  as  strongly  marked  as  those  of  diatoms,  many  of  them,  notably 
Penium  and  Closterium,  have  often  been  described  as  having  a 
power  of  independent  motion,  and  Stahl  *  found  that  this  motion 
is  greatly  affected  by  light. 

The  best  account  of  the  movements  of  desmids  has  been  given 
by  Klebs.f  This  author  speaks  of  four  kinds  of  movements  in 
desmids,  viz. : — 

1.  A  forward  motion  on  the  surface,  one  end  of  each  cell 
touching  the  bottom,  while  the  other  end  is  more  or  less  elevated 
and  oscillates  backwards  and  forwards. 

2.  An  elevation  in  a  vertical  direction  from  the  substratum, 
the  free  end  making  wide  circular  movements. 

3.  A  similar  motion,  followed  by  an  alternate  sinking  of  the 
free  end  and  elevation  of  the  other  end. 

4.  An  oblique  elevation,  so  that  both  ends  touch  the  bottom, 
— lateral  movements  in  this  position  ;  then  an  elevation  and  circular 
motion  of  one  end,  and  a  sinking  again  to  an  oblique  or  horizontal 
position. 

*  Verhandl.  Phys.  med.  Geeell.  Wurzburg,  1880,  p.  24. 
t  Biol.  Contralbl.,  1885,  p.  353. 


Notes.  557 

This  observer  considered  these  movements  to  be  due  to  an 
exudation  of  mucilage,  and  the  first  two  to  the  formation  durin</ 
the  motion  of  a  filament  of  mucilage,  by  which  the  desmid  is  tem- 
porarily attached  to  the  bottom,  and  which  gradually  lengthens. 

These  four  kinds  of  movements  are  very  easily  explained  by 
the  theory  of  the  evolution  of  gas  ;  and  by  regulating  the  con- 
ditions they  can  be  exactly  reproduced  in  the  artificial  desmids 
made  of  aluminium.  In  this  case  strips  of  thin  aluminium  foil 
should  be  used.  When  the  gas  production  is  very  strong  at  one 
end,  the  desmid  will  be  raised  to  a  vertical  position  and  will  take 
up  oscillating  or  circular  movenu  nts. 

If  we  now  pass  to  a  consideration  of  like  movements  in  the 
Cyanophycese,  the  same  explanation  holds  true  for  Oscillaria, 
which  often  takes  up  a  waving  or  circular  motion  when  attached 
at  one  end.  This  movement  is  well  described  by  Griffith  and 
Henfrey  *  as  follows  : — "  The  ends  of  the  filaments  emerge  from 
their  sheaths,  the  young  extremities  being  apparently  devoid  of 
their  coat ;  their  ends  wave  backward  and  forward,  somewhat  as 
the  forepart  of  the  bodies  of  certain  caterpillars  are  waved  when 
they  stand  on  their  prolegs  with  the  head  reared  up."  The  authors 
attribute  this  motion  to  "  irregular  contraction  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  protoplasm." 

The  free- swimming  species  of  Nostoc  all  have  a  spontaneous 
power  of  active  motion  in  water,  and  in  all  of  the  filiform  orders 
of  the  Cyanophycese  detached  portions  of  the  filament  known  as 
hormogones  also  have  the  power  of  spontaneous  motion.  All  of 
these  movements  are  undoubtedly  the  effect  of  the  evolution  of 
oxygen  gas. 


On  "An  Optical  Paradox." 

Dr.  G.  Johnstone  Stoney,  F.E.S.,  takes  the  subject  f  up  from  the 
point  of  view  of  "Flat-wavelet  Eesolution,"  and  remarks  that 
Lord  Eayleigh's  experiment  t  may  be  conveniently  adapted  to  the 
Microscope. 

The  image  of  L  in  the  telescope  T  of  the  diagram,  fig.  129,  is  formed 
by  the  mutual  interference  of  all  the  undulations  of  flat  wavelets, 
which  enter  the  telescope  in  the  direction  of  the  so-called  "  rays  " 
that  proceed  from  the  image  of  A  at  C.  The  image  of  A  at  C  is 
the  spurious  disk  and  diffraction  appendages  formed  by  lens  L. 
The  outline  of  L  will  be  properly  seen  so  long  as  the  telescope 
objective  admits,  in  addition  to  the  spurious  disk,  some  part  of  the 

*  Micrographic  Dictionary,  p.  501. 
t  Phil.  Mag.,  July  1905,  pp.  126-8.  J  See  this  Journal,  ante,  p.  417. 


Oct.  18th,  1905  2 


1' 


558  Notes. 

appendage  rings,  or  else  portions  of  two  or  more  of  these  rings  if 
all  light  from  the  spurious  disk  is  excluded.  If  the  aperture  of  the 
objective  is  cut  down  till  the  disk  only  is  admitted,  the  definition 
will  have  become  so  bad  that  the  outline  of  L  cannot  be  seen.  The 
most  satisfactory  image  of  L  will  be  formed,  when  the  spurious 
disk  and  all  its  diffraction  appendages  that  have  any  appreciable 
brightness  are  admitted  by  the  telescope  objective. 

The  degree  of  definition — i.e.  the  steps  from  good  to  poor 
definition — can  be  easily  investigated  by  the  "  flat  wavelet  resolu- 
tion "  analysis,  and  it  also  shows  that  when  the  source  of  light  A  is 
enlarged,  there  is  no  necessity  for  any  phase  relation  between  the 
portions  of  light  emanating  from  different  puncta  of  A.  The  need- 
ful phase  relation — the  one  necessarily  subsisting — is  that  between 
the  disk  and  the  diffraction  appendages  formed  from  each  separate 
punctum  of  A.  It  follows,  and  is  confirmed  by  experiment,  that 
the  source  of  light  may,  without  loss  of  definition,  be  a  self- 
luminous  body. 

To  understand  how  Lord  Eayleigh's  experiment,  and  others 


related  to  it,  can  be  made  with  the  Microscope,  remove  lens  L  of 
the  apparatus  represented  by  the  figure  in  the  text,  and  replace  it 
by  two  lenses  L'  and  L",  of  which  lens  L'  collimates  the  light  from 
A,  while  L"  concentrates  the  collimated  beam  to  a  focus  at  C.  It 
is  obviously  legitimate  to  make  this  substitution.  When  the 
experiment  is  made  with  a  Microscope,  the  source  A  is  to  be  light 
passing  through  a  small  hole  (or  slit)  in  a  stop  placed  under  the 
condenser.  The  condenser  of  the  Microscope  then  takes  up  the 
duties  of  lens  L',  and  at  the  same  time  the  objective  of  the  Micro- 
scope discharges  the  functions  of  the  combination  consisting  of 
lens  L"  together  with  lens  C.  The  image  of  A  produced  at  C  then 
becomes  that  image  of  the  hole  (or  slit)  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
"  concentration  image  "  of  the  Microscope — i.e.  in  the  image  which 
comes  into  view  on  removing  the  eye-piece  and  looking  down  the 
Microscope  tube.  Furthermore,  when  the  experiment  is  made 
with  the  Microscope,  any  desired  object  can  be  put  upon  the  stage 
of  the  Microscope,  and  becomes  the  object  to  be  resolved.  The 
author  considers  the  best  object  to  employ  is  one  of  the  bands  of 
Grayson's  Eulings,  supplemented  by  observations  upon  a  single 
pair  of  lines  such  as  may  here  and  there  be  seen  to  project  from 
one  or  other  end  of  a  band.     The  hole  in  the  stop  may,  if  desired,. 


Notes.  559 

be  made  to  behave  as  a  self-luminous  source  of  light,  by  focusing 
the  light  of  the  lamp-flame  or  other  luminary  upon  the  stop.  This 
will  be  found  in  no  degree  to  impair  definition,  whether  the  hole  in 
the  stop  be  large  or  small. 


The  Optical  Convention. 

At  the  Optical  Convention  which  was  held  at  the  Northampton 
Institute,  Clerkenwell,  from  May  30  to  June  3,  with  the  object  of 
promoting  the  science  and  industry  of  Optics  in  Great  Britain,  the 
President,  Dr.  K.  T.  Glazebrook,  F.R.S.,  in  his  inaugural  address, 
passed  in  review  the  history  of  optical  progress  since  early  times, 
dealing  more  particularly  with  a  few  periods  of  marked  progress, 
to  show  how  theory  and  practice  had  acted  and  reacted  upon  one 
another,  and  how  necessary  it  was  that  close  co-operation  between 
those  interested  in  the  scientific  and  technical  sides  of  the  question 
should  exist  for  the  proper  and  prosperous  development  of  British 
Optical  Industry.  The  first  period  selected  for  illustration  was 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the  influence  of  the 
work  of  Christian  Huyghens  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton  made  itself 
powerfully  felt.  Another  period  dealt  with  was  about  100  years 
later,  when  the  researches  of  Thomas  Young  and  Fresnel  entirely 
changed  the  whole  of  the  theory  on  which  the  construction  of 
optical  instruments  depended.  An  example  was  also  given  of  the 
adverse  and  retarding  effect  of  the  want  of  co-operation  between 
science  and  practice.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  Sir  George 
Airy  and  Sir  William  Hamilton  had  investigated  the  aberration  of 
lenses.  When  a  generation  later  Daguerre  announced  his  inven- 
tion, this  work  would  have  been  of  the  greatest  value  to  the 
designers  of  photographic  lenses.  It  was,  however,  forgotten,  and 
the  last  place  where  the  practical  opticians  of  that  time  might 
have  been  expected  to  look  for  help  were  such  publications  as  the 
Transactions  of  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society,  or  the  Royal 
Society  of  Dublin.  They  worked  on  empirical  lines,  with  the 
result  that  the  main  improvements  had  taken  place  in  another 
country,  where  the  opticians  had  been  quicker  to  recognise  that  a 
full  knowledge  of  the  action  on  a  lens  of  the  light  winch  traverses 
it  was  the  condition  precedent  to  further  advance. 

The  last  illustration  chosen  to  emphasise  the  beneficial  effects 
of  intimate  co-operation  between  science  and  industry  was  the 
history  of  optical  glass  manufacture.  After  a  brief  reference  to 
the  invention  of  optical  glass  by  the  poor  carpenter  Gunand  in 
1740,  whose  son,  after  his  father's  death,  sold  the  secret  to  George 
Boutemps,  who  was  brought  to  England  by  Messrs.  Chance,  the 

2  p  2 


560  Notes. 

President  dealt  with  the  work  of  Abbe  at  Jena,  as  perhaps  the 
most  striking  example  of  the  results  accruing  from  the  reasoned 
combination  of  theory  and  practice.  Sketching  Abbe's  career,  he 
passed  on  to  his  work  on  the  theory  of  the  Microscope,  pointing 
out  that  it  was  the  direct  outcome  of  the  work  of  Fresnel.  Abbe's 
work  soon  led  him  to  realise  that  for  Microscope  objectives  no 
great  improvement  could  be  expected  with  the  glass  at  the  opti- 
cian's disposal — a  result  which  had  likewise  been  arrived  at  by 
Petzval  and  von  Seidel  in  regard  to  photographic  lenses.  Theo- 
retical work  thus  indicated  a  bar  to  progress  only  to  be  overcome  by 
the  manufacture  of  new  glasses.  This  fact  had  also  been  recognised 
by  our  countrymen,  Mr.  Vernon  Harcourt  and  Professor  Stokes, 
who  had  for  some  eight  years  previous  to  1870  endeavoured,  but 
with  scant  success,  to  produce  glass  having  certain  definite  relations 
between  dispersion  and  refraction.  Abbe  was  more  successful :  his 
writings  attracted  the  attention  of  the  glass-maker  Schott,  and 
their  researches,  aided  in  the  first  instance  by  a  large  grant  from 
the  Prussian  Minister  of  Education,  had  led  to  the  present  well- 
known  industrial  results.  Nor  was  this  all ;  for,  in  virtue  of  the 
distribution  of  profits  settled  by  the  scheme  of  the  Carl  Zeiss 
Stiftung,  the  University  of  Jena  alone  had  received  a  sum  approach- 
ing 100,000/.  No  better  illustration,  perhaps,  could  be  found  of 
the  way  in  which  progress  depended  on  the  co-operation  of  science 
and  experience. 

A  fitting  accompaniment  to  the  President's  address  will  be 
found  in  the  volume  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Optical  Convention, 
in  the  shape  of  an  historical  chart  by  Mr.  F.  J.  Chesire,  F.E.M.S. 
This  chart  contains  the  names  and  dates  of  birth  and  death  of  the 
foremost  workers  in  optical  science,  and  is  conveniently  arranged 
to  show  at  a  glance  the  periods  of  particular  progress. 

The  programme  of  the  Convention  can  be  classed  into  two 
divisions ;  the  reading  and  discussion  of  papers,  and  a  representa- 
tive exhibition  of  optical  and  scientific  instruments  of  British 
manufacture.  The  following  abstracts  of  papers  which  have  a 
bearing  on  the  Microscope  are  given  in  the  alphabetical  order  of 
the  authors'  names.  Those  marked  with  an  asterisk  have  been 
kindly  abstracted  for  the  J.Pi.M.S.  by  the  authors  themselves. 

*  The  Consideration  of  the  Equivalent  Planes  op  Optical 

Instruments. 
IByl  Conrad  Beck,  F.B.M.S.  „ 

The  author  explained  that  in  all  dioptric  optical  systems  there  are  two 
■well-known  pairs  of  planes,  known  as  the  principal  and  nodal  planes  respect- 
ively, which,  when  the  media  on  both  sides  of  the  instrument  are  the  same, 
such  as  air,  are  superimposed  in  one  pair  of  planes  possessing  the  character- 
istics of  both,  and  are  known  as  the  equivalent  planes. 

In  considering  optical  instruments,  some  system  of  measurement  and 


Notes.  561 

nomenclature  must  be  used.  Any  such  system  required  that  the  valur 
of  the  focal  length  should  be  known.  In  a  single  thin  convex  lens  the 
distance  of  the  solar  focus  or  burning  point  from  the  edge  of  the  lens  gav< 
this  important  measurement ;  but  in  compound  instruments,  although  the 
focal  point  could  often  be  found,  that  portion  of  the  instrument  from  which 
it  should  be  measured  in  order  to  obtain  the  true  focal  length  was  more 
difficult  to  determine. 

Early  English  writers  attempted  to  express  this  position  by  such  terms 
as  "  optical  centre,"  or  "  perspective  centre,"  but  without  a  true  understanding 
of  the  correct  principle,  and  they  preferred  to  deal  with  an  instrument  as  a 
series  of  component  parts,  rather  than  as  a  whole. 

Fifty  years  previously  it  was  thoroughly  understood  on  the  Continent 
that  there  is  no  one  position  in  an  optical  system  from  which  the  optical 
measurements  should  be  made,  but  two  "  equivalent  planes,"  one  for  inci- 
dent light  measurements,  the  other  for  emergent  Light  measurements. 

Mr.  Beck  then  showed,  with  the  aid  of  a  diagram  provided  with  a 
movable  slide,  that  the  most  complex  instruments  can  for  most  purposes  be 
represented  by  a  thin  lens  of  a  certain  focal  length,  if  we  imagine  it  to  be 
placed  first,  in  the  first  equivalent  plane  to  receive  the  light,  and  then  shifted 
to  the  second  equivalent  plane  to  discharge  the  Light.  The  focus  of  such  a 
lens  is  the  equivalent  or  true  focus  of  the  compound  instrument,  and  the 
position  of  the  equivalent  planes  becomes  of  prime  importance. 

The  author  then  explained  diagrammatically  how  the  separation  of  two 
single  convex  lenses  profoundly  altered  their  position.  Starting  from  two 
lenses  close  to  one  another,  he  explained  how  the  equivalent  planes  move 
away  from  each  other,  and  cross  as  the  two  lenses  are  separated,  going  to 
infinity  when  the  lenses  are  situated  at  a  distance  apart  equal  to  the  sum 
of  their  focal  lengths,  reappearing  on  the  other  side  of  the  lenses  on  further 
separation.  The  argument  was  then  applied  to  combinations  of  positive  and 
negative  lenses  with  similar  results. 

He  then  proceeded  to  illustrate  the  various  types  of  instruments:  the 
photographic,  or  projection  lens,  the  Telescope  and  the  Microscope,  by  means 
of  the  same  pair  of  lenses  separated  by  different  amounts ;  showing  how  the 
telephoto  lens,  and  especially  the  compound  Microscope  obtained  their  dis- 
tinctive advantages  by  the  position  in  which  their  equivalent  planes  were 
placed.    I 

A  Microscope  of  the  highest  power  considered  as  a  whole,  has  an  equiva- 
lent focal  length  of  only  a  few  thousandths  of  an  inch,  the  object  being 
placed  approximately  at  the  focal  point.  The  earliest  Microscopes  were 
constructed  like  our  pocket  magnifiers  of  single  lenses  of  various  curvature. 
Such  lenses  could  only  be  made  of  comparatively  small  magnifying  power, 
and  even  then  the  object  had  to  be  placed  very  close  to  the  lens.  If  we 
could  conceive  of  a  single  lens  with  a  magnifying  power  of  2000,  the 
focal  distance  would  only  be  ^Vo  or  2U0  incn>  and  the  obJect  would  be  so 
close  that  it  could  not  even  be  protected  by  a  thin  cover-glass.  It  is,  how- 
ever, interesting  to  note  that  lenses  of  different  shapes,  although  they  are 
single  lenses,  are  suitable  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  for  increasing  this 
so-called  working  distance,  owing  to  the  different  position  of  their  equivalent 

planes. 

For  obtaining  high  magnifications,  single  lenses  cannot  be  made  with 
sufficiently  strong  curvature,  and  the  first  idea  that  suggests  itself  is  to  place 
three  or  four  powerful  lenses  close  together.  Such  an  arrangement,  however, 
is  even  more  unsuitable,  because  the  equivalent  planes  are  generally  some- 
where between  the  lenses,  and  the  actual  distance  of  the  focus  from  the 
front  lens  is  reduced  still  further  than  in  the  case  of  a  single  lens. 

So  it  was,  that  without  knowing  the  exact  reason,  the  plan  of  using 
lenses  separated  by  large  intervals  was  adopted  in  Microscopes  as  far  back 
as  the  year  1650.    The  equivalent  planes  are  so  placed  that  one  of  them  is 


562  Notes. 

at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  lenses,  and  even  if  the  focal  length  of 
the  complete  instrument  were  xrftns  incli  there  is  ample  room  for  manipulat- 
ing the  object.  The  modern  compound  Microscopes  consist  of  two  positive 
lenses  separated  by  a  large  interval,  and  the  two  equivalent  planes  are 
outside  everything ;  the  object  to  be  examined  and  the  observer's  eyes  are 
inside. 

Mr.  Beck  then  urged  the  importance  of  examining  instruments  as  a 
complete  whole  with  a  view  to  seeing  if,  by  re-arrangement  of  parts,  new 
positions  could  not  be  found  in  which  the  equivalent  planes  might  be  placed 
in  order  to  confer  fresh  capabilities,  and  concluded  by  treating  the  case  of 
the  human  eye  and  spectacles,  deducing  several  curious  facts  as  to  the  size 
of  the  picture  received  upon  the  eye,  firstly,  in  cases  of  high  myopia  cor- 
rected with  spectacles,  and  secondly,  in  cases  of  cataract  with  the  crystalline 
lens  replaced  by  powerful  convex  spectacles. 


On  Certain  Methods  of  Lens  Measurement  and  Testing  together, 
with  some  Recommendations  as  to  Nomenclature  and  Description. 

By  T.  H.  Blahesley. 

The  instrument  used  is  in  essence  a  collimator,  for  it  consists  of  a  scale 
of  a  few  divisions  at  the  principal  focus  of  an  achromatic  lens.  It  is  fitted 
to  the  stage  of  a  Microscope,  being  placed  through  the  hole  in  the  stage, 
upon  which  it  rests  by  means  of  a  collar  near  the  lens.  The  collimator  lens 
itself  is  turned  towards  the  Microscope,  and  the  lens  or  lens  systems,  the 
measurements  of  which  are  to  be  determined,  are  placed  between  this  colli- 
mating  lens  and  the  Microscope  objective.  The  method  may  be  employed 
for  determining  the  focal  lengths  of  lenses,  the  distance  between  the  princi- 
pal focus  from  surfaces  of  a  lens,  the  ratio  of  the  radii  of  the  surfaces  of  a 
single  lens,  the  distance  between  the  second  principal  focus  of  one  lens  and 
the  first  principal  focus  of  the  second  lens  in  a  combination  of  two  lenses, 
the  curvature  of  lens  surfaces,  and  it  has  also  been  applied  to  measure  the 
index  of  refraction  of  a  liquid.  With  regard  to  determining  the  focal  length 
of  lens  systems,  the  method  was  found  applicable  to  an  entire  Microscope, 
the  tube  of  which  was  not  long. 


*Aberrations. 
By  S.  D.  Chalmers,  M.A. 

The  author  discusses  practical  means  for  measuring  by  observational 
methods  the  aberration  of  lenses,  more  particularly  photographic  lenses,  on 
the  system  employed  by  Hartmann  for  telescope  objectives.  It  is  pointed 
out  that  it  has  not  been  possible,  as  yet,  to  apply  the  method  to  Microscope 
objectives  with  sufficient  accuracy. 


*Measurkmbnt  of  Befractive  Index. 
By  S.  D.  Chalmers,  M.A. 

The  paper  describes  a  new  and  accurate  method  of  determining  the  re- 
fractive index  of  glass  in  the  form  of  a  lens. 

The  lens  to  be  tested  is  inserted  in  a  liquid  whose  refractive  index 
can  be  measured,  and  the  refractive  index  is  determined  from  the  formula 
nz-  n0  (Bj  -  B;))  =  the  power  of  the  lens  (when  immersed  in  the  liquid). 
Where  n2  is  the  refractive  index  of  the  lens,  n0  of  the  liquid,  B,  and  E,  the 
curvatures  of  tli e  lens;  the  latter  need  only  be  known  approximately.     To 


Notes.  ."<::; 

determine  the  power  of  the  lens,  a  suhsidiary  lens  is  used  to  focus  a  bright 
object,  the  image  being  observed  by  a  high-power  eye-piece. 

In  front  of  the  subsidiary  lens  is  placed  a  plane  parallel  trough,  contain- 
ing a  transparent  liquid,  such  as  clove  oil  or  immersion  oil. 

The  bright  object  is  focused,  the  lens  is  inserted  in  the  trough,  and  the 
object  re-focused.    If  i\  and  v2  be  the  focusing  distances — 


'•,  -  ''., 


=  power  of  the  lens  as  used, 


and  vt  -  v2,  i\  and  v2  must  be  measured  with  the  same  proportionate  accuracy 
as  is  required  in  n2  -  ■;/„. 

The  paper  contains  a  list  of  readings  showing  that  an  accuracy  of  0'  0005 
was  obtained,  and  the  author  claims  that  with  specially  designed  apparatus 
the  error  could  be  reduced  to  0  0001,  and  that  the  values  of  the  dispersion 
could  be  obtained  with  the  accuracy  of  spectrometer  measurements. 

To  avoid  the  errors  in  the  refractive  index  of  the  liquid  due  to  tempera- 
ture variations,  the  trough  is  made  in  the  shape  of  a  prism,  and  any  variation 
in  the  temperature  causes  the  image  to  move  in  the  field— thus  permitting  of 
a  correction  being  made  for  temperature  errors.  For  obtaining  the  refractive 
index  of  the  liquids,  standard  lenses  are  used. 


The  Specification  and  Measurement  of  Optical  Aberrations. 

By  C.  V.  Drysdale,  D.Sc. 

This  paper  is  a  general  discussion  on  the  aberration  of  optical  instru- 
ments. It  is  pointed  out  that  optical  image-forming  instruments  fall  into 
two  distinct  classes— objective  and  subjective.  To  the  former  class  belong 
instruments  such  as  photographic  lenses,  projection  apparatus,  etc.,  where 
the  image  is  formed  on  a  screen,  and  which  are  therefore  complete  in  them- 
selves. To  the  latter  class  belong  instruments  such  as  the  Telescope  and 
Microscope,  where  the  final  object  is  to  produce  a  perfect  image  on  the  retina 
of  the  observer,  and  therefore  these  should  have  their  aberration  defined 
with  respect  to  the  normal  eye. 

*  Diffraction  in  Optical  Instruments. 
By  J.  W.  Gordon,  F.R.M.s. 

In  the  geometrical  representation  of  a  beam  of  light  there  arc  two  con- 
stituent elements— the  rays  and  the  wave-fronts.  The  rays  traverse  the 
beam  from  end  to  end  and  extend  in  one  dimension  only.  The  wave-fronts 
lie  athwart  the  beam  and  are  extended  in  the  two  remaining  dimensions. 
The  wave-fronts  may  be  more  exactly  defined,  for  they  are  monophasal  sur- 
faces A  wave-front  may  accordingly  be  said  to  pass  through  all  those 
points  in  the  rays  composing  any  beam  which  lie  at  a  given  optical  distance 
from  its  point  of  origin.  .  ...  .  . 

It  thus  appears  that  the  rays  intersect  the  wave-fronts  m  a  beam  of  light 
From  the  nature  of  this  intersection  the  type  of  the  beam  may  be  determined. 
Thus  the  ray  where  it  intersects  the  wave-front  may  be  a  normal  to  the 
surface  of  the  wave-front,  or  it  may  meet  it  at  an  oblique  angle.  If  the 
ray  is  a  normal  the  pencil  is  normal  of  which  it  forms  a  part,  and  \w  have 
the  normal  beam  of  ordinary  lighl  which  forms  the  subject  oi  investigation 
in  what  is  commonly  called  geometrical  optics.  But  when  the  angle  is 
oblique  the  beam  is  a  beam  of  diffracted  light. 

The  phenomena  of  diffracted  light  arc  usually  grouped  into  two  eta 
named  after  Fraunhofer  and  Fresnel  respectively.    The  Fraunhofer  bands 


564  Notes. 

are  exhibited  outside  the  geometrical  boundary  of  the  normal  beam,  the 
Fresnel  bands  within  that  boundary.  Since  in  the  case  of  a  focused  beam 
of  light  the  normal  beam  narrows  to  a  point  in  the  focal  plane,  it  follows 
that  Fresnel  bands  disappear  from  the  focal  plane  itself,  and  are  therefore  of 
comparatively  small  importance  in  the  theory  of  optical  instruments.  Fraun- 
hofer  bands  on  the  other  hand  are  best  seen  in  the  focal  plane,  and  for  this 
reason  they  are  of  great  importance  for  the  theory  of  optical  instruments, 
where  they  give  rise  to  the  phenomena  of  the  false  disk,  intercostal  figures, 
and  the  like — in  one  word,  to  the  phenomena  connected  with  what  has  been 
called  the  antipoint.  It  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  the  Fraunhofer 
diffraction  phenomena  have  been  exclusively  studied,  and  consequently  the 
account  given  of  them  in  the  accepted  text-books  is  limited  to  their  appear- 
ance in  the  focal  plane. 

It  was  suggested  in  the  paper  that  this  restriction  of  the  attention  of 
students  to  the  phenomena  exhibited  in  the  focal  plane  leads  to  a  misunder- 
standing, both  of  the  nature  and  of  the  importance  of  the  Fraunhofer  bands, 
and  in  illustration  of  this  point  the  author  referred  to  an  investigation  of 


Fig.  130.  Fig.  131. 

the  Fraunhofer  phenomena  in  planes  other  than  the  focal  plane,  some  results 
of  which  had  been  communicated  in  a  paper  read  by  him  before  the  E.M.S. 
in  December  last.*  In  the  mathematical  part  of  that  paper  it  was  shown 
that  if  a  mode  of  calculating  the  intensity  of  Fraunhofer  rings  is  adopted, 
which  is  applicable  to  rings  lying  in  these  afocal  planes,  these  rings  can  be 
shown  to  be  in  theory  conical  wave-fronts  which,  starting  from  the  diffract- 
ing aperture,  travel  down  outside  the  surface  of  the  normal  beam,  forming  a 
fringe  of  light  having  the  form  of  a  conical  wave-front.  This  conical  wave- 
front  intersects  the  surface  of  the  normal  beam  at  right  angles,  and  forms  a 
tangential  extension  of  the  spherical  wave-fronts  occupying  the  interior  of 
the  beam.  The  diagram,  fig.  130,  illustrates  according  to  this  theory  the 
anatomy  of  a  focused  beam  of  light.  Here  AA  is  the  aperture  defining 
the  beam,  F  the  focal  point.  The  circular  arcs  struck  about  F  represent  the 
wave-fronts  of  normal  light.  CCC  are  traces  of  the  dark  intervals  between 
the  Fresnel  rings.    DDD  are  the  conical  wave-fronts  of  the  Fraunhofer  ring. 

*  J.R.M.S.,  1905,  p.  L] 


Notes.  565 

TFP  is  the  theoretical  focal  plane.  Only  one  Fraunhofer  ring — the  inner- 
most—is represented,  and  this  one  only  is  of  any  threat  practical  importance 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  Fraunhofer  ring  forms  at  the  focal  plane  a 
cone  having  its  apex  in  that  plane.  If  we  assume  that  it  continues  to  be 
propagated  inward  according  to  the  ordinary  law  of  light  propagation  aloui; 
rays  normal  to  the  wave-front,  it  will  follow  that  this  conical  wave-front  will 
continue  to  contract  upon  its  own  axis,  and  that  at  a  distance  determined  by 
the  divergence  angle  of  the  normal  beam  it  will  reach  its  point  of  greatest 
condensation.  Fig.  131  shows  diagrammatically  the  production  of  this  result. 
Now  if  such  a  condensation  of  the  focused  light  takes  place  in  the  plane  E 
of  fig.  131,  it  is  clear  that  the  image  of  a  point  source  of  light  must  be  better 
defined  in  this  plane  E  than  in  the  theoretical  focal  plane ;  from  which  again 
it  would  follow  that  the  effect  of  Fraunhofer  diffraction  is  not  only  to  impair 
definition  in  the  focal  plane  itself,  but  also  to  displace  the  effective  focal 
plane  to  a  position  behind  that  :of  the  theoretical  focal  plane.  The  author 
proposes  as  an  approximate  expression  for  the  extent  of  this  displacement 

a  =    .— ^ — j  where  a  =  the  displacement,  u  -  the  divergence  angle  of  the 

focused  beam,  and  X  =  the  wave-length  of  light.     This  expression,  when 

highly  magnified  images  are  formed,  becomes  a  =  —       where  M  =  the  scale 

of  magnification. 

The  theoretical  position  having  been  thus  defined,  its  bearing  upon 
certain  obscure  problems  of  practical  optics  was  next  discussed.  First  there' 
is  the  fact  with  which  every  photographer  is  familiar,  that  for  really  critical 
focusing  it  is  necessary  to  focus  with  the  particular  stop  .with  which  you 
intend  to  operate  during  exposure.  Another  fact  of  the  same  class  is  that 
when  a  Microscope  is  adjusted  for  high  power  work  the  focus  is  immediately 
disturbed  by  any  change  in  the  adjustment  of  the  substage  condenser,  and 
that  if  in  this  way  the  angle  of  the  light  is  altered  even  slightly,  a  corre- 
sponding readjustment  of  focus  becomes  necessary.  These  are  matters  quite 
commonly  known.  The  author  added  an  observation  recently  made  by  him- 
self when  working  with  a  Microscope  arranged  to  give  extremely  highly 
magnified  images  and  fitted  with  an  oscillating  screen  for  increasing  the 
diameter  of  the  emergent  pencil.  Then  it  is  found  that  the  image  seen  upon 
the  oscillating  screen  shows  much  greater  crispness  of  detail  than  when  seen 
as  an  aerial  image. 

Supplementing  these  general  observations,  the  author  showed  some  photo- 
graphs in  which  negatives  obtained  in  the  theoretical  focal  plane  were  com- 
pared with  negatives  of  the  same  object  obtained  in  a  focal  plane  displaced  in 
accordance  with  the  expression  obtained  above  for  the  displacement  of  the 
effective  focal  plane.  The  results  were  striking,  but  not  conclusive,  and, 
indeed,  the  difficulty  of  determining  with  exactitude  the  wave-length  of  the 
light  which  produces  a  given  photograph  makes  experiment  upon  these  lines 
much  more  difficult  than  would  perhaps  be  expected.  The  author  submit  te,  1 
his  results  as  tentative  and  immature  in  their  present  form,  suggesting  that 
they  point  to  a  promising  field  of  further  investigation. 


An  Interference  Apparatus   for  the  Calibration  of  Extensometers. 
By  J.  Morrow,  M.Sc,  and  Professor  E.  L.   Watkin,  M.A. 

In  research  work  on  the  elasticity  of  metals,  in  which  extensometera  of 
considerable  delicacy  were  employed,  some  difficulty  was  experienced  in 
determinim?  the  constants  of  the  instruments  with  sufficient  accuracy, 
because  the  mechanical  devices  with  which  they  could  be  com] Kind  would 


566  Notes. 

be  liable  to  defects  of  the  same  kind  and  order  of  magnitude  as  those  it  was 
required  to  detect.  This  led  the  authors  to  construct  an  apparatus  based 
upon  interference  methods,  by  which  the  above  difficulty  is  done  away  with, 
as  the  measurements  of  the  displacements  are  made  directly  in  terms  of  a 
known  wave-length  of  light. 

The  interference  rings  produced  are  viewed  through  a  Microscope,  in  the 
eye-piece  of  which  are  three  cross-wires,  one  central  and  at  right  angles  to 
the  other  two. 

The  definition  and  separation  of  the  rings  are  sufficiently  good  to  enable 
one  to  estimate  Jg  of  the  distance  between  two  rings  fairly  correctly. 

Since  a  shift  of  one  ring  to  the  next,  past  any  given  point,  is  equivalent 
to  one  wave-length   alteration   in   thickness  of  the  path   which  is  being 
measured,  a  great  degree  of  accuracy  is  attained. 
A    A  full  description  of  the  instrument  and  its  mode  of  application  is  given. 


The  Paeallel  Plate  Micrometer.* 
By  J.  II.  Pvynting,  F.B.S. 

If  a  parallel  plate  of  glass  is  interposed  between  the  objective  of  a  Micro- 
scope and  the  object,  the  image  is  seen  in  its  true  direction  when  the  plate  is 
perpendicular  to  the  axis.  When  the  plate  is  tilted  the  image  is  shifted 
sidewise,  and  by  an  amount  which,  for  angles  less  than  10  degrees,  is  very 
nearly  proportional  to  the  tangent  of  the  angle  of  tilt,  and  for  such  angles 
when  a  low-power  objective  is  used,  the  definition  is  not  appreciably  im- 
paired by  the  tilt. 

To  use  the  plate  as  a  micrometer,  it  may  be  fixed  to  one  end  of  an  axis 
which  turns  in  bearings  and  is  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  Microscope. 
A  pointer  attached  to  the  revolving  axis  moves  over  a  straight  scale,  and  the 
number  of  divisions  of  the  scale  from  the  centre  is  proportional  to  the 
tangent  of  the  angle  of  tilt,  and  therefore  nearly  proportional  to  the  shift  of 
the  image.  Suppose  that  it  is  required  to  measure  the  diameter  of  a  small 
particle.  The  plate  is  tilted  so  that  one  side,  a,  of  the  particle  is  on  the 
crosswire  in  the  eyepiece,  and  the  position  of  the  pointer  on  the  scale  is  read. 
The  plate  is  then  tilted  so  that  the  other  side,  b,  of  the  particle  is  on  the 
crosswire,  and  the  position  of  the  pointer  is  again  read.  The  difference  of 
the  two  readings  gives  the  diameter  in  scale  divisions.  The  value  of  a  scale 
division  may  be  determined  by  using  as  object  a  finely  divided  scale. 

The  micrometer  may  be  entirely  detached  from  the  Microscope,  so  that  in 
manipulation  there  is  no  risk  of  disturbing  the  Microscope.  There  is  no 
backlash. 

For  powers  higher  than  1^  or  1  in.  there  is  insufficient  space  for  the  plate 
between  the  object  and  the  objective,  and  the  tilting  affects  the  definition. 
The  plate  may  then  be  interposed  in  the  tube  between  the  objective  and  the 
eyepiece,  and  in  this  position  it  is,  of  course,  much  more  sensitive,  and  the 
definition  remains  cood. 

In  a  measuring  bench  or  comparator  in  the  Physical  Laboratory  of  the 
Birmingham  University,  we  use  two  Microscopes  with  2-in.  objectives.  The 
plates  are  6  mm.  thick,  the  pointers  are  25  in.  long,  and  move  on  millimetre 
scales  with  about  100  divisions  for  a  shift  of  1  millimetre. 

The  parallel  plate  micrometer  was  described  by  Clausen  as  far  back  as 
1841. f  It  was  re-invented  by  Porro  in  1812.J  Porro  used  both  the  form 
described  above  and  a  double  image  form  for  the  Telescope.  In  the  double 
image  form  there  are  two  plates,  each  occupying  half  the  field,  placed  in 

*  Printed  in  extenso  by  permission  of  the  author. 
t  Ast.  Naoh.,  xviii.  (1841)  col.  !)5-%.  t  C.  R.,  xli.  (1S55)  p.  1058. 


Notes. 


567 


front  of  the  eyepiece.    One  is  fixed  and  the  other  can  be  tilted  about  an  axis 
perpendicular  to  the  line  of  division  of  the  plates. 

I  have  used  both  forms,  and  I  find  both  of  them  exceedingly  convenient 


/<f 


Fig.  132. 

rapid,  and  accurate.  The  parallel  plate  micrometer  is  easily  constructed, 
and  is  inexpensive.  It  merits  more  notice  and  much  more  use  than  it  lias 
yet  received  (Fig.  132). 


The  Polishing  of  Glass  Surfaces. 
By  Lord  Rayhigh,  OM.  F.B.S. 

Theoretical  treatment  of  the  question  consisted  in  the  inquiry  into  the 
difference  between  reflection  from  a  perfectly  plane  surface,  and  from  one 
which  had  corrugations.  This  difference  depended  entirely  on  the  relation- 
ship between  the  period  of  the  corrugation — i.e.  the  distance  from  ridge  to 
ridge  along  the  surface,  and  the  wave-length  of  the  vibration  that  was  being 
reflected.  The  question  in  connection  with  gratings  had  been  treated  long 
ago  by  Fraunhofer,  who  had  drawn  conclusions  as  to  the  limits  of  the  power 
of  the  Microscope,  from  the  fact  that  when  the  lines  of  a  grating  an'  closer 
together  than  a  wave-length,  the  spectra  which  would  be  formed  if  the 
grating  had  been  less  closely  ruled  were,  so  to  say,  pushed  out  of  the  field. 
With  the  slight  correction  that  Fraunhofer  had  not   treated  the  case  of 


568  Notes. 

oblique  incidence  correctly,  because  the  last  spectrum  did  not  vanish  till  the 
distance  between  the  Lines  or  corrugations  was  as  small  as  half  a  wave- 
length, his  arguments  had  been  perfectly  sound. 

When  no  diffraction  spectra  were  formed,  then  the  whole  of  the  light 
must  be  concentrated  in  the  specially  reflected  beam,  and  the  corrugations 
then  had  no  effect.  It  was,  therefore,  entirely  a  question  of  wave-length.  A 
surface  roughened  with  pebbles  might  act  as  a  perfect  reflector  for  sound- 
waves. The  author  had  himself  experimented  with  a  piece  of  ground  glass 
silvered  over  the  roughnesses,  which  acted  as  a  reflector  for  dark  heat  rays, 
and  again,  glass  might  be  polished  sufficiently  finely  to  reflect  red  rays 
fairly  well,  and  yet  act  very  imperfectly  as  regards  reflection  of  the  blue  or 
ultra-violet  rays.  Herschel  had  thought  that  grinding  and  polishing  of 
glass  was  of  the  same  nature,  that  lumps  of  glass  were  broken  out  by  the 
emery  with  which  the  glass  was  brought  into  contact  under  pressure.  His 
own  observations  led  to  a  different  conclusion — viz.  that  polishing,  as  con- 
ducted with  rouge  imbedded  in  pitch,  or  carried  on  cloth  or  paper,  was 
essentially  different  to  grinding.  When  followed  under  the  Microscope, 
easily  done  when  the  surface  is  smeared  over  with  a  little  aniline  dye,  no 
visible  pieces  of  glass  appeared  to  be  broken  away  at  all.  The  polishing 
began  upon  the  eminences  left  by  the  grinding,  little  facets  were  produced, 
and  these  grew  in  size,  but  the  polish  on  the  facets  appeared  perfect  from 
the  very  beginning.  It  appeared  to  the  author  that  the  process  was  a  mole- 
cular one,  the  upper  layer  of  molecules  being  operated  upon  by  the  polishing 
material.  Not  that  the  fact  of  not  being  able  to  observe  structure  under 
the  Microscope  was  any  proof  that  no  structure  existed  till  they  came  to  the 
molecular  limit,  but  the  impression  obtained  from  the  discontinuity  of  the 
two  processes,  led  him  to  think  the  material  was  acted  on  molecularly.  It 
was  an  important  question  which  it  would  be  useful  to  get  definitely  settled. 
The  author  observed  that  his  remarks  referred  solely  to  hard  materials,  and 
not  softer  ones  such  as  metals,  in  the  case  of  which  Mr.  Beilby,  who  had 
investigated  the  matter,  considered  that  the  polishing  did  not  consist  only 
in  removing  eminences,  but  also  in  filling  up  the  pits  with  the  material 
removed  from  the  eminences. 

After  referring  to  experiments  as  to  the  amount  of  material  removed  in 
polishing  glass,  the  author  proceeded  to  discuss  observations  he  had  made 
on  the  action  of  very  dilute  hydrofluoric  acid  on  glass  surfaces.  The  surface, 
it  was  found,  could  be  cut  away  to  any  required  small  depth — such  as  half  a 
wave-length — in  a  regular  manner.  By  etching  two  flat  surfaces  in  strips, 
and  continuing  these  crosswise,  the  depths  could  be  so  chosen  as  to  give  the 
most  brilliant  colours  of  Newton's  rings. 

The  effect  of  the  acid  on  finely  ground  glass  surfaces,  was  to  eliminate 
from  the  roughened  surface  all  the  finer  irregularities,  leaving  only  those  of 
longer  periodicity,  and  the  theoretical  reasons  for  this  were  explained. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed,  Mr.  Rosenhain  adduced  reasons  for 
believing  that  in  polishing  glass  a  surface  flow,  similar  to  that  which 
Mr.  Beilby  had  shown  to  occur  with  metals,  did  take  place.  Mr.  Horace 
Beck  likewise  evidenced  facts  pointing  to  an  actual  transference  of  glass  from 
the  eminences  of  the  surface  to  the  adjacent  pits. 


*A  Simple  Method  of  Producing  Achromatic  Interference  Bands. 
By  Julius  Rheinberg,  F.R.M.S. 

This  is  an  account  of  some  experiments  on  problems  connected  with 
microscopic  vision  which  led  to  an  unexpected  result  in  another  direction. 
If  a  grating  is  placed  on  the  object-stage  of  a  Microscope  and  illuminated  by 
a  narrow  beam  of  light,  it  diffracts  the  light,  so  that  spectra  will  be  formed 


Notes. 


569 


in  the  back  focal  plane  of  the  objective.  The  image  of  the  prating  results 
from  the  reunion  of  light  coming  from  these  spectra,  and,  according  to  the 
well-known  law  of  Abbe,  no  denned  appearance  of  structure  can  be  seen  in 
the  image,  unless  at  least  two  of  these  spectra  have  taken  part  in  its  formation 

The  aim  in  view  was  to  see  whether,  after  blocking  out  all  but  one  of  the 
spectra  diffracted  by  the  object,  it  was  possible  to  produce  precisely  similar 
spectra  in  some  other  way  to  replace  them,  and,  if  so,  what  would  happen  to 
the  image. 

An  Abbe  Demonstration  Microscope  was  used  by  the  author  for  the  in- 


vestigation. In  this  instrument  Abbe's  view  that  a  Microscope  objective  is 
equivalent  to  a  magnifying  lens  J.T  (fig.  133),  to  convert  the  divergent  rays 
from  the  object  into  parallel  pencils,  and  a  telescope  objective  T  T  to  bring 
these  parallel  pencils  to  a  focus  and  produce  the  image,  is  embodied  in  a 
practical  form. 

The  spectra  V  G  K  and  V1  G1  K1  (fig.  134),  diffracted  by  the  object,  were 
blocked  out  by  means  of  the  diaphragm  D  D,'  so  that  only  the  central  beam  (or 
zero  spectrum)  was  transmitted,  and  in  order  to  imitate  these  spectra  the 
device  was  hit  upon  to  pass  the  beam  through  two  diffraction  gratings  of  the 
same  pitch.  Thorp  gratings  of  about  14,500  lines  per  inch  were  used,  and 
are  shown  at  F  Fl  and  H  H'  (fig.  134). 

To  consider  the  action  of  passing  parallel  light  through  two  gratings  of 


570 


Notes. 


the  same  pitch,  let  the  ray  A  B  (fig.  135)  impinge  on  the  grating  G1,  and  let 
B  C  be  the  dioptric  or  normally  diffracted  ray,  and  B  D  one  of  the  diffracted 
rays  of  the  first  order  to  which  the  grating  gives  rise.  When  the  ray  BC 
meets  the  second  grating,  it  again  splits  up  into  several  proportions,  one  of 
them  (C  E)  proceeding  in  the  original  direction.  When  B  I)  meets  the  second 
grating  G-  this  also  is  split  up,  the  dioptric  portion  continuing  in  the  direc- 
tion D  H,  and  the  first  diffracted  rays  proceeding  in  the  direction  D  K  and 
D  K1.  But  as  the  grating  is  of  the  same  pitch  as  the  other  one,  the  angle 
between  D  H  and  D  K  must  be  the  same  as  the  angle  between  B  C  and  B  D,  so 
that  DK  is  parallel  to  A B  or  C  E;  that  is  to  say,  part  of  the  incident  Light 
which  was  diffracted  off  a  particular  angle  by  the  first  grating  has  been  again 
rendered  parallel  to  the  incident  ray,  and  consequently  also  parallel  to  the 
transmitted  dioptric  ray  which  has  not  had  its  direction  changed. 


Fig.  136. 


Fig.  137. 


And  as  this  reasoning  applies  equally  for  rays  of  all  colours  and  for 
diffracted  rays  of  any  order,  it  is  clear  that  they  all  issue  parallel  to  one 
another,  the  only  difference  being  in  their  distance  from  the  central  or  dioptric 
ray.  This  distance  from  the  central  ray  for  diffracted  rays  of  different  colours 
is,  as  will  be  seen,  strictly  proportional  to  their  wave-length,  and  the  peculiarly 
interesting  feature  presents  itself  that  this  proportionality  is  independent 
of  the  distance  separating  the  two  gratings ;  for.  as  may  be  seen  in  figs.  136 
and  137  (in  which  the  violet  rays  V  are  represented  by  ordinary  and  the 
red  rays  B  by  dotted  lines),  the  ratio  of  C  V  to  C  B  does  not  depend  on  the 


Notes.  571 

position  of  the  second  grating,  but  solely  on  the  angles  C  B  V  and  C  B  R.    Means 
are  therefore  at  hand — 

1.  To  obtain  parallel  rays  of  light  of  different  colours,  spaced  in  accordance 
with  their  wave-length,  precisely  as  occurs  in  the  back  focal  plane  of  the 
objective  proper,  in  the  Demonstration  Microscope,  where  the  diffraction  is 
caused  by  the  object-grating  itself. 

2.  To  vary  the  width  between  the  central  ray  and  the  diffracted  ray  of 
any  order,  without  disturbing  the  parallelism  of  any  of  the  rays,  so  that  this 
width  can  be  made  the  same  as  if  the  rays  had  been  diffracted  by  the  object. 

That  the  dioptric  and  diffracted  rays  of  any  one  colour  will  be  capable  of 
interference  in  the  one  case,  just  as  in  the  other,  is  obvious,  for  in  both  cases 
they  have  been  derived  from  the  same  source. 

But  two  points  of  difference  should  be  noticed — 

1.  In  the  case  of  the  Microscope  the  relative  intensity  of  the  dioptric  and 
the  diffracted  beams  in  the  back  focal  plane  of  the  Microscope  depends  upon 
the  pitch  of  the  o&/ec£-grating. 

In  the  method  under  consideration  not  only  do  the  relative  intensities  of 
the  dioptric  and  diffracted  beams  depend  upon  the  pitch  of  the  particular 
gratings  used,  but  they  vary  in  quite  a  different  ratio.  For,  suppose  for  a 
moment  that  the  violet  ray  impinging  on  the  first  grating  has  an  intensity 
100,  and  that  the  relative  intensity  of  the  dioptric  and  diffracted  ray  of  the 
first  order  is  as  50  to  20  when  it  has  passed  the  first  grating,  then,  when  the 
rays  pass  the  second  grating,  the  components  of  the  same,  parallel  to  the  in- 
cident ray  have  a  relative  intensity  of  25  to  4.  This  is  seen  on  reference  to 
fig.  137,  in  which  the  intensities  of  the  rays  are  written  alongside.  It  is 
evident  that  the  parallel  components  emerging  from  the  second  lens  arc 
diminished  in  intensity,  according  to  the  square  of  the  rate  at  which  they 
are  diminished  on  emergence  from  the  first  grating. 

2.  In  the  Microscope  the  diffracted  and  the  dioptric  rays  from  an  object 
point  on  the  axis  of  the  instrument  arrive  in  the  back  focal  plane  in  the 
same  phase,  because  the  optical  path-length  is  the  same.  In  the  double- 
grating  method  the  phase  differs  according  to  the  difference  in  the  path- 
length  between  B  C  and  B  V  (fig.  136),  which  varies  according  to  the  distance 
between  the  gratings. 

These  two  points  of  difference  are  got  rid  of  by  utilising  in  both  instances 
only  the  two  diffraction  bands  of  the  first  order,  i.e.  the  one  on  the  left  and 
the  one  on  the  right  of  the  central  beam.  The  central  beam  itself  is  blocked 
out  by  means  of  a  stop  placed  between  H  H1  and  T  T  (not  shown  in  fig.  134). 

The  result  of  the  experiment  *  was  that  a  grating  structure  with  perfectly 
sharp  black  and  white  lines  was  seen  exactly  as  if  it  had  proceeded  from  the 
object  grating  in  the  ordinary  way,  so  that  it  seemed  at  first  as  though  Abbe's 
laws  referred  to  above  had  been  circumvented.  But  the  idea  was  easily 
dispelled,  as  the  appearance  of  structure  remained  just  as  before,  on  rotating 
the  object-grating  on  the  stage,  and  it  was  then  found  that  it  remained  when 
the  object-grating  was  removed  altogether. 

So  far  as  the  Microscope  image  was  concerned,  these  experiments  had  a 
negative  result:  they  had  merely  been  an  object-lesson  as  to  the  correct- 
ness of  Abbe's  laws  as  to  resolving  power  and  the  nature  of  the  image, 
inasmuch  as  they  showed  what  difficulties  beset  the  path  of  an  attempt  at 
evading  them,  even  in  so  artificial  a  manner  as  the  one  described.  Tin  \  had 
led,  however,  to  a  simple  way  of  producing  achromatic  interference  hands 
which  might  be  termed  the  "double  grating  method,"  and  which  the  author 
was  hopeful  might  be  found  of  practical  utility  in  other  directions,  in  view 
of  the  convenience  of  being  able  to  use  white  instead  of  homogeneous  light 
and  of  the  facility  with  which  the  spacing  of  the  bands  could  be  varied. 

*  Dftailed  particulars  are  given  in  the  paper  of  the  apparatus,  the  method  of 
performing  the  experiment,  and  the  precautions  necessary  to  avoid  failure. 


.572  Notes. 


Possible  Directions  of  Progress  in  Optical  Glass. 
By  Walter  Bosenhain,  B.A.  B.C.E. 

The  author  thinks  there  ought  to  be  no  slackening  in  the  demand  for 
further  advance  in  optical  glass.  The  progress  due  to  Schott  and  Abbe  did 
not  in  all  probability  exhaust  the  possibility  of  further  useful  optical 
material,  and  a  wide  extension  of  the  available  range  would  be  likely  to  lead 
to  great  advances  in  optical  systems. 

The  optical  constants,  such  as  the  refractive  index,  of  the  glasses  at  the 
opticians'  disposal  at  present  were  confined  within  distinctly  narrow  limits, 
and  there  was  probably  some  physical  fact  to  account  for  this. 

Eeasons  are  given  for  supposing  that  all  fluids  may  be  made  to  solidify  in 
a  vitreous  amorphous  state  or  in  a  crystalline  state,  according  to  the  way  in 
which  the  solidification   is  allowed  to  take  place — theoretically  it   was  a 
question  of  the  rate  of  cooling  and  of  the  absolute  pressure.     With  glasses 
having  extreme  optical    properties,  it  was    found   that  the  tendency  to 
crystallisation  increased,  and  the  methods  are  discussed   by  which  this 
tendency  may  up  to  a  certain  point  be  overcome.     But  a  definite  limit  is 
soon  reached  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  fulfilling  in  practice  the  theoretical 
conditions.     Another  limit  was  imposed  by  the  fact  that  glasses  of  extreme 
optical  properties  were  also  of  the  nature  of  active  chemical  agents,  both  in 
the  fused  and  in  the  ordinary  solid  condition — in  fact,  a  large  number  of 
glasses  having  most  desirable  properties  had  to  be  eliminated  from  this 
cause.     Owing  to  these  considerations,  the  author  draws  the  conclusion  that 
any  considerable  extension  of  the  range  of  available  optical  glasses  is  not 
likely  to  be  made  on  lines  at  all  analogous  to  those  pursued  in  the  production 
of  glasses,  but  that  the  most  promising  direction  of  progress  was  to  be  found 
by  accepting  the  limitations  discussed,  and  in  fact  taking  the  line  of  advance 
indicated  by  the  most  serious  of  those  limitations,  viz.,  the  tendency  to 
crystallisation.     The  object,  then,  to  be  aimed  at  was  the  production  of 
crystals  of  composition  and  properties  suitable  for  optical  uses.     The  task, 
though  exceedingly  difficult,  should  not  be  more  so  than  was  the  problem 
of  producing  homogeneous  optical  glass  in   large  masses  to  the  men  who 
attacked  that  problem  a  century  ago.     The  optical  behaviour  of  the  same 
substance  in  the  vitreous  and  crystalline  condition  always  differed  greatly. 
The  fact  was  known  in  the  case  of  silica,  and  had  been  found  in  a  marked 
degree  in  experimental  glasses  produced  by  the  author,  having  a  chemical 
composition  identical  with  that  of  certain  minerals.     For  that  reason  the 
author  emphasises  that  he  does  not  advocate  attempting  to  get  suitable 
crystals  by  the  "devitrification"  of  extreme  optical  glasses,  nor  of  novel 
glasses  by  imitating  the  composition  of  minerals  with  promising  optical 
properties.     What  was  necessary  was  to  proceed  by  studying  the  conditions 
to  be  fulfilled  by  a  crystalline  material  for  optical  purposes.     The  need  for 
transparency  and  exclusion  of  all  colouring  oxides  ruled  out  the  great 
majority  of  natural  minerals.     Transparency  likewise  necessitated  that  the 
crystals  should  be  of  sufficient  size,  as  crystalline  aggregates  were  useless. 
Double    refraction  was    objectionable,   therefore    they  were    restricted   to 
materials  which  crystallise  in  the  regular  system.    To  investigate  the  optical 
properties  of  these,  a  beginning  might  be  made  by  a  detailed  study  of  the 
optical  properties  of  natural  minerals.     From  a  table  given,  which  shows 
some  of  the  optical  properties  and  chemical  composition  of  natural  minerals, 
taken    from    Bosenbusch's  "  Hiilfstabellen  zur  mikroskopischen    Mineral- 
bestimmung  in  Gesteinen,"  it  would    be  seen  that  a  very  considerable 
extension  of  optical  properties  would  be  made  available  by  artificial  pro- 
duction of  similar  materials  in  a  suitable  form.     Suggestions  are  then  made, 
how  intermediate  forms,  extreme  forms,  and  colourless  analogues  of  the 


Notes.  573 

coloured  minerals,  might  possibly  be  produced.  The  formation  of  large 
crystals  is  then  discussed  in  connection  with  the  work  of  Tammann,  an  I 
finally,  the  production  of  large  crystals  from  aqueous  solutions,  the  formation 
of  crystalline  substances  insoluble  in  the  liquid  present,  by  gradual  chemical 
action  between  dissolved  bodies,  and  the  formation  of  crystalline  bodies  by 
deposition  from  the  gaseous  state,  are  touched  upon.  In  the  study  of  the 
nature  and  mode  of  production  of  large  mineral  crystals  might  well  lie  the 
key  to  further  progress  in  optical  materials. 


The  Mechanical  Design  of  Instruments. 
By  Walter  Eosenhain,  B.A.  B.C.E. 

This  paper  is  a  plea  for  the  contention  that  in  a  scientific  instrument 
appearance  should  be  altogether  sacrificed  to  utility.  A  well-made  and  well- 
designed  machine  tool  was  the  ideal  prototype  of  a  scientific  instrument. 
There  was  frequently  a  tendency  to  carry  refinements  requisite  in  special 
cases  into  general  use,  which  often  resulted  in  a  loss  of  mechanical  strength 
and  rigidity. 

The  Microscope  comes  in  for  a  full  share  of  criticism. 


A  Simple  Pattern  of  Miohelson  Interferometer. 
By  Herbert  Stans field,  B.Sc. 

Working  instructions  are  given  for  making  in  a  simple  and  comparatively 
inexpensive  way  an  interferometer,  with  which  many  educational  experiments 
can  be  carried  out.  A  special  feature  of  the  instrument  is  the  mounting  of 
the  various  parts  on  geometric  bearings. 


Oct.  18th,  1905  2  Q 


SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING    TO 

ZOOLOGY       AND       BOTANY 

(principally  invertebrata  and  cryptogamia), 

MICROSCOPY,  Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 


a.  Embryology,  t 

Number  of  Chromosomes. J — Th.  Boveri  finds  that  in  Echinoids  an 
abnormal  number — plus  or  minus — of  chromosomes  in  an  ovum  or  in  a 
blastomere  persists,  unless  further  abnormality  sets  in,  unchanged  from 
one  cell-generation  to  another,  on  to  the  gastrula  stage,  and  probably 
further.  There  is  no  regulation  restoring  the  normal  number.  What 
was  shown  to  obtain  in  Ascaris  holds  good  for  Echinoids. 

In  such  cases  the  chromosomes,  abnormal  as  to  their  number,  have 
their  typical  volume,  and  the  size  of  the  nucleus  is  directly  proportionate 
to  the  number  of  chromosomes.  The  size  of  the  larval  cells  is  a  func- 
tion of  the  amount  of  chromatin,  and  the  cell  volume  is  directly  propor- 
tionate to  the  number  of  chromosomes.  The  number  of  larval  cells  is 
inversely  proportionate  to  the  amount  of  chromatin  or  the  number  of 
chromosomes.  The  proportion  of  the  total  protoplasm  of  a  larva  to  the 
total  mass  of  chromatin  is  constant.  Given  equal  amounts  of  chromatin, 
the  number  of  larval  cells  is  proportionate  to  the  protoplasm-mass  of  the 
egg.  By  regulating  the  number  of  cell-divisions,  the  organism  regulates 
the  proportion  of  chromatin  to  protoplasm.  Within  limits  the  normality 
of  development  is  independent  of  the  number  of  chromosomes.  But  it 
is  not  merely  the  quantitative  mass  of  chromosomes  which  has  to  be 
considered  ;  there  must  be  a  representation  of  the  different  kinds  of 
chromosomes,  if  there  is  to  be  normal  development. 

Experiments  on  Cytoplasm  of  Amphibian  Ovum.§ — A.  Gurwitsch 
has  shown  the  power  that  the  cytoplasm  has  of  reconstituting  itself  after 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of  this  part  of 
the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  to 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are  either  new  or  have 
not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  Section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so  called, 
but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and  allied  subjects. 

X  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  445-524  (2  pis.  and  7  figs.). 

§  Verh.  Anat.  Ges.,  1904;  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.,  Erganzungsheft,  pp.  146-52 
<6  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  575 

disturbance  and  injury.  After  rotation  the  centrifugal  effects  are  seen  in 
a  regular  layered  disposition  of  enchylema,  thick  amorphous  plasma,  and 
yolk-plates.  The  cytoplasm  must  therefore  be  more  or  less  fluid.  If 
there  were  a  reticular  meshwork  between  the  yolk-plates  there  would  be 
traces  of  its  disruption,  but  there  are  none.  After  the  cytoplasm  has 
been  resolved  by  centrifugal  movement  into  its  components,  there  is  a 
new  organisation  to  a  state  like  that  of  a  yolk-free  germinal  disc,  finely 
alveolar  in  Butschli's  sense.  This  structure  cannot  be  the  essentially 
vital  one — the  indispensable  physical  architecture — for  the  experiments 
show  that  it  is  the  result  of  a  still  finer  ultra-microscopic  organisation. 

Formation  of  Centrosomes  in  Enucleated  Egg-Fragments.* — 
Naohide  Yatsu  has  experimented  with  the  eggs  of  the  Nemertean, 
■Cerebratulus  lacteus.  When  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  solution  of 
CaCl2,  enucleated  fragments  of  unfertilised  eggs,  obtained  by  cutting 
the  eggs  singly  at  the  metaphase  of  the  first  maturation  mitosis, 
develop  true  asters  containing  central  bodies.  The  corresponding 
nucleated  fragments  show  the  typical  maturation  spindle.  Cytasters  (i.e. 
asters  unconnected  with  nuclear  matter)  do  not,  however,  appear  in 
enucleated  fragments  from  unfertilised  eggs  before  the  fading  of  the 
germinal  vesicle.  The  central  bodies  of  the  cytasters  developed  in 
enucleated  fragments  are  centrioles  identical  in  structure  with  those  in 
the  nuclear  asters  of  whole  eggs  similarly  treated.  Centrioles,  therefore, 
can  be  produced  de  novo  in  the  matured  cytoplasm,  i.e.  after  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  germinal  vesicle. 


^v 


Ovum  of  Lamprey.f — W.  Lubosch  has  made  a  detailed  study  of  the 
ovum  of  Petromyzon  planer i,  with  especial  reference  to  the  formation  of 
yolk,  the  egg-envelopes  (vitelline  membrane  or  oolemma  and  zona 
pellucida  or  radiata),  the  follicular  epithelium  and  its  metamorphosis, 
the  theca  folliculi,  the  germinal  vesicle,  and  its  changes.  His  observa- 
tions on  the  role  the  follicular  epithelium  plays  in  yolk-formation  and 
its  final  disappearance  by  a  sort  of  inflammation  are  of  great  interest. 
In  regard  to  the  maturation,  it  is  noted  that  it  differs  markedly  from  that 
in  Amphibians,  Selachians,  and  Teleosts.  It  is  more  like  that  of  many 
invertebrates.  The  directive  chromosomes  arise  from  a  large  unified 
nucleolus. 

Passage  of  the  Mammalian  Ovum  into  the  Fallopian  Tube.  %  — 
Ulrich  Gerhardt  discusses  numerous  concrete  cases,  and  points  out  that 
there  are  several  different  ways  in  which  the  passage  of  the  ovum  into 
the  tube  is  secured.  The  simplest  is  an  enlargement  of  the  receptive 
surface,  the  infundibulum  tubae,  in  proportion  to  the  ovary.  This  is 
seen  in  Monotremes,  Marsupials,  and  Cetaceans.  The  second  and  most 
frequent  arrangement  is  that  a  portion  of  the  peritoneum  of  the  tube  is 
utilised  as  a  common  envelope  for  infundibulum  and  ovary,  forming  a 
bursa  ovarii,  as  in  Insectivora,  Chiroptera,  Artiodactvla,  Rodents,  and 
Carnivora.  A  third  method  seems  to  be  confined  to  the  horse,  and 
depends  on  a  reduction  of  the  ovulating  surface  in  proportion  to  the  in- 

•  Journ.  Exp.  Zool„  ii.  (1905)  pp.  287-312  (8  figs.).  ■ 

t  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  673-724  (1  pi.,  4  figs.). 
JIOp.  cit.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  649-712  (33  fige.). 

2   Q   2 


576  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

fundibulum,  to  which  the  germinal  surface  is  at  the  same  time  approxi- 
mated. In  Bradytheria,  Manitheria,  platyrrhine  monkeys,  anthropoid 
;ipes,  and  man,  none  of  these  three  methods  can  be  said  to  be  followed. 
Here  a  number  of  factors  co-operate,  but  in  what  precise  way  we  do  not 
yet  know — the  erectility  of  the  fimbriae,  their  active  muscular  move- 
ment, the  ciliary  currents  of  the  tube  epithelium,  and  the  configuration 
of  the  vicinity  of  the  ovary. 

Vitellogenous  Layer  and  Mitochondria  in  Ova  of  Mammals.* — 
0.  van  der  Stricht  finds  that  the  vitellogenous  layer  seen  in  the  ova  of 
guinea-pig,  bat,  man,  etc.,  includes  an  aggregate  of  mitochondria,  chon- 
dromites,  and  even  pseudo-chromosomes,  which  are  morphologically 
comparable  to  the  mitochondrial  body  described  by  Meves  in  spermatids. 

Spermatozoa  of  Invertebrates.! — &.  Retzius  points  out  that  we 
know  only  a  few  of  the  invertebrate  types  of  spermatozoa.  Among 
Lamellibranchs,  for  instance,  those  of  Anodonta  have  been  carefully 
studied,  but  how  many  more  ?  He  has  undertaken  a  study  of  the  sper- 
matozoa of  Polychasts  and  Lamellibranchs.  In  the  former  he  found 
two  smooth  refractive  spheres  on  each  side  of  the  insertion  of  the  tail. 
In  bivalves  and  in  the  limpet  he  found  the  same  bodies,  4-10  in  number, 
regularly  arranged  round  the  root  of  the  tail.  These  probably  correspond 
to  the  "  Nebenkern  "  of  v.  la  Valette  St.  George,  and  probably  contain 
the  mitochondrial  bodies  of  Benda.  During  development  the  head  is 
surrounded  by  a  plasmic  envelope  with  numerous  granules,  and  these 
collect  into  the  sharply  defined  regularly  arranged  "accessory  nuclei," 
whose  function  in  the  fertilisation  process  must  be  investigated. 

Phagocytic  Absorption  of  Spermatozoa.^ — Ch.  Perez  describes  in 
captive  male  newts,  kept  apart  from  females,  after  the  sexual  period,  a 
process  of  phagocytic  absorption  in  the  testes  which  is  closely  similar  to 
the  absorption  of  ova  in  the  females. 

Transplantation  of  Primordial — H.  Braus  has  made  some  striking 
experiments  by  transplanting  the  primordium  of  a  limb  from  one 
Bombinator  larva  to  another,  and  watching  the  development  of  the 
graft.  He  finds  in  this  a  method  of  discovering  what  powers  of  organi- 
sation are  resident  in  the  ingrafted  primordium.  Thus  he  finds  that 
blood  and  blood  channels  develop  autogenously  in  the  ingraft,  though 
the  circulation  has  to  wait  of  course  for  connection  with  the  blood 
vessels  of  the  main  embryo.  There  is  also  self-differentiation  of  the 
skeleton,  without  dependence  on  the  metamerism  of  the  muscular  sys- 
tem. The  independent  development  of  muscles  and  nerves  was  also 
followed.  The  author  points  out  that  there  is  in  this  kind  of  experi- 
ment much  opportunity  of  testing  morphological  conclusions.  It  is, 
in  fact,  "  experimental  morphology." 

Development  of  Vascular  and  Respiratory  Systems  of  Ceratodus.|| 
W.  E.  Kellicott  has  produced  a  stately  memoir  on  this  subject.    His 

*  Verh.  Anat.  Ges.,  1904  ;  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  Erganzungsheft,  pp.  138-46. 

+  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  154-6. 

\  P.V.  Soc.  Sci.  Bordeaux  (1904)  pp.  51-2. 

§  Verh.  Anat.  Ges.,  1904  ;  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.,  Erganzungsheft,  pp.  53-66. 

||  Mem.  New  York  Acad.  Sci.,  ii.  Part  4  (1905)  pp.  135-249  (5  pis.  and  106  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  577 

immediate  aim  was  to  test  embryologically  the  evidence,  based  upon 
anatomical  considerations,  for  certain  supposedly  Elasmobranch  and 
Amphibian  characters  seen  in  the  adult  vascular  system  of  Cera  I  ml  us. 
The  embryological  evidence  has  necessitated  continual  subtraction  from 
the  list  of  real  Elasmobranch  resemblances,  and  continual  addition  to 
the  list  of  Amphibian  characters.  The  author  gives  a  useful  summary 
of  the  Amphibian  resemblances,  of  the  characters  more  or  less  inter- 
mediate between  Elasmobranch  and  Amphibian  arrangements,  and  of 
the  characters  peculiar  to  Ceratodus,  and  he  concludes  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  believe  that  the  Amphibian  resemblances  seen  in  Ceratodus 
in  the  development  of  the  vascular,  respiratory,  and  urinogenital  systems, 
as  well  as  throughout  the  early  processes  of  development,  are  of  the 
nature  of  parallelisms.  In  the  light  of  their  embryology,  it  is  im- 
possible to  believe  that  the  Dipnoi  and  the  Amphibians  are  not  closely 
related,  and  that  they  have  not  travelled  for  a  time  along  the  same 
path  at  some  period  during  their  history. 

Development  of  Olfactory  Organ  of  Lamprey.*  —  W.  Lubosch 
gives  a  full  account  of  the  development  and  structure  of  the  larval 
olfactory  organ  in  Petromyzon  planeri,  and  follows  its  metamorphosis 
and  the  development  of  the  rudimentary  olfactory  sacs.  He  shows 
that  the  so-called  "  septum  "  is  foreign  to  the  primitive  anlage  of  the 
olfactory  organ,  being  really  a  region  of  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  nasal 
passage  which  is  imported  into  the  complex  of  the  olfactory  organ 
proper.  The  formation  of  the  so-called  "  folds  "  is  due  to  the  forma- 
tion of  new  olfactory  sacs.  It  is  probable  that  the  so-called  "  glands  " 
appended  to  the  olfactory  sacs  are  degenerate  portions  of  the  olfactory 
organ,  perhaps  hints  of  an  ancestral  distal  extension.  The  author 
maintains  after  full  discussion  that  a  paired  element  is  pre-formed  in  the 
unpaired  olfactory  plakode,  and  that  the  larvae  pass  through  a  "  protam- 
phirrhinal "  and  a  "  mesamphirrhinal "  stage  until  a  "  metamphirrbinal  " 
condition  is  attained.  He  also  contends  that  the  olfactory  mucous 
membrane  of  the  lamprey  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  sum  of  different 
plakodes,  each  representing  an  ancestral  sensory  organ. 

Closure  of  Nasal  Apertures  in  Human  Embryo.f — G.  Retzius  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  between  the  3rd  and  5th  month  the  external 
nares  of  the  human  foetus  are  closed  by  a  coherent  epithelial  tissue 
which  projects  from  the  openings.  K.  Peter  notes  that  in  reptiles  and 
birds  the  epithelial  walls  simply  fuse  together,  while  in  mammals  there 
is  proliferation.  Other  openings — e.g.  eye,  urethra,  rectum— may  be 
■closed,  as  if  the  delicate  epithelium  required  to  be  preserved  from  sur- 
rounding fluids. 

Sixth  Branchial  Pouches  in  Amphibians.t  —  A.  Greil  finds  that 
there  is  a  transitory  sixth  pair  of  branchial  pouches  both  in  Urodela 
and  Anura,  and  that  it  has  no  relation  to  the  thymus.  From  the 
ventral  median  portion  there  rises  an  epithelial  bud,  first  solid  and 
afterwards  with   a   lumen,  which    becomes  the  "post-branchial'1   and 

*  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  f.  Wiss.,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  95-148  (2  pis.  and  14  Bg8.). 
t  Verh.  Anat.  Ges.,  1904 ;  Anat.  Anzeig..  xxv..  Krganzuugslieft,  pp.  43-4. 
J  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  136-7  (1  fig). 


578  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

"  supra-pericarclial "  bodies.  The  post-branchial  bodies  of  amphibians 
are  directly  homologous  with  those  of  reptiles,  but  only  serially  homo- 
logous with  those  of  birds  and  mammals. 

b.  Histology. 

Chromidial  Apparatus  of  Actively  Functioning-  Cells.* — R.  Gold- 
schmidt  comes  to  the  following  conclusions  :  (1)  Every  animal  cell  is 
essentially  bi-nucleate  ;  it  contains  a  somatic  and  a  propagative  nucleus. 
The  first  has  to  do  with  somatic  functions,  metabolism  and  movement,, 
and  may  be  called  the  metabolic  or  kinetic  nucleus.  The  other  contains 
especially  the  hereditary  substances,  and  has  the  power  of  producing 
another  metabolic  nucleus.  (2)  The  two  kinds  of  nucleus  are  usually 
combined  in  an  amphinucleus.  The  separation  occurs  in  varied  degrees. 
A  complete  separation  of  the  two  is  rare  ;  most  frequently  there  is  a 
separation  into  a  nucleus  predominantly  propagative,  but  still  mixed,  the 
cell-nucleus  in  the  ordinary  sense,  and  the  main  mass  of  the  somatic 
nucleus,  to  wit,  the  chromidial  apparatus.  (3)  Complete  separation  of 
the  two  nuclei  is  seen  in  some  Protozoa,  and  during  the  oogenesis  and 
spermatogenesis  of  Metazoa.  (4)  In  tissue-cells  the  separation  may  not 
be  noticeable,  as  in  most  cells  which  are  not  functioning  actively,  as 
also  in  mature  egg-cells.  But  two  kinds  of  chromatin,  idio-chromatin 
and  tropho-chromatin,  may  be  detected.  In  other  cases  the  elements  of 
the  somatic  nucleus  form  a  chromidial  apparatus  in  the  plasma  (cyto- 
microsomes,  mitochondria,  chondromites,  accessory  nucleus,  etc.,  etc.). 
(5)  Cells  with  only  a  propagative  nucleus  (e.g.  gametes  of  Protozoa), 
or  with  only  a  somatic  nucleus  (e.g.  residual  body  of  Gregarines,  some 
muscle  cells),  may  also  occur. 

Ergastoplasm  and  Mitochondria.! — P.  Bouin  has  based  a  number 
of  general  conclusions  on  a  study  of  the  seminal  cells  in  Scoloj)endra 
cingidata.  He  maintains  that  the  cytoplasmic  differentiations  described 
in  the  male  and  female  sex-cells  of  various  organisms,  under  the  names 
pseudo-chromosomes,  central  capsules,  spicules,  chrondriomites,  mito- 
chondria, and  ergastoplasmic  filaments,  are  homologous  formations.  To 
these,  too,  are  related  the  "  batonnets  "  of  the  accessory  nucleus,  the 
archoplasmic  and  archiplasmic  loops,  and  the  kinoplasmic  filaments. 

Intra-Epithelial  Glands.; — M.  Nussbaum  directs  attention  to 
Citelli's§  description  of  intra-epithelial  glands.  But  these  were  first 
described  by  Nussbaum  (1883)  in  the  gullet  of  the  slow-worm. 

G.  Seiffert  ||  has,  at  Nussbaum's  request,  studied  the  glands  in  the 
ureter  of  the  horse.  There  are  no  unbranched  simple  glands  in  the 
epithelium,  such  as  Hamburger  IT  reported.  The  glands  in  the  upper 
third  of  the  ureter  are  branched  tubular  glands. 

Secretory  Function  of  Nucleus  of  Hepatic  Cells.** — T.  Browicz 
brings  forward  additional  evidence  in  support  of  his  previously  stated 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  41-140  (6  pis.  and  16  figs.). 

t  Arch.  Zool.  Exp.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  99-132  (2  pis.). 

\  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  121-2. 

§  Op.  cit.,  xxvi.  (1905)  p.  480.  ||  Op.  cit,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  122-5  (3  figs.). 

1  Arch.  f.  Mikr.  Aiiat,  1880,  No.  17. 

•*  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1905,  No.  3.  pp.  250-3  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY.    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  579 

conclusion  that  the  nucleus  has  an  active  role  in  the  process  of  secre- 
tion. Thus  he  emphasises  the  fact  that  vilirubin  appears  in  the  form  of 
crystals  in  the  nuclear  parenchyma. 

Nervous  System  of  Anodonta,  Distaplia,  and  Synapta.*  —  A. 
Bochenek,  using  Apathy's  gold  method,  has  made  a  histological  study 
of  the  nerve-cells  and  glia-cells  in  these  animals,  with  especial  reference 
to  the  neuro-fibrils. 

Study  of  Pierasfer.f — L.  Bykowski  and  J.  Nusbaum  continue  their 
study  of  this  interesting  fish,  describing  the  minute  structure  of  the  skin 
and  integumentary  sense-organs,  and  also  the  vexillum  and  caudal  ap- 
pendage (of  the  larval  forms)  which  undergo  a  peculiar  degeneration 
and  disappear. 

c  General. 

Intra-Organismal  Selection.}: — Cecil  B.  Crampton  seeks  to  apply, 
as  Rous  and  others  have  done,  the  selection-idea  to  intra-organismal 
conditions,  to  the  inter-relations  of  cells  and  parts  of  cells.  "  If  we 
have  two  sets  of  qualities  derived  from  the  two  parents,  and  if,  as 
modern  research  indicates,  these  qualities  are  apposed  in  sexual  trans- 
mission, there  is  a  possible  mechanism  by  which  only  those  properties  in 
the  germ-cell  shall  be  transmitted,  which  are  the  couples  of  those  pro- 
perties in  the  body  which  have  been  successful  in  adaptation  to  their 
surroundings.  These  latter  must,  in  the  dual  personality,  either  destroy 
or  render  latent  the  corresponding  properties  derived  from  the  other 
parental  gamete.  It  might  be  that  the  one  is  rendered  latent,  and  the 
other  dominates  the  metabolism  of  the  cell,  and  as  to  which  becomes 
dominant  would  depend  largely  on  the  external  environment  in  the 
delicate  adjustment  of  the  organism  to  the  surroundings.  ...  It  may  be 
that  there  is  perpetual  struggle  for  dominance  in  the  metabolism  of  the 
cell ;  that  the  environment  throws  the  balance  of  the  dominance  to  one 
side  or  the  other  ;  that  products  of  the  dominant  activity  in  the  form  of 
enzymes  or  the  like  render  the  other  half  latent  and  gradually  suppress 
it ;  that  such  emanations  may  react  upon  the  germ-cells ;  and  that  heredity 
would  follow  slowly  upon  change  in  the  individual  under  changed  con- 
ditions of  life."  The  hypothesis  advanced  in  this  paper  is  but  ;i 
carrying  of  natural  selection  into  the  tissue-cells  as  individuals,  which 
work  in  a  kind  of  symbiosis  in  their  complex  relations  to  one  another. 

Comparative  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Eye.§ — Kalt  is  the 
author  of  an  encyclopaedic  account  of  the  comparative  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  the  optic  apparatus  both  in  Invertebrates  and  in  Verte- 
brates. 

Origin  of  Lungs.|| — A.  Goette  returns  to  the  question  of  the  homo- 
logy between  lungs  and  swim-bladder,  and  adheres  to  the  view  which 

*  Bull.  Internat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1905,  pp.  205-20  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.), 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  169-98  (15  figs.). 

j  Proo.  E.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinbuigh,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  62-75. 

§  Encyclopedie  frai^aise  d'Ophtalmologie,  Paris,  1905.  See  Joura.  de  l'Auat. 
Physiol.,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  441-3. 

H  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  141-60  (6  figs.). 


580  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

he  advanced  in  1875  that  the  lungs  of  Amphibians  are  derivatives  of  the 
posterior  branchial  pouches. 

In  the  Ammocoete  there  is  a  progressive  degeneration  of  the  posterior 
branchial  pouches;  they  become  small  gill-less  caeca  of  the  gut,  and  some- 
times entirely  disappear,  leaving  the  sixth  pair  exceedingly  like  the 
rudiments  of  the  lungs  in  Amphibians.  In  recent  Euichthyes  no  such 
form  of  degeneration  is  seen,  for  the  branchial  pouches  from  the  second 
onwards  are  simple  clefts  whose  only  change  is  that  they  close  and  dis- 
appear. But  in  the  larvae  of  anurous  Amphibians  distinct  branchial 
pouches  re-appear,  and  just  behind  the  last  pair  lie  the  primordia  of  the 
lungs,  which  look  exactly  like  the  rudimentary  posterior  branchial 
pouches  of  the  lamprey.  By  these  and  other  arguments  Goette  supports 
his  conclusion  that  the  first  true  lungs  appeared  in  the  Enterobranchia, 
and  directly  from  modified  branchial  pouches. 

Hyperdactylism.* — E.  Ballowitz  points  out  that  there  are  two  rival 
interpretations  of  the  occurrence  of  supernumerary  digits.  Thus  Darwin 
interpreted  it  as  atavistic,  as  a  reversion  to  an  unknown  polydactylous 
ancestor,  while  others  have  interpreted  it  as  teratological,  due  to  a 
splitting  of  the  normally  single  primordium  of  a  finger  or  toe,  the 
splitting  being  traced  to  irregularities  in  the  amnion.  The  amnion 
may  be  too  small,  it  may  show  thickenings  or  fusions,  folds  and  strands. 
Ahlfeld  found  an  amniotic  thread  on  the  splitting  region  of  a  double 
thumb.  Ballowitz  has  studied  the  musculature  and  skeletal  parts  of  four 
fine  cases  of  hyperdactylism  in  man,  and  his  conclusion  is  that  the  state 
of  the  muscles,  tendons,  and  bones  supports  the  splitting  theory,  and  is 
wholly  against  the  atavistic  theory. 

Evolution  of  Mammals.f — Marcellin  Boule  replies  to  M.  Deperet's 
recent  attack  on  palseontological  methods.  He  says  that  the .  critic  has 
misrepresented  the  facts,  e.g.  in  supposing  that  palaeontologists  now 
believe  that  the  modern  horse  is  the  product  of  a  direct  filiation 
beginning  with  Palmotherium,  and  passing  through  Anchitherium 
and  Hipparion.  On  the  contrary,  this  view  was  abandoned  by  most 
palaeontologists  almost  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago ;  Palceotherium  and 
Hipparion  are  not  regarded  as  direct  ancestors  of  Equus,  but  as  the 
dwindling  terminations  of  two  lateral  branches. 

Is  Rabies  Transmissible  from  Mother  to  Offspring  ?  % — D.  Konradi 
points  out  that  placental-  transmission  has  been  securely  proved  in 
anthrax,  pneumonia,  typhus,  pyogenic  coccus,  recurrent  fever,  variola, 
malleus,  syphilis,  and  tuberculosis.  He  has  experimented  with  the  virus 
of  rabies  introduced  into  pregnant  guinea-pigs  and  rabbits,  and  he  has 
satisfied  himself  that  there  is  transmission  from  the  mother  to  the  foetus, 
with  some  attenuation  in  the  process. 

Pancreatic  Bladder  in  Cat.§— W.  S.  Miller  has  found  four  cases  of 
a  pancreatic  bladder  in  the  domestic  cat.  In  the  last  discovered  case 
the  pancreatic  bladder  occupies  a  special  depression  to  the  left  of  the 
gall  bladder  in  the  quadrate  lobe  ;  it  is  separated  by  a  very  thin  double- 

*  Verh.  Anat.  Ges.,  1904;    Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.,  Erganzungslu-ft,  fpp.    124-35 
3  figs).  t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1662-4. 

X  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xxxviii.  (1905)  pp.  60-5. 
§  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  119-20  (1  tig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    HOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  581 

walled  septum  from  the  gall  bladder  ;  its  duct  joins  the  splenic  division 
of  the  pancreatic  duct. 

Male  Genital  Organs  in  Sloths.*— Remy  Perrier  has  investigated 
the  genital  organs  in  Gholwpus  didactylus  and  Bradypus  mculliger.  The 
testes  remain  abdominal.  There  is  no  connection  between  them  and  the 
inguinal  region ;  there  is  no  inguinal  fold  or  inguinal  ligament.  It  seems 
probable  that  the  sloths  diverged  from  the  primitive  Mammalian  stock 
before  the  descensus  testiculorum  had  begun  to  occur.  The  pangolin 
and  Orycteropus  which  have  inguinal  testes,  have  no  near  relationship 
with  the  American  types. 

Poison  in  Viper's  Eggs.|— C.  Phisalix  finds  that  the  active  principles 
■of  the  poison  of  Vipera  aspis  are  present  in  the  ova  from  oogenesis  on- 
wards. It  is  probable,  he  says,  that  other  specific  substances  pass  from 
the  blood  to  the  ova,  and  have  their  chemical  role  in  ontogenesis. 

Gadow's  Hypothesis  of  Orthogenetic  Variation  in  Chelonia4 — 
R.  E.  Coker  has  examined  nearly  250  specimens  of  the  diamond-back 
terrapin  (Malaclemmys  centrata),  and  finds  no  evidence  of  "  orthogenetic 
variation "  in  the  sense  that  there  is  normally  in  the  individual  life- 
history  a  progressive  reduction  in  the  number  of  scutes.  A  study  of 
a  small  number  of  specimens  of  Thalassochelys,  on  which  Gadow's 
observations  were  based,  afforded  no  support  for  his  theory. 

Minute  Structure  of  Gecko's  Foot.§— H.  Schmidt  has  re-investi- 
gated this  interesting  problem.  The  lappets,  arising  from  scales,  which 
lie  in  a  single  or  double  row  on  the  under  side  of  the  toes,  bear  on  their 
anterior  third  a  thick  cushion  of  very  regularly  arranged,  extremely 
delicate,  hairs  or  bristles,  with  minute  flat  ends.  These  hairs  occur  in 
tufts,  which  are  regularly  grouped  in  fours.  Their  relations  with  the 
formative  epidermic  cells  are  minutely  described.  The  hairs  are  really 
•derived  from  modified  cell-connections  ;  that  is  to  say  they  have  an 
intercellular  origin. 

Below  the  phalanges  there  is  a  blood  chamber,  or  a  system  of  blood 
chambers,  extensions  of  which  are  prolonged  to  the  tips  of  the  adhesive 
lappets.  The  vein  leading  from  these  can  be  closed  by  an  annular 
muscular  sheath.  An  erection-apparatus  results,  so  that  the  terminal 
surfaces  of  the  bristles  fit  tightly  against  the  surface  of  adhesion. 

The  toe  as  a  whole  cannot  adhere  by  atmospheric  pressure,  for  the 
intervals  between  the  lappets  to  right  and  left  cannot  be  closed.  The 
lappet  of  itself  cannot  adhere  by  atmospheric  pressure,  for  it  is  not  in 
actual  contact  with  the  surface  to  which  the  Gecko  adheres.  The 
•capacity  of  attachment  must  be  in  the  bristles,  and  Weitlauer's  experi- 
ment makes  it  improbable  that  they  can  be  fixed  by  atmospheric  pressure. 
Schmidt  suggests  that  the  phenomenon  of  adhesion  is  due  to  electrical 
forces. 

Air-Sacs  of  Cham8eleons.|| — Gustav  Tornier  gives  a  full  account  of 
the  tracheal  air-sac,  which  lies  between  the  larynx  and  the  trachea,  and 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1054-7.  t    Tom.  cit.,  pp.  1719-21. 

t  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circular,  No.  178  (May  1905)  pp.  1-24  (7  figs.). 
§  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  551-80  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.). 
||  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  1-40  (2  pis.  and  6  figs  ). 


582  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

works  like  a  whistle  or  bag-pipe  in  producing  the  characteristic  sounds. 
From  the  Eustachian  tube  two  other  pouches  can  be  inflated  so  that  the 
head-lappets  stand  out  like  forward  directed  ear-pinnae.  Tornier  shows 
how  the  three  sacs  co-operate  harmoniously  when  the  chamaeleon  is 
excited  by  the  approach  of  an  enemy. 

Persistent  Segmental  Canals  in  Centrina.* — Joan  Borcea  notes 
that,  as  Semper  and  Guitel  have  indicated,  there  are  persistent  segmental 
funnels  in  Centrina.  In  an  adult  male  he  found  25  pairs  of  nephro- 
stomes. 

Habits  of  the  Sculpin.j — Theodore  Gill  gives  an  account  of  the 
life  and  habits  of  Myoxocephalus  scorpius,  one  of  the  most  abundant 
fishes  in  high  northern  seas.  It  is  most  frequently  littoral ;  it  is  un- 
social, sluggish,  and  voracious  ;  it  seems  to  feed  chiefly  on  Crustaceans. 
When  taken  in  the  hand  it  is  apt  to  utter  a  gurgling  sound — a  voluntary 
cry,  according  to  Dufosse. 

Information  as  to  fecundation  is  discrepant,  but  a  legitimate  inference 
seems  to  be  that  when  the  sexual  products  are  fully  ripe  the  sexes  may 
come  together,  and  the  ova  are  fertilised  just  before  or  during  protrusion, . 
but  sometimes  there  may  be  some  arrest  or  retardation  in  passage  of  the 
eggs,  and  then  there  may  be  internal  fertilisation. 

The  eggs  are  discharged  about  the  beginning  or  middle  of  winter, 
or,  it  may  be,  not  before  the  beginning  of  spring.  The  egg-masses  are 
extruded  in  the  sand  or  pools  among  the  rocks,  or  attached  to  stones, 
tangle  roots,  sea-weed,  and  the  like.  The  males  may  make  a  nest  of 
sea-weeds  and  pebbles  for  the  reception  of  the  spawn,  and  the  male  may 
brood  over  the  mass,  clasping  it  with  his  pectoral  and  ventral  fins.  Two 
or  three  months  may  elapse  before  any  eggs  are  hatched,  but  the  time 
required  for  development  depends  on  the  temperature.  The  sculpin  has 
little  economic  importance. 

Branchiostoma  elongatum  Sundevall.J — R.  Goldschmidt  finds  that 
this  species  described  by  Sundevall  in  1852  is  really  distinct,  and  he 
gives  its  diagnosis  so  far  as  the  old  type  specimen  at  his  disposal  would 
admit.  The  most  characteristic  features  are  the  small  size  of  the  mouth, 
the  delicacy  of  the  tentacular  apparatus,  and  the  reduction  in  the  size  of 
the  whole  rostral  region.  It  comes  nearest  to  Branchiostoma  calif orniense 
Cooper. 

Zoogeographical  Relations  of  South  America.§ — G.  Pfeffer  dis- 
cusses the  reptiles,  amphibians,  and  fishes  of  South  America  with  especial 
reference  to  the  question  of  the  former  land  connections  of  this  continent 
with  Africa  and  Australia.  We  cannot  do  more  than  state  his  general 
conclusion,  that  there  is  no  need  on  zoogeographical  grounds  to  assume 
direct  land  connections  between  South  America  and  Africa,  or  between 
South  America  and  Australia.  In  a  criticism, ||  A.  E.  Ortmann  maintains 
that  Pfeffer's  survey  is  far  too  partial  and  too  exclusively  palaaontological 
to  justify  his  rejection  of  the  theory. 

*  Trav.  Scient.  Univ.  Rennes,  ii.  (1904)  pp.  178-80. 

t  Smithsonian  Misc.  Collections,  xlviii.  (1905)  pp.  348-59(11  figs.). 

X  Zool.  Jahrb.  (1905)  Supplement  Bd.  viii.,  pp.  407-42. 

§  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  132-3  (1  fig.). 

||  Amer.  Naturalist,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  413-16. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,  ETC.  b  583 

Fresh-water  Microfauna  of  Paraguay.* — E.  von  Daday  has  done 
a  big  piece  of  work  in  his  report  on  the  collections  of  fresh-water 
Plankton  made  by  Professor  J.  D.  Anisito  in  various  parts  of  Paraguay. 
The  memoir  deals  with  Protozoa,  Hydride,  Nematoda,  Nematorhyncha, 
Rotifers,  Crustaceans,  Tardigrada,  and  Hydrachnids ;  and  W.  Michaelsen 
reports  on  the  Naididse.  Altogether  about  350  species  are  discussed, 
including  many  new  forms. 

Pelagic  Organisms  in  Scottish  Lakes .f — James  Murray  points  out 
that  Scotland  is  favourably  situated  for  the  study  of  fresh-water  plank- 
ton, since  it  forms  a  meeting  place  for  the  northern  and  southern  zoo- 
plankton,  the  eastern  and  western  phytoplankton.  He  takes  a  survey  of 
the  characteristic  forms.  Many  of  them  occupy  areas  which  coincide 
approximately.  Thus  Diaptomus  laticeps,  D.  laciniatus,  and  the  Des- 
mids  of  the  western  type,  alike  extend  over  the  whole  of  Scotland  north 
of  the  Caledonian  Canal  and  into  the  Outer  Hebrides ;  south  of  the 
Great  Glen  they  are  confined  to  the  west  coast  and  some  of  the  central 
counties,  being  entirely  absent,  so  far  as  is  known,  from  all  the  eastern 
counties  south  of  the  Moray  Firth.  All  have  their  eastern  limit  in  some 
small  lochs  about  the  extreme  western  corner  of  Aberdeenshire.  A 
prominent  feature  of  the  Scottish  plankton  is  the  Arctic  character  of 
its  Crustacea. 

Biology  at  Jena  during  the  Nineteenth  Century.$ — Ernst  Haeckel 
recalls  some  of  the  illustrious  workers  in  Biology  who  were  connected 
with  Jena  during  the  last  century.  Starting  with  Goethe  and  Oken,  he 
briefly  refers  to  the  progress  of  a  hundred  years  and  to  the  work  of  men 
like  Emil  Huschke,  Matthias  Schleiden,  Oskar  Schmidt,  Carl  Gegenbaur. 
Biology  at  Jena  has  for  many  years  centred  in  Haeckel  himself. 

Bibliotheca  Zoological — 0.  Taschenberg  has  completed  the  seven- 
teenth instalment  of  his  list  of  zoological  papers  published  between  1861 
and  1880.     It  deals  with  palseontological  literature. 

Tunicata. 

The  British  Tunicata. || — The  first  volume  of  an  unfinished  mono- 
graph on  The  British  Tunicata,  by  the  late  Joshua  Alder  and  the  late 
Albany  Hancock,  has  been  edited  by  Mr.  John  Hopkinson,  and  the  Rev. 
A.  M.  Norman  writes  a  prefatory  history  of  the  work.  The  work  began 
as  a  descriptive  catalogue  by  Alder  (finished  in  1863),  and  was  enlarged 
to  a  monograph  by  Hancock  during  the  subsequent  ten  years.  Alder 
died  in  1867  and  Hancock  in  1873,  and  the  unfinished  work  was  left 
for  a  time  in  Huxley's  hands.  As  Huxley  was  unable  to  devote  time  to 
making  a  presentable  volume  out  of  the  manuscripts,  they  were  returned 
to  Hancock's  representatives,  and  have  till  last  year  remained  in  the 
care  of  the  Natural  History  Society  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  At  Canon 
Norman's  request  they  were  sent  for  publication  to  the  Ray  Society,. 

*  Zoologica,  xviii.  (1905)  Heft  44,  pp.  1-374  (23  pis.  and  2  figs.). 

t  Proc.  R.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  51-62. 

\  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  713-26. 

§  Bibliotheca  Zoologica,  II.    Lief.  17.     Leipzig,  1905,  8vo,  pp.  5165-5512. 

||   Ray  Society,  1905,  xii.  and  146  pp.  (20  pis.). 


584  SUMMARY   OP   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

and  they  have  been  carefully  edited  by  Mr.  John  Hopkinson.  The 
volume  gives  an  historical  introduction,  an  account  of  the  structure  and 
relationships  of  the  class,  and  a  description  of  the  species  (30)  of  A&cidia. 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Mollusca. 
a-  Cephalopoda. 

Symbiosis  of  Hydractinian  with  a  Cephalopod.*  —  F.  Baron 
Nopcsa  describes  from  the  Fayum  district  of  Egypt  specimens  of  the 
Eocene  genus  Kcrunia,  which  Mayer- Eymar  regarded  as  a  Cephalopod, 
and  Oppenheim  as  a  Hydractinian.  His  view  is  that  Kerunia  "resulted 
from  a  remarkably  close  symbiosis  of  a  Belosepia-like  Cephalopod  with 
an  encrusting  Hydractinian,  in  which  symbiosis  went  so  far  that  the 
Hydractinian  overtook  the  labour  of  building  up  the  primitive  shell  of 
the  Cephalopod  which  fixed  or  controlled  to  a  certain  extent  the  growth 
of  the  Hydractinian." 

y-  Gastropoda. 

Study  of  the  Mud  Snail.j — Abigail  Camp  Dimon  has  made  a  study 
of  the  habits  and  reactions  of  Nassa  obsoleta.  On  a  dry  substratum  it 
prefers  shade  to  direct  sunlight  ;  on  a  damp  substratum  in  diffuse  light 
it  moves  towards  the  light.  In  an  aquarium  the  mud-snails  tend  to 
group  themselves  on  the  lighter  side.  The  siphon  and  tentacles  are 
sensitive  to  sudden  changes  in  the  intensity  of  illumination.  The 
animal  tends  to  move  against  a  moderately  strong  current,  and  to  rest 
with  its  head  against  the  current.  It  may  live  four  or  five  days  out  of 
water.  It  eats  both  animal  and  vegetable  food,  but  prefers  the  former  ; 
it  will  not  eat  unless  covered  with  water.  Copulation  occurs  during  the 
rise  of  the  tide,  and  is  followed  by  the  deposition  of  capsules,  which 
contain  a  variable  number  of  eggs.  A  veliger  hatches,  which  develops 
in  two  weeks  into  a  form  like  the  adult.  The  mud-snail  holds  its  place 
because  of  its  adaptability  to  varying  conditions,  and  because  no  other 
mollusc  entirely  competes  with  it.  The  only  form  with  which  Nassa 
obsoleta  is  not  at  present  adapted  to  compete  is  Littorina  litorea,  and 
the  struggle  between  them  may  result  in  a  modification  of  the  range  of 
the  former. 

Development  of  Kidney  and  Heart  in  Planorbis.J — 0.  Potzsch 
has  followed  the  history  of  the  mesoderm  in  Planorbis  cornea  from  one 
of  the  macromeres  onwards,  and  has  traced  the  development  of  the 
kidney,  pericardium,  and  heart,  which  arise  from  a  common  rudiment. 

Kruppomenia  and  the  Radulse  of  Solenogastres.§ — H.  F.  Nierstrass 
gives  an  account  of  Kruppomenia  minima,  a  new  Solenogaster  from  deep 
water  in  the  Gulf  of  Naples.  There  is  a  thick  cuticle  ;  the  spicules  are 
like  those  of  Proneomenia,  in  many  layers ;  a  ventral  fold  extends  to 
the  cloaca ;  the  radula  is  distichous  ;  there  are  two  spherical  salivary 

•  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  95-102  (1  pi.). 
+  Cold  Spring  Harbor  Monographs,  v.  (1905)  pp.  1-4S  (2  pis.). 
t  Zool.  Jahrb..  xx.  (1904)  pp.  409-38  (3  pis.  and  10  figs.). 
§  Op.  cit.,  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  655-702  (3  pis.  and  7  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  585 

glands  ;  the  cloaca  has  gills  ;  there  are  copulatory  spicules  ;  the  cloacal 
ducts  have  no  appendices.  The  author  also  discusses  the  radula  of  the 
Solenogastres,  "  polystichous  "  in  Proneomenia,  Dondersia,  Proparamenia, 
and  Macellomenia,  "  distichous "  in  Paramenia,  Ismenia,  Lepidomenia, 
Echinomenia,  Dinomenia,  Cyclomenia,  and  Kruppomenia.  The  "  poly- 
stichous "  types  include  the  following  forms  : — polyserial,  with  or  without 
a  basal  membrane  (Proneomenia  sluiteri  and  P.  vagans)  ;  biserial  (P. 
australis)  ;  monoserial  (Dondersia  /estiva)  •  double  comb-like  or  pectinid 
(Proparamenia  bivalens) ;  simple  comb-like  or  pectinid  (Macellomenia 
palifera).     The  possible  relationships  of  these  types  are  discussed. 

Morphology  of  a  Solenogaster.* — Harold  Heath  gives  an  account 
of  Limifossor  talpoideus,  a  burrowing  Solenogaster  from  Alaska.  One 
of  the  interesting  facts  which  he  brings  out  is  that,  while  all  external 
traces  of  the  foot  have  disappeared,  yet  a  space  in  the  ventral  somatic 
muscles,  the  overlying  pedal  sinus,  and  perhaps  a  few  gland-cells  in  the 
anterior  end  of  the  body,  point  to  its  former  existence.  The  author 
discusses  some  of  the  objections  raised  against  the  inclusion  of  the 
Solenogastres  among  Molluscs.  He  emphasises  with  Plate  the  necessity 
of  using  typical  members  of  a  group  in  instituting  comparisons  and  of 
laying  especial  stress  on  the  broader  features  of  their  organisation. 
Highly  modified  Solenogastres  do  indeed  exist,  and  even  in  the  more 
primitive  forms  many  characters  are  without  a  counterpart  elsewhere. 
Nevertheless  as  Wiren,  Pelseneer,  Plate,  and  others  have  maintained,  the 
relations  of  the  nervous  system,  gonad,  pericardium,  and  ccelomoducts 
are  sufficient  to  stamp  the  Solenogastres  as  true  Molluscs,  and  for  the 
present  at  least  to  confine  them  within  the  class  Amphineura. 

Kidneys  and  Gonads  of  Haliotis.f — R.  J.  Totzauer  finds  that  the 
two  kidneys  are  independent ;  that  the  rudimentary  left  kidney  has  its 
opening  on  the  left  side  of  the  rectum,  without  a  special  efferent  canal 
as  the  right  one  has  ;  that  the  left  kidney  has  a  reno-pericardial  com- 
munication as  the  right  one  has.  The  gonad  has  a  special  duct  com- 
municating with  the  reno-pericardial  duct  of  the  right  kidney  and  thus 
with  the  efferent  canal,  but  there  is  before  this  another  communication 
between  the  genital  duct  and  the  right  kidney,  as  Tobler  has  observed 
in  Parmophorus. 

Salivary  Secretion  of  Snail. $ — A.  Gorka  has  studied  the  physio- 
logical properties  of  the  salivary  secretion  of  Helix  pomatia.  The  pure 
secretion  has  an  alkaline  reaction,  is  free  from  glycogen,  and  contains 
mucin,  amylolytic  and  glycolytic  ferments,  and  invertin.  The  gland 
stores  up  a  great  quantity  of  glycogen. 

5.  Lamellibranchiata. 

New  Sensory  Organ  in  Nucula. §— Fred  Vies  describes  in  Nucula 
nucula  a  paired  sensory  organ — an  epithelial  ridge  situated  at  the  base  of 
the  labial  palps,  and  innervated  by  a  relatively  large  short  nerve  from 
the  cerebral  ganglia. 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1905),  pp.  703-34  (2  pis.  and  1  fig.), 
t  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  525-50  (3  pis.). 
%  Allatt.  Kozlem  Budapest,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  211-36  ;  see  Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xii.  (1905) 
pp.  304-5.  §  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxx.  (1905)  pp.  88-90  (2  figs.). 


586  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Pearl  Oysters.* — James  Hornell  reports  some  interesting  and  im- 
portant observations  on  the  pearl  oyster  banks  of  Ceylon.  He  is  still  in 
search  of  the  adnlt  stage  of  the  pearl  parasite.  He  confirms  the  theory 
set  forth  by  Professor  Herdman  and  himself  that  shell-pearls  with  no 
vermean  nucleus  are  especially  associated  with  the  attachment  surfaces 
of  those  muscles  which  have  insertion  on  the  shell,  especially  the  small 
and  comparatively  weak  levator  and  pallial  muscles.  Some  remarkable 
illustrations  of  the  activity  of  the  young  pearl  oysters  are  given.  The 
effects  of  this  remarkable  restless  activity  are  two-fold  :  it  gives  a 
younger  generation  great  advantage  over  an  older  in  the  struggle  for 
existence,  the  young  ones  mounting  on  the  topmost  parts  of  the  older 
ones  and  intercepting  food  particles  which  otherwise  would  pass  to  the 
latter  ;  and  it  aids  them  also  in  finding  elevated  places  of  refuge  when 
an  influx  or  disturbance  of  sand  occurs.  Attention  is  called  to  a  remark- 
able phosphorescent  phenomenon,  previously  witnessed  by  Herdman, 
"  as  if  the  sea  were  swept  by  regularly  recurring  searchlight  rays,"  at 
intervals  of  about  two  seconds  and  lasting  for  an  hour,  each  evening. 
The  cause  remains  undetermined.  The  bulk  of  the  report  is  of  course 
strictly  practical. 

Arthropoda. 

a.  Insecta. 

Notes  on  Insect  Bionomics.t — V.  L.  Kellogg  and  R.  G.  Bell  have 
made  various  experiments  on  silkworms.  Alterations  in  the  food  condi- 
tions show  that  individuals  living  through  their  whole  post-embryonic 
life  on  the  smallest  food  supply  capable  of  sustaining  life,  a  supply 
varying  from  one-fourth  to  one-eighth  of  the  supply  normally  used  by 
individuals  of  the  species,  do  not  necessarily  become  males.  Silkworms 
may  be  cut  off  from  a  food  supply  nearly  seven  days  before  the  normal 
limit  of  their  feeding  time,  and  yet  complete  their  development  quite 
normally.  The  deprivation  of  food  for  from  one  to  four  days  seems 
neither  to  hasten  the  metamorphosis  nor  to  modify  it  appreciably,  nor 
to  result  in  the  production  of  a  moth  of  lessened  size  or  lessened  fertility. 
If  the  larva?  are  deprived  of  food  for  eight  days  or  more  before  their 
normal  spinning-up  time,  they  invariably  die  without  forming  a  cocoon, 
and  in  only  one  case  was  pupation  accomplished.  A  silken  cocoon  loses 
a  very  small  amount,  about  4  p. a,  of  its  weight  in  the  first  day  after  its 
completion,  and  then  loses  no  further  weight.  The  pupa  loses  weight 
slightly  but  persistently  and  steadily  from  day  to  day  throughout  its 
entire  duration,  the  total  loss  amounting  to  about  14  p.c.  The  pupa?  of 
the  tent  caterpillar  (Clmocampd),  of  the  checker-spot  butterfly  (Melitcea), 
and  of  the  mourning-cloak  butterfly  {Euvanessa  antiopa),  also  lose 
steadily  in  weight  from  day  to  day,  the  total  loss  being  from  35  to 
65  p.c. 

Phylogeny  of  Insects.J — Anton  Handlirsch  makes  a  statement  of 
his  conclusions  as  to  the  phylogeny  of  insects,  which  result  in  the 
following  arrangement : — 

*  Keports  from  Ceylon  Marine  Biol.  Lab.,  No.  1  (Colombo,  1905)  pp.  1-39  (15  pis., 
maps,  and  tables).  t  Journ.  Exp.  Zool.,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  357-67. 

X  SB.  K.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  cxii.  (1903),  received  1905,  pp.  716-38  (1  table). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  587 

I.  Class — Collembola 

Order — Arthropleona 
„        Syrnphypleona 
II.  Class — Campodeoidea 

Order — Dicellura 
„        Rkabdura 

III.  Class — Tkysanura 

Order — Machiloidea 
„        Lepismoidea 

IV.  Class — Pterygogenea 

1.  Sub-Class — Orthopteroidea 

Order — Orthoptera 
„        Pliasmoidea 
„        Dermaptera 
„        Diploglossata 
„        Thysanoptera 

2.  Sub-Class — Blattasformia 

Order — Mantoidea 
„        Blattoidea 
„        Isoptera 
„        Corrodentia 
Mallophaga 
Siphunculata 

3.  Sub-Class — Hymenopteroidea 
Order — Hymenoptera 

4.  Sub-Class — Coleopteroidea 
Order — Coleoptera 

„        Strepsiptera 

5.  Sub-Class — Embioidea 
Order — Embiaria 

6.  Sub-Class — Perloidea 
Order — Perlaria 

7.  Sub-Class— Libelluloidea 
Order — Odonata 

8.  Sub-Class — Epkemeroidea 
Order — Plactoptera 

9.  Sub-Class — Neuropteroidea 
Order — Megaloptera 

„        Raphidioidea 
„        Neuroptera 

10.  Sub-Class — Panorpoidea 

Order — Panorpata 

„        Phryganoidea 
„        Lepidoptera 
„        Diptera 
„        Suctoria 

11.  Sub-Class — Hemipteroidea 

Order — Hemiptera 

„        Homoptera 


588  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Notes  on  Larvae  of  Arpyia  Vinula.* — E.  Balducci  describes  the- 
larval  stages  of  Arpyia  (Dientnitra)  vinula  and  the  colour  changes. 
He  has  given  particular  attention  to  the  defensive  organs,  the  two- 
caudal  appendages,  and  the  peculiar  anterior  organ  on  the  first  segment 
below  the  mouth,  from  which  irritant  fluid  is  squirted  out. 

Influence  of  Nutrition  and  Humidity  on  Lepidoptera.f — Arnold 
Pictet  has  made  many  experiments  on  the  influence  of  nutrition  and 
humidity  in  promoting  variations.  Food  that  is  difficult  to  digest  or 
absorb  inhibits  larval  development,  prolongs  the  larval  period,  and 
shortens  pupation.  Imperfect  pigmentation,  in  extreme  cases  albinism, 
is  the  result.  Insufficient  food  has  the  same  effect.  Rich,  abundant, 
digestible  food  intensifies  pigmentation  and  promotes  melanism.  The 
size  is  also  modified  by  nutrition.  The  males  vary  more  than  the  females. 
The  variations  induced  by  nutrition  increase  in  intensity  with  each 
generation,  and  seem  to  become  transmissible.  But  after  several  genera- 
tions there  is  a  return  to  the  primitive  type.  Nutrition  affects  the 
colours  of  the  larvae  as  well  as  of  the  imagines,  and  the  larval  variations 
may  be  cumulative  during  two  or  three  generations.  Nutrition  also 
affects  the  secondary  sexual  characters.  Bad  nutrition  leads  to  an  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  males,  but  rich  nutrition  does  not  increase  the 
number  of  females. 

Humidity  in  the  form  of  rain  or  saturated  air  seems  to  be  a  factor 
in  inducing  partial  melanism.  Two  exceptional  experiments  showed  a 
tendency  to  albinism.  The  melanistic  characters  appear  along  the 
course  of  the  nervures.  There  was  no  evidence  of  inheritance,  but  the 
author  emphasises  "  la  loi  de  Vaccoutumance"  that  is  to  say,  the  fact  that 
individuals  become  insensitive  to  factors  which  influenced  their  parents. 

Pupal  Suspension  of  Thais.J — T.  A.  Chapman  describes  the  in- 
tricate process  by  which  the  larva  and  pupa  of  Thais  make  the  girth 
leave  its  usual  situation  and  become  attached  to  the  nose-hooks. 

Numerical  Proportion  of  Mimic  to  Model.§ — Horace  A.  Byatt 
notes  that  in  a  collection  of  Limnas  chrysippus  and  its  mimic  Pseuda- 
crcea  poggei,  there  were  17  of  the  latter  to  367  of  the  model.  This 
occurrence  in  considerable  numbers  of  what  has  hitherto  been  regarded 
as  the  rarest  species  of  Pseudacraia,  supports  the  hypothesis  that  the 
mimics  of  this  group  are  Mullerian  rather  than  Batesian.  Professor  E.  B. 
Poulton  adds  a  note  comparing  the  details  of  the  mimetic  resemblance 
borne  by  Pseudacraia  poggei  to  Limnas  chrysippus  with  those  of  the 
other  great  Nymphaline  mimic  Hypolimnas  misippus  9  . 

Experiments  on  Bombyx  mori.|| — Vernon  L.  Kellogg  finds  (1)  that 
there  is  no  regeneration  of  mutilated  or  destroyed  developing  gonads  in 
Bombyx  mori,  even  though  the  organs  are  destroyed  or  mutilated  as 
early  as  just  after  the  second  larval  moulting ;  and  (2)  that  the 
destruction   of   the   primary   reproductive  organs  (ovaries  and  testes) 

*  Bull.  Soc  Entom.  Ital.,  xxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  117-22  (1  pi.). 

t  Mem.  Soc.  Phys.  Geneve,  xxxv.  (1905)  pp.  1-127  (5  pis.). 

X  Trans.  Entomol.  Soc.  London  (1905)  pp.  203-18  (1  pi.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  263-8  (1  pi.).  ||  Journ  Exp.  Zool.,  i.  (1904)  pp.  601-5. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY.   ETC.  589 

before  the  secondary  sexual  characters  are  developed,  has  no  effect  on 
the  normal  course  of  development  of  these  characteristics. 

Regeneration  in  Larval  Legs  of  Caterpillars.* — Vernon  L.  Kellogg 
finds  that  the  larva  of  the  silk-moth,  Bombyx  mori,  has  the  capacity  of 
regenerating  its  thoracic  and  abdominal  legs  from  stumps  of  these  legs, 
but  not  from  the  trunk.  That  is  to  say  each  leg  has  the  capacity  to  re- 
generate any  distal  part  from  any  proximal  part,  but  the  body  cannot 
produce  a  wholly  new  leg.  The  regeneration  described  shows  externally 
not  after  the  first  moulting  after  the  mutilation,  but  after  the  second 
moulting,  and  the  regenerative  processes  are  completed  with  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  new  parts  after  this  second  moulting  succeeding  the 
mutilation.  The  small,  non-segmented,  but  movable  caudal  horn,  which 
has  no  known  function,  is  not  regenerated.  It  was  excised  from  many 
silkworms  of  various  ages,  and  in  no  case  was  there  the  slightest  re- 
generation. This  favours  the  theory  of  the  natural  selectionists  con- 
cerning regeneration,  but  the  regeneration  of  the  legs  in  an  animal 
which  has  been  domesticated  for  approximately  5000  years  under  such 
conditions  as  to  make  the  natural  loss  of  legs  almost  an  impossible 
occurrence,  does  not  favour  the  selectionist  interpretation.  "  The  silk- 
worm offers  little  aid  and  comfort  to  those  who  would  explain  regenera- 
tion wholly  as  a  phenomenon  fostered  and  maintained  by  natural 
selection  on  a  basis  of  utility." 

Urate  Cells  in  Hymenoptera.j — L.  Semichon  has  studied  the  urate- 
containing  cells  which  Fabre  discovered  in  1856.  They  seem  to  occur 
in  all  Hymenoptera,  and  the  author  has  investigated  them  in  solitary 
bees.  They  appear  early  in  larval  life,  and  increase  during  the  period  of 
activity  ;  they  seem  to  be  inactive  during  the  period  of  quiescence  ;  they 
increase  rapidly  when  the  animal  is  starved  ;  they  are  decreasing  in  the 
immature  adults  ;  their  appearance  is  independent  of  any  animal  food. 

Luminosity  of  Luciola  italica.|  —  N.  Passerini  has  studied  the 
physical  nature  of  the  light  produced  by  this  insect.  The  radiations 
are  chiefly  orange,  yellow,  and  green  rays.  Their  spectroscopic  and 
other  characters  are  discussed. 

Aquatic  Glow-Worm.§— Nelson  Annandale  notes  that  until  recently 
the  Lampyridge  were  regarded  as  purely  terrestrial  and  aerial  beetles. 
He  has  been  led  to  doubt  this,  and  has  found  an  aquatic  larval  form 
twice  in  Lower  Siam,  and  a  second  in  a  tank  in  the  suburbs  of  Calcutta. 

Spermatogenesis  of  Syromastes  marginatus.|| — J.  Gross  has  studied 
the  spermatogenesis  of  this  Hemipteron,  and  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
it,  with  critical  discussion  of  the  results  of  other  workers.  He  brings 
out  a  remarkable  fact,  that  the  small  chromosomes  in  the  spermatids  are 
not  identical  with  those  of  the  spermatogonia.  They  arise  from  the  two 
originally  large  chromosomes  which  are  formed  during  the  growth  period 

*  Journ.  Exp.  Zool.  i.  (1904)  pp.  593-9  (10  figs.). 

+  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1715-17. 

t  Bull.  Soc.  Entom.  Ital.,  xxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  181-3. 

§  Proc.  Asiatic  Soc.  Bengal,  x.  (1904)  pp.  82-3. 

'||  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xx.  (1905)  pp.  439-98  (2  pis.  and  3  figs.). 

Oct.  18th,  1905  2  r 


•r>90  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

of  the  chromatin-nucleolus.  They  do  not  take  part  in  the  growth  and 
become  small  chromosomes.  As  such  they  appear  in  the  spermatogonia 
of  the  next  generation.  They  go  through  the  same  modifications  as  the 
regular  large  chromosomes,  but  pass  undivided,  as  accessory  chromo- 
somes, into  the  spermatids. 

Inheritance  of  Dichromatism  in  Lina  lapponica.*  —  Isabel 
McCracken  has  made  breeding  experiments  with  this  Chrysomelid  beetle. 
Her  object  was  to  observe  through  several  generations  the  behaviour  of 
the  particular  differentiating  character,  colour,  with  the  view  of  testing 
for  this  insect  Mendel's  principles  of  dominance  and  segregation.  Both 
sexes  are  dichromatic  ;  they  are  easily  distinguished  by  their  size  ;  in- 
dividuals may  be  mated  for  life,  or  males  of  one  brood  may  be  allowed 
to  mate  freely  with  females  of  another  ;  life  habits  are  adapted  to 
laboratory  conditions,  and  at  least  five  generations  may  be  reared  in  a 
single  season. 

No  amount  of  crossing  between  the  two  characters — melanic  (B)  and 
brown  dotted  with  black  spots  (S) — accomplishes  any  disintegration  or 
breaking-up  of  either  one.  In  the  offspring  of  a  cross  between  the  two 
characters,  either  both  characters,  or  only  the  spotted,  may  appear. 
Cross-bred  B's,  namely  B's  appearing  in  a  cross  between  the  two 
opposing  characters,  transmit  B  only  to  the  offspring  when  similars  are 
bred  together.  Cross-bred  S's  transmit  both  opposing  characters  to  the 
offspring,  these  likewise  transmitting  both  characters,  though  bred  from 
similar  parents.  In  the  third  generation  from  similar  parents,  S's 
appear  to  breed  true.  There  is  here  no  exact  parallelism  to  Mendelian 
results,  but  there  are  Mendelian  features.  The  character  S  of  S  by  B 
parentage  behaves  like  a  dominant  when  mated  with  S.  Character  B 
behaves  like  a  Mendelian  recessive  in  that  from  its  first  appearance  it  re- 
produces B  only. 

Bamboo-Beetle  and  Coffee-Plant.t — L.  Boutan  shows  that  a  Xylo- 
trechus,  closely  allied  to  X.  quadrupes,  which  inhabits  the  dry  bamboo- 
stems,  is  a  formidable  enemy  of  the  coffee-plant.  The  planters  should, 
therefore,  carefully  avoid  the  use  of  dry  bamboos  in  their  coffee  planta- 
tions, or  should  at  least  steep  them  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron. 

Sexual  Dimorphism  in  Rat  Louse.} — Giinther  Enderlein  describes 
a  striking  instance  of  sexual  dimorphism  in  Polyplax  spi?iulosa  of  the 
rat.  The  males  have  the  normal  number  of  tergites  and  sternites,  while 
in  the  females  the  tergites  and  sternites  of  the  second  to  the  seventh 
abdominal  segments  (excepting  the  tergite  of  the  third  segment)  are 
divided  into  paired  plates  one  behind  the  other. 

Reactions  of  the  Pomace  Fly.§ — F.  W.  Carpenter  has  experimented 
with  the  common  pomace  or  little  fruit  fly,  Drossophila  ampelophila 
Loew.  He  finds,  for  instance,  that  the  insect  moves  towards  the  source 
of  light,  but  when  fatigued  it  seeks  out  the  least  illuminated  spot  and 

*  Joum.  Exp.  Zool.  ii.  (1905)  pp.  117-36  (1  pi.  and  3  figs.). 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1654-6. 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  192-4  (4  figs.). 

§  Amer.  Naturalist,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  157-71. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    .MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  591 

turns  its  head  from  the  light.     He  also  finds  that  "  mechanical  stimu- 
lation has  a  kinetic  effect,  since  it  induces  locomotion." 

Injurious  Insects  in  Ireland.* — G.  H.  Carpenter  discusses  injurious 
insects  and  other  animals  observed  in  Ireland  during  the  year  1903, 
e.g.  spotted  crane-fly,  springtails,  flea-beetle,  carrot-fly,  root-mites,  and 
black-currant  mite. 

Life-History  of  Case  Bearers.f— Ella  M.  Briggs  describes  the  life- 
history  of  Chlamys  plicata,  one  of  the  Chrysomelid  beetles.  She  pays 
particular  attention  to  the  way  in  which  the  larvae  build  and  enlarge 
their  escrementitious  cases.  The  beetles  live  on  the  high-vine  black- 
berry, both  adults  and  larval  cases  resemble  pieces  of  dung,  and  the 
cases  have  also  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  dormant  buds  of  the  alder 
and  to  the  black  fruit  of  the  blackberry.  The  beetle  "  feigns  dead  " 
when  disturbed,  and  its  dull  colour  and  rough  appearance  make  it 
almost  undiscernible  to  the  human  eye. 

New  Genus  of  Diptera  from  Falkland  Islands.:}:— Giinther  Ender- 
lein  describes  a  new  Limnobiid — Zalusa  falMandica  g.  et  sp.  n. — which 
differs  from  all  known  genera  in  having  only  two  branches  in  the 
median  nervures,  and  in  the  marked  reduction  of  the  wings,  which  are 
about  the  length  of  the  thorax. 

Histolysis  of  Muscles  on  Larval  Muscida3.§— Ch.  Perez  confirms 
Kowalevsky's  description  of  the  phagocytic  absorption  of  the  larval 
muscles  in  Muscidas.  The  disruption  is  complete,  affecting  both  myo- 
plasm  and  nuclei,  and  it  is  wholly  due  to  leucocytic  phagocytes. 

In  the  subsequent  histogenesis,  which  is  also  discussed||,  there  is  an 
interesting  process  of  nuclear  proliferation,  which  the  author  calls 
multiple  direct  division. 

Catalogue  of  North  American  Diptera.f — J.  M.  Aldrich  has  pro- 
duced a  huge  catalogue  of  North  American  Diptera,  based  upon  Osten 
Sacken's  Catalogue  (second  edition)  published  in  1878.  Since  that  date 
the  number  of  species  has  doubled  ;  the  number  of  references  to  pre- 
viously known  species  has  almost  doubled ;  several  families  have  been 
monographed  or  revised,  with  more  or  less  change  of  nomenclature ; 
along  with  this  has  gone  the  publication  of  a  multitude  of  smaller 
papers,  touching  every  family  but  one,  and  the  larger  part  of  the  genera. 
Thus  great  changes  appear  in  the  new  catalogue. 

Specific  Peculiarities  of  External  Genital  Organs  in  Sarcopsylla.** 
— F.  Du  Eoselle  describes  the  penis  and  annexed  structures  in  S.  carnaria, 
and  shows  that  in  numerous  species  of  this  compact  genus,  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  parts  are  most  reliable  specific  characters. 

New  Flea  from  Armadillo.ft — Giinther  Enderlein  gives  another 
illustration  of  the  specialised  character  of  parasites.    Tolypeutes  comirus, 

*  Economic  Proc.  R.  Dublin  Soc,  i.  (1904)  pp.  249-66  (2  pis.). 

+  Cold  Spring  Harbor  Monographs,  iv.  (1905)  pp.  1-12  (1  pi.  and  11  figs  ) 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  69-72  (2  rigs.). 

§  P.  V.  Soc.  Sci.  Bordeaux,  1904,  pp.  68-70.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  75-6. 

^  Smithsonian  Misc.  Collections,  xlri,  (1905)  pp.  1-680. 
**  Mem.  Soc.  Linn,  du  Nord,  xi.  (1904)  pp.  5-10  (2  pis.). 
ft  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  139-42  (6  figs.). 

2  E  2 


592  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  3-banded  armadillo  has  its  own  peculiar  flea,  Malacopsylla  tolypeutis 
sp.  n.,  nearly  allied  to  M.  inermis  from  Dasypus  sexcinctus,  and  to  M. 
androcli  from  Ganis  griseus. 

Brazilian  Tabanidse.* — Adolpho  Lutz  begins  a  systematic  account 
of  the  Brazilian  Tabanida3,  of  which  he  has  collected  towards  a  hundred 
species. 

Chironomid   Larvse.f  —  R.  Lauterborn  describes   (1)   Chironomid 

larva?  with  freely  movable  Trichopteron-like  case  ;  (2)  peculiar  sensory 

organs  on  the  antennae  of  some  larvse  (pear-shaped  structures  with  a 

oage  of  numerous  curved  setse   around  a  central  sensory  cone) ;    (3) 

stalked  gelatinous  cases  and  cylindrical  gelatinous  tubes  from  running 

water. 

8.  Arachnida. 

Monograph  on  the  Kara-Kurt.$  —  K.  N.  Rossikov  gives  a  full 
ethological  account  of  the  venomous  Spider  Lathrodectus  tredecim- 
guttatus  Rossi,  the  Kara-Kurt  of  West  Europe,  South  Russia,  and  the 
Steppes.  It  frequents  open,  sunny  localities,  and  feeds  on  insects, 
Arachnids,  Isopods,  frogs,  young  lizards,  and  even  shrews,  surrounding 
its  prey  with  snares.  Copulation  occurs  before  the  last  moult,  lasts 
30-40  minutes,  and  often  ends  in  the  female  devouring  the  male  after 
he  has  repeatedly  effected  insemination  at  intervals  of  a  few  days.  The 
eggs  are  laid  the  night  after  the  copulation,  and  the  complex  cocoons 
are  smaller  with  each  successive  insemination.  There  are  eight 
moultings,  the  duration  of  the  process  increasing  from  a  few  minutes 
to  24  hours.  The  length  of  life  does  not  exceed  a  year.  The  female 
keeps  close  by  her  nest,  the  males  keep  in  the  background.  Many 
Ichneumonids  help  to  keep  down  the  numbers,  and  Chrysopa-l&rvdd' 
were  found  parasitic  in  the  cocoon.  The  serious  symptoms  following 
the  bite  are  described,  but  mantis  not  often  effectively  bitten.  The  juices 
of  the  whole  body  are  poisonous,  as  well  as  the  venom  itself,  and  the 
poison  has  a  paralysing  effect  on  the  heart  and  the  central  nervous  system. 

Parasitism  of  Larval  Phoxichilidium  on  Bougainvillia.§ — Paul 
Hallez  describes  what  appear  to  be  larvse  of  Phoxichilidium  femoratum 
in  pyriform  sacs — modified  hydranths — on  Bougainvillia  ramosa.  No 
other  species  of  Pycnogonid  induces  so  much  modification  in  its  host. 

Terrestrial  Mite  adapted  to  Marine  Life.|] — N.  Passerini  describes 
a  terrestrial  mite  from  the  blocks  of  rock  deposited  around  the  base  of 
the  tower  of  Meloria  where  prolonged  immersion  is  inevitable.  The 
mite,  which  Berlese  has  named  Erythrceus  passerinii  sp.  n.,  probably 
utilises  the  air  imprisoned  in  the  capillary  passages  in  the  rock.  In  any 
case  it  has  become  adapted  to  marine  life. 

Habits  and  Life  History  of  a  Social  Spider.f — N.  S.  Jambuna- 
than  found  at  Saidapet,  Madras,  a  group  of  "  social  spiders  "  (Stegodyphus 

*  Rev.  Soc.  Sci.  Sao  Paulo,  i.  (1905)  pp.  19-32. 
t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1904)  pp.  207-17  (15  figs.). 

\  Arb.  Entomol.  Bureau  Landw.,  v.  (1904)  p.  232  (4  pis.,  Urnap,  and  29  figs.).    See 
also  Zool.  Zentralbl.,  xii.  (1905)  pp.  344-8. 

§  Arch.  Zool.  Exp.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  132-44  (1  pi.). 
||  Bull.  Soc.  Entoin.  ltal.,  xxxvi.  (1904)  pp.  179-80. 
\  Smithsonian  Misc.  Collections,  xlvii.  (1905)  pp.  365-72  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  593 

sarasinorum  Karsch)  living  in  a  sponge-like  nest  of  ramified  canals,  often 
attached  to  branches  of  trees  or  to  leaves  of  the  prickly  pear.  The 
number  in  a  nest  varies  from  40-100,  males  and  females  usually  in  the 
proportion  of  7  to  1,  though  sometimes  the  females  are  less  numerous. 
A  number  often  co-operate  to  achieve  a  definite  end,  e.g.  securing  victims  ; 
and  food  is  shared  without  quarrel.  The  absence  of  much  disparity  in 
size  and  colour  between  the  sexes,  the  friendly  and  communal  living  of 
the  males  and  females  in  the  same  nest,  and  the  happy,  almost  affec- 
tionate relation  that  subsists  between  the  sexes,  indicate  a  high  order  of 
development.  The  maternal  feeling  for  the  offspring  verges  almost  on 
self  sacrifice. 

In  an  appendix  it  is  noted  by  Mr.  N.  Banks  that  the  author  seems 
to  be  unaware  of  other  records  of  social  spiders,  e.g.  Stegodyphus  gregalis 
from  South  Africa  (0.  Pickard  Cambridge),  Uloborus  republicanus 
from  Venezuela  (Simon). 

<•  Crustacea. 

Metamorphoses  of  Hermit  Crab.* — Millett  T.  Thompson  has  made 
.a  study  of  this  interesting  life-history.  The  adult  Eiipagurus  has  a 
thorough-going  dextral  asymmetry.  Scarcely  any  system  of  organs  in 
the  body  escapes  some  modification.  However,  with  the  exception  of 
the  flexor  muscles  and  arteries  of  the  abdomen,  the  homologies  with 
other  Decapods  are  clear.  But  the  diagonal  muscle  bands  and  the 
peculiar  division  of  the  superior  abdominal  artery  into  two  trunks  are 
interpretable  only  from  a  study  of  the  larva.  The  muscles  are  then 
shown  to  be  a  greatly  degenerated  loop-enveloping  system,  from  which 
the  transversalis  muscle  has  been  lost.  The  arteries  resolve  themselves 
into  supra-abdominal  and  a  new  vessel,  primarily  derived  from  the 
second  segmental  artery  of  the  right  side,  and  probably  peculiar  to 
Pagurids. 

The  development  is  concentrated.  There  are  four  stages  in  the 
zosea  phase,  the  last  of  which  is  a  metazoaBa.  The  post-zoffial  or  glau- 
cothoe  phase  consists  of  one  stage,  which  is  macruran  in  general  form 
and  from  the  first  presents  a  mingling  of  adult  and  larval  characters. 
Details  of  this  are  given. 

The  metamorphosis  by  which  the  structures  attain  the  adult  type 
commences  before  a  shell  is  taken,  and  the  stimulus  of  a  shell  is  not 
necessary  for  its  completion.  But  the  shell  is  very  important  in  affect- 
ing the  duration  of  metamorphoses  and  for  the  health  of  the  animal. 
The  anatomical  modifications  that  appear  during  the  glaucothoe  stage 
are,  with  but  one  exception,  uninfluenced  by  either  the  presence,  absence, 
•or  form  of  the  shell.  The  exception  is  found  in  the  retention  of  rudi- 
mentary pleopods  on  the  right  side  of  the  body  in  the  sixth  stage, 
though  typically  at  this  period  appendages  should  be  absent  from 
this  side. 

There  is  evidence  that  hermit  crabs  show  a  preference  for  dextral 
shells,  and  the  author  thinks  there  is  a  strong  presumption  in  favour  of 
•the  view  that  the  asymmetry  was,  from  the  first,  a  result  of  life  in  dextrally 
spiral  shells. 

*  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xxxi.  (1903)  received  1905,  pp.  147-209  (7,pls.). 


594     SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

New  Mysid  Genus.* — G.  Hlig  describes  Echinomysis  chuni  g.  et. 
sp.  n.,  captured  by  the  German  Deep-Sea  Expedition  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean  and  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  extraordinarily 
rich  covering  of  spines  on  the  cephalothorax  and  limbs. 

Atlantic  Penseidse  and  Stenopidae.f — E.  L.  Bouvier  reports  on 
collections  made  in  the  eastern  Atlantic.  Notable  species  of  Penaeids 
of  extreme  rarity  are  Hemipeneeopsis  villosus,  Grimaldiella  richardi,  and 
Aristropsis  armata.  A  very  interesting  Stenopid  is  Spongicola  evoluta, 
which  preserves  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  traces  of  its  phyletic  evolution. 

New  Schizopods.J — E.  W.  L.  Holt  and  W.  M.  Tattersall  report  on 
a  collection  of  Schizopods  made  by  Mr.  George  Murray  during  the  cruise 
of  the  '  Oceana '  in  1898.  They  describe  two  new  species,  Katerythrops 
oceanct  and  Gnathophausia  drqxinephora. 

New  Cave  Isopod.§ — E.  G.  Racovitza  describes  Typhlocirolana 
moraguesi  g.  et.  sp.  n.,  an  aquatic  Isopod  from  the  dragon  grotto  in 
Majorca.  The  grotto  has  a  rich  and  varied  fauna,  including  various 
Diptera,  a  Hemipteron,  two  spiders,  a  species  of  Lithobius,  a  terrestrial 
Isopod,  two  aquatic  Amphipods,  a  Planarian,  and  the  above-mentioned 
representative  of  the  family  Cirolanidee. 

Female  Gonads  of  Cypridina.|| — A.  Ramsch  describes  the  ovary, 
oviduct,  external  genital  parts,  and  oogenesis  of  Cypridina  mediterranean 

Annulata. 

Oligochaeta  of  Lake  Baikal.  1J — W.  Michaelsen  contributes  the  first 
memoir  dealing  with  the  results  of  Professor  A.  Korotneff 's  expedition 
to  Lake  Baikal,  and  describes  the  Oligochaeta.  Thirty-six  species  were 
found,  fourteen  of  them  new.  The  remarkable  feature  is  that  they 
mostly  represent  primitive  archaic  types,  phyletically  ancient.  Thus 
the  genus  Lamprodrilus  is  ancestral  to  all  the  Lurnbriculidge  ;  Teleuscolex 
is  perhaps  even  older  ;  Propappus  is  at  the  root  of  the  Enchytrasidaj. 
Lake  Baikal  is  doubtless  unique,  "  a  zoological-palasontological  museum  " 
in  which  there  still  live  organisms  of  ancient  days  mingled  with  more 
modern  forms.  It  is  not  a  relict  sea,  but  a  persistent  lake  of  great  geo- 
logical antiquity,  which  has  proved  an  asylum  for  many  types  which 
have  long  since  disappeared  elsewhere.  The  series  of  memoirs  thus 
begun  deserves  hearty  welcome. 

Annelids   of  Cette.** — Albert  Soulier  continues  his  description  of 
the  Annelids  of  Cette,  dealing  with  the  genera  Pygospio,  Sphairosyllis, 
Grubea,  Spermosyllis,  Exotokas,  Syllis,  and  Polycirrus. 

Phenomena  of  Asexual  Reproduction  in  Salmacina  and  Filigrana.ff 
— A.  Malaquin  finds  that  asexual  multiplication  in  these  types  is  pre- 

*  Zool.  Anzeig..  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  151-3  (2  figs.). 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  981-3. 

X  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  1-10  (2  pis.;. 

§  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxx.  (1905)  pp.  72-80. 

||  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  133-6  (1  fig.). 

•f  Wissensch.  Ergeb.  Zool.  Exp.  Baikal-See.     Erste  Lieferung,  Kiew  and  Berlinr 
1905.  pp.  1-69  (9  figs.). 

**  Mem.  Sect.  Sci.  Acad.  Montpellier,  iii.  (1904)  pp.  319-74  (12  figs.). 
tt  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1484-7.    t 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  595 

pared  for  by  the  accumulation  in  each  of  the  posterior  segments  of  four 
special  histogenetic  masses,  situated  between  the  muscular  bundles  and 
the  ccelomic  endothelium.  At  the  maximum  development,  these  masses, 
formed  of  yellowish  cells,  distend  the  rings  of  the  Serpulid  and  protrude 
like  a  hernia  into  the  body-cavity.  This  histogenetic  material  occupies 
precisely  the  same  place  as  the  sex-cells  occupy  in  the  sexual  individuals. 
The  material  for  proliferation  is  homologous  with  the  sexual  material. 

Integumentary  Structures  of  Sipunculids.* — Marcel  A.  Herubel 
has  made  a  comparative  study  of  the  papillae,  spines,  and  hooks  of 
Sipunculids.  A  group  of  hooks  never  co-exists  with  a  group  of  spines  ; 
all  the  hooks  of  any  one  species  belong  to  the  same  type  ;  the  papillae 
are  almost  generically  constant ;  the  papillae  and  hooks  are  most  de- 
veloped in  species  from  the  warmer  waters. 

New  Species  of  Echiurus. f — A.  Skorikow  refers  to  two  specimens  of 
an  Echiurus  obtained  in  1902  by  the  '  Puritan '  near  Capri,  from  a 
depth  of  1100-1500  metres  or  more.  Lo  Bianco  named  them  Echiurus 
pallasi,  but  Skorikow  doubts  if  this  species  occurs  in  the  Mediterranean. 
An  examination  of  the  specimens  showed  that  they  differ  from  E.  pallasi 
Pall  (or  more  correctly  E.  echiurus  Pall.),  e.g.  in  the  relatively  large 
and  distinct  funnel  of  the  segmental  organ. 

Blood-vessels  of  Rhynchobdellids.f  —  Emily  Arnesen  has  studied 
Branchellion,  Pontobdella,  Glossiphonia,  and  other  leeches  with  reference 
to  the  fine  structure  of  the  blood-vessels.  She  has  given  particular- 
attention  to  the  dorsal  blood-vessel  and  its  valves.  The  lining  of  the 
vessels  consists  of  an  internal  muscular  and  a  median  connective-tissue 
layer,  which  is  covered  externally  by  ccelomic  epithelium  (Kowalevsky's 
"cellules  acides").  The  muscular  layer  consists  of  muscle-cells  which 
are  to  begin  with  of  the  same  type  as  those  in  the  rest  of  the  body. 
The  valves  seem  to  arise  as  pouch-like  invaginations  of  the  corners 
between  the  septal  lamellae  and  the  wall  of  the  blood-vessel.  It  is  prob- 
able, as  Kupffer  suggested,  that  they  form  blood  corpuscles. 

Oogenesis  of  Branchellion.§ — Ch.  Perez  and  E.  Gendre  report  some 
interesting  phenomena  in  the  oogenesis  of  this  specialised  leech.  In 
the  germinal  portion  of  the  ovary  the  cells  are  found  in  groups  of  two, 
one  within  the  other.  The  external  cell  distends  into  a  sort  of  shell, 
the  internal  cell  forms  a  spherical  morula.  Among  the  uniform  cells  of 
this  morula  one  becomes  central  and  increases  in  size.  It  is  merely  a 
cytophore,  however,  for  it  is  one  of  the  superficial  cells  that  increases 
greatly  in  size  and  becomes  the  ovum. 

Nematohelminthes. 

Structure  and  Relationships  of  Gordiidse.jj — Max  Rauther  con- 
cludes from  his  detailed  anatomical  study  of  Gordiidae  that  they  are 
nearly  related  to  Annelids.      Their  structure  sheds  light   on  that  of 

*  Bull.  Soc.  Zool.  France,  xxx.  (1905)  pp.  90-97  (2  figs.). 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  217-21. 

j  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxviii.  (1905)  pp.  771-806  (3  pis.). 

§  P.  V.  Soc.  Sci.  Bordeaux,  1904,  pp.  108-9. 

||  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  1-94  (4  pis.). 


696  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Annelids,  especially  as  regards  the  ccelom  and  genital  organs.  There 
is  no  possibility  of  derivation  from  Platykelminths  or  Trochozoa,  but 
there  may  be  some  connection  with  a  Scyphozoon-like  ancestral  type. 
The  completely  segmented  type  of  body  has  arisen  from  a  state  with 
"  pseudornetamerism "  including  gonomerism,  which  began  in  the 
common  ancestors  of  the  Gordiidse  and  the  free-living  Annelids, 
either  independently  or  in  direct  connection  with  the  cyclomeric  gonads 
of  Scyphozoa.  The  segmentation  of  the  mesoderm  arose  in  dependence 
on  gonomerism  ;  while  neuromerism  and  external  segmentation  are  to 
be  regarded  as  locomotor  adaptations. 

Monograph  on  Acanthocephala  of  Birds.* — L.  de  Marval  follows 

Hamann  in  recognising  three  genera — Echimrhynchus,  Gigantorhynchiis, 

and  Neorhynchus  ;  he  has  studied  as  far  as  possible  for  each  species,  (1) 

the  form,  dimensions,  musculature,  and  subcutaneous  canals  ;  (2)  the 

form,  size,  and  structure  of  the  eggs;  (3)  the  form  and  dimensions  of 

the  "  cou  "  and  "  faux-cou  "  ;  (4)  the  rostrum  and  its  hooks.     He  deals 

with  32  species,  all  of   Echinorhynchiis,  except    Gigantorhynchiis  com- 

pressus  Rudolphi,  G.  mirabilis  de  Marval,  and  Neorhynchus  hemignathi 

Shipley. 

Platyhelminthes . 

Copulation  in  Cestodes.f — C.  v.  Janicki  describes  Bertia  rigida  sp.  n. 
from  a  species  of  Phalangista,  and  Cittotcenia  zschokkei  sp.  n.,  both  from 
New  Guinea.  In  studying  the  latter,  he  found  that  there  is,  as  the 
proglottis  grows  older,  an  atrophy  of  the  vagina.  The  facts  which  he 
describes  lead  him  to  the  interesting  conclusion  that  in  the  copulation 
the  younger  proglottides  are  passive,  being  practically  female,  with  the 
testes  still  undeveloped,  while  the  mature  proglottides,  though  the  female 
organs  are  in  full  development,  function  as  males,  the  absence  of  a 
vagina  preventing  normal  reception  of  sperms.  Thus  all  the  ova  in  the 
ripe  joints  are  fertilised  by  sperms  received  in  youth  in  the  large  recep- 
taculum  seminis.  There  is  no  direct  communication  between  the  testes 
and  the  receptaculum  seminis  of  the  same  proglottis,  so  that  internal 
autogamy  is  out  of  the  question.  The  insemination  of  the  immature 
joints  of  a  young  strobila,  which  has  no  ripe  joints,  must  of  course  be 
effected  from  another  older  strobila. 

New  Cestode  Larva  Parasitic  in  Man.J — Isao  Ijima  describes 
under  the  title  Pier ocerco ides  prolifer  g.  et  sp.  n.  the  larva  of  a  Bothrio- 
cephalid  (?)  found  in  enormous  numbers,  especially  in  the  subcutaneous 
tissues,  in  a  woman  from  Tokyo.  Most  of  the  worms  were  in  capsules, 
a  few  were  free.  The  worm  has  the  power  of  dividing  and  multiplying 
within  the  capsule,  and  it  can  also  proliferate  by  budding.  It  shows 
a  far-reaching  structural  agreement,  especially  in  the  musculature  and 
excretory  system,  with  the  Bothriocephalid  larva  Sparganum  of  Diesing, 
as  well  as  with  Cobbold's  " Ligula  mansoni" 

Maturation,  Fertilisation,  and  Development  in  Zoogonus  mirus.§ 
R.  Goldschmidt  has  studied  this  Distomid  found  in  the  hind-gut  of 

*  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  195-387  (4  pie.). 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  127-31  (2  figs.). 

X  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xx.  (1905)  Art.  7,  pp.  1-24  (1  pi.). 

§  Zool.  Jahrb.  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  G07-54  (3  ph.  and  1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  597 

Labrus  merula.  It  is  very  favourable  for  a  study  of  early  stages,  since 
the  egg  has  no  shell  and  has  very  large  cells.  We  cannot  do  more  than 
refer  to  three  points.  There  is  no  trace  of  true  yolk-cells,  and  the 
early  nutrition  of  the  embryo  must  be  exclusively  from  the  uterine 
wall.  The  enveloping  membrane  is  formed  from  cells  contributed  by 
the  equivalent  of  the  yolk-gland.  In  the  maturation  there  is  no  pseudo- 
reduction  ;  there  is  the  normal  number  (not  half  the  normal  number) 
•of  chromosomes  in  the  nucleus,  and  there  is  separating  off  of  entire 
chromosomes  in  the  second  maturation  division. 

Oogenesis  and  Development  of  Fasciola  hepatica.* — W.  Schubmann 
describes  the  development  of  the  oocytes  in  the  ovarian  csecal  tubes, 
their  connection  to  the  wall  by  a  nutritive  stalk,  their  discharge  into 
the  oviduct,  and  the  degeneration  of  a  large  number  into  nutritive 
material.  The  history  of  the  yolk-cells  is  followed  :  28-30  surround 
each  ovum.  The  egg-shell  arises  by  direct  differentiation  from  the 
shell-gland  secretion  which  envelops  the  ovum  and  its  companion 
yolk-cells. 

Maturation  sets  in  after  the  formation  of  the  egg-shell,  after  the  egg 
has  reached  the  beginning  of  the  uterus.  Three  polar  bodies  are 
formed.  The  spermatozoon  enters  during  the  formation  of  the  first 
polar  body.  The  egg  remains  in  the  uterus  till  the  two  resting 
pronuclei  are  formed  ;  the  further  changes  occur  after  the  eggs  are 
liberated. 

Segmentation  leads  to  the  formation  of  a  macromere  and  several 
micromeres,  which  divide  actively  and  surround  the  former.  Mean- 
while the  yolk-cells  disrupt  within  the  shell  and  furnish  nutriment  for 
the  growing  embryo.  The  ensheathing  membrane  is  of  embryonic 
origin  from  liberated  ectoderm  cells,  and  not  a  product  of  the  yolk-cells. 

Planaria  alpina  in  Belg-ium.t — L.  Fredericq  has  found  this 
characteristic  Alpine  Planarian  on  the  plateau  of  Baraque-Michel, 
within  the  Belgian  frontier.  It  is  a  new  acquisition  for  the  Belgian 
fauna. 

Eumesostominse.! — Alex.  Luther  has  worked  through  a  large 
number  of  these  fresh-water  Turbellarians,  and  gives  a  connected 
account  of  their  structure.  He  recognises  three  tribes  :  I.  Olisthanellida, 
including  the  genus  Olisthanella  Voigt ;  II.  Typhloplanida,  including 
Strongylostoma  Oerst,  Rhynchomesostoma,  g.  n.,  Tetracelis  Hempr.  and 
Ehrenb.,  Castrada  0.  Schm.,  Typhloplana  Hempr.  and  Ehrenb. ; 
III.  Mesostomida,  including  Mesostoma  Oerst  and  Bothromeso stoma 
Braun. 

Development  of  Fresh-water  Dendrocoela.§  —  E.  Mattiesen  has 
studied  Planaria  torva  and  other  forms,  with  especial  reference  to  the 
formation  and  contents  of  the  cocoon,  flie  maturation  of  the  ovum,  the 
changes  in  the  segmentation-nucleus  leading  on  to  the  first  mitosis,  and 
the  early  stages  in  development.     We  cannot  do  more  than  refer  to  one 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  571-606  (2  pis.). 

t  Bull.  Classe  Soi.  Acad.  Belg.,  v.  (1905)  pp.  199-200. 

%  Zeitschr.  wise.  Zool.,  Ixxvii.  (1904)  pp.  1-273  (9  pis.  and  16  figs.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  274-361  (4  pis.  and  3  figs.). 


598  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

general  conclusion  of  much  interest,  that  there  is  no  strict  definition  of 
germinal  layers  in  the  development. 

Structure  of  Carinoma.* — 1).  Bergendal  has  made  a  study  of  the 
structure  and  affinities  of  this  Nemertine.  The  head  shows  the  typical 
body  musculature,  an  external  circular  layer,  and  an  internal  longi- 
tudinal. The  brain  lies,  as  in  Heteronemertini,  outside  the  outer 
circular  muscle-layer  and  inside  the  outer  longitudinal  muscle-layer, 
and  not  in  the  middle  of  a  layer,  as  in  Cephalothrix.  The  histology  of 
the  head  is  discussed  at  length. 

The  cephalic  grooves  of  Carinoma  may  correspond  to  the  cerebral 
organs  of  Carinella  ;  the  mid-gut  has  deep  pouches,  as  Burger  reported. 

It  is  impossible  to  regard  Carinoma  as  occupying  a  position  between 
primitive  Nemertines  and  Hoplonemertini ;  it  is  nearer  to  Carinella  and 
the  Heteronemertini  than  to  Cephalothrix.  It  probably  arose  from  a 
form  intermediate  between  Carinellidge  and  Heteronemertini.  The 
memoir  also  includes  some  discussion  of  Carinella  annulata  and 
Hubrechtia. 

Incertee  Sedis. 

Ptychodera  erythrsea.f  —  Ch.  Gravier  describes  this  species  from 
Djibuti,  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden. 

Echinoderma. 

Regeneration  in  Linckia  diplax.$ — Vernon  L.  Kellogg  has  studied 
the  regeneration  of  this  sky-blue  starfish,  conspicuous  on  the  surface  of 
the  coral  reefs  guarding  the  harbour  of  Apia  (Samoa).  There  seems 
to  be  no  doubt  of  the  capacity  of  an  arm  torn  off  at  some  distance  from 
the  disc  to  regenerate  a  complete  new  animal  from  its  proximal  surface. 
In  a  segment  of  an  arm  regeneration  may  proceed  at  both  mutilated 
ends.  Two  figures  show  an  arm  regenerating  a  disc  with  a  new  mouth 
and  two  madreporites  (the  normal  number  in  this  species). 

Merogonic  Development  of  Sea-Urchin  Ova.  §  —  M.  Krahelska 
recalls  the  fact  that  the  first  experiments  on  merogony  were  made  by 
Rostafinski  ||  in  1877.  She  has  herself  worked  with  the  ova  of  Psam- 
mechinus  microtuberculatus,  and  finds  that  normal  segmentation  occurs 
only  in  fragments  which  have  rounded  themselves  off  after  separation. 
Two  forms  of  abnormal  development  are  distinguished,  which  seem  to 
be  due  rather  to  the  alteration  of  the  cytoplasmic  organisation  than  to 
the  absence  of  a  female  pronucleus.  The  rounding  off,  the  central 
localisation  of  the  mitotic  figure,  and  autotomy  of  much  altered  portions 
of  the  cytoplasm,  are  all  expressions  of  the  self -regulating  capacity  of 
the  egg-fragment,  which  seeks  to  reconstitute  normal  relations. 

Internal  Secretion  in  Gonads  of  Phyllophorus  urna.l — Ach. 
Russo  and  G.  Polara  have  studied  the  peritoneal  investment  of  the 
genital  casca  in  this  Holothurian.      Some  of  the  cells  are  supporting 

*  Lunds  Univ.  Arsskrift,  xxxix.  (1903)  received  1905,  Afd.  ii.,  No.  2,  pp.  1-87 
(2  pis.).  t  Bull.  Mus.  Hist.  Nat.  Paris,  1905,  pp.  46-51  (4  figs.). 

\  Journ.  Exp.  Zool.,  pp.  353-6  (6  figs.). 

§  Bull.  Interuat.  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1905,  pp.  49-65  (3  pis.). 
||  "Dividua  ovi  natura,"  Acad.  Sci.  Cracovie,  1877. 
i  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  13-19  (6  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  599 

elements,  but  others  are  glandular,  and  the  secretion  of  the  latter  passes 
into  the  csecum  and  collects  in  a  schizoccelic  space  in  the  connective 
tissue  between  the  peritoneal  layer  and  the  sex-cells.  The  material 
seems  to  be  used  by  the  sex-cells,  and  probably  by  the  viviparously 
developed  embryos. 

New  Holothurian  from  French  Coast.* — R.  Kcehler  and  C.  Vaney 
describe  Pseudocucumis  cuenoti  sp.  n.  found  near  Archachon  between  20 
and  50  metres.  It  approaches  P.  mixta  from  Arctic  waters,  but  differs 
in  the  form  of  the  radial  pieces  of  the  calcareous  ring,  in  the  number  of 
tentacles,  and  in  the  distribution  of  the  tube-feet.  With  the  exception 
of  P.  mixta  and  this  new  species,  all  the  known  species  of  Pseudocucumis 
are  from  Indo-Pacific  regions.  Another  point  of  interest  is  that  P.  cuenoti 
seems  to  be  a  transitional  form  between  the  genera  Pseudocucumis  and 
Phyllophorus. 

Northern  Synaptids.f — Hjaimar  Ostergren  describes  Synapta  ber- 
gensis  sp.  n.,  S.  decaria  sp.  n.,  S.  inhcerens  (0.  F.  Miiller),  Labidoplax 
buskii  (M'Intosh),  L.  media  sp.  n.,  and  Myriotrochus  th&eli  sp.  n.,  and 
discusses  the  value  of  the  various  specific  distinctions. 

Ccelentera.l 

History  of  Investigation  of  Hydroids. f —  M.  Bedot  continues  his 
painstaking  account  of  researches  on  Hydroids.  The  first  part  brought 
the  record  down  to  1821,  the  present  part  deals  with  the  period  from 
1821  to  1850.  He  gives  a  bibliographical  index,  a  statement  of  the 
various  classifications  proposed,  and  a  list  of  the  species  with  synonyms. 

Polyparium  ambulans  Korotneff.§— Oscar  Carlgren  does  not  believe 
in  Polyparium  ambulans,  and  says  that  any  naturalist  who  works  by 
the  seaside  for  a  month  or  two  may  find  a  Poly 'par wm-like  organism, 
namely,  a  separated  portion  of  a  sea-anemone,  as  indeed  was  suggested 
by  Ehlers  in  1887.  He  gives  circumstantial  reasons  for  believing  that 
Polyparium  was  a  torn-off  and  healed-up  portion  of  the  most  distal 
region  of  an  Actinian  belonging  to  the  family  Stoickactidaj.  He  thinks, 
therefore,  that  the  remarkable  organism  which  Korotneff  described  has 
had  its  day,  and  should  now  disappear  from  the  list  of  Ccelentera.  "We 
have  without  Polyparium  quite  enough  of  zoological  paradoxes." 

Magellan  and  Chilian  Hydroids. ||— CI.  Hartlaub  reports  on  various 
collections  of  Hydroids  from  the  Patagonian  coast,  the  Falkland  Islands, 
Magellan  Straits,  Chilian  coast,  etc.  He  finds  undeniable  resemblances 
between  the  arctic  and  boreal  and  the  sub-antarctic  Hydroid  fauna,  and 
has  many  interesting  zoogeographical  notes. 

Southern  Antipatharians.1T — J.  Arthur  Thomson  reports  on  the 
small  collection  of  Antipatharians  made  by  the  Scottish  Antarctic  Ex- 
pedition.    Twelve  specimens  were  obtained  by  the  '  Scotia,'  representing 

*  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  395-400  (6  figs.). 
t  Arch.  Zool.  Exp.,  iii.  (1905)  Notes  et  Revue,  No,  7  pp.  133-144  (2  figs.). 
J  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  xiii.  (1905)  p.  1-183. 
§  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxv  (1905)  pp.  253-6. 

||  Zool.  Jahrb.,  1905,  Supplement  vi.,  Bd.  3,  Heft  3,  pp.  497-714  (1  map  and  142 
figs.).  t  p™c.  R.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  76-9. 


600  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

three  species, — Bathypnthes  patula  var.  plenispina  Brook,  R.  alternata 
Brook,  and  B.  bifida  sp.  n.  In  the  new  species,  a  slender  basal  piece 
Tises  vertically  to  a  height  of  15  mm.,  and  then  bifurcates  into  two  long 
branches  which  extend  in  opposite  directions  for  about  16  cm.  The 
most  remarkable  feature  in  the  polyps  is  the  length  (up  to  3  mm.)  of  the 
lateral  tentacles. 

Porifera. 

Chilian  Sponges.* — J.  Thiele  reports  on  the  silicious  and  horny 
sponges  of  Plate's  collection,  including  80  species  many  of  which  are 
new. 

Protozoa. 

Genus  Amoeba.! — E.  Penard  discusses  the  genus  Amceba,  which,  in 
spite  of  acknowledged  difficulties,  he  maintains  to  be  "autonomous" 
and  separable  from  the  numerous  pseud-amcebee  which  are  familiar  to 
all  naturalists.  Too  many  young  forms  and  mere  phases  have  been 
thrown  into  the  "  Pot  aux  amibes,"  but  Penard  does  not  despair  of  the 
genus — "  genre  embrouille,  veritable  chaos  peut-etre,  mais  chaos  dont  on 
sortira  quelque  jour." 

Protozoa  in  Human  Faeces 4 — A.  Castellani  describes  Nyctotherus 
africanus  sp.  n.,  in  the  fasces  of  a  Baganda  native  affected  with  sleeping 
sickness.  The  most  interesting  feature  of  the  parasite  is  in  the  macro- 
nucleus,  which  is  very  large,  rounded  in  shape,  and  has,  as  Schaudinn 
described  in  Nyctotherus  faba,  its  chromatin  collected  in  four  large 
masses  at  the  periphery.  In  a  case  of  chronic  dysentery,  Castellani 
found  Entamoeba  undulans  sp.  n.,  an  oval  or  roundish  form  without 
flagella,  with  one  pseudopodium  at  a  time,  and  with  a  continuous  rapid 
undulatory  movement  from  one  extremity  to  the  other,  this  being  due 
to  the  presence  of  an  undulatory  membrane. 

Radiolarian  Skeleton  .§ — V.  Hacker  points  out  that  the  mechanical 
interpretation  of  the  skeletal  structure  of  Radiolarians  requires  to  be 
supplemented  by  a  biological  interpretation  showing  the  functional  im- 
port of  the  various  architectural  arrangements.  It  is  this  latter  mode  of 
interpretation  which  he  has  very  convincingly  worked  out  in  the  present 
memoir.  Thus,  to  take  a  particular  case,  he  shows  how  the  three-jointed 
elastic  system,  illustrated  by  the  radial  spines  of  Auloscena  verticillus,  is 
in  its  minutest  details  adapted  to  the  function  of  supporting  the  sarcode- 
membrane.  The  candelabra-like  arrangement  of  the  appendicular  parts 
is  adapted  to  keep  the  strongly  developed  sarcode-membrane  at  a 
uniform  distance  from  the  lattice-work  of  the  shell,  while  in  A.pelagka 
the  structure  of  the  skeleton  is  adapted  to  the  finger -like  evaginations 
and  corresponding  deep  depressions  of  the  soft  body.  In  the  same 
genus  we  find  different  adaptations  to  the  conditions  of  the  deep  cold 
abysses,  and  to  the  planktonic  conditions  of  the  warm  surface  water.  It 
is  suggested  that  the  biological  interpretation  of  the  Radiolarian  skeleton, 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.  (1905)  Supplement  vi.,  Bd.  3,  Heft  3,  pp.  407-96  (7  pis.). 

t  Rev,  Suisse  Zool.,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  401-9. 

\  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xxxviii.  (1905)  pp  66-9  (5  figs.). 

§  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  581-648  (28  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANV,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  601 

which  implies  a  knowledge  of  the  relations  between  the  skeleton  and  the 
soft  body,  will  be  of  service  in  reference  to  the  architecture  of  Hexacti- 
nellid  sponges.  In  an  appendix  Hacker  gives  an  account  of  the  Phae- 
osphreria  of  the  "  Yaldivia  "  and  the  "  Gauss." 

New  Hsematozoon  in  a  Squirrel.* — J.  J.  Vassal  describes  from 
Scuirus  griseimanus  from  Annam  a  new  form  of  Hcemammba,  which 
closely  approaches  Hcemamceba  malaria  of  man.  It  may  be  that  the 
squirrel  takes  man's  place  in  the  life-cycle  of  the  malaria  parasite. 
But  in  Vassal's  experiments  the  Hcemamaiba  from  the  squirrel  was  not 
inoculable  into  man,  macaque  monkey,  rabbit,  guinea-pig,  or  squirrel. 

Microsporidian  in  Crabs. f — Ch.  Perez  describes  the  structure  and 
life-history  of  a  new  Microsporidian  (Thelohania  mmiadis  sp.  n.)  which 
infests  the  muscles  of  the  shore  crab  {Garcinus  mamas).  It  seems  to 
affect  the  nutrition  of  the  crab,  to  lead  to  the  suppression  of  a  moult,, 
and  thus  to  favour  the  growth  of  epizoic  organisms  on  the  carapace. 

New  Blood  Parasite  of  Frog.J — James  Stebbing,  jun.,  describes  a 
large  worm-like  parasite,  which  he  calls  Karyolysus  clamatw,  from  the 
blood  of  Rana  clamata.  It  is  able  to  enter  and  leave  the  blood  cor- 
puscles with  the  greatest  ease  and  rapidity,  and  always  mutilates  the 
corpuscles  badly  in  so  doing.  It  seems  to  attack  both  the  leucocytes  and 
the  erythrocytes,  but  shows  a  marked  preference  for  the  latter. 

Trypanosome  of  Dourine.§ — A.  Lingard  discusses  this  parasite  of 
horses.  A  stallion  or  mare  usually  contracts  the  disease  during  coitus. 
In  the  stallion  the  preferential  sites  for  the  development  appear  to  be 
the  extremity  of  the  penis  and  later  its  sheath  ;  in  the  mare  the  vulva 
appears  to  be  the  usual  seat.  The  Dourine  plague — a  form  of  nettle-rash 
— is  described,  and  the  changes  that  take  place  in  the  form  of  the 
trypanosome  during  the  persistance  of  the  plague  are  discussed.  Flies 
can  convey  the  disease  to  healthy  susceptible  animals.  Certain  breeds 
of  horses  can  maintain  the  "  materies  morbi "  of  Dourine  in  their  systems 
for  periods  of  from  one  to  four  years. 

Sexual  Reproduction  in  Actinomyxidia.||  —  M.  Caullery  and 
F.  Mesnil  have  studied  the  life-history  of  Sphmractinomyzon  stolci  C.  et  M. 
a  Protozoan  parasite  of  marine  Oligochsets,  and  have  observed  a  con- 
jugation of  gametes  with  some  degree  of  anisogamy. 

Trypanosoma  Paddse.*" — M.  Thiroux  gives  an  account  of  the  struc- 
ture of  this  Trypanosome  which  Laveran  discovered  in  Paclda  oryzivora. 
He  has  successfully  inoculated  five  species  of  birds,  but  six  others, 
besides  rats,  mice  and  frogs,  proved  refractory.  In  the  Padda  it  occurs 
along  with  Halteridium  damlewskyi,  but  the  two  are  quite  distinct,  and 
there  must  be  a  double  infection. 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  224-32. 

t  P.  V.  Soc.  Sci.  Bordeaux,  1904,  pp.  107-8. 

X  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xxxviii.  (1905)  pp.  315-18  (2  pis.). 

§  Op.  cit.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  537-47. 

||   Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1482-4. 

«j  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  65-83  (2  pis.). 


602  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Spirochseta  pallida.*—  F.  Schaudinn  and  E.  Hoffman  announce 
the  discovery  of  two  varieties  of  Spirochceta  in  venereal  lesions.  These 
they  name  Sp.  refringens  and  pallida.  The  former  is  coarser  and  stains 
darkly,  and  is  found  in  surface  lesions,  while  the  latter  is  more  slender 
and  difficult  to  stain,  and  is  found  in  primary  sores,  condylomata,  and 
enlarged  lymphatic  glands.  Sp.  pallida  is  actively  motile,  its  movements 
being  undulatory  in  character.  It  measures  from  4-14  /a  in  length  and  is 
less  than  \  /<.  thick.  The  number  of  coils,  which  are  closely  set,  varies 
from  6-14.  It  is  extremely  resistant  to  dyes,  Giemsa's  Eosin-Azurt 
mixture  being  the  most  effective.  Spirochsetae  are  probably  Protozoa, 
and  differ  from  spirilla  in  the  character  of  their  movements,  in  the 
flexibility  of  their  bodies,  the  possession  of  an  undulatory  membrane, 
and  a  resting  stage.  One  interesting  and  important  point  in  connection 
with  their  life-history  is  that  a  Spirochseta  stage  is  a  phase  in  the  cycle 
of  a  Trypanosome. 

*  T.  Ziemanni,  Deutsche  Med.  Wochenschr',  1905,  No.  18.     See  also  Centralbl. 
Bakt.,  I*"  Abt.Ref.,  xxxvi.  (1905)  pp.  759-61. 
t  J.R.M.S.,  1905,  p.  115. 


■*-He^t-»- 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  603 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Structure  and  Development. 
Vegetative. 

Anatomy  of  Catalpa  Hybrids.* — D.  P.  Penhallow  gives  the  results 
of  his  investigation  of  the  anatomical  details  of  the  stem  structure  of  a 
hybrid  Catalpa  of  doubtful  parentage  (the  so-called  Teas  hybrid),  and 
three  well-known  species.  He  concludes  that  hybrid  characters  are  ex- 
pressed in  the  structure  of  the  vascular  cylinder  as  well  as  in  external 
alterations  of  form  and  colour.  Also  that  the  Teas  hybrid  is  the  pro- 
duct of  a  cross  between  G.  Kmnpferi  and  G.  bignonioides,  and  that 
G.  speciosa  has  played  no  part  in  its  production.  This  confirms  the 
conclusion  already  reached  by  Professor  Sargent  on  the  basis  of  external 
morphology.  The  dominant  characters  of  the  hybrid,  as  expressed  in 
the  internal  structure,  are  those  of  the  Japanese  parent  as  similarly 
shown  in  the  external  characters.  The  resultant  characters  are  most 
strongly  shown  in  transverse  section,  less  so  in  the  tangential,  and  least 
of  all  in  the  radial.  The  author  regards  the  hybrid  as  representing  a 
new  species  comparable  to  the  large  number  of  species  of  Crataegus  now 
recognised  by  Professor  Sargent. 

Leaf-Nervation  in  some  Species  of  Bupleurum.f — H.  E.  Petersen 
describes  five  types  of  arrangement  of  the  secondary  and  tertiary  nerves 
in  a  series  of  species  of  this  genus,  and  establishes  therein  four  groups 
of  species.  There  is  considerable  doubt,  however,  as  to  whether  these 
represent  natural  groups. 

Water-Conducting  Systems  of  some  Desert  Plants.^ — W.  A. 
Cannon,  working  at  the  Desert  Botanical  Laboratory  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution,  has  made  a  comparative  examination  of  the  structure  of  a 
number  of  the  native  desert  trees  and  shrubs,  using  individuals  growing 
under  normal  desert  conditions  and  those  which  have  been  more  or  less 
irrigated,  that  is  to  say,  grown  in  greater  or  less  proximity  to  water.  He 
finds  that  branches  of  irrigated  plants  are  poorer  in  conductive  tissue 
than  branches  of  the  same  diameter  of  non-irrigated  plants.  The 
author  remarks  that  this  is  an  unexpected  condition  and  of  especial 
interest  in  view  of  the    small  development  of   the   water-conducting 

*  Ainer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  113-136  (8  figs,  in  text).   • 
t  Bot.  Tidsskr.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  343-376  (34  tigs,  in  text). 
X  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  397-408  (9  figs,  in  text). 


604  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

elements  in  the  non-irrigated  forms  of  the  Egyptian-Arabian  deserts  as 
given  by  Volkens.  The  irrigated  plants  have  a  greater  absolute  trans- 
piration, and  form  each  year  a  larger  amount  of  wood  than  non-irrigated 
plants  of  the  same  age  ;  but  the  composition  of  the  wood  is  different  in 
the  two  cases.  The  irrigated  plants  form  a  relatively  large  amount  of 
non-conductive  tissue  each  year,  while  the  reverse  is  true  of  the  non- 
irrigated  plants.  Hence  in  stems  of  equal  diameter,  but  not  of  the  same 
age,  the  non-irrigated  and  older  stems  have  more  vessels  than  the 
irrigated  and  younger.  The  ducts  were  usually  or  frequently  of  greater 
diameter  in  non-irrigated  stems. 

Reproductive. 

Megaspore  Membrane  in  Gymnosperms.* — R.  B.  Thomson  has 
investigated  the  coat  of  the  megaspore  in  Gymnosperms.  It  is  present 
in  all  except  the  Taxeae,  where  it  is  almost  or  entirely  absent.  It  con- 
sists of  two  layers,  the  outer  suberised,  the  inner  of  a  composite  character 
being  suberised  in  its  outer  portion  and  containing  cellulose  associated 
with  a  pectin-like  substance  in  its  inner  portion.  Briefly,  it  resembles 
the  microspore  coat  in  structure  and  composition.  In  the  Araucarieas 
the  suberised  outer  layer  is  absent.  The  forms  with  the  usual  type  of 
membrane  have  a  more  or  less  well-developed  tapetum,  derived  from  the 
sporogenous  tissue,  which  is  quite  distinct  from  that  derived  from 
nucellar  tissue.  From  the  relative  development  of  the  megaspore  coat 
and  of  the  tapetum,  the  author  concludes  that  the  Abieteas  are  the  most 
ancient  groups  of  Coniferales,  and  the  Taxeaa  the  most  recent ;  that  the 
Taxodieas  and  Podocarpeas  are  complex,  and  include  both  ancient  and 
recent  forms  ;  and  that  the  Cupressese  occupy  an  intermediate  position. 

Development  in  Ovule  and  Seed  of  Anona.f — N.  Roncati  has 
studied  the  gametophyte  and  embryology  in  Anona  Cherimolia.  He 
finds  a  row  of  four  megaspores  and  a  considerable  amount  of  parietal 
tissue.  From  the  lowest  megaspore  is  formed  a  narrow  and  much 
elongated  embryo-sac,  with  apparently  ephemeral  antipodal  cells.  In  the 
formation  of  endosperm  a  series  of  walls  appears  across  the  narrow  embryo- 
sac,  which  becomes  divided  into  a  linear  series  of  five  or  six  large-chambers, 
which  subsequently  become  filled  with  tissue.  The  embryo  has  no 
suspensor,  but  arises  from  a  globular  mass  of  cells.  The  rumination  of 
the  seed  is  explained  by  the  invasion  of  the  perisperm  by  infoldings, 
chiefly  of  the  inner  integument.  The  author  gives  the  name  "  reserve 
idioblasts  "  to  masses  of  nutritive  material  found  in  abundance  in  cells 
along  the  convolutions  of  the  rumination,  and  thought  to  supply  nutri- 
tion to  the  embryo  after  the  digestion  of  the  endosperm. 

Points  in  the  Life-History  of  Apocynum.J— T.  C.  Frye  and  E.  B. 
Blodgett  have  studied  the  minute  morphology  of  the  flower  and  the 

*  Univ.  Toronto  Biol.  Series  No.  4  (1905)  64  pp.,  5  pis.  See  also  Bot.  Gazette, 
xxxix.  (1905)  p.  429. 

t  Atti  Acad.  Gioenia  Sci.  Nat.  Catania,  xviii.,  Mem.  2  (1904)  26  pp.,  1  pi.  See 
also  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  p.  430. 

X  Bot.  Gazette,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  49-53  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  605 

gametophyte  stage  in  Apocynum  androscemifolium.  The  chief  points  of 
interest  are  the  origin  of  the  tapetum  from  the  homologue  of  the 
primary  sporogenous  layer  instead  of  the  primary  tapetal  layer,  the 
gradation  between  bilateral  and  tetrahedral  development  of  the  pollen 
grains,  the  absence  of  a  primary  parietal  cell  in  the  ovule,  and  the  single 
layer  of  cells  composing  the  nucellus.  There  is  also  a  general  similarity 
to  the  internal  structure  of  the  flower  in  Asclepias. 

Development  of  the  Embryo-sac  and  Embryo  of  Batrachium 
longirostris.* — L.  C.  Riddle  finds  that  the  number  of  stamens  in  the 
flower  of  this  species  varies  from  17  to  21,  the  number  of  carpels  being 
approximately  half  as  large  ;  the  mature  ovule  is  enveloped  by  a  single 
integument,  traces  of  a  second  being  seen  in  earlier  stages.  The 
microspore-mother-cell  forms  four  microspores ;  no  cases  of  more  were 
found,  as  has  been  reported  in  Ranunculus  Fkaria  and  other  Ranuncu- 
laceas.  Scarcely  one  in  four  of  the  microspores  germinates.  Just 
before  pollination  the  generative  cell  becomes  lenticular,  and  divides  to 
form  the  sperm  nuclei.  In  the  megasporangium  the  occurrence  of  two 
or  more  archesporial  cells  is  frequent ;  the  remains  of  other  archesporial 
cells  can  almost  always  be  seen  around  the  megasporocyte.  There  is  no 
evidence  of  the  cutting  off  of  any  primary  parietal  cell,  but  the  reduc- 
tion division  occurs  at  once.  The  lower  of  the  two  cells  divides  first, 
and  in  many  cases  the  division  of  the  upper  seemed  never  to  pass 
beyond  the  formation  of  the  spindle.  The  functional  megaspore  passes 
through  the  usual  divisions  ;  the  definitive  nucleus-  was  distinguished  by 
its  enormous  size.  Fertilisation  was  not  observed.  In  the  embryo  the 
suspensor  is  short,  and  does  not  seem  to  function  long  after  the  forma- 
tion of  the  endosperm.  The  cotyledons  are  small  compared  with  the 
hypocotyl,  and  the  embryo  is  straight.  The  entire  embryo-sac  is  filled 
with  endosperm  cells  of  varying  shapes  and  sizes,  which  contain  abun- 
dance of  starch.  The  inner  wall  of  the  carpel  is  made  up  of  a  layer  of 
elongated  cells,  which  are  longest  in  the  plane  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis  of  the  carpel.  Next  to  these  are  a  few  layers  elongated  at  right 
angles  to  the  first  and  rather  crescentic.  As  the  ovule  matures,  these 
cells  develop  thick  perforated  walls,  while  the  cells  beneath  the  epidermal 
layer  become  somewhat  separated  to  form  a  delicate  spongy  tissue. 

The  same  author  |  has  described  the  development  of  the  embryo-sac 
and  embryo  of  Staphylea  trifoliata.  The  single  archesporial  cell  develops 
a  row  of  3-5  tapetal  cells,  by  which  the  spore-mother-cell  is  pushed  deep 
into  the  tissue  of  the  nucellus.  The  spore-mother-cell  divides  to  form 
four  megaspores,  the  lowest  only  of  which  is  functional.  The  embryo- 
sac  is  typical,  and  the  course  of  development  of  embryo  and  endosperm 
is  quite  normal. 

Seed-Development  in  the  Piperales.J — D-  S.  Johnson  has  studied 
the  development  of  the  genera  Anemiopsis  and  Houttuynia  of  the  family 
Saururaceae,  and  also  representative  genera  of  the  Chloranthaceae  and 


* 


Ohio  Naturalist,  v.  (1905)  pp.  353-63  (3  pis.), 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  320-5  (2  pis.). 
\  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circular,  New  Series,  1905,  No.  5. 

Oct.  18th,  1905  2 


f>06  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Lacistemacese.  The  result  confirms  the  conclusion  reached  by  Hof- 
meister,  Strasburger,  and  Hegelmaier,  that  the  structure  and  mode  of 
development  of  the  megaspore  and  gametophyte  of  the  Angiosperms  is 
not  a  satisfactory  index  of  genetic  relationship,  since  these  features  may 
vary  very  widely  even  within  the  limits  of  a  single  family  or  genus. 
Thus  among  the  Piperacere,  Piper  has  a  typical  embryo-sac  with  typically 
developed  endosperm,  and  the  closely  related  genus  HecTceria  is  prac- 
tically identical  in  these  respects.  Peperomia,  as  well  known,  shows  a 
most  remarkable  deviation  in  the  development  of  the  embryo-sac.  In 
all  of  these  Piperaceae  only  one  megaspore  is  formed,  and  the  tapetum 
is  persistent  even  to  the  ripe  seed.  But  in  the  Saururacese,  the  functional 
megaspore  is  one  out  of  two  potential  megaspores  in  Anemiopsis,  and 
one  out  of  three  in  Houttuynia  and  Saururus.  A  tapetum  is  absent  in 
Houttuynia,  though  formed  and  persistent  in  the  other  two  genera. 
The  embryo-sac  is  typically  seven-nucleate,  but  the  first  division  of  the 
endosperm  nucleus  is  followed  by  a  cell-wall  cutting  the  sac  into  an 
upper  and  a  lower  cell,  only  one  of  which,  the  upper,  divides  further  to 
form  a  considerable  mass  of  endosperm,  the  lower  cell  forming  an 
elongated  haustorium. 

In  Lacistema,  a  single  archesporial  cell  gives  rise  to  three  potential 
megaspores,  one  of  which  forms  a  typical  embryo-sac  with  endosperm 
formed  at  first  by  free-cell  formation.  Hedyosmum  (Chloranthaceaj) 
differs  in  that  the  endosperm  is  cellular  from  the  first.  The  author 
points  out  that  we  have  here  among  a  few  genera  a  variety  nearly  as 
great  as  can  be  found  in  the  whole  group  of  Angiosperms.  The  facts 
noted  supply  no  important  evidence  for  or  against  the  affiliation  of  the 
Chloranthaceae  and  Lacistemaceas  with  the  Piperales.  But  the  complete 
replacement  of  the  nucellar  tissue  by  endosperm  in  Hedyosmum  and 
Lacistema,  and  their  well-developed  embryo,  show  a  marked  contrast 
with  the  abundant  perisperm,  slight  endosperm,  and  small  embryo  of  the 
Piperaceae  and  Saururacese. 


Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Development  of  Root-Hairs.* — L.  M.  Snow  gives  the  results  of  her 
experiments  on  the  causes  of  production  of  root-hairs.  Light  and 
darkness  have  apparently  only  an  indirect  effect  through  their  influence 
on  growth.  High  temperature  with  sufficient  moisture  tended  to  de- 
crease hair  production  by  increasing  the  elongation  of  the  internal  cells. 
The  slower  the  rate  of  growth  in  air,  the  better  is  the  development  of 
the  root-hairs.  Retardation  of  growth  by  glass  tubes,  by  wounding  or 
by  resistance  of  the  substratum,  favoured  hair  production.  Saturated 
air  at  high  temperature  tended  to  suppress  hair  development,  and  a 
similar  result  obtained  with  saturated  soil  in  corn  and  wheat.  Less  hair 
was  developed  in  distilled  than  in  tap  water.  Air  deprived  of  oxygen 
stopped  the  development  of  hairs  and  also  retarded  growth.    The  activity 

*  Bot.  Gazette,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  12-48  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  607 

■of  the  epidermis  may  be  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  activity  of  the 
central  cylinder,  lateral  roots  often  appearing  when  hairs  are  suppressed, 
and  vice  versa. 

Arrangement  of  Starch  in  the  Starch-Sheath  of  the  Perianth  of 
Clivia.* — L.  Gins,  investigating  the  arrangement  of  the  starch  in  the 
perianth-leaves  of  Clivia  nobilis,  finds  only  under  the  most  favourable 
circumstances  a  tendency  of  the  starch  grains  to  lie  on  the  physically 
lower  cell-walls ;  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  no  such  tendency  was 
shown.  The  perianth  shows  positive  geotropism  ;  and  Nemec  had 
previously  described  the  presence  of  a  starch-sheath  with  well  marked 
statolithic  starch-grains. 

Irritability. 

Heliotropism  Induced  by  Radium.f — Hans  Molisch  records  a  posi- 
tive curvature  in  stems  of  seedlings  when  presented  to  rays  from  sealed 
tubes  containing  a  mixture  of  radium  bromide  and  zinc  sulphide  ;  he 
also  confirms  Dixon's  result  as  to  the  failure  of  radium  bromide  alone  to 
induce  curvature.  The  author  regards  the  curves  as  heliotropic,  induced 
indirectly  by  radium.  He  also  notes  the  interesting  fact  that  the 
experiments  usually  fail  in  the  greenhouse  but  succeed  in  the  laboratory, 
and  suggests  as  an  explanation,  that  the  impurities  in  the  air  of  the 
laboratory  tend  to  reduce  negative  geotropism  and  thereby  increase  the 
-sensitiveness  to  phosphorescence  and  the  heliotropic  stimulus. 

Influence  of  Light  on  Sporogonium-formation  in  Liverworts.^ — 
W.  Kinzel  indicates  an  interesting  contrast  between  the  action  of  light 
on  the  sexual  and  asexual  generation.  He  finds  that  light  is  favourable 
to  the  formation  of  sporogonia,  whereas  it  exercises  an  unfavourable 
influence  on  leaf -development. 

Influence  of   Temperature  on   Respiration.§ — M.  K.  Pourievitch 

has  re-investigated  the  relation  between  temperature  and  the  ratio  of  the 

two  gases  concerned  in  the  process  of  respiration.     He  points  out  sources 

of  error  in  the  work  of  Bonnier  and  Mangin  on  the  result  of  which  it 

has  been  generally  concluded  that  variation  in  temperature  has  no  effect 

CO 
on  the  ratio  -^p,  and  shows  from  his  own  experiments  that  the  ratio 

changes  with  the  temperature,  becoming  greater  as  temperature  rises. 
This  effect  is  most  noticeable  in  young  organs,  and  depends  on  the 
nutritive  substance  present  in  the  tissues,  the  influence  of  temperature 
becoming  less  as  the  nutritive  substance  disappears. 

Traumatic  Curvature  in  Roots.|]  —  G.  P.  Burns  has  repeated 
Spalding's  experiment  on  traumatic  curvature  in  roots.     The  previous 

*  Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  lv.  (1905)  pp.  92-6  (7  figs,  in  text). 
t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  xxxiii.  (1905)  pp.  2-7  (fig.  in  text). 
X  Naturwiss.  Zeitschr.  Land.  Forstw.,iii.(  1905)  pp.  120-4.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl., 
xcviii.  (1905)  p.  624. 

§  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  Bot.,  ser.  9,  i.  (1905)  pp.  1-32. 

|   Beiheft.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xxviii.  (1904)  pp.  159-64  (4  figs,  in  text). 

2   S  2 


608  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

investigator  found  that  roots  damaged  near  the  tip  and  prevented  from 
curving  by  placing  in  plaster,  show  when  removed  from  the  plaster 
traumatic  curvature  precisely  similar  to  that  which  would  have  taken 
place  at  first.  He  regarded  this  as  indicating  a  latent  period,  which 
might  be  as  long  as  eight  days.  The  present  writer,  however,  finds  that 
the  ultimate  effect  is  due  merely  to  continuation  of  the  stimulus,  which 
persists  until  the  regeneration  of  the  damaged  portion  is  complete. 

Effect  of  Leaf-fungi  on  the  Productive  Power  of  the  Plant.* — As 
many  cultivated  plants  suffer  from  spotting  and  partial  destruction  of 
their  leaves  from  the  attacks  of  various  parasitic  fungi,  Aderhold  has 
attempted  to  estimate  by  artificial  methods  the  exact  amount  of  damage 
done.  He  removed  leaves  from  cereals  and  from  beet  plants,  and 
found  that  in  the  case  of  barley  the  ears  were  57-59  p.c.  smaller  in 
bulk  when  the  leaves  were  all  removed.  Somewhat  similar  results  were 
obtained  in  the  case  of  the  beet.  The  effect  of  fungicides  on  the  leaves 
was  also  calculated  ;  either  no  effect  was  produced,  or  the  yield  was 
perceptibly  larger. 

Resistance  of  Dried  Plants  to  Poisonous  Substances.! — Walther 
Kurzwelly  experimented  on  various  seeds  and  fruits,  and  on  fungus 
spores,  yeast  cells,  and  bacteria.  The  fungi  selected  for  experiment  were 
Aspergillus  niger,  Phycomyces  nitens  and  Saccharomyces  cerevisice,  and  the 
poisons  employed  were  alcohol,  ether,  benzol,  carbon  bisulphide,  and 
chloroform.  These  were  used  in  solution  or  as  gases.  The  fungi  were 
grown  on  sterile  media  and  dried  in  sterilised  paper  two  weeks  or  more. 
The  principal  results  are  summed  up  as  follows  : — Vegetative  forms  of 
the  plant  are  less  resistant  to  poisons  than  resting  forms.  For  both 
forms  it  was  found  that  fresh  examples  succumbed  sooner  than  dried 
specimens,  and  that  those  dried  in  paper  were  more  resistant  than  those 
dried  in  air,  but  in  all  cases  the  poison  penetrated  the  tissues  sooner  or 
later.  Spores  digested  in  water  were  destroyed  more  quickly  than  dried 
spores ;  in  this  case  much  depended  on  the  solubility  in  water  of  the 
poisons.  The  author  found  further  that  the  addition  of  water  to  the 
poisons  increased  their  action  ;  and  that  as  gases  they  acted  still  more 
quickly.  By  drying,  the  capacity  to  resist  high  temperatures  was  greatly 
increased.  Details  are  given  of  the  various  experiments,  and  the  time 
required  to  get  results. 

Chemical  Changes. 

Effects  of  Toxic  Agents  upon  the  Action  of  Bromelin.J  —  J.  S. 
Caldwell  has  made  a  series  of  experiments  with  a  view  to  ascertaining 
whether  a  similarity  existed  between  the  effects  of  poisonous  metals 
upon  the  action  of  an  enzyme  and  those  observed  in  experiments  upon 
living  organisms.  Bromelin,  the  proteolytic  enzyme  in  the  juice  of  the 
pine-apple,  was  chosen  as  a  typical  vegetable  trypsin.     It  was  necessary 

*  Praktische  Blatter  Pflanzenb.  nnd  Pflanzensch.,  hi.  (1905)  Heft  2,  pp.  14-17- 
See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  746-7. 

t  Jalirb.  wiss.  Bot.,  xxxviii.  p.  291.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp. 
751-4.  \  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  pp.  409-19. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  609 

to  obtain  the  enzyme  in  as  pure  a  state  as  possible,  as  impure  pre- 
parations were  found  to  be  strongly  auto-digestive  in  acid  or  alkaline 
media.  The  author  found  that  the  effects  of  poisons  vary  with  the 
purity  of  the  preparation  used,  slight  amounts  of  proteid  impurities 
Tendering  necessary  an  enormous  increase  of  concentration  in  order  to 
inhibit  action.  The  toxic  strengths  of  the  salts  used  maintain  a  con- 
stant relationship  irrespective  of  the  purity  of  the  enzyme  used,  that  is, 
silver  is  always  most  poisonous,  copper  third,  zinc  sixth,  and  so  on. 
Pure  preparations  of  bromelin,  which,  moreover,  are  not  auto-digestive, 
appear  to  be  a  mixture  of  two  enzymes,  one  active  in  alkaline  solutions, 
slightly  more  resistant  to  poisons,  and  twice  as  great  in  amount  as  the 
other,  which  is  active  in  acid  media,  and  is  destroyed  by  heating  to 
65°  C.  in  saline  solution.  The  limits  of  toxicity  and  non-toxicity  are 
somewhat  more  clearly  defined  than  has  been  the  case  in  experiments 
upon  living  organisms.  The  results  obtained  agree  in  general  with 
Mathew's  arrangement  of  the  metals  upon  the  theory  that  "  the  affinity 
of  the  atom  or  ion  for  its  electrical  charge  is  the  main  factor  deter- 
mining its  physiological  action." 

General. 

Botanical  Relationship  between  Tropical  Africa  and  America  * — 
A.  Engler  discusses  somewhat  fully  the  resemblances  between  the  tropical 
African  and  American  floras.  The  most  important  cases  of  identity  or 
community  of  relationship  between  the  seed-plants  found  on  each  side 
•of  the  Atlantic  are  tabulated  in  twelve  categories.  In  the  majority  of 
these  it  is  possible  to  assume  the  transport  of  fruit  or  seed  across 
the  intervening  ocean,  but  in  several  categories,  which  include  forest, 
water,  marsh,  and  steppe  plants,  such  means  of  transport  cannot  have 
occurred.  The  author  concludes  that  this  community  between  the  two 
floras  is  best  explained  by  assuming  the  existence  of  a  land  connection 
between  the  district  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  and  Biafra  Bay  in 
West  Africa,  either  in  the  form  of  large  islands  or  a  continent.  He  also 
assumes  a  union  between  Madagascar  and  Natal ;  the  continuation  of 
this  land  mass  in  a  north-easterly  direction  to  Further  India  has  long 
been  considered  probable.  The  suggested  Brazilian-Ethiopian  con- 
tinent must  have  existed  in  the  Jurassic  period. 

Flora  of  the  Malayan  Peninsula.f — A  further  instalment  of  King 
and  Gamble's  Malayan  Flora  contains  the  second  half  of  the  Rubiaceae. 
It  includes  descriptions  of  23  genera,  comprising  123  species,  47  of  which 
are  new. 

Blanco's  Flora  de  Filipinas.J — Elmer  D.  Merrill  enumerates  the 
species  described  by  Blanco,  and  in  many  cases  is  able  to  identify  these 
with  species  previously  or  subsequently  described.  Unfortunately  none 
of    Blanco's   specimens   are   extant,   and    his    descriptions    are    often 

*  SB.  Preuss.  Akad..  vi.  (1905)  pp.  180-231. 

t  Journ.  Asiat.  Soc.  Bengal,  lxxiii.  part  2  (1904)  pp.  47-135. 

j  Dept.  Interior  Bureau  Gov.  Lab.  Manila,  No.  27  (1905)  pp.  1-132.  I 


610  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

inadequate.  Blanco  described  1127  species  and  varieties,  289  of  which 
are  to-day  either  unknown,  or  at  least  very  imperfectly  known  only 
from  his  descriptions.  Of  1628  species  described  by  him  as  new,  297 
have  been  referred  to  previously  described  species,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
future  work  in  the  Philippines  will  enable  us  to  identify  a  large 
percentage  of  those  still  unknown.  His  material  came  chiefly  from  the 
island  of  Luzon,  and  by  far  the  greater  part  of  this  from  provinces  near 
.Manila.     Very  few  plants  were  from  the  higher  altitudes. 

Botany  of  the  Southern  Islands  of  New  Zealand.* — L.  Cockayne,, 
under  the  title  of  "A  Botanical  Excursion  during  Midwinter  to  the 
Southern  Islands  of  New  Zealand,"  gives  a  somewnat  full  account  of 
the  geology,  climate,  and  plant  formations  of  the  Auckland  Islands, 
Campbell  Island,  the  Antipodes  Islands,  and  the  Bounty  Islands,  and 
discusses  the  history  of  the  flora  of  the  Southern  Islands  generally.  The 
flora  includes  138  seed-plants,  54  of  which  (39  p.c.)  are  endemic,  26 
(18 '8  p.c.)  Fuegian,  7  (5  p.c.)  Fuegian  which  do  not  extend  to  New 
Zealand,  and  58  (43  •  1  p.c.)  New  Zealand,  excluding  the  New  Zealand 
Fuegian  element  (19  species).  The  author  favours  the  idea  of  a  former 
land  connection  to  account  for  the  large  South  American  element  in  the 
New  Zealand  flora.  He  also  discusses  the  effect  of  animals,  indigenous 
and  introduced,  upon  the  vegetation  of  these  islands. 

Fossil  Grasses  and  Sedges,  f  —  E.  W.  Berry  recapitulates  the 
evidence  as  to  the  existence  of  fossil  Grlumaceae.  There  is  no  evidence 
of  their  existence  in  the  Palaeozoic  floras,  and  very  little  definite  evidence 
for  the  older  Mesozoic.  The  Cretaceous  seems  to  have  been  very  poorly 
provided  with  sedges,  judging  from  fossil  remains,  but  grasses  are  quite 
numerous  (Arundo,  Culmites,  Poacites,  etc.).  With  the  Tertiary  both 
became  more  common,  more  than  two  score  species  of  each  type  having 
been  described  from  the  Eocene  ;  while  from  the  Miocene  numerous 
species  founded  on  culms,  glumes,  inflorescences,  leaves,  and  rhizomes, 
have  been  described.  The  author  describes  as  Car  ex  ClarJcii,  a  new 
species  which  he  finds  to  be  abundant  in  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain  at  a 
time  when  the  transition  beds  between  the  typical  Raritan  and  the 
typical  Matawan  were  being  laid  down.  The  remains  consist  of 
fragments  of  leaves. 

Japanese  Mesozoic  Plants.^  —  M.  Yokoyama  gives  an  account  of 
some  fossil  plants  from  Yamanoi  and  Bitchu.  From  the  former  he 
determines  two  species  of  Cladophlebis  (one  new),  three  of  Dictyophyllum 
{ two  new),  Podozamites  lanceolatus,  Nilssonia  Inovyei  sp.  n.,  and  Baiera 
paucipartita,  and  points  out  the  indubitable  Rhsetic  nature  of  the  florula. 
From  Bitchu  he  determines  some  fragmentary  specimens  of  Cladophlebis, 
Sayenopteris,  Arthrophyopsis  (?),  and  Nilssonia,  and  also  Podozamites 
lanceolatus.     The   specimens   come   from  a  plant-bed   at   Nariwa,  im- 

*  Trans.  New  Zealand  Inst.,  xxxvi.(1904)  pp.  225-333  (14  pis.). 

t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  345-8  (fig.  in  text). 

X  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Imp.  Univ.  Tokio,  xx.,  Art.  5  (1905)  pp.  1-13  (3  ph.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  611 

mediately  above  the  Pseudomonites  bed,  which  is  now  generally  accepted 
as  an  equivalent  of  the  Noric  stage  of  the  Alpine  Keuper. 

X-Generation  and  2X-Generation.* — J.  P.  Lotsy  discusses  the  rela- 
tion between  the  two  generations,  sporophyte  and  gametophyte,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  number  of  chromosomes  in  the  nucleus.  The 
nuclei  of  the  latter  contain  only  half  the  number  of  chromosomes  found 
in  the  nuclei  of  the  former.  Which  generation  should  be  called  the 
^-generation  ?  If  the  sporophyte,  then  the  gametophyte  becomes  the 
^-generation  ;  if  the  gametophyte,  then  the  sporophyte  is  the  2z-gener- 
ation.  The  author  points  out  that  the  ^-generation  is  the  primitive 
generation,  and  that  the  2»-generation  is  later,  its  double  number  of 
chromosomes  being  due  to  fertilisation,  and  cannot  exist  indefinitely, 
sooner  or  later  forming  reproductive  cells  in  which  the  primitive  number 
of  chromosomes  is  restored  by  separation  of  the  paternal  and  maternal 
chromosomes.  Numerical  reduction  of  the  chromosomes  is  the  expression 
of  the  pairing  of  the  kinds.  In  animals  the  body  represents  the  2x~ 
generation,  and  the  sexual  cells  are  the  ^-generation. 

Arbee,  E.  A.  N. — On  some  New  Species  of  Lagenostoma,  a  type  of  Pteridospermous 
Seed  from  the  Coal  Measures. 

[Describes  two  new  species  which  show  a  close  general  agreement  to  the 
three  species  of  the  genus  known  previously.  In  one  species,  L.  Kidatoni, 
the  seeds  are  naked,  in  the  other,  L.  Sinclairi,  they  were  enclosed  in  a 
cupule  recalling  that  of  L.  Lomaxi.  In  both  cases  the  seeds  were  on  the 
ends  of  the  finer  branches  of  a  compound  frond  with  reduced  lamina, 
probably  of  the  Sphenopteris  type. 

Proc.  Boy.  Soc,  Series  B.  lxxvi.  (1905)  pp.  245-59  (2  pis.). 

Correnb,  C. — Gregor  Mendel's  Briefe  an  Carl  Nageli  1866-1873.  (G.  Mendel's 
letters  to  C.  Nageli.)  [Forming  a  supplement  to  Mendel's  published  work  on 
hybridisation.]  Abhandl.  Math.  Phys.  El.  K.  Sachs.  Ges.  Wiss., 

xxix.  (1905)  pp.  189-265. 

Henry,  A. — Forests,  Wild  and  Cultivated.  (Lecture  given  before  the  Royal  Dublin 
Society.)  Econom.  Proc.  B.  Dublin  Soc,  i.  (1904)  pp.  231-47,  pis.  ix.-xx. 


CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 
(By  A.  Gepp,  M.A.,  F.L.S.) 

Chinese  Ferns.| — H.  Christ  has  examined  the  collections  of  Chinese 
ferns  preserved  in  the  Paris  Museum,  and  gives  a  list  of  254  species,  39 
of  which  are  described  as  new,  as  also  are  some  score  of  varieties.  He 
has  studied  the  distribution  of  the  species,  the  mingling  of  the  Malayan 
and  northern  elements,  the  local  peculiarities,  the  affinities  of  the  species, 
and  so  forth.  Several  changes  of  nomenclature  are  made.  Neocheirop- 
teris  replaces  the  generic  name  Cheiropteris,  which  is  employed  for  an 

*  Biol.  Centralbl.  xxv.  (1905),  pp.  97-117. 

t  Bull.  Soo.  Bot.  Franoe,  lii.  (1905)  pp.  1-69 ;  Hedwigia,  lxiii.  (1905)  BeibL 
pp.  152-3. 


€12  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

extinct  plant.     Christ's  paper  is  the  most  important  monograph  we  have 
on  Chinese  ferns. 


Christ,  H. — Filices  Mexicans.     (Mexican  ferns.) 

[Ligt  of  the  more  interesting  ferns  collected  by  Munch  in  the 
S.  Pablo  district.  Among  them  are  described  seven  new. 
species  and  two  new  varieties.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boissier,  v.  (1905)  pp.  725-34. 

„  „      Quelques  mots  sur  l'Article  de  Mr.  Underwood:    "A  much-named 

Fern."     (Some  words  on  Mr.  Underwood's  article.) 
[A  defence  of  certain  changes  of  plant-names.] 

Torreya,  v.  (1905)  pp.  123-6. 

Christensen.  C. — Index  Filicum  sive  enumeratio  omnium  generum  specierumque 
Filicum  et  Hydropteridum.  (Index  of  Ferns  or  enumeration  of  all  genera  and 
species  of  Ferns  and  Hydropterideae.) 

[Gives  the  name,  original  reference  and  date,  and  synonymy  of  every  species 
since  1753.]  Copenhagen:  Hagerup,  1905.     Fasc.  ii.  pp.  65-128. 

Gilman,  C. — Two  Ferns  new  to  the  Flora  of  Vermont. 

[Contains  critical  notes  on  Nephrodium  spinuhsum  var.  fructuomm.~\ 

Bhodora,  vii.  (1905)  pp.  103-5. 

M  axon,  W.  R. — A  New  Speoies  of  Fern  of  genus  Polypodium  from  Jamaica. 

[P.  nesioticum.']  Smithsonian  Miscell.  Coll.,  Washington, 

xlvii.  ii.  (1905)  pp.  410-11  (1  pi.) 

Ostenfeld,  C.  H. — .A  List  of  Plants  collected  in  the  Raheng  District,  Upper  Siam, 
by  Mr.  E.  Lindhard. 

[Contains  four  ferns  and  three  Selaginellas,  two  of  which  are  new.  and  arc 
described  in  great  detail  by  Hieronymus.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boissier,  v.  (1905)  pp.  709-2* 

Paul,  D. — On  the  Ferns,  especially  the  Filmy  Ferns,  of  Jamaica. 

[Field  Notes.]  Trans.  Bot.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxii.  (1901)  pp.  1-12. 

Sodiro,  A.— Sertula  Florae  ecuadorensis.     (A  selection  from  the  Ecuador  flora.) 

[Descriptions  of  13  new  species  of  Acrostichum,  of  the  section  Elaphoglossum.] 
Quito,  1905,  12  pp.;  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  Beibl.  p.  154. 

Tutcher,  W.  J. — Descriptions  of  some  New  Species,  and  Notes  on  other  Chinese 
Plants. 

[Contains  one  new  species,  Polypodium  (Phymatodes)  Matthewii,  and  two  new 
varieties  of  ferns.]  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  {Bot.),  xxxvii.  (1905)  pp.  58-70. 

Underwood,  L.  M. — A  much-named  Fern, 

[Gives  the  history  of  Microstaphyla  Moorei — a  Peruvian 
fern,  which  in  the  space  of  nine  years  has  been  de- 
scribed under  three  specific  names  and  placed  in  four 
genera.]  Torreya,  v.  (1905)  pp.  87-9. 

„  „  Botrychium  silaifolium  Presl. 

[With  this  is  now  united  B.  occidentale  Underw.,  and  the 
species  ranges  from  British  Columbia  to  Washington 
State;  and  several  Californian  specimens  are  sepa- 
rated off  as  a  new  species,  B.  Valifornicum.~] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  106-7. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  613 

Bryophyta. 
(By  A.  Gepp.) 

British  Moss-flora.* — Dr.  R.  Braithwaite  issues  the  final  part  of  his 
illustrated  monograph  on  the  mosses  of  the  British  Isles.  Begun  in 
1880,  the  work  has  been  steadily  carried  out,  and  now  forms  the 
most  elaborate  memoir  that  has  been  published  on  the  British  Mosses. 
The  classification  and  nomenclature  are  principally  those  which  were 
established  by  S.  0.  Lindberg.  The  illustrations,  synonymy,  cited 
literature,  distribution  of  the  species,  are  very  fully  treated.  The 
present  part  of  the  work  contains  the  end  of  the  Neckeracese — Neckera, 
Ahia,  Climacium,  Fontinalis,  Antitrichia,  Leiicodon,  Cryphcm,  Hedivigia  ; 
and  in  a  supplement  are  24  species  which  have  been  added  to  our  flora 
since  the  earlier  text  was  printed.  The  general  index  completes  the 
book,  and  shows  that  622  species  are  recognised  in  the  moss-flora. 

Ceratolejeunea.t — A.  W.  Evans  devotes  one  of  his  papers  on  the 
HepaticEe  of  Puerto  Rico  to  this  genus.  He  traces  out  the  history  of 
the  genus,  shows  that  it  is  chiefly  resident  in  the  mountain  forests  of 
tropical  America,  refers  to  its  creeping  habit  and  deep  pigmentation,  and 
then  describes  in  detail  the  structure  of  the  leaves  and  lobules  and  the 
:special  characters  of  the  four-horned  perianth.  One  new  species  is 
established,  and  four  others  are  carefully  re-described  and  annotated. 

Andrews,  A.  L  —  Additions  to  the  Bryophytic  Flora  of  West  Virginia. 

[A  list  of  33  mosses  and  15  hepatics.]  Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  63-5. 

Bottiki,  A. — Frammenti  di  Briologia  italiana.     (Fragments  of  Italian  bryology.) 
[Lists  of  38  mosses  of  the  Abruzzo  and  63  mosses  of  the  Campagna,  several 
being  new  to  those  districts.] 

Webbia,  edited  by  U.  Martelli  (Firenze,  1905)  pp.  17-24. 

Britton,  E.  G. — A  long-lost  Genus  to  the  United  States— Erpodium  (Brid.)  CM. 
[E.  biseriatum,  originally  described  as  a  hepatic,  Lejeunia  biseriata,  by 
Austin  in  1869,  and  transferred  by  him  to  the  mosses  in  1877,  has  remained 
in  oblivion  ever  since.  The  type,  which  was  collected  near  Augusta, 
Georgia,  in  1845  by  Sullivant,  has  lately  been  found  in  Columbia  Univer- 
sity Herbarium.]    '  Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  p.  7L 

Cardot,  J.,  &  I.  Theriot. — New  or  Unrecorded  Mosses  of  North  America. 

[Descriptions  of  five  new  species  and  varieties.]  Tom.  cit„  pp.  71-3. 

Casares-Gil,  A. — Nota  briologica.     (Bryological  note.) 

[Catalogue  of  16  hepatics  and  22  mosses  which  appear  new  for  the  flora  of 
Spain]  Bol.  Real  Soc.  Espaii.  Hist.  Nat.  v.  (1905)  pp.  175-9 . 

Rev.  Bryol,  xxxii.  (1905)  p.  84, 

Cocks,  Ll.  J.— Supplementary  Report  on  Mosses. 

[List  of  91  of  the  rarer  mosses  collected  during  an  excursion  of  four  days  on 
the  Breadalbane  mountains  at  the  end  of  July  1900.] 

Trans.  Bot.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  xxii.  (1901)  pp.  41-5. 


•  British  Moss-flora,  xxiii.  (May  1905)  pp.  201-74,  pi.  cxxi.-cxxviii.    London, 
published  by  the  author. 

t  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  273-90  (2  pis.). 


614  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Oufino,  L. — Osservazioni  ed  aggiunte  alia  Flora  del  Canada.  (Observations  on 
and  additions  to  the  Flora  of  Canada.) 

[Contains  31  mosses  of  British  Columbia.] 

Malpighia,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  187-1%. 

Culm ann,  P. — Contributions  a  la  flore  bryologique  du  Canton  de  Bern.  (Con- 
tributions to  the  moss-flora  of  Canton  Bern.) 

[Contains  lists  of  hepatics  and  mosses,  with  detailed  notes  on  Diplophylleia 
exsectstformis  var.  tequiloba,  Schistidium  teretinerve  and  Myurella  julacea 
var.  scahrifolia.']  Bev.  Bryolog.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  73-9,  fig. 

Dixon,  H.  N. — Notes  on  a  Bryological  Tour  in  the  Pyrenees. 

[Contains  lists  of  mosses  gathered  at  Bagneres-de-Luchon,  Gavarnie  and 
Cautarets  in  the  summer  of  1902.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  61-73. 

Evans,  A.  W. — A  remarkable  Ptilidium  from  Japan.  (To  this  genus  is  transferred 
the  hepatic  Mastigophora  Bisseti  Mitt.,  because  of  its  blunt 
branches  and  multifid  leaves  with  marginal  cilia  ;  it  is  remark- 
able also  for  having  water-sacs  on  some  of  its  smaller  leaves  and 
numerous  multicellular  hairs  on  the  outer  surface  of  both  leaves 
and  underleases — a  rare  character  in  Hepaticse.  A  new  and 
full  description  of  the  plant  is  given.) 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  57-60,  fig. 

„  „         Diagnostic  Characters  in  the  Jungermanniaceae. 

[A  simple  account  of  the  main  differences  observable  in  the 
arrangement  and  shape  of  the  leaves,  inflorescence,  peiiauth, 
etc.,  in  the  North  American  hepatics.] 

Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  57-63  (1  pi.). 

Fedtschenko,  O.  &  B. — Materiaux  pour  la  Flore  de  la  Crimee.  (Materials  for 
the  Crimean  flora.) 

[Contains  a  list  of  14  mosses  and  2  hepatics  determined  by  V.  F.  Brotherus.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boissier,  v.  (1905)  pp.  621-88. 

Herzog,  Th. — Die  Laubmoose  Badens.  Eine  bryogeographische  Skizze.  (The 
Mosses  of  Baden.     A  bryogeographic  sketch.) 

[Continuation.]  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  573-88 ;  768-83. 

Hi,  F. — Note  sur  une  Grimmia.     (Note  on  a  Grimmia). 

[Critical  remarks  on  G.  edeidula,  a  new  species  found  at  Angers.  It  is  a 
small  gymnostomous  plant.]  Bev.  Bryolog.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  82-3. 

Jaap,  O. — Weitere  Beitrage  zur  Moosflora  der  Nord-friesischen  Inseln.  (Further 
contributions  to  the  moss-flora  of  the  North  Friesian  Islands.) 

[The  islands  of  Sylt,  Amrum  and  Fohr  yielded  130  mosses,  16  sphagua, 
44  hepatics.     The  rare  Haplomitrium  Hookeri  was  found  in  Kom.] 

Schri/t.  Nat  Verein.  Schleswig-Holstein,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  65-74. 

Jackson,  A.  B. — Leicestershire  Mosses. 

[A  list  of  161  species  and  varieties,  containing  over  50  additions  to  the  moss- 
flora  of  the  county  as  published  in  1886.] 

Journ.  Bot.,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  225-31. 

Martin,  A. — Note  bryologique  sur  Saint-Gervais-les-Bains  etsur  lavallee  de  l'Arve 
(Haute-Savoie).  (Bryological  note  on  St.  Gervais-les-Bains  and  the  Arve  Valley, 
Upper  Savoy.) 

[A  list  of  39  mosses  and  12  hepatics.]        Bev.  Bryoh,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  79-82. 

Mulleb,  K. — Lebermoose  aus  den  Pyrenaen  gesammelt  im  Sommer  1903.  (Hepatics 
gathered  on  the  Pyrenees  in  the  summer  of  1903.) 

[The  author  wandered  along  the  whole  range  and  collected  87  species,  10  of 
which  are  new  to  the  Pyrenean  flora.     Numerous  localities  are  given.] 

Bull.  Herb.  Boissier,  v.  (1905)  pp.  589-602. 


ZOOLOGY,    AND    BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  615 

Neuweileb,  E. — Die  prahistorischen  Pflanzenreste  Mitteleuropas  mit  besonderer 
Beriicksiohtigung  der  schweizischen  Funde.     (The  prehistoric  plant-remains  of 
Middle  Europe,  with  special  consideration  of  those  discovered  in  Switzerland.) 
[Contains  lists  of  mosses  amounting  to  nearly  30  species  in  all.] 

Vierteljahr.  Naturf.  Ges.  Zurich,  v.  (1905)  pp.  23-134. 

Nicholson,  W.  E. — Tortula  pagorum  (Milde)  De  Not. 

[On  the  habitat  and  limited  distribution  of  this  species  in  South  Europe  and 
its  recorded  occurrence  in  Georgia  (U.S.A.).  It  is  probably  a  xerophytic 
form  of  T.  lavipila,  with  which  it  is  connected  through  T.  Isevipilseformis.'] 

Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  p.  70. 

Paris,  E.  G. — Index  Bryologicus. 

Paris:  Hermann,  1905,  2nd  ed.  iii.  fasc.  3-4,  pp.  137-264. 

Renauld,  F.,  &  J.  Cardot. — Mousses.     (Mosses.) 

Grandidier's  Hist.  Phys.  Madagascar,  xxxix.  (Paris,  1905  j, 
Atlas,  v.  tt.  144-63  [no  text  yet  issued] . 

Stephani,  F. — Species  Hepaticarum.     (Species  of  Hepatics.) 

[Continuation,  giving  descriptions  of  32  American  species  of  Plagiochila,  13  of 
which  are  new.]  Bull.  Herb.  Boissier,  v.  (1905)  pp.  736-51. 


Thallophyta. 

Algse- 

(By  Mrs.  E.  S.  Gepp.) 

Marine  Algology.* — A.  Mazza  publishes  the  first  instalment  of  his 
notes  on  marine  algse,  intended  by  him  to  assist  and  encourage  the 
amateur  collector.  He  does  not  aim  at  superseding  the  well-known 
handbooks,  and  rightly  refers  to  De  Toni's  Sylloge  Algarum  as  indis- 
pensable to  all  systematists  and  collectors,  but  for  the  benefit  of  the 
uninitiated  he  embodies  his  own  observations  in  the  form  of  notes  on 
each  of  the  more  common  species.  He  begins  with  Bangiacese  and 
deals  with  four  genera  including  12  species.  The  beginning  only  of 
Chantransia  is  given  in  this  part.  After  the  remarks  on  each  species, 
references  are  given  to  specimens  of  which  the  geographical  distribution 
is  mentioned.     The  usefulness  of  such  a  work  as  this  is  self-evident. 

South  Orkney  Marine  Algse.f — Two  short  papers  on  algse  from 
these  islands  appear  together,  one  by  A.  and  E.  S.  Gepp,  and  the  other 
by  E.  M.  Holmes.  The  former  is  an  account  of  some  material  sent  to 
the  authors  after  the  publication  of  their  previous  paper.  It  includes 
one  new  species,  Hydrolapathum  stephanocarpum,  closely  allied  to 
H.  sanguineum  ;  and  describes  and  figures  two  other  algse  which  are 
sterile  and  doubtful.  The  Leptosarca  simplex  of  their  former  paper  is 
transferred  to  Gracilaria  on  the  strength  of  the  tetraspores  which  are 
found  in  the  material  of  this  last  consignment.  The  paper  by  E.  M. 
Holmes  includes  records  of  four  calcareous  algse,  two  of  which  have  been 
described  as  new  forms  by  M.  Foslie  in  a  previous  publication.  Frag- 
ments of  six  species  on  non-calcareous  algse  were  found  adhering  to  the 
corallines,  and  are  included  in  this  paper. 

*  Nuov.  Notar.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  85-101. 
t  Journ.  Bot.,  xliii.  (1905 )  pp.  193-8. 


616  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    KKSEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Seaweed  Industries.* — H.  M.  Smith  embodies  in  an  interesting 
and  instructive  paper  an  account  of  the  methods  of  taking  and  utilising 
seaweeds  in  Japan.  Many  different  species  are  used  for  various  purposes, 
but  the  principal  preparations  are  made  from  Gelklium  corneum, 
GJoiopellis  coliformis,  species  of  Laminariaceaa,  and  Porphyra  laciniata. 
The  manner  of  preparation  is  described  and  figured,  as  well  as  the  uses 
to  which  the  product  is  put  when  completed.  The  value  of  seaweeds 
prepared  in  Japan  at  the  present  time  exceeds  two  million  dollars 
annually.  Many  species  are  used  for  human  food  and  also  for  fertilisa- 
tion of  the  soil.  The  same  author  publishes  together  with  this  a  second 
paper  on  the  utilisation  of  seaweeds  in  the  United  States.  In  that 
country  the  seaweed  industry  is  very  small  and  practically  restricted  to 
Massachusetts,  where  Ghondrus  crispus  is  collected,  prepared  and  sold  to 
brewers,  druggists,  and  grocers  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
author  points  out  that  the  seaweed  industry  could  be  made  very  profit- 
able in  America. 

Dictyosphaeria.f — A.  Weber  van  Bosse  describes  two  new  species  of 
this  genus,  D.  Versluysii  and  D.  intermedia.  The  former  has  often  been 
erroneously  confounded  with  D.  favidosa,  though  C.  Agardh  had 
rightly  described  that  species  as  being  hollow  even  in  its  youngest 
stages.  This  character,  the  hollowness  or  solidity  of  the  respective 
species,  is  indeed  the  determining  one,  D.  favulosa  being  always 
hollow,  while  D.  Versluysii  is  solid  ;  D.  intermedia  on  the  other  hand 
represents  a  species  which  in  certain  characters  resembles  both  the  above- 
mentioned  species.  The  author  regards  the  genus  as  being  composed  of 
four  species  only,  the  fourth  being  D.  sericea.  Diagnoses  are  given  of 
the  two  new  species  and  of  D.  favidosa.  All  of  these  occur  in  the 
collections  of  the  '  Siboga '  from  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

Diatoms  of  the  Territories.^ — A.M.  Edwards  reports  on  16  samples 
of  fossil  Diatoms  collected  by  Dr.  Hayden,  of  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey 
of  the  Territories.  Some  of  these  samples  were  specially  interesting, 
since  they  came  from  what  the  author  calls  the  Occidental  Sea.  Two 
new  species  are  mentioned  but  not  described  :  Cyclotella  gigantea,  which 
looks  like  a  much  overgrown  C.  Kuetzingiana,  and  Stephanodiscus  major, 
which  may  be  an  exaggerated  form  of  S.  Niagaras. 

Cytology  of  the  Forms  of  Stigeoclonium.§ — N.  Yatsu  has  studied 
the  differences  between  the  palmella  form  and  the  filamentous  form  of 
Stigeoclonium.  The  latter  form  has  a  central  vacuole  and  has  a  thinner 
wall,  smaller  chlorophyll  granules,  and  smaller  pyrenoids  than  are  found 
in  the  palmella  stage.  The  plant  changes  from  the  one  form  to  the 
other  when  transferred  to  a  suitable  culture  solution.  The  palmella 
form  occurs  in  dry  atmospheres,  and  perhaps  is  enabled  by  its  thicker 
wall  and  larger  pyrenoid  to  withstand  desiccation.  The  palmella  form, 
when  cultivated  in  a  weak  solution,  usually  produces  two,  four  or  eight 

*  Bull.,Bureau Fisheries,  Washington,iXxiv.  (1904)  pp.  133-81  (5  pis.,  figs,  in  text). 
f  Nuov.  Notar,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  142-1. 
X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  81-4.  §  Torreya,  v.  (1905)  pp.  100-4  (fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  61T 

zoospores.     The  best  fixing  solution  was  found  to  be  Boveri's  picro- 
acetic  acid.     The  methods  of  fixing,  section-cutting,  etc.,  are  described. 

Cushman,  J.  A. — A  Contribution  to  the  Desmid  Flora  of  New  Hampshire. 

[An  annotated  list  of  GO  North  American  species,  with  many  varieties  and 
forms.  Closterium  intervalicola  and  Pleurotasnium  srib-georgicum  are  new 
species.]  Rhodora,  vii.  (1905)  pp.  111-19  (1  pi.). 

Kuckuck,  P. — Der  Strandwanderer.     (The  wanderer  by  the  shore.) 

[A  more  or  less  popular  account  of  the  marine  algae  and  animals  found  at  the 
seaside.     The  book  is  illustrated  in  colours  and  is  intended  for  amateurs.] 

Munich:  J.  F.  Lehmann,  1905,  76  pp.  24  pis 

Migula,  W. — Kiyptogamen -Flora.     (Cryptogamic  Flora.) 
[Algse,  continued.] 

Thome's  Flora  von  Deutschland  (Gera :  F.  v.  Zezschwitz,  1905) 

v.  Lfg.  22,  pp.  113-44  (5  pis.) 

Penard.  E. — Encore  la  Chlamydomyxa.     (More  about  Chlamydomyxa.) 

[Reply  to  criticisms.J  Bull.  Herb.  Boissier,  v.  (1905)  pp.  517-26. 

Richards,  H.  M. — Some  Edible  Seaweeds. 

[Abstract  of  an  account  of  some  15  species  employed  chiefly  by  the  Japanese 
and  Chinese.]  Torreya,  v.  (1905)  pp.  94-6. 

Suhr,  J. — Die  Algen  des  b'stlichen  "Weserberglandes.      (The  alga?  of  the  eastern 
mountain  district  of  the  Weser.) 

[A  continuation  of  this  paper,  containing  an  enumeration  of  342  species  of 
diatoms  with  their  habitats  in  the  district.] 

Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  241-88. 


Fungi. 

(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Vegetable  Pathology.*  —  Vittorio  Peglion  has  had  his  attention 
called  to  the  decay  of  a  field  of  lucerne  in  the  valley  of  the  Po.  Examina- 
tion showed  the  presence  of  small  tubercles  chiefly  on  the  stalk  at  the 
base  of  the  lowest  leaves.  These  were  caused  by  a  species  of  Chytri- 
diaceaa,  Urophlyctis  alfalfa,,  described  by  Magnus  on  lucerne  plants  from 
Alsace.  The  tubercles  were  found  to  be  full  of  the  brown  spores  of  the 
fungus.     Peglion  did  not  follow  the  development  of  the  fungus. 

Delacroixia  coronata.j — I.  Gallaud  has  taken  advantage  of  the 
saprophytic  habit  of  this  genus  of  Entomophthoreae  to  make  a  series  of 
artificial  cultures.  He  has  thus  been  able  to  follow  its  life-history  in 
detail.  In  a  hanging  drop  culture  he  found  that  the  spores  germinated 
freely  and  soon  produced  other  spores  at  the  end  of  a  short  filament. 
When  the  culture  was  comparatively  old  a  number  of  smaller  spores 
were  formed,  some  of  them  being  echinulate.  All  the  spores  had  a  clear 
papilla.  In  certain  conditions  of  humidity  the  spores  formed  spicules, 
and  these  occasionally  grew  out  and  produced  small  spores  at  their 
extremities.  No  oospores  were  found,  and  their  absence,  together  with 
the  rapid  drying  up  of  the  ordinary  spores,  probably  accounts  for  the 
rarity  of  Delacroixia. 

*  Atti  Reale  Accad.  Lincei,  cccii.  (1905)  pp.  727-30  (1  fig.). 
t  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  Bot.,  i.  ser.  9  (1905)  pp.  101-33  (4  figs.). 


f>18  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Infection  experiments  on  living  insects  were  unsuccessful,  but  a 
vigorous  growth  was  obtained  on  a  dead  cockroach.  Various  cytological 
observations  were  made  by  the  author.  He  demonstrated  the  presence 
of  metachromatic  corpuscles,  and  the  presence  of  numerous  nuclei  in  the 
spores,  etc.  He  considers  the  fungus  to  be  near  Basidiobolus  and 
Conidiobolus,  but  generically  distinct  from  both. 

Mucor  Species  and  Alcohol.* — C.  Wehmer  has  been  considering 
the  problem  of  the  behaviour  of  species  of  Mucor  and  other  fungi  of  the 
Aspergillus  and  Penicillium  genera  in  regard  to  alcohol  produced  by 
themselves  in  fermentation,  or  when  it  was  introduced  into  the  cultures. 
He  found  with  Mucor  racemosus  and  M.javanicus  that  the  alcohol  con- 
tent of  the  culture  became  gradually  less.  He  is,  however,  of  opinion 
that  evaporation  accounts  largely  for  the  disappearance  of  the  alcohol, 
and  that  the  breaking  up  of  the  alcohol  by  the  fungus  is  very  slight. 

Rhizopus  oligosporus.f — K.  Saito  adds  from  China  another  to  the 
large  number  of  economic  fungi  that  have  been  recorded  in  Eastern 
lands.  It  was  found  on  a  cake  of  rice  meal,  and  was  so  named  owing  to 
the  sparing  formation  of  spores.  The  sporangia,  at  first  colourless, 
became  black  and  wasted  ;  the  spores  are  greyish-brown.  The  fungus 
grows  vigorously,  and  converts  starch  into  sugar  with  formation  of 
alcohol. 

A  New  Species  of  Wynnea.f — Roland  Thaxter  has  found  a  third 
species  of  this  genus  in  North  Carolina.  It  grew,  like  the  other  species, 
from  a  sclerotium  buried  in  the  soil.  The  ascophores  are  borne  in 
clusters  that  branch  from  a  common  stalk.  They  are  elongate,  ear- 
shaped,  and  very  variable  in  size.  Thaxter  gives  an  historical  account  of 
the  three  species  constituting  the  genus,  collected  respectively  in  India, 
Mexico  and  North  Carolina.  The  new  species  is  characterised  by  its 
rich  dark-brown  colour,  and  by  the  large  spores. 

Observations  on  Peziza  ammophila.§ — G.  Muscatello  has  been 
examining  this  fungus  which  grows  on  the  maritime  dunes  of  Catania  in 
Sicily.  He  does  not  think  it  lives  in  symbiosis  with  the  roots  of  the 
grasses.  The  stalk  owes  its  peculiar  formation  to  the  necessity  of  con- 
ducting and  accumulating  water.  The  asci  originate  from  the  fusion  of 
two  equal  gametes.  The  metachromatic  granules  aid  in  spore  formation 
and  in  the  development  of  the  exospore. 

Sclerotinise  of  Fruit  Trees.|| — R.  Aderhold  and  W.  Ruhland  have 
cultivated  several  forms  of  Sclerotinia  on  apples,  apricots,  and  cherries, 
and  they  have  determined  three  distinct  species  which  are  marked  by 
slight  but  constant  differences  in  the  size  of  asci  and  spores,  and  in  the 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xxiii.  (1905)  pp.  216-17. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  623-7  (1  pi.). 

\  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  241-7  (2  pis.). 

§  Atti  Aocad.  Gioenia  Sci.  Nat.  Catania,  Feb.  1905,  pp.  1-15  (1  pi.).  See  also 
Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  pp.  66-7. 

||  Arb.  biol.  Abt.  Land,  und  Forstw.  Kais.  Ges.,  iv.  5  (1905)  pp.  427-42.  See  also 
Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  144-5. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  619 

size  of  the  conidial  form.    The  three  species  dealt  with  are  Scl.fructigena 
on  apples  ;  Scl.  laxa  on  apricots  ;  and  Scl.  cinerea  on  cherries. 

Sclerotium  Disease  of  the  Alder.*  —  Ed.  Fischer  has  made  new 
observations  on  the  Sderotinia  found  in  the  fruits  of  the  Alder  as 
developed  in  Alnus  viridis.  He  finds  that  the  whole  interior  of  the 
fruit  is  occupied  by  the  fungus.  The  outer  layers  of  the  sclerotium  are 
brownish-violet,  and  are  covered  with  a  layer  of  colourless  hyphse,  which 
bear  at  the  tips  chains  of  very  small  conidia.  It  was  not  determined 
if  they  were  capable  of  germination.  Fischer  considers  that  the  fungus 
on  A.  viridis  is  identical  with  those  that  are  found  on  A.  incana  and 
A.glutinosa.   The  apothecial  fruits  have  not  been  found  in  any  of  these. 

Disease  of  Olive  Trees.f — Gr.  Cuboni  has  investigated  a  disease  of 
olive  trees  termed  "  Brusca,"  which  has  worked  much  mischief  in  certain 
districts.  On  the  leaves  of  the  diseased  trees  Cuboni  has  found  con- 
stantly the  fungus  Stictis  Panizei.  The  leaves  so  attacked  drop  from 
the  trees,  leaving  them  bare.  He  does  not,  however,  think  that  the 
evil  is  caused  by  the  fungus,  but  that  it  is  due  rather  to  climatic  and 
soil  conditions. 

L.  Petri,J  who  is  of  opinion  that  the  disease  is  due  to  the  fungus, 
has  been  making  successful  cultures  with  the  spores.  He  has  produced 
a  pycnidial  form  resembling  a  Cytospora,  and  also  the  ascomycetous  fruits 
on  agar  prepared  with  a  decoction  of  olive  leaves. 

Erysiphacese  of  Japan,  II.§ — E.  S.  Salmon  published  in  1900  an 
account  of  Japanese  Erysiphes  ;  in  the  present  paper  he  brings  the  work 
up  to  date,  and  adds  a  considerable  number  of  species  to  those  already 
recorded.  He  notes  the  occurrence  there  of  species  only  found  pre- 
viously in  America.  Salmon  finds  that  Ampelomyces  quinqualis  Ces. 
(Cicinnobolus  Cesatii),  a  fungal  parasite  of  the  Erysiphaceae,  is  common 
in  Japan,  sometimes  preventing  the  formation  of  conidia  or  perithecia. 
Host  index  and  bibliography  are  added. 

Infection  Experiments  with  Thielavia  basicola.||  —  R.  Aderhold 
finds  that  this  fungus  grows  readily  on  pieces  of  sterilised  pear,  carrot, 
etc.  Only  the  conidial  forms  were  produced  :  neither  pycnidia  nor 
perithecia  were  formed.  The  development  of  conidia  and  chlamydospores 
was  followed  and  carefully  described. 

On  the  Occurrence  of  Saccharomyces  anomalus  in  the  Brewing 
of  Sake.l" — K.  Saite  isolated  a  mould  yeast  from  fresh  sake  and  studied 
it  carefully,  but  he  was  not  able  to  state  if  it  was  identical  with  those 
already  determined  as  taking  part  in  the  formation  of  sake.  He 
describes  the  form  of  growth  in  artificial  cultures,  and  the  form  of  the 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiv.  (1905),  pp.  618-23  (1  pi.). 

t  Atti  Reale  Accad.  Lincei,  cccii.  (1905)  pp.  693-5. 

j  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  637-8.  §  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  239-56. 

|  Arb.  biol.  Abt.  Land,  und  Forstw.  Kais.  Ges.,  iv.,  5  (1905)  pp.  463-5.  See  also 
Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  p.  145. 

f  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Imp.  Univ.  Tokyo,  xix.  Art.  18  (1904)  14  pp.  See  also  Ann. 
Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  214-15. 


620  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

yeast  and  of  the  ascospores.  The  latter  are  cap-shaped,  and  are  2-4  in 
a  cell.  He  considers  the  yeast  to  be  closely  related  to  Saccharomyces 
anomalus. 

The  Yeasts  of  Charente.* — Andre  Descoffre  divides  his  work  on 
yeast  into  six  chapters,  which  treat  of  (1)  the  origin  of  yeasts  and  their 
dissemination  ;  (2)  the  technical  microbiology  adopted  for  the  selection 
of  species  and  races  ;  (3)  anatomical  and  physiological  researches ;  (4) 
the  action  of  exterior  agents  of  different  kinds  on  these  micro-organisms  ; 
(5)  the  fermentation  of  the  "  must "  of  GharenU ;  (6)  resume  and 
conclusion.  He  takes  note  of  the  discoveries  already  made  as  to  the 
hibernation  of  yeasts  in  the  soil ;  some  live  on  the  surface,  others 
pullulate  at  a  depth  of  10  cm.  Insects  play  a  considerable  part  in  dis- 
semination, but  the  wind  is  the  chief  agent.  The  quality  of  the  yeast 
is  strongly  affected  by  the  soil,  the  special  Charente  growth  being  limited 
to  the  chalk  soils.  Definite  odours  and  flavours  are  given  to  the  product 
of  fermentation  according  to  the  species  of  yeast  employed.  The  author 
gives  instructions  how  to  secure  the  desired  results.  He  also  describes 
methods  of  examining,  staining,  etc.,  the  yeast  cells.  Spores  are  formed 
in  three  days  in  Saccharomyces  ellipsoideus  campaniensis  when  the  fungus 
is  grown  on  porcelain. 

Development  of  Yeast  in  the  Soil.f — Emil.  Chr.  Hansen  published 
a  paper  on  this  subject  some  time  ago.  He  found  then  that,  in  nature, 
yeasts  grew  largely  on  decaying  fruit  and,  in  moist  situations,  on  plant 
remains,  etc.  But  he  found  then,  and  has  again  proved,  that  the  soil 
is  the  great  breeding  ground  not  only  in  winter  but  during  the  whole 
year.  His  researches  included  Saccharomyces  and  species  of  Torula  and 
Mucor.  He  remarks  on  the  great  power  of  resistance  to  drought  possessed 
by  Mucor. 

Research  on  Fungi  imperfecti.l  —  H.  Klebahn  has  attacked  the 
problem  of  the  pycnidial  form  of  the  Pyrenomycetes,  and  in  two  cases 
he  has  established  the  connection  between  the  different  life-stages  of 
growth.  The  first  he  experimented  with  was  Phleospora  Ulmi,  a  para- 
site of  the  leaves  of  different  species  of  elms.  It  forms  a  hymenial 
layer  of  hyphae  under  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  from  the 
hymenium  are  given  off  colourless,  3-septate  spores.  Phleospora  has 
been  reckoned  among  the  Sphgeroidege,  but  there  is  no  perithecial 
chamber  formed,  and  the  habit  of  growth  accords  more  nearly  with  the 
Melanconiese.  Klebahn  successfully  infected  young  leaves  with  the 
spores  from  Phleospora,  and  reproduced  the  pycnidial  form.  By  keeping 
infected"  leaves  in  suitable  conditions  during  the  winter,  he  got  the  asco- 
sporous  stage,  My  co  splicer  ella  Ulmi,  a  small  perithecium  imbedded  in  the 
decaying  tissue  of  the  leaf.  The  ascospores  were  sown  on  the  young 
leaves,  and  they  gave  rise  to  Phleospora  Ulmi. 

*  Bordeaux  (1904)  i.,  8vo,  128  pp.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  651-2. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  545-50. 

t  Jahrb.  Wis8.  Bot.,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  485-560  (75  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  621 

Artificial  cultures  were  also  carried  on,  the  methods  being  described 
in  detail.  The  conidia  of  Phhospora  and  the  ascospores  of  Mijco- 
spfmrella  germinated  alike,  and  produced  similar  conidia.  Aggregates  of 
hyphse  were  formed  in  the  cultures,  evidently  the  beginnings  of  peri- 
thecia,  but  the  complete  fruit  was  not  produced. 

The  second  fungus  experimented  with,  Gnomonia  Veneti,  grows  on 
Plane  leaves.  Klebahn  gives  a  long  account  of  the  systematic  position 
of  the  fungus,  and  also  of  Glososporium,  Myxosporium,  Discula,  and 
Fusicoccum,  species  of  which  grow  on  the  same  leaves.  By  examination 
and  experiment  he  has  proved  that  all  of  these  are  stages  of  Gnomonia 
Veneti.  He  has  also  produced  in  artificial  cultures  a  mould-form 
belonging  to  the  Hyphomycetes.  The  systematic  difficulty  of  stages  of 
the  same  fungus  belonging  to  such  widely  differentiated  groups  is  dis- 
cussed by  the  author.  The  Glozosporium  and  Myxosporium  stages  of 
the  fungus  are  produced  on  the  leaves  and  twigs  while  still  on  the  tree. 
The  later  forms,  Fusicoccum  and  Gnomonia,  grow  on  the  dead  leaves  on 
the  ground.  The  more  advanced  stages  are  thus  saprophytic.  As  a 
parasite,  the  fungus  does  not  do  any  serious  harm  to  the  tree. 

Disease  caused  by  Penicillium  glaucum.* — Vittorio  Peglion  noted 
from  time  to  time  that  the  familiar  blue  mould  was  always  present  on 
decaying  chestnuts,  and  not  only  on  old  chestnuts  but  on  those  recently 
gathered.  He  cultivated  the  Penicillium,  and  applied  to  it  a  test  for 
determining  poisonous  qualities  in  filamentous  fungi.  He  brought  it  up 
to  boiling  ,point  in  a  2  p.c.  solution  of  potash,  then  added  sulphuric 
acid.  The  acid  mixture  was  then  shaken  up  with  benzine,  and  after- 
wards ferric  chloride  was  added.  Almost  immediately  a  thin  stratum 
in  the  liquid  took  on  a  bright  green  colour,  proving  the  presence  of 
"phenol,"  the  poisonous  substance  of  Hyphomycetes.  Peglion  does 
not  consider  that  all  the  forms  of  Penicillium  have  the  same  poisonous 
qualities.  He  thinks  that  probably  chestnut  meal  containing  the  fungus 
in  question  is  the  origin  of  the  skin  disease  called  "  pellagra  " — cases  of 
which  disease  occur  among  people  who  make  use  of  chestnut  meal  as 
an  article  of  diet. 

Phellomyces  sclerotiophorus.t  —  Frank  gave  this  name  to  a  sterile 
fungus  causing  a  disease  of  potatoes,  usually  confined  to  the  skin,  but 
not  infrequently  penetrating  the  tissue  of  the  tuber.  0.  Appel  and 
R.  Laubert  have  succeeded  recently  in  inducing  further  development  of 
the  black  stromata  formed  by  the  fungus.  Upright  brown  conidio- 
phores  bearing  at  intervals  verticils  of  brown  septate  conidia  were 
produced,  and  these  corresponded  to  Spondylocladium  atrovirens  found 
by  Harz  on  potatoes  and  described  by  him.  The  name  Phellomyces 
must,  therefore,  be  dropped  in  favour  of  the  previous  designation. 

Hyphomycetes.J — The  Botrydideas  which  G.  Lindau  commenced  in 
the  previous  fascicle  is  completed  in  the  present  issue.  He  divides  the 
genus  Botrytis  into  four  sub-genera  :  Eubotrytis,  Polyactis,  Phymato- 

*  Atti  Reale  Accad.  Lincei,  cccii.  (1905)  pp.  45-8. 
t  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.,  xxiii.  (1905)  pp.  218-20. 

\  Rabenhorst's  Kryptogamen  Flora,  Band  i.  Abt.  8,  Lief.  96  (Leipzig,  1905) 
pp.  257-320. 

Oct.  18th,  1905  2  t 


622  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

trichum,  and  Cristularia.  The  Verticillieae  follow  next  in  order.  The 
genus  Pachybasium,  with  three  species,  is  described,  and  several  of  the 
species  of  Verticillium.  The  genera  are  illustrated  in  the  text.*  In 
the  succeeding  part  the  Verticillieas  are  concluded,  and  the  Gonato- 
botrytidea3.  The  group  Hyalodidyrnese,  with  colourless  2-celled  spores, 
is  commenced.  It  is  satisfactory  to  note  that  Lindau  sinks  Gephalo- 
thecium,  a  genus  similar  to  Trichothecium. 

Cercospora  beticola  parasitic  on  Sugar  and  Fodder  Beet.f — J.  Uzel 
describes  this  disease,  which  makes  itself  known  by  grey  or  brown  spots 
on  the  leaves.  Infection  takes  place  through  the  stomata  ;  the  mycelium 
burrows  in  the  intercellular  spaces,  finally  penetrating  the  cells.  The 
conidiophores  pass  out  again  through  other  stomata.  The  conidia  are 
terminal :  after  the  first  one  falls,  a  second  is  produced  a  little  lower 
on  the  stalk,  which  in  turn  becomes  terminal.  The  conidia  winter  in 
the  soil  on  the  decaying  leaves. 

North  American  Uredinese.J — E.  W.  D.  Holway  has  issued  Part  I.  of 
a  projected  comprehensive  account  of  Uredinese.  He  gives  a  short 
account  of  Puccinia,  and  then  gives  detailed  diagnoses  of  the  different 
species,  grouping  them  under  the  various  natural  orders,  genera,  and 
species  of  host  plants.  Those  described  all  grow  on  the  western  con- 
tinent.    The  spores  are  illustrated  by  photomicrographs. 

Mexican  Rusts. § — J.  C.  Arthur  publishes  a  list  of  Rusts  on  Legu- 
niinosas,  many  of  them  new,  from  material  collected  in  Mexico  by 
E.  TV.  D.  Holway.  The  genera  Ravenelia  and  Uropyxis  are  specially 
well  represented.  He  describes  a  new  genus  Calliospora  with  three 
species.  The  teleutospores  alone  have  been  seen.  They  have  two 
lateral  germ  pores  in  each  of  the  two  cells  of  the  spore. 

Genus  Cortinarius.||  —  Calvin  H.  Kauffman  publishes  a  preliminary 
study  of  this  the  largest  genus  of  the  Agaricacese.  He  follows  the 
example  of  Fries  in  the  subdivisions,  but  he  thinks  that  these  sub- 
genera proposed  by  Fries  are  distinct  enough  to  be  reckoned  as  genera. 
All  the  Gortinarii  are  distinguished  by  the  brown  spores  and  the  cobweb- 
like veil  or  cortina.  Many  of  them  are  brightly  coloured,  but  as 
they  tend  to  fade  quickly  that  is  not  a  good  diagnostic  character.  The 
shape  of  the  spores  he  considers  to  be  more  useful  in  determining  species. 
Kauffman  gives  an  account  of  the  general  habitat  of  these  plants,  and 
advises  the  beginner  as  to  the  points  to  be  examined  and  noted.  A 
key  of  the  American  species  is  given,  and  diagnoses  of  several  new 
species. 

Mycological  Notes. IT — C.  G.  Lloyd  has  just  issued  No.  19  of  his 
notes,  dealing  principally  with  the   genus   Lycoperdon.     He  publishes 

*  Rabenhorst's  Kryptogamen  Flora,  Band  i.  Abt.  8,  Lief.  97  (Leipzig,   1905) 
pp.  321-64. 

t  Prague  (1904)  16  pp.,  2  pis.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  602-3. 

%  North  American  UredinesB,  i.  Part  1  (Minneapolis,  1905)  32  pp.  (10  pis.). 

§  Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  385-96. 

||  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club.,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  301-25. 

f  Cincinnati,  May  1905,  pp.  205-20  (14  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  623 

photographic  plates  of  the  species,  with  descriptions  of  the  European 
specimens.  These  he  divides  into  five  sections  :  atropurpureum,  gemina- 
tum,  pratense,  polymorphum,  and  spadiceum.  He  finds  that  Lycoperdon 
perJatum  is  identical  with  geminatum.  Notes  are  added  on  several  other 
genera  and  species.  Lloyd  publishes  again  a  request  that  puff-balls 
should  be  sent  to  him  by  collectors. 

Experiments  with  Parasitic  Fungi.f — W.  Loewenthal  has  been 
testing  the  effect  of  Plasmodiophora  Brassicce  and  Synchytrium  Taraxaci 
on  animal  tissues.  Both  of  these  organisms  cause  great  distortion  on  the 
host-plants  which  they  attack.  Loewenthal's  experiments  gave  negative 
results.  The  organisms  are  highly  specialised  parasites,  and  do  not 
attack  plants  indiscriminately,  much  less  animals.  He  describes  in 
detail  the  development  of  both  fungi. 

Handbook  of  Plant  Diseases.^ — P.  Sorauer  is  bringing  out  a  new 
edition  of  his  handbook  with  the  assistance  of  G-.  Lindau,  who  under- 
takes the  parasitic  fungi,  and  L.  Reh,  who  is  to  be  responsible  for  the 
part  dealing  with  insect  pests.  Sorauer  himself  describes  the  diseases 
due  to  inorganic  influences  such  as  soil,  climate,  smoke,  etc.  Two  parts 
have  already  been  issued,  the  first  dealing  with  disease,  predisposition, 
and  cure.  A  history  of  plant  diseases  follows,  and  an  account  of  the 
harm  wrought  by  unfavourable  soil  conditions.  The  second  part  treats 
of  parasitic  fungi,  beginning  with  myxomycetes,  bacteria,  and  filamentous 
fungi. 

Fungoid  Diseases  of  the  Cotton  Plant.§ — Notes  are  published  on 
the  occurrence  of  a  root  disease  of  cotton  in  German  East  Africa,  caused 
by  a  fungus  Macosmospora  vasinfecta  and  to  be  recognised  by  the  dwarf- 
ing of  the  plants  and  the  yellowing  of  the  leaves.  The  roots  are  attacked 
when  young,  the  mycelium  penetrating  the  tissues  and  then  spreading 
all  round  the  infected  spots.  Digging  a  trench  round  the  area  of  diseased 
plants  is  advised.  A  secondary  harmless  parasite  Diplodia  Gossypii  was 
also  found  on  the  roots,  along  with  Phyllosticta  gossypina.  Altemaria 
macrospora  has  been  observed  on  the  dead  leaves  :  it  is  uncertain  what 
damage  it  causes. 

American  Mycology.|| — A.  P.  Morgan  writes  a  note  on  the  genus 
Gibellula,  and  describes  a  new  species,  found  growing  on  small  dead 
insects.  J.  0.  Arthur  f  publishes  the  fifth  of  a  series  of  reports  on  the 
culture  of  plant  rusts.  Many  of  the  cultures  were  undertaken  to  verify 
work  previously  done,  and  were  successful.  In  five  cases  secidial  and 
teleutosporic  connections  were  established.  Full  details  of  these  and  of 
the  cultures  are  given  ;  the  rusts  were  all  hetercecious,  and  are  reported 
for  the  first  time.  W.  A.  Kellerman  and  P.  L.  Ricker*  continue  their 
list  of  new  genera  of  fungi  published  since  1900. 

*  Zeitschr.  Krebsf.,  iii.  (1905)  16  pp.,  1  pi.      See  also  Ami.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905) 
p-  212.  t  P.  Parey  (Berlin,  1905)  i.  Lief  1,  and  ii.  Lief  2. 

X  Bull.  Imp.  Inst.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  60-2. 

§  Journ.  Mycol.,  xi.  (1905)  pp.  49-50.  ||  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  50-67. 

i  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  68-96. 

2  T  2 


624  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Disease  of  Sugar  Beet.f  —  M.  Hollrung  includes  Phoma  Betce  in 
his  account  of  the  organisms  that  work  harm  to  the  sugar  beet.  He 
finds  that  when  the  soil  is  too  dry  the  plant  is  insufficiently  nourished, 
and  more  easily  succumbs  to  the  attack  of  the  parasite.  He  finds,  too, 
that  if  the  plant  has  a  very  luxurious  growth  at  the  beginning,  it  is  less 
able  to  withstand  subsequent  drought ;  he  therefore  recommends  spare 
manuring  at  an  early  stage,  in  order  to  restrict  an  over-abundant 
development. 

Technical  Mycology.:): — F.  Lafar  has  just  issued  the  fifth  part  of  his 
handbook.  W.  Benecke  has  prepared  the  chapters  that  deal  with  the 
physiology  and  elements  of  nutrition,  and  the  action  of  minute  organisms 
in  the  breaking  up  of  substances.  J.  Behrens  takes  up  the  question  of 
external  influences  on  fermentation.  In  other  chapters  are  discussed 
symbiosis,  metabiosis,  and  antagonism,  and  incidentally  full  directions 
are  given  for  the  culture  of  fungi.  The  presence  of  enzymes  and  the 
agents  that  favour  or  hinder  their  formation  are  also  discussed  in  this 
number. 

Fat  Bodies  in  Plant  Nuclei.§ — These  bodies  have  been  detected 
by  Carnoy  in  the  nuclei  of  certain  animal  cells.  Zopf  and  Nowakowski 
had  suspected  their  presence  in  the  nuclei  of  the  zoospores  of  Chytri- 
diacere.  R.  Maire  has  recently  demonstrated  their  existence  in  the 
nuclei  of  young  protobasidia  of  Coleosporium  Campanula.  The  forrn- 
mation  of  the  minute  fat  particles  begins  in  the  secondary  nuclei ;  at  a 
more  advanced  stage  they  disappear  from  the  nuclei,  and  are  to  be  found 
only  in  the  protoplasm.  Their  presence  has  also  been  proved  in  the 
nuclei  of  the  spores  of  Elaphomyces  variegatus.  Maire  considers  that 
such  bodies  are  to  be  found  in  all  nuclei. 

Aderhold,  R. — Einige  neue  Pilze.     (Some  new  Fungi.) 

[Several  species  of  microfungi,  parasitic  on  leaves,  etc.,  are 
described.] 

Arb.  biol.  Abt.  Land-Forstw.  Kais.  Ges., 

iv.  5  (1905)  pp.  461-3  (4  figs.). 

See  also  Hedwigia,  sliv.  (1905)  p.  145. 

,,  „      Zur  biologie  und  Bekampfung  des  Mutterkornes.     (Biology  and 

Destruction  of  Ergot.) 

[It  is  recommended  to  burn  the  diseased  grasses ;  burying 
is  not  always  successful,  and  a  small  piece  of  dry  scle- 
rotium  can  form  the  ascus  fruit.] 

Op.  cit.,  v.  1  (1905)  pp.  31-6. 
See  also  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  p.  145. 

Bubak,  Fk. — Beitrag  zur  Kenntniss  einiger  TJredineen.   (Contributions  to  the  know- 
ledge of  some  Uredinese.) 

[Notes  on  species  already   described  and   descriptions  of  new  forms  from 
Bohemia,  Montenegro,  etc.]  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  217-24. 


*  Zeitschr.  Ver.  Deutsch.  Zuckerind.  1905,  p.  407.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt., 
xiv.  (1905)  pp.  750-1. 

t  Handbuch  der  technischen  Mykologie  (Jena,  1905)  Heft  5.  See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  pp.  29-30. 

X  Compt.  Rend.  Soc.  Biol.,  lvi.  (1904)  pp.  736-7.  See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905) 
p.  301. 


ZOOLOGY  AND   BOTANY,   MICEOSCOPY,   ETC.  625 

Bucholz,   Feodob. — Nachtragliche  Bemerkungen  zur  Verbreitung  der  Fungi 
[hypogsei  in  Eussland.     (Additional  notes  on  the  distribution  of  underground 
fungi  in  Russia.) 

[Explanatory  notes  are  given  of  a  number  of  species.  The  writer  considers 
that  a  careful  search  would  prove  the  frequency  and  wide  distribution  of 
this  class  of  fungi.]  Bull.  Soc.  Imp.  Nat.,  iv.  (1904)  pp.  335-43. 

Btjsse. — Reisebericht  II.  der  pflanzenpathologischen  Expedition  des  Kolonialwirt- 
schaftliohen  Komitees  nach  Westafrika.     (Travel  report  II.  of  the  plant  patho- 
logical expedition  of  the  Colonial  Administrative  Committee  to  West  Africa.) 
[Special  attention  is  given  to  the  culture  of  cotton,  and  to  the  extent  to  which 
it  is  affected  by  parasitic  fungi.] 

Tropenflanzer,  ix.  (1905)  heft  4,  pp.  169-84  (2  figs.). 
See  also  Centralbl.  BakL,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  743. 

Butleb,  E.  T. — The  Indian  Wheat  "Rust  Problem:  Part  I. 

[An  account  of  wheat  rust  disease  in  India,  with  suggestions  as  to  the  means 
of  combating  the  disease.] 

Dept.  Agric.  India,  Bull.  I.  (Calcutta,  1903)  18  pp. 

Earle,  F.  S. — Mycological  Studies :  II. 

[New  species  collected  in  Western  America  by  C.  F.  Baker,  and  new  tropical 
fungi  collected  by  A.  A.  Heller  at  Porto  Rico.] 

Bull.  New  York  Bot.  Gard.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  289-312. 
See  also  Ann.  MycoL,  iii.  (1905)  p.  292. 

Ellis,  J.  B. — A  new  Rosellinia  from  Nicaragua,  Rosellinia  Bakeri. 

[The  fungus  was  growing  on  wood.]  Torreya,  v.  (1905)  p.  87. 

Hafner,  B. — Einige  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  des  Invertions  der  Hefe.     (Some  con- 
tributions to  the  knowledge  of  the  "  inversion  "  of  Yeast.) 

Zeitschr.  Physiolog.  Chemie,  xlii.  (1904)  p.  1. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  653-4. 

Henneberg,  W. — Abnorme  Zellenformen  bei  Eulturhefen.     (Abnormal  cell-forms 
in  yeast  culture.) 

[The  abnormal  cells  have  only  a  short  duration :  they  are  round,  broad,  or 
amoeba-like.]  Wochenschr.  Brauerei,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  563-79. 

See  also  Ann.  MycoL,  iii.  (1905)  p.  215. 

Issajew,  W. — Ueber  die  Hefekatalase.     (On  Yeast  Catalase.) 

Zeitschr.  Physiol.  Chem.,  xlii.  (1904)  p.  112. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  28. 

„  ,,      Ueber  die  Hefeoxydase.     (On  Yeast  Oxydase.)  Tom.  cit.,  p.  132. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcix.  (1905)  pp.  28-9. 

Jaap,    O. — Verzeichniss  zu  meinem  Exsiccatenwerk  "Fungi    selecti   exsicoati," 
Serien  I.-IV.,  nebst  Bemerkungen.     (List  of  Fungi,  with  notes.) 
[Several  new  species  of  microfungi  are  included.] 

Bot.  Ver.  Prov.  Brandenb.,  xlvii.  (1905)  pp.  77-99. 
See  also  Ann.  MycoL,  iii.  (1905)  p.  295. 

Laer,  Henbi  Van. — Sur  quelques  levures  non  inversives.    (On  some  non-invert- 
ing yeasts.) 

[The  author  experimented  with  species  of  Saccharomyces  and  Torula.~\ 

Centralbl.  BakL,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  550-6. 

Laubebt,  R. — Die  Taschenkrankheit  der  Zwetschen  und  ihre  Bekampf  ung.    Leaf- 
curl  disease  of  damsons  and  its  cure.) 

Kais.  Gesundh.  Biol.  Abt.  Land.-Forstw., 

Flugbl.  30,  Mar.  1905. 

See  also  Centralbl.  BakL,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  747 


626  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Laubert,  R. — Eine  neue  Rosenkrankheit,  verursacht  durch  den  Pilz  Coniothyrium 
Wernsdorffiee.  (A  new  disease  of  Roses  caused  by  the  fungus 
Coniothyrium  Werwdorjfim.) 

[The  fungus  attacks  the  young  twigs.] 

Arb.  Biol.  Abt.  Land.-Forstw.  Kais.  Get., 

iv.  5  (1905)  pp.  458-60  (2  figs.) 

See  also  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  p.  154. 

Lindau.  G. — Beobachtungen  iiber  Hyphomyceten :  I.  (Observations  on  Hypho- 
mycetes.) 

[The  author  gives  critical  notes  on  species  found  in  Brandenburg,  and  describes 
a  number  of  new  forms.] 

Abh.  Bot.  Ver.  Prov.  Brandenb.,  xlvii.  (1905)  pp.  67-70. 
See  also  Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  p.  148. 

Lindner.  P. — Die  Prufung  der  Hefe  auf  Homogenitat.  (Examination  of  yeast-cells 
as  to  their  homogeneity.) 

[According  to  the  author,  cells  of  similar  size  have  the  same  appearance, 
belong  to  the  same  species,  and  are  in  the  same  physiological  condition.] 

Wochenschr.  Brauerei,  xxi.  (1904)  p.  621. 
See  also  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  p.  215. 

Maze,  P. — Microbiologic  agricole.  Sur  l'Oidium  lactis  et  la  maturation  de  la  creme 
des  fromages.  (Agricultural  microbiology.  Note  on  Oidium  lactis  and  the 
ripening  of  the  cream  of  cheese.)  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.  (1905)  p.  1812. 

Pantanelli,  E. — Pressione  e  tensione  delle  cellule  di  lievito.  (Pressure  and 
tension  of  yeast-cells.)  Atti  Beale  Accad.  Lin.,  cccii.  (1905)  pp.  720-6. 

Rehm. — Ascomyceten  exsiccat.  Fasc.  34. 

[Descriptions  are  published  of  the  new  species  or  varieties.] 

Ann.  Mycol.  iii.  (1905)  pp.  224-31. 

Reichling,  G.  A. — Contributions  to  the  recorded  Fungus  and  Slime-mould  Flora 
of  Long  Island.  Torreya,  v.  (1905)  pp.  85-7. 

Rick,  J. — Pilze  aus  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.     (Fungi  from  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.) 

[A    large  number  of  new  species  of  Basidiomycetes  and  Ascomycetes  are 
described.]  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  235-40. 

Shiga,  K. — TJeber  einige  Hefefermente.     (Some  yeast  ferments.) 

[Arginase,  found  only  in  animals  hitherto,  has  been  found  in  yeast.] 

Zeitschr.  Physiolog.  Chemie,  xlii.  (1904)  p.  502. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  657. 

Slaus-Kantschieder,  J. — Ueber  Pflanzenkrankheiten  im  Gebiet  von  Spalato. 
(Plant  diseases  in  the  province  of  Spalato.) 

[The  depredations  of  several  parasitic  fungi  are  noted,  and  curative  measures 
discussed.]  Zeitsch.  Land.  Versuch$w.  Oesterr.,  1905,  p.  274. 

See  also  Centralbl.  Bald.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  743. 

Stdow. — Mycotheca  germanica,  Fasc.  VII.  (No.  301-50). 

[Diagnoses  are  published  of  the  new  species  included  in  the  fascicle.] 

Ann.  Mycol,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  231-4. 

Takahashi,  T. — Some  New  Varieties  of  Mycoderma  Yeast. 

Bidl.  Coll.  Agric.  Tokyo,  vi.  No.  4  (1905)  pp.  3S7-401. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  9. 

Thaxter,  Roland. — Preliminary  Diagnoses  of  New  Species  of  Laboulbeniaceae :  VI. 

[There  is  one  new  genus,  Districhornyces,  recorded;    many  new  species  are 

described.]  Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and  Hci.,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  303-18. 

Traverso,  G.  B. — Secondo  contributio  alio  studio  della  Flora  micologica  della 
provincia  di  Como.  (Second  contribution  to  the  study  of  the  mycological  flora 
of  the  province  of  Como.) 

[Eighty-one  species  of  microfungi  are  recorded;  there  is  one  new  species  in- 
cluded in  the  list.]  Malpighia,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  131-52. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC.  627 

Wehmer,  C. — Versuche  uber  Mucorineengarung.     (Kesearch  on  fermentation  by 
Mucor.) 

[The  research  was  carried  on  under  varying  conditions  of  media  and  aeration, 
and  the  different  results  are  noted.  Mucor  javanicus  and  M.  racemosut 
were  used  in  the  cultures.]  Centralbl.  Baht.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  556-72. 


Lichens. 
(By  A.  Lorbain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Lichens  of  Finisterre.* — Picquenard  prefaces  his  list  of  Finisterre 
lichens  by  an  account  of  the  distribution  of  these  plants  in  the  im- 
mediate neighbourhood.  He  also  discusses  the  influence  of  climate  and 
altitude,  and  compares  the  lichen  flora  of  the  district  with  that  of  other 
parts  of  the  country.  He  finds  certain  maritime  forms,  such  as  Physcia 
fiavic-ans  and  Ramalina  scopulorum,  growing  on  rocks  far  in  the  interior, 
and  he  explains  their  presence  by  the  action  of  the  wind,  which  has 
disseminated  these  species.  He  follows  the  methods  of  classification 
adopted  by  Boistel.  Most  of  the  species  recorded  have  been  collected  by 
himself,  or  by  colleagues  working  with  him,  but  he  has  made  use  of 
existing  herbaria  to  complete  the  lists. 

Classification  of  Lichens.f — Albert  Schneider  writes  a  paper  on  the 
present  position  of  systematic  Lichenology.  He  sums  up  his  views  on 
.the  question  thus  : — 

1.  While  some  authorities  are  satisfied  that  lichens  deserve  to  be 
recognised  as  an  autonomous  group,  others  are  not  ready  to  admit  this. 
This  difference  of  opinion  does  not  cause  any  serious  confusion  in  the 
conception  of  lichen  groups  and  species. 

2.  There  is  great  confusion  with  regard  to  the  limitation  of  lichen 
species.  The  number  of  good  species  is  in  all  probability  about  4000. 
The  number  actually  described  of  species,  varieties,  and  forms,  is  about 
20,000. 

3.  The  system  of  classification  proposed  by  Zahlbruckner,  in  Engler 
and  Prantl's  "  Pflanzenfamilien  "  is  excellent,  and  should  be  generally 
adopted.  This  would  very  materially  facilitate  the  work  of  studying  the 
various  groups  more  carefully,  thus  perfecting  our  knowledge  of  lichens 
more  and  more,  and  making  it  possible  to  form  a  more  perfect  system  in 
the  near  future. 

Schneider  considers  that  Zahlbruckner  gives  too  much  systematic 
importance  to  the  thecial  characters. 

Lichen  Flora  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Amberg4  —  Michael 
Lederer  has  collected  Lichens  near  Amberg  in  Bavaria  for  some  years, 
and  has  found  75  genera,  220  species,  and  54  forms.  The  country 
round  was  on  the  whole  rather  unfavourable,  as  there  are  no  old  rocks, 
and  large  forests  of  beech  and  fir  are  wanting.  He  arranges  them  as 
shrubby,  leafy,  and  crustaceous  forms,  the  latter  including  the  largest 

*  Bull.  Acad  internat.  Ge'ogr.  botan.,  Le  Mans,  1904,  132  pp.  See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  pp.  657-8.  ; 

t  Torreya,  v.  (1905)  pp.  79-82.  *  Ann.  Mycol.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  257-84. 


628  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

number  of  plants.  He  gives  helpful  notes  on  many  of  the  species, 
summing  them  up  in  many  instances  into  easily  distinguishable 
groups. 

Lichen  Cephalodia.* — L'Abbe  Hue  has  found,  on  examining  Par- 
melia  cozcophora,  from  Chili,  that  there  were  two  plants  included  under 
the  same  name,  like  each  other  in  outward  appearances,  but  differing  in 
the  fruit.  The  one  has  rather  small  apothecia,  with  colourless  three- 
celled  spores;  the  other  has  larger  fruits  and  large  simple  spores.  Hue 
found,  on  these  Lichens,  cephalodia  which  contained  bright  green  alga? 
associated  with  the  blue-green.  In  one  case  the  alga  was  a  Glceocystis, 
in  the  other  Urococcus.  All  other  recorded  forms  of  cephalodia  contain 
blue-green  alga3  alone. 

Polymorphism  of  Evernia  furfuracea.f — A.  Elenkin  declares  him- 
self to  be  fully  in  accord  with  Zopf,  Xylander,  and  Wainio  as  to  the 
importance  of  purely  chemical  characters  in  Lichens.  He  considers  that 
such  characters  are  sufficient  to  differentiate  species  even  when  there  is 
no  morphological  distinction.  One  condition,  however,  is  necessary, 
that  the  reaction  from  the  chemical  test  should  be  constant.  He  applies 
this  to  the  examination  of  Evernia  furfuracea,  divided  by  Zopf  into  five 
chemical  species,  without  morphologically  distinct  characters.  In 
hundreds  of  his  specimens  he  found  olivetor  acid,  which,  according  to 
Zopf,  is  found  only  in  Evernia  olivetorina.  In  other  specimens  of 
Scobicina  type,  he  found  furfuracin,  which  is  confined  to  E.  isidiophora. 
These  results,  and  also  the  fact  that  olivetor  acid  was  found  in  very 
varying  quantities,  have  led  Elenkin  to  consider  Zopf's  species,  E.fur- 
furacea,  E.  isidiophora,  E.  ceratea,  and  E.  olivetorina,  as  one  and  the  same 
species.  E.  soralifera,  he  thinks,  may  perhaps  be  distinct  from  the 
others. 

Lichenology  for  Beginners.^  —  F.  Le  Roy  Sargent  publishes  the 
second  of  a  series  of  papers  intended  as  an  introduction  to  the  field 
study  of  Lichens.  He  selects  a  common  form  of  Parmelia,  and  instructs 
the  student  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  terms  used  in  describing  such  a 
Lichen,  and  he  also  explains  the  structure  and  function  of  the  thallus 
and  fruit. 

In  another  paper,  by  Bruce  Fink§  on  similar  lines,  the  macroscopic 
characters  of  the  Lichen  are  chiefly  dealt  with — the  different  forms  of 
thallus  that  exist  in  this  group  of  plants,  their  size,  colour,  and  texture. 
He  emphasises  the  various  points  that  are  constant,  and  that  have  a 
bearing  on  classification. 

An  elementary  guide  to  Lichenology,  ||  accompanied  by  typical 
specimens  of  the  plants,  has  recently  been  issued  by  Abbe  Harmand, 
with  the  help  of  H.  and  V.  Claudel.  Their  aim  is  to  enable  the 
beginner  to  indentify  the  Lichens  that  occur  most  frequently.      The 

*  Ann.  Assoc.  Nat.  Levallois-Perret,  1904,"  pp.  31-41.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl., 
xcix.  (1905)  pp.  34-5. 

t  Bull.  Jard.  Imp.  bot.  St.  Petersburg,  v.  (1905)  p.  9-22.  (Russian.)  See  also 
Hedwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  151-2. 

X  Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  66-9  (5  figs.).  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  73-6. 

U  Epinal,  1904,  106  pp.,  1  pi.     See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix.(1905)  pp.  68-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  629' 

authors  publish  a  general  account  of  the  plants,  and  instructions  how  to 
gather  and  examine  them.  Then  follow  tables  of  the  families,  tribes, 
and  genera  into  which  they  are  divided.  Under  each  genus  one  or  two 
species  are  carefully  described,  sufficiently  so  to  enable  the  student  to 
identify  the  Lichen,  especially  when  aided  by  the  dried  specimens. 

Bouly  de  Lesdain. — Liste  des   Lichens  recueillis  a  Spa.     (List  of  Lichens 
collected  at  Spa.) 

[The  list  includes  188  species  of  Lichens.     Two  new  species  of  Lecidea  are 
described.]  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  lii.  (1905)  23  pp. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  pp.  33-4. 

Cheel,  E. — Bibliography  of  Australian  Lichens. 

[A  complete   list  of  papers  on   this  subject   published   prior  to 
September  1903.] 
Journ.  and  Proc.  Boy.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  xxxvii.  (1903)  pp.  172-82. 

,,         „     List  of  Lichens  found  in  New  South  Wales. 

[The  list  is  additional  to  those  recorded  in  F.  R.  M.  Wilson's  list.] 

Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.  (1903)  pp.  687-90. 

Cuffino,  Luigi. — Osservazione  e  aggiunte  alia  Flora  del  Canada.    (Observation* 
and  additions  to  the  Flora  of  Canada.) 

[A  small  number  of  Lichens  are  included  in  the  list,  collected  in  British 
Columbia.]  Malpighia,  xix.  (1905)  p.  196. 

Duss,  R.  T. — Les  principaux  Lichens  de  la  Guadeloupe.    (The  principal  Lichens 
of  Guadeloupe.) 

[The  plants  were  collected  by  R.  T.  Duss  and  determined  by  Wainio.     The 
abundance  of  species  of  Graphis  is  noted.] 

See  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  657. 

Jatta,  A. — Licheni  essotici  dell'  Erbario  Levier  recolti  nelT  Asia  meridionale,  nell' 

Oceania,  nel  Brasile,  e  nel  Madagascar.     Serie  ii.      (Exotic  Lichens  from  the 

Levier  Herbarium,  collected  in  Southern  Asia,  Oceania,  Brazil  and  Madagascar.) 

[One  hundred  and  fifty  species  are  recorded ;  there  are  several  new  species 

and  varieties.]  Malpighia,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  163-86. 

Wainio,  Ed  v.  A. — Lichenes  ab  Ove  Paulsen  praecipue  in  provincia  Ferghana  (Asia 
Media)  et  a  Boris  Fedtschenko  in  Tjanschen  anno  1898-1899  collecti.  (Lichens- 
from  Central  Asia.) 

[Thirty-eight  species  are  recorded ;  several  of  these  are  new.] 

Bot.  Tidsslcr.  xxvi..  Heft  2  (Copenhagen,  1904)  pp.  241-50. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcviii.  (1905)  p.  603. 


Scb.izoph.yta. 
Schizomycetes. 

New  Colourless  Thiospirillum.*  —  W.  Omelianski  describes  this 
organism,  to  which  he  gives  the  name  of  Thiospirillum  Winogradsky . 
It  developed  in  a  tall  cylinder  in  which,  beneath  a  layer  of  fluidity,  was 
lime  mud  mixed  with  gypsum  and  a  small  quantity  of  vegetable  refuse  ; 
the  cylinder  was  filled  to  the  brim  with  tap  water,  and  stood  in  a  shady 
place.  After  several  months  a  zone  of  the  sulphur  bacterium  appeared 
in  the  lower  third  of  the  vessel.  It  is  a  large,  faintly  brownish-green 
coloured  spirillum,  with  active  screw-like  motility  ;  its  colour  depends 
on  the  highly  refractile  drops  of  sulphur  with  which  the  body  is  dis- 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  769. 


630  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

tended  ;  the  flagella  could  not  be  stained,  and  their  position  at  one  or 
both  ends  of  the  organism  could  not  therefore  with  certainty  be  deter- 
mined ;  the  length  of  the  spirillum  varies  up  to  50  p.,  its  breadth  being 
about  y>  fi.  Since  it  is  not  coloured  by  bacterio-purpurin  like  the  other 
sulphur  bacteria,  he  considers  that  this  spirillum  should  be  classed  as  an 
independent  variety. 

Bacillus  macerus,  an  Acetone-forming  Bacillus.* — F.  Schardinger 
found  this  organism  as  an  accidental  contamination  in  a  potato  medium 
that  had  been  sterilised  for  an  hour  on  three  successive  days  in  a  current 
of  steam,  an  unexpected  fermentation  occurring  on  incubating  at  37°  C. ; 
he  also  found  the  bacillus  in  the  mud  of  retting  flax.  The  organism 
appears  as  slender,  actively  motile  rods  4  /x-Q  /x  long,  0  •  8  /x.-l  //.  broad  ; 
when  mature  and  in  the  sporing  stage  they  are  non-motile  ;  the  spores 
are  situated  at  one  end  of  the  rod  ;  the  ripe  spores  are  oval,  2  /x  long, 
1  •  8  /t  broad  ;  they  are  very  resistant  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  water. 
On  nutrient  gelatin  plates  with  3  p.c.  dextrose,  white  pin-point  colonies 
appear  after  about  8  days ;  in  gelatin  stab  there  is  but  feeble  growth 
in  the  track,  no  gas  formation,  no  liquefaction  of  the  medium ;  on 
sugar  bouillon  at  37°  C.  there  is  rapid  and  abundant  growth,  diffuse 
clouding  of  the  medium,  and  formation  of  a  slimy  deposit ;  milk  is 
coagulated  at  37°  C.  within  36-48  hours,  the  separated  serum  is  clouded, 
and  there  is  abundant  gas  production  ;  on  boiled  potato  at  37°  C.  there 
is  a  vigorous  moist  shining  growth,  with  copious  gas  production,  which 
after  a  few  days  gives  off  a  pleasant  fruity  odour  of  acetone,  the  potato 
becoming  pappy  ;  microscopically  the  mass  is  seen  to  be  rich  in  spores. 
The  author  discusses  the  process  of  retting  in  various  vegetables  and 
fruits,  and  gives  details  of  the  methods  employed  by  him  for  obtaining 
acetone  from  potato  and  other  plants  and  fruits  by  means  of  this 
organism,  and  for  quantitatively  estimating  the  acetone  formed. 

Bacterial  Rods  of  Pelomyxa  Palustris.j  —  L.  J.  Veley  describes 
the  bacterial  nature  of  the  rods  of  Pelomyxa  Palustris  as  evidenced 
by  their  motility,  mode  of  division,  their  reaction,  and  culture.  To 
observe  the  motility  the  protozoon  was  crushed  in  a  drop  of  water  and  the 
bacteria  being  set  free  were  watched  continuously  for  periods  of  several 
hours  without  removing  the  eye  from  the  Microscope.  The  movement, 
which  was  both  horizontal  and  vertical,  was  at  first  active  but  became 
sluggish,  and  later  ceased  ;  the  presence  of  a  flagellum  could  not  with 
certainty  be  demonstrated.  The  division  of  the  organism  was  observed 
1  >y  a  similar  method  of  continuous  watching  ;  on  several  occasions  single 
rods  were  seen  to  become  constricted,  forming  two  equal  joints,  one  of 
these  again  becoming  constricted  and  so  forming  a  three-jointed  rod, 
and  so  on  till  a  six-jointed  rod  was  produced,  when  separation  occurred 
by  breaking  into  two  ;  but  in  no  instance  was  a  single  unit  set  free. 
The  rods  stained  well  with  all  bacterial  stains  and  by  Gram's  method. 
After  several  attempts,  an  approximately  pure  culture  was  obtained  on 
fresh  sheep's  serum  ;  the  culture  showed  motile,  two-jointed  rods  :  later 
filaments  were  formed,  and  "pseudo-branching"  of  these  was  also  noted. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  772. 
t  Journ.  Linn.  Soc,  xxix.  (1905)  p.  374. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  631 

Virulence  and  Immunising  Powers  of  Micro-organisms.* — R.  P. 
■Strong  investigated  the  essential  differences  existing  between  two 
strains  of  cholera  spirilla  of  different  degrees  of  virulence,  particularly 
in  relation  to  the  subject  of  their  virulence  and  to  the  immunity  to 
which  they  give  rise  in  inoculated  animals.  He  found  that  the  virulent 
cholera  spirillum  possesses  a  greater  number  of  bacteriolytic  and  agglut- 
inable  haptophore  groups,  or  these  groups  are  endowed  with  a  greater 
binding  power  for  uniceptors  and  amboceptors  than  the  avirulent ;  the 
number  or  the  avidity  of  the  bacteriolytic  receptors  possessed  by  a 
bacterium  is  directly  proportional  to  its  virulence  ;  but  the  agglutinable 
receptors  do  not  follow  this  law,  the  agglutinable  haptophore  groups  are 
not  necessarily  present  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  bactericidal  ones. 
The  virulent  organism  is  possessed  with  a  greater  number  of  toxic  hapto- 
phore groups  than  the  nonvirulent.  The  binding  power  of  the  free 
receptors  of  the  organisms  for  bacteriolytic  amboceptors  in  vitro  is  pro- 
portional to  the  bactericidal  immunity  produced  in  animals  by  each, 
which  latter  is  in  turn  proportional  to  the  virulence  of  the  organisms 
from  which  the  receptors  were  extracted.  The  binding  power  in  vitro 
of  the  dead  micro-organisms  of  different  virulence  for  bacteriolytic 
amboceptors  is  not  in  proportion  to  their  toxicity.  The  bactericidal 
immunity  obtained  by  means  of  the  inoculation  with  dead  organisms  of 
different  virulence  or  their  extracts  (obtained  by  autolytic  digestion)  is 
proportional  to  the  virulence  of  the  living  strains  of  the  bacteria 
employed.  With  the  living  organisms,  while  the  bactericidal  immunity 
•obtained  from  the  inoculation  of  animals  with  the  virulent  organism  is 
greater  than  that  produced  with  the  non-virulent,  such  immunity  is  not 
in  direct  proportion  to  the  virulence  of  the  bacteria  introduced. 

Bacillus  Freudenreichii.f — F.  Lohnis,  in  his  account  of  the  nitrogen 
bacteria,  gives  the  following  description  of  Bacillus  Freudenreichii 
Migula.  Slender  round-ended  rods  lfj.  broad,  2/*-4/t  long,  having  a 
tendency  to  form  threads  ;  they  stain  well  by  the  ordinary  dyes,  and  by 
Gram's  method  ;  in  young  cultures  the  rods  are  actively  motile,  having 
numerous  long  peritrichous  flagella  ;  spore  formation  is  especially  well 
seen  on  old  potato  cultures,  the  spores  being  small,  elliptical  (1/a-1*25/a) 
and  tending  to  lie  nearer  to  one  pole  ;  on  ordinary  gelatin  plate  growth 
is  relatively  slow,  the  small  surface  colonies  are  white  and  blue  by  trans- 
mitted light,  round  and  rather  ragged,  of  the  colon  type  but  much  smaller  ; 
the  centre  portion  is  yellowish  and  finely  granular,  the  margin  sharply 
defined  :  after  ten  days  the  colony  has  a  diameter  of  about  320/t* ;  the 
round,  sharply  contoured,  yellow,  deep  colonies  remain  small  ;  on  urea- 
gelatin  plates  similar  colonies  develop,  but  the  growth  is  quicker,  the 
colonies  having  a  diameter  of  110^-130/t  after  four  days.  In  gelatin 
stab  cultures  the  growth  is  irregular;  at  one  time,  even  after  10  days, 
only  a  fine  grey  thread  is  noticeable  in  the  track  of  the  stab,  and  growth 
on  the  surface  has  ceased  ;  whereas  on  another  occasion,  with  rather  more 
alkaline  gelatin,  a  fine  milky  thread  is  seen  after  four  days,  and  on  the 
surface  a  white  transparent  membrane  with  ragged  margin,  which  after 

*  Bureau  Gov.  Lab.  Manila,  1904,  No.  21. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2,e  Abt.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  719. 


632      SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

10  days  sinks  in  the  bubble  of  liquefaction  ;  in  urea-gelatin  stab  cul- 
tures there  is  a  more  vigorous  growth  of  the  white-grey  thread  reaching 
to  the  bottom  of  the  track,  on  the  surface  a  white  expansion,  which  after 
8-10  days  is  h  cin.-f  cm.  broad,  has  a  fringed  margin,  and  sinks  as  the  slow 
liquefaction  appears,  but  after  14  days  the  gelatin  is  still  firm.  On  agar 
streak  a  spreading  white-grey,  moist,  shining  growth  with  ragged  fringed 
margins  ;  on  urea-agar  streak  there  grows  a  thin,  finely  granular,  milky, 
transparent  expansion  of  low  vitality  ;  subcultures  after  14  days  are  un- 
successful. In  broth  there  is  a  slow  appearance  of  cloudiness  without  ring 
or  pellicle  formation,  a  white-grey  powdery,  later  rather  slimy,  deposit ; 
slight  indol  production.  In  milk  cultures  the  chief  changes  to  note  are 
slight  clearing  and  more  alkaline  reaction  ;  no  special  peptonising  of  the 
casein  was  observed  after  several  weeks  at  room  temperature.  The 
growth  on  potato  is  slow,  and  at  first  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  medium,  but  after  about  10  days  there  is  a  colourless  faintly  shining 
expansion,  becoming  slimy  later  and  of  a  flesh  to  brown  colour. 

Decomposition  of  Albuminoids  by  Cladothrix  Chromogenes.* — 
M.  E.  Mace  finds  that  Cladothrix  chromogenes  grows  well  in  liquid  blood 
serum,  colouring  the  medium  a  deep  brown,  and  producing  that  peculiar 
odour  that  is  characteristic  of  this  group  of  organisms.  After  a  few 
months  the  medium  has  become  more  fluid  and  no  longer  coagulates  by 
heat,  but  gives  on  boiling  a  heavy  flocculent  precipitate.  This  liquid 
contains  ammonia  and  pro-peptones,  but  no  indol ;  it  forms  an  abundant 
white  crystalline  deposit,  which  on  shaking  has  a  shining  spangly  aspect ; 
the  crystals  consist  of  tyrosin,  leucin,  and  glycocol. 

Bacteriology  of  Appendicitis.f — Perrone  obtains  drops  of  liquid 
aseptically  from  the  interior  of  the  appendix  immediately  after  the 
operation,  and  after  preparing  direct  specimens  to  ascertain  the  relative 
abundance  of  microbes  in  the  liquid,  he  makes  progressive  dilutions  into 
10  tubes  of  broth,  and  with  1  c.cm.  from  each  of  these  he  inoculates 
10  tubes  of  sloped  agar,  for  aerobic  culture,  and  10  tubes  of  sugar-agar 
for  anaerobic  culture.  As  soon  as  the  colonies  begin  to  be  visible  they 
are  isolated  and  subcultured  on  agar  and  broth.  He  gives  clinical, 
pathological,  and  bacteriological  details  of  14  cases.  He  found  B.  coli 
in  10  ;  Diplostreptococcus  of  Tavel  in  6  ;  Streptococcus  pyogenes  in  4  ; 
B.  frag  His  of  Veillon  and  Zuber  in  7  ;  B.  perfringens,  an  almost  strict 
anaerobe,  in  6  ;  B.  proteus  in  2  ;  and  Pneumococcus,  Staphylococcus, 
B.  pyocyaneus,  and  B.fusiformis,  each  in  1  case.  The  appendix  was 
found  sterile  in  1  case.  He  notes  and  lays  great  stress  on  the  prepon- 
derance of  anaerobes  over  aerobes,  and  does  not  share  the  opinion  of 
many  authors  that  the  B.  coli  is  the  pathogenic  organism  of  appendicitis. 

Micro-Organisms  in  the  Intestines  of  Infants.! — A.  Rodella  finds 
that  in  the  intestines  of  infants  various  peptonising  microbes  are  found  ; 
that  they  are  more  numerous  in  bottle-fed  children,  and  that  the 
anaerobic  conditions  in  no  way  hinder  the  peptonisation  of  the  casein. 
As  the  result  of  many  observations,  he  concludes  that  the  action  of 
trypsin   on  albuminoids  is  not  hindered  by  acids.      He  differs  from 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxli.  (1905)  p.  147. 
+  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xix.  (1905)  p.  667.  J  Tom.  cit,  p.  406. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  633 

M.  Tissier  in  considering  that  the  circumstances  favourable  to  the 
establishment  of  putrefaction,  such  as  fermentation  in  an  alkaline  medium, 
are  also  favourable  to  the  production  of  a  maximum  number  of  spore- 
forming  micro-organisms. 

Micro-organisms  of  Cheese  Making.* — P.  Maze  discusses  the  nature 
and  the  comparative  uses  of  the  various  micro-organisms  occurring  in 
the  manufacture  of  different  kinds  of  cheese.  He  refers  especially  to 
three  varieties  of  Pemeillium,  P.  glaucum,  P.  candidum,  and  P.  album ; 
this  last  occurs  in  the  refined  cheeses,  and  is  most  important  from  its 
property  of  destroying  lactic  acid  and  lactose,  and  may  be  regarded  as  an 
obligate  intermediary  between  the  lactic  fermentation  necessary  to  the 
cheese  making,  and  the  casein  ferment  indispensable  to  the  refining 
process,  since  the  casein  ferments  cannot  develop  in  the  presence  of 
acids  ;  the  characteristic  flavour  of  Brie  and  Camembert  cheeses  being 
due  to  this  mould  ;  it  is  apparently  of  use  in  obviating  the  drying  of  the 
surface,  and  in  maintaining  the  porosity  of  the  cheese. 

Two  Varieties  of  Vibrio  aquatilis  fluorescens.f  —  F.  Fuhrmann 
describes  two  varieties  of  fluorescent  water  vibrios  :  {a)  was  isolated 
from  surface  water ;  (b)  was  obtained  from  cistern  water. 

(a)  Grows  well  on  nutrient  gelatin  at  room  temperature,  forming 
round,  sharply  contoured  colonies,  with  denser  central  portions,  and  of 
a  faint  yellow  colour  ;  after  a  few  days  a  green  fluorescence  is  diffused 
throughout  the  medium,  which  after  a  week  remains  unliquefied  ;  the 
colonies  are  composed  of  long,  slender,  slightly  curved  rods,  with 
characteristic  active  vibrio  movement ;  they  stain  as  well  with  aqueous 
fuchsin  as  with  gentian-violet  solution,  but  not  by  Gram's  method  ;  the 
optimum  temperature  is  32°  C,  and  when  grown  on  agar  at  this 
temperature  the  rods  are  shorter  and  stouter,  and  preparations  show 
3-5  polar  flagella  ;  it  forms  a  brown-yellow  growth  on  potato,  and 
a  light  brown  growth  on  white  of  egg,  which,  after  two  months,  is 
converted  into  an  amber-brown  transparent  mass  ;  in  nutrient  broth 
there  is  good  growth,  with  the  formation  of  a  strong  pellicle,  but  no 
great  tendency  to  thread  formation  ;  in  pepton-water  there  is  not  good 
growth,  and  no  pellicle  is  formed  ;  in  a  fermentation  flask  there  is 
clouding  of  glucose  broth,  but  no  production  of  gas.  It  grows  best  on 
slightly  alkaline  medium  (0  ■  5  p.c.  N) ;  it  grows  in  litmus  milk,  and 
after  five  days  at  22°  C,  it  forms  2  p.c.  N/10  acid.  A  dose  of  15  mgrm. 
was  pathogenic  for  guinea-pigs  when  injected  into  the  peritoneum  ;  white 
mice  and  rabbits  were  unaffected. 

(b)  Grows  on  nutrient  gelatin  as  circular  almost  transparent  colonies 
cupped  in  the  centre,  and  with  delicate  wavy  margins ;  the  medium  is 
not  liquefied  ;  fluorescence  commences  after  24  hours  ;  the  colonies  are 
composed  of  closely  arranged  rods,  which  are  slightly  curved,  about 
1 "  5  jjl-2  fx  long ;  they  stain  like  the  first  variety,  and  not  by  Gram's 
method  ;  they  are  actively  motile,  and  preparations  made  from  agar 
culture  show  2-3  polar  flagella  ;  the  optimum  temperature  is  22°  C. 
On  potato  and  on  white  of  egg  the  growths  are  the  same  as  with  the 
other  variety  ;  in  nutrient  broth  there  is  good  growth  at  room  tempera- 

*  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xsx.  (1905)  p.  378. 

t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2te  Abt.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  641. 


634  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

ture,  with  the  formation  of  long  threads  composed  of  over  fifty  members. 
It  grows  best  on  slightly  alkaline  medium  (1  p.c.  N) ;  in  litmus  milk  at 
22°  C.  after  5  days  it  forms  1  p.c.  N/10  alkali.  It  is  pathogenic  for 
guinea-pigs  when  injected  into  the  peritoneum.  It  produces  a  toxin 
which  can  be  extracted  from  the  dead  cultures,  and  which  is  fatal  for 
guinea-pigs  in  relatively  small  doses. 

Differentiation  of  the  Human  and  Bovine  Tubercle  bacillus.* 
Th.  Smith  finds  that  if  these  bacilli  are  grown  in  glycerin  broth,  titrated 
against  phenolphthalein  to  2  p.c.  normal  acid,  during  the  first  two  weeks 
both  cultures  tend  more  and  more  towards  the  neutral  point,  but  later 
the  culture  of  the  human  bacillus,  which  has  become  about  0*3  p.c. 
acid,  again  becomes  more  acid,  and  eventually  regains  its  original 
reaction  ;  whereas  the  culture  of  the  bovine  tubercle  bacillus  becomes- 
distinctly  alkaline,  and  retains  this  reaction. 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  Ref.,  lte  Abt.,  xxxvi.  (1905)  p.  654. 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES. 


635 


MICROSCOPY. 

A.   Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 
(1)  Stands. 

Old  Microscope  by  Shuttleworth. — Tkisi  instrument  3  (fig.2  138) 
presented  by  Mr.  C.  Lees  Curties,  was  made  b}'  Shuttleworth,  of  London, 
and  is  a  modification  of  Ellis's  Aquatic  Microscope,  described  by  Adams. 
The  pin  supporting  the  lens  holder  goes  through!  the  middle  of  the 
pillar,  but  the  stage  does  not  move  by  a  rackwork,  as  is  the  case  in 


Fig.  138. 

the  model  by  Bate  presented  to  the  Society  last  year.f  In  other  respects 
the  two  instruments  are  much  the  same.  There  are  four  object  glasses, 
two  of  which  have  lieberkuhns. 

Old  Microscope  by  W.  and  S.  Jones.— This  old  Microscope,  pre- 
sented to  the  Society  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Rogers  at  the  April  Meeting,  bears 
the  inscription  "  W.  and  S.  Jones,  30  Holborn,  London."  Its  date  is 
about  1800,  and  it  is  a  modification  of  Ellis's  Aquatic  Microscope,  which 
was  made  by  Cuff  about  1751.  The  modification  consists  in  the 
pillar  being  made  cylindrical,  instead  of  square,  with  an  inner  sliding 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Stands;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives;  (3)  Illu- 
minating and  other  Apparatus;  (4)  Photomicrography;  (5)  Microscopical  Optios 
and  Manipulation;  (G)  Miscellaneous.  f  See  this  Journal,  1904,  p.  354. 


636 


SUMMARY   OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


pillar  moved  by  rack-and-pinion  for  focusing.  In  Ellis's  Aquatic 
Microscope  the  stem  for  carrying  the  lens-holder  passes  through  a  socket 
at  the  back  of  the  pillar,  but  in  the  instrument  it  passes  down  a  hole  in 
the  centre  of  the  inner  pillar.  These  alterations  in  the  original  design  were 
referred  to  by  Adams  in  his  Essays  on  the  Microscope  (1787).  Another 
alteration  was  the  making  of  the  stage  removable  to  economise  space  in 
the  case.     There  are  six  lenses,  two  being  provided  with  lieberkuhns. 

The  case  is  covered  with  red  leather  instead  of  the  fish-skin  so 
commonly  used  at  that  period.  The  instrument  was  said  by  the  dealer 
who  sold  it  many  years  ago  to  have  been  the  celebrated  Dr.  Jenner's 
Pocket  Microscope. 

A  very  similar  Microscope  made  by  Bate  was  presented  to  the  Society 
by  Mr.  E.  B.  Stringer,  and  is  figured  and  described  in  the  Journal  for 
1904,  p.  354. 

Pocket  Botanical  and  Universal  Microscope.  —  This  instrument 
(fig.  139)  was  presented  to  the  Society  by  Mr.  C.  Lees  Curties.     It  was 


Fig.  139. 

made  by  W.  and  S.  Jones,  and  is  figured  and  described  in  Adams'  Essays 
on  the  Microscope,  2nd  Edition,  1798,  as  a  Pocket  Botanical  and  Uni- 
versal Microscope.  It  is  evidently  an  improved  form  of  the  "  Common 
Botanical  Microscope,"  described  in  the  first  edition  of  Adams'  work, 
1787,  which  had  only  two  lenses  and  no  adjustment  screw  to  move  the 
stage.  This  example  is  well  and  neatly  made,  has  three  lenses  which 
can  be  superposed  one  over  the  other,  and  also  a  focusing  screw  which 
is  clamped  to  the  stem  and  moves  the  stage.  The  stem  slides  in  a 
square  brass  socket  screwed  on  to  an  oval  ebony  base. 

Wilson  Screw-Barrel  Simple  Microscope.  —  This  instrument  (fig. 
140)  was  presented  by  Mr.  C.  Lees  Curties  and  was  exhibited  with  the 


ZOOLOGY    AND    ROTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


637 


two  previously  described  at  the  June  meeting.  It  is  of  ivory,  and, 
though  bearing  no  maker's  name,  was  probably  made  by  Adams  about 
1746.     There  are  seven  object  glasses,  a  lens-carrier  for  opaque  work, 


Fig.  140. 


and  nine  ivory  object  slides.     A  light  condensing  lens  is  mounted  on  a 
brass  slide  just  below  the  object  slide. 

Horizontal   Travelling  Microscope.*— This  instrument  (fig.  141) 
made  by  the  Cambridge  Scientific  Instrument  Company,  is  for  measuring 


Fig.  141. 

small  differences  of  length.  A  vertical  Microscope  is  fixed  to  a  carriage 
mounted  on  a  geometric  slide  and  is  moved  in  a  horizontal  direction 
by  a  micrometer  screwreading  to  0-l  mm. 

*  Catalogue  Optical  Convention,  1905,  p.  219,  fig.  11. 
Oct.  18th,  1905  2  U 


638  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Fig.  142. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


639 


Pillischer's  New  Model  "  Kosmos."* — This  instrument  (fig.  142) 
has  the  following  features  :  a  substantial  solid  and  firm  stand,  having 
rack-and-pinion  course  adjustment ;  micrometer  screw  fine  adjustment ; 
substage  with  centring  screws  and  rack-and-pinion  focusing  adjust- 
ment ;  new  form  of  sliding  pinhole  diaphragm  and  iris  diaphragm  ;  two 
eye-pieces  ;  f,  \  and  ^  objectives  ;  and  Abbe  condenser  1 "  20  N.A. 

Microscope  specially  adapted  for  Mineralogical  Investigations  at 
High  Temperatures.f — E.  Sommerfeldt  has  designed  this  instrument  to 
meet  the  difficulties  felt  in  applying  heating  chambers  to  mineralogical 
Microscopes,  as  it  is  usually  found  that  such  chambers  interfere  with  the 
rotatory  arrangements  of  the  Microscope.  C.  Leiss  has,  it  is  true,  made 
some  models  intended  to  overcome  the  difficulty,  but  at  the  disadvantage 
of  complications.     E.  Sommerfeldt,  therefore,  aims  at  simplicity.     xn 


Fig.  143. 


his  apparatus,  fig.  143,  the  same  rotation  axis  and  the  same  divided  circle 
suffice  for  the  rotation  of  both  object-stage  and  Nicol  prisms.  The 
rotatory  object-stage  consists  of  a  strong  divided  circle,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  ring  R  carrying  the  vernier,  while  perpendicularly  to  its 
object  plane  the  ring  carries  a  rod  S,  to  one  of  whose  ends  is  attached  a 
rack-and-pinion  movement  for  the  polariser  N,  and  the  other,  by  means 
of  an  adjustable  cross-rod,  grips  the  ocular  collar  at  Si ;  this  arrange- 
ment makes  possible  a  rotation  of  object-stage  and  polariser  about  the 
axis  of  the  instrument.  In  order  to  follow  the  movement  of  the  tube 
during  the  adjustment,  either  the  screw  Sx  or  the  screw  S2,  which  move 
along  grooves,  should  be  loosened.  For  measurement  of  angles  of  rota- 
tion, these  screws  are  naturally  clamped.     The  rod  S  and  cross-rod  Q  can, 


*  Catalogue  Optical  Convention,  1905,  p.  11G,  fig.  25. 
t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  181-5  (1  fig.). 


2    U   2 


640  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

if  required,  be  completely  removed.  In  order  to  connect  a  preparation 
in  the  central  part  of  the  object-stage  circle  with  the  peripheral  ring  and 
vernier,  a  transparent  plate  is  firmly  attached  to  the  latter,  and  covers 
over  the  divided  circle.  In  ordinary  cases  this  transparent  plate  would 
be  of  glass,  but,  for  heated  objects,  it  is  replaced  by  one  of  mica.  The 
object  to  be  viewed  is  set  in  a  special  clamp  K,  to  be  secured  to  the 
rod  S.  It  may  easily  happen  that  the  clamp  holding  the  preparation 
may  press  the  mica  plate  hard  on  to  the  divided  circle  ;  but,  although 
this  difficulty  could  have  been  easily  met,  the  author  considers  that  with 
heating  arrangements  it  is  advantageous  that  rotation  of  the  Nicol 
should  take  place  under  a  tight  grip,  as  it  were,  of  the  preparation.  The 
projecting  part  of  the  object-stage  not  only  carries  the  rod  S,  but  secures 
that  the  latter  shall  not,  in  its  rotation,  interfere  with  the  mirror. 

Hirschwald's  New  Microscope  Model  and  Planimeter-Ocular.* — 
This  instrument  is  made  by  R.  Fuess,  of  Steglitz,  Berlin,  and  is  shown 
in  fig.  144.  An  essential  difference  between  this  new  model  and 
Microscopes  hitherto  made  with  combined  Nicol-rotation  consists  in  that 
the  Nicol  rotated  is  not  an  analyser  placed  over  the  ocular,  but  that  an 
analyser  inserted  at  N  in  the  tube  is  rotated  at  the  same  time  with  the 
polariser.  A  disadvantage  of  the  ordinary  ocular-analyser  clearly  is  that 
the  field  of  view  (i.e.  the  focal  distance  of  the  ocular  used)  is  pushed 
back  on  account  of  the  lengthened  eye-distance  of  the  Nicol ;  this 
results  in  a  more  or  less  intense  diminution  of  the  field.  But  the  new 
construction  allows  the  rotation  of  the  inner  analyser  only  (the  analogue 
of  the  ordinary  ocular-analyser)  relative  either  to  the  stationary  polariser 
P,  or  to  the  preparation,  stationary  or  rotatory,  on  the  object  stage  T. 
In  both  cases  the  ocular  and  analyser  rotate  and  the  ocular-threads  mark 
the  rotation-directions  of  the  Nicol.  The  design  also  permits  of  two 
other  controlling  movements,  less  frequently  required  :  the  analyser  may 
move  relatively  to  the  stationary  polariser  and  ocular  ;  or,  the  polariser 
may  move  relatively  to  the  analyser  and  ocular.  For  these  combinations 
the  requisite  arrangements  are  as  follows  : — 

(a)  Polariser,  Analyser,  and  Ocular  rotate  in  unison.  The  screw- 
head  b,  under  the  stage  T,  is  loosened.  A  connecting  screw  is  inserted 
in  the  large  ocular  rim  Tx.  The  arm  o,  appended  to  the  vernier  arm  s 
and  rotatory  about  a  hinge,  is  unlocked.  For  orientating  the  ocular 
there  are  two  lines  scored  on  the  ocular  mount-collar  Tx. 

(b)  Polariser  remains  stationary,  Analyser  and  Ocular  rotate.  To 
carry  out  this  movement  the  Nicol  circle  Tx  must  be  set  at  zero,  the 
screw-head  b  under  the  stage  is  tightened,  and  the  screw  on  the  Nicol 
circle  T1  loosened.  The  arm  o  is  unlocked.  Rotation  takes  place  on  the 
rim  of  the  Nicol  circle  Tx. 

(c)  Polariser  and  Analyser  rotate  in  unison  and  the  Ocular  remains 
stationary.  The  arrangement  is  the  same  as  for  a,  but  the  arm  o  is 
locked  over  the  projecting  screw  on  the  ocular. 

(d)  Polariser  and  Ocular  remain  stationary  and  Analyser  rotates. 
The  arrangement  is  the  same  as  for  b,  but  the  arm  o  is  locked  up  as 
in  last. 

*  Zentralbl.  f.  Mineral,  1904.  p.  626;  Zeit.  f.  Instrumentenk.,  xxiv.  (1904)  pp. 
367-8  (2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


641 


Fig.  144. 


642 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


The  Observation  Oculars  used  have  an  enlarged  field  of  view  about 
double  the  extent  of  ordinary  oculars.  In  their  image  plane  is  a  disc 
with  a  round  and  a  square  diaphragm,  so  that  a  round  or  a  square 
periphery  can,  as  desired,  be  given  to  the  image.  The  latter  serves  for 
the  quicker  enumeration  of  constituent  parts  in  any  section.  The  other 
arrangements  are  practically  identical  with  those  of  ordinary  large 
polarisation-microscopes.  The  object  stage  T  and  the  Nicol  circle  Tx 
are  graduated  in  degrees  and  their  verniers  read  to  5  minutes.  The 
Bertrand  lens  B  and  the  analysing  Nicol  N  can  be  cut  out  of  the  pencil 
of  rays  ;  the  latter  by  means  of  the  spring  rod/;  the  former  by  means 
of  a  small  clip  swung  back  during  rotation.  The  tooth-wheel  gear  has 
the  well-known  arrangement  for  avoiding  dead-way  in  the  teeth.*  In 
lieu  of  the  cross-slit  stage  this  instrument  has  for  swift  investigation  of 
a  section  a  simple  slide  arrangement,  by  means  of  which  a  slide  can  be 
pushed  by  hand-motion  freely  in  two  rectangular  directions.  For  upper- 
surface  illumination  an  adjustable  holder  for  an  electric  glow-lamp  G 
can  be  installed  near  the  object  stage. 

The  Planimeter- Ocular  is  seen  at  P  0  in  the  right  of  fig.  144.     It  is 


Fig.  145. 

used  for  determining  the  volume-proportion  of  any  mineral  constituents 
in  a  thin  rock-section.  In  the  image-plane  of  the  ocular  two  micro- 
meter scales  (fig.  145)  perpendicular  to  each  other  are  cut  on  glass.  They 
serve  to  give  ordinates  and  abscissas  ;  the  scale  for  the  former  being 
fixed ;  the  latter  adjustable  by  rack-and-pinion.  Their  combined 
motions  explore  a  space  of  one  square  cm.  The  planimeter-ocular  is 
applied  in  such  a  way  that  corresponding  to  the  grain  of  the  rock  the 
abscissas  are  adjusted  on  a  particular  graduation  of  the  ordinates  and  the 
condensation  index  is  read  off  for  the  various  parts.  The  section  is 
then  rotated,  or  the  planimeter-ocular  rotated,  through  90°,  and  the 
reading  repeated  in  the  perpendicular  direction. 

Microphotoscope,  or  Military  Staff  Map  Loup.f — This  arrangement 
is  designed  by  its  inventor,  0.  Vollbehr,  for  the  avoidance  of  the  in- 

•  Zeit.  f.  lnstrumentenk.,  svi.  (189G)  p.  17. 

t  Extract  from  KriegBtech.  Zeitschr..  1905,  Heft.  1",  12  pp.  and  3  figs..  Berlin, 
E.  S.  Mittler  and  Sohn  :  Zeitsebr.  f.  lnstrumentenk.,  xxv.  (April  1905)  pp.  117-18  ; 
Central-Zeit.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  xxvi.  (May  1905)  p.  106. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  643 

convenience  (and  for  military  purposes  in  front  of  the  enemy,  of  the 
dangers)  involved  in  the  employment  of  topographical  maps  by  night 
or  in  bad  weather.  By  the  aid  of  the  new  map-loup  small  transparent 
diapositive  maps  in  the  shape  of  about  20  sq.  cm.  (5x4  cm.)  are  used 
in  lieu  of  large  paper  sheets.  The  microphotoscope  can  be  used  by  day 
or  by  night ;  in  the  latter  case,  the  necessary  illumination  is  supplied  by 
a  glow-lamp  actuated  by  a  dry  battery.  For  the  arrangement  to  work 
conveniently,  the  loup  must  have  strong  magnification,  and  the  loup- 
map  be  of  a  minimum  size.  The  loup  has,  at  present,  been  constructed 
of  13£  fold  magnification  ;  it  seems  scarcely  possible  to  increase  this, 
and,  indeed,  does  not  seem  necessary.  The  composition  of  a  sufficiently 
grainless  emulsion  for  the  preparation  of  the  small  map  diapositives 
appropriate  to  the  selected  magnification  has  already  revealed  great 
difficulties,  but  these  may  now  be  regarded  as  entirely  overcome.  The 
diapositive  lies  well  protected  between  two  glass  plates.  The  loup  is,  of 
course,  accommodated  to  the  observer's  eye,  and,  moreover,  is  adjustable 
over  the  plane  of  the  diapositive.  For  a  selected  position  of  the  loup 
175  sq.  kilos,  would  be  readable  at  once  on  a  diapositive  of  the  map  of 
the  German  Empire  (1  :  100,000).  Sheets  of  the  map  of  the  German 
Empire  should  be  first  prepared  as  diapositive  loup-maps,  afterwards 
those  of  the  most  important  foreign  topographical  maps.  On  a  dia- 
positive a  square-meshed  net  is  drawn  with  sides  corresponding  to 
2£  kilos.,  so  that  in  all  directions  estimation  of  routes  and  elevations 
can  be  made. 

Studnicka's  Pancratic  Preparation  Microscope.* — F.  K.  Studnicka 
points  out  that  the  principle  involved  in  the  lens  combination  described 
in  the  previous  article,  is  essentially  that  of  a  "  pancratic  "  Microscope. 
The  term  is  not  a  new  one  ;  pancratic  Microscopes  were  familiar  instru- 
ments in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  f  and  were  generally 
xised  as  dissection-microscopes.  They  seem  to  have  been  found  un- 
satisfactory and  to  have  gradually  dropped  out  of  notice.  The  author, 
however,  thinks  that  this  oblivion  is  not  deserved.  He  proposes  to 
accurately  insert  a  reversed  objective,  by  means  of  a  simple  connecting 
piece,  in  the  diaphragm-carrier  of  the  Abbe  illuminating  apparatus,  from 
which  the  condenser  has  been  removed.  Both  objectives  thus  come, 
in  this  way,  into  the  approximately  proper  distance  from  one  another  ; 
at  most  the  tube  may  require  to  be  lowered  a  little.  The  side-light  is 
screened  off  by  the  side-walls  of  the  upper  iris  of  the  illuminating 
apparatus  ;  the  lower  objective  is  fairly  close  to  the  object  and  by  rack- 
and-pinion  may  be  brought  still  closer  to  it.  The  object  must  be  placed 
on  a  special  stage  under  the  inverted  objective,  and  this  stage  should  be 
fitted  with  supports  for  the  hands.  Such  a  stage  can  be  easily  im- 
provised out  of  two  pieces  of  wood  and  a  glass  plate.  It  is  possible  to 
use  the  ordinary  stage  "  pancratically,"  but  the  ordinary  objective  is 
then  inserted  at  the  lower  end  of  the  draw-out  tube,  and  the  inverted 
objective  fitted  to  the  lower  end  of  the  tube  (or  revolver)  with  a  con- 
necting piece.     Tubes  with  rack-and-pinion  movement  would  be  most 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  440-4  (1  fig.). 

t  Vide,  e.g.  Fischer,  Le  Microscope  pancratique,  Moscou,  1841 ;  Hartri?.  Das 
IMikroskop,  1859.  pp.  198  and  766.  The  '  Telemikroskop'  of  Deschamps  (Comptes 
Rendns.  cxxs  .  1900)  deals  with  a  similar  lens-combination. 


644  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

convenient  for  this  arrangement.  On  account  of  the  increased  working 
height  the  author  considers  this  method  inferior  to  the  condenser 
adaptation. 

Glatton — Right  and  Wrong  Way  of  using  a  "  Magnifying  Glass." 

1.  The  lens  should  bo  held  as  far  from  the  object  as  will  afford  a  clear  sharp 
view  of  it. 

2.  The  eye  should  be  at  the  same  distance  from  the  lens  as  the  latter  is  from 
the  object. 

The  advantage  of  the  latter  condition  is  very  apparent  when  examining 
portraits  with  a  reading  glass.  I  have  frequently  seen  the  glass  held  either  close 
to  the  eye  or  close  to  the  paper,  both  of  which  are  wrong — the  latter  absurdly 
so,  as  no  attempt  is  made  to  focus  the  object. 

English  Mechanic,  lxxxi.  (1905)  pp.  449-50. 

(2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

The  Abbe  Condenser  used  as  an  Objective.* — F.  K.  Studnicka, 
after  reminding  his  readers  that  the  condenser  of  the  Abbe  illuminating 
apparatus  is  an  objective  reversed,  points  out  that  by  using  it  in  the 
latter  way,  with  a  proportionally  stronger  objective,  a  continuous  series 
of  weak  magnifications  very  useful  for  certain  purposes  may  be  obtained. 
He  considers  that  the  cases  in  which  such  a  method  is  likely  to  be 
useful  are  : — 

1.  That  preparations  can  be  quickly  and  simply  explored,  especially 
when  large  (i.e.  brain-sections). 

2.  That  the  peculiarity  of  producing  graduated  magnifications 
(according  to  working  distance,  etc.)  will  be  welcome  to  an  observer 
who  wishes  to  draw. 

3.  That  it  may  be  made  to  answer  the  purpose  of  a  preparation 
Microscope,  and  so  be  economical  to  an  observer. 

4.  That  with  the  help  of  the  Abbe  condenser  and  the  plane  mirror 
an  erect  Microscope  can  be  easily  turned  into  a  horizontal  one,  and  be 
used  as  an  aquarium  Microscope. 

5.  That  the  peculiarity  of  neighbouring  objects  appearing  reduced 
or  enlarged,  or  even  in  natural  size,  facilitates  the  drawing  or  copying 
of  objects — the  usual  drawing  apparatus  being  now  combined  with  the 
Microscope. 

The  author  illustrates  his  methods  with  figures. 

Discrepancy  between  Diffraction  Theory  and  Geometrical  Optics 
in  Actual  Instances  of  Telescope  and  Microscope  Objectives.! — 
K.  Strehl  has  examined  an  improved  achromatic  Microscope-objective 
made  by  A.  Kerber,  to  test  how  far  the  lens  performs  what  theory  would 
have  predicted  of  it.  The  lens  is  of  4  mm.  focal  length  and  of  0  •  6  N.A. 
He  is  able  to  state  the  following  discrepancies  between  diffraction  theory 
tind  geometrical  optics  in  this  particular  case  : — 

1.  The  wave-surface  of  the  colour  C,  which  in  and  for  itself  has  the 
greatest  spherical  aberration,  and,  compared  with  the  brightest  colour 
(550  /J./X),  has  the  maximum  chromatic  aberration,  approximates  the 
most  closely  to  the  ideal  spherical  surface  of  brightest  colour. 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  432-9(3  figs.)- 
t  Central.-Zeit.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  xxv.  (1904)  p.  265. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSOPY,   ETC.  645 

2.  The  wave-surface  of  the  colour  E,  which  in  aud  for  itself  has  the 
second  least  spherical  aberration,  and,  compared  with  the  brightest 
colour,  the  least  chromatic  aberration,  departs  the  most  widely  from  the 
ideal  spherical  surface  of  the  brighest  colour. 

3.  The  wave-surfaces  of  the  two  colours  (C  and  550  fx.fi),  which  for 
peripheral  rays  have  the  least  cross-sectional  difference,  deviate  on  the 
periphery  the  second-furthest  from  one  another. 

4.  The  wave-surfaces  of  the  two  colours  (D  and  F),  which  have  the 
maximum  cross-sectional  difference  for  peripheral  rays,  combine  on  the 
periphery. 

The  following  statement  may  also  be  enunciated  : — 

5.  Those  wave-surfaces  of  the  two  colours,  E  and  550  //.  /*.,  incline 
the  least  to  one  another  from  the  axis  to  the  periphery,  which  in  the 
spectrum  lie  nearest  to  one  another,  and,  for  axial  rays,  have  the  least 
cross-sectional  difference. 

In  support  or  the  foregoing  statements  the  so-called  Gauss  construc- 
tion may  be  appropriately  quoted. 

6.  If  the  section-distances  for  axial  and  peripheral  rays  of  two 
colours  are  equally  great,  then  most  certainly  are  the  light-paths 
corresponding  to  one  another  from  the  two  wave-surfaces  to  the  image- 
point  not  equally  long  ;  for  (a)  the  medial  errors  (zones)  are  in  both 
colours  of  different  magnitude,  and  therefore  also  the  final  result  at  the 
periphery,  (b)  The  refracted  rays  of  the  two  colours  (direct  illumina- 
tion being  pre-supposed)  claim  different  zones  (red  becomes  more 
strongly  refracted  than  blue). 

In  another  case  the  author  examined  a  giant  objective  of  over  50  cm. 
diameter  and  over  10  cm.  focal  length.  It  warranted  the  following 
statement  (optical  paradox). 

7.  If  combined  zonal  errors  were  half  as  great  as  the  actual  ones, 
then  the  definition-brightness  (excellency  of  image)  would  be  half  as 
great  as  the  reality  ;  if  the  zonal  errors  were  even  less,  then,  indeed, 
would  the  image  excellency  be  rapidly  augmented. 

K.  Strehl  hopes  that  the  time  may  come  when  no  expensive  telescope 
or  Microscope  objective  will  be  sold  without  having  been  submitted  to  a 
diffraction  theory  test.  In  the  case  of  telescope  objectives  this  would 
have  to  be  done  for  each  specimen  ;  but  in  the  case  of  micro-objectives 
of  a  given  number,  the  test  could  be  made  once  for  all.  Neither  can  it 
be  objected  that  the  application  of  the  diffraction  theory  would  be  too 
difficult  or  too  tedious.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  quite  easy,  and  at  most  a 
specimen  would  only  require  two  days. 

In  another  journal  the  author  has  an  article  entitled,  "  Test  of  a 
Microscope  Objective,"  *  in  which  he  describes  his  methods  and  gives 
full  details  of  his  results. 

lf(3)  ^Illuminating-  and  other  Apparatus. 

Locking  Arrangement  for  Microscopical  Demonstrations/!" — A. 
Fischer  has  designed  an  arrangement,  more  particularly  applicable  to 

*  Untersuchung  eines   Mikroskopobjektivea,  Zeit.  f.  Instrumentenk.,  xxv.  (1905) 
pp.  3-10(1  fig.). 

t  Zeitschr.  wise.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  100-4  (2  figs.). 


64G 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


the  Zeiss  No.  1a  stand,  for  preventing  interference  with  the  adjustments 
by  inexperienced  persons  at  microscopical  demonstrations.  The  stiff 
cardboard  capsules,  which  C.  Zeiss  supplies  for  covering  the  milled  screw 
heads  of  the  rack-and-pinion  coarse  adjustment,  the  author  proposes  to 
unite  by  a  small  bent  metal  bar,  and  instead  of  cardboard  he  would 
make  the  caps  of  brass.  The  effect  is  to  completely  cover  up  the  coarse 
adjustment,  and  to  place  it  beyond  the  risk  of  displacement.  For 
obtaining  similar  security  with  the  fine  adjustment,  he,  in  the  first  place, 
makes  the)  index  pointer  of  rather  stouter  dimensions  than  usual,  and 
hinges  it  so  that  it  can  be  folded  up  against  the  Microscope  tube,  while 


Fig.  14(5. 

the  demonstrator  is  focusing.  Two  (or  more  if  thought  necessary) 
little  pins  project  4  mm.  about  the  rotating  head  of  the  fine  adjustment, 
so  that,  when  the  index  is  folded  down,  rotation  of  more  than  half  a 
circle  is  prevented.  The  observers  would  thus  have  a  sufficient  range 
within  which  they  could  safely  vary  the  focus.  It  would  be  best  to 
arrange  so  that  for  normal  vision  the  pointer  should  be  midway  between 
the  two  pins,  and  to  obtain  this  it  might  be  necessary  to  make  some 
change  in  the  previous  coarse  adjustment. 

"Optical  Arc  Lamps.* — R.  W.  Paul  makes  these  lamps  in  two  sizes, 
for  30  and  60  amperes  (fig.  14G),  the  special  features  being  the  form  of 
horizontal  traverse  which  gives  a  firm  and  even  motion ;  the  construction 

*  Catalogue  Optical  Convention,  1905,  p.  198,  fig.  6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICKOSCOPY,   ETC. 


647 


of  the  carbon  holders,  which  have  the  terminals  cast  in  one  piece  with 
them  ;  and  the  adjustments  for  taking  upiwear  in  all  parts. 

Locke's  High  Power  Jet.*— This  jet  (fig.  147)  made  by  P.  W. 
Paul  has  a  mixing  chamber  of  new  design  placed  next  to  the  inlet  valves 
and  connected  to  the  jet  by  a  long  delivery  tube,  thus  ensuring  perfect 
mixing  of  the  gases  and  silence  under  high  pressure. 


Fig.  147. 

Leppin  and  Masche's  Projection  Apparatus  with  Optical  Bench 
Extension.! — The  main  idea  of  this  apparatus  is  to  produce  an  initially 
simple  instrument  which  should  be  capable  of  additions  as  required,  so 
as  to  render  it  capable  of  performing  all  the  most  varied  purposes 
expected  from  such  apparatus.  Fig.  148  shows  the  arrangement  for 
simple  projection.  The  iron  camera  is  lined  within  with  asbestos,  and 
has  two  doors  :  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  mode  of  ventilation  there  is 
also  a  removable  outlet  for  the  warm  air.  The  condenser  is  of  130  mm. 
diameter.  The  achromatic  Petzval  objective  has  54  mm.  diameter, 
130  mm.  focal  length,  and  diaphragms.  The  simple  form  includes  also 
an  object-holder,  a  stage,  and  a  bench  with  three  riders.  Slides  of 
85  by  100  mm.  up  to  90  by  120  mm.  can  be  projected,  and  a  magnifica- 
tion of  30-40  diameters  attained.  Fig.  149-shows  the  section  of  the 
twin  rails  on  which  the  riders  slide.  The  two  prismatic  bars,  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  give  smoothness  of  motion,  security  of  position, 
and  facility  for  quick  interchange  of  parts.  This  arrangement  is  an 
essential  novelty  in  the  apparatus.  Clamping  screws  are  not  required, 
and  the  time  necessary  for  tightening  them  consequently  saved.  The 
apparatus  is  installed  on  a  travelling  table.  It  is  thought  that  this 
mobility  will  be  useful  and  lead  to  further  economy  of  time.  The 
height  of  the  table  is  so  designed  that  projection  can  be  made  over  the 
demonstrator's  table,  and  the  images  received  on  a  screen  at  a  suitable 
height.  Moreover,  it  is  pre-supposed  that  the  apparatus  would  be 
stationed  near  the  lecturer's  table  for  use  as  required,  and  thus  place 

*  Catalogue  Optical  Convention,  1905,  p.  198,  fig.  9. 

+  Central.-Zeit.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  xxvi.  (April  and  May  1905)  pp.  98-4,  105-6 
(6  figs.}. 


648 


SUMMARY    OF   CUERBNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


the  lecturer  beyond  the  need  of  a  lantern  assistant.     The  table  consists 
of  an  under  part  and  of  a  set-back  upper  part ;  both  parts  are  of  pine 


Fig.  148. 


wood  with  oaken  tops.     The  upper  part  is  hinged,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  electrical  terminals,  to  the  lower,  and  the  opposite  face  can 

be  raised — this  movement  would  be  advantageous 
in  lecturing  to  a  large  assembly.  Both  upper  and 
lower  parts  are  fitted  up  as  cabinets,  which  are 
convenient  receptacles  for  the  various  fittings  and 
auxiliaries.  Incandescent  gas,  acetylene,  lime,  or 
electric  light  can  be  used,  of  which  the  last-named  is 
undoubtedly  the  best.  The  makers  strongly  recommend  their  self- 
regulating  differential  arc  lamp  in  preference  to  a  hand-controlled  one. 
Proper  attention  must  be  paid  to  current  strength  and  resistance. 


Fig.  149. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


649 


To  adapt  the  apparatus  to  the  purposes  of  microscopic  preparations, 
of  a  megascope,  or  of  horizontally  placed  objects,  a  greater  length  of 
optical  bench  is  required.  The  method  of  attaining  this  is  shown  in 
fig.  150.  Horizontal  lateral  shelves  are  drawn  out  from  the  ends  of  the 
upper  part,  and  by  their  help  a  second  pair  of  twin  rails  is  set  up  and 


:v 


Fig.  150. 


combined  with  the  first,  so  as  to  give  a  total  bench  length  of  2  metres. 
The  two  sections  of  bench  are  rigidly  coupled  together.  It  is  found 
that  with  the  proper  combination  of  Nicols  and  a  black  mirror 
polarisation  effects  are  easily  attained,  and  without  slanting  the  camera. 
For  cooling  purposes  a  suitable  water-filled  large  trough  with  plane- 
parallel  walls  is  found  to  answer  well ;  in  lengthy  investigations  the 
water  should  be  renewed. 


650 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


Edinger's  Projection  and  Drawing-  Apparatus.* — As  shown  in  the 
illustration  (fig.  151),  this  apparatus  is  an  improved  form  of  an  older 


Fig.  151. 


type  previously  described,  t  and   now  also   adapted  for  photographic 
purposes  by  the  addition  of  Nieser's  camera. 

*  Leitz'  Catalogue,  No.  41,  1905,  p.  98.  t  See  this  Journal,  1891,  p.  811. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


651 


Simple  Apparatus  for  Drawing  and  Photographing  Microscopical 
Sections.*  — This  apparatus,  designed  by  J.  Tandler,  consists  (1)  of  a 
drawing-box  carrying  on  its  top  a  photographic  bellows  ;  (2)  of  a  box 
enclosing  the  light  source.  The  drawing-box  is  closed  in  front,  open 
behind,  and  has  a  trapezoidal-shaped  base  of  dimensions  :  rear  65  cm., 
front  35  cm.,  width  35  cm.  The  front  wall  is  strong  and  55  cm.  high  ; 
the  back  wall  (oblique)  is  not  so  high,  and  slopes  roof -wise  towards 
the  level  top.  The  reason  for  this  shape  is  that  the  observer,  sitting  at 
the  side  of  the  box,  may  comfortably  work  with  his  right  arm  in  the 
box.  In  both  the  front  and  back  walls  there  is  a  series  of  slides  for 
receiving  the  drawing  board.  A  right-angled  totally-reflecting  prism 
with  the  hypotenuse  blackened,  is  placed  over  the  upper  end  of  the 
bellows.  Rays  of  light  originating  from  the  light-source  then  pass 
horizontally  through  the  Microscope,  are 
reflected  at  the  prism,  and  pass  vertically 
downwards  through  the  bellows  on  to  the 
drawing  board  in  the  box.  The  source  of 
light  is  generally  an  incandescent  lamp.  The 
author  keeps  the  arrangement  installed  in 
the  rear  of  his  workroom,  the  front  (closed) 
side  being  towards  the  window.  In  this  way 
he  finds  that  the  image  projected  into  the 
box  is  bright  enough  without  further  darken- 
ing of  the  room.  By  removing  the  prism, 
and  by  setting  the  bellows  horizontally  on  a 
board  with  runners,  the  apparatus  can  be  used 
for  photomicrography. 


J;z: 


..::>? 


(4)  Photomicrography. 

J.  W.  Gordon's  Apparatus  for  Photo- 
micrography .f — In  this  application  of  photo- 
graphy to  the  Microscope,  the  instrument  is 
used  in  a  vertical  position.  The  apparatus 
consists  of  a  tube  A,  about  6  in.  long,  which 
is  placed  over  the  eye-piece.  At  the  upper 
end  of  this  tube  B,  a  photographic  plate, 
If  in.  square,  is  held  by  means  of  a  cap  C,  in 
a  light-tight  chamber  ;  between  this  and  the 
eye-piece  is  a  projection  lens  focused  upon 
the  plate,  and  a  small  exposing  shutter  D  is 
placed  in  the  tube  for  making  the  exposure 
(fig.  152). 

If  the  observer's  eyesight  be  normal,  the 
photograph  will  be   sharp  when   the  Micro- 
scope is  in  its  ordinary  focus,  but,  as  almost  everyone  has  slight  errors 
of  vision,  it  has  been  found  desirable   to  supply  a  duplicate  tube  E, 
with   a  focusing  eye-piece  of   high   power,   which   is  first   placed  on 
the  instrument  in  order  to  focus,  and  is  then  replaced  by  the  camera. 

*  ZeitBchr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  470-4  (3  figs.). 
t  R.  and  J.  Beck's  Special  Catalogue,  1905,  4  figs. 


Fig.  152. 


652  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

A  small  flange  F  fitted  over  the  eye  end  of  the  Microscope  is  required, 

to  form  a  table  upon  which  to  rest  the  camera. 

In  order  to  overcome  the  tendency  of  the  body  to  move  downwards 

during  a  prolonged  exposure,  a  block  of  metal  G,  which  slides  up  and 

down  the  coarse  adjustment,  and  can  be  clamped  in  any  position,  is 

supplied. 

A  yellow  screen  H  (fig.  158),  fixed  on  a  stand  with  universal  motion, 

should  be  employed  between  the  Microscope  mirror  and  the  light  in 

connection  with  isochromatic  plates 
for  all  powers  higher  than  a  §  in., 
otherwise  the  focus  cannot  be  relied 
on  with  certainty. 

With  this  apparatus  photographs 
can  be  made  If  in.  in  diameter, 
having  such  fine  detail  that  they 
will  bear  enlargement  to  any  reason- 
able extent.  One  of  the  chief  ad- 
Fig.  153.  vantages  of  this  extremely  simple 

method    of    photomicrography    is 

that  the  optical  performance  of  the  Microscope  is  exactly  the  same  as 

when  it  is  used  for  visual  observation.     The  apparatus  is  made  by  the 

firm  of  R.  and  J.  Beck. 

A  Perfectly  Steady  Stand  for  Photomicrography.* — J.  Ries  has 
sought  to  attain  (1)  the  advantages  of  the  Zeiss  large  photomicrographic 
camera  by  a  less  costly  construction ;  and  (2)  to  contrive  an  apparatus 
which  shall  be  useful  for  all  kinds  of  photography.  The  Zeiss  model 
requires  two  tables,  one  for  the  Microscope  and  one  for  the  camera,  so 
that  the  unavoidable  slight  disturbances  of  the  camera  due  to  manipu- 
lation shall  not  extend  to  the  Microscope.  The  cost  and  the  dimensions 
of  so  much  apparatus  practically  limit  its  use  to  institutions.  The 
author  seeks  to  make  his  Microscope  perfectly  steady  and  at  the  same 
time  independent  of  the  camera  by  mounting  it  securely  on  a  heavy 
triangular  base.  This  base  fits  freely  but  accurately  within  a  triangular 
frame  to  which  the  optical  bench  with  camera  is  attached.  Thus  the 
size  of  the  whole  is  kept  within  moderate  limits.  The  bellows  are 
45  cm.  long,  and  are  controlled  by  a  double  rod-rack  gear.  The  front 
and  back  frames  are  secured  on  two  platforms  clamped  to  the  optical 
bench  and  governed  by  the  rod-gear.  The  camera  can  be  easily  set  up 
or  removed.  It  may  be  used  without  the  Microscope,  and  thus  serve  for 
all  photographic  purposes.  The  author  illustrates  his  method  by  suitable 
diagrams. 


■6' 


H.,  Dr. — TJnsichtbares  Lioht  im  Dienste  der  Mikroskopie. 

[Mainly  deals  with  Dr.  Kohler's  photomicrography  with  ultra-violet  rays.] 

Central-Zeit.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  xxvi.  (1905)  p.  34. 

Simon  et  Spillmann,  L. — Application  de  la  photographie  a  la  numeration  des 
elements  figures  du  sang.  Comptes  Eendus,  lvii.  (1904)  pp.  659-60. 


*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  475-8  (5  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  653 

(5)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Czapski's  Elements  of  the  Theory  of  Optical  Instruments.* — 
This  work,  whose  nature  is  well  expressed  by  its  full  title,  has  now 
reached  its  second  edition,  and  contains  479  large  octavo  pages.  It  has 
become  nearly  double  the  size  of  the  first  edition,  and,  like  its  predecessor, 
forms  a  part  of  Winkelmann's  "  Handbook  of  Physics."  The  original 
nine  sections  are  now  extended  to  sixteen,  and  are  so  enlarged  and  re- 
vised that  this  second  edition  is  practically  a  new  work. 

Sections  VIIb,  XIII,  XIV,  are  by  Dr.  Eppenstein ;  YIIIa,  IX,  X, 
by  Dr.  von  Rohr  ;  and  the  others  are  by  Dr.  Czapski.     The  scope  of 
the  work  will  be  inferred  from  the  following  list  of  the  section  titles  : — 
I   (pp.  1-26).       Geometrical  optics. 
II   (pp.  27-64).     Geometrical  theory  of  the  optical  image. 
IIlA(pp.  64-86).     Realisation    of    the    optical    image    by    small 
pencils  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  axis  of  centred  spherical 
surfaces. 
IIlB(pp.  86-100).     Realisation   of  the  optical  image  by  oblique 

elementary  pencils  (astigmatic  refraction). 
IIIc  (pp.  101-2).     The  image  by  astigmatic  refraction  or  reflection 

on  doubled  curved  surfaces. 
IIId  (p.  103).     General  theorems  on  homocentric  refraction. 
IV   (pp.  104-163).     Artificial   enlargement    of   the    image-limits 

(theory  of  spherical  aberration). 
V   (pp.  164-183).     Chromatic    aberrations  of    dioptric  systems 

(theory  of  achromatism). 
VI   (pp.  184-210).     Prisms  and  prism-systems. 
VII   (pp.  211,  etc.).     Limiting  of  the  rays  and  the  properties  of 

optical  instruments  dependent  thereon. 
VIIa  (pp.  212-247).     Diaphragms  as  a  means  for  the  selection  of 

the  rays  essential  for  an  optical  image. 
VIIb  (pp.  248-260).     Diaphragms  as  a  means  for  the  plane  repre- 
sentation of  a  space. 
VIIc  (p.  260).     Development  of  the  theory  of  ray-limitation. 
VIII   (pp.  261-269).     The  eye. 
VIIIa  (pp.  270-295).     Vision. 
IX   (pp.  295-320).     The  photographic  objective. 
X   (pp.  320-328).     Spectacles. 
XI   (pp.  328-335).     The  loup,  or  single  Microscope. 
XII   (pp.  335-373).     The  compound  Microscope. 

XIII  (pp.  373-4).         Enlarged  projection-systems. 

XIV  (pp.  375-385).     Illumination-systems. 
XV   (pp.  386-432).     The  telescope. 

XVI   (pp.  432-471).     Methods  for  the  empirical  determination  of 
the  constants  of  optical  instruments. 

The  numerous  figures  are  very  clearly  drawn,  and  to  most  of  the 
sections  bibliographies  are  appended. 

*  Grundzuge   der  Theorie  der   Optisehen   Instrumente  nach    Abbe,  von   Dr. 
Siegfried  Czapski;  unter  Mitwnrkung  des  Verfassers  nnd  rait  Beitr'agen,  von  M.  von 
Robr ;    herausiregeb^n  von  Dr.  O.  Eppenstein;   mit   176  Abbildungen.    Leipzig  : 
Johann  A.  Bartli,  1904. 

Oct.  18th,  1905  2  x 


654  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Von  Rohr's  Image-formation  in  Optical  Instruments  from  the 
Standpoint  of  Geometrical  Optics.* — This  work,  whose  full  title  is 
given  below,  forms  the  first  volume  of  a  treatise  on  the  theory  of  optical 
instruments.  It  is  dedicated  to  Professor  Abbe,  and  the  preface  has 
been  written  by  Dr.  Czapski.  It  is  divided  into  ten  chapters,  as  follows, 
the  names  of  the  respective  contributors  being  given  in  square  brackets : — 

I  (pp.  1-35).     The  claims  of  geometrical  optics.     [H.  Siedentopf .] 
II  (pp.  36-82).  Calculation-formulge.    [A.  Konig  and  M.  von  Rohr.] 

III  (pp.  83-123).     Abbe's  geometrical  theory  of  the  optical  image. 

[E.  Wandersleb.] 

IV  (pp.  124-207).     Realisation  of  the  optical  image.     [P.  Culmann.] 

V  (pp.  208-338).     Theory  of  spherical  aberrations.    [A.  Konig  and 

M.  von  Rohr.] 

VI  (pp.  339-372).     Theory  of  chromatic  aberrations.     [A.  Konig.] 
VII  (pp.  373-408).     Calculation  of  optical  systems  on  the  basis  of 

the  theory  of  aberrations.     [A.  Konig.] 
VIII  (409-465).     Prisms  and  prism-systems.     [F.  Lowe.] 
IX  (pp.  466-507).      Ray  limitation  in  optical  systems.      [M.  von 

Rohr.] 
X   (pp.  508-547).   The  ray-path  through  optical  systems.    [M.  von 
Rohr.] 
Many  of  the  chapters  are  followed  by  collections  of  historical  and 
bibliographical  notes. 

Diffraction-Image  and  Absorption-Image.f — K.  Strehl  has  found 
that  S.  Apathy's  attitude  towards  the  diffraction  theory  of  microscopic 
vision  is  not  always  understood,  that  he  is  even  accused  of  "  attacking 
the  Abbe  theory  of  microscopical  image  formation."  He  states  that 
Apathy  does  not  dispute  the  Abbe  theory,  but  that  he  only  limits  it. 
Apathy  is  of  opinion  that  the  ordinary  microscopic  image  may  be,  as  it 
were,  a  superposition  of  three  images,  quite  different  in  their  nature,  i.e. 
of  a  diffraction-image  in  Abbe's  sense,  of  a  refraction-image,  and  of  an 
absorption-image.  He  ascribes  the  chief  function  to  the  last  named 
image.  K.  Strehl  endeavours  to  make  the  views  of  himself,  Apathy  and 
Abbe  clear  on  these  points. 

Michaelis,  L. — TJltramikroskopische  TJntersuchungen. 

Virchow's  Arch./,  pathol.  Anat.,  Bd.  clxxix.  (Folge  17,  Bd.  ix.) 

1905,  pp.  195-200. 
Walker,  J.— Analytical  Theory  of  Light.  C.  J.  Clay  (London,  1904)  432  pp. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Optical  Properties  of  Glasses  produced  by  Chance  Brothers.} — 
By  the  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Chance  Brothers  and  Co.  we  are  enabled  to 
give  the  following  table  of  the  optical  properties  of  the  glasses  produced 

*  Die  Bilderzenguug  in  Optischen  Instrumenten  vom  Standpunkte  der  geome- 
trischen  Optik.  Bearbeitet  von  den  Wissenchaftlichen  Mitarbeitern  an  der  optischen 
Werkstatte,  von  Carl  Zeiss,  P.  Culmann,  S.  Czapski,  A.  Konig,  F.  Lowe,  M.  von 
Rohr,  H.  Siedentopf,  E.  Wandersleb.  Herausgegeben  von  M.  von  Rohr.  Berlin  : 
J.  Springer  (1904)  8vo,  587  pp.,  133  figs,  in  text. 

t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  1-10. 

X  See  also  Catalogue  Optical  Convention,  1905,  pp.  2-3. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


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05 

B 


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1  a 

.3  3 

a  -s 

■—  r. 
OS 


a 

OS 


o 


o 

no 

a 

05 

a 

s 

OS 


« 


O     "T3 


o    ^§ 


M    5     ^3      05      M 

=     M    Sf  -2   3 

a  -  -  =3  a 


3       o5 


o 


o 

13 


o 


is      O     •-      OS 

05      P<(      H       O      e5      S 

pq  w  w  pa  pq  oq 


^3    j    J    jr. 


CJD     60     CJD 

3  3  3 


bo 


o 

T3 


a 

OS 

Q 


OS 

Q 


o 


o 

73 


a 
as 

T3 
OJ 


o 

T3 

OS 

X 

a 

OS 

a 


■*!         ©         »0 

■^       ^H       O 

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f-      OS      05 

t~    t-    © 

o    o    o 


MOOin^fflCOOONOhOH 

©coascot^©>oioco^H©t~© 


2x2 


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©CO  © 

co    co  es 

<tj      <j  <jH 


65G 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


by  their  firm.  The  glasses  are  arranged  in  order  of  descending  values 
of  v.  Those  whose  factory  number  is  preceded  by  the  letter  A  are  the 
ordinary  silicate  crowns  and  flints  which  have  been  in  use  for  over  half 
a  century.  Those  marked  with  the  prefix  B  are  of  more  modern  intro- 
duction, while  those  preceded  by  C  are  of  quite  recent  introduction. 

The  optical  constants  as  given  in  the  table  are  to  be  regarded  as 
type  values,  which  are  adhered  to  with  considerable  accuracy  from  one 
melting  to  another.  The  spectrum  lines  used  for  the  specification  of 
these  constants  are  the  lines  of  the  hydrogen  spectrum  known  as  C, 
F  and  G',  and  the  sodium  line  D  to  which  latter  the  refractive  index 
nD  refers.  The  wave-lengths  of  these  lines  may  be  taken  in  micro- 
millimetres  as  follows  : — 


C  =  0-6563 
F  =  0-4862 


D  =  0-5893 
G'=  0-4341 


The  difference  between  the  refractive  indices  for  the  C  and  F  lines, 
generally  called  the  interval  C  —  F,  is  defined  as  the  mean  dispersion, 
while  the  partial  dispersions  and  their  relative  values,  obtained  by 
dividing  the  partial  dispersion  by  the  mean  dispersion,  are  also  specified. 
The  value  of  v  is  given  by 

1 


v  =  n. 


C-F. 


Chance  Brothers'  Cover  Glasses  of  thin  Glass  for  Microscopic 
Preparations.* — This  thin  glass  is  made  in  three  thicknesses,  and  in  all 
usual  sizes  both  square  and  round  ;  larger  pieces  for  special  purposes  are 
also  supplied.  This  glass  is  chemically  of  the  "  hard  crown  "  type,  but 
differs  in  its  mode  of  manufacture.  Its  optical  constants,  which  have 
been  measured  by  means  of  specially  prepared  prisms,  are  as  follows  : — 


V 

Medium 

Dispersion. 

C-F 

Partial  Dispersions. 

nD 

i 

D-F 

F-G' 

1-5158 

57-4 

0-00898 

0-00294 

0-00604 

0-00511 

Manipulation  of  the  Microscope.!— This  most  excellent  manual, 
the  work  of  Edward  Bausch,  was  originally  published  twenty  years  ago, 
since  when  it  has  deservedly  run  through  four  editions.  In  simple 
language  are  described  the  stand,  its  various  parts  and  accessories,  how 
to  manipulate  these  in  the  proper  way  and  with  the  best  effect,  the 
volume  ending  with  instructions  as  to  the  care  of  a  Microscope.  The 
index  is  quite  complete. 

Elementary  Microscopy 4 — This  handbook  on  Elementary  Micro- 
scopy is  the  outcome  of  a  series  of  articles  on  "Microscopy  for 
Beginners,"  by  F.  Shillington  Scales.     The  material  has  been  re-cast 

*  Catalogue,  Optical  Convention,  1905,  p.  4. 

t  Bausch  and  Lomb  Optical  Co.,  Rochester,  N.Y.,  4th  ed.,  1901,  202  pp.,  with 
numerous  illustrations. 

t  London:  liailliere,  Tindal  and  Cox,  1905,  xii.  and  179  pp.,  77  figs. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  657 

and  practically  re-written.  The  work  deals  with  the  simple  and 
compound  Microscope,  the  choice  of  a  Microscope,  objectives  and 
eye-pieces,  accessory  apparatus,  the  practical  optics  of  the  Microscope, 
the  manipulation  of  the  Microscope  and  its  accessories.  The  volume 
may  be  heartily  recommended  as  a  useful  guide  to  beginners. 

B.  Technique.* 
(1)   Collecting:  Objects,  including-  Culture   Processes. 

Formate  Broth  in  the  Differential  Diagnosis  of  Micro-organisms.| 
W.  Omelianski  refers  to  the  differentiating  properties  of  media  contain- 
ing alkaline  salts  of  formic  acid  in  the  diagnosis  of  micro-organisms. 
Whereas  most  pathogenic  forms  behave  negatively  or  passively,  the 
nearly  allied  non-pathogenic  bacilli  split  up  the  formate,  with  the  de- 
velopment of  gas,  C02  and  H,  and  the  formation  of  carbonates.  If 
phenolphthalein  has  been  added  to  the  medium,  the  increased  alkinity 
will  be  shown  by  the  appearance  of  a  red  coloration  ;  but  this  redden- 
ing of  the  medium  occurs  not  only  from  the  splitting  up  of  formates, 
but  also  by  the  decomposition  of  albuminous  substances  in  the  medium. 
Cultures  of  B.  coli  and  B.  typhi  grown  on  this  medium  (formate  agar 
bouillon)  both  produce  a  red  coloration,  which  in  the  case  of  B.  coli 
is  more  intense  and  appears  earlier.  The  weaker  and  later  appearing 
redness  of  the  culture  of  B.  typhi  is  not  because  this  organism  de- 
composes the  formate  more  slowly,  since  it  has  no  action  on  these  salts, 
but  is  due  entirely  to  the  formation  of  alkaline  decomposition  products  of 
albuminous  substances  ;  in  the  same  manner  is  explained  the  reddening 
of  the  medium  with  cultures  of  B.  facalis  alcigenes  and  B.  dysenteries 
Flexner.  The  author  has  contrived  to  set  aside  this  objection  by 
estimating  the  amount  of  gas  produced  by  the  cultures,  using  for  this 
purpose  an  arrangement  of  Einhorm's  saccharometer.  The  medium  he 
uses  is  ordinary  pepton  broth,  with  the  addition  of  0  •  5  p.c.  of  sodium 
formate. 

With  six  different  strains  of  B.  typhi  abdominalis,  and  by  making  all 
possible  variations — both  as  to  the  strength  of  the  formate  present  and 
the  age  of  the  culture  used — -he  was  in  no  instance  able  to  show  the 
slightest  evidence  of  any  decomposition  of  the  formate.  All  cultures 
of  B.  coli  communis  showed  energetic  destruction  of  the  formate  with  an 
abundant  production  of  gas  ;  with  cultures  of  paratyphoid  A  and  B  the 
decomposition  of  the  salt  and  production  of  gas  were  equally  energetic  ; 
five  different  strains  of  B.  dysenteric^  behaved  like  those  of  B.  typhi, 
producing  not  the  slightest  decomposition  of  the  formic  salt. 

Identification  of  Colonies  of  Pneumococcus.l — L.  Buerger  prepares 
the  following  media  :  neutral  agar  made  from  meat  juice,  and  contain- 
ing 1  *  5-2  p.c.  of  pepton,  and  2 '  5  p.c.  of  agar,  is  melted  down,  and, 

*  This   subdivision   contains   (1)  Collecting   Objects,  including   Culture   Pro- 
cesses; (2)  Preparing  Objects;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting;  (5)  Mounting, including  slides, preservative  fluids,  Ac; 
(6)  Miscellaneous.  t  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2W  Abt.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  673. 

%  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  1"  Abt.,  xxxix.  (1905)  p.  20. 


658  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

when  cooled  sufficiently  below  the  coagulating  point  of  the  serum  to  be 
employed,  one-third  of  its  volume  of  sterile  ascitic  fluid  is  added,  mixed 
and  poured  into  tubes  ;  glucose  serum  agar  is  made  in  the  same  way, 
0*5-2  p  c.  of  glucose  agar  being  used.  He  finds  that  on  these  media, 
after  18—24  hours,  the  surface  colonies  of  pneumococcus  appear  as  flat 
circular  disks,  which  when  viewed  from  above  show  slightly  depressed 
centres,  whereas  side  on  and  by  transmitted  light  they  appear  as  milky 
rings  enclosing  a  transparent  centre,  a  "  ring  type,"  of  various  sizes.  In 
older  colonics,  72  hours,  the  central  opacity  increases  and  the  ring  is 
less  marked.  The  author  considers  that  this  type  of  colony  is  diagnostic 
of  pneumococcus,  and  must  be  distinguished  from  the  ring  forms  occa- 
sionally seen  with  streptococcus,  but  which  possess  a  distinct  nucleus,  and 
from  those  colonies  that  only  show  rings  by  transmitted  light,  but  which 
by  reflected  light  show  a  definitely  raised  centre. 

Apparatus  for  Dissolving  and  Filtering  large  Quantities  of 
Gelatin  and  Agar,  etc.* — C.  Blecher  describes  the  following  apparatus. 
It  consists  of  four  parts  :  (1)  The  heating  kettle  of  enamelled  iron  to 
receive  the  solution  from  the  suction  vessel.  It  has  a  tight-fitting  lid 
provided  with  two  perforations,  one  for  a  thermometer,  the  other  for  the 
suction  tube  connected  with  an  air  pump.  (2)  The  solution  vessel.  (3) 
The  suction  vessel,  which  in  size  and  shape  is  like  the  solution  vessel, 
excepting  that  near  the  rim  it  is  provided  with  a  tube  in  which  is  fixed  a 
glass  tube  bent  at  right  angles  and  carried  up  parallel  to  the  wall  of  the 
vessel  and  through  the  perforation  in  the  lid.  (4)  The  filter,  also  of 
enamelled  iron,  with  a  perforated  bottom  that  fits  by  means  of  a  rubber 
hoop  to  the  rim  of  the  suction  vessel.  In  using  the  apparatus  the  solution 
vessel  containing  the  substance  to  be  dissolved  and  the  solvent  is  placed  in 
the  kettle,  which  is  filled  10  cm.  high  with  water,  heated  to  boiling-point 
and  kept  at  that  temperature  until  the  solution  has  attained  the  desired 
temperature  ;  the  kettle  is  then  closed,  and  when  solution  is  complete  the 
solution  vessel  is  taken  out.  The  suction  vessel,  with  the  filter  attached, 
is  then  placed  in  the  kettle,  the  bottom  of  the  filter  being  fitted  with 
a  moistened  layer  of  washing  flannel  or  filter-paper  ;  the  fluid  from  the 
solution  vessel  is  now  poured  into  the  filter  vessel,  the  suction  pipe  is 
passed  through  the  opening  in  the  lid  ;  this  is  closed,  and  the  pipe  is 
joined  with  the  pump ;  whilst  the  suction  is  taking  place  the  tempera- 
ture is  kept  constant  by  gentle  heating.  When  filtering  is  completed,  the 
gelatin,  etc.,  is  found  to  be  quite  clear  in  the  suction  vessel. 

Methods  for  Determining  the  Immunity  Unit  for  Standardising 
Diphtheria  Antitoxin.* — M.  J.  Rosenau  gives  details  of  the  methods 
used  in  the  determination  of  the  standard  of  immunity.  After  briefly 
discussing  Ehrlich's  "  side-chain "  theory  of  immunity,  he  finds  that 
from  a  theoretical  point  of  view,  the  unit  of  immunity,  in  the  case  of 
diphtheria,  may  be  defined  as  that  quantity  of  diphtheria  antitoxic  serum 
which  will  just  neutralise  200  minimal  lethal  doses  of  a  pure  poison, 
that  is  a  poison  which  contains  only  toxin,  and  no  toxoid,  toxone,  or 
other  substances  capable  of  uniting  with  the  antibodies.  The  minimal 
lethal  dose  is  defined  as  that  quantity  of  toxin  which  will  surely  kill 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  2to  Abt.,  xiv.  (1905)  p.  415  (1  fig.). 
t  Hyg.  Lab.  Bull.  No.  21  (1905)  Washington,  U.S.A. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  659 

every  guinea-pig  weighing  250  grin,  in  the  course  of  4  days,  or  at  the 
very  latest,  5  days. 

For  the  preparation  of  the  toxin  he  uses  a  culture  of  "  Park's 
"bacillus  No.  8  "  grown  as  a  surface  growth  in  a  special  bouillon  ;  the 
strongest  poisons  being  obtained  when  the  surface  growth  is  heavy  and 
the  broth  remains  clear.  The  medium  known  as  "  Smith's  bouillon  "  is 
prepared  as  follows  :  the  meat  is  ground  in  the  usual  way,  the  expressed 
juice  being  collected,  weighed  and  added  to  twice  its  weight  of  water, 
placed  in  the  cool  for  24  hours,  strained,  and  again  weighed  ;  it  is  then 
neutralised  with  sodium  hydrate  to  1*5  p.c.  acidity  to  phenolphthalein  ; 
it  is  now  inoculated  with  B.  coli  communis,  by  adding  10  c.cm.  of  a  24- 
hour  old  broth  culture  for  each  litre  of  the  meat  infusion  ;  this  is  grown 
at  37°  C.  for  24  hours  ;  add  the  white  of  one  egg  for  each  litre  of  the 
infusion,  heat  for  20  minutes  to  coagulate  the  albumen,  and  filter  while 
hot  through  paper  ;  weigh  the  filtrate  obtained,  and  add  water  to  make 
up  the  loss  ;  neutralise  with  sodium  nitrate  to  an  acidity  of  0  •  5  p.c, 
add  1  p.c.  pepton,  |  p.c.  sodium  chloride,  and  0  ■  1  p.c.  dextrose  ;  heat 
again  for  20  minutes  in  streaming  steam  in  an  open  autoclave ;  again 
neutralise  to  0  •  5  p.c,  filter  through  paper  and  fill  into  Fernbach  flasks, 
then  sterilise  in  the  autoclave  at  120°  C.  for  20  minutes.  The  flasks 
are  then  inoculated  on  the  surface  from  a  24-hour  old  culture,  and 
incubated  for  7  days  at  37  "5°  C.  The  bouillon  is  then  passed  through  a 
porcelain  filter  by  means  of  a  vacuum,  and  stored  in  flasks  provided 
with  a  syphon  and  Maasen  nozzle  for  the  convenience  of  drawing  off  small 
amounts  from  time  to  time.  The  toxicity  of  the  poison  is  then  determined 
by  inoculating  guinea-pigs.  The  writer  describes  the  usual  method 
of  preparing  antitoxic  serum,  and  indicates  the  precautions  to  be  taken 
in  order  to  keep  the  serum  dry  and  free  from  the  oxidising  action  of  the 
air,  by  the  influence  of  phosphoric  anhydride,  and  by  storing  it  in  a 
special  ice-box  at  5°  C,  and  so  guarding  it  against  the  action  of  light 
and  maintaining  it  at  a  constant  low  temperature.  For  determining  the 
antitoxic  value  of  this  serum,  a  glycerinated  solution  is  made  by  weigh- 
ing 1  grm.  of  dry  serum  and  dissolving  it  in  1  part  physiological  salt 
solution  (0*85)  and  two  parts  glycerin.  From  this  solution,  by  means 
of  specially  made  pipettes,  varying  dilutions  with  physiological  salt 
solution  are  obtained.  Exact  amounts  of  the  dilutions  of  toxin  and  of 
serum  are  now  filled  into  specially  prepared  syringes,  where  they  are 
actively  shaken  to  obtain  an  intimate  mixture  and  are  placed  at  room 
temperature  in  diffused  light  one  hour  before  inoculation  into  the  guinea- 
pigs.  The  animals  always  receive  a  total  of  4  c.cm.  of  fluid,  injected 
subcutaneously  in  the  median  abdominal  line.  As  the  limit  of  the 
minimal  lethal  dose  or  the  mixture  containing  the  L  +  dose  of  the 
toxin  and  one  immunity  unit  is  approached,  one  of  three  results  occurs  : 
(a)  the  animal  dies  from  acute  poisoning  on  about  the  fourth  day  ;  (b) 
it  develops  post-diphtheric  paralysis  between  the  fourteenth  and  thirtieth 
day  ;  (c)  it  recovers. 

Method  for  Growing  Anaerobic   Organisms   under  Aerobic  Con- 
ditions.*— CI.  Tarozzi  has  devised  a  medium  on  which  he  has  succeeded 

*  Ceutralbl.  Bakt.,  lte  Abt  xxxviii.  (1905)  p.  619. 


660  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

in  growing,  under  aerolric  conditions,  certain  strictly  anaerobic  sapro- 
phytes obtained  from  the  intestinal  contents  of  dogs  and  from  putrefying 
human  bodies,  and  which  from  their  morphological  relationship  with 
the  Tetanus  bacillus  he  denotes  as  the  group  of  Pseudo-tetanus  bacilli ; 
he  also  obtained  good  results  with  B.  tetani  and  with  the  bacillus  of 
symptomatic  anthrax.  The  medium  is  prepared  as  follows  : — A  mouse, 
guinea-pig  or  rabbit  is  killed,  opened  aseptically,  and  with  sterile  forceps 
and  scissors,  pieces  of  liver,  spleen,  kidney,  etc.,  are  cut  out,  and  placed 
in  an  equal  number  of  tubes  of  broth  and  agar  ;  these  are  incubated  at 
37°  C.  for  two  days  and  the  contaminated  tubes  are  discarded.  He 
found  that  if  a  piece  of  fresh  tissue  was  placed  in  a  tube  of  broth, 
and  after  a  few  hours  was  taken  out  again,  and  the  tube  then  inoculated 
with  an  anaerobic  germ,  the  conditions  were  as  favourable  for  its 
growth  as  if  the  portion  of  tissue  were  still  present  in  the  medium. 

Difference  of  Behaviour  of  Bacillus  typhosus  and  B.  coli  com- 
munis in  Media  containing  Sulphate  of  Copper  and  Red  Prussiate 
of  Potash.* — A.  Marrassini  and  R.  Schiff-Giorgini  find  that  nutrient 
broth,  or  broth  and  glycerin  to  which  is  added  copper  sulphate  in  pro- 
portions varying  from  ^oV  o  to  rgW  is  quite  decolorised  by  B.  coli  com- 
munis, and  the  medium  rendered  turbid,  while  when  B.  typhosus  is 
sown  therein  no  change  takes  place.  An  analogous  reaction  is  observed 
when  ferricyanide  of  potash,  in  the  proportion  of  2-5  p.c,  is  added  to 
the  medium.  Here,  after  incubation  at  37°  C.  for  48  hours,  the  medium 
inoculated  with  typhoid  retains  its  greenish-yellow  hue,  while  that  in 
which  B.  coli  communis  has  been  sown  has  turned  green,  the  colour 
becoming  intensified  as  time  goes  on.  The  colour  is  due  to  the  formation 
of  a  blue  precipitate,  and  the  precipitate  to  the  production  of  lactic  acid 
by  the  Coli  organisms. 

(2)  Preparing  Objects. 

Fixing  and  Staining  Nuclei.f — In  his  researches  on  the  testing 
nucleus  and  mitosis,  K.  v.  Tellyesniczky  makes  special  reference  to  the 
effect  of  fixatives.  As  good  fixatives  are  distinguished  Flemming's 
strong  solution  and  a  mixture  of  100  c.cm.  3  p.c.  potassium  bichromate 
and  5  c.cm.  acetic  acid.  The  sections  were  mordanted  for  24  hours  in 
saturated  solution  of  copper  acetate,  then  washed  and  stained  in  1  p.c. 
hematoxylin  solution  for  24  hours,  and  finally  differentiated  in  Wei- 
gert's  decoloriser. 

Fixation  and  Staining  Muscle  Fibres.J  —  G.  Schlater  fixed  em- 
bryos of  the  fowl  in  Hertwig's  fluid,  which  consists  of  chromic  acid 
(1  p.c.)  150  c.cm. ;  saturated  solution  of  sublimate,  150  c.cm.  ;  glacial 
acetic  acid,  15  c.cm. ;  formalin  (40  p.c.)  50  c.cm. ;  distilled  water, 
135  c.cm.  Paraffin  sections  of  the  material  were  stained  with  Heiden- 
hain\s  iron-hfematoxylin. 

Demonstrating  Blood  Formation  in  Osseous  Fishes.§ — H.  Marcus 
fixed  the  eggs  of  GoUus  capito  in  Carnoy's  fluid  (6  parts  alcohol,  3  parts 
chloroform,  and  1  part  acetic  acid)  for  2-3  hours.     After  about  an 

*  Atti  Soc.  Toscana  Sci.  Nat.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  174-7. 

t  Archiv  Mikrosk.  Anat.  u.  Entwickl.,  lxvi.  (1905)  pp.  367-433  (5  pis.). 

X  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  440-68  (3  pla.).  §  Tom.cit.,  pp.  333-54  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


661 


hour's  immersion  the  capsule  was  removed  with  forceps  or  needles. 
From  this  fluid  the  eggs  were  removed  to  chloroform,  and  thence 
through  chloroform-paraffin  to  paraffin  m.p.  40°.  This  process  is  rather 
slow,  but  it  avoids  the  overheating,  which  is  so  detrimental  to  the  yolk. 
Formalin  was  found  to  fix  the  embryo  badly.  Tellyesniczky's  fluid  gave 
good  results.  After  a  fixation  of  24  hours  the  material  was  washed, 
then  stained  with  borax-carmin,  and  afterwards  imbedded  by  the 
chloroform  method  in  paraffin  m.p.  40°.  The  sections  were  fixed  to  the 
slide  with  clove-oil-collodion. 

(3)  Cutting,  including1  Imbedding-  and^Microtomes. 

Leitz'  New  Microtome.* — This  instrument  is  described  by  Professor 
Henneberg  who,  after  several  months'  use,  has  found  it  very  satisfactory 


Pig.  154. 


and  adapted  to  its  purpose.  The  instrument  is  a  firmly-built  sliding 
microtome,  with  automatic  object-movement  and  large,  heavy  knife- 
slide,  which  can  be  worked  direct  by  the  hand  or  by  chain  and  tooth- 
wheel.     It  is  made  in  two  sizes,  with  track-lengths  of  32  and  42kcm. 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1905)  rp.  125-30  (4  figs.). 


662 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


respectively.  For  most  purposes  the  small  size  suffices.  When  hand- 
motion  is  desired,  a  hent  pin  is  fastened  to  the  block  (fig.  154)  by 
means  of  the  same  screw  which  holds  the  knife-clamp.  For  chain-use 
the  microtome  is  provided  at  each  end  with  a  beam-like  projection,  each 
of  which  carries  a  chain-wheel,  one  for  the  winch,  the  other  for  the 
straining  of  the  chain.  The  winch  can  be  fitted  as  shown  in  fig.  155, 
•or  at  the  other  end,  and  thus  an  operator  can  rotate  the  winch  either 
with  his  left  hand  or  his  right.  Fig.  154  shows  the  manner  of  the 
automatic  elevation  of  the  object.  The  rotation  of  the  tooth-wheel 
occurs  indirectly  through  a  bent  curved  movable  lever  screwed  to  the 
block  (hence  the  "block-angle").  The  lower  end  of  the  lever  in  the 
movement  of  the  slide  to  the  end  of  the  track  engages  with  a  spring- 
hook,  which  itself  engages  in  the  teeth  of  the  wheel  and  moves  it  on 


Fig.  155. 


one  notch.  The  length  of  the  stroke,  about  which  the  block-angle 
rotates  the  wheel  in  this  way,  is  dependent  on  the  downward  lever-end. 
The  length  is  longer  or  shorter,  as  the  block-angle  is  steeper  or  more 
oblique.  The  block-angle  is  arranged  by  the  help  of  a  small  clutch 
which  is  set  to  the  small  scale  at  the  lever-end,  the  numeration 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  the  wheel-teeth  rotated  at  that  par- 
ticular position  of  the  block-angle.  A  wheel-tooth  corresponds  to  a 
section  thickness  of  0  ■  001  mm.  In  its  steepest  position  the  block-angle 
corresponds  to  a  wheel-rotation  of  25  teeth,  and  the  section  thickness  is 
then  25  /x.  The  forward  movement  of  the  clutch  results  from  the 
action  of  the  spiral  spring  visible  in  fig.  154,  the  clutch  sliding  over  the 
teeth  until  a  resistance  is  met  with  on  the  vertical  wall  of  the  micro- 
tome. In  order  that  the  tooth-wheel  should  not  move  too  easily,  a 
small  brake  (not  shown  in  figure)  is  applied  and  regulated  by  a  screw. 
For  facilitating  the  adjustment  of  the  object-holder  the  female-screw 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY.    ETC. 


663 


fastened  to  it,  and  in  which  the  tooth-wheel  spindle  moves,  is  formed  of 
two  halves,  on  each  of  which,  as  in  a  forceps,  a  limit  is  affixed.  A 
-pring  'applied   between  these    presses    both    parts    sufficiently    tight 


Fig.  156. 


together.     A* pressure  on  the  limb  suffices  to  open  the  screw,  and  the 
object-holder  can  then  be  pushed  up  and  down. 

By  the  use  of  two  screws  in  the  knife-holder  it  is  possible  to  set  the 


Fig.  157. 


knife  flat  or  oblique  ;  moreover,  the  knife  moves  on  a  slab  rotatory 
about  an  axis  (figs.  155  and  156).  The  screw  for  clamping  the  knife- 
rest  moves  on  a  block  in  a  groove,  whereby  the  adjustment  of  the  clamp 


G64  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

is  very  conveniently  performed.  A  dropping  apparatus  is  added  for 
moistening  the  knife  with  70  p.c.  alcohol  in  the  cutting  of  celloidin 
sections.  '  The  alcohol  reservoir  is  rotatory  about  the  supporting  axis, 
and  the  outilow  tube  is  set  excentrically  for  the  adjustment  of  the 
delivery.  This  dropping  apparatus  is  secured  to  the  knife-block,  and 
moves  with  it  (tig.  157). 

Arndt's  Double  Saw.* — The  introduction  of  this  auxiliary,  which 
was  noticed  in  this  Journal  f  a  few  years  ago,  has  been  found  so  useful 
that  the  inventor  has  brought  out  an  improved  form.  It  is  intended 
for  preparing  microscopic  sections  from  hard  objects.  The  working 
space  of  the  saw  has  now  been  increased  to  6*5  cm.,  and  there  are  also 
other  improvements. 

tr(4)  Staining^and  ^Injecting. 

Differential  Stain  for  Gonococcus.^ — B-  Leszczynski  employs  the 
following  method :  cover  slip  preparations  are  made  from  the  pus  diluted 
with  water  in  the  usual  way,  and  after  fixing  in  the  flame  are  treated  for 
60  seconds  with  thionin  solution  (sol.  sat.  aq.  thionin  10  c.cm. ;  aq.  dest. 
88  c.cm.  ;  acid  carbol.  liquef.  2  c.cm.)  and  washed  in  water.  Then  treat 
for  60  seconds  in  picric  acid  solution  (sol.  sat.  aq.  acid  picric;  sol.  aq. 
caustic  potash  1  :  1000  ;  aa  50  c.cm.).  Without  washing  in  water,  treat 
for  5  seconds  with  absolute  alcohol ;  wash  in  water,  dry,  and  mount  in 
balsam. 

The  protoplasm  of  the  pus  cells  is  stained  straw-yellow  and  the  nuclei 
red-violet,  the  gonococci  appearing  as  black  sharply  contoured  diplococci, 
the  other  bacteria  are  yellowish-red  to  pinkish-red.  The  extra- cellular 
cocci  and  those  lying  deeply  in  the  protoplasm  of  the  cells  are  often 
not  stained  in  a  characteristic  manner. 

Persio-acetic  Acid  as  a  Stain  for  Vegetable  Tissue.§— G.  Beck 
von  Managetta  recommends  a  new  pigment,  Persio,  for  staining  vegetable 
tissue.  It  is  a  red  indigo,  and  is  much  like  Orseille  in  origin  and  com- 
position. It  is  a  purple  powder,  easily  soluble  in  water  and  acetic  acid, 
and  little  or  not  at  all  in  alcohol.  As  persio-acetic  acid  it  is  extremely 
valuable,  a  strong  solution  staining  deeply  in  1-2  minutes.  The  stained 
sections  may  be  mounted  in  glycerin,  potassium  acetate,  and  Venetian 
turpentine,  by  all  of  which  the  tone  is  advantageously  altered.  Persio- 
acetic  acid  will  combine  with  other  pigments.  The  author  mentions 
combinations  with  nuclear  black,  nigrosin,  methyl-green,  and  gentian- 
violet. 

New  Method  of  Rapid  Staining  Nervous  Tissue  with  Gold 
Chloride.||— B.  de  Nabias  fixes  the  tissue  in  any  solution  which  allows 
after-treatment  with  iodine.  The  sections  on  the  slide  are  dehydrated, 
and  then  immersed  in  Gram's  iodine  solution  until  they  become  yellow. 
After  washing  in  distilled  water  they  are  placed  in  1  p.c.  gold  chloride 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  104-13  (5  figs.), 
t  J.R.M.S.  1902,  p.  112. 

X  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Ref.,  lt9  Abt.,  xxxyi.  (1905)  p.  692. 

§  SB.  Deutsch.  Naturwiss.  Vereins  f.  Bohmen,  "Lotos,"  1904,  No.  7.     See  alio 
Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  166-8. 
II  C.  R.  Soc.  Biol.,  lvi.  (1904)  p.  426. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  665 

solution.  They  are  again  washed,  and  then  treated  with  1  p.c.  anilin 
water.  After  washing  again  in  distilled  water  the  sections  are  passed 
through  graded  alcohols  to  xylol  and  balsam. 

Method  of  Contrast  Staining  with  Bleu  de  Lyon  and  Picric  Acid.§ 
— Skrobansky  takes  the  sections  which  have  been  previously  stained 
with  borax-carmin  from  distilled  water  and  places  them  in  the  following 
mixture: — Distilled  water  50  parts  ;  saturated  alcoholic  solution  of  bleu 
de  Lyon  2  parts  ;  saturated  aqueous  solution  of  picric  acid  5  parts.  In 
this  the  sections  remain  for  2-3  minutes,  and  are  then  passed  through 
graded  alcohols  to  xylol  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

Staining  Tubercle  Bacillus. j] — A.  Mendoza,  in  some  further  obser- 
vations on  this  subject,  remarks  that  other  mixtures  produce  a  perfect 
staining.  Thus  iodine-green,  when  the  water  is  saturated  with  oil  of 
turpentine,  stains  the  bacilli  beautifully,  though  the  strength  of  the  de- 
coloriser  must  be  reduced.  Some  pigments  will  give  a  double  stain,  e.g. 
methylen-blue,  when  used  in  conjunction  with  thymol  (saturated  aqueous 
solution  of  thymol  80  c.cm. ;  saturated  alcoholic  solution  of  methylen-blue 
10  c.cm.;  alcohol  10  c.cm.).  The  bacilli  stain  dark  blue  and  the  rest  of 
the  elements  a  red-violet,  though  to  obtain  this  result  the  strength  of  the 
decoloriser  must  be  reduced  to  one-fifth  (20-80  of  water). 

New  Method  of  Capsule  Staining.^" — L.  Buerger's  method  requires 
the  following  solutions  : — (1)  Blood  serum,  diluted  with  equal  bulk  of 
normal  saline  or  ascitic  or  pleural  fluid  ;  (2)  Muller's  fluid,  saturated  with 
sublimate  ;    (3)  80-95  p.c.  alcohol ;    (4)  tincture  of   iodine  (7  p.c.) ; 

(5)  fresh  anilin  water,  gentian-violet  solution,  or  fuchsin   solution  ; 

(6)  2  p.c.  aqueous  salt  solution.  A  film  is  made  by  mixing  some  culture 
with  a  drop  of  serum  on  a  cover-glass.  When  it  is  about  half  dry  the 
film  is  covered  with  fixative.  It  is  then  gently  warmed,  and  after  a 
quick  wash  in  water  is  passed  through  alcohol,  and  then  treated  with 
the  iodine  solution  for  about  a  minute.  The  cover-glass  is  then  washed 
with  alcohol  until  no  more  iodine  comes  off.  After  drying  in  the  air, 
the  film  is  stained  for  three  seconds  ;  it  is  then  washed  and  mounted  in 
salt  solution.  The  preparation  may  be  ringed  round  with  vaselin  before 
examination. 

If  the  films  be  stained  with  fuchsin,  they  should  be  examined  in 
water.  Gram's  method  may  be  adopted,  and  the  preparations  after- 
stained  with  10-15  p.c.  aqueous  fuchsin.  Mounting  in  balsam  destroys 
the  sharp  outline  of  the  capsule,  though  the  preparations  are  fairly  good. 

Demonstrating  Fat  in  the  Animal  Liver.* — C.  Deflandre,  when 
investigating  the  adipogenic  function  of  the  liver f  had  recourse  to  the 
following  histo-chemical  methods.  The  freshly  removed  liver  was  cut 
up  into  thin  slices  and  immersed  in  strong  Flemming  [chromic  acid 
(10  p.c.)  15  parts  ;  osmic  acid  (1  p.c.)  80  parts  ;  glacial  acetic  acid  10 
parts  ;  distilled  water   95  parts]  for   24  hours.     The  pieces  are  then 

*  Intern.  Monatschr.  Anat.  u.  Phys.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  21-2.     See  also  Zeitschr. 
wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1905)  p.  138. 

t  Bol.  Inst.  Alfonso  XIII..  i.  (1905)  pp.  61-2.     See  ante,  p.  529. 

:  Centralbl.  Bakt..  1*  Abt.  Orig.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  216-24,  335-52  (9  figs.). 

§  Journ.  Anat.  et  Physiol.,  xl.  (1904)  pp.  79-80. 

||  J.R.M.S.  1904,  p.  301. 


666  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    KI'.SKARCHES    RELATING    TO 

washed  in  running  water  for  24  hours.  For  washing,  a  funnel  with  a 
siphon  stem  was  used.  This,  when  placed  under  a  tap,  kept  filling  and 
emptying  automatically.  A  large  number  of  pieces,  if  properly  labelled, 
can  be  washed  by  this  method  at  the  same  time. 

The  pieces  were  next  dehydrated  in  absolute  alcohol,  cleared  up  in 
xylol,  and  imbedded  in  paraffin.  Impregnation  with  paraffin  should  be 
done  as  quickly  as  possible,  as  protracted  immersion  in  xylol  tends  to 
dissolve  out  the  fat  droplets.  The  sections  may  be  mounted  unstained  in 
glycerin  or  stained  for  24  hours  in  safranin.  The  safranin  was  a  strong 
alcoholic  solution  mixed  with  ariilin  water.  Magenta  red  and  picric 
acid  were  also  used,  but  the  effect  was  less  delicate. 

Staining  Nerve  Endings  in  Skin  of  Mammals.* — A.  S.  Dogiel 
used  a  1-2  p.c.  solution  of  silver  nitrate  wherein  were  placed  small  pieces 
of  skin,  the  solution  being  incubated  at  from  34°-36°  C.  for  3-5  days. 
The  pieces  were  quickly  washed  in  distilled  water  and  then  transferred 
to  the  reducing  solution  of  formalin  and  pyrogallic  acid  for  3-5  days. 
If  the  silver  had  been  reduced  the  preparations  were  washed  in  distilled 
water,  then  hardened  in  absolute  alcohol,  and,  after  imbedding  in  celloidin, 
were  sectioned. 

Examination  of  Cultures  and  Smears  from  Throat  and  Nose.f — 
W.  T.  Gr.  Pugh  recommends  the  following  procedure  for  detecting  the 
presence  of  diphtheria  bacilli  in  exudations  of  the  throat  and  nose. 
The  stain  consists  of  toluidin  blue  1  grin,  dissolved  in  20  c.cm. 
absolute  alcohol  and  1  litre  of  distilled  water,  to  which  50  c.cm.  of 
glacial-acetic  acid  are  added.  The  films  and  smears  should  be  stained 
for  two  minutes  or  longer.  When  examined  by  artificial  light  the 
Babes-Ernst  granules,  whether  in  bacilli  or  cocci,  are  seen  to  be  stained 
reddish-purple,  the  diphtheria  bacilli  thus  standing  out  prominently. 

Staining  Nerve  Fibrils.J — According  to  A.  Bethe  the  staining  of 
nerve  fibrils  is  due  to  the  presence  of  an  acid,  "  fibril  acid,"  which  is 
insoluble  in  ether.  He  gives  three  methods.  (1)  The  old  ether  method, 
which  is  uncertain  as  to  its  results.  The  piece  of  fresh  tissue  is  placed 
in  ether,  which  is  frequently  changed.  After  two  days  it  is  transferred 
to  a  solution  of  toluidin  blue,  1  :  3000,  and  on  the  following  day  to 
ammonium  molybdate.  It  is  then  imbedded  and  sectioned.  (2)  New 
ether  method.  The  fresh  tissue  is  first  treated  with  ether,  and  after- 
wards dehydrated  with  absolute  ether.  It  is  then  transferred  to  xylol 
and  afterwards  imbedded.  (3)  Ammonia  method.  Fix  with  alcohol, 
to  7-10  parts  of  which  1  part  of  ammonia  is  added  ;  imbed  and  stain 
as  before. 

Use  of  Electrolysis  for  the  Metallic  Impregnation  and  Staining 
of  Tissues.§ — L.  Sanzo  places  the  two  electrodes  of  a  battery  in  a  basin 
filled  with  distilled  water.  To  the  negative  pole  is  fixed  a  piece  of  tissue 
previously  impregnated  with  nitrate  of  silver.  A  weak  current  is  then 
passed  and  this  decomposes  the  silver  nitrate,  the  acid  radicle  going  to 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  97-118  (10  figs.). 
t  Lancet,  1905,  ii.  pp.  80-1. 
J  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxi.  (1904)  pp.  344-8. 
§  Anat.  Anzeig..  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  269-70. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  667 

the  positive  pole  while  the  silver  remains  at  the  negative,  being  free  to 
combine  with  the  tissue  elements. 

By  fixing  unimpregnated  tissue  to  the  positive  pole  an  acid  reaction 
is  obtained,  and  this  makes  the  tissue  more  receptive  of  the  silver  salt. 
In  a  similar  way  by  placing  pieces  of  tissue  on  the  anode  or  cathode 
the  tissues  may  be  rendered  acid  or  basic,  so  as  to  mordant  them  as  it 
were  for  basic  or  acid  stains. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Microtomists'  Vade  Mecum.* — The  new  edition  of  the  Microto- 
mists'  Vade  Mecum,  a  handbook  of  the  methods  of  Microscopic  Anatomy, 
by  A.  Bolles  Lee,  contains  much  new  matter,  room  for  which  has  been 
found  by  condensation  and  rearrangement.  Some  chapters,  e.g.  on 
connective  tissues  and  on  blood  and  glands,  have  been  practically  re- 
written, and  those  on  the  nervous  system  have  been  elaborated  and 
much  new  and  important  matter  added.  The  Microtomists'  Vade  Mecum 
is  so  well  known  and  so  universally  consulted  by  every  class  of  histolo- 
gist  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  launch  out  into  praises  of  its  many  merits, 
and  it  only  remains  to  congratulate  the  author  on  his  energy  in  bringing 
his  invaluable  work  up  to  date. 

Ball,  M.  V. — Essentials  of  Bacteriology.  London:  Kimpton,  1904,  4th  ed. 

Klopstock,  M.,  u.  Kowarskt,  A. — Praktikum  der  klinischen,  chemisch-mikros- 
kopischen  und  bakteriologischen  TJntersuchungsmethoder. 

Wien  :  Urban  u.  Schwarzenberg,  1904,  296  pp. 

Lindner,  P. —  Mikroskopische  Betriebskontrolle  in  den  G-arungsgewerben  mit  einer 
Einfuhrung  in  die  technische  Biologie,  Hefenreinkultur  und  Infektionslehre. 

Berlin :  Paul  Parey,  1905,  4th  ed.  enlarged, 
521  pp.,  237  figs.,  4  pis. 

Lynch,  K. — Mikroskopische  Untersuchung  der  Faces.    Ihre  Bedeutung  und  ihre 
Anwendung  in  der  artzlichen  Praxis.  Leipzig :  G.  Thieme,  1904,  35  pp. 

Miethe,  V. — Traite  pratique  de  recherches  bacteriologiques. 

Paris :  Malonie,  1904. 

S^ons,   Ph. — Lehrbuch   der   Histologie   und   der   mikroskopischen  Anatomie  des 
Menschen  mit  Einschluss  der  mikroskopischen  Technik. 

Jena:  G.  Fischer,  1905,  456  pp.,  352  figs. 

Winslo  w,  Ch.-E.  A. — Elements  of  Applied  Microscopy.    A  Text-book  for  Beginners. 

New  York:  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  1905,  183  pp. 


Metallography,  etc. 

Thermal  and  Electrical  Effects  in  Soft  Iron.f  —  E.  H.  Hall, 
Churchill,  Campbell  and  Serviss  have  made  delicate  measurements  of 
the  Thomson  effect.  Two  bars  of  iron  (99*98  p.c.  Fe)  were  employed, 
one  end  of  each  bar  being  inserted  in  a  mixture  of  ice  and  water,  the 
other  end  in  boiling  water.  An  electric  current  (25  amperes)  was  passed 
through  the  bars,  from  cold  to  hot  in  one  bar,  from  hot  to  cold  in 
the  other.      The  direction  of  the  current  could   be   reversed.      The 

*  London  :  J.  and  A.  Churchill,  6th  ed.,  1905,  x.  and  538  pp. 
t  Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sci.,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  23-55. 


668  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

differences  of  temperature  (clue  to  the  difference  in  direction  of  the 
main  current)  between  corresponding  points  in  the  two  bars,  were 
measured  by  means  of  thermo-electric  couples  of  copper  and  German- 
silver,  connected  to  a  sensitive  galvanometer.  Similar  measurements 
were  taken  with  the  main  current  reversed.  Numerous  details  of  the 
method  and  the  precautions  adopted  are  given  by  the  authors.  The 
following  values  were  obtained  for  the  Thomson  effect  coefficient  v, 

|  -  757  X  10-10  mean,  from  13°  to  90° 

approximately  <   —  715         „  „         „      13°  „  51° 

(  ~  793         „  „         „       51°  „  90* 

Influence  of  Nitrogen  on  Iron  and  Steel.* — H.  Braune  points  out 
that  the  abnormal  brittleness  frequently  [met  with  in  iron  and  steel, 
especially  in  basic  products,  cannot  be  ascribed  to  the  presence  of  large 
percentages  of  phosphorus,  sulphur,  or  other  elements,  the  effect  of  which 
is  well  known.  As  the  result  of  six  years  work,  the  author  states  that 
this  brittleness  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  nitrogen  absorbed  by  the 
metal  in  the  processes  of  manufacture.  The  nitrogen  exists  as  nitride 
of  iron  in  solid  solution  in  ferrite.  To  determine  the  effect  of  nitrogen 
on  the  quality  of  the  metal,  the  author  heated  bars  of  high-grade  iron 
and  steel  in  ammonia  gas  at  800°  C.  for  varying  periods.  Different 
proportions  of  nitrogen  were  absorbed  ;  the  bars  were  then  annealed  to 
bring  about  a  regular  diffusion  of  nitrogen  through  the  metal.  Curves 
are  given  showing  the  effect  of  increasing  proportions  of  nitrogen  on 
the  mechanical  properties  of  (1)  soft  iron  containing  0 '  06  p.c.  carbon, 
(2)  steel  containing  1 "  15  p.c.  carbon.  The  effect  is  wholly  injurious  : 
0*08  p.c,  or  more,  nitrogen  renders  soft  iron  brittle  ;  in  the  case  of  the 
high  carbon  steel  the  same  effect  results  with  only  0*03  p.c.  nitrogen. 
Photomicrographs  are  given  showing  the  remarkable  changes  in  struc- 
ture brought  about  by  increasing  percentages  of  nitrogen. 

In  an  editorial  note  appended  to  the  above  article,  H.  le  Chateliert 
cites  a  number  of  facts — such  as  the  well  known  difference  in  properties 
between  acid  and  basic  steel  of  the  same  composition — as  to  hitherto 
unexplained  departures  from  established  laws  governing  the  relation 
between  physical  properties,  chemical  composition,  and  thermal  treat- 
ment of  steel.  These  irregularities  have  been  attributed  to  the  presence 
of  elements,  such  as  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  which  are  difficult  to  esti- 
mate. H.  Braune's  researches  suggest  that  the  explanation  may  be 
sought  in  the  presence  of  nitrogen.  H.  le  Chatelier  gives  some  results  he 
has  obtained  in  endeavouring  to  establish  a  relation  between  brittleness 
of  metals  and  their  microstructure.  He  suggests  that  nitrogen,  when 
present  in  moderate  proportions,  may  have  the  effect  of  facilitating  the 
development  of  brittleness  under  unsuitable  thermal  treatment,  rather 
than  that  of  rendering  the  metal  hopelessly  bad. 

The  method  of  estimating  nitrogen  in  iron,  together  with  further 
details,  is  given  elsewhere  by  H.  Braune.J 

*  Rev.  Metallurgie,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  497-502  (7  figs.), 
t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  503-7  (3  figs.). 

t  Op.  cit.,  Extraits,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  361-4  (4  ;figs.).     See  also  Braune,  H.,  "Sur 
le  role  de  l'azote  dans  les  fers  et  aciere."     Bale.     Editeurs,  Walz  et  Mieville,  1905. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  669 

Brittleness  of  Cemented  Mild  Steels.* — To  determine  the  cause  of 
the  brittleness  resulting  from  the  cementation  of  mild  steel,  J.  Lecarme 
worked  on  steels  of  the  following  composition  : — 

1.  2. 

Carbon       0100  p.c.  0-090  p.c. 

Manganese        0-300    „  0-623    „ 

Phosphorus       0-031    „  0-065    „ 

Silicon       0-750    „  0*152    „ 

Four  groups,  each  made  up  of  ten  pieces  of  each  steel,  were  packed 
(a)  in  neutral  matter,  (b),  (c),  and  (d)  in  carburising  material  of  different 
degrees  of  activity,  and  heated  at  1000°  C,  the  different  pieces  in  each 
group  being  maintained  at  this  temperature  for  varying  periods.  The 
object  of  this  series  of  experiments  was  to  determine  whether  the 
brittleness  is  due  to  heating  at  a  high  temperature,  or  is  influenced  by 
the  composition  of  the  carburising  material.  After  treatment  the  pieces 
were  submitted  to  mechanical  tests  and  microscopically  examined.  The 
changes  in  microstructure  are  shown  by  photomicrographs.  The  author 
concludes  that  the  thermal  treatment  necessarily  accompanying  cement- 
ation does  not  induce  brittleness,  this  fragility  being  caused  by  some 
chemical  change  in  the  soft  core  taking  place  simultaneously  with  the 
superficial  cementation.  Widely  differing  degrees  of  brittleness  result 
when  steels  obtained  from  different  sources,  though  of  similar  chemical 
composition,  are  submitted  to  the  same  treatment.  It  is  usually 
possible  by  suitable  treatment  to  remove  the  brittleness  resulting  from 
cementation. 

H.  le  Chatelierf  iputs  forward  some  criticisms  of  J.  Lecarme's 
inferences,  and  remarks  that  the  chief  object  of  their  publication  is  to 
induce  other  workers  to  investigate  the  subject  more  fully.  The  presence 
of  nitrogen  may  influence  the  results. 

Technique  of  Microscopic  Metallography.? —  H.  le  Chatelier  de- 
scribes the  improvements  in  the  details  of  polishing,  etching,  etc., 
effected  in  his  laboratory  since  the  publication  of  his  former  article  on 
the  same  subject. § 

Grinding. — A  rapidly  revolving  emery  wheel,  against  which  the 
section  is  lightly  pressed,  gives  the  best  results.  For  quenched  steels 
which  surface-heating  might  let  down,  a  wheel  flooded  with  water  and 
revolving  at  slower  speeds  should  be  used.  It  has  been  stated  that  if 
the  section  does  not  become  too  hot  to  hold  with  the  fingers,  the 
temperature  cannot  rise  sufficiently  to  have  any  effect  on  the  metal. 
This  is  not  the  case,  as  the  surface  pressed  against  the  emery  wheel  may 
be  considerably  hotter  than  the  mass  of  the  piece.  To  remove  the 
modified  skin  which  appears  to  be  the  unavoidable  result  of  grinding  on 
emery  iwheels,  the  section  should  be  rubbed  by  hand  on  moderately 
coarse  emery  paper.     Moistening  emery  paper  with  oil  of  turpentine 

•  Rev.  Metallurgie,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  516-25  (6  figs.), 
t  Tom.  cit..  pp.  526-7. 

I  Rev.  Metallurgie,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  528-37  (3  figs.) 

§  Bull.  Soc.  d'Enc. ;  see  also  "  Contribution  a  l'e'tude  des  alliages,"  pp.  421-40, 
and  Metallograpbist,  iv.  (1901)  pp.  1-22. 

Oct.  18th,  1905  2  Y 


670  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

hastens  the  operation.  The  edges  of  the  section  should  be  bevelled  to 
avoid  tearing  the  polishing  papers  and  cloths. 

Fine  Polishing. — The  author  insists  on  the  importance  of  using 
powders  of  uniform  dimension  of  grain.  The  time  spent  in  their  pre- 
paration is  fully  repaid  by  the  increased  rapidity  of  polishing.  For  iron 
and  steel  three  powders  are  used,  sieved  emery,  levigated  emery  (finer), 
and  washed  alumina.  The  author's  methods  for  the  preparation  of  these 
are  given  in  detail.  Fine  flannel  maintained  in.  a  state  of  tension  on 
glass  is  used  as  supporting  medium  for  the  polishing  powders.  Filtered 
soap  solution  serves  to  fix  the  powder  to  the  cloth.  Surfaces  thus 
prepared  may  be  used  for  polishing  dry  or  damp.  To  shorten  the  time 
occupied  in  polishing,  revolving  wooden  discs,  covered  with  fine  cloth, 
or  felt  discs,  may  be  used  in  the  final  stage  when  alumina  is  employed. 

Methods  of  Etching. — A  5  p.c.  solution  of  picric  acid  in  alcohol  has 
come  into  general  use.  Two  reagents  recommended  by  Kourbatoff  are  : 
(1)  amyl  alcohol  containing  4  p.c.  nitric  acid  ;  (2)  4  p.c.  solution  of  nitric 
acid  in  ordinary  alcohol  1  part,  saturated  solution  of  nitrophenol  in 
ordinary  alcohol  3  parts.  Cementite  is  readily  coloured,  other  con- 
stituents not  being  affected,  by  a  solution  containing  25  p.c.  sodium 
hydrate  and  2  p.c.  picric  acid,  at  100°  C. 

Microscope. — The  author  has  abandoned  the  use  of  the  mercury  arc 
lamp,  owing  to  the  difficulties  of  manipulation  and  the  long  exposure 
required,  though  excellent  photographs  were  obtained  by  its  aid.  A 
Nernst  lamp  with  two  thick  filaments,  so  placed  that  their  light  is 
superposed  on  the  illuminator  of  the  Microscope,  gives  good  results  ; 
the  source  of  light  is  sufficiently  broad  to  eliminate  the  interference 
fringes  which  give  trouble  when  an  ordinary  Nernst  lamp  with  a  thin 
filament  is  used.  For  steel  sections  exposures  of  2-5  minutes  are 
usually  sufficient.  Several  modifications  in  the  Microscope  and  camera 
used  by  the  author  are  described.  It  is  more  satisfactory  to  obtain  high 
magnifications  by  employing  objectives  of  higher  power  than  by  in- 
creasing the  distance  between  plate  and  eye-piece. 

Alloys  of  Copper  and  Aluminium.*  —  L.  G-uillet  confirms  the 
melting  point  curve  (liquidus)  of  the  copper-aluminium  alloys  obtained 
by  H.  le  Chatelier,  with  some  slight  differences.  To  determine  the 
curve  of  the  "  solidus  "  he  has  investigated  the  cooling  curves  of  different 
alloys  and  the  micrography  of  alloys  quenched  at  varying  temperatures. 
The  alloys  containing  8  p.c.  to  14  p.c.  aluminium  have  one  and  frequently 
two  critical  points.  The  author  distinguishes  seven  constituents  in  all, 
three  of  which  are  compounds — Al2Cu,  AlCu,  AlCu3  (?)— the  others 
being  solid  solutions.  Their  characteristics  and  conditions  of  formation 
are  described  in  detail. 

Constitution  of  Iron-Carbon  Alloys.f — In  an  important  paper  deal- 
ing with  Roozeboom's  application  of  the  phase  doctrine  to  the  iron- 
carbon  system,  E.  Heyn  points  out  that  the  science  of  metallography 
has  advanced  enormously  with  the  development  of  the  theory  of  solutions 

*  Rev.  Metallurgie,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  567-88  (4  diagrams,  2S  photomicrographs), 
t  Iron  aud  Steel  Mag.,  ix.  (1905)  pp.  407-17  and  510-18;  x.  (19(>5)  pp.  42-52 
(27  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  671 

and  the  phase  doctrine.  The  important  part  played  by  the  Microscope 
in  its  development  should  not,  however,  be  forgotten.  While  the  phase- 
rule  furnishes  information  regarding  stable  equilibria,  the  Microscope  is 
almost  the  only  means  of  investigating  metastable  conditions  of  alloys. 
Starting  with  a  diagram  of  the  critical  points  of  iron-carbon  alloys, 
agreeing  closely  with  that  given  by  Roberts- Austen,  the  author  describes 
the  changes  which  take  place  when  cooling  is  sufficiently  slow  to  permit 
the  attainment  of  stable  equilibrium.  When  the  rate  of  cooling  is 
somewhat  accelerated,  stable  equilibrium  does  not  result.  Assuming 
that  by  rapid  quenching  from  a  temperature  T  the  alloy  is  retained,  at 
a  lower  temperature  t,  in  a  condition  corresponding  to  stable  equilibrium 
at  T,  a  number  of  cases  are  taken  and  the  final  constitution  of  the  alloy 
inferred.  Such  complete  supercooling,  however,  is  not  possible  in  the 
case  of  iron-carbon  alloys.  The  condition  of  an  alloy  rapidly  cooled 
from  a  temperature  T  to  t  is  unstable,  and  is  intermediate  between  the 
condition  stable  at  T  and  that  stable  at  t.  T  is  assumed  to  be  above, 
and  t  below  the  critical  range.  Transition  constituents,  which  must  not 
be  considered  as  phases,  are  thus  formed.  Martensite  and  troostite  are 
well  known  examples  of  such  constituents.  Possibly  austenite  may  also 
belong  to  the  same  category,  instead  of  being,  as  Osmond  regards  it,  a 
separate  phase.  As  a  means  of  distinguishing  troostite  from  martensite 
and  other  constituents  microscopically,  1  p.c.  hydrochloric  acid  in  absolute 
alcohol  is  recommended  as  an  etching  reagent.  The  author  gives  his 
reasons  for  doubting  the  occurrence  of  the  transformation — 

martensite  +  graphite  ^  carbide, 

which,  according  to  Roberts-Austen  and  Roozeboom,  takes  place  at 
1000°  C.  Their  view  is  not  supported  by  experimental  data.  An 
alternative  theory  is  advanced,  the  condition  corresponding  to  the  two 
phases,  iron  and  graphite  being  acoeptecl  as  stable,  while  the  existence  of 
carbide  is  due  to  supercooling.  Carbide  (cementite)  is  thus  a  metastable 
form. 

Metallography  applied  to  Foundry  Work.* — A.  Sauveur  describes 
the  various  methods  suitable  for  differentiating  the  constituents  in  a 
microscopical  section  of  cast-iron,  10  p.c.  nitric  acid  in  absolute  alcohol 
is  recommended  as  an  etching  reagent.  Graphite  may  be  distinguished 
by  examination  of  the  section  after  simple  polishing. 

On  the  Magnetisation  and  the  Magnetic  Change  of  Length  in 
Ferromagnetic  Metals  and  Alloys  at  Temperatures  ranging  from 
-186°  C.  to  +1200°  C-t  —  K.  Honda  and  S.  Shimizu  have  measured 
the  magnetisation  and  magnetic  change  of  length  of  pure  iron,  nickel, 
cobalt,  tungsten  steel,  and  12  specimens  of  nickel  steel  containing 
from  24  p.c.  to  70  p.c.  nickel,  at  the  temperature  of  liquid  air,  at 
1200°  C,  and  at  intermediate  temperatures.  Temperatures  between 
—  186°  C.  and  —15°  C.  were  obtained  by  surrounding  the  specimen  by 
a  jacket  containing  liquid  air.  Uniform  slow  cooling  thus  resulted. 
High  temperatures  were  obtained  by  inserting  the  specimen  in  a  platinum- 
wound  electric   resistance   tube   furnace.     A   platinum   German-silver 

*  Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,  x.  (1905)  pp.  29-32  (2  figs.). 
t  Journ.  Coll.  Sci.  Tokyo,  xx.  Art.  6,  pp.  1-63  (4  pis.). 


672  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES. 

thermo-electric  couple  was  used  for  measuring  low  temperatures. 
Numerous  results  are  given  by  the  author  ;  those  given  by  the  experi- 
ments on  the   irreversible  alloys  of   iron  and  nickel  are  of  especial 

interest. 

Carpenter,  H.  0.  H.,  &  Keeling,  B.  F.  E. — The  Range  of  Solidification  and  the 
Critical  Ranges  of  Iron-carbon  Alloys. 

[A  reprint  of  the  well-known  paper  read  before  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute 
in  May  1904.  A  number  of  cooling  curves  necessarily  omitted  from  the 
paper  as  originally  published  are  included.  A  very  complete  investigation 
of  the  critical  temperatures  of  iron-carbon  alloys.] 

Collected  Researches  of  the  National  Physical  Laboratory, 

i.  pp.  229-44  (5  pis.  4  figs.). 

Charpy. — Modification  de  la  qualite  du  metal  des  rivets  par  l'operation  du  rivetage. 

Comptes  Rendus,  cxli.  (1905)  pp.  327-8. 

'Fremont,  C. — Influence  de  la  fragilite  de  l'acier  sur  les  effets  du  cisaillement,  du 
poinconnage,  et  du  brochage  dans  la  chaudronnerie.  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  325-7. 

Guillet,  L. — Constitution  des  alliages  cuivre-aluminium. 

[Included  in  the  article  on  the  same  subject  published  in  Rev.  Metallurgie 
and  abstracted  above.     See  also  J.R.M.S.,  1905,  p.  536.] 

Tom.  cit,  pp.  464-7. 
Job,  R. — Some  Causes  of  Failure  of  Rails  in  Service. 

Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,  x.  (1905)  pp.  97-106  (8  figs.). 

Osmond,  F. — Contribution  a  la  discussion  du  memoire  de  M.  Hadfield  "  Experiments 
relating  to  the  effect  on  Mechanical  and  other  Properties  of  Iron  and  its  Alloys 
produced  by  Liquid  Air  Temperatures." 

[Hadfield's  conclusions  regarding  the  allotropic  theory  of  iron,  based  on  the 
behaviour  of  alloys  at  low  temperatures,  are  disputed.  The  difference  in 
the  influence  of  liquid  air  temperatures  on  nickel  steel  and  on  manganese 
steel  is  shown  to  be  quite  consistent  with  the  allotropic  theory.] 

Rev.  Metallurgie,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  595-600  (2  figs.). 

Saniter,  E.  H. — Etching  of  High  Carbon  Steel. 

[The  specimen  is  dipped  in  absolute  alcohol,  then  strong  nitric  acid,  and 
washed  at  the  tap.]  Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,  x.  (1905)  p.  156. 

Vanadium  and  Vanadium  Steel.  Tom.  cit,  pp.  134-40. 


JOUENAL 

OF   THE 

EOYAL   MICROSCOPICAL    SOCIETY. 

DECEMBER,   1905. 


TRANSACTIONS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


VII. — Notes  on  "  Arayotite"  a  Rare  California  Mineral. 
By  Henry  G.  Hanks,  Corr.  F.R.M.S. 

(Read  October  18th,  1905.) 

It  is  a  very  interesting  and  singular  fact,  and  one  I  believe  not 
generally  known,  that  hydrocarbon  minerals  are  almost  uni- 
versally associated  with  the  ores  of  quicksilver  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.  The  Idria  mine  in  Austria,  the  Almaden  in  Spain, 
and  the  Huancavelica  in  Peru,  great  historical  mines,  all  contain 
mineral  hydrocarbons  in  some  form.  The  numerous  quicksilver 
mines  of  California  are  not  only  not  exceptions,  but  bitumen  is 
more  abundant  in  them  than  elsewhere.  In  some  California 
mines  the  quantity  is  so  great  as  to  materially  interfere  with  the 
metallurgy  of  the  ores.  We  have  in  California  one  locality  where 
gold,  cinnabar,  metacinnabarite,  native  mercury,  pyrite,  stibnite, 
and  bitumen  are  associated  in  a  coating  lining  rock  cavities;  at 
another  a  jet  of  natural  gas,  which  had  been  burning  for  many 
years,  was  extinguished  by  the  superintendent  of  an  adjacent 
quicksilver  mine,  who  informed  me  that  he  found  crystals  of 
cinnabar  lining  the  throat  of  the  opening  through  which  the  gas 
escaped ;  these  he  scraped  off  and  re-lighted  the  gas.  Some 
months  after  he  again  extinguished  the  flames,  and  found  a  new 
and  copious  crop  of  crystals.  This  statement  I  have  no  reason  to 
doubt. 

In  this  connection  there  are  several  points  of  special  interest. 
The  reason  of  the  almost  universal  presence  of  bitumen  in  quick- 
silver mines  has  never  been  explained,  and  the  question,  What 
part  do  the  minerals    cinnabar,  stibnite,  bitumen,  and  in  some 

Dec.  20th,  1905  2  z 


674  Transactions  of  the  Societij. 

cases  gold,  severally  play  in  solfataric  phenomena  so  common  in> 
our  state  ?  remains  unanswered. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  California  Academy  of  Sciences,  held 
April  1st,  1872,  Mr.  F.  E.  Durand  read  a  paper  entitled  "Descrip- 
tion of  a  New  Mineral  from  the  New  Almaden  Mine." 

"  This  mineral,  of  a  very  bright,  pure  yellow  colour,  is  found 
impregnating  a  crystalline,  silicious  dolomite ;  it  can  be  very 
easily  separated  from  the  dolomite  by  sublimation.  On  warming 
in  a  glass  tube  a  small  amount  of  the  substance,  it  volatilises 
when  dark  red,  and  gives  a  strong  yellow  sublimate  which  appears 
amorphous,  but  which,  when  placed  under  the  Microscope,  shows 
some  very  fine  needle-like  crystals. 

"  If  heated  very  quickly,  it  carbonises  and  gives  a  residue  of 
carbon,  and  produces  an  empyreumatic  odour ;  strong  acids  have 
no  action  on  it. 

"  When  tested  for  sulphur  or  arsenic,  it  does  not  appear  to 
contain  any  trace  of  those  substances,  nor  any  metal.  This- 
mineral  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  volatile  hydrocarbon,  probably 
belonging  to  the  class  of  '  idrialine.' 

"  When  treated  by  the  ordinary  solvents  of  carburetted  com- 
pounds— oil  of  turpentine,  alcohol,  or  ether — it  appears  to  be 
entirely  insoluble.  On  some  specimens  of  cinnabar  from  the 
Keddington  mine  the  same  substance  is  found  in  small  scales ;  in 
fact,  all  the  characters  show  that  this  mineral  is  a  new  substance, 
and  for  it  I  have  adopted  the  name  of  Aragotite."  * 

The  publication  of  Mr.  Durand's  paper  caused  a  considerable 
demand  for  specimens,  for  which  there  was  no  supply.  The  small 
specimen  he  examined  was  all  found  in  the  New  Almaden  mine. 
Mr.  J.  B.  Eandol,  the  superintendent,  made  every  effort  to  find 
more,  and  instructed  his  miners  to  search  for  it,  which  they  did 
without  success.  But  the  name  found  a  permanent  place  in 
scientific  text-books  and  catalogues  of  mineral  dealers ;  it  was 
accepted  as  a  true  mineral  species  when  there  were  no  specimens — 
except,  perhaps,  the  one  presented  to  the  Academy  by  Mr.  Durand 
with  his  paper. 

In  1893  Mr.  E.  A.  Hardy  sent  me  some  fine  specimens  of  a 
yellow  hydrocarbon  mineral  which  I  have  no  doubt  is  Aragotite. 

This  mineral  occurs  in  the  Aetna  quicksilver  mine,  Napa 
County,  California.  The  following  are  extracts  from  Mr.  Hardy's 
letter  dated  July  13,  1893  :— 

"It  is  found  in  small  quantity  on  or  near  the  contact  of  the 
sandstone  with  argillite ;  the  first  found  was  about  400  feet  below 
the  surface—  what  I  send  you  at  this  time  was  taken  out  at  seven 
feet.  It  has  always  occurred  with  cinnabar  until  within  a  few 
days,  when  a  small  pocket  was  met  with  on  the  above  mentioned 

*  Proceedings  of  the  California  Academy  of  Sciences,  iv.,  1868-1872,  p-  218. 


Notes  on  "  Aragotite."     By  Henry  G.  Hanks.  675 

contact,  there  being  no  cinnabar  in  close  proximity.     I  am  informed 
that  it  has  never  been  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  mine." 

From  this  locality  I  obtained  a  quantity  sufficient  to  enable 
me  to  verify  all  my  experiments  by  several  repetitions. 

It  has  the  general  appearance  of  refined  pine  resin  (rosin) 
used  by  musicians ;  colour,  honey  yellow ;  transparent ;  specific 
gravity  1  •  1  ;  sinks  gently  in  distilled  water  ;  electrical  by  friction  ; 
very  brittle  and  easily  frangible ;  may  be  crushed  between  the 
fingers  without  difficulty  ;  fracture,  sub-conchoidal  and  splintery  ; 
easily  rubbed  in  water  to  a  white,  mealy,  slightly  adherent  powder. 
It  is  very  fusible,  hardens  again  on  cooling ;  begins  to  soften  at 
110°  F.,  and  to  melt  at  125°;  at  140°  it  adheres  to  the  cold  point 
of  a  knife-blade,  and  may  be  drawn  out  in  attenuated  threads ;  at 
150°  it  is  a  syrupy  fluid ;  at  212°  it  melts  into  drops,  and  at  a 
higher  temperature,  but  below  redness,  it  flows  freely.  It  is  not 
decomposed  at  a  high  heat ;  in  a  platinum  dish  it  is  driven  from 
the  centre  and  returns  down  the  sides  of  the  vessel  in  little  streams, 
subliming  in  part  at  the  same  time  in  aromatic  fumes.  If  ignited, 
it  burns  with  a  smoky,  yellow  flame,  leaving  a  very  little  white 
ash.  If  the  heat  is  slowly  applied,  it  first  blackens  to  carbon, 
possibly  in  part  by  the  decomposition  of  cinnabar,  which  it  contains 
mechanically  in  minute  proportions. 

The  mineral  is  soluble  with  difficulty,  or  only  partly  so,  in 
alcohol,  but  perfectly  in  spirit  of  turpentine,  ether,  and  petroleum. 

This  is  the  only  important  discrepancy  in  the  two  descriptions ; 
Mr.  Durand  does  not  say  that  his  specimen  was  insoluble,  but  that 
"it  appears  to  be."  This  uncertainty  is  perhaps  owing  to  the 
small  quantity  at  his  disposal. 

The  mineral  floats  in  drops  on  the  surface  of  boiling  nitric  or 
hydrochloric  acid  without  decomposition.  A  portion  placed  on  a 
glass  slide,  heated  sufficiently  to  liquefy  it  and  allowed  to  cool 
slowly  on  a  thick  iron  plate,  was  examined  microscopically  and 
found  to  show  a  few  imbedded,  obscure  crystals,  and  some  beau- 
tiful, exceedingly  minute,  transparent,  perfect  crystals  of  scarlet 
colour,  which  reflected  light  from  brilliant  planes.  These  remark- 
able crystals,  which  seem  to  be  present  by  accident,  have  the 
appearance  of,  and  are  with  but  little  doubt,  cinnabar.  The 
diameter  of  the  largest  was  0*003  inch,  and  the  smallest  0*0005. 

Heated  in  a  closed  glass  tube  the  mineral  sublimed,  or  dis- 
tilled without  decomposition ;  examined  microscopically,  long 
black,  acicular  crystals  and  stellate  bodies  were  observed  in  the 
distillate ;  these  were  probably  black  sulphide  of  mercury  (meta- 
cinnabarite)  and  no  doubt  extraneous  and  accidental.  In  a  glass 
tube  open  at  both  ends,  I  obtained  a  yellow  sublimate  resembling 
that  described  by  Mr.  Durand ;  the  tube  was  then  cut  into  short 
sections,  wrapped  separately  in  paper  and  cautiously  broken  by 
gentle  blows  of  a  small  hammer ;  the  concave  fragments  so  obtained 

2  z  2 


676 


Transactions  of  the  Society. 


containing  the  sublimate,  were  examined  under  the  Microscope. 
The  instrument  revealed  many  minute,  cryptocrystalline,  stelliform 
tufts  connected  in  some  cases  by  long,  very  slender  bodies,  which 
I  believe  to  be  crystals  of  sublimation  and  perhaps  those  described 
by  Mr.  Durand. 

Owing  partly  to  the  difficulty  of  decomposing  this  mineral  by 
heat,  and  partly  to  want  of  skill  and  practice,  I  made  several 
unsuccessful  attempts  to  reduce  it  to  its  elements  in  a  combustion 
furnace.  I  then  sent  a  sample  to  Dr.  Ernst  Huetlin,  of  Freiberg, 
Germany,  who  had  a  high  reputation  as  an  organic  chemist,  and 
received  from  him  the  following  result,  a  mean  of  three  deter- 
minations : — 

Carbon,  per  cent 88*10 

Hydrogen     „  9-17 

97-27 

Mr.  Durand  thought  his  mineral  might  be  some  modification  of 
idrialite,  which  I  have  reason  to  doubt,  and  I  have  placed  the 
physical  characters  of  the  two  minerals  side  by  side  for  com- 
parison. 

Idrialite.  Aragotite. 

Carbon     94-9  88-10 

Hydrogen        5-l  9-17 

Colour       brownish  black         honey  yellow 

Streak       red  white 

Hardness 15  10 

Specific  gravity       ....  1*5  11 

opaque  transparent 

As  far  as  I  know,  this  is  the  first  notice  and  examination  of 
this  mineral  since  its  discovery  in  1872. 


JOURN.   R.   MICR.  SOC.   1905.     PI.  VIII. 


Fig.  158. 


'O  face  p.  677  J 


677 


NOTE. 

Electrical   Warm-Stage. 

By  Cecil  E.  C.  Lystek. 

At  the  June  Meeting  the  inventor  exhibited  and  gave  the  following 
description  of  an  improved  form  of  warm-stage  (tig.  158,  PI.  VIII.). 

A  glass  cell,  4  by  3  by  ^  inches,  is  grooved  in  the  shape  of  the 
letter  U,  with  a  |-inch  circular  opening  in  the  hollow  of  the  U  and 
a  small  space  for  thermometer. 

This  groove  is  filled  with  kryptol,  a  mixture  composed  of 
silicate,  graphite,  and  carborundum.  Electrodes  with  terminal 
screws  are  fitted  at  each  end ;  these  act  as  a  resistance,  and  so 
produce  the  necessary  heat.  When  a  current  of  100  volts  from 
the  ordinary  lighting  mains  is  passed  through  it,  the  temperature 
rises  to  100°  F.  This  temperature  can  be  regulated  as  required  by 
means  of  a  small  sliding  resistance. 

Slight  variation  in  the  voliage  does  not  affect  the  temperature 
given  out  from  the  kryptol,  and  so  the  stage  is  maintained  at  an 
even  temperature  for  any  length  of  time. 

The  amount  of  current  consumed  is  about  250  milliamperes. 
This  is  so  small  that  it  would  not  be  recorded  by  an  ordinary 
meter. 


SUMMARY  OF   CURRENT  RESEARCHES 

RELATING!    TO 

ZOOLOGY       AND       BOTANY 

(principally  invertebrata  and  cryptogamia), 

MICEOSCOPY,    Etc.* 


ZOOLOGY. 

VERTEBRATA. 


a.  Embryology,  t 

Origin  of  Double  Monstrosities.^ — Anton  Forster  gives  a  critical 
account  of  the  various  interpretations  of  double  monstrosities.  The 
view  that  asymmetrical  double-structure  may  be  preformed  even  in  the 
unfertilised  ovum,  is  not  confirmed  by  experiment.  The  view  that  a 
bi-nncleate  ovum  gives  rise  to  duplex  development  is  neither  confirmed 
nor  excluded.  Polyspermy  as  a  factor  is  excluded  by  the  experimental 
results.  Artificial  disturbances  suggest  that  symmetrical  double- 
developments  may  be  brought  about  by  operating  on  the  fertilised 
ovum,  e.g.  by  a  separation  of  the  first  blastomeres,  or,  much  more 
probably,  by  a  displacement  of  the  cellular  material  during  segmentation, 
or  in  the  blastula  and  gastrula  stages.  The  separation  and  displacement 
may  be  due  to  osmotic  pressure  or  to  mechanical  causes.  Two  em- 
bryonic areas  are  established,  and  the  result  differs  with  the  degree  of 
their  subsequent  coalescence.  There  is  a  long  series  leading  up  to  twins 
with  one  amnion. 

Studies  on  the  Placental — J.  Hofbauer  discusses  the  histology, 
bio-chemistry,  and  bio-physics  (movements  and  growth-changes  of  the 
villi)  of  the  human  placenta.  The  placenta  is  an  assimilating  organ  for 
iron,  albuminoids,  fats,  and  oxygen  ;  it  produces  several  ferments  with 
specific  functions  ;  it  is  no  mere  filter,  but  an  organ  with  complex 
chemical  processes,  and  with  internal  secretion.  The  placentar  trans- 
port of  bacteria,  agglutinins,  and  anti-toxins  is  discussed. 

*  The  Society  are  not  intended  to  be  denoted  by  the  editorial  "  we,"  and  they 
do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  views  of  the  authors  of  the  papers  noted, 
nor  for  any  claim  to  novelty  or  otherwise  made  by  them.  The  object  of  this  part  of 
the  Journal  is  to  present  a  summary  of  the  papers  as  actually  published,  and  to 
describe  and  illustrate  Instruments,  Apparatus,  etc.,  which  are  either  new  or  have 
not  been  previously  described  in  this  country. 

t  This  Section  includes  not  only  papers  relating  to  Embryology  properly  so  called, 
but  also  those  dealing  with  Evolution,  Development,  Reproduction,  and  allied  subjects. 

t  Verb.  Pbys.  Med.  Ges.  Wiirzburg,  xxxvii.  (1905)  pp.  235-62. 

§  Grundziige  einer  Biologie  der  menschlichen  Placenta.  Svo  (Wien  und  Leipzig, 
1 905)  ix.  and  175  pp.,  5  pis.  and  2  figs. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  679 

H.  Strahl  *  describes  the  semiplacenta  diffusa  incompleta  of  Tragulus 
javanicus,  and  the  simple  and  double  discoidal  placenta  of  American 
monkeys. 

Foetal  Membranes.f— A.  J.  Resink  discusses  the  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  foetal  membranes,  distinguishing  arch-embryonic, 
arch-placentar,  and  neo-placentar  stages,  and  attempting  a  phyletic 
interpretation.  But  we  cannot  do  more  than  record  the  subject  of  his 
investigation. 

Development  of  Chromosomes  in  the  Selachian  Ovum.} — J. 
Marechal  describes  the  various  stages  in  the  development  of  the  chromo- 
somes in  the  ovum  of  Pristiurus,  ScyUium,  and  other  Selachians.  He 
discusses  the  resting  stage,  the  interruption  of  the  rest  and  the  re- 
constitution  of  the  chromosomes,  the  synapsis,  the  dissolution  of  the 
compact  mass  of  synapsis  threads,  the  thick  coil  (noyaux  pachytenes), 
the  doubling  of  the  chromosomes,  and  the  growth  period  (strepsinema, 
noyaux  diplotenes).  He  suggests  a  hypothetical  answer — the  Verkle- 
lungstheorie  of  von  Winiwarter— to  the  two  questions  :  (1)  what  is  the 
import  of  the  anti-synaptic  duplicity  of  the  threads  and  the  post-synaptic 
doubling  of  the  chromosomes  of  the  thick  coil  ;  and  (2)  how  the 
numerical  reduction  of  chromosomes  is  effected. 

Spermatophores  of  Newts.§  — The  late  E.  v.  Zeller  left  a  manu- 
script memoir  on  the  spermatophores  of  newts  and  their  relation 
to  the  cloacal  gland.  This  has  been  edited  by  C.  B.  Klunzinger  and 
E.  Jacob.  The  gelatinous  spermatophores  are  vase-like,  with  an 
adhesive  stalk  and  a  cup  which  bears  the  mass  of  spermatozoa.  They 
differ  in  details  in  the  various  species  of  Triton,  and  the  author  described 
those  of  T.  alpestris,  T.  cristatus,  and  T.  tmiiatus-palmatus,  T.  viridescens, 
T.  torosus,  and  other  species.  The  vase  is  composed  of  large  gelatinous 
spheres,  closely  apposed  like  a  mosaic,  each  a  peculiarly  modified  cell.  It 
is  formed  by  the  cloacal  gland,  and  each  of  the  numerous  tubules  of  the 
gland  forms  a  gelatinous  sphere.  The  stalk  is  fixed  to  the  substratum 
after  expulsion  from  the  cloaca,  and  almost  simultaneously  it  is  filled 
with  sperms.  Sometimes  as  many  as  five  are  fixed  and  filled  in  rapid 
succession.  The  author  gave  full  details  of  the  whole  process,  and  of 
the  way  in  which  the  female  secures  the  spermatophores.  The  nature 
and  function  of  the  ventral  and  pelvic  glands  is  also  discussed. 

Corpuscle  of  Human  Sperm-Cells.|| — Wederhake  has  investigated 
the  question  of  the  "  Eimerian  "  corpuscle,  and  finds  that  it  does  not 
occur  in  every  sperm  head,  but  only  in  some.  It  is  to  be  found  con- 
stantly in  the  spermatids  which  have  a  certain  differentiation  of  the 
nucleus.  The  corpuscle,  on  account  of  its  position,  structure,  staining 
■capacity,  and  occurrence  in  a  definite  type  of  sperm  cell,  and  also  its 
relation  to  the  development  of  the  nucleus  of  the  sperm,  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  corpuscle  sui  generis.     Analogy  with  Meves's  observations 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  425-30. 

t  Tijdsclir.  Nederland.  Dierk.  Yer.,  viii.(1904)  pp.  159-201  (1  pi.). 

X  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxv.  (1904)  pp.  383-98  (25  nVs.). 

|  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  Ixxix.  (1905)  pp.  171-221  (2  pis.). 

||  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  326-33. 


680  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

on  the  sperms  of  other  animals  would  lead  to  the  assumption  that  it  is 
to  be  regarded  as  the  idiosome  corpuscle  of  the  human  sperm,  and  not 
as,  according  to  Eimer,  a  remnant  of  the  nuclear  corpuscle  of  the 
spermatid  nucleus. 

Development  of  Islands  of  Langerhans  in  Human  Embryo.* — H. 
Kiister  rinds  that  these  appear  even  in  the  early  embryonic  stages  as 
anatomically  differentiated  formations  in  the  pancreas.  They  arise  as  a 
budding  upon  the  glandular  ducts,  and  early  show  three  marked  charac- 
teristics :  (1)  the  nuclei  lie  centrally,  the  cytoplasm  towards  the  outside; 
(2)  the  cells  are  arranged  in  columns  ;  (3)  there  are  intimate  relations 
with  the  capillaries.  The  separation  of  the  islands  from  the  gland  ducts 
takes  place  very  early  ;  their  growth  ceases  towards  the  end  of  fcetal  life, 
and  from  that  time  onward  they  remain  throughout  life  unaltered  in 
structure  and  in  size. 

Development  of  Megalobatrachus  maximus.f — L.  P.  de  Bussy 
gives  a  full  account  of  the  cleavage  and  early  stages  in  the  development 
of  this  giant  salamander,  and  compares  his  results  with  those  obtained 
in  reference  to  other  Amphibians,  Dipnoi,  "  Ganoids,"  and  the  lamprey. 

b.  Histology. 

Morphology  and  Biology  of  the  Cell.J — A.  Gurwitsch  has  produced 
an  introductory  work  on  the  cell.  It  is  divided  into  four  parts  : 
(1)  Statics  and  dynamics  of  the  cell ;  (2)  the  metabolism  and  functions 
of  the  cell ;  (3)  the  multiplication  of  the  cell ;  and  (4)  the  cell  as 
"  organism  "  and  "  individual." 

Spiral  Coiling  of  Nucleus  of  Smooth  Muscle  Cells.§ — G.  Schlater 
agrees  with  E.  Forster  that  the  nucleus  of  the  smooth  muscle  cell  may 
show  manifold  twists  and  bends,  but  thinks  that  Forster  exaggerated 
the  importance  of  spiral  coiling.  He  entirely  rejects  the  idea  that  the 
heart- fibres  and  other  fibres  in  Amphibians  contract  by  spiral  coiling. 
The  view  that  the  spiral  nucleus  of  the  smooth  muscle  cell  coils  passively 
when  the  cell  contracts,  must  be  corrected  by  a  recognition  of  the 
autonomy  and  independence  of  nuclear  form-changes. 

Experimental  Phagocytosis.! — L.  Mercier  has  experimented  with 
the  frog,  introducing  fragments  of  tadpoles  (muscle  fibres  and  epithelial 
cells)  into  the  dorsal  lymphatic  sacs,  and  lias  had  the  satisfaction  of 
entirely  confirming  Metchnikoff's  description  of  phagocytosis. 

Cell  Migration  in  Caecum  and  Mid-gut  of  Amphioxus.f— Boris 
Zarnik  describes  remarkable  changes  in  the  liver  (caecum)  and  mid-gut 
of  Amphioxus  (10-22  mm.)  during  the  growing  period.  The  normal 
lining  of  the  caecum  and  mid-gut  is  a  high  cylindrical  epithelium,  on 

*  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  Bd.  64  (1904)  pp.  158-72  (1  pi.). 

t  Tijdsehr.  Nederland.  Dierk.  Ver.,  viii.  (1904)  pp.  267-378  (10  pis.). 

t  Morphologie  uud  BiologiederZelle.     8vo(Jena,1905)  xix.  and  437  pp.,  239  figs. 

§  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  337-45  (5  figs.). 

II  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  iii.  (1905)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  8,  pp.  cxcix.-cciv.  (5  figs.). 

f  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  433-49  (figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  681 

which  the  author  found  no  cilia.  This  undergoes  remarkable  degenera- 
tion— with  amitosis,  accumulation  of  waste,  and  dissolution — down  to  a 
zone  or  girdle  of  thickened  hypoblast  in  the  first  third  of  the  digestive 
region.  There  is  a  loosening  and  emigration  of  cells,  till  only  isolated 
islands  are  left  on  the  wall  of  the  caecum.  But  in  animals  about  22  mm. 
in  length  there  is  restitution  of  the  epithelium  till  no  traces  of  the  lesions 
are  seen.  The  process  of  restitution  seems  to  be  due  partly  to  the 
activity  of  the  island  left  on  the  caecum  wall  and  partly  to  migrations 
from  the  mid-gut. 

Germination  and  Growth  of  Artificial  Cells.* — Stephane  Leduc 
has  produced  an  "  artificial  cell "  by  allowing  a  drop  of  sugar  solution 
(with  traces  of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium)  to  fall  into  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper.  The  drop  is  covered  by  a  membrane  of  ferrocyanide 
of  copper,  permeable  to  water,  impermeable  by  the  sugar.  This  mimic 
cell  has  the  faculty  of  swelling  and  growing,  and  also  of  giving  out 
prolongations  which  grow  slowly,  like  radicles  and  plumules.  He  dis- 
cusses the  physics  of  the  business. 

Nerve-endings  of  Nail  layer  in  Man.f — A.  S.  Dogiel  makes  a 
comparison  of  the  nerve  apparatus  in  the  skin  of  the  finger-tip  and  in 
the  cutis  of  the  nail  layer.  In  the  stratum  papillare  of  the  nail  layer 
are  present  only  unencapsuled  nerve-clumps  ("  Nervenknauel "),  inter- 
papillary  nets,  and  thread  nets  ;  the  manifold  forms  of  encapsuled  nerve 
apparatus  which  are  constantly  met  in  the  stratum  papillare  of  the  skin 
of  the  finger  tip,  as  also  certain  forms  of  unencapsuled  apparatus,  e.g. 
the  papillary  "  Biischel "  of  Ruffini,  are  here  entirely  absent.  The 
superficial  and  the  deep  cuticular  strata  of  the  nail  layer  include  a 
large  number  of  tree-like  end  branchings,  and  a  very  limited  number  of 
unencapsuled  "  Knauel "  and  encapsuled  apparatus  in  the  form  of 
modified  Vater-Pacini  corpuscles  ;  the  typical  Vater-Pacini  corpuscles — 
peculiar  corpuscles  with  plate-like  endings  similar  to  the  typical  end- 
branchings  of  Ruffini — are  not  present  here.  In  the  epithelial  ridges 
the  Merkel's  touch  corpuscles  are  absent  ;  only  the  inter-epithelial  end- 
branchings  are  present. 

Nerve-endings. :£ — Romeo  Fusari  gives  an  account  of  the  nerve- 
terminations  in  the  striped  muscle  of  the  Ammocoete  stage  of  Petro- 
myzon  branchialis. 

Central  gustatory  Paths  in  Brain  of  Bony  Fishes. § — C.  Judson 
Herrick  has  traced  within  the  brain  the  gustatory  pathways,  and  mapped 
out  the  reflex  paths  for  the  various  types  of  gustatory  reaction  which 
have  been  actually  observed  in  the  feeding  activities  of  these  fishes. 
The  gustatory  paths  are  grouped  under  the  following  sections  : — Peri- 
pheral neurones — gustatory  neurones  of  the  first  order  ;  nucleus  gustus 
primus ;  tractus  gustus  secundus  descendens ;  tractus  gustus  secundus 
ascendens ;  nucleus  gustus  secundus  inferior  ;  nucleus  gustus  secundus 
superior  ;  tractus  gustus  tertius. 

*  Comptes  Rendus.  cxli.  (1905)  p.  280. 

t  Arch.  Mikr.  Auat.,  Bd.  64  (1904)  pp.  173-88  (2  pis.). 

%  Atti  R.  Accad.  Sci.  Torino,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  J 078-88  (1  pi.). 

§  Journ.  Compar.  Neurol,  and  Psychol.,  xv.  No.  5  (1905)  pp.  375-456. 


'682  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Eye  of  Protopterus  annectens.* — Hosch  gives  some  notes  on  the 
structure  of  the  eye  in  Protopterus,  and  discusses  the  phylogenetic 
significance  of  the*  facts  elucidated.  He  considers  that,  apart  from  the 
cornea,  which  in  Protopterus  has  special  adaptive  features,  a  genetic 
origin  of  its  important  constituents  from  the  fish  eye  is  indicated  ;  at 
the  same  time  the  eye  of  Protopterus  agrees  in  all  essential  points  with 
that  of  the  next  higher  vertebrates,  the  Urodeles. 

Lacteal  Secretion."]" — Brouha  reviews  the  various  theories  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  lacteal  secretion.  He  has  studied  the  process  in  the 
mole,  the  bat,  and  the  cat,  and  finds  that  there  are  two  distinct  phases : 
(1)  a  brief  necrobiotic  process,  which  involves  the  partial  sacrifice  of  the 
body  of  the  cell ;  and  (2)  an  uninterrupted  merocrinal  process,  which  goes 
on  through  the  whole  secretory  cycle.  The  former  leads  to  the  expul- 
sion of  a  small  portion  of  cytoplasm  which  breaks  up,  liberating  its  fatty 
or  nuclear  contents.  The  purely  secretory  or  merocrinal  phase  leads 
slowly  to  the  distension  of  the  mammary  acinus  ;  the  epithelium  is 
reduced  to  a  delicate  limiting  membrane,  and  fatty  globules  are  con- 
tinuously secreted  into  the  alveolus,  which  is  eventually  evacuated. 

Human  Anal  Glands.} — J  W.  T.  Walker  has  investigated  in  the 
human  foetus,  the  coccyx  gland  which  is  known  in  all  individuals  from 
birth  to  the  end  of  life.  He  found  it  clearly  in  the  foetus.  The 
youngest  case  examined  was  in  the  sixth  lunar  month.  The  gland  con- 
sists essentially  of  specific  cells,  which  surround  twisted  and  much 
dilated  capillaries,  the  central  blood  spaces.  These  cells  are  grouped  in 
numerous  masses,  which  are  supported  and  held  together  by  connective 
tissue  ;  certain  masses  are  in  the  form  of  little  nodules  detached  from 
the  chief  part  of  the  gland.  Whilst  in  the  foetus  the  gland  appears 
only  as  a  cell  mass,  interpenetrated  by  twisted  capillaries  ;  post-fcetally 
the  connective  tissue  penetrates  this  mass,  dividing  it  up  into  numerous 
cell  groups,  and  certain  of  the  blood  spaces  disappear.  The  structure 
points  to  a  fitting  into  the  blood  circulation  ;  it  effects  a  local  slowing 
down  of  the  same,  thereby  bringing  the  blood  into  closer  connection 
with  the  gland-cells.  An  endothelial  layer  always  separates  the  blood 
from  the  gland-cells.  The  gland  has  no  duct,  and  an  internal  secretion 
may  be  regarded  as  its  most  important  function. 

Glands  of  Frog's  Skin.§ — J.  Arnold  makes  some  notes  on  the  struc- 
ture and  secretion  of  the  glands  of  the  frog's  skin.  He  has  not  been 
able  to  settle  the  question  as  to  whether  there  are  one  or  more  kinds 
present ;  mucus  and  granular  glands  have  been  regarded  as  modifications 
of  one  and  the  same  type.  At  any  rate  one  form  cannot  change  to  the 
other,  and  no  mixed  types  were  found  such  as  have  been  described  in 
Triton.  The  significant  point  of  the  results  is  the  observation  that  in 
the  granular  and  mucus  glands  the  formation  of  secretion  is  effected  by 
the  transformation  of  the  plasmosomes  of  the  cytoplasm  into  secretory 


granules. 


*  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  Bd.  64  (1904)  pp.  99-110  (1  pi.). 
f  Anat.  Anzeig..  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  464-7. 
%  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  Bd.  64  (1904)  pp.  121-57  (1  pi.). 
§  Op.  cit.,  Bd.  65  (1905)  pp.  649-65(1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  683 

Minute  Structure  of  Gas-Gland  in  the  Swim-Bladder.*  —  Karo- 
lina  Reis  and  J.  Nusbaum  give  an  account  of  the  gas-gland  in  Fierasfer, 
Ophidium,  Charax,  Macropodus,  and  other  Teleosteans.  In  its  best 
developed  portion,  nearest  the  vascular  organ  or  rete  mirabile,  the  gland 
shows  a  layer  of  cylindrical  epithelium  with  many  tubular  diverticula. 
These  branch,  and  their  blind  ends  often  fuse,  the  cylindrical  epithelium 
becoming  cubical  or  polygonal  at  the  areas  of  fusion.  At  other  places, 
where  less  developed,  the  epithelium  has  only  a  few  short  blind  diverti- 
cula. The  secretion  of  the  gas  seems  to  be  associated  with  a  breaking 
down  of  blood  corpuscles,  and  granular  debris  is  often  seen  in  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  gland.  The  gas  is  secreted  in  the  form  of  minute 
vesicles  in  the  plasma  of  the  glandular  cells  ;  these  coalesce,  and  doubt- 
less pass  into  the  lumen  of  the  swim-bladder.  The  authors  describe  in 
particular  the  trophospongia  of  the  cells,  for  the  gas-gland  is  a  very 
suitable  object  for  the  study  of  this  structure. 

Fat-Cells  in  Glandulae  vesiculares  of  Cattle.f — (*.  Illing  describes 
at  the  base  of  the  secreting  epithelium  of  the  glandulae  vesiculares  and 
their  duct,  sphere-  or  oval-shaped  bodies  about  17  fx.  in  diameter.  They 
form  part  of  the  glandular  epithelium,  and  occur  both  as  a  continuous 
and  an  interrupted  layer.  They  consist  of  fat  cells  of  a  peculiar  kind, 
distinguished  by  a  special  arrangement,  form,  and  size,  but  above  all  by 
their  place  of  occurrence,  from  the  usual  fat-cell. 

Structure  of  Seminal  Duct  in  Amphibia.^ — H.  Gerhartz  gives  an 
account  of  the  macroscopic  appearance  and  histology  of  the  seminal  duct 
and  vesicle  in  Rana  and  Triton  at  the  pairing  time  and  throughout  the 
cycle  of  changes  which  they  undergo.  The  involution  and  regeneration 
of  the  seminal  vesicle  goes  hand  in  hand  with  corresponding  stages  in 
the  testis  of  Ranafusca — i.e.  it  increases  in  size  when  the  formation  and 
maturation  of  sperms  begin,  whilst  after  emission  there  is  marked 
retrogression.  The  vesicle  possesses  a  glandular  character,  and  its 
secretion  is  to  be  found  throughout  the  whole  year  quite  independently 
of  the  increase  in  size  which  accompanies  the  development  of  the  testis. 
In  Triton  the  duct  also  is  probably  glandular. 

Structure  of  Wing-Feathers.§— E.  Mascha  has  made  a  detailed 
study  of  the  minute  structure  of  the  wing-feathers  of  the  pigeon  and 
other  birds.  Among  the  most  noteworthy  discoveries  made  are  the 
recognition  of  the  variability  in  the  size  and  structure  of  the  secondary 
fibres,  of  the  importance  of  their  ventral  ridge,  of  the  variation  of  the 
hook  fibres,  and  of  the  constancy  of  the  curved  fibres.  According  to 
the  nomenclature  used,  the  vanes  are  composed  of  secondary  quills  which 
rise  obliquely  from  the  upper  part  of  the  primary  quill,  and  of  the 
tertiary  fibres  (hook-fibres  and  curved  fibres)  rising  in  a  similar  manner 
from  the  secondaries.  The  author  has  much  to  say  regarding  the 
ventral  horn-ridge  of  the  secondary  quills,  the  complicated  structures  at 
the  origin  of  the  tertiary  fibres,  the  differences  between  hook-fibres  and 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  129-39  (2  pis.), 
t  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  Bd.  66  (1905)  pp.  121-7  (1  pi.). 
\  Op.  cit.,  Bd.  65  (1905)  pp.  666-98  (4  pis.). 
§  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll..  iii.  (1905)  pp.  1-30  (16  pis.). 


684  SUMMARY    OK   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

curved  fibres,  and  so  on.     It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  the  number  of 
hooks  on  each  hook-fibre  (2-8)  is  constant  in  the  same  species. 

0.  General. 

Antarctic  Fauna.* — R.  von  Lendenfeld  makes  some  comments  on 
the  animals  collected  by  the  '  Discovery,'  as  reported  by  T.  V.  Hodgson 
and  E.  A.  Wilson. f  The  abundance  of  sponges  (about  50  species)  was 
a  striking  feature.  An  Umbellula  was  found  near  the  ice-wall  at  a  depth 
of  914  metres.  Echinoderms  abounded  in  Ross's  Sea,  e.g.  Asterias 
brandtii,  Ophiosteira  antarctica,  Ophionotus  victoria.  A  Nereis  was  found 
symbiotic  with  an  Alcyonarian.  Purple-brown  and  sometimes  white 
Nemerteans  up  to  a  metre  in  length  and  2'5  cm.  in  breadth  were 
common.  Long  brownish  brittle  ribbons  were  often  found,  which  were 
first  referred  to  Nemerteans  and  then  to  a  Cephalopod.  [They  are  more 
probably  parts  of  a  large  Siphonophore.]  The  white  seals  and  the  pen- 
guins feed  abundantly  on  the  large  Euphausia  australis.  The  ten-legged 
Pentanymphon  antarcticum  is  noteworthy.  About  50  species  of  Molluscs 
were  obtained,  and  Cephalodiscus  was  abundant.  Many  fishes  were 
collected,  notably  species  of  Notothenia  and  Trematopus.  Von  Lenden- 
feld refers  to  the  principle  of  economy  in  organic  nature  in  connection 
with  the  suppression  of  colour  in  many  forms. 

Zoologischer  Jahresbericht.J — Paul  Mayer  continues  to  edit  the 
invaluable  Naples  Jahresbericht,  and  to  bring  it  out  in  good  time. 
Many  of  the  summaries  are  models  of  their  kind.  The  pagination  for 
each  class  is  independent. 

Fauna  of  Wells.§ — J.  E.  Lord  has  some  notes  on  the  fauna  and 
flora  of  English  wells  and  surface  troughs.  He  directs  attention  to 
various  species  of  Amoeba  and  to  other  Rhizopods  :  Englypha  alveolata, 
E.  ciliata,  Trinema  acinus,  Cyphoderia  ampulla,  and  Pamphagus  hyalinus. 
He  found  Sientor  roseus,  Euglena  deses,  Astasia,  and  other  Infusorians. 
Rotifers  were  represented  chiefly  by  a  few  Bdelloida,  which  are  usually 
moss-lovers.  He  notes  Rotifer  vulgaris,  Philodina  roseola,  P.  citrina, 
P.  megalotrocha,  Diaschiza  gracilis,  and  Diglena  forcipata.  The  wells 
also  contained  Anguillula,  Tubifex,  Canthocamptus,  Cypris,  and  insect 
larvae. 

Persistence  of  Trade  Impressions. || — R.  J.  Anderson  refers  to  the 
structural  features  induced  as  modifications  by  the  peculiar  exercises 
involved  in  certain  trades.  The  shoemaker  has  his  sternum  affected  by 
the  pressure  of  the  boot  and  last,  added  to  the  muscle  tension  used  in 
sewing.  "  The  skeletal  characters  do  not  end  when  the  race  ends,  not 
necessarily  at  least,  the  status  quo  is  not  immediately  restored,  and  a 
depressed  sternum  or  modified  sternum  may  be  present  in  all  the  mem- 
bers of  a  family  who  have  not  begun  to  practise  the  craft.  The  sebaceous 
glands  also  get  large,  with  large  patent  openings,  or  swell  with  accumu- 
lated products."     In  tailors  the  hair  is  apt  to  disappear  from  the  outer 

*  Biol.  Centralbl.,  xxv.  (1905)  pp.  574-80. 

t  Geogr.  Journ.,  xxv.  pp.  392-401.  J  Zool.  Jahrb.  1904  (Berlin,  1905). 

§  Trans.  Manchester  Micr.  Soc,  1905,  pp.  55-7. 

||  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  467-8. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  685 

surfaces  of  the  legs  :  in  descendants  who  do  not  follow  the  hereditary 
craft  the  characteristically  smooth  skin  surfaces  may  be  seen.  "The 
absence  of  hair  from  the  inner  side  of  the  leg  in  jockeys  is  not  difficult 
to  observe,  although  hard  to  trace  beyond  the  professional  family."  We 
hope  Professor  Anderson  will  publish  more  precise  data. 

Form  of  the  Trunk-Myotome.* — J.  W.  Langelaan  describes  the 
form  of  the  trunk-myotome  in  the  lamprey  and  the  dog-fish.  His 
method  is  based  on  the  dissection  of  the  intersegmental  tissue.  The 
trunk-myotome  of  Pelromyzon  fluviatilis  is  in  general  a  crescent,  with 
the  cornua  directed  towards  the  head  and  slightly  inclined  to  each  other. 
In  Acanthias  vulgaris  the  form  is  complicated.  It  is  differentiated  into 
three  parts  by  a  process  of  infolding,  the  lines  of  folding  being  parallel 
to  the  sagittal  axis  of  the  body. 

Curves  of  Growth.t  —  M.  Stefanowska  has  weighed  a  brood  of 
chickens  at  regular  intervals  and  has  followed  them  into  adult  life. 
The  curves  of  increase  in  weight  are  practically  the  same  for  the  two 
sexes,  but  irregularities  appeared  in  the  females  when  egg-laying  began. 
To  begin  with,  the  weight  increased  rapidly  with  age,  but  a  point  of 
inflection  appeared  when  the  cock  attained  77  p.c.  and  the  hen  93  p.c.  of 
the  maximum.  This  occurred  about  midway  in  the  period  required  to 
reach  the  maximum.  Thereafter  growth  in  weight  became  slow  and 
soon  became  stationary.  In  general  the  curves  correspond  to  those 
obtained  for  mice  and  guinea-pigs.  Mathematical  expressions  of  the 
results  are  given. 

Brain  Weight  in  Vertebrates. $ — Ales  Hrdlicka  submits  a  large 
series  of  data  showing  the  weight  of  the  brain  in  proportion  to  that  of 
the  body  in  a  series  of  mammals  and  birds. 

Biological  Theories. § — Alfonso  L.  Herrera  expounds  in  a  handy 
volume  his  personal  views  in  regard  to  the  fundamental  problems  of 
biology.  His  primary  proposition  is  that  all  the  material  phenomena 
of  organisms  are  interpretable  in  terms  of  known  physico-chemical  forces, 
and  he  devotes  a  considerable  part  of  the  book  to  interpretations  of 
protoplasmic  structure,  cell-division,  and  the  like,  in  terms  of  chemistry 
and  physics.  Apart  from  his  own  particular  views,  he  gives  terse  accounts 
of  the  various  important  contributions  to  biological  theories,  not  forget- 
ting Mendel,  and  coming  down  to  De  Vries.  One  of  the  features  of 
the  book  is  the  number  of  clear  synoptical  tables,  showing  the  phases 
of  opinion  on  many  subjects.  It  should  be  very  useful  to  Mexican 
students. 

Ridges  on  the  Sole  and  Palm  in  Primates. |j — Otto  Schlagin- 
hausen  has  made  an  elaborate  study  of  the  patterns  on  the  plantar 
surface  of  lemuroids,  monkeys,  and  man,  with  some  reference  also  to  the 
palm  surface.    He  discusses  the  origin  of  the  ridges  and  their  coalescence 

*  K.  Akad.  Wetensch.  Amsterdam,  Proc.  Section  of  Sciences,  vii.  (1904)  pp.  34-40 
(1  pi.  and  4  figs.).  t  Cmptes  Kendus.  cxli.  (1905)  pp.  269-71. 

%  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  89-112. 

§  Nociones  de  Biologia,  Mexico,  1904,  251  pp.,  84  figs. 

||  Morphol.  Jalirb.,  xxxiii.  (1905) pp.  577-671  (76  figs.);  xxxiv.  (1905)  pp.  1-125 
(194  figs.). 


686  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

into  complexes,  and  also  the  evolution  of  the  particular  patterns.  His 
data  are  utilised  in  relation  to  the  phytogeny  of  the  various  groups  of 
primates. 

Evolution  of  Mammals.* — Charles  Deperet  returns  to  his  point,  in 
answer  to  Boule's  critique  that  the  alleged  pedigrees  of  Ursidse  and 
Equidas  lack  reality.  He  was  himself  led  astray  by  regarding  similar 
functional  adaptations  as  proofs  of  filiation,  but  he  has  rid  himself  of 
this  fallacy.  "  Palseontological  evolution  has  to  become  the  history  of 
what  did  really  occur  in  the  past,  and  not  of  what  might  have  occurred." 
The  difficulty  is  to  achieve  this  desirable  end. 

Skull  of  Echidna  and  Reptiles.f — E.  Gaupp  has  made  a  study  of  the 
development  of  this  skull.  The  following  amongst  other  interesting  facts 
appear  to  be  made  out.  The  pterygoids  of  Echidna  show  very  marked 
agreements  with  those  of  reptiles  ;  there  are  special  similarities  to  the 
posterior  sections  of  turtle  pterygoids.  The  view  that  these  bones  are 
homologous  receives  support,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  similarity 
which  the  turtle  pterygoid  shows  with  the  so-called  mammalian  ptery- 
goid cannot  be  taken  as  evidence  of  a  like  homology.  The  mammalian 
pterygoid  is  referable  to  the  parasphenoid  of  the  lower  vertebrates,  and 
retains  in  its  place  at  the  base  of  the  skull  a  very  ancient  characteristic. 
The  turtle  pterygoid  has  reachedthe same  position  by  extension  from  the 
side  in  a  quite  secondary  manner.  The  parasphenoid  as  a  rule  blends 
early  with  the  basi-sphenoid  ;  a  like  tendency  to  fusion  with  the 
sphenoidal  elements  can  be  recognised  in  the  parasphenoid  lamellae  of 
many  mammals. 

New  Squirrel  from  Burma. J — Oldfield  Thomas  describes  Sciurus 
haringtoni,  sp.  n.,  from  the  Upper  Chindwin  River,  a  very  peculiar 
squirrel  of  a  pale  creamy-buff  colour  with  whitish  tail  and  without  the 
small  upper  premolar  present  in  all  other  known  oriental  squirrels. 

Notes  on  Skull  of  a  Lion.§ — 0.  Charnock  Bradley  describes  several 
peculiarities  in  the  skull  of  a  young  lion,  the  significance  of  which  is 
discussed.  The  skull  in  question  possessed  an  ossicle,  roughly  triangular 
in  shape,  situated  between  the  lachrymal,  frontal,  and  maxillary  bones. 
Such  an  "  ossiculum  maxillo-frontale,"  it  appears  from  the  cases  cited,  is 
of  widespread  occurrence  amongst  mammals.  Other  features  of  this 
skull  are  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  asymmetrical  accessory  nasal  bones  ; 
and  on  the  right  side,  a  sutural  bone  between  the  intermaxillary  and 
superior  maxillary  bones  on  the  margin  of  the  alveolus  for  the  canine 
tooth.  The  author  thinks  the  presence  of  this  bone  is  to  be  associated 
with  the  large  size  of  the  canine  tooth. 


i&* 


Innervation  and  Development  of  Tactile  Feathers. || — Ernst  Kuster 
finds  that  the  main  innervation  of  tactile  feathers,  or  vibrissas,  is  by 
touch-corpuscles  ;  the  nerve  entering  the  papilla  has  only  a  vasomotor 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  cxli.  (1905)  pp.  22-3. 

t  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.,(1905)  pp.  273-310. 

X  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  No.  93  (1905)  pp.  314-15. 

§  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  317-23. 

||  Morphol.  Jahrb.,  xxxiv.  (1905)  pp.  126-48  (4  pis.) 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  687 

significance.  The  tactile  feathers  occur  as  primordia  on  the  embryo  ; 
there  is  no  increase  after  hatching.  They  correspond  to  the  sinus-hairs 
in  mammals,  and  might  well  be  called  sinus-feathers.  They  are  most 
developed  in  nocturnal  birds,  and  their  primordia  degenerate  where  there 
is  no  use  for  them.  Those  at  the  root  of  the  bill  are  helped  by  those 
round  the  eyes. 

Hermaphroditism  in  Testudo  grseca.* — H.  B.  Fantham  has  found 
in  an  examination  of  about  a  dozen  male  tortoises  that  two  of  the 
specimens  possessed  abnormal  genitalia.  One,  in  addition  to  the  normal 
male  organs,  epididymes,  vasa  deferentia,  and  penis,  possessed  well- 
developed  gonads,  one  of  which  was  an  "  ovotestis,"  and  well-developed 
oviducts.  The  other  specimen,  an  undoubted  male,  possessed  rudi- 
mentary Miillerian  ducts  opening  into  the  ccelome.  The  anatomy  and 
histology  of  these  organs  are  described. 

Effect  of  Ovarian  Extract  of  Frog.f — G.  Loisel  subjected  guinea- 
pigs  to  subcutaneous  injections  of  extract  of  frog's  ovary,  and  found  that 
in  course  of  time  sterility  and  baldness  followed.  The  young  were  fewer 
in  number  at  each  successive  birth,  until  there  were  only  two  instead  of 
six  or  seven,  while  the  number  of  occurrences  of  pregnancy  was  re- 
duced to  less  than  half  the  normal.  Similar  results  have  been  observed 
to  follow  in  mammalia  after  the  injection  of  oil  of  phosphorus.  The 
possibility  that  the  baldness  may  be  due  to  a  parasitic  malady  of  the 
skin  is  not  excluded. 

Caudal  Hearts  and  Sinuses  in  Teleosts.f — G-.  Favaro  distinguishes 
three  different  things  :  (1)  the  sinus  lymphaticus  caudalis  ;  (2)  the  cor 
(lymphaticum)  caudale  ;  and  (3)  the  sinus  venosus  caudalis.  These  may 
be  combined,  e.g.  in  tench  and  trout,  or  there  may  be  no  lymphatic  sinus 
(Belone),  or  no  sinus  at  all  (Anguilla),  or  no  caudal  heart  (Cyprinodon), 
or  no  sinuses  and  no  heart  (Soled),  or  no  sinuses,  no  heart,  and  no 
caudal  vein  (Lophius). 

Habits  of  West  Indian  Whitebait.§ — Austin  H.  Clark  makes  some 
interesting  notes  on  the  "tri-tri"  (Sicydium  plumieri),  which  inhabit 
mountain  streams  in  the  West  Indies,  and  migrate  in  the  dry  season  to 
the  sea,  where  they  lay  their  eggs  and  apparently  die.  The  young  fry 
ascend  in  a  continuous  line  like  young  eels.  When  stranded  they  show 
remarkable  tenacity  of  life,  and  may  live  for  several  hours  exposed  to 
the  full  rays  of  the  sun. 

Ceylonese  Fishes.||  —  Jas.  Johnstone  reports  on  117  species  (73 
genera)  of  fishes  collected  by  W.  A.  Herdman  around  Ceylon.  One 
species,  Salarias  furcatus,  is  now  described  for  the  first  time.  A  series 
of  stages,  and  the  adult  female  of  Psettylis  ocellaia  Alcock,  were  obtained, 
also  Solea  oculns  Alcock,  of  which  only  two  specimens  have  hitherto 
been  obtained. 

*  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  No.  92(1905)  pp.  120-6  (1  pi.). 
t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxl.,  No.  11  (1905)  pp.  738-41. 
j  Anat.  Anzeig.,xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  379-80. 
§  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  335-7. 

||  Ceylon  Pearl  Oyster  Report,  Royal  Society,  Part  ii.  (1904)  pp.  201-22  (2  pis. 
and  2  figs.). 


688  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Notes  on  Myxine.* — F.  J.Cole  notes  a  number  of  interesting  points 
in  the  anatomy  of  Myxine.  There  are  two  hepatic  ducts  opening  directly 
into  the  large  gall-bladder.  The  bile  duct  itself  opens  between  these 
two  apertures.  The  gall-bladder  of  Myxine,  therefore,  has  three  openings. 
In  the  kidney  there  is  generally  no  unbroken  connection  between  the 
so-called  pro-  and  mesonephros  of  Myxine,  although  isolated  Malpighian 
bodies  occur  in  the  intermediate  region.  In  one  specimen  the  segmental 
duct  was  continued  forward  as  a  tube  in  the  pronephros.  An  interesting 
fact  regarding  the  sexual  organs  is  that  there  is  no  protandric  herma- 
phroditism ;  every  adult  is  hermaphrodite,  but  either  predominantly 
male  or  female.  That  is,  there  is  either  a  mature  testis  and  a  rudi- 
mentary ovary,  or  a  mature  ovary  and  a  rudimentary  testis.  The 
thyroid  is  a  diffuse  organ  consisting  of  a  number  of  closed  independent 
alveoli  scattered  along  the  whole  course  of  the  ventral  aorta.  The  author 
has  traced  a  connection,  by  means  of  fine  channels  lined  by  epithelium, 
between  the  posterior  surface  of  each  afferent  branchial  artery  and  the 
peribronchial  sinuses,  which  suggests  the  likelihood  of  other  connections 
between  the  bloodvessels  and  the  so-called  lymphatic  spaces  in  other 
parts  of  the  body.  Several  variations  in  the  gills  and  their  vessels  are 
recorded. 

Tunicata. 

Fertilisation  in  Solitary  Ascidians.f — S.  Guthers  has  studied  the 
question  of  self-  and  cross-fertilisation  in  Phallusia  mammillata  and 
Ciona  intestinalis.  The  number  of  cases  dealt  with  was  not  very  great, 
but  nevertheless  the  results  were  very  consistent.  In  the  case  of  Phallusia 
all  or  nearly  all  the  self-fertilised  eggs  developed  ;  in  Ciona,  none  or 
only  a  trifling  percentage  did  so.  In  both  animals  all  or  nearly  all  the 
cross-fertilised  eggs  yielded  larvae.  Phallusia  occurs  almost  always 
singly,  while  Ciona  is  found  in  groups,  whose  members  are  united  at 
the  base  by  the  adherent  growth  of  the  tests.  The  opportunities  for 
cross-fertilisation  in  the  former  are  thus  much  fewer  than  in  the  latter 
animal. 

INVERTEBRATA. 

Mollusca. 

<*•  Cephalopoda. 

Muscles  of  the  Mantle  in  Cephalopods.| — F.  Marceau  has  studied 
the  structure  and  the  mode  of  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  mantle 
in  Octopus,  Sepia,  and  Loligo.  The  fibres  of  the  mantle  have  the  form 
of  elongated  spindles,  with  a  contractile  sheath  of  fibrillar  lamellas 
coiled  in  a  spiral  around  the  granular  nucleated  axial  column  of  proto- 
plasm. Owing  to  the  helicoid  structure,  and  perhaps  to  a  slight  hetero- 
geneity in  the  fibrils,  the  mantle-muscles  contract  almost  like  ordinary 
striped  muscle. 

Ceylonese  Cephalopods.§  —  W.  E.  Hoyle  reports  on  the  Cephalo- 
pods  collected  by  W.  A.  Herdman  off  Ceylon.    The  greatest  novelty  is  a 

*  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  323-6. 

+  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  B<t  64  (1904)  pp.  111-20. 

t  Comptes  Rendus,  cxli.  (1905)  pp.  279-80. 

§  Ceylon  Pearl  Oyster  Report,  Royal  Society,  Part  ii.  (1904)  pp.  185-200  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  689 

small  Octopus,  with  branched  processes  scattered  over  the  body,  which  the 
author  names  Polypus  arborescens  sp.  n.  A  very  striking  peculiarity 
is  the  preponderance  of  Octopods  as  compared  with  Decapods.  The  pecu- 
liar, possibly  protective,  papilla  on  Polypus  arborescens  are  described  at 
length,  but  their  nature  remains  somewhat  enigmatical. 

£•  Gastropoda. 

Senility  in  Gastropods.* — Burnett  Smith  makes  a  suggestive  con- 
tribution on  this  subject.  In  the  last  whorl,  or  in  the  last  few  whorls 
of  many  Gastropods  of  different  groups,  there  are  characters  of  senility. 
They  are  the  last  characters  which  occur  on  the  shell,  and  foreshadow 
the  death  of  the  individual.  "  Senile  species  or  genera  of  fossil  Gastro- 
pods never  transmit  descendants  to  later  geologic  formations,  but 
represent  the  end  members  of  short  branches  on  the  phylogenetic  tree." 
The  rate  of  evolution  varies  greatly.  "  The  forms  in  which  the  evolu- 
tional rate  is  rapid  are  bizarre  senile  offshoots."  An  accident  to  an  in- 
dividual may  bring  about  a  sudden  appearance  of  senile  characters,  which 
are  sometimes  "extra-specific" — i.e.  found  in  some  senile  offshoot  from 
the  same  stock.  Unequal  acceleration  of  characters  seems  to  be  a 
common  phenomenon,  and  features  which  occurred  at  the  same  time 
in  an  ancestor  are  apt  to  be  widely  separated  in  the  ontogeny  of  a 
descendant. 

Habits  of  Tortoise-Shell  Limpet,  f — M.  A.  Willcox  describes  the 
life  and  habits  of  Acmc&a  testudinalis.  The  size  seems  to  be  correlated 
not  necessarily  with  a  low,  but  with  an  equable  temperature.  In  autumn 
they  seem  to  retire  a  little  below  tide-mark.  The  fastest  crawling 
observed  was  about  three  inches  per  minute.  There  is  presumptive  but 
inconclusive  evidence  as  to  a  homing  habit.  The  food  is  exclusively 
vegetable.  In  certain  circumstances  atmospheric  air  may  be  respired. 
Evidence  of  the  perception  of  light  and  darkness,  of  a  temperature  sense, 
and  of  great  tactility,  is  adduced.  The  tentacles,  the  gills,  and  the  whole 
body  surface  are  tactile.  The  ovary,  when  ripe,  has  a  crushed-strawberry 
colour,  and  the  testis  is  golden  brown  ;  otherwise  the  sexes  are  alike. 
The  eggs  are  imbedded  in  a  layer  of  mucus.  There  is  some  inconclusive 
evidence  that  fertilisation  is  internal.  The  only  enemy  discovered  was 
the  dog-whelk,  Purpura  lapillus,  which  sometimes  bores  the  shell. 

Breeding  Habits  of  Chitons.!  —  H.  Heath  gives  some  notes  on 
these  from  the  Californian  coast.  In  Ischnochiton  mertensii,  I.  cooperi, 
Mopalia  mucosa,  and  Katharina  tunicata,  egg-laying  does  not  take  place 
until  the  sperms  have  diffused  into  the  neighbourhood  of  the  females. 
Trachydermon  raymondi  carries  its  eggs  (to  the  number  of  about  200)  in 
the  mantle  cavity  on  each  side  of  the  foot  until  they  reach  an  advanced 
trochophore  stage.  While  the  gills  are  thus  covered  and  respiration 
impeded,  the  proboscis  is  highly  distended  with  blood,  and  the  lateral 
protuberances  ("  Laterallappen  ")  become  much  enlarged,  and  both  may 
temporarily  assume  increased  powers  of  respiration.     When  the  young 

*  Proc.  Acad.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  11)05,  pp.  345-61  (2  pis.). 
t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  325-33. 
%  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  390-3. 

Dec.  20th,  1905  3  A 


690  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

of  T.  raymondi  and  Nuttallina  thomasi  are  kept  in  favourable  conditions 
as  regards  abundance  of  nourishment,  they  attain  sexual  maturity  within 
one  year. 

Land  and  Fresh-water  Shells  of  the  Bahamas.*  —  W.  H.  Dall 
describes  a  collection  of  these  shells,  amongst  which  are  several  new 
forms.  In  a  general  way  each  group  of  islets,  or  each  island  inhabited 
by  land  shells  has  its  characteristic  forms  of  pulmonate  molluscs.  Some 
few  forms  are  widely  distributed,  but  others,  especially  Cepolis  and  Cerion, 
are  for  the  most  part  very  local,  with  a  few  widely  distributed  species. 

y.  Scaphopoda. 

Structure  of  Dentalium.f — Arcangelo  Distaso  communicates  notes 
on  the  minute  structure  of  the  foot,  the  respiratory  organs,  the  osphra- 
dium,  the  reno-pericardial  opening,  the  heart,  and  the  hypobranchial 
gland  of  this  interesting  type. 

Anatomy  and  Histology  of  Dentalium.J — Maria  Boissevain  gives 
some  details  on  this  subject,  several  of  which  are  here  enumerated.  The 
foot  is  covered  with  a  ciliated  epithelium,  and  upon  it  unicellular  glands 
are  present.  On  the  edge  of  the  mantle  are  pigment-spots,  and  on  the 
inner  side  of  its  anterior  border  there  is  a  zone  of  sensory  epithelium. 
The  gut  musculature  consists  of  a  thin  layer  of  circular  fibres.  There  is 
a  taste  sac  in  the  subradular  organ.  The  communication  between  the 
sex  glands  and  the  kidney  must  arise  anew  at  every  sexual  period.  In 
the  region  where  the  communication  is  made,  there  lie  peculiar  groups 
of  cells,  about  the  nature  of  which  nothing  is  known. 

8.  Lamellibrauchiata. 

Growth  of  Oysters.§ — 0.  C.  Glaser  has  made  experiments  to  ascer- 
tain (1)  whether  normal  oysters  can  be  converted  into  elongated  ones  by 
pressure  ;  (2)  whether  elongated  oysters  liberated  from  an  oppressive 
environment  will  change  in  shape  ;  and  (3)  whether  the  recuperative 
powers  of  elongated  oysters  varies  with  their  age. 

His  answers,  briefly  stated,  are  the  following  : — The  elongated  con- 
ditions often  exhibited  by  young  oysters  is  due  to  crowding.  But  old 
oysters  normally  become  "  razor-blades."  The  crowded  young  forms 
may  be  said  to  be  in  a  state  of  premature  old  age.  When  removed  from 
crowded  conditions,  their  growth  in  width  is  rapid  for  a  considerable 
time.  The  recuperative  power  varies  with  age.  Young  individuals 
recover  much  more  rapidly  than  old  forms,  though  these,  too,  improve  to 
a  marked  degree. 

Derivation  of  North  American  Unionida3.|| — C.  A.  White  discusses 
the  origin  and  distribution  of  fresh-water  mussels  in  North  America.  In 
particular  he  brings  forward  evidence  to  show  that  the  well-known  types 

*  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  xlvii.  (1905)  pp.  433-52  (2  pis.). 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  271-8  (6  figs.). 

X  Jena  Zeitschr.,  xxxviii.  (1904)  pp.  553-72  (3  pis.). 

§  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circ,  No.  3  (1905)  pp.  226-40  (1  pi.). 

||  Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  75-88  (6  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  691 

of  North  American  Uniones  in  the  fauna  of  the  Mississippi  river  have 
descended  genetically  from  North  American  fossil  forms. 

Cytology  and  Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in  Eggs  of  Mactra.  * — 
K.  Kostanecki  has  carried  out  experiments  with  various  alkaline  salts, 
and  with  different  degrees  of  concentration  of  sea- water,  and  has  been 
successful  in  initiating  development.  His  observations  included  a  study 
of  sections  of  the  developmental  stages  induced  as  well  as  the  living 
material.  Those  eggs  which  were  treated  with  a  solution  of  potassium 
chloride  approached  most  nearly  in  their  development  to  the  behaviour  of 
fertilised  eggs.  The  author  considers  that  by  a  suitable  arrangement  of 
the  conditions,  such  as  concentration,  length  of  time  in  the  fluid,  and  so 
on,  a  reproduction  of  the  normal  results  might  be  achieved.  The 
experiments  indicate  the  lines  along i which  future  inquiries  should  be 
directed. 

Adductor  Muscles  of  Mactra  and  Pecten.f— F.  Marceau  has  studied 
the  mechanical  work  done  by  these  muscles.  They  only  do  their  maxi- 
mum in  a  given  time  when  they  have  to  overcome  an  external  resistance 
(the  water)  in  addition  to  their  action  on  the  ligament.  The  vitreous, 
more  or  less  rapidly  contracting  portion  of  the  muscle,  closes  the  shell ; 
the  nacreous,  more  or  less  slowly  contracting  portion,  keeps  the  valves 
closed. 

Structure  of  the  Pearl  Oyster.} — W.  A.  Herdman  gives  a  full 
description  of  the  structure  of  the  Ceylon  pearl  oyster,  Margaritifera 
vulgaris  Schum,  with  notes  on  the  habits  and  functions  of  the  living 
animal. 

Arthropoda. 
a.  Insecta. 

Poison  in  Bees'  Eggs.§ — C.  Phisalix  has  shown  that  in  the  toad 
and  the  viper  the  specific  poisons  accumulate  in  the  ova,  and  has 
suggested  that  they  play  an  important  part  in  the  phenomena  of  de- 
velopment and  inheritance.  He  now  shows  that  in  bees  the  ova  contain 
small  quantities  of  poison.  It  required  475  eggs  to  furnish  enough  to 
poison  a  sparrow.  Phisalix  tackles  the  difficulty  that  the  unfertilised 
poison-containing  egg  gives  rise  to  a  drone  without  poison.  To  allow 
of  the  development  of  a  poisonous  female  the  poison  "  determinants  " 
in  the  ovum  require  to  be  supplemented  by  something  furnished  by  the 
spermatozoon  or  by  the  accessory  male  glands. 

Habits  of  Gerydus  chinensis.|| — J.  Kershaw  gives  interesting  notes  re- 
garding some  of  the  habits  of  this  butterfly.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs 
upon  the  branches  of  the  bur-marigold,  Biclens  piJosa.  These  branches 
are  covered  with  aphides  and  ants,  which  she  thrusts  aside  with  a  brush- 
ing movement  of  her  tail,  immediately  laying  a  single  egg.  The  ants  do 
not  appear  to  meddle  either  with  the  butterflies  or  the  eggs.    The  larva3 

*  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  Bd.  64  (1904)  pp.  1-98  (5  pis.). 

t  Comptes  Kendus,  cxli.  (1905)  p.  27S. 

j  Ceylon  Pearl  Oyster  Report,  Royal  Society,  Part  ii.  (1904)  pp.  37-76  (9  pis.). 

§  Comptes  Rendus,  cxli.  (1905)  pp.  275-8. 

||  Trans.  Entomol.  Soc.  Lond.  (1905)  pp.  1-4  (1  pi.). 

3   A  2 


692  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

feed  on  the  aphides,  disposing  of  them  rapidly,  then  licking  and  cleaning 
their  appendages  just  as  a  mantis  does.  They  pick  and  choose  amongst 
them,  moving  their  heads  op  and  down  over  the  backs  of  the  insects, 
evidently  smelling  them.  When  not  feeding,  the  larvae  rest  amongst 
the  aphides  or  crawl  leisurely  about,  between  or  over  them,  and  the 
aphides  do  likewise,  the  larvae  being  sometimes  covered  with  them.  The 
eggs  of  the  butterfly,  too,  are  often  hidden  under  a  mass  of  aphides. 

Butterfly  Destroyers  in  Southern  China.* — J.  Kershaw  reviews  the 
factors  in  the  elimination  of  butterflies  by  other  animals  as  he  has 
observed  them  in  Southern  China.  The  list  of  foes  includes  spiders, 
flies,  ants,  bugs,  centipedes,  lizards,  and  birds.  His  notes  suggest  that 
butterflies  which  have  escaped  the  sundry  and  manifold  dangers  of  the 
egg,  larva  and  pupa  stages,  have  collectively  comparatively  little  to  fear 
in  the  perfect  state. 

Notes  of  Butterflies  from  India  and  Ceylon. f — G-.  B.  Longstaff 
gives  an  extremely  interesting  account  of  a  collection  of  butterflies 
made  by  himself  during  a  six  months'  journey  in  India  and  Ceylon. 
During  this  time  he  took  nearly  1700  specimens,  of  which  1500  were 
butterflies  belonging  to  204  species.  To  these  are  to  be  added  from 
China,  Japan,  and  Canada,  500  more  specimens  and  64  additional 
species  of  butterflies,  to  which  incidental  allusion  is  made  in  the  paper. 
AH  of  these  which  are  worth  preserving  will  be  placed  in  the  Hope 
Collection  at  Oxford.  The  notes  include  (1)  references  to  locality ; 
(2)  altitude  ;  (3)  habitat ;  (4)  habits,  such  as  the  sideways  attitude  or 
"  list "  when  at  rest,  of  several  species  ;  (5)  injuries  by  enemies ;  (6) 
scents  ;  (7)  seasonal  forms.     The  paper  is  rich  in  bionomic  data. 

Male  Genital  Apparatus  in  Bubalidas.J — Enoch  Zander  has  made 
a  precise  analysis  of  the  male  genital  apparatus  in  this  family  of  Micro- 
lepidoptera,  describing  the  differences  in  various  species,  and  correcting 
the  erroneous  interpretations  given  by  Hofmann  and  by  Stitz. 

Notes  on  Coleoptera.§  — D.  Sharp  has  revised  the  genus  Crioce- 
phalus  with  the  following  results.  C.  syriacus  Reitt  is  made  a  separate 
genus,  Gephalocrius  ;  a  second  new  genus,  Gephalallus,  is  established, 
which  is  closely  allied  to  both  Megasemum  and  Crioceplialus.  The  four 
genera  in  question  form  a  natural  group  to  be  called  Criocephaliuse. 
These  should  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sub-family  Cerambycides, 
as  being  one  of  the  most  primitive  forms  of  Longicorn  Coleoptera.  It 
differs  but  little  from  Coleoptera  of  other  families  ;  it  lacks  all  the 
specialisations  that  are  so  remarkable  in  other  divisions  of  Longicorns. 
while  but  little  changes  would  suffice  to  make  it  a  member  of  other 
divisions,  either  of  Cerambycides  or  of  Prionides. 

To  this  paper  is  added  an  interesting  note  on  the  habits  of  Asemum 
striatum  and  Crioceplialus  ferus  by  F.  G-.  Smith.  These  burrow  in  the 
stems  of  Pinus  sylvestris,  the  former  in  dead  or  enfeebled  wood,  and  the 
latter  in  large  trees  that  are  standing  and  growing. 

;  Trans.  Entomol.  Soc.  Lond.,  1905,  pp.  5-8.  +  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  01-144. 

J  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxix.  (1905)  pp.  308-23  (13  figs.). 
§  Trans.  Entomol.  Soc.  Lond.,  1905.  pp.  145-76  (1  plj. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  693 

Cockchafer-years.*— J.  E.  V.  Boas  points  out  that  in  Denmark  the 
cockchafer  (Mdolontha  vulgaris)  lives  for  four  years,  and  of  the  four 
different  stocks,  which  thus  live  in  Denmark,  the  one  appearing  as  imago 
the  year  before  leap-year  (1887,  1891,  etc.)  has  been  for  many  years  the 
most  numerous.  The  numbers  have  been  so  apalling  that  "  great  cock- 
chafer years"  are  remembered  as  disastrous.  Since  1887  there  has 
been  diligent  collecting,  and  the  author  gives  full  statistics  showing  how 
the  numbers  have  waned  in  a  remarkable  way.  There  are  no  longer 
"great  cockchafer  years."  As  in  other  cases  there  has  been  a  pro- 
gressive dwindling,  the  cessation  of  the  plague  being  probably  due  to  a 
bacterial  disease.  It  is  to  be  feared,  however,  that  there  will  be  a  return 
after  a  series  of  years  has  elapsed.  The  author's  report  is  interesting 
biologically  as  well  a3  economically. 

Variations  in  Hydrophilus  piceus.f — Umberto  Perazzo  has  made 
a  careful  study  of  the  variations  in  this  water-beetle,  and  gives  a  long 
series  of  measurements,  without,  however,  as  yet  drawing  any  conclusion. 

Diptera,  etc.,  of  Uganda.^ — E.  E.  Austen  gives  a  provisional  list  of 
the  Diptera  and  other  orders  of  insects,  besides  two  species  of  ticks, 
Amblyomma  sp.  and  Ornithodoros  moubata  Murray,  forwarded  by  Lieut.- 
Col.  Bruce  from  Uganda. 

May  Flies  and  Midges  of  New  York.§— J.  G.  Needham  gives  an 
account  of  the  Ephemerida?,  K.  J.  Morton  of  the  Hydroptilidas,  and 
V.  A.  Johannsen  of  the  aquatic  nematocerous  Diptera — the  whole  form- 
ing the  third  report  on  aquatic  insects  published  by  the  New  York  State 
Museum,  a  valuable  and  finely  illustrated  piece  of  systematic  descriptive 
work. 

New  Chironomid.|| — B.  Grassi  describes  Mycterotypus  bezzii  g.et  sp.n., 
a  new  Indian  Chironomid.  The  new  genus  replaces  Centrotypus  Grassi, 
and  is  included  in  Skuse's  sub-family  Ceratopogonina. 

Structure  and  Life-History  of  Psychoda  sexpunctata.lf  —J.  A.  Dell 
gives  a  careful  account  of  this  fly,  one  of  the  Nemocera,  which  abounds 
on  the  coke-heaps  at  Leeds  Sewage  Works.  He  describes  the  nervous, 
alimentary,  and  respiratory  systems  of  the  larva,  the  features  of  the 
pupa,  and  the  general  characters  of  the  adult.  We  select  the  paragraph 
which  describes  the  sexual  union  : — "  In  copulation  the  male  runs  along- 
side the  female,  stroking  her  with  his  antenna?,  while  the  wings,  antenna?, 
and  halteres  are  thrown  into  spasmodic  vibration.  The  large  forceps  is 
then  extended  directly  backwards,  and  the  abdomen  of  the  male  bent 
round  so  that  the  hinder  ends  of  the  two  bodies  are  brought  into 
apposition.  The  forceps  then  close  upon  the  body  of  the  female,  unless 
they  miss,  which  not  infrequently  happens,  as  the  male  fly  is  unable  to 
see  what  he  is  doing.     In  such  a  case  the  whole  manoeuvre  is  repeated. 

*  Oldenborremes  optrseden  og  udbredelse  i  Danmark.  1 887-1903.  Large  Ito, 
Copenhagen,  1901,  24  pp.,  5  large  maps. 

t  Atti  R.  Acad.  Sci.  Torino,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  1089-1106. 

X  Royal  Society's  Reports,  Sleeping  Sickness  Commission,  No.  5.  July  1905, 
pp.  3-7.  §  Bull.  80,  New  York  State  Museum,  1905,  pp.  1-331  (37  pis.). 

||  Atti  (Rend.)  R.  Accad.  Lincei.  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  114-21)  (4  figs.). 

*!   Trans.  Entomol.  Soc.  London.  1905,  pp.  293-31 1  (14  figs.)- 


694  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

The  males  are  apparently  unable  to  distinguish  which  of  their  com- 
panions are  females,  as  they  very  frequently  attempt  to  copulate  with 
one  another.  They  have  often  been  seen  to  die  while  still  attached  to 
the  female." 

Congo  Floor-Maggot.* — J.  Everett  Dutton,  J.  L.  Todd,  and  Cuth- 
bert  Christy  report  on  a  blood-sucking  Dipterous  larva  found  in  the 
Congo  Free' State.  It  lives  in  the  huts  of  the  natives,  burrowing  by  day 
in  the  floor,  and  coming  out  at  night,  like  a  bed-bug,  to  suck  blood.  A 
large  brown  fij—Auchmeromyia  luteola  F. — often  found  in  the  huts,  is, 
perhaps,  the  imago  of  the  larva  reported  on. 

Culicidas  of  Cameroon  and  Togo.f — K.  Griinberg,  in  view  of  the 
great  importance  of  the  Diptera  in  relation  to  disease  in  tropical  Africa, 
gives  an  account  of  the  distribution  of  various  Culicida?  from  Cameroon 
and  Togo.  The  list  is  made  up  from  material  in  the  Berlin  Museum, 
and  consists  of  twenty-one  species,  which,  though  not  exhausting  the 
fauna,  is  probably  representative. 

Fleas  and  Disease.^ — C.  F.  Baker  has  shown  that  the  fleas  of  rats 
in  the  warmer  regions  of  the  earth  are  close  relatives  of  the  flea  specific 
to  human  beings,  and  thus  far  more  likely  to  bite  human  beings  than 
are  the  fleas  in  the  colder  regions,  which  are  only  distantly  related  to 
Pulex  irritans.  It  is  now  necessary  to  know  if  any  of  these  southern 
rat-fleas — of  which  there  are  a  number  of  species — voluntarily  bite 
human  beings.  The  author  refers  to  the  supposed  relation  of  fleas  to 
bubonic  plague,  and  the  news  that  Carrasquilo,  of  Bogota,  has  found  the 
bacillus  of  Hansen  in  the  intestinal  canal  of  fleas. 

Ovary  of  Termites.§  —  G.  Brunelli  describes  the  ovary  and  the 
oogenesis  in  Termes  lucifugus.  The  growth  of  the  oocyte  is  peculiar 
when  compared  with  that  in  other  insects  ;  it  resembles  in  part  what 
has  been  described  in  Molgula  among  Tunicates.  The  ovary  is  panoistic 
without  nutritive  cells,  and  this  implies  that  there  is  a  vitellogenous 
formation  on  the  part  of  the  oocyte  itself. 

Notes  on  Larva  of  a  Coreid  Bug.|| — N.  Annandale  describes  the  egg 
and  early  larval  stages  of  a  bug,  probably  Dalader  acutkosta  Amyot  et 
Serv.  An  interesting  note  upon  a  Hymenopterous  parasite  of  the 
family  Chalcididas,  found  within  the  egg-cases  of  this  bug,  is  given. 
No  apertures,  save  the  extremely  minute  micropyles,  were  observable, 
and  consequently  it  is  to  be  concluded  that  the  eggs  of  the  parasite 
are  of  extremely  small  size. 

Peculiar  Organ  in  Phryganids.lf — F.Ris  calls  attention  to  a  very 
peculiar  and  enigmatical  structure  on  the  last  abdominal  segment  of  the 
males  of  Oecetis  notata  and  0.  testacea,  which  was  also  observed  by 
MacLachlan.     It  is  an  exclusively  cuticular  structure,  with  honey comb- 

*  Liverpool  School  Trop.  Med.  Memoir  xiii.,  1904.  pp.  49-56  (1  pi.).  See  Biol. 
Central  bl.,  xxv.  (1905)  pp.  431  2. 

t  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  377-90. 

X  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  507-8.  See  also  Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Museum,  xxvii. 
(1904).  §  Atti  (Rend.)  R.  Acca.l.  Lincei,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  121-6  (2  figs.). 

||  Trans.  Entomol.  Soc.  London,  1905,  pp.  55-9  (1  pi.). 

%  Viert.  Nat.  Ges.  Zurich,  xlix.  (1905)  pp.  370-4  (1  pi.  and  2  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  695 

like  hexagonal  alveoli  open  to  the  surface.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  it  is  an  odoriferous  or  luminiferous  organ,  and  it  is  certainly  not 
stridulatory. 

Habits  of  Striped  Meadow-Cricket.* — Joseph  L.  Hancock  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  the  habits  of  Oecanthus  fasciatus  Fitch.  The 
protective  resemblance  is  exquisite.  The  shrill  notes  are  not  unlike  a 
sparrow's  heard  at  a  distance,  or  the  croaking  of  a  frog.  In  courtship 
the  male  uses  his  modified  tegmina  as  an  alluring  instrument,  and  an 
alluring  gland  in  the  centre  of  the  metanotum  of  the  thorax,  from  which 
the  female  obtains  a  much  appreciated  "  plasmatic  drink."  The  structure 
of  this  "  loving  cup  "  is  described.  There  is  also  a  singular  eversible 
sacculated  structure  on  the  dorsum  of  the  abdomen  between  the  third 
and  fourth  tergites.  possibly  "  repugnatorial."  The  oviposition  is  care- 
fully described. 

Notes  on  Arboreal  Insects.f — A.  T.  Gillanders  has  some  interesting 
notes  on  timber-beetles,  e.g.  species  of  Hylesinus,  Hylastes,  Phlmophorus 
rhododactylus,  Polygraphia  pubescens,  Trypodendron  lineatum,  Orchestes 
fagi.     He  gives  some  fine  photographs  of  their  burrowing  work. 

Injurious  Insects  in  Ireland.!  —  G.  H.  Carpenter  reports  on  a 
number  of  injurious  insects  and  other  animals  observed  in  Ireland  in 
1904.  He  deals  with  the  gout-fly,  the  mangold-fly,  the  pea-beetle,  the 
celery-fly,  the  pear-midge,  the  willow-bud  gall-midge  {Khabdophaga 
heterobia  Loew),  and  other  forms.  The  report  also  deals  with  the  black- 
currant mite  (Eriophyes  ribis),  and  a  new  Oribatid  mite,  Lohmannia 
insignis,  recently  described  by  A.  Berlese,  and  now  recorded  for  the  first 
time  from  Britain. 

8.   Arachnida. 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Scorpions.§ — K.  Kraepelin  discusses 
this  subject.  He  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  actual  distribution  of 
the  several  families,  and  reviews  the  facts  in  relation  to  the  six  zoo- 
geographical  regions  of  "Wallace.  One  or  two  of  his  general  conclusions 
may  be  given.  The  scorpion  fauna  of  today  has  probably  arisen  from 
two  stocks  already  distinct  in  the  Silurian  epoch,  one  of  which  gave  rise 
to  recent  Buthidae,  and  the  other  to  the  rest  of  the  families  of  scorpions. 
The  chief  types  as  they  are  represented  by  the  present  family  charac- 
teristics have  lived  for  long  periods  all  over  the  earth,  and  are  all  re- 
presented even  today  in  the  Old  and  New  Worlds.  In  the  New  AVorld  the 
older  types  of  the  Carboniferous  race  of  scorpions  (Chactidre,  Vegovidae, 
Bothriuridae,  Diplocentridas)  have  been  preserved  (unequally)  more 
numerously  than  in  the  Old  World,  where  their  place  is  chiefly  occupied 
by  the  greatly  developed  Scorpionidas.  The  Buthida?  stem,  which 
springs  from  the  Silurian  scorpions,  has  been  developed  almost  equally 
in  both  hemispheres  ;  in  the  Eastern  as  the  sub-family  Buthinae,  and  in 
the  long-separated  continents  of  the  Western  hemisphere  in  the  two 
distinct  sub-families  Tityinaa  and  Centrurinae. 

*  Amer.  Nat ,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  1-11  (3  figs.). 

t  Trans.  Manchester  Micr.  Soc,  1904,  pp.  58-66  (2  pis.). 

X  Econ.  Proc.  Ii.  Dublin  Soc.  i.  (1905)  pp.  281-305  (4  pis.  and  6  figO 

§  Zool.  Jahrb.  Abt.  Syst.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  321-64. 


696  SUMMARY    OF   CUEEENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Poison-Glands  of  Latrodectus.* — L.  Bordas  describes  the  minute 
structure  of  the  poison-glands  in  Lactrodectw  I3~gnttatu8,  a  common 
spider  in  Southern  Europe,  which  is  usually  much  dreaded.  He  finds 
that  the  bite  is  not  at  all  dangerous  to  man  or  larger  animals,  though  it 
causes  paralysis  and  rapid  death  in  insects.  When  he  tried  the  effect  of 
the  bite  on  himself,  the  result  was  a  slight  swelling  and  inflammation, 
which  disappeared  in  a  few  days. 

North  American  Spiders.j — Nathan  Banks  gives  a  handy  synopsis  of 
the  families  and  genera  of  North  American  Araneida,  to  which  is  prefixed 
a  general  account  of  the  external  characters  of  spiders. 

Classification  of  the  Tartarides.+ — H.  J.  Hansen  and  W.  Sorensen 
have — as  the  result  of  the  examination  of  a  considerable  amount  of 
material  obtained  from  various  sources  of  this  tribe  of  the  Pedipalpi — 
reduced  the  four  genera  formerly  accepted  to  one  and  a  sub-genus. 
They  have  increased  the  number  of  known  species  from  five  to  sixteen, 
and  of  these,  fifteen  are  described  in  the  paper.  The  genus  and  sub- 
genus retained  are  respectively  Schizomus  and  Trithyreus. 

Structure  of  Pedipalpi.§ — C.  Borner  gives  a  monographic  account 
of  the  Pedipalpi,  which  includes  a  large  number  of  new  results.  The 
following  may  be  noted  : — The  proof  of  the  similar  segmentation  of  the 
carapace  in  Palpigradaa  and  Schizonotidae  ;  the  discovery  of  a  probable 
vestige  of  the  thirteenth  episthosomal  segment  of  scorpions  and  Mero- 
stomata  between  the  ninth  and  tenth  body-segment  of  Thelyphonidae  ; 
evidence  of  homology  in  the  jointing  of  the  second  to  the  sixth  prosomal 
appendages  in  Pedipalpi  and  other  Arachnids ;  the  probability  of  the 
regeneration  of  the  flagellum  in  Kwnenia  and  Thelyphonidse ;  the 
genetic  relation  between  pore-canals  and  lyriform  organs  ;  the  discovery 
of  a  very  primitive  form  of  the  prosomal  entosternum  in  Trithyreus 
cambridgei ;  the  interpretation  of  the  odoriferous  glands  of  Thelypho- 
nidae  as  anal  glands  ;  the  discovery  of  three  successive  regions  in  the 
coxal  gland  of  Krmenia  ;  the  demonstration  of  coxal  gland  openings  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  base  of  the  coxae  of  the  third  appendage  in  all 
Pedipalpi ;  the  discovery  of  a  pair  of  extrusible  ventral  sacs  in  the 
second  pulmonary  segment  of  some  Tarantulidse,  which  are  not  true 
lungs,  but  comparable  to  the  lung-books  of  some  species  of  Kmmnia ; 
the  demonstration  of  the  heart  in  Kmnenia.  But  there  are  many  other 
new  points,  e.g.  as  to  the  nervous  and  reproductive  systems.  The  mono- 
graph is  one  of  great  importance,  and  throws  much  light  on  a  group  of 
animals  which  have  received  relatively  little  attention. 

New  Pycnogonid.|| —  J.  G.  C.  Loman  describes  Pipetta  weberi, 
g.  et  sp.  n.,  from  deep  water  in  the  Banda  Sea.  The  body  is  slender, 
distinctly  jointed,  with  long  lateral  processes  separated  by  large  intervals, 
with  a  very  long,  thin,  bottle-shaped  proboscis,  and  with  a  long  thin 
abdomen.     The  chelifori  are  absent,  the  palps  are  slender,  longer  than 

*  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  (Zool.)  i.,  9th  series,  1905,  pp.  147-64  (1  pi.  and  4  figs.). 

t  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  293-323  (23  figs.). 

t  Arch.  Zool..  ii.  (1905)  No.  8,  pp.  1-78  (7  pis.). 

§  Zoologica,  xvii.  (1904)  heft  42.  pp.  1-104  (4  pis  and  52  fins.). 

||  Tijdschr.  Nederland.  Dicrk.  Ver.,  viii.  (1904)  pp.  259-66  (7  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  697 

the  proboscis,  and  8- jointed  ;  the  false  legs  are  weak,  10-jointed,  with- 
out denticulated  spines,  with  the  last  four  joints  strongly  curved,  and 
with  a  very  small  claw  on  the  tenth  joint.  The  legs  are  slender,  with  a 
strong  terminal  claw  without  auxiliary  claws.  The  lateral  caeca  of  the 
intestine  penetrate  to  the  fourth  joint  of  the  legs.  Eggs  are  found  in 
the  body  and  its  lateral  processes,  but  only  in  the  proximal  two  joints 
of  the  legs.  The  author  also  discusses  the  proboscis  of  Pycnogonids  in 
general. 

Ceylonese  Pantopoda.*  —  G.  H.  Carpenter  describes  Phoxkhilus 
mollis  sp.  n.  and  Nymphon  longicaudatum  sp.  n.  from  Ceylon.  It  is 
noted  that  both  these  species  are  remarkably  poor  in  spiny  or  heavy 
armature  or  clothing,  as  compared  with  other  members  of  their  genera. 

«•  Crustacea. 

Affinities  and  Distribution  of  Cambarus.f- — A.  E.  Ortmann  dis- 
cusses the  affinities  of  the  species  of  Cambarus,  grouping  them  under 
four  sub-genera  according  to  the  chief  types  of  the  sexual  organs  of  the 
male.  The  various  species  are  reviewed  from  the  point  of  view  of  their 
distribution  over  the  United  States,  and  here  amongst  other  points  are 
noted  the  following.  Morphologically  isolated  species  occupy  isolated 
stations,  e.g.  C.  cubensis  in  Cuba  ;  C.  shufeldti  in  Louisiana  ;  C.  setosus 
in  Missouri  (cave  form).  Closely  allied  species  occupy  neighbouring 
areas  ;  this  is  evident  in  cases  where  groups  of  species  occupy  a  certain 
range,  but  represent  each  other  in  the  different  parts  of  this  range. 
More  or  less  closely  allied  species,  occupying  the  same  or  nearly  the 
same  territory,  are  generally  of  different  habits,  e.g.  C.  virilis  prefers 
running  water  with  stony  bottom,  while  C.  immunis  is  a  pond  and  ditch 
form.  Very  important  drainage  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the 
southern  Appalachian  system  are  clearly  indicated  by  the  distribution  of 
crayfishes.  Identical  or  closely  allied  forms  are  found  in  separate 
systems  which  formerly  were  united.  This  is  illustrated  by  C.  erkhso- 
nianus,  C.  extraneus,  etc. 

Sperm-receptacle  of  Cambarus.J  —  E.  A.  Andrews  describes  the 
peculiar  "  annulus  ventralis,"  or  sperm-receptacle,  found  on  the  ventral 
surface  of  the  females  of  American  crayfishes  of  the  genus  Cambarus, 
and  shows  that  its  use  forms  so  integral  a  part  of  the  complex  sexual 
habits  of  the  crayfishes  that  without  it  the  eggs  would  not  be  fertilised. 
It  is  an  elevation  of  the  areolar  connective  tissue  full  of  blood,  on  the 
ventral  side  beneath  the  nerve-cord,  covered  by  a  peculiar  mass  of  exo- 
skeleton,  and  inclosing  a  peculiarly  bent  trumpet-shaped  cavity.  It 
receives  the  spermatozoa  from  the  male,  and  from  it  the  spermatozoa 
pass  out  when  the  eggs  are  liberated.  Extirpation  of  the  annulus  before 
laying  was  followed  by  the  death  of  the  eggs,  though  they  were  laid  and 
attached  to  the  female  swimmerets  as  usual.  It  seems  probable  that 
mechanical  pressure  exerted  by  the  female  brings  about  the  discharge  of 
sperms  from  the  receptacle  at  the  time  of  laying. 

*  Ceylon  Pearl  Oyster  Report,  Royal  Society.  Part  ii.  (1904)  pp.  1S1-4  (1  pi.). 
t  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Boa,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  91-136  (1  pi.). 
\  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circular,  1905,  No.  5,  pp.  1-9  (1  pi.). 


698  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

East  African  Decapods  and  Stomatopods.* — H.  Lenz  reports  on 
a  collection  made  by  A.  Voeltzkow  including  129  species,  among  which 
are  new  species  of  Leptodius,  Gonodactylus,  Protosquilla,  Harpilius,  and 
Neptunus  ;  a  new  genus  Voeltzkowia,  one  of  the  Hexapodinse ;  and 
another  new  (unnamed)  genus  belonging  to  the  Grapsidae. 

New  Species  of  River-Crab  from  Yunnan.} — W.  T.  Caiman  de- 
scribes Parathelphusa  spinescens  sp.  n.  from  the  lake  at  Yunnan.  It 
differs  remarkably  from  any  species  hitherto  described  from  Asia,  and  in 
some  characters — e.  g.  the  possession  of  more  than  four  antero-lateral 
teeth  on  the  carapace,  resembles  the  African  group  of  species  forming 
the  sub-genus  Acatithocephalusa  of  Ortmann.  It  is,  however,  not 
necessary  to  assume  any  special  relationship  with  the  African  species. 

Abyssal  Crabs.J — H.  Coutiere  discusses  young  forms  of  the  genus 
Caricyphus,  as  represented  in  the  Prince  of  Monaco's  collections.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  Eucyphota,  and  helps  to  link  the 
Decapods  to  the  Schizopods  and  even  to  the  Phyllopods.  The  affilia- 
tion of  young  forms  of  Caricyphus  to  adult  genera  like  Toxeuma  is 
certain.  Many  similar  young  forms  have  been  made  into  separate 
genera,  in  ignorance  of  the  extraordinary  metamorphoses.  It  is  probable 
that  Bentheocaris  and  Procletes  are  larvae  of  Hoplophoridas,  and  that 
Kyptocaris,  Anebocaris,  Rhomaleocaris,  Icotopus,  Hectarthropus  are  larvae 
of  Eucyphota.  The  abyssal  Eucyphota  have  an  unsuspected  complexity 
in  their  life-history  ;  the  contrast  between  larva  and  adult  is  comparable 
to  that  between  insect-larva  and  imago. 

Epipodites  of  Eucyphota.§ — H.  Coutiere  gives  an  account  of  the 
epipodites  of  the  thoracic  limbs,  and  maintains  that  they  represent  a 
vestigial  branchial  organ. 

Ceylonese  Cumacea.||  —  W.  T.  Caiman  describes  nine  new  species 
collected  off  Ceylon  by  W.  A.  Herdman  and  Hornell.  No  Cumacea 
have  hitherto  been  recorded  from  the  Indian  Ocean.  There  are  two  new 
species  of  Eocuma  and  four  of  Gyclaspis  ;  the  others  are  Iphinoe  macro- 
brachius,  Paradiastylis  brachyura,  and  Nanaastacus  stebbingi. 

Ceylonese  Caprellidse.H  —  Paul  Mayer  reports  on  Monoliropus 
falcimanus  sp.  n.  and  a  number  of  other  species  (previously  recorded). 

Ceylonese  Amphipods.** — A.  0.  Walker  reports  on  the  rich  collec- 
tion of  Amphipods  made  by  W.  A.  Herdman  and  Hornell  on  the  coasts 
of  Ceylon.  "  It  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  that  has  ever  been 
brought  from  a  tropical  sea."  It  includes  SO  species,  of  which  36  are 
new  to  science.     Six  new  genera  are  established. 

Artemia  salina.ft — Cesare  Artom  has  made  some  interesting  obser- 
vations on  Artemia  salina  from  the  brine-pools  of  Cagliari.     It  is  not  a 

*  Abh.  Senekenberg.  Nat.  Ges.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  H39-92  (2  pis.). 
t  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  No.  92  (1905)  pp.  155-S. 
X  Comptes  Rendus,  cxli.  (1905)  pp.  267-9.  §  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  64-6. 

||  Ceylon  Pearl  Oyster  Report,  Royal  Society,  Part  ii.  (1904)  pp.  159-80  (5  pis.). 
\  Tom.  cit,  pp.  223-8  (9  figs.).  **  Tom.  cit..  pp.  229-300  (8  pis.), 

tt  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  2S4-91  (1  fig.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  699" 

distinct  species  morphologically,  but  it  has  some  physiological  peculiari- 
ties. There  is  a  great  abundance  of  males  in  copulation  throughout  the 
whole  year,  and  independently  of  the  degree  of  concentration.  There 
is  predominant  viviparity  in  winter,  and  oviparity  in  summer.  There  is 
no  evidence  of  parthenogenesis. 

Distribution  of  Terrestrial  Isopods  Introduced  into  Australasia.* 
Charles  Chilton  communicates  some  notes  on  the  distribution  of  Porcellio 
scaler,  P.  Icevis,  Metopo  nor  thus  pruinosus,  and  Armadillidium  vulgare, 
which  appear  to  have  been  introduced  into  Australasia,  most  probably 
by  the  unconscious  action  of  man. 

New  Genus  of  Isopods.j — Harriet  Richardson  describes,  from  the 
Eastern  Pacific,  an  Isopod  which  does  not  appear  to  belong  to  any  of 
the  known  families  of  the  order.  Although  found  free,  it  is  probably  a 
parasite,  for  some  of  its  characters  exhibit  marked  degeneration.  All 
the  abdominal  appendages  have  been  lost ;  it  is  without  eyes,  and  has 
prehensile  legs.  The  author  names  it  Colypurus  agassizi,  g.  et.  sp.  n., 
and  makes  it  the  type  of  a  new  family  Colypuridae. 

Sense-Organs  of  Limnadia  lenticularis.J  —  M.  Nowikoff  gives  a 
very  full  account  of  the  anatomy  of  this  somewhat  rare  Phyllopod.  A 
note  on  the  sense-organs  only  may  be  given.  These  consist  of  compound 
eyes,  simple  eyes,  a  parietal  organ,  which  is  probably  an  organ  of  touch, 
and  which  cannot  be  compared  to  the  frontal  organ  of  Branchipus  ; 
sense-organs  of  the  first  antennas ;  sense-bristles  of  the  second  antennae. 
It  was  also  found  that  the  abdominal  bristles,  the  leg  bristles,  and  the 
rowing  antenna?  bristles,  are  provided  with  sense-cells  ;  the  spines  of 
the  abdomen  are  protective  simply.  A  darkly  staining  continuation  of 
the  sense-cells  runs  along  the  axis  of  the  tactile  bristles  of  the  leg. 
The  sense-cell  complex  is  spindle-shaped,  and  lies  at  the  base  of  the  leg. 

Annulata. 

Commensals  in  Tubes  of  Cha3topterus.§ — H.  E.  Enders  found,  out 
of  99  tubes,  88  with  commensals.  These  included  two  Annelids  of  the 
genus  Nereis,  176  crabs  of  the  species  Poly  onyx  macrocheles,  Pinnixa 
chcetopterana,  Pinnotheres  mactdatus,  and  one  species  of  the  "stone- 
crab,"  Meaippe,  all  occurring  in  most  cases  near  the  orifices  of  the  U-tube, 
and  advantageously  located  for  securing  food.  "Whether  or  not  the 
commensalism  is  an  advantage  to  Ghcetopterus,  it  seems  to  be  a  decided 
benefit  to  the  crabs,  Pohjonyx  and  Pinnixa,  grown  specimens  of  which 
are  rarely  found  outside  of  the  tubes.  The  advantage  to  the  crabs  is 
very  clearly  marked  by  their  prolonged  breeding  season — virtually  an 
example  of  protected  industry." 

Neurofibrils  in  Ganglion  Cells  of  Annelids.||  —  Agostino  Gemelli 
has  used  the  methods  of  Golgi,  Apathy,  Bethe,  Donaggio,  Cajal,  and  a 

*  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  428-32. 

t  Bull.  Mus.  Compar.  Zool.,  xlvi.  No.  6  (1905)  pp.  105-6  (1  pi.). 

%  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxviii.  (1905)  pp.  561-619  (4  pis.). 

§  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  37-40. 

||  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  449-62  (6  figs.). 


700  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

method  of  his  own,  in  the  demonstration  of  the  neurofibrils  in   the 
ganglion-cells  of  Nereis,  Serpula,  Lumbricus,  and  other  Annelids. 

Central  Nervous  System  of  Annelids.* — J.  Krawany  has  investi- 
gated this  in  Eismia  foetida.  The  ventral  cord  of  each  side  sends  out 
both  right  and  left  "  effector  axones."  The  sensory  centripetal  nerve 
fibres  seem  to  remain  on  the  same  side  with  the  exception  of  those  of 
the  superficial  plexus.  The  interstitial  cells  unite  the  succeeding  seg- 
ments of  the  ventral  cord  of  the  same  side  by  means  of  non-crossing 
axones,  and  those  of  the  opposite  side  through  crossing  axones.  In  the 
very  dense  neurophil  of  the  supra-cesophageal  ganglion  there  end  longi- 
tudinal tracts  arising  from  the  ventral  cord,  which  probably  consist  of 
axones  of  interstitial  cells  and  perhaps  also  of  fibres  from  sensory  cells 
which  have  reached  the  brain  by  centripetal  paths.  Here  also  are  seen 
the  endings  of  sensory  fibres  which  enter  the  brain  directly  from  the 
periphery.  The  neurophil  is  further  related  to  the  central  ganglionic 
apparatus  of  the  brain,  which  consists  of  a  very  large  number  of  small 
cortical  cells  whose  fibres  cross  in  a  remarkable  way  before  entering 
the  neurophil.  The  large  connecting  cells  of  the  brain  appear  to  play  a 
secondary  part. 

Gall-forming  Annelid  on  Ophiuroid.f — H.  Ludwig  gives  a  brief 
note  upon  an  Annelid  which  is  found  within  gall-like  formations  upon 
the  arms  of  the  deep-sea  Ophiuroid  Ophioglypha  tumulosa.  It  is  not  a 
Myzostoma,  but  a  well  developed  Polychsete,  to  which  in  the  meantime 
the  provisional  name  of  Ophiuricola  cynips  may  be  given. 

Modifications  of  Segmental  Organs  in  Epitokous  Polychaets.J — 
Louis  Fage  describes  the  changes  in  the  segmental  organs  of  a  number  of 
Polychaets  at  the  time  of  the  reproductive  crisis,  contrasting  different 
types.  In  the  Lycoridae,  where  the  nephridium  is  highly  specialised,  it 
cannot  serve  as  a  genital  duct,  and  it  degenerates  in  the  epitokous 
condition.  In  other  cases,  e.g.  Cirratulidae  and  Syllidaj,  the  simpler 
nephridium  functions  as  a  genital  duct. 

Pelagic  Sipunculid.§ — P.  Mingazzini  describes  Pelago  splicer  a  aloysii 
g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  remarkable,  spherical,  perfectly  transparent,  pelagic  Sipun- 
culid,  which  will  probably  require  a  new  family  to  itself.  It  was  obtained 
between  New  Caledonia  and  Auckland. 

Vascular  System  of  Oligochaeta.  || —  H.  Freudweiler  has  made  a 
study  of  this  in  various  lower  forms,  e.g.  species  of  Friderieia  and  other 
•genera  of  the  Enchytrseidse.  The  paper  contains  an  account  of  the  gut 
diverticulum  and  notes  on  resorption  in  the  Enchytragidag.  The  follow- 
ing points  in  the  vascular  system  have  been  made  out.  Pertaining  to 
the  gut  sinus  are  spaces  between  the  gut  epithelium  and  the  peritoneum. 
Spaces  between  the  ccelome  sacs  right  and  left,  above  and  below  the 
gut,  form  the  dorsal  and  ventral  vessels.     On  the  dorsal  vessel  there 

*  Arb.  Zool.  Inst.  Wien,  xv.  (190.-))  pp.  281-316  (5  pis.). 

+  Zool.  Anzeig..  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  397-9. 

\  Comptes  Rendus,  cx.lL  (1905)  pp.  61-4. 

§  Atti  (Rend.)  R.  Accad.  Lineei,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  713-20  (2  figs.). 

||   Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxiii.  (1903)  pp.  383-422  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  701 

are  differentiated  single  cells,  viz.,  muscular  fibres  or  chloragogen  cells, 
whilst  almost  all  the  others  leave  their  basal  membrane  (peritoneal  in 
origin),  perhaps  to  fulfil  further  functions  as  lymph-cells  of  the  coelorae. 
The  ventral  vessel  and  side  offshoots  are  represented  only  by  the  basal 
membrane  and  isolated  cells  projecting  exteriorly.  The  amcebocytes  of 
the  blood  are  either  lymphocytes  which  have  immigrated  from  the  body 
cavity,  or  more  probably  they  have  arisen  from  mesenchyme  cells  which 
in  the  embryo  have  penetrated  between  the  gut  and  the  ccelomic  cavities, 
and  then,  attaching  themselves  to  the  ventral  vessel  wall,  and  increasing  in 
numbers,  form  in  some  types  a  heart-body,  whose  function  is  that  of  a 
valve  and  also  of  a  secreting  gland. 

Epithelial  and  Connective-Tissue  Cells  in  Hirudo. — E.  Holmgren* 
describes  a  peculiar  relation  which  exists  in  Hirudo  between  the  epithe- 
lial and  connective-tissue  cells  of  the  oesophagus  and  cirrus.  While  the 
epithelial  cells  touch  each  other  at  the  periphery,  their  main  portion  is 
sunk  in  the  connective  tissue.  P.  Blochmannf  points  out  that  this  has 
already  been  noted  by  him,  not  only  in  Hirudo,  but  also  in  all  the 
divisions  of  Platyhelminthes.  He  objects  to  Holmgren's  use  of  the 
term  "  membranellas,"  which  he  applies  to  the  connective-tissue  lamellae 
between  the  epithelial  cells.  Holmgren  asserts  that  "  the  connective- 
tissue  also  sends  into  the  interior  of  the  cells  delicate  thread-like  con- 
tinuations, and  that  these  under  certain  circumstances  can  penetrate  the 
whole  cell  in  order  to  pass  to  the  other  side  into  the  pericellular  con- 
nective-tissue." Blochmann  considers  this  an  error,  and  that  it  is  a 
question  of  three  cells  cut  on  a  slant ;  of  the  two  upper  ones  only  the 
peripheral  part  is  seen,  and  of  the  under  one  only  the  central  portion 
containing  the  nucleus. 

Nematohelminth.es. 

Chromosomes  of  Ascaris.J — I).  Tretjakoff  describes  various  pheno- 
mena in  Ascaris,  such  as  the  bending  and  union  of  the  chromosome 
ends,  and  the  oblique  splitting  of  obliquely  placed  chromosomes,  which 
are  not  in  agreement  with  Boveri's  hypothesis  of  longitudinal  splitting. 
The  formation  designated  by  Boveri  as  a  chromatic  element  appears  in 
both  varieties  bivalens  and  univalent  of  Ascaris  megalocephala,  only  as 
the  final  stage  of  a  series  of  alterations  during  which  each  chromatic  rod 
exhibits  a  certain  independence  ;  and  consequently  the  maintenance  of 
the  idea  of  the  chromatic  element  is  superfluous. 

Gonad  Walls  in  Ascaris  megalocephala.§ — Adalbert  Domaschko 
describes  the  histology  of  the  different  regions  of  the  gonads  of  Ascaris 
megalocephala.  The  -epithelium  of  the  whole  gonadic  tube  (except  the 
vagina)  is  of  mesodermal  origin,  and  in  spite  of  the  differences  in  the 
nature  of  the  cells  occurring  there,  it  must  be  regarded  as  having  been 
laid  down  uniformly.     The  vagina  alone  is  of  ectodermal  origin. 

i 

*  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat.,  Bd.  G5  (1904)  pp.  280-97  (2  pis.). 
f  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  269-71. 
%  Arch.  Mikr.  Anat,  Bd.  65  (1904)  pp.  358-82  (1  pi.  . 
§  Arb.  Zool.  Inst.  Wien,  xv.  (1905)  pp.  275-80  (2  pis.). 


702  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING  TO 

New  Species  of  Strongyloides.* — 0.  v.  Linstow,  to  the  three  species 
of  this  genus  already  known  from  many  different  mammals,  adds  a  fourth. 
The  description  given  of  this  form,  Strongyloides  fulleborni  sp.  n.,  is 
derived  from  specimens  reared  from  faecal  cultures  of  Anthropopitheeus 
troglodytes  and  Cynocephalus  babuin,  both  from  Africa.  The  cultures 
were  made  by  Dr.  Fulleborn  in  Hamburg. 

Platyhelminthes . 

Parasites  of  the  Pearl  Oyster.j — A.  E.  Shipley  and  James  Hornell 
describe  seven  Entozoa  from  the  pearl  oyster ;  one  Cestode,  Tetrarhyn- 
chus  unionifactor  sp.  n.  ;  three  Trematodes,  Muttua  margaritiferai  sp.  n., 
Musalia  herdmani,  sp.  n.,  Aspidogaster  margaritiferm  sp.  n.  ;  and  three 
Nematodes,  Ascaris  meleagrince  sp.  n.,  Cheiracanthus  uncinatus,  and  a 
species  of  Oxyuris.  In  the  trigger  or  file  fishes  (Balistes),  which  feed 
on  pearl  oysters,  numerous  Tetrarhynchid  cysts  were  found,  but  the 
connection  between  these  and  the  Tetrarhynchi  of  the  pearl  oyster  is 
doubtful.  In  the  sea  there  was  found  a  Planarian-like  larva,  which 
resembles  the  youngest  forms  found  in  the  pearl  oyster. 

Histology  of  Cestodes.J — W.  Minckert  has  investigated  the  histology 
of  the  epithelium  and  cuticula  in  various  Cestodes,  Ligula,  Schisto- 
cephalus,  etc.  Some  of  the  points  elucidated  may  be  quoted.  Regarding 
the  "  hair-layer  "  of  the  cuticle,  to  the  elements  of  which  he  gives  the 
name  "  comidia,"  he  considers  it  the  normal  product  of  a  progressive 
differentiation  of  the  cuticula  and  therefore  of  the  epithelial  cells,  and 
comparable  to  the  cilia  layer  of  Turbellaria.  The  "  comidia  "  are  non- 
mobile  formations  of  specific  morphological  rank  as  characteristic  of  the 
Cestodes,  if  not  more  so,  as  the  mobile  cilia  of  the  Turbellaria.  The 
homogeneous  layer  shows  the  following  formations :  (a)  trophopores 
(pore  canals  of  authors)  and  trophoporules  ;  (b)  neurophysia  with  neuro- 
pores,  viz.  the  vesicle-like  cuticular  cavities  penetrated  by  axial  nervous 
substance  which  is  always  related  to  the  sense-cells,  and  giving  off  delicate 
canals,  the  neuropores.  Lastly,  in  the  cuticula  there  is  a  ground  layer, 
narrow  and  always  more  darkly  tinged  than  the  homogeneous  layer, 
often  appearing  granular  (Ligula,  Schistocephalus),  and  situated  directly 
above  the  place  of  insertion  of  the  epithelial  continuations. 

Internal  Parasites  of  Salmon.§ — J.  R.  Tosh  gives  an  annotated 
list  of  parasites  observed  during  a  season  at  Berwick-on-Tweed.  Of  a 
total  of  81)2  fishes  examined,  236,  or  26  *  4  p.c,  were  infected  with  tape- 
worm. Specimens  of  Tetrarhynchus  grossus  in  various  stages  of  degene- 
ration were  found  resembling  the  T.  rugosus  of  Baird  and  T.  solidus  of 
Drummond.     These  are  very  likely  all  referable  to  T.  grossus. 

Bird  Cestodes  of  Eastern  Asia.|| — 0.  Fuhrmann  describes  two  new 
species  of  Davainea,  one  new  species  of  Anomotcetiia,  and  gives  an 
account  of   Cittotcenia   Tcuvaria  Shipley,  from  a  new  host  and  a  fresh 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Parasitenk.,  xxxviii.  (1905)  pp.  532-4  (1  pi.), 
t  Ceylon   Pearl  Oyster   Fisheries  Keport,  Royal  Society,   Part  ii.   (1904)   pp. 
77-106  (4  pis.).  %  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  401-8. 

§  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  No.  92  (1905)  pp.  115-19  (I  pi.). 
II  Zool.  Jahrb.  Abt.  Syst.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  303-20  (  2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  703 

region.  In  view  of  the  limited  knowledge  regarding  Cestodes  from 
regions  outside  Europe,  the  details  contributed  should  be  of  value  in 
furthering  the  solution  of  phylogenetic  and  distributional  questions. 

New  Trematodes.*  —  W.  S.  Marshall  and  N.  C.  Gilbert  describe 
from  the  cascal  tubes,  stomach,  and  upper  part  of  intestine  of  the  wide- 
mouthed  black  bass,  Micropterus  salmoides,  a  small  Distomid,  whose 
body  is  entirely  covered  with  minute  spines,  arranged  in  two  series  of 
diagonal  rows,  and  which  they  designate  CcBcincola  parvulus  g.  et  sp.  n. 
Another,  from  the  same  host,  of  a  peculiar  yellowish  or  pinkish  colour, 
occurring  in  the  mouth,  stomach,  or  on  gills,  is  described  as  Leuceruthrus 
micropteri  g.  et  sp.  n.  A  third  form,  Azygia  loossii  sp.  n.,  has  been 
found  not  only  in  the  stomach  of  the  f orenamed  host,  but  also  in  Lucius 
lucius  and  Amia  calva. 

Structure  and  Affinities  of  Trematodes.f — N.  Maclaren  gives  a 
detailed  account  of  the  anatomy  of  Diplectanurn  cequans  Wagener,  and 
Nematobothrium  moke  sp.  n.,  the  former  of  which  occurs  upon  the  gills 
of  Labrax  lupus,  and  the  latter  in  pairs  within  cysts  upon  the  gills  of 
Orthagoriscus  moke.  Although  Diplectanurn  is  much  specialised,  it 
possesses  many  characteristics  of  Rhabdocoele-like  ancestors — e.g.  the 
presence  of  rhabdites,  as  in  Temnocephala,  in  special  regions  of  the  head. 

Ceylonese  Polyclad  Turbellaria.J — F.  F.  Laidlaw  reports  on  the 
Planarians  collected  by  W.  A.  Herdman  off  Ceylon,  along  with  three 
collected  by  Gardiner.  The  Ceylonese  area  seems  to  be  very  rich  in 
these  forms.  Three  new  genera  are  established  :  Woodworthia  (closely 
allied  to  Idioplana),  Stylochocestus,  and  Thalamoplana  (closely  allied  to 
Discocelis). 

North  American  Nemerteans.§ — Wesley  R.  Coe  gives  a  useful 
synopsis  of  the  species  of  Nemerteans  from  the  West  and  North-west 
coasts  of  North  America  ;  87  species  (in  21  genera)  have  thus  far  been 
recorded  from  the  West  and  North-west  coasts,  while  only  19  are  known 
to  occur  on  the  East  coast  of  North  America.  The  Nemertean  fauna  of 
the  Pacific  Coast  is  more  abundant  and  more  diversified  than  in  almost 
any  other  region  of  equal  extent.  The  usual  diagnostic  key  is  preceded 
by  a  general  account  of  the  class. 

Bryozoa. 

Development  of  Fenestella.|| — E.  R.  Cumings  deals  with  the  develop- 
ment of  this  Paleozoic  Bryozoan,  as  shown  in  calcified  material 
(numerous  bases  of  colonies)  in  which  the  minutest  details  of  internal 
structure  are  preserved  with  remarkable  fidelity.  The  morphological 
element  of  the  Bryozoan  colony  with  corresponds  to  the  protoconch  of 
molluscs,  or  to  the  protegulum  of  Brachiopods,  is  the  protcecium  or 
basal  disk  of  the  primary  individual  of  the  colony.  The  protcecium  is 
the  calcareous  or  chitinous  wall  of  the  kathembryo.     In  Fenestella  it  is 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.  Abt.  Syst.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  477-88  (1  pi.). 

t  Jenaische  Zeitschr.  Naturwiss.,  xxxviii.  (1901)  pp.  572-618  (3  pis.). 

j  Ceylon  Pearl  Oyster  Report,  Royal  Society,  Part  ii.  (1904)  pp.  127-36  (1  pi). 

§  Amer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  425-47  (9  figs.). 

11  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  xx.  (1905)  pp.  169-77  (3  pis.). 


704  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

very  large,  and  in  every  way  similar  to  that  of  the  Cyclostomata.  The 
ancestrula  is  the  tubular  superstructure  of  the  primary  individual.  It 
is  a  simple,  undifferentiated,  tubular  zocecium.  The  earlier  formed 
zooecia  (nepiastic  zooecia)  of  the  Fcnestella  colony  differ  markedly  in 
shape  and  size  from  later  formed  (neanastic  and  ephebastic)  zooecia.  In 
every  feature  in  which  they  depart  from  the  ephebastic  zooecia  of 
Fenestella,  they  approach  the  ephebastic  zooecia  of  Cyclostoinata.  The 
terminology  of  the  paper  is  highly  specialised. 

Echinoderma. 

Species  of  Holothuria.* — C.  L.  Edwards  has  applied  biometrical 
methods  to  the  taxonomic  question  of  the  relations  of  Holothuria  atra 
Jager,  H.  fioridana  Pourtales,  and  H.  mexicana  Ludwig.  He  has  de- 
termined the  extent  of  variation,  and  thus  the  best  (least  variable) 
specific  characters.  The  two  last-named  species  are  synonymous, 
H.  fioridana  surviving  ;  but  H.  atra  is  distinct.  The  author  notes  that 
the  number  and  length  of  polian  vesicles  and  of  stone-canals  increase 
with  age  ;  71  p.c.  of  the  young  H.  fioridana  have  only  one  polian  vesicle, 
while  in  the  adult  the  number  ranges  from  1  to  1)2.  The  total  number 
of  stone-canals  in  H.  fioridana  ranges,  in  the  young,  from  2  to  25  ;  in 
the  adult,  from  5  to  149. 

Korean  Holothurians.t — Hjalmar  Ostergren  describes  Myriotrochus 
mintttus  sp.  n.,  and  Eupyrgus  pacificus  sp.  n.,  two  new  Korean  Holo- 
thurians  of  minute  size. 

Tentacle  Reflex  in  Holothurians.J — Caswell  Grave  has  studied  the 
contraction  of  the  oral  tentacles  which  takes  place  when  Holothurians 
{Cucumaria  pidcherrima)  are  disturbed,  and  their  invagination  within 
the  body.  It  seems  to  be  at  first  an  instinctive  action,  but  in  the 
absence  of  constant  stimulation  and  use,  in  a  quiet  aquarium,  it  rapidly 
loses  its  efficiency.  In  the  abnormally  safe  and  undisturbed  conditions 
of  captivity  the  reflex  seems  almost  to  disappear. 

Note  on  Cucumaria  Montagui  Fleming.§  —  A.  M.  Norman  gives 
convincing  reasons  for  maintaining  that  Cucumaria  normani  sp.  n., 
recently  established  by  Pace,  must  be  cancelled,  in  favour  of  the  older 
G.  montagui  Flem.  The  question  largely  turns  on  the  fact  that 
spicules  which  have  six  perforations  are- apparently  the  young  forms  of 
spicules  in  which  the  number  of  perforations  is  almost  invariably  four 
and  never  six. 

Development  of  an  Asterid  with  Large  Yolked  Eggs.||  —  E.  H. 
Henderson  describes  the  development  of  a  starfish  from  the  Franklin 
Islands,  which  shows  a  close  parallelism  with  the  development  of 
Asterina  gibbosa  as  described  by  MacBride.  Noteworthy  is  the  large 
amount  of  yolk,  which  forms  at  least  nine-tenths  of  the  whole  bulk  of 
the  embryo. 

*  Science,  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  383-4. 

t  Arch.  Zool.  Expe'r.,  iii.  (1905)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  8.  pp.  cxcii.-cxcix.  (1  fig.). 

%  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Circular,  No.  5  (1905)  pp.  24-7. 

§  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  No.  93  (1905)  pp.  352-9  (1  pi.). 

||  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.,  xvi.  (1905;  pp.  387-92  (2  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  705 

Ceylonese  Echinoderms.* — W.  A.  Herdman  and  Jane  B.  Herdman 
report  on  Echinoids,  Asteroids,  and  Ophiuroids  collected  off  Ceylon,  and 
F.  Jeffrey  Bell  adds  some  notes.  The  report  includes  28  sea-urchins, 
24  starfishes,  and  14  brittle  stars,  none  of  which  are  new.  There  are 
some  notes  of  interest  as  to  distribution,  habitat,  and  variation. 

Regeneration  and  Syzygy  in  Comatulidae.f — W.  Minckert  dis- 
cusses the  meaning  of  syzygy,  the  relation  of  individual  colour  contrasts 
to  regenerative  processes,  the  regeneration  of  cirri,  disk,  pinnules,  radii, 
and  arms,  and  the  occurrence  of  autotomy.  The  syzygia  are  regarded 
as  predetermined  or  preformed  areas  of  breakage,  and  the  hypozygalia  as 
bases  of  regenerative  processes.  The  syzygia,  and  probably  the  modified 
synarthria  between  the  costals  and  especially  between  the  first  and  second 
brachials,  are  interpreted  as  special  adaptations  in  connection  with  the 
autotomy  which  is  believed  to  be  of  not  infrequent  occurrence  in  natural 
conditions. 

Ceylonese  Crinoids.J — H.  C.  Chadwick  gives  a  full  description  of 
Antedon  reynaudi,  a  little  known  species,  and  A.  okelli  sp.  n. 

Ccelentera. 

Spermatogenesis  of  Hydra. § — E.  R.  Downing  finds  that  the  inter- 
stitial cells  are  the  immediate  progenitors  of  the  spermatogonia.  They 
divide  by  mytosis,  filling  the  space  between  the  ectoderm  cells,  which 
elongate  peripherally.  There  is  no  migration  from  other  parts  of  inter- 
stitial cells  to  the  region  of  testis  formation.  After  repeated  division 
to  form  the  testis  mass  there  comes  a  time  when  the  daughter-cells 
formed  do  not  grow  to  the  size  of  the  parent  interstitial  cell,  but  remain 
about  half  its  volume.  These  cells  form  the  first  generation  of  spermato- 
gonia. During  this  division  the  chromosomes  are  reduced  to  half  the 
somatic  number  and  the  spermatogonia  of  the  second  generation  are 
transformed  with  little  change  to  spermatocytes  of  the  first  order. 
Mitosis  occurs,  forming  spermatocytes  of  the  second  order.  These 
divide  indirectly  into  spermatids  which  transform  to  the  spermatozoa. 
The  paper  contains  a  detailed  account  of  the  histology  of  division 
throughout  the  entire  process,  a  consideration  of  the  mesoderm  and  of 
the  relation  of  the  bud  to  the  spermary. 

Synonymy  of  Tubularia  larynx.  || — A.  Fenchel  has  made  an  exhaus- 
tive study  of  this  hydroid,  and  as  a  result  has  been  led  to  slump  no 
fewer  than  22  species,  existing  in  the  literature  under  the  head  of 
synonyms  of  Tubularia  larynx  Ellis  and  Solander. 

Ceylonese  Hydroids.f— Laura  R.  Thornely  reports  on  4:3  species 
collected  by  W.  A.  Herdman  off  Ceylon.  Thirteen  are  new,  including 
Ulavactinia  gallensis   g.  et  sp.  n.,  which   grows   on   Gastropod   shells. 

*  Ceylon  Pearl  Oyster  Report,  Iioval  Society,  Part  ii.  (1904)  pp.  137-50  (2  figs.). 
+  Arch.  Natur.,  lxxi.  (1905)  pp.  163-244  (1  pi.  and  14  tigs.). 
%  Ceylon  Pearl  Oyster  Report,  Royal  Society,  Part  ii.  (1904)  pp.  151-8  (1  pi.). 
§  Zool.  Jahrb.  Abt.  Anat..  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  379-426  (3  pis.). 
||  Rev.  Suisse  Zool.,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  507-80  (2  pis.). 

If  Ceylon  Pearl  Oyster  Report,  Royal  Society,  Part  ii.  (1904)  pp.  107-26  (3  pis. 
-and  3  figs.). 

Dec.  20th,  1905  8  * 


706  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEAKCHES    RELATING   TO 

It  differs  from  Hydractinia  in  having  several  verticils  of  tentacles, 
and  in  not  having  globular  clnsters  of  thread-cells  in  place  of  tentacles 
on  the  blastostyle.  Some  of  tlu  species  have  a  wide  distribution  over 
the  globe,  and  there  are  evident  similarities  between  the  Australian 
and  East  Indian  faunas.  The  list  includes  Plumularia  setacea  and 
Cuspidella  costata,  both  British  species.  The  former  has  been  also 
recorded  from  North  America,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  ;  the  latter 
from  North  America. 

New  Type  of  Siphonogorgid  Alcyonarian.*  —  Jas.  J.  Simpson 
describes  a  beautiful  and  aparently  unique  Alcyonarian — one  of  the 
Siphonogorginse — from  deep  water  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  He  names  it 
At/aricoides  alcocM  g.  et  sp.  n.  It  is  an  upright  mushroom-shaped 
colony,  with  a  densely  spiculose  trunk  and  a  zooid-bearing  "  pileus." 
The  zooids  are  introversible  within  projecting  verruceae — cylindrical 
extensions  of  the  trunk  canals,  the  upper  portions  of  which  are  expanded 
peripherally  into  octagonal  disks  containing  eight  canals,  corresponding 
to  the  eight  compartments  formed  by  the  retractor  muscles.  The 
anthocodite  are  borne  on  somewhat  slender  stalks,  the  elastic  walls  of 
which  are  continuations  of  the  upper  walls  of  the  disks.  The  tentacles 
are  simply  folded  over  the  wide  oval  disk.  The  spicules  are  irregularly 
echinate,  straight  and  curved  spindles,  with  some  approximation  to 
scaphoids,  besides  single  clubs  and  "  hockey-clubs." 

Axis  of  Gorgonidifi.f — Alfred  Schneider  comes  to  the  following 
conclusions  :  (1)  The  axial  epithelium  of  von  Koch  is  not  ectodermic, 
but  is  the  endoderm  lining  the  axial  cavity  of  the  polyp  ;  (2)  the 
formation  of  the  axis  is  due  not  to  this  axial  epithelium,  but  to  chalico- 
blasts  and  spongioblasts ;  (3)  spongioblasts  occur  in  corals  as  in 
sponges  ;  (4)  there  are  transitions  between  Scleraxonia  and  Holaxonia, 
so  that  this  subdivision  has  little  warrant. 

Porifera. 

Studies  on  Dendroceratida.J — E.  Topsent  prefers  the  term  Dendro- 
ceratida  instead  of  Hexaceratida,  excludes  the  family  Halisarcidas,  and 
recognises  three  families  : — 

1.  Darwinellidae :     Hexadella,    Aphjsilla,     Darwinella,    Dendrilla, 

Megalopastas. 

2.  Pleraplysillidge,  fam.  n.  :  Igernella  g.  n.,  Pleraplysilla  g.  n. 

3.  Ianthellida? :  Ianthella  and  Haddonetta. 

He  gives  diagnoses  of  the  genera,  and  describes  a  number  of  new  species. 

Protozoa. 

Notes  on  Radiolaria.§ — Thos.  Robinson  gives  a  clear  introductory 
account  of  the  Radiolarians,  summarising  the  most  important  facts  in 

*  Zool.  Auzeig..  xxix.  (1905)pp.  263-71  (19  figs.). 

t  Arch.  Nutur.,  lxxi.  (1905)  pp.  105-34  (2  pis). 

J  Ar<-h.  Zool.  Exper.,  iii.  (1905)  Notes  et  Revue,  No.  8,  pp.  clxxi.-cxcii.  (2  figs.). 

§  Trans.  Manchester  Micr.  Soc,  1904,  pp.  44-54  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  707 

regard  to  their  structure,  life-history,  and  classification,  and  showing 
how  a  study  of  the  group  may  be  profitably  begun. 

Fresh-water  Protozoa  of  Connecticut.* — H.  W.  Conn  begins  the 
large  task  of  enumerating  and  defining  the  Protozoa  of  this  State,  with 
notes  on  their  habits,  life-history,  and  distribution.  So  far  only  the 
recognised  genera  are  described,  but  specific  diagnoses  will  follow. 
There  are  no  fewer  than  303  figures. 

Craspedotella  an  Example  of  Convergence.!  —  C.  A.  Kofoid 
describes  Craspedotella  pileolm  g.  et  sp.  n.,  a  new  Cystoflagellate,  which 
has  a  striking  resemblance  in  form  to  a  craspedote  medusa.  It  was 
taken  in  mid-Pacific,  midway  between  the  Galapagos  Islands  and  Manga 
Reva,  and  also  off  the  coast  of  Southern  California.  In  structural 
details  it  has  much  in  common  with  Leptodiscus,  but  there  is  a  velum  at 
the  margin  of  the  bell-cavity.  The  necessities  of  flotation  and  locomo- 
tion have  brought  about  independently  in  the  medusa  and  the  Cysto- 
flagellate an  external  similarity  in  form,  though  the  inner  structural 
elements  are  exceedingly  diverse  in  the  two — a  striking  instance  of 
convergence. 

Human  and  Animal  Trypanosomiasis.^ — D.  Xabarro  and  E.  D.  W. 
Greig  give  an  account  of  their  experiments  and  observations  in  Uganda 
under  the  Sleeping  Sickness  Commission.  They  describe  Trypanosomes 
from  cattle,  dog,  and  mule.  The  experiments  conducted  in  East  Africa 
show  that  one  or  more  of  the  varieties  of  Glossinw  found  there  are 
capable  of  conveying  the  trypanosoma  of  Sleeping  Sickness.  Experi- 
ments with  Stomoxys  failed  to  convey  any  of  the  three  animal  trypano- 
somes (T.  iv,  v,  vi)  from  infected  to  healthy  animals.  The  disease, 
known  locally  as  "  Mukebi "  amongst  the  transport  oxen  in  Entebbe, 
associated  with  the  presence  in  the  peripheral  blood,  in  the  earlier  stages 
of  the  disease  of  the  trypanosome  (called  T.  in)  appears  to  be  distinct 
from  Nagana  and  Surra.  From  the  behaviour  of  other  three  animal 
trypanosomes  (termed  T.  iv,  v,  vi)  in  the  stomach  of  Glossinoz  and 
Stomoxys,  it  would  seem  permissible  to  say  that  these  are  three  distinct 
species.  From  two  experiments  positive  results  were  obtained  indicating 
that  the  tsetse  flies  met  with  in  East  Africa  are  capable  of  conveying 
the  trypanosoma  of  sleeping  sickness.  This  is  a  point  of  considerable 
importance,  as  the  belt  extends  down  as  far  as  South  Africa,  and  the 
fly  also  runs  up  the  great  waterways  from  the  coast. 

New  Species  of  Lankesterella.§  —  H.  B.  Fantham  describes  L. 
tritonis  sp.  n.,  a  new  Hamiogregarine  from  the  blood  of  the  newt.  He 
found  vermiform  trophozoites,  some  perhaps  with  micro-  and  macro- 
gametocytes.  The  fully-developed  trophozoite  (Schizont)  bends  on 
itself,  becomes  U-shaped,  forms  a  ring,  and  gives  rise  to  merozoites.  No 
sporogony  was  observed.  The  new  form  is  apparently  very  like  L. 
ranarum  (L.  minima  of  Hintze),  but  it  is  smaller.  Indeed,  it  is  ap- 
parently the  smallest  Hamiogregarine  yet  noted. 

*  Bull.  No.  2,  Connecticut  State  Geol.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Survey,  1905,  69  pp.,  34  pis. 
t  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.  Harvard,  xlvi.  (1905)  pp.  163-6  (2  figs.). 
\  Royal  Soc.  Reports,  No.  5,  Sleeping  Sickness  Commission,  Julv  1905,  pp.  8-18 
(3  pis.).  §  Zool.  Anzeig.,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  257-63  (17  fig's.). 

3  B  2 


708  SUMMARY    OK    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Micro-Organisms  and  Disease.* — S.  J.  Hickson  gives  a  lucid  account 
of  some  of  the  recent  advances  in  the  study  of  micro-organisms  associated 
with  disease.  He  refers  to  ankylomiasis,  the  miner's  disease  due  to  the 
Nematode  Ankylostoma  duodenale,  whose  larvae  penetrate  the  skin,  enter 
the  veins  of  the  skin,  pass  to  the  lungs,  and  thence  to  the  intestine.  He 
goes  on  to  Monocystis  himbrici,  Coccidium  oviforme,  0.  schubergi,  and 
thence  to  the  Hannosporidia  and  the  Trypanosomes. 

Trypanosoma  duttoni.f — Thiroux  discusses  this  species,  found  in 
the  blood  of  mice.  It  belongs  to  the  type  lewisi,  but  T.  lewisi  from 
the  rat  cannot  be  inoculated  into  the  mouse,  nor  T.  duttoni  into  the  rat. 
Other  Trypanosomes  from  rodents,  e.g.  from  squirrel  and  rabbit  and 
hamster,  may  be  referred  to  this  same  type  lewisi. 

*  Trans.  Manchester  Micr.  Soc,  1905,  pp.  26-34. 
t  Ann.  Inst  Pasteur,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  564-72  (2  pis.). 


»  i<^>+- 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  709 


BOTANY. 

GENERAL, 

Including  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Seed  Plants. 

Cytology, 
including  Cell  Contents. 

Cytological  Studies  and  Heredity.* — E.  Strasburger  and  three  of 
bis  pupils  have  published  together  a  series  of  papers  which  are  repub- 
lished under  a  common  title  of  "  Histological  Contributions  to  the 
Question  of  Heredity."  Strasburger's  paper  is  a  general  one,  and  deals 
with  a  comparison  of  typical  and  allotypic  divisions,  the  two  divisions 
formerly  called  heterotypic  and  homotypic  being  included  under  the 
latter  term.  C.  E.  Allen  has  a  paper  on  the  exact  behaviour  of  the 
nuclear  material  during  synopsis  in  Lilium  canadense.  Miyake  follows 
with  observations  on  the  reduction  division  in  the  pollen-mother-cells  of 
some  Monocotyledons,  and  there  is  a  final  paper  by  J.  B.  Overton  on 
similar  divisions  in  some  Dicotyledons. 

Kinetic  Centres  in  Plants.j — C  Bernards  publishes  a  further  paper 
on  the  attraction  spheres  of  plants.  The  work  is  largely  concerned  in 
answering  the  attacks  of  Koernicke  on  the  author's  earlier  paper.  He 
considers  it  illogical  to  admit  that  centrosomes  exist  in  so  many  groups 
and  yet  are  absent  in  Phanerogams.  He  holds  that  the  bodies  he 
observed  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  extra-nuclear  nucleoli,  and 
that  the  existence  of  a  kinetic  centre  within  a  zone  of  dense  kinoplasm 
must  be  admitted  for  Angiosperms. 

Nuclear  Divisions  in  Endosperm.! — B.  Sypkens  has  investigated 
nuclear  division  chiefly  in  the  parietal  layer  of  the  embryo-sac  in 
Fritillaria,  and  in  a  few  other  cases  of  Vegetative  division,  and  a  sum- 
mary of  his  results  is  given  by  J.  W.  Moll.  The  author's  results 
mainly  confirm  those  of  Van  Wisselingh,  (Iregoire,  Wygaerts,  and 
Berghs.  He  finds  no  evidence  for  the  existence  in  the  nuclear  network 
of  two  elements,  linin  and  chromatin,  and  he  believes  in  the  individuality 
of  the  chromosomes  both  in  the  resting  and  the  spireme  condition.  The 
author  further  concludes  that  the  nuclear  spindle  is  entirely  formed 
from  the  cytoplasm  within  the  nuclear  space,  but  the  most  important 
contribution  in  his  paper  deals  with  the  relation  of  the  spindle  to  cell- 
wall  formation,  in  which  he  shows  that  the  latter  process  often  takes 
place  without  any  connection  with  spindle  formation. 

*  Jalirb.  wiss.  Bot..  xlii.  (1905)  pp.  1-1.*):;  (7  pis.). 

+  Joum.  de  Bot ,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  80-88,  and  pp.  89 -!»7  (1  pi.). 

%  Kronikl.  Akad.  Weteuschapp.  Amsterdam,  vii.  (1905)  pp.  41  -1- 19. 


710  SUMMARY    OK   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Cytology  of  Apospory.* — L.  Digby  lms  studied  the  aposporal  de- 
velopment of  prothallia  in  Nephrodium  pseudo-mas  var.  cristata,  which 
occurs  when  fronds  are  pegged  down  in  moist  earth.     The  growth  is 

rapid  and  prolific  ;  fronds  treated  during  spring  and  summer  showed 
prothalli  with  embryos  in  three  weeks.  The  young  plants  showed  the 
same  character,  which  seems  constant,  as  no  case  of  sporangium  or  sorus 
has  appeared  on  the  leaves.  The  prothallial  growth  arises  from  the 
edge,  or  sometimes  the  surface,  of  the  frond,  as  an  outgrowth  from  the 
marginal  cells  and  those  lying  directly  beneath  the  margin  of  the  leaf. 
The  majority  have  the  typical  shape  except  that  the  cushion  is  not  well- 
developed  ;  antheridia  are  frequent,  but  archegonia  were  never  seen. 
The  prothalli  generally  bear  an  embryo,  in  various  stages  of  growth, 
situated  in  the  position  normally  occupied  by  the  cushion.  It  arises  as 
a  direct  vegetative  outgrowth  from  the  prothallus,  and  when  very  young 
consists  of  a  rounded  mass  of  cells,  in  which  the  apical  cells  of  the 
cotyledon,  stem,  and  root  are  clearly  recognisable.  The  longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  an  older  plant  is  of  a  normal  type,  except  for  the  absence  of  a 
foot.  The  nuclear  divisions  were  studied  both  in  the  prothallus  and 
embryo,  and  the  number  of  chromosomes  was  found  to  be  approximately 
the  same  in  the  two  cases  (about  50),  thus  proving  that  there  is  no 
reduction  during  the  transition  of  the  sporophyte  to  the  gametophyte 
generation.  There  was  no  clear  evidence  of  the  nuclear  migration  which 
is  so  characteristic  a  feature  of  the  apogamous  prothallia  of  N.  pseudo- 
mas  var.  polydactyla. 

Structure  and  Development. 
Vegetative. 

Axillary  Scales  of  Aquatic  Monocotyledons.! — R.  J.  Harvey 
Gibson  compares  the  ligule  of  Selaginella  with  the  axillary  scales  which 
occur  in  many  members  of  the  series  Helobiere  of  Monocotyledons. 
He  suggests  their  phylogenetic  importance  from  the  point  of  view  that 
aquatic  Monocotyledons  may  be  regarded  as  modern  representatives  of 
the  more  primitive  Angiosperms,  and  that  these  in  turn  may  have  been 
genetically  related  to  some  ancestral  form  allied  to  Iscetes.  The  scales 
were  examined  in  17  species,  representing  13  genera  belonging  to 
6  natural  orders  of  Helobieee. 

Reproductive. 

Morphological  Study  of  Ulmus  americanus.J — C.  H.  Shattuck  has 
studied  the  development  of  the  spores,  the  process  of  fertilisation,  and 
the  embryology  in  this  species,  with  a  view  to  a  comparison  with  allied 
members  of  the  ArchichlamydeEe.  He  finds  that  the  microsporangia  are 
in  the  mother-cell  stage  early  in  February  ;  they  probably  pass  the  winter 
in  this  stage,  forming  tetrads  at  the  first  breaking  of  winter  weather. 
The  tapetum  is  formed  from  the  peripheral  layer  of  sporogenous  tissue. 
The  pollen-grains  leave  the  tetrad  stage  in  the  middle  of  March,  and 
generally  show  tube  and  generative  nuclei  at  this  time.  The  male  cells 
appear  by  March  23,  and  the  dehiscence  of  the  anther  occurs  from 

*  Proc.Eoy.  Soc,  series  B,  lxxvi.(1905)  pp.  463-7. 

t  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Bot.)  xxxvii.  (1905)  pp.  228-37  (2  pis.). 

X  Bot.  Gazette,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  209-222  (3  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  711 

March  25-27.  The  single  megaspore  begins  to  germinate  in  the  middle 
of  February  ;  8—16  and  sometimes  more  free  nuclei  are  formed. 
Several  pollen-tubes  begin  to  develop  from  a  grain,  but  only  the  one 
which  comes  in  contact  with  the  stigma  continues  development.  The 
tube  generally  enters  through  the  micropyle,  but  sometimes  pierces  the 
nucellus  at  various  places,  and  even  passes  down  the  funicle  ;  it  may 
also  branch  profusely,  but  apparently  only  in  the  case  of  belated  tubes. 
The  male  cells  leave  the  grain  as  soon  as  the  tube  is  1  mm.  long,  re- 
maining close  to  its  tip,  and  were  always  found  side  by  side  ;  the  tube 
nucleus  does  not  leave  the  pollen -grain.  Double  fertilisation  was 
noted,  occurring  from  March  28-31,  the  first  male  cell  fusing  with  the 
endosperm  nucleus.  The  latter  generally  divides  before  the  fertilised 
egg,  forming  large,  multi-nucleolate  nuclei.  The  embryo  is  of  the 
massive  type,  the  suspensor  cell  enlarging  but  little.  An  antipodal  egg 
is  not  uncommon.  Two  embryos  are  occasionally  found  in  the  same  sac, 
and  two  embryo-sacs  are  sometimes  found  in  a  single  nucellus,  each 
with  an  egg-apparatus.  Chalazogamy  was  not  certainly  found,  but 
there  are  indications  of  its  occurrence. 

Physiology. 
Nutrition  and  Growth. 

Supply  of  Water  to  Leaves  on  a  Dead  Branch.* — H.  H.  Dixon 
concludes  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  attribute  to  the  cells  of  the  stem  a 
special  function  in  the  elevation  of  water,  because  the  leaves  above  fade 
when  these  cells  are  killed  by  heat.  The  fading  of  the  leaves  in  these 
cases  is  probably  largely  due  to  the  introduction  of  poisonous  or 
plasmolysing  substances  into  the  leaves  from  the  dead  cells.  Clogging 
due  to  the  exudation  of  comparatively  impermeable  substances  into  the 
water-conducting  tissue  of  the  plant  may  also  contribute  to  the  fading 
of  the  leaves.  It  is  further  possible  that  the  application  of  heat  in 
these  experiments  may  permanently  interrupt  the  water  supply  by 
breaking  the  water-columns,  on  the  continuity  of  which  the  water 
supply  depends. 

Transpiration  of  Fouquieria  splendens.f — W.  A.  Cannon  gives  an 
account  of  his  study  of  this  plant  by  the  polymeter  method  (a  new 
method  of  studying  the  transpiration  of  plants  in  situ,  which  will 
shortly  be  described  elsewhere).  By  this  means  the  transpiration  of  a 
plant  in  the  field  can  be  studied  many  times  without  injury  to  it,  and 
observations  made  on  the  seasonal  as  well  as  on  the  daily  variation. 
The  experiments  were  begun  in  February,  and  continued  until  after  the 
rains  of  summer  were  over,  during  1904,  a  season  in  which  the  rainfall 
was  smaller  than  usual,  and  the  conditions  during  most  of  the  year  very 
severe.  Fouquieria  splendens  is  the  ocotiUo  of  the  native  Mexicans,  and 
one  of  the  most  striking  desert  shrubs,  flourishing  in  habitats  which 
are  so  dry  as  to  be  unfit  for  many  desert  plants.  During  the  dry  season 
the  branches  are  naked,  but  in  the  rainy  ones  are  well  covered  with 
rosettes  of  small  leaves  which  are  borne  in  the  axils  of  the  spines. 

*  Scientif.  Proc.  Roy.  Dublin  Soc,  xi.  (n.s.)  pp.  7-12. 

t  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  3!)7-414  (7  figs,  in  text). 


712  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

During  droughts  photosynthesis  is  carried  on  by  a  chlorophyll-bearing 
tissue  beneath  the  grey  exterior  of  the  stem,  and  a  feeble  rate  of  trans- 
piration can  be  detected.  The  rate  of  transpiration  of  Fouquieria  and 
other  shrubs  varied  directly  with  the  water-supply,  increasing  as  an 
immediate  effect  of  the  rains  and  decreasing  as  the  time  past  the  rains 
became  greater.  Accompanying  the  increase  in  rate  there  was  always 
an  increase  in  the  transpiring  surface,  but  a  decrease  in  rate  occurred 
without  an  immediate  and  corresponding  decrease  in  the  transpiring 
surface,  although  in  the  end  this  always  became  less.  The  least  rate  of 
transpiration,  when  leaves  were  present,  was  observed  during  the  dry 
and  cool  period  in  the  latter  part  of  March,  when  0'22  mgm.  per 
100  sq.  cm.  of  leaf  surface  was  recorded.  The  highest  rate  was  at  the 
end  of  August,  near  the  close  of  the  summer  rains,  when  the  tempera- 
ture was  high  (8  "25  mgm.  per  100  sq.  cm.).  A  striking  adaptation  to 
desert  conditions  is  the  promptness  with  which  Fouquieria  forms  leaves 
when  the  water-supply  is  increased  by  the  rains.  The  daily  periodicity 
was  observed  in  April.  The  rate  varied  in  a  manner  corresponding  to 
variations  of  the  temperature,  but  not  quite  the  same,  and  it  inversely 
followed  very  closely  the  variation  of  the  relative  humidity. 

Relation  of  Transpiration  to  Growth  in  Wheat.* — B.  E.  Living- 
ston, as  the  result  of  a  series  of  experiments,  concludes  that  total  trans- 
piration of  wheat  plants  grown  in  various  media  is  as  good  a  criterion 
for  comparing  the  relative  growths  in  these  media  as  is  the  weight  of 
the  plants.  This  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  these  two  criteria  van- 
generally  with  the  weight  and  area  of  the  leaves.  It  was  evident  that, 
for  the  types  of  medium  investigated,  the  amount  of  transpiration  is 
practically  a  simple  function  of  the  leaf-surface,  and  that  this  latter 
varies  quite  uniformly  with  the  leaf-weight,  which  in  turn  varies  with 
the  weight  of  the  entire  tops.  Thus  total  transpiration  appears  to  be  a 
measure  for  the  growth  of  the  plant.  The  nature  of  the  soil  or  solution 
in  which  the  roots  are  grown  has  little  or  no  influence  on  those  structural 
and  physiological  properties  of  the  leaves  which  control  the  amount  of 
water  lost  per  unit  of  leaf -surf  ace.  The  water  loss  per  unit  area  of 
leaves  is  practically  uniform  throughout  the  different  treatments  ;  there- 
fore the  variations  in  total  transpiration  exhibited  are  clue  not  to  any 
difference  in  structure  or  activity  of  the  leaves,  but  simply  to  the 
difference  in  extent  of  leaf -surface  developed. 

Endotropic  Mycorhiza.t— I.  Gallaud  publishes  the  continuation  of 
his  study  of  endotropic  mycorhiza.  He  takes  up  the  question  as  to 
how  the  hyphae  penetrate  the  cells  of  the  root.  They  never  enter  by 
the  hairs  ;  they  envelop  the  exterior  with  a  fine  felt,  and  here  and  there 
penetrate  the  cells  of  the  host.  The  growth  is  always  centripetal,  and 
Gallaud  does  not  find  that  hyphaa  grow  outwards  and  spread  for  the 
sake  of  nourishment.  The  hyphas  never  enter  secretory  cells  nor 
chlorophyll-containing  cells,  in  this  differing  remarkably  from  parasitic 
fungi.  The  writer  next  describes  the  microscopic  changes  in  the  root 
induced  by  the  fungus.     He  does  not  find  any  connection  between  the 


* 


Bot.  Gazette,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  178-95  (25  figs,  unci  diagrams  in  text). 
t  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  :;]3-2.">. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  713 

presence  of  mycorhiza  and  the  absence  of  root-hairs.  There  has  been 
very  little  modification  in  the  form  of  the  root  due  to  the  fungus.  In 
the  interior  of  the  root  it  does  not  kill  the  cells  ;  it  attacks  neither 
nucleus  nor  protoplasm,  and  uses  only  the  non-living  nutritive  sub- 
stances. Starch  always  disappears  from  the  cells  that  have  been 
penetrated  by  the  mycorhiza. 

Growth  of  Fungi  in  Artificial  Media.*  —  J.  Dauphin  cultivated 
Mortierella  polycephala  on  a  series  of  artificial  media  such  as  glycerin. 
alcohol,  salicin,  etc.  Small  doses  of  alcohol  did  not  prevent  the  growth 
of  chlamydos] tores  and  zygospores.  The  fungus  itself  does  not  induce 
fermentation,  unless  the  alcohol  is  used  as  it  is  formed.  A  table  is 
given  showing  the  influence  of  the  various  substances  on  the  growth  of 
the  mycelium  and  on  spore  production  and  spore  formation. 

Ilrritabilty- 

Circulation  of  Protoplasm  in  the  Mucorini.f  —  Alfred  Schroter 
has  been  studying  the  influence  of  external  factors  on  "  circulation  "  in 
the  hypluB  of  filamentous  fungi.  The  plants  chosen  for  experiment 
were  Mucor  stolonifer  and  Phycomyces  nitens,  which  were  grown  from 
spores.  The  streaming  of  the  protoplasm  is  at  first  acropetal ;  if  the 
movement  of  the  plasma  had  ceased,  there  was  no  further  hyphal  growth. 
Abundant  movement  was  also  noted  in  the  neighbourhood  of  fruit- 
formation,  where  it  continues  after  ceasing  in  other  parts.  A  diffused 
light  was  conducive  to  active  streaming  ;  more  direct  and  intense  light 
acted  unfavourably  ;  in  the  dark  the  movement  stopped  entirely.  The 
author  gives  further  an  account  of  effects  produced  by  changes  of  tem- 
perature and  atmospheric  conditions,  and  also  by  mutilation  of  the 
plant  by  cutting  the  filaments.  But  chiefly  he  found  that  streaming 
was  influenced  by  change  of  concentration  in  the  culture  media  or  by 
change  of  atmosphere.  In  a  dry  air  there  was  active  movement,  and 
in  regard  to  the  media  there  was  a  streaming  of  the  plasma  towards 
introduced  osmotic  substances,  such  as  sugar  solution,  saltpetre,  etc. 
The  whole  movement  is  forward  and  backward,  something  like  the 
streaming  of  the  plasmodium  in  the  myxomycete. 

Stimulation  of  Sterigmatocystis.j — Elizabeth  Latham  has  studied 
the  response  of  this  fungus  to  stimulation  by  chloroform  vapour.  She 
gives  an  account  of  the  various  papers  already  published  on  the  effects 
produced  by  chemical  substances  on  fungi  and  other  plants.  As  a  result 
of  her  own  experiments,  she  finds  that  small  quantities  of  the  vapour  act 
as  a  stimulant  to  growth,  while  larger  quantities  are  hurtful  or  fatal. 
While  growth  is  increased,  there  is  relatively  less  sugar  consumption 
and  less  acid  production,  indicating  greater  economy  in  metabolism. 
Cultures  were  made  in  the  nutrient  solution  recommended  by  Pfeffer. 
without  any  sugar  constituent ;  there  was  no  growth,  showing  that  the 
fungus  could  make  no  use  of  the  carbon  in  the  chloroform  vapour.  She 
also  found  that  the  effect  of  the  vapour  increased  with  the  rise  of  tem- 
perature. 

*  Compter  Kemlus,  cxli.  (1905)  pp.  533-4. 

T  Flora,  xov.  (1905)  pp.  1-30  (9  tigs.). 

J  Bull.  Torrev  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  337-51. 


714  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Effect  of  Very  Low  Temperatures  on  Moist  Seeds.* — T.  Adams, 
experimenting  with  seeds  of  pea,  barley,  flax,  swede,  red  clover,  meadow 
feseue,  and  timothy,  finds  that  whereas  6f>-(.>6  p.c.  of  dry  seeds  ger- 
minated after  immersion  in  liquid  air  for  24  hours,  a  similar  immersion 
proved  fatal  to  moist  seeds.  He  suggests,  as  an  explanation,  a  complete 
rupture  of  the  tissues,  causing  separation  of  the  cells,  or  it  is  conceivable 
that  ice  crystals  may  be  formed  inside  the  cell  within  the  protoplasm 
itself,  and  the  death  of  the  protoplasm  may  be  due  to  mechanical  effects. 
Whatever  be  the  explanation  of  what  takes  place,  it  seems  fairly  certain 
that  freezing  to  death  can  only  occur  if  the  seed  contains  more  than 
12  p.c.  of  moisture.  He  suggests  that  while  there  may  be  no  fatal 
minimum  temperature  for  dry  protoplasm,  there  is  one  for  moist  proto- 
plasm, which  lies  somewhere  above  the  temperature  of  liquid  air. 

Movements  of  Petals.f — Esther  P.  Hensel  has  studied  the  physical 
causes  which  bring  about  opening  and  closing  movements,  periodic  or 
otherwise,  of  certain  flowers.  A  summary  of  the  work  done  on  the 
subject  since  1686  shows  how  varied  have  been  the  theories  as  to  the 
cause  of  the  movement  of  floral  leaves.  The  author  was  able  to  control 
the  opening  and  closing  of  dandelion  heads  so  far  as  to  close  them  per- 
manently with  lower  temperature  than  normal,  and  open  them  when 
temperature  has  continued  too  low,  by  the  application  of  either  dry  or 
moist  heat.  She  also  found  it  possible  to  close  any  ephemeral  flower 
before  its  time  by  an  extra  amount  of  heat,  with  either  dry  or  moist  air  ; 
but  it  was  not  found  possible  to  open  an  ephemeral  flower  by  placing 
the  plant  in  a  lower  temperature,  since  this  checks  growth,  and  opening 
here  is  rather  a  growth  movement  than  a  stimulatory  one  as  in  other 
types.  In  experimenting  with  dandelion,  Mentzelia  nuda,  Ipomaa  pur- 
purea, flax,  Mirabilis  Jalapa,  and  others,  light,  humidity  of  the  air,  and 
water-content  of  the  soil,  were  successfully  eliminated  as  possible  physical 
factors  likely  to  cause  the  opening  aud  closing  of  flowers  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  petals  or  ray  florets.  On  the  other  hand,  heat,  by  its 
variations  during  24  hours,  is  the  direct  cause  of  movement  in  day-  and 
night-flowering  types  which  bloom  for  more  than  one  day.  In  the  case 
of  ephemeral  flowers  which  open  very  early  in  the  morning  like  Ipomcea 
purpurea,  before  the  temperature  has  risen  to  any  extent,  or  those  like 
evening  primrose,  which  open  when  temperature  is  falling  in  the  evening, 
the  phenomenon  is  less  easily  explained  ;  these,  perhaps,  react  to  a 
smaller  variation  in  temperature  than  in  the  case  of  others. 

General. 

Revised  Classification  of  Roses. $ — J.  G.  Baker  deals  with  the  genus 
by  dividing  it  into  three  groups.  In  the  first  group  primary  species  are 
enumerated  ;  in  the  second,  subspecies  and  varieties  ;  in  the  third,  the 
principal  hybrids.  The  primary  species  are  estimated  as  6{.)  in  number, 
and  they  are  classified  under  11  groups,  which  may  be  briefly  diagnosed 
as  follows  : — I.  SimpUcifolice,  with  simple,  exstipulate  leaves.  II.  Sys- 
tijlm,   with   styles    protruded    beyond    the   disk  as  a  united   column. 

*  Scientif.  Proc.  Roy.  Dublin  Soc,  xi.  (n.s.)  pp.  1-6. 

t  University  Studies.  Nebraska  Univ.,  v.  No.  3  (1905)  pp.  1-38. 

%  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  (Bot.)  xxxvii.  (1905)  pp.  70-9. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  715 

III.  Banksiance,  with  free,  deciduous,  linear  stipules.  IV.  Bracteatce, 
with  adnate  stipules,  having  fruits  and  prickles  in  infra-stipular  pairs. 
V.  Microphi/lhe,  like  the  last,  but  the  fruit  glabrous,  with  a  thick  green 
pericarp.  VI.  Cinnamona,  like  the  last,  but  the  fruits  red  and  glabrous, 
with  a  thin  pericarp.  VII.  SpinosissimtB,  prickles  very  unequal,  never 
in  stipular  pairs.  VIII.  Gallicanm,  like  the  last,  but  prickles  slightly 
unequal,  with  leaflets  coriaceous  and  rugose.  IX.  Canince,  prickles 
equal,  not  in  stipular  pairs,  leaves  glabrous  or  slightly  pubescent. 
X.  Villosm,  like  the  last,  but  leaves  very  hairy.  XI.  Rubiginosm,  like 
the  last,  but  leaves  very  glandular  beneath. 

The  geographical  distribution  briefly  is  as  follows  : — Five  species 
are  found  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  in  elevated  situations,  two  in 
Abyssinia,  one  in  the  Neilgherries,  and  two  in  Mexico.  There  are  six 
geographical  regions  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone,  each  with  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  endemic  species.  1.  Europe,  with  29  species. 
2.  Northern  Asia  with  China  and  Japan,  26  species.  3.  Western  Asia, 
with  18  species.  4.  India,  with  9  species.  5.  Western  North  America 
with  the  Rocky  Mountains,  10  species,  fi.  Eastern  North  America,  with 
6  species. 

Mansonieae,  a  new  Tribe  of  the  Natural  Order  Sterculiacese.*- 
D.  Prain  gives  an  account  of  a  new  genus  from  Burmah,  Mansonia. 
Its  nearest  ally  is  an  African  genus,  Triplochiton,  Schum.,  which  has 
been  made  the  basis  of  a  new  natural  order  Triplochitonacere.  The 
order  thus  proposed  is  admittedly  a  member  of  the  cohort  Malvales  ; 
the  peculiar  characters  on  which  its  claim  to  ordinal  rank  is  based  are  to 
be  found  in  the  andrcecium,  which  consists  of  a  ring  of  free  stamens 
inserted  at  the  apex  of  a  distinct  gynophore,  with  a  whorl  of  petaloid 
hypogynous  staminodia  between  the  free  stamens  and  the  free  carpels. 
The  andrcecium  of  Mansonia  shares  these  peculiarities,  but  Mansonia 
differs  generally  from  Triplochiton  because  the  calyx  is  spathaceous,  not 
regularly  5-lobed  ;  the  petals  are  sessile,  not  clawed  ;  the  stamens  are 
definite,  not  indefinite  in  number ;  and  the  staminodia  are  valvate,  not 
contorted-imbricate. 

The  two  genera  taken  together  constitute  a  very  natural  group, 
belonging  to  the  Malvales.  There  is  nothing  in  the  accessory  whorls  to 
prevent  this  group  being  placed  in  any  of  the  already  recognised  orders 
of  that  cohort ;  the  gynophore  and  its  relationship  to  the  organs  inserted 
on  it,  however,  exclude  Malvaceae,  while  the  staminodia  suggest  Ster- 
culiaceae  rather  than  Tiliacese.  Finally,  the  gyna3cium  makes  it  practi- 
cally certain  that  Sterculiaceffi  is  the  order  to  which  the  group  belongs. 
The  differential  characters  relied  on  by  Schumann  in  proposing  his  new 
order  do,  however,  exclude  the  group  from  every  one  of  the  hitherto 
recognised  tribes  of  Sterculiaceas ;  a  new  tribe  is  consequently  proposed 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  two  genera  Triplochiton  and  Mansonia. 

The  name  of  this  new  tribe,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  seeing 
that  it  is  equivalent  to  Schumann's  order,  would  have  been  Triplochi- 
toneae.  There  are,  however,  two  genera  with  the  same  name — 
Triplochiton.     The  older   of   the   two,    Triplochiton  Alef.,   is   for   the 

*  Joum.  Linn.  Soc.  (Bot.)  xxxvii.  (1905)  pp.  250-63  (1  pi.)- 


716  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

moment  submerged  in  Hibiscus,  so  that  Schumann's  genus,  though' 
unfortunately  named,  may  retain  its  present  designation.  If,  however, 
Alefeld's  Triplochiton  were  at  any  time  to  be  resuscitated,  Schumann's 
Triplochiton  would  automatically  disappear,  and  the  continued  use  of  the 
term  Triplochitonese  would  become  awkward,  if  not  ambiguous.  The 
opportunity  offered  by  the  present  adjustment  of  the  status  of  the  group 
is  therefore  taken  to  provide  it  with  a  name  which  neither  now  nor  in 
future  can  give  rise  to  any  doubt  or  confusion. 

CRYPTOGAMS. 

Pteridophyta. 
(By  A.  Gepp,  M.A.,  F.L.S.) 

Apospory  in  Asplenium  dimorphum.*  —  K.  Goebel  publishes  an 
interesting  note  on  this  subject.  His  observations  on  a  specimen  of 
A.  dimorphum  in  the  Munich  Botanical  Garden,  lead  him  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  occurrence  of  apospory  is  accidental,  and  is  connected 
with  an  abnormality  of  development.  The  plant  in  question  showed 
abnormal  divisions  of  the  thallus,  and  had  narrower  pinnae  than  the 
other  (fertile)  ones.  The  sporangia  were  much  reduced.  Prothallia 
were  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  on  the  ends  of  the  pinnae,  and  these 
prothallia  were  transparent  and  provided  with  glandular  and  other  hair 
structures  on  the  edge,  the  lower  surface,  and  even  between  the  sexual 
organs.  The  details  of  both  the  plant  and  the  prothallia  are  discussed, 
and  the  author  concludes  that  apospory  and  the  development  of  pro- 
thallia are  dysteleologic — in  other  words,  meaningless  malformations. 
The  plant  on  which  the  observations  were  made  eventually  returned  to 
its  normal  condition.  The  author  has  observed  apogamy  on  Trichomanes 
Kraussii,  as  well  as  formation  of  prothallia  from  the  apex  of  the  first 
leaf  of  a  germinating  plant.  On  the  behaviour  of  the  nuclei  in  cases  of 
apospory,  the  author  can  give  no  information. 

The  Rhizophores  of  Selaginella.t — H.  Bruchmann  has  made  a 
study  of  the  rhizophores  of  S.  Kraussiana  A.  Br.,  the  well-known 
African  species  which  is  so  common  in  greenhouses.  He  deals  shortly 
with  the  work  of  other  authors  on  the  subject,  and  so  far  disagrees  with 
some  of  them  as  to  maintain  that  all  species  of  the  genus  possess  rhizo- 
phores, which  may  be  small  or  large,  slightly  or  much  or  not  at  all 
branched.  He  describes  his  results  under  the  following  headings  :  The 
germinating  rhizophores  ;  development  and  structure  of  the  rhizophores 
of  older  plants  ;  phenomena  of  regeneration  in  the  rhizophores  of  older 
plants  (including  transformation  of  the  rhizophore  into  leafy  shoots  and 
the  regeneration  of  the  root-rudiments) ;  the  formation  of  "  true  "  roots 
by  shoots  ;  final  remarks.  The  author  points  out  that  the  description 
given  by  him  of  these  organs  in  S.  Kraussiana,  must  not  be  considered 
as  descriptive  of  all  species  of  the  genus.  8.  Poulteri  alone  follows  this 
type,  and  S.  helvetica,  8.  denticulate,  and  8.  Douglasii  resemble  it  in 
position  and  growth  of  the  rhizophores.     Another  type  is  represented  by 

*  Flora,  xcv.  (1905)  pp.  239-44  (3  figs,  in  text). 
t  Tom.  cit.  pp.  lo(  1-0(5  (2  pis.)- 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MIOKOSO  )I'Y,    I'.TC  717 

JS.  Martensii,  which  possesses  long  forked  rhizophores  with  abundant 
apical  growth.  Another  type  again  is  found  in  8.  spinulosa,  with  which 
.may  be  classed  S.  deflem.  S.  Lyallii  and  8.  lepidophylla  represent  other 
types  again.  The  question  is  discussed  whether  the  rhizophore  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  root  or  a  shoot.  The  author  is  satisfied  that  its  nature  is 
that  of  a  shoot.  It  has  apical  growth,  exogenous  origin,  and  above  all 
it  arises  not  irregularly  but  always  at  the  place  where  otherwise  a  branch 
would  occur  on  the  shoot,  and  forms  with  the  shoots  a  system  of  brandling 
composed  of  members  of  equal  morphological  value,  in  regular  alternate 
planes,  from  its  first  appearance  on  the  germinating  plant.  In  their 
development,  however,  the  shoots  show  that  they  are  designed  to  perform 
different  functions,  the  one  serving  as  instruments  of  assimilation,  the 
other  as  rhizophores.  Thus,  although  the  mature  rhizophores  do  not 
resemble  the  shoots  of  their  respective  species,  they  are  in  the  author's 
opinion  merely  transformed,  metamorphosed  shoots,  modified  according 
to  their  function. 

K.  Goebel  *  also  deals  with  the  subject  of  the  rhizophores  of  Selaginella, 
and  agrees  with  Bruchmann  that  these  organs  are  morphologically  more 
closely  allied  to  the  shoots  than  to  the  roots,  while  partaking  of  the 
qualities  of  both.  In  this  respect  they  resemble  the  tubers  of  the 
IMoscoreas.  The  author  states  that  shoots  which  develop  into  resting 
buds  are  often  formed  in  S.  grandis  in  the  place  of  rhizophores  ;  these 
shoots  can  also  be  produced  artificially  on  species  which  have  been 
erroneously  supposed  to  have  no  rhizophores.  The  formation  of  rhizo- 
phores can  also  be  brought  about  on  aerial  shoots  which  have  been  cut 
off  from  the  species  which  are  generally  devoid  of  these  organs.  The 
rhizophores  are  remarkable  for  their  wonderful  power  of  regeneration. 
The  shoots  of  S.  Martensii,  and  probably  other  species  as  well,  possess 
the  power  of  rooting  at  their  base,  especially  when  no  rhizophores  are 
developed  at  the  forking  of  the  shoot.  The  "  root  hairs  "  of  8.  Martensii 
are  described  and  figured. 

Anonymous. — The  Scouring  Rush  along  the  Mississippi. 

[Quotes  an  extract  from  Flint's  Geography,  1853,  about  the  abundant  growth 
of  Equisetum  hyemale.~\  Fern  Bulletin,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  85-6. 

Campbell,  D.  H. — Affinities  of  the  genus  Equisetum. 

Amer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  273-85. 
Cardiff,  I.  D. — Development  of  sporangium  in  Botrychium. 

Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  340-7  (1  pi.). 

Christ,  H. — Ueber  die  australen  Polystichum-Arten.  (Concerning  the  southern 
species  of  Polystichum.) 

[A  revision  of  9  species  gathered  in  the  Antarctic,  South  America,  or  New 
Zealand.]  Arhiv  f.  Botanik.,  iv.  No.  12  (1905)  5  pp. 

Christensen,  C. — Index  Filicum  sive  Enumeratio  omnium  generum  specierumque 
Filicum  et  Hydropteridum  ab  anno  1753  ad  annum  1905  Descriptorum.  (Index 
of  Ferns  or  enumeration  of  all  the  genera  and  species  of  Ferns  and  Fern-allies 
described  between  1753  and  1905.) 

[Asplenium — Dryopteris.]  Copenhagen;  Hagerup,  1905.  fasc.  iii. 

pp.  129-92;  fasc.  iv.  pp.  193-256. 

Clute,  W.  N. — A  Walking  Shield  Fern,  Polystichum  Plaschnickianum. 

[A  tropical  American  plant  whose  fronds  root  and  bud  at  the 
apex.]  Fern  Bulletin,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  78-79. 

*  Flora,  xcv.  (1905)  pp.  195-212  (10  figs,  in  text). 


718  SUMMAEY   OF  CUEBENT    BESEAECHES   RELATING   TO 

Clute,  W.  N.— Species  and  varieties  among  the  Ferns. 

[Treats  of  tin  unequal  value  of  species,  and  considers  one  by 
one  the  primary  and  more  constant  characters  of  ferns, 
namelv,  venation,  root-stock,  position  and  shape  of  the 
fruit-dots,  indusium,  outline  of  frond;  also  the  secondary 
and  variable  characters,  namely,  size,  colour,  texture, 
vestiture,  cutting  of  the  frond.] 

Fern  Bulletin,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  65-74. 

„        The  Fern  Allies  of  North  America. 

[Contains  fresh  descriptions  and  figures  of  all  the  species, 
and  keys  to  the  genera  and  species.] 

New  York :  The  F.  A.  Stokes  Co.  (1905)  280  pp., 
8  coloured  plates  and  156  figs. 

Eaton,  A.  A. — Botrychium  biternatum  Underw.  Tom.  cit.,  p.  87. 

Gilbert,  B.  D—  An  Index  to  the  Fern  Bulletin,  Vols.  I.  to  X.  (1893-1902). 

[It  is  divided  into  the  following  parts,  viz.  General  Index, 
Index  to  Species  mentioned,  List  of  Contributors,  List 
of  Publications  Noticed,  and  List  of  Illustrations.] 
Bingbampton,  N.Y. :  W.  N.  Clute  &  Co.,  1904,  32  pp. 

()  „         Observations  on  North  American  Pteridophytes. 

[Notes  on  rare  or  critical  ferns.] 

Fern  Bulletin,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  74-77. 
„  „         Some  Mexican  Fernworts. 

[List  of  14  species  from  altitudes  of  5000  ft.  in  Oaxaca  and 
near  Orizaba,  being  partlv  new  records  for  Mexico.] 

Tom.  cit,  pp.  79-83. 

Klugh,  A.  B. — Nephrodium  Boottii  or  Nephrodium  spinulosum  x  cristatum. 

[A  question  of  hybridity.]  Tom.  cit.,  p.  86. 

Lidforss,  B. — Ueber  die  Chemotaxis  der  Equisetum  spermatozoiden.     (On  the 
chemotaxis  of  the  spermatozoids  of  Equisetum.) 

[A  preliminary  notice  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  action  of  malates  and 
other  salts."]  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell,  xxiii.  (1905)  pp.  314-16. 

Lyon,  F. — Another  seed-like  characteristic  of  Selaginella. 

Bot.  Gazette,  xl.  (1905)  p.  73. 
Maxon,  W.  R. — Adenoderris,  a  valid  genus  of  Ferns. 
[Describes  a  new  species  from  Guatemala.] 

Bot.  Gazette,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  366-9  (2  figs.). 

Scott,  J.  F. — The  Boston  Fern  and  its  Varieties. 

Gardening,  June  15,  1905;  Fern  Bulletin,  xiii.  (1905)  p.  91. 

Terry,  E.  H. — More  about  the  Ferns  of  Dorset. 

[Supplementary  list  of  Vermont  ferns.]       Fern  Bulletin,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  S4-5. 

Weiss,  F.  E.  &  J.  Lomax. — The  stem  and  branches  of  Lepidodendron  Selaginoides. 
[Of  this  species  Sigillaria  vascularis  is  proved  to  be  a  synonym.] 

Manchester  Memoirs,  xlix.  (1905)  17,  8  pp.  (4  figs.). 

Bryophyta. 

(By  A.  Gepp.) 

Fegatella  conica.* — E.  Bolleter  publishes  a  morphological  and 
physiological  study  of  this  plant,  throwing  further  light  upon  some  of 
its  structures.  It  is  dioicous,  and  in  the  calendar  of  its  development  it 
is  shown  to  begin  forming  the  rudiments  of  its  antheridia  in  March  or 
April,  and  the  archegonia  in  April  or  May.  The  antheridia  becoming 
ripe  in  June  explode,  and  fertilisation  occurs.  Though  the  elaters  and 
spores  are  fully  developed  by  October,  they  remain  in  the  sporogonium 

*  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xviii.  i.  (1905)  pp.  326-408  (2  pis.  and  16  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  719 

during  the  winter,  and  begin  to  germinate  there  in  March.  In  April 
the  seta  lengthens  and  the  spores  are  scattered.  The  structure  of  the 
thallus  is  described  in  detail — the  upper  epidermis  and  spores  ;  the  air- 
chamber,  or  assimilating  layer  ;  the  store-house,  or  conducting  tissue, 
with  its  mucilage-canals  ;  the  lower  epidermis,  rhizoids,  scales,  and  oil- 
bodies.  Then  follow  the  structure  and  development  of  the  male  and 
female  organs,  fertilisation,  development  of  sporogonium,  germination 
of  spores,  and  development  of  the  thallus.  Vegetative  reproduction 
consists  of  the  production  of  adventive  shoots  and  of  large  gemma?,  and 
is  fostered  by  moisture  and  darkness,  whereas  the  production  of  sexual 
organs  depends  upon  drier  conditions  and  an  excess  of  illumination. 

On  the  Distribution  and  Mode  of  Life  of  Exormotheca.*  —  K. 
Goebel  has  discovered  the  existence  of  this  genus  of  Marchantiaceas  in 
South  Italy,  either  in  Ischia  or  at  Amalfi  (he  is  not  certain  which). 
The  results  of  his  study  of  the  specimens  are  described  and  figured. 
The  thallus  is  2-4  mm.  broad  and  is  forked,  the  branches  not  much 
exceeding  5  mm.  It  shows  the  chimney-like  air  cavities  characteristic 
of  the  genus,  and  is  either  E.  })ustulosa  or  a  very  closely  allied  species. 
The  antheridia  are  figured,  but  the  author  had  no  specimen  showing 
archegonia.  The  thallus  has  a  number  of  mucilage  cells  (Schleimzellen) 
distributed  in  a  peculiar  manner.  The  plant  belongs  to  the  tuber- 
forming  liverworts  ;  the  tubers  arise  partly  as  ventral  shoots  on  the  mid- 
rib (where  otherwise  no  shoots  arise),  partly  as  thickenings  of  the 
apical  portion  of  the  thallus. 

Mosses  of  the  Jura.j  —  C.  Meylan  has  published  a  catalogue  of  the 
mosses  of  the  Jura.  He  gives  a  brief  account  of  the  work  of  previous 
collectors,  and  indicates  the  regions  which  still  remain  to  be  explored. 
He  adds  a  general  sketch  of  the  moss-flora  of  the  Jura,  and  an  analysis 
in  which  the  species  are  grouped  according  to  their  habits  and  altitudes. 
In  the  catalogue  proper  the  species  are  classified  according  to  Limp- 
richt's  Laubmoose,  and  furnished  with  notes  about  their  habitats  and 
distribution. 

Anderson,  J.  P. — Thalloid  Liverworts  of  Decatur  County. 

Iowa  Nat.,  i.  (1905)  pp.  33,  44. 

Bloompield,  E.  N. — Fauna  and  Flora  of  Norfolk  ;  Additions  to  Hepaticae. 
[List  of  19  species,  3  of  which  are  new  records  for  the  county.] 

Trans.  Norfolk  and  Norwich  Nat.  Soc,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  148-9. 

Cardot,  J.  &  I.  Theriot. — New  or  unrecorded  Mosses  of  North  America. 

[Four  species  of  Bryum.~]  Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  95-6. 

Chamberlain,  E.  B. —  Notes  upon  Maryland  Bryophytes  and  on  two  Mosses  from 
Virginia. 

[Notes  on  6  mosses  and  on  2  hepatics  from  the  vicinity  of  Washington.] 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  77-8. 

Coker,  W.  C. — Spore  distribution  in  Liverworts.  Tom  cit.,  p.  93. 

Dixon,  H.  N. —  Nematode  Galls  on  Mosses. 

[Formed  by  Anguillulae  on  Porotrichum  alopecurum  and  EurhynchiumSwartzii.~] 

Journ.  of  Bot.,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  251-2. 

*  Flora,  scv.  (190;"))  pp.  244-50  (8  figs,  in  text). 
t  Bull.  Soe.  Vaudoise,  xli.  (1905)  pp.  41-96. 


720  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Dus£n,  P.— Beitrage  zur  Bryologie  der  Magellanslander,  von  Westpatagonien  und 
Siidchile.     (Contributions  to  the  bryology  of  the  Magellan   region  from  West 
Patagonia  ami  South  Chile.) 
[Continuation.     Dicranaoese.] 

Arluvf.  Botanik,  iv.  No.  1  (1905)  p.  45  (11  pis.). 

Gilbert,  B.  D. — The  Advantage  of  frequent  Visits  to  Moss  localities. 
[Notes  on  the  species  found  in  a  small  swamp  near  New  York.] 

Bryoloijid,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  93-4. 

UrsTAFSON,  T. — Bidrag  till  Hokensasbygdens  Mossflora.      (Contribution  to  the 
moss-flora  of  the  Hiikensas  district.) 
[List  of  79  hepatics  and  255  mosses.] 

Arl-iv  f.  Botanilc,  iv.  No.  11  (1905)  32  pp. 

Holzinger,  J.  M.— Bryum  Forsteri  sp.  n. 

[A  Washington  moss.]  Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  p.  80. 

Levier,  E. — Appunti  di  Briologia  Italiana.     (Contributions  to  the  Italian  moss- 
flora.) 

[Alphabetical  lists  of  new  or  rare  mosses  and  hepatics  with  annotations.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital,  1905,  pp.  145-58.  206-16. 

Lyon,  H.  L. — Polyembryony  in  Sphagnum. 

Bot.  Gazette,  xxix.  (1905)  pp.  365-6  (3  figs.). 

Moore,  A.  C. — Sporogenesis  in  Pallavicinia. 

Bot.  Gazette,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  81-96  (2  pis.). 

Mi  ller,  K. — Ueber  die  in  Baden  im  Jahre  1904  gesammelten  Lebermoose.    (Hepa- 
ticse  gathered  in  Baden  during  the  year  1904.) 

[List  of  108  species  with  numerous  localities,  mostly  in  previously  unsearched 
districts  in  the  north  and  south  of  Baden.] 

Beth.  Bot.  Centralbl,  xviii.  2  (1905)  pp.  323-46. 

Pearson,  W.  H. — A  New  Hepatic  from  Ireland. 

[Plagiochila   killarniemis,  a  new  species    growing  by  the  Tore  Cascade,  is 
described.]  Journ.  of  Bot,  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  281-2  (1  pi.). 

Waknstorf,  C. — Vier  neue  exotische  Sphagna.    (Four  new  exotic  Sphagna.) 
[Describes  new  species  from  Brazil,  Porto  Rico,  and  East  Africa.] 

Allgem.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  xi.  (1905)  pp.  97-101. 
Williams,  R.  S. — Notes  on  Luzon  Mosses. 

[Field  notes  on  mosses  observed  near  Manila.] 

Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  78-80. 

Thallophyta. 

Algse. 
(By  Mrs.  E.  S.  Gepp.) 

Cultivation  of  Green  Algae.* — A.  Artari  publishes  in  tabulated 
form  the  results  of  his  experiments  as  to  the  effect  of  concentrated  food 
solutions  on  the  development  of  certain  green  algse.  The  species  experi- 
mented on  were  Sticho coccus  bacillaris,  the  gonidia  of  Xanthoria  parietina 
and  Scenedesmus  caudatus.  Stichococcus  bacillaris  flourished  both  in 
very  weak  and  in  very  strong  nutritive  solutions,  but  the  relatively 
strong  solutions  produced  the  best  results.  Sugar  solutions  affected  the 
shape  of  the  cell  according  to  the  strength  employed.  Relatively  strong 
nutrition  was  also  found  most  successful  for  increasing  the  growth  of 
the  gonidia  of  Xanthoria  parietina,  while  Scmedesmus  caudatus  preferred 
the  weaker  solutions.  The  author  proposes  to  publish  further  details  on 
this  subject. 

*  Jahrb.  wiss.  Bot..  xl.  (1904)  pp.  593-613  (2  figs,  in  text). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  721 

Sexual  Reproduction  in  Stigeoclonium.* — A.  Pascher  has  studied 
this  subject  and  made  observations  on  the  living  plants  for  the  last  two 
years.  He  finds  that  in  some  points  his  conclusions  differ  from  those  of 
former  authors,  and  he  sums  up  his  results  as  follows  :  There  is  a  general 
formation  of  macrozoospores  which  have  four  cilia  and  a  direct  germina- 
tion. The  microzoospores  are  formed  like  the  macrozoospores  from  the 
vegetative  condition :  they  are  4-ciliated,  and  before  germination  they 
go  through  a  resting  condition  of  often  very  short  duration.  In  rare 
cases  they  copulate.  Bi-ciliated  zoospores  are  formed  from  the  resting 
spores  (akinetas  or  palmella  condition).  These  germinate  directly,  and 
it  has  been  stated  that  copulation  occurs  among  them.  The  formation 
of  bi-ciliated  gametae  from  vegetative  cells  has  been  asserted,  but  the 
author  considers  that  sufficient  proof  is  wanting.  The  aplanospores  are 
modifications  of  microzoospores. 

Brown  Colouring  Matter  in  Algae.f— H.  Molisch  has  made  ex- 
periments in  connection  with  the  brown  colouring  matter  of  the  Phseo- 
phyceae  and  Diatoms,  and  he  finds  that  the  substance  "phycophain" 
does  not  exist  in  the  living  cell  at  all  as  has  been  generally  believed, 
but  is  formed  from  a  chromogen  after  death.  Phaeophyll,  on  the  other 
hand,  exists  in  the  living  chromatophore,  and  is  easily  converted  into 
common  chlorophyll.  This  fact  holds  good  both  in  Phaaophyceaa  and 
in  Diatomaceae.  The  author  finds  that  he  can  convert  ordinary  chloro- 
phyll by  chemical  reagents  into  a  brown  colouring  matter,  and  this  in 
its  turn  shortly  changes  back  to  alkali-chlorophyll.  Comparisons  are 
made  between  the  brown  colouring  matter  of  these  groups  of  algae  and 
that  discovered  by  Schimper  in  the  living  chromoplasts  of  Neottia  nidus- 
avis.  Leucocyanin  has  been  found  in  the  chromatophores  of  Phaeophyceae 
and  Diatomaceae,  together  with  carotin  and  chlorophyll.  The  presence 
of  leucocyanin  causes  the  algas  to  turn  blue-green  in  a  solution  of  2  p.c. 
hydrochloric  acid. 

Spore  Formation  in  Biddulphia  mobiliensis.J — P.  Bergon  publishes 
some  new  observations  on  this  process  as  it  occurs  in  B.  mobiliensis. 
During  quiet  days  of  the  winters  of  1902-3-4  he  noticed  a  tendency  to 
form  internal  spores,  and  he  describes  the  manner  of  their  formation. 
The  nucleus  divides  and  also  the  cell-contents.  Two  membranes  are 
formed,  the  external  convex  surfaces  of  which  are  in  contact  at  their 
extreme  point.  Then  follows  successive  division  of  the  nucleus  and  cell 
contents  into  2,  4,  8,  16,  or  more,  spores.  He  noticed  that  the  spores  of 
one  and  the  same  cell  did  not  all  divide  in  the  same  manner,  and  were 
thus  of  different  sizes  and  even  varied  in  number.  Nevertheless  the 
total  number  of  spores  in  each  daughter-cell  was  either  32  or  64  when 
the  division  was  complete.  These  spores  became  motile  inside  the 
daughter-cells,  and  this  motility  was  even  seen  to  begin  during  the  divi- 
sion of  16-32  spores.  The  movement  is  rotary  ;  the  spores  have  two 
long  cilia  and  a  spheroidal  swelling  at  the  free  end.  The  author  then 
describes  in  detail  certain  phenomena  connected  with  spore-formation 

*  Flora,  xcv.  (1905)  pp.  95-107  (2  figs,  in  text). 
t  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxiii.  (1905)  pp.  131-44. 
\  Microgr.  Prep.,  xiii.  (1905)  fasc.  1,  2. 

Bee.  20th,  1905  3  c 


722  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

which  he  has  observed  in  this  Diatom.  He  believes  that  he  has  also 
recognised  sporolation  in  a  specimen  of  Ghcetoceras  Weissflociii  Schiitt 
or  0.  teres  Cleve  ;  but  although  he  could  detect  a  slow  movement  it  was 
not  distinct,  and  he  could  not  be  sure  of  the  number  and  form  of  the 
flagella.  Finally  he  points  out  that,  though  Rabenhorst  discovered  so 
early  as  1K5:J>  the  phenomenon  of  reproduction  by  zoospores,  the  con- 
firmation of  it  has  been  delayed  up  to  the  present  day. 

Arctic  and  North  Atlantic  Marine  Alga?.*  —  F.  Borgesen  and 
H.  Jonsson  have  drawn  up  a  series  of  tables  illustrating  the  distribution 
of  the  marine  algae  of  the  Arctic  Sea  and  of  the  northernmost  part 
of  the  Atlantic,  in  order  to  compare  with  it  the  flora  of  the  Faeroes 
and  Iceland.  In  this  list  are  included  species  from  the  coasts  of 
Europe  which  occur  in  the  N.  Atlantic  to  the  north  of  a  line  drawn 
from  Lindesnaes  in  Norway  to  the  boundary  between  England  and 
Scotland,  as  well  as  species  from  the  shores  of  New  England  mentioned 
by  Farlow  and  by  Collins.  The  tables  compare  the  occurrence  of  species 
in  seventeen  different  seas  and  countries  in  the  area  treated,  and  the 
total  reaches  407  Rhodophycere  and  Phaeophyceaa,  4-  24,  which  belong 
strictly  to  America.  Then  follow  various  analyses  of  this  general  table, 
under  the  headings  of  Arctic  group,  Sub-Arctic  group,  Boreal-Arctic 
group,  Cold  Boreal  group,  and  Warm  Boreal  group.  The  Chlorophyceae 
and  Cyanophyceae  are  given  in  a  supplement,  as  their  distribution  is 
insufficiently  known. 

Marine  Flora  of  the  N.  Atlantic,  N.  Pacific,  and  Polar  Sea.j — 
H.  G.  Simmons  publishes  some  most  valuable  facts  on  the  relation  of 
the  marine  flora  of  the  above-mentioned  seas.  It  is  now  more  than 
twenty  years  since  Kjellman's  great  work  on  Arctic  algae  was  published, 
and  the  work  of  the  present  author  brings  the  list  of  Arctic  species  up 
to  date.  He  deals  only  with  Floridese  and  Phaeophycese,  as  the 
synonymy  of  the  other  groups  is  too  uncertain  to  make  any  comparison 
profitable.  Out  of  the  Kjellman  total  of  196  species,  Simmons  cancels 
31  as  being  for  one  reason  or  another  wrongly  included.  His  own 
Tesults  are  presented  in  the  form  of  tables,  which  are  explained  in  a 
most  exhaustive  and  interesting  text.  In  the  list  of  Arctic  algse  he 
includes  all  species  found  along  the  coast  from  the  Kola  Peninsula  to 
Behring  Strait,  along  the  northern  coast  of  America,  in  the  Arctic- 
American  Archipelago,  on  the  coasts  of  Greenland,  Jan  Mayen, 
Spitzbergen,  Beeren  Island  and  Novaja  Semlja.  Remarks  are  made 
and  valuable  conclusions  arrived  at  with  regard  to  the  present  distribu- 
tion of  Arctic  species  outside  the  Polar  circle,  and  on  the  influence  of 
the  Ice  Age  on  the  flora  of  the  seas  in  question.  The  distribution  of 
certain  genera,  including  Laminar  ia,  Alaria,  Lessonia,  etc.,  is  studied 
in  connection  with  the  latter  subject,  and  their  migration  is  explained 
by  geological  facts. 

Ceramiaceae  of  New  Zealand.}  —  R.  M.  Laing  has  written  an 
account  of  the  Ceramiaceae  of  New  Zealand.     The  generic  descriptions 

*  Botany  of  the  Faeroes,  Appendix,  xxviii.  pp. 
t  Beih.  Hot.  Centralbl.,  xix.  (1905)  pp  149-94. 
\  Trans.  New  Zealand  Inst,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  384-408  (8  pis.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  723 

tire  largely  drawn  from  Engler  and  Prantl's  Pflanzenfamilien,  and  the 
descriptions  of  some  of  the  species  are  based  on  J.  G.  Agardh's  Epicrisis. 
But  many  other  species  are  here  freshly  described  from  specimens  in  the 
author's  own  herbarium.  A  key  to  the  New  Zealand  genera  is  given, 
and  these  are  fourteen  in  number.  Both  the  generic  and  specific 
diagnoses  which  follow  are  full  of  detail,  and  are  further  supplemented 
by  critical  remarks.  One  new  species  is  described,  Spongoclonium 
pastorale,  from  the  Otago  Peninsula.  The  paper  is  illustrated  by  eight 
plates. 

Finland  Algae.* — K.  H.  Enwald  has  studied  the  Chroococcaceae  of 
Finland,  and  enumerates  in  his  paper  thirty  species,  among  which  he 
describes  and  figures  a  new  form,  stipitata,  of  G.  macrococcus  Rabenh. 

K.  M.  Levander  contributes  some  information  on  the  Rhizosoleniae 
of  the  same  country.  He  had  in  a  previous  paper  noted  the  occurrence 
of  Attheya  Zachariasii  Bran.,  and  Rhizosolenia  longiseta  Zach.,  in 
Finland  plankton  ;  in  the  present  paper  he  gives  notes  on  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  Rhizosoleniae  in  Finland  waters,  together  with  figures  and 
observations  on  R.  longiseta  Zach.,  R.  eriensis  H.  L.  Smith,  R.  minima, 
Levand.  (  =  R.  gracilis  H.  L.  Sm.)  and  Atthega  Zachariasii. 

The  Algae  of  Lower  Austria. f — A.  Hansgirg  publishes  a  preliminary 
paper  on  this  subject,  which  he  is  intending  to  elaborate  into  an  exhaus- 
tive book.  The  present  paper  includes  only  the  results  of  his  studies 
during  190:3  and  1904,  as  his  work  previous  to  those  years  has  been 
already  published.  Records  of  species  collected  by  other  botanists  in 
Lower  Austria  are  also  given,  as  well  as  lists  of  places  examined  by 
them  and  himself.  The  physical  and  geological  character  of  the  region 
is  discussed  with  relation  to  the  algae.  The  hydrophilous  and  aerophilous 
algae  are  the  most  developed.  The  number  of  species  treated  in  the 
present  paper  is  603,  among  which  are  15  new  forms  and  varieties,  and 
3  new  species,  one  representing  a  new  genus  of  Myxophyceae.  A  com- 
parative table  is  given  of  the  algae  of  Lower  Austria,  Upper  Austria, 
and  Bohemia. 

The  Algae  of  Germany.! — W.  Migula  has  published  the  first  four 
parts  of  his  volume  on  the  algae  in  Thome's  "  Flora  of  Germany. " 
These  parts  consist  of  the  Schizophyceae,  with  Cyanophyceae,  and  include 
forty  genera.  At  the  beginning  of  the  volume  the  author  treats  of  the 
general  characteristics  of  algae,  as  well  as  methods  of  collecting  and 
determining  them.  Then  follows  the  systematic  part,  in  which  each 
order  is  described,  a  synopsis  of  genera  is  given,  and  finally,  a  short  but 
complete  diagnosis  of  each  species.     Many  are  figured  in  colour. 

Algae  of  the  Weser  Districts — J.  Suhr  concludes  his  list  of  the  fresh- 
water algae  of  the  eastern  mountainous  district  of  the  Weser,  and  adds 
some  general  remarks  on  the  flora  as  a  whole.     Of  the  393  species  and 

*  Medd.  Soc.  Fauna  Flora  Fennica,  xxx.  (11(03-4)  pp.  112-17  and  149-55  (1  pi.). 
f  Beih.  Bot  Centralb!.,  xviii.  (1905)  pp.  417-522. 

X  Thome's  Flora  v.  Deutschland.  v.  parts  11-21  (1904-5)  pp.  1-112  (20  pis.). 
§  H.  dwigia,  xliv.  (1905)  pp.  289-300. 

3   C   2 


724  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 

50  varieties  recorded,  S  species  and  2  varieties  are  new  to  Europe,  and 
21  species  and  I  varieties  are  in  addition  to  these  new  to  Germany.  As 
regards  the  distribution,  the  author  finds  that  the  rivers  are  poor  in 
Cyanophyceae  and  in  green  algas.  Cladophora  glomerata  is,  however, 
widely  distributed.  Diatoms  are  more  common  in  the  rivers,  especially 
species  which  are  either  in  chains  or  have  a  common  envelope.  The 
richest  localit  ies  are  the  fish-ponds  in  the  forest  region  ;  here  are  Desmids 
in  plenty,  as  also  in  the  peat  moors.  Finally  a  comparison  is  drawn 
between  the  flora  of  this  district  and  that  of  the  Liineberger  Heide, 
which  was  worked  out  by  Max  Schmidt.  Among  other  points  of  in- 
terest the  author  points  out  that  Batrar.hospermvm  monili forme  occurs 
in  the  Weser  district  only  in  running  brooks,  whereas  on  the  Lune- 
berger  Heide  it  is  only  found  in  stagnant  water.  He  also  draws  atten- 
tion to  the  rarity  of  Bulbochcete  in  the  region  he  has  examined  ;  the 
only  species  which  could  be  named  was  found  in  a  fish-pond  at  the 
Forsthaus  Lakenhaus  and  nowhere  else.  A  register  of  the  species 
recorded  in  this  list  completes  the  paper. 

Desmids  from  Victoria.* — A.  D.  Hardy  continues  his  study  of  the 
Desmids  of  Victoria,  and  publishes  a  list  of  49  species,  as  well  as  some 
varieties  recorded  from  this  district.  Three  new  species  and  8  varieties 
of  G.  S.  West  are  here  described  in  English,  with  information  regarding 
the  distinguishing  characters.  A  plate,  drawn  by  the  author,  shows  the 
new  forms  of  Micrasterias. 

G.  S.  West  t  describes  the  three  new  species  and  eight  new  varieties 
of  Desmids  mentioned  above,  collected  by  A.  D.  Hardy,  of  Melbourne. 
The  novelties  are  mostly  plankton  forms.  The  three  species  are  :  Pleu- 
rotcmium  mamillatum,  Micrasterias  Hardyi,  and  Gosmarium  Hardyi. 

Marine  Phytoplankton.J — E.  Lemmermann  publishes  his  third  part 
of  this  paper,  containing  a  list  of  hitherto  known  marine  phytoplankton. 
He  gathers  his  records  from  various  papers  and  works  not  easily  acces- 
sible to  many  students,  and  in  the  case  of  newly  described  organisms  he 
gives  a  short  description  of  his  own,  drawn  from  the  original  diagnoses 
and  figures,  as  an  assistance  to  workers.  He  points  out  that  he  differs 
from  some  authors  in  his  limitation  of  certain  species,  as  for  instance 
Ceratium  tripos,  and  many  of  the  Peridineee  and  Flagellatse.  However, 
his  views  on  these  points  are  withheld  for  the  present,  as  tending  to 
produce  confusion  in  a  list  such  as  the  one  here  published.  Localities 
are  given  if  or  each  species  recorded.  A  list  of  bibliography  includes 
50  publications  by  various  authors,  and  is  followed  by  a  final  note 
on  a  very  recent  paper  by  C.  Lohmann.  In  that  paper  the  author 
states  that  certain  species  described  as  Xanthidium  are  merely  crabs' 
eggs,  and  that  Hexasterias  problematica  Cleve  is  also  an  animal  egg. 
Lohmann  divides  the  Pterospermaceas  into  4  genera :  Pterosperma 
Pouchet,  Pterocystis  Lohmann,  Pterosphcera  (Joerg.)  Lohmann,  and 
I'trrococcus  Lohmann. 

*  Victorian  Naturalist,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  62-73  (1  pi.)- 

t  Journ.  of  Bot..  xliii.  (1905)  pp.  252-4. 

%  Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  1-74. 


ZOOLOGY,   AND   BOTANY,  MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  725 

Adjaboff,  M. — Recherches  experimentales  sur  la  physiologic  de  quelques  Algues 
vertes.    (Experimental  researches  on  the  physiology  of  certain  green  algae.) 

Inst.  Bot.  Univ.  Geneve,  vi.  (1905)  104  pp. 

Allen,  C.  E. — Die  Keimung   der  Zygote  bei   Coleochaete.     (Germination  of  the 
Zygote  in  Cohochaste. 

[A  cytologic  study.]  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell,  xxiii.  (1905) 

pp.  285-92  (1  pi.). 

Andres,  A. — 11  fango  delle  terme  di  Bormio.  (The  mud  of  the  warm  springs  of 
Bormio.)  Rend.  1st.  Lomb.,  2nd  ser.  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  723-33,  851-63. 

Bevas,  D.  W. — Seaweeds.  Knowledge  and  Sci.  News,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  202-3,  figs. 

Billard,  G.,  et  Ch.  Brtjyant. — Sur  le  role  des  algues  dans  l'epuration  des  eaux. 
(On  tbe  role  of  algae  in  the  purification  of  water.) 

Compt.  Bend.  Soc.  Biol,  lviii.  (1905)  pp.  302-4. 

Botjgon. — Les  Algues  d'eau  douce.  Famille  des  Hydrodictyees.    (Fresh-water  algae. 

Family  of  Hydrodictyeae.)  Microgr.  Preparat.,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  75-82. 

Brehm,  V.  —  Das    Siisswasserplankton.      Biologische  Ergebnisse,  Metboden  und 

Ziele  der  Planktonforscbung.     (Fresh-water  plankton.    Biological  facts,  methods, 

anil  objects  of  plankton  investigation.) 

[A  comprehensive  study  of  the  subject,  dealing  especially  with  zooplankton.] 

Programm  der  k.  k.  Staatxrealschule  in  Elbogen 
in  Bohmen,  1905,  pp.  3-32. 

Brehm,  V.,  und  E.  Zederbauer. — Beitrage  zur  Planktonuntersucbung  Alpiner 
Seen.  III.    (Contributions  to  the  investigation  of  the  planktonof  Alpine  lakes.   III.) 

Verh.  Jt.k.  Zool.  Bot.  Ges.  Wien,  lv.  (1905)  pp.  222-40. 

Chalon,  J. — Note  sur  une  forme  tres  reduite  du  Fucus  limitaneus  Mont.  (Note  on 
a  very  reduced  form  of  F.  limitaneus.) 

Bull.  Soc.  Hoy.  Bot.  Belgique,  xlii.  (1904-5)  pp.  93-4. 

Cleve,  P.  T. — On  the  Plankton  from  the  Swedish  coast  stations,  Masekar  and 
Vaderobod,  collected  during  August  1902  to  July  1903,  and  on 
the  Baltic  current.  Svensk.  Hydrogr.  Biol.  Komm.  Skrift, 

ii.  (1905)  9  pp.  (text-diag.  and 
1  diag.  map). 

„  „       Report    on  the  Plankton   of   tbe  Baltic  current,  collected   from 

August    1903   to   July   1904   at   tbe   Swedish   coast   stations 
Masekar  and  Vader6bod.        Tom.  cit.,  6  pp.  (with  text-diags.). 

Com  ere,  J. — De  l'influence  de  la  composition  chimique  du  milieu  sur  la  vegetation 
de  quelques  Algues  Chlorophyces.  (On  the  influence  of  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  medium  on  the  vegetation  of  certain 
Chlorophyceae.)       Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  Hi.  (1905)  pp.  226-241. 

„  „  De  l'utilite  des  algues  dans  l'elevage  et  1'alimentation  des  Poissons  a 
propos  de  la  florule  de  l'Etang  de  la  Pujade.  (On  the  utility  of 
algae  in  the  rearing  and  feeding  of  fish,  in  connection  with  the 
flora  of  the  Pujade  lake.) 

Bull  Soc.  Hist.  Nat.  Toulouse,  xxxvii.  (1904)  pp.  61-8. 

Foa,  A. — Ricerche  intorno  a  due  speoie  di  Flagellati  parassiti.  (Researches  on  two 
species  of  parasitic  Flagellatae.)  Atti  Acad.  Line.  Bend...  xiii.  (1904) 

pp.  121-30  (tig.). 

Fucus,  Th. — TJeber  die  Natur  von  Xantbidium  Ebrenberg.  (On  the  nature  of 
Xanthidium.)  Centralbl.  Min.  Geol.  u.  Palxontol.,  1905,  pp.  340-2. 

Grassi,  B.,  &  A.  Foa. — Ricerche  sulla  riproduzione  dei  Flagellati.  I.  Processo  di 
divisione.  (Researches  on  the  reproduction  of  the  Flagellata.  I.  Process  of 
division.)  Atti  Acad.  Line.  Rend.,  xiii.  (1904)  pp.  241-53  (fig.). 

Hallas,  E. — Nye  arter  af  (Edogonium  fra  Danmark.  (New  species  of  QSdogonium 
from  Denmark.)  Bot.  Tidsskr.,  xxvi.  (1905)  pp.  397-410  (figs.). 

Howe,  M.  A. — Report  on  a  trip  to  Europe. 

[Includes  studies  of  marine  algae.]  Journ.  New  York  Bot.  Garden, 

v. (1904)  pp.  217-22. 


72(1  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Jackson,  D.  D.—  Movements  of  Diatoms  and  other  Microscopic  Plants. 

Amer.  Nat.,  xxxix.  (1905)  pp.  287-91. 

Johgensen,  E. — Diatoms  in  bottom  samples  from  Lofoten  and  Vesteraalen,  in  0 
Nordgaard :  Hydrographical  and  Biological  Investigations  in 
Norwegian  Fjords.  Bergens  Mus.  Shrift,  1905,  pp.  195-225. 

„         „         Protist-Plankton  in  0.  Nordgaard  :  Hydrographical  and  Biological 
Investigations  in  Norwegian  Fjords. 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  49-113,  146-51  (3  pis.). 

Labgaiolli.  V. — Le  Diatomee  del  Trentino.    I.  II  Fiume  Noce.    (The  diatoms  of 
Trentino.     I.   The  river  Noee.) 

Atti  Ace.  Sci.  Ven.  trent.  istr.,  CI.  i.  ann.  ii.  (1905)  p.  3-1(1. 

„  „  Le  Diatomee  del  Trentino.    XVIII.  Lago  diCavedine  (Bacino  del 

Sarca.     (The  diatoms    of  Trentino.     XVIII.    Lake   of 
Cavedine,  in  the  Sarca  Valley.) 

,,  Le  diatomee  del  Trentino.     XIX.-XX.  Laghi  di  Malghetto  e  di 

Tovel.     (Lakes  of  Malghetto  and  Tovel.) 

Tridentum,  ix.  (1904)  p.  7 ;  x.  (1905)  p.  7  ; 

Notarisia,  1905,  pp.  68,  106. 

Laubt,  A. — Snr  le  niveau  diatomifere  du  ravin  des  Egravats  pres  le  Mont  Dore, 

Puys-de-Dome.     (On  the  diatomaceous  stratum  in  the  ravine  of  Egravats,  near 

Mont  Dore.)  Compt.  Bend.,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  268-9. 

Lemmerjiann,  E. — Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Planktonalgen.  XX.  Phytoplank- 
ton  aus  Schlesien.  XXI.  Das  Phytoplankton  sachsischer  Teiche.  (Contributions 
to  a  knowledge  of  plankton  algse.  XX.  Phytoplankton  from  Silesia.  XXI.  The 
phytoplankton  of  ponds  in  Saxony.) 

Forsch.  Ber.  Biol.  Stat.  Plon,  xii.  (1905)  pp.  154-68. 

Life,  A.  C. — Vegetative  Structure  of  Mesogloia. 

Ann.  Rep.  Missouri  Bot.  Gard.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  157-60  (1  pi.) 

Mereschkowskt,  C. — TTeber  natur  und  Ursprung  der  Chromatophoren  im  Pflan- 
zenreiche.     (On  the  nature  and  origin  of  chromatophores  in  the  plant  world.) 

Biol.  Centralbl,  xxv.  (1905)  pp.  593-604. 

Meyer,  E. — Beitrage  zur  Biologe  du  Lac  de  Bret,  mit  specieller  Berucksichtigung 

des  Phytoplanktons.     (Contributions  to  the  biology  of  Lake  Bret,  with  special 

regard  to  the  phytoplankton.)         Lausanne,  1904.  viii.  and  52  pp.,  5  tables,  1  fig. 

Miehe,  H. — Wachstum,  Regeneration  und  Polaritat  isolierter  Zellen.    (Growth, 

regeneration,  and  polarity  of  isolated  cells.) 

Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell,  xxiii.  (1905)  pp.  257-64  (1  pi.). 

Miquel,  P. — Du  noyau  chez  les  Diatomees.     (On  the  nucleus  of  Diatoms.) 

Microgr.  Prep.,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  83-90. 

Monti,  R. — Physiobiologische  Beobachtungen  an  den  Alpenseen  zwischen  dem 
Vigezzo  und  dem  Onsernonethal.  ( Physio-biological  observations  on  the  Alpine 
lakes  between  the  Vigezzo  and  the  Onsernone  valleys.) 

[Deals  principally  with  the  fauna  of  the  lakes,  but  at  the  end  of  the  paper  is 
a  tabulated  list  of  organisms  found  in  four  lakes ;  tins  includes  72  Algse  and 
seven  Flagellatae.]  Forsch.  Ber.  Biol.  Stat.  Plon,  xii.  (1905) 

pp.  63-7  (7  figs.). 
Murray,  G.— On  a  new  Rhabdosphere. 

[A  short  description  of  a  new  species,  R.  Blachmaniana,  the  characteristics  of 
which  are  its  small  size,  10  jx,  and  its  acute  short  spinous  processes.  It 
was  collected  on  the  outward  voyage  of  the  Discovery,  in  lat.  28°  25'  S., 
long.  23°  56'  W.     The  figure  is  diagrammatic] 

Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  lxxvi.  series  B,  1905,  pp.  243-4. 

Pascher,  A.  A. — Kleine  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  unserer  Siisswasseralgen.  (Small 
contributions  to  a  knowledge  of  our  fresh-water  algaa.)        Lotos,  No.  7  (1904)  fig. 

Pavillard,  J.— Recherches  sur  la  flore  pelagique  (phytoplankton)  de  l'etang  de 
Thau.    (Researches  on  the  pelagic  flora  of  the  lake  of  Thau. ) 

Trav.  Inst.  Bot.  Univ.  MontpeUier  et  Stat.  Zool.  Cette, 
ser.  mixte.  Mem.,  No.  2  (1905)  116  pp.,  1  map,  3  pis. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    KTC.  727 

Pbowazek,  S. — Die  Entwickelung  von  Herpetomonas  einem  mit  den  Trypanosomen 
verwandten  Flagellaten,  (The  development  of  Herpetomonas,  a  flagellatuin  allied 
to  the  Trypanosomes.) 

[A  preliminary  note.]  Arb.  k.  Gesundh.,  xx.  (1904)  pp.  440-52. 

Reinbold,  Th. — Einige  neue  Chlorophyceen  aus  dem  Ind.  Ocean  (Niederl.  Indien), 
gesammelt  von  A.  Weber  van  Bosse,  bestimmt  von  Th.  Reinbold-Itzehoe.  (Some 
new  Chloropliycese  from  the  Indian  Ocean  (Dutch  East  Indies),  collected  by 
A.  Weber  van  Bosse,  determined  by  Th.  Rheinbold,  of  Itzehoe.) 

[Diagnoses  of  four  new  species  of  Chladophora,  one  of  Cladophoropsis.  and  two 
of  Boodlea,  brought  home  by  Madame  Weber  van  Bosse  in  the  '  Siboga.'] 

Nuov.  Notar.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  145-9. 

Schneider,  A. — Chroolepus  aureus  a  lichen. 

[Describes  how  this  orange-red  alga,  now  usually  placed  in  the  genus  Trente- 
pohlia,  is  commonly  found  witli  its  filaments  closely  covered  with  a  delicate 
network  of  spirally-wound  hyphse  of  a  minute  fungus.] 

Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  431-4  (1  pi.). 

Setchell,  W.  A. — Limu.     (Algse  for  eating  or  ceremonial  use  of  the  Hawaiians.) 

Univ.  California  Publications,  1905,  23  pp. 

Silvenius.  A.  J. — Kolme  snomelle  nutta  sinilevaa.     (Three  Cyanophycese  new  to 

Finland.)  Mecld.  Soc.  Fauna  et  Flora  Fennica,  1905r 

heft  30. 
.,  „  Zur    Kenntniss  der  Verbreitung  finnischer   Chlorophyceen  und 

Cyanophyceen.     (Contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  Chlorophyceae  and  Cyanophycese  in  Finland.) 

Tom.  cit.,  heft  29. 

Sundvick,  E.  E. — Im  brom  och  jodhalten  i  Ostersjbus  alger.  (On  the  bromide  and 
iodine  contents  of  the  Ostersjo  algae.)  Tom.  cit..  heft  30. 

Terry,  W.  A.  — Sur  un  etrange  mode  de  developpement  chezle  genre  Surirella.  (On 
a  strange  mode  of  development  in  the  genus  Surirella.) 

Microgr.  Pre'p.,  xiii.  (1905)  pp.  57-60  (figs.  1-6). 

Ubsprung,  A. — Eine  optische  Erscheinung  an  Coleochaete.  (An  optical  appearance 
in  Coleochaste.) 

[The  author  finds  that  under  certain  conditions  of  light  a  dark  cross  is  seen 
on  the  disk  of  this  alga.  If  the  light  falls  vertically  on  the  disk,  no  cross 
is  to  be  Been;  if  it  falls  at  an  angle,  the  cross  is  visible.  The  result  of 
experiments  in  the  variation  of  the  angle  at  which  the  light  strikes  the 
disk  and  the  eve  respectively  is  described.] 

Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell,  xxiii.  (1905)  pp.  236-9  (1  pi.). 

Van  Heurck,  H. — Note  sur  le  Cocconeis  danica  Flogel.     (Notes  on  C.  danica.) 

Microgr.  Prep.,  xiii.  (1905)  p.  83  (2  figs.). 

Voglek,  P. — Bisherige Resultate  variations  statistischer  TJntersuchungen an  Plank  - 
tondiatomaceen.  (Results  hitherto  obtained  by  investigation  of  plankton  diatoms 
with  regard  to  the  statistics  of  variation.) 

[Three  works  are  dealt  with — those  of  Schroter  and  Vogler,  Lozeron,  and 
Bachmann.J  Forsch.  Ber.  Biol.  Stat.  Plon,  xii.  (1905) 

pp.  90-101  (2  pis.,  8  figs.). 

Wattam,  W.  E.  L.— Plant  Life  of  the  Seashore. 

Nature  Study,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  23-7  (1  fig.). 

Zacharias,  O. — Archiv  fur  Hydrobiologie  und  Planktonkunde.  Neue  Folge  der 
Forschungsberichte  aus  der  biologischen  Station  zu  Plon. 
(Records  of  hydrobiology  and  plankton  study.  New  series 
of  research  reports  from  the  Plon  biological  station.) 

Stuttgart,  1905. 

„  „  Rhizosolenia  curvata,  eine  neue  marine  Planktondiatomee.   (R. 

curvata,  a  new  marine  plankton  Diatom.) 

Arch.  Hydrobiol.  u.  Plunktonk.,  i.  (1905). 


728  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Fungi. 
(By  A.  Lorbain  Smith,  F.L.S.) 

Two  Conidia-bearing  Fungi.* — A.  F.  Blakeslee  has  succeeded  by 
his  method  of  cultivating  different  strains  of  Mucors  in  close  proximity, 
in  inducing  the  development  of  zygospores  in  many  forms  in  which  they 
were  rare  or  altogether  unknown.  He  applied  the  same  method  to 
Cunning hamella  echimdata,  a  conidial  fungus  that  had  been  tentatively 
placed  in  the  Mucorini  by  Thaxter.  The  production  of  zygospores 
decided  the  systematic  relationships  and  justified  the  classification  pro- 
posed. He  also  describes  a  new  genus,  Thamnocqihalis,  probably  also 
one  of  the  Mucorini ;  it  bears  a  "  bushy  crown  of  branched  fertile  hyphae 
terminated  by  sterile  hyphge."  The  spores  are  borne  on  spherical  heads, 
not  unlike  Gunninyhamella. 

Disease  of  Haricot  Beans.f — L.  Petri  found  that  the  fungal  attack 
was  due  to  ScUrotinia  Libertiana,  and  was  confined  to  the  pods.  The 
fungus  causes  alteration  and  distortion  of  the  tissues  affected.  The 
author  does  not  think  that  the  germinating  ascospore  could  attack  a 
healthy  vegetable,  but  probably  it  lives  first  on  any  plant  remains,  such 
as  withered  petals,  etc.,  that  may  be  adhering  to  the  beans,  and  the 
fungus  is  thus  enabled  to  get  a  start,  and  later  to  attack  the  living  plant. 

Witches'  Broom  on  Pear  Trees.J — F.  Muth  describes  a  case  of  this 
disease  on  a  wild  pear.  The  "  brooms  "  were  unusually  large,  reaching  a 
height  of  2  metres,  and  when  present  in  large  numbers  they  killed  the  tree. 
The  leaves  borne  on  the  "  broom  "  were  smaller  and  paler  than  normal 
leaves,  and  flowers  were  less  freely  produced.  Mycelium  was  found  in 
the  branches,  but  no  fruit  form  was  seen.  Another  disease  of  pear-trees 
resulting  in  abnormal  growths,  splitting  and  canker  formation  was 
examined,  but  no  fungal  fruit  was  found. 

Botrytis  Disease  of  Tulips  and  Lily  of  the  Valley .§  — H.  Kle- 
bahn  finds  two  kinds  of  sclerotia  in  the  diseased  tulips.  There  is  a 
small  form  which  is  accompanied  by  Botrytis.  Plants  infected  by  this 
form  produced  Botrytis  parasitica  on  the  leaves.  It  does  not  seriously 
injure  the  plants.  The  second  form,  which  he  calls  Sclerotium  tuhparum, 
is  larger,  and  develops  on  the  diseased  bulbs  and  in  the  adjacent  soil. 
No  other  fungus  form  was  found  connected  with  these  larger  sclerotia, 
merely  mycelium,  and  again  sclerotia.  Klebahn  also  describes  a  disease 
of  lily  of  the  valley  due  to  Botrytis  cimrea,  and  he  gives  an  account  of 
infection  experiments  with  forms  of  Botrytis,  which  indicated  some 
degree  of  specialisation  in  the  fungus. 

Biology  of  Entomophytes.|| — Marcel  Mirande  publishes  a  study  of 
the  fungi  that  live  on  insects.    By  chemical  tests  he  establishes  the  pre- 

*  Bot.  Gazette,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  161-70  (1  pi.). 

t  Bend.  K.  Accad.  Lincei  Roma,  Nov.  1904,  pp.  1-4.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl., 
xcix.  (19(15)  p.  67. 

X  Naturwiss.  Land.  Forstw.,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  64-76  (13  figs.).  See  also  Bot.  Cen- 
tralbl., xcix.  (1905)  p.  194. 

§  Jahrb.  Hamb.  Wiss.  Anst,  xxii.  (1904)  Beiheft  3.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl., 
xcix.  (1905)  pp.  138-9.  ||  Rev.  Gen.  Bot.,  xvii.  (1905)  pp.  304-12. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  729 

sence  of  glucose  in  the  chitinous  covering  of  the  insect,  located  at  the 
place  of  insertion  of  the  muscles,  or  spread  over  the  whole  surface.  He 
finds  in  the  existence  of  this  sugar,  a  reason  why  so  many  fungi  grow 
readily  on  insects  :  Saprolegnieas,  Laboulbeniaceaa,  and  several  Hypho- 
mycetes.  Where  a  sclerotium  is  formed  in  the  body  of  the  insect,  as  in 
Gordyceps,  the  outer  chitinous  covering  must  play  an  important  part  in 
nourishing  the  ascus  form  of  fruit. 

Biology  of  Ergot.* — R.  Stager  gives  the  results  of  his  infection 
experiments  with  Claviceps.  The  forms  that  grow  on  Brachypodium 
silvaticum  also  infect  Milium  effusum,  but  only  the  Sphacelia  condi- 
tion was  developed.  In  tracing  the  life-history  of  the  fungus,  he  found 
that  the  infection  of  the  flower  of  Milium  effusum  is  caused  by  the  Asco- 
spores  of  Claviceps  Brachypodii ;  the  conidia  formed  on  Milium  then 
infect  Brachypodium  silvaticum,  in  the  flower  of  which  the  Sclerotium 
is  formed.  It  was  also  possible  to  produce  the  Sphacelia  stage  on  Poa 
pratensis  and  P.  trivialis. 

Phyllactinia  Corylea.f — P.  Voglino  publishes  a  full  account  of  the 
morphology  of  this  fungus.  He  describes  its  development  in  the  leaf 
and  its  action  on  the  leaf  tissue.  Although  it  is  usually  superficial, 
some  of  the  hyphse  penetrate  through  the  stomata  and  cause  a  dis- 
coloration of  the  host-cells.  He  draws  special  attention  to  the  needle- 
like appendages  of  the  perithecium  and  also  to  the  attaching  filaments, 
hypha?  that  rise  from  the  base  of  the  perithecium  and  branch  out  into  a 
pencil-like  head  of  elongate  cells  all  equal  in  length.  He  proposes  to 
call  them  epipectic  hyphae  (ife  epipecteche)  :  they  serve  to  keep  the  fruits 
attached  to  the  leaf  during  the  winter,  and  so  secure  early  infection  of 
the  host-plant  in  spring.  Voglino  tried  infection  experiments  with  the 
ascospores  from  one  host  to  another,  without  result.  There  is,  probably, 
specialisation  in  this  genus  similar  to  that  which  has  been  proved  in 
other  members  of  the  Erysiphaceas. 

Morphology  and  Cytology  of  Yeasts.J — A.  Guilliermond  gives  a 
description  of  the  development  of  the  yeast-cell,  especially  of  sporula- 
tion  and  conjugation.  Caryogamy  is  wanting  at  the  origin  of  the  ascus 
in  Saccharomyces  ;  conjugation  takes  place  before  sporulation  in  Zygo- 
saccharomyces  and  Schizosaccharomyces.  In  the  latter  apogamy  has  also 
been  noted.  In  Saccharomyces  Ludivigii  two  spores  fuse  before  ger- 
mination, and  an  ascus  has  sometimes  been  formed  as  the  result  of  this 
conjugation.  The  author  considers  that  the  Schizosaccharomycetes  are 
connected  with  the  Saccharomycetes  by  the  genus  Saccharomy codes. 
Their  connection  with  the  Bacteria  is  problematic. 

Vacuoles  in  Yeast-Cells.§ — An  examination  of  yeast-cells  has  led 
J.  J.  Van  Hest  to  believe  that  they  do  not  contain  vacuoles,  but  that 
the  appearance  so  described  is  due  to  flattened  portions  of  the  cell-wall. || 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xiv.  (1905)  pp.  25-32.     See  also  Bot.  Zeit.,  lxiii.  (1905)  p.  216. 

t  Nuovo  Giom.  Bot.  Ital.,  xii.  (1905)  pp.  313-27  (8  figs.). 

%  Bull.  Inst.  Pasteur,  iii.  (1905)  pp.  177-84  and  225-35  (figs.  1-21).  See  also 
Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  164. 

§  Wochenschr.  Brauerie,  Bel.  xxii.  No.  8,  p.  105.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xv. 
(1905)  p.  61. 

||  Tom.  cit.,  No.  9,  p.  123.     See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xv.  (1905)  p.  61. 


730  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

Lindner  has  taken  up  the  question,  and  states  that  these  flattened  por- 
tions do  exist,  but  that  vacuoles  are  also  present  in  the  cells.*  The 
subject  is  further  discussed  by  Rommel,  who  supports  Lindner  as  to 
the  existence  of  vacuoles. 

Fusion  of  Ustilaero  Conidia.f — Harry  Federley  distinguished  two 
forms  of  conidia  in  Ustilago  Tragopogi-pratensis.  In  one  form  each  pro- 
mvcelium  formed  one  conidium.  As  soon  as  the  conidia  were  free  they 
congregated  in  pairs  and  then  formed  a  long  germinating  filament. 
Germination  took  place  only  in  water ;  any  addition  of  nutritive  substance 
killed  the  conidia.  In  the  other  form  numerous  conidia  were  produced 
both  in  water  and  in  nutritive  media,  but  no  copulation  took  place.  A 
careful  examination  of  the  fused  conidia  showed  that  the  nucleus  from 
one  conidium  passed  over  and  fused  with  that  of  the  other  conidium  ; 
after  germination  had  begun  the  protoplasm  of  the  conidium  also  passed 
over.  Federley  thinks  that  the  fusion  of  the  nuclei  points  to  sexuality, 
though  it  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  a  decision. 

Infection  of  Cereals  by  Smut  Spores. J — Ludwig  Hecke  has  proved 
conclusively  that  there  are  two  methods  of  infection  of  cereals  by  Ustilago. 
There  is  the  attack  of  the  seedling  plant,  and  there  is  a  more  insidious 
infection  of  the  seed  in  an  early  stage  of  development.  Hecke  watered 
developing  flowers  of  barley  with  smut  spores  while  the  stigma  was  still 
quite  fresh.  When  the  seeds  were  developed  he  freed  them  from  chaff, 
thoroughly  sterilised  the  outer  coats  and  left  them  to  germinate  for  a 
while  in  sterilised  conditions.  Examination  of  the  growing  embryo 
proved  the  presence  in  the  cells  of  healthy  mycelium,  which  he  concluded 
had  been  produced  by  the  smut  spores  with  which  he  had  watered  the 
flower.     Further  research  is  promised. 

Deformation  caused  by  an  J5cidium.§ — C.  Massalongo  describes 
the  effect  produced  by  JEcidium  Euphorbim  on  the  young  shoots  of 
Euphorbia  Cyparissias,  of  which  the  roots  and  underground  stem  were 
invaded  by  the  mycelium  of  the  fungus.  He  gives  an  account  of  four 
different  plants  affected  by  the  fungus.  The  shoot,  the  leaves,  and  the 
flower  were  all  dwarfed  or  altered  in  growth  :  usually  the  shoots  were 
sterile  and  the  leaves  hypertrophied  and  covered  with  the  fructifications 
of  the  JEcidium. 

Uredinese.|| — Ed.  Fischer  brings  to  a  close  the  account  of  his  culture 
experiments  with  rust  fungi.  Uromyces  solidaginensis,  he  finds,  possesses 
only  teleutospores.  The  JEcidium,  on  Linosyris  vulgaris,  is  connected 
with  a  Puccinia,  on  Carex  humilis.  A  Melampsora  that  occurs  on  Larix 
decidua  and  Salix  retusa  grows  abundantly  on  the  latter  and  on  Salix 
herbacea,  less  freely  or  not  at  all  on  other  species  of  willow.  He  also 
affirms  the  connection  between  JEcidium  leucospermum  and  Ochrospora 
Sorbi. 

*  Wochenschr.  Brauerie.  Bd.  xxii.  No.  9,  p.  123.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt.,  xv. 
(1905)  p.  61. 

t  Oefversigt  af  Finska  Vetensk.  Soc.  Forkandlingar,  xlvi.  (1904)  No.  2,  23  pp. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  223. 

X  Her.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  xxiii.  (1H05)  pp.  248-50  <\  pi.). 

§  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  No.  5  (1905)  pp.  158-61. 

||  Ber.  Sehw.  Bot.  Ges.,  xv.  (1905)  13  pp.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl..  xcix.  (1905) 
p.  87. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICKOSCOPY,    ETC.  731 

J.  C.  Arthur*  publishes  a  list  of  54  species  of  rusts  on  Composite 
from  Mexico.  There  are  18  new  species  recorded.  Most  of  them  have 
been  collected  by  E.  W.  D.  Holway.  Diagnoses  of  the  new  species  are 
published,  with  descriptive  notes. 

J.  L.  Sheldont  writes  on  "  the  effect  of  different  soils  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  carnation  rust."  He  planted  a  series  of  170  cuttings  of 
carnations  in  different  soils,  chiefly  sand  mixed  with  clay  and  organic 
matter,  and  inoculated  all  of  them.  Only  3  plants  escaped  the  disease. 
He  found  as  a  result  of  soil  influence  that  (1)  the  intensity  of  colour 
of  the  host-plant  was  proportional  to  the  amount  of  clay  in  the  soil ; 
(2)  the  growth  of  the  host  was  proportional  to  the  amount  of  organic 
matter,  nitrogen,  and  silt  in  the  different  soils  ;  (3)  the  more  gravel 
and  sand  in  the  soil,  the  longer  it  was  before  the  uredospores  broke 
through  the  epidermis  after  an  inoculation  had  been  made  ;  (4)  the 
soils  that  were  favourable  for  the  development  of  the  host  were  also 
favourable  for  the  development  of  the  rust. 

M.  A.  CarletonJ  gives  his  experience  of  rusted  corn.  Excess  of 
moisture  and  delay  in  the  ripening  of  the  grain  largely  favour  the 
spread  of  the  rust.  Certain  kinds  of  wheat  are  less  liable  to  attack  than 
others,  and  some  varieties  are  immune.  Care  should  be  taken  to  choose 
resistant  varieties. 

H.  Snyder,§  in  an  account  of  rusted  wheat,  states  that  the  glutinous 
material  which  should  have  gone  into  the  grain  was  retained  in  the 
straw,  making  it  better  for  feeding  than  ordinary  clean  straw.  There 
is  more  protein  present  in  both  straw  and  grain  when  rust  is  there. 

Polyporacese  of  North  America. — XL  A  synopsis  of  the  brown 
pileate  species. — W.  A.  Murrill  ||  includes  under  his  Polyporaceas  three 
sub-families,  Polyporege,  Fomitea3,  and  Agaricese.  No  new  species  are 
described,  but  many  new  genera  are  introduced.  These  are  :  Coriolopsis, 
Flaviporus,  Gerrenella,  Nigroporus,  Fomitella,  Amauroderma,  and  Poro- 
dcedalea.   Murrill  gives  a  full  synonymy  and  notes  on  the  different  species. 

In  a  further  paperlf  he  continues  the  subject,  and  publishes  a 
synopsis  of  the  white  and  brightly-coloured  pileate  species.  His 
rearrangement  again  necessitates  a  large  number  of  new  genera.  These 
are  :  Irpiciporus,  Dendrophagus,  Spongloporus,  Rigidioporus,  Earliella, 
Cubamyces,  Coreoleolellus,  Micropordlus,  Flaviporellus,  Aurantiporellus, 
Aurantiporus,  PyenoporeUus,  and  Pycnoporus. 

Mycological  Notes.** — C.  G.  Lloyd  publishes  in  No.  20  of  his 
Notes  an  account  of  the  Lycoperdons  of  the  United  States.  They  fall 
into  the  same  groups  as  do  those  of  other  countries  ;  a  few  of  the  plants 
described  are  identical  with  British  species.  He  also  describes  the 
genus  Mitremyces,  the  species  of  which  grow  in  the  more  southern 
states  of  the  country.  No  species  is  known  from  Europe,  Africa,  or 
S.  America.     All  have  the  openings  lined  with  red,  and  in  one  species 

*  Bot.  Gazette,  xl.  (1905)  pp.  196-208.  f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  225-9. 

J  U.S.  Dept,  Agric,  Farmer's  Bull.,  No.  219  (1905)  pp.  1-24. 
§  Bull.  Miu.  Agric.  Exp.  Stat.,  xc.  (1905)  pp.  218-31. 
||    Bull.  Torrey  B..t.  Club,  xxxii.  (1 905)  pp.  353-71. 
\  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  469-93. 
**  Cincinnati,  June  1905,  pp.  2 -'1-44  (14  pis.). 


732  SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

the  peridium  also  is  bright  red.     Photographic  figures  of  the  plants  and 
the  cortex  of  each  are  published. 

Hyphomycetes.*  —  G.  Lindau  completes  his  description  of  the 
Hyalodidymeai,  and  begins  the  third  division  dealing  with  the  colour- 
less pluri-septate-spore  forms,  the  Hyalophragmiae.  The  author  remarks 
on  the  great  difficulty  of  accurately  defining  genera  that  shade  into 
each  other  such  as  the  parasitic  genera  Cercosporella  and  Ramularia. 
The  latter  he  considers  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  understand,  and  he 
foresees  the  splitting  of  many  existing  species,  as  well  as  the  lumping 
together  of  others  that  are  considered  to  differ. 

Fungi  of  the  Mark  Brandenburg.  | — A  complete  flora  of  this 
district  is  being  issued,  and  the  division  "  Fungi "  has  been  undertaken 
by  P.  Hennings,  G.  Lindau,  P.  Lindner,  and  F.  Neger.  They  begin 
with  the  Ascomycetes,  and  each  writer  deals  with  one  or  more  groups. 
A  scientific  account  is  given,  with  a  description  of  the  life-history  of 
each  genus,  and  diagnoses  and  descriptions  of  the  species  that  occur  in 
the  region.  The  writers  have  dealt,  in  the  present  part,  with  42  genera 
and  88  species.  References  and  synonymy  are  fully  given,  and  there 
are  figures  to  illustrate  the  genera. 

American  Mycology. — Several  additions  have  been  made  to  the 
fungus-flora  in  the  present  issue  of  the  "Journal  of  Mycology." 
A.  P.  Morgan  +  describes  a  new  species  of  Chcetosphceiia  that  grew  on  old 
wood.  Two  new  Haplosporellce  on  dead  branches  have  been  found  in 
Kansas  by  J.  B.  Ellis  and  G.  Bartholomey.§  A  number  of  new  species 
and  new  records,  mostly  of  Ustilagineee  and  Uredinese,  are  described  by 
P.  L.  Ricker.||  H.  C.  Beardsleel  gives  a  short  account  of  the  Rhodo- 
sporas  among  the  Agaricaceas,  with  notes  on  the  genus  Clitopilus. 
J.  M.  Bates,**  in  his  "  Rust  Notes  for  1904,"  gives  an  account  of  a 
Puccinia  that  occurs  on  Distichlis,  the  aecidiuni  of  which  grows  on 
Chenopodium  album.  He  found  the  secidia  also  on  Cleome  serrulata,  on 
Lepidium,  and  on  several  other  Cruciferas.  He  proved  by  experiment 
the  correctness  of  his  observations.  Charles  Thorn  tt  offers  "  Some 
Suggestions  from  the  Study  of  Dairy  Fungi."  He  has  made  cultures  of 
a  large  number  of  individuals  of  Penicillium,  and  he  describes  the  more 
constant  characters  and  those  that  would  be  of  service  in  diagnosing  and 
classifying  the  species. 

Diseases  of  Plants.}:}: — Oskar  Kirchner  has  issued  the  first  part  of  a 
new  edition  of  his  text-book  of  the  diseases  of  agricultural  plants.  His 
book  is  intended  for  cultivators  who  do  not  possess  scientific  knowledge. 
The  host-plants  liable  to  attack  are  in  separate  divisions  ;  the  flower  and 
fruit  are  considered  first,  and  abnormal  appearances  noted,  with  the 

*  Rabenhorst's  Kryptoganien-Flora,  Band  i.  Abt.   8,   Lief.  98    (Leipzig,   1905) 
pp.  385-432. 

t  Kryptogamenflora  der  Mark  Brandenburg,  Bd.  vii.,  Heft  1,  Gebriider  Born- 
traeger  (Leipzig,  1905)  1(50  pp. 

\  Journ.  of  Mycol.,  ii.  (1905)  p.  105.  §  Tom.  cit.,  p.  108. 

II   Tom.  cit.,  pp.  111-17.  Tf  Tom.  cit,  pp.  109-10  (2  pis.). 

**  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  116-17.  ft  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  117-24. 

XX  Die  Krank.  und  Bescbad.  unserer  landw.  Kultur.,  Eugen  Ulmer,  Stutgart,  1905, 
Lief  1,  pp.  1-96. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  733 

cause  and  the  remedy.  The  other  parts  of  the  plant  are  also  passed  in 
review.  A  large  part  of  the  work  describes  the  mischief  due  to  insects  ; 
the  fungoid  pests  are  less  numerous,  but  they  appear  under  their  appro- 
priate headings.  A  chapter  at  the  beginning  describes  the  usual 
methods  employed  for  the  extirpation  of  the  pests,  and  an  account  of 
the  apparatus  used. 

Diseases  of  Cultivated  Plants. —  W.  L.  Lawrence*  describes  an 
apple  disease  called  Black-spot — a  canker  caused  by  the  fungus  Gloeo- 
sporium  malicorticis.  Both  the  tree  and  the  fruit  are  attacked,  and 
much  injury  is  done.     Preventive  remedies  are  suggested. 

J.  L.  Sheldon  f  gives  an  account  of  the  diseases  of  Melons  and 
Cucumbers  during  1903-4:.  Various  fungi  are  signalled  as  the  cause  of 
injury,  but  the  most  destructive  disease  was  due  to  Golletotrichum 
lagenarium,  which  caused  anthracnose  of  the  Water-melon.  Many 
culture  experiments  were  made  with  the  fungus. 

E.  Mead  Wilcox  %  gives  an  account  of  diseases  of  apple,  cherry,  peach, 
pear,  and  plum,  various  kinds  of  canker,  leaf-spots,  rusts,  scabs,  etc.,  due 
to  fungi,  with  a  discussion  of  the  best  fungicides  to  use. 

Karl  Kornauth  §  publishes  an  account  of  animal  and  plant  diseases 
during  1004.  He  notes  especially  an  attack  of  tomatoes  by  Septoria 
Lycopersici,  a  great  development  of  Erysiphe  graminis  on  barley,  and  of 
Puccinia  glumarum  on  rye  in  Bohemia  and  Upper  Austria. 

EL  von  Schrenk  ||  chronicles  the  occurrence  of  Peronospora  parasitica 
on  cauliflower  in  a  greenhouse  in  Missouri.  The  case  was  of  interest 
from  the  isolated  and  sporadic  appearance  of  the  fungus. 

0.  Clayton  Smithy  gives  an  account  of  plant  diseases  in  Delaware. 
These  were  chiefly  leaf -spot  diseases  on  species  of  Cucurbitacese  (Cucum- 
ber), Solanacese  (egg-plant)  and  Leguminosse  (beans,  etc.).  The  spots 
were  due  to  various  microfungi  belonging  to  the  Sphasropsideae  and  the 
Pyrenomycetes. 

Perley  Spaulding  **describes  a  disease  of  Black  Oaks  due  to  Poly- 
porus  obtusatus.  The  fungus  gains  entrance  through  a  wound  and 
extends  through  the  heart-wood,  changing  the  colour  to  yellow  and  then 
almost  to  white. 

Studies  in  Myxobacteria.ft — E.  Baur  thinks  that  Zederbauer  has 
not  seen  any  Myxobacteria  ;    the  symbiotic  forms   he   describes  have 

*  Washington  Agric.  Exp.  Stat.,  Bull.  lxvi.(1904)  pp.  1-35  (12  pis.,  67  figs.).    See 
also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  277. 

t  West  Virginia  Agric.  Exp.  Stat.,  Bull.  xciv.  (1904)  pp.  120-42  (5  pis.,  16  figs.). 
See  also  tiot.  Centralbl.,  xeix.  (1905)  p.  279. 

J  Bull.  Alabama  Agric.  Kxp.  Stat.,  cxxxii.  (1905)  pp.  75-142.  See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  279. 

§  Zeitschr.  Landw.  Versuch.  Oesterr.,  1905,  p.  236.  See  also  Centralbl.  Bakt., 
xiv.  (1905)  pp.  653-4. 

||  Rep.  Missouri  Bot.  Gard.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  121-4.  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix. 
(1905.  p.  320. 

\  Delaware  College  Agric.  Exp.  Stat.,  Bull.  Ixx.  pp  1-16  (2  pis.,  6  figs.).  See 
also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  310. 

**  Rep.  Missouri  Bot.  Gard.,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  109-1 16  (7  pis.).     See  also  Bot.  Cen- 
tralbl., xcix.  (1905)  p.  311. 

tt  Archiv  f.  ProtUtenk.,  v.  (1904)  pp.  92-121  (1   pi.  and  3  figs.).     See  also  Bot. 
Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  pp.  221-2. 


734  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

nothing  to  do  with  this  group  of  organisms.  Baur  describes  his  own 
experience  in  cultivating  them  in  the  laboratory.  He  found  several 
forms  already  described,  and  a  new  species,  Myxococcus  ruber,  of  which 
he  followed  the  development  through  all  the  different  stages.  He 
describes  his  methods  of  culture,  and  describes  the  most  successful  media 
on  which  to  make  the  cultivations.  He  considers  the  Myxobacteria 
ought  to  be  placed  under  the  Schizophytes,  and  that  they  are  near  akin 
to  the  Acrasiese. 

Arthur,  J.  C. — Eapid  method  of  removing  Smut  from  Seed  Oats. 
TThey  should  be  treated  with  formalin  before  being  sown.] 

Purdue  Agric.  Exp.  Stat,  Bull.  ciii.  (1905)  pp.  257-264. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  326. 
Bail. — Mittheilungen  ueber  Pilze.    (Contributions  on  Fungi.) 

[Notes  on  the  occurrence  of  rare  forms  and  the  development  of  some  heter- 
oecious  Uredinese  described.]       Schriften  Naturf.  Get.  Danzig  Neue  Folge, 

Bd.  xi.  (1904)  pp.  65-71. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcix.  (1905)  pp.  220-1. 

Bars  alt,  E. — Aggiunte  alia  Micologia  Fisana.     Terza  Nota.     (Additions  to  the 
Mycological  Flora  of  Pisa.     Third  notice.) 

[Gasteromycetes,  Phycomycetes,  and  Myxomycetes  are  included  in  the  notice.] 

Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital,  No.  6  (1905)  pp.  201-5. 
Boddier. — Icones  Mycologiques.     Series  I.,  Liv.  5. 
[20  plates  are  published  in  the  present  issue.] 

Paris,  Paul  Klinksieck,  Sept.  1905. 

Dietrioh-Kalkhoff,  Emil. — Beitrage  zur  Pilzflora  Tirols.     (Contributions  to 

the  Fungus  Flora  of  the  Tyrol.)         Verhandl.  K.  K.  Zool.-Bot.  Ges.  Wien  (1905) 

pp.  208-11. 
Guilliermond,  A. — Sur  le  nombre  des  chromosomes  chez  les  Ascomycetes.     (On 
the  number  of  chromosomes  in  the  Ascomycetes.) 

[The  author  finds  8  chromosomes  present  in  Pustularia  vesiculosa  ;  Maire  had 
seen  only  4.]  Compt.  Bend.  Soc.  Biol.,  lviii.  (1905)  pp.  273-5. 

See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  88. 

Hatren,   E. — Verzeichniss  der  aus    Finland    bekannten  Mucorineen.      (List  of 
Mucors  from  Finland.) 

[The  list  numbers  18  species.]  Meddel  af.  Soc.  pro  fauna  et  flora  fennica, 

heft.  29  (1904)  pp.  162-4. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  164. 
Hedgcock,  Geo.  G. — A  disease  of  cauliflower  and  cabbage  caused  by  Sclerotinia. 
[This  was  found  to  be  Sclerotinia  Libertiana.~\ 

Rep.  Mis.  Bot.  Garden,  xvi.  (1905)  pp.  149-51. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  224. 
Hohnel,  Franz  von. — Mykologisches. 

[Descriptions  of  new  species,  and  notes  on  species  already  published.] 

Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr.,  lv.  (1905)  pp.  186-9. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  138. 
Jacobasoh,  E. — Boletus  aurantiactis  sp.  n. 

[The  new  species  resembles  Boletus  elegans.     It  is  recorded  from  Jena.] 

Mitth.  Thiir.  Bot,  Ver„  xix.  (1904)  pp.  24-5. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  166. 
Japp,  Otto. — Fungi  selecti  exsiccati. 

[Ser.  V.,  Nos.  101-25,  Hamburg,  1905.]  See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.  xcix. 

(1905)  p.  165. 
Klebahn,  H.— TJeber  eine  merkwiirdige  Neubildung  eines  Hutpilzes.     (On  the 
remarkable  formation  of  a  pileate  fungus) 

[The  formation  of  hymenium  and  gills  on  the  surface  of  the  pileus  of  Tricho- 
loma  conglobutum  is  described.]         Jahrb.  Hamb.  Wiss.  Anst.,  xxii.  (1904) 

Beiheft  3,  pp.  25-30. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  139. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICEOSCOPY.    ETC.  735 

Kobtytsohew,  S. — Ueber  die  normale  und  die  anaerobe  Atmung  bei  Abwesenheit 
von  Znoker.     (On  the  normal  and  anaerobic  respiration  in  the  absence  of  sugar.) 
[Physiological  experiments   with   Aspergillus  niger;  he  finds  that  the  two 
processes  of  respiration  are  closely  connected.] 

Jahr.  Wiss.  Bot,  xl.  (1904)  pp.  563-92. 

Martin,  Ch.  Ed. — Contribution  a  la  flore  Mycologique  Suisse  et  plus  specialement 
genevoise.  (Contribution  to  the  Swiss  mycological  flora,  and  more  especially  to 
the  Genevan.) 

[A  list  of  fungi,  with  critical  remarks  on  many  of  the  species.] 

Bull.  trav.  Soc.  bot.  Geneve,  ix.,  1904-5  (1905)  pp.  110-30. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  166. 

Mas  see,  G.,  &  C.  Cross  land — The  Fungus  Flora  of  Yorkshire,  a  complete 
account  of  the  known  fungi  of  the  county. 

[A  list  of  fungi,  with  the  habitat,  and  name  of  the  finder.] 

Bot.  Trans.  Yorks.  Nat.  Union,  iv.  (1905)  396  pp. 

O  udem  an  s,  C.  A.  J.  A. — Catalogue  raisonne  des  champignons  des  Pays-Bas.  (Cata- 
logue of  the  fungi  of  Holland.)  Verh.  K.  Akad.  Wet.  Amst.,  558  pp. 

Pazschke,  O. — Rabenhorst-Winter  :   Fungi  europasi  et  extra-europaei  exsiccati. 

Editio  nova,  series  secunda,  centuria  25,  Leipzig,  1905. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  195. 

Perrier,  A. — Sur  la  formation  et  le  role  des  matieres  grasses  chez  les  Champignons. 
(On  the  formation  and  function  of  fatty  substauces  in  fungi.) 

[They  are  the  product  of  a  complex  synthesis  into  which  albuminoid  substance 
enters,  and  they  act  as  reserve  bodies.] 

Compt.  Rend.,  cxl.  (1905)  pp.  1052-4. 

Shear,  C.  L. — Fungous  Diseases  of  the  Cranberry. 

[Species  of  Guignardia  and  Glozosporum  attack  the  leaves  and  fruit,  causing 
blast,  scald,  rot,  and  anthracnose.] 

Farmer's  Bull.  U.8,  Dept.  Agric.,  xxii.  (1905)  (pp.  1-16. 
See  also  Bot.  Centralbl.,  xcix.  (1905)  p.  142. 

Szabo,  Zoltan  von — Mykologische  Beobachtungen.  I.  Fungi  coprophili. 
(Mycological  observations.     1.  Coprophilous  Fungi.) 

Jahres.-Ber.  Schles.  Ges.  lxxxii.  (1905)  Abt.  2,  Zool.-bot.  Sektion,  pp.  16-21. 

Lichens. 
(By  A.  Lorrain  Smith.) 

Chroolepus  aureus  a  Lichen.* — Albert  Schneider  has  found  that 
the  cells  of  the  alga  Chroolepus  aureus  are  constantly  invested  by  fungal 
filaments,  which  form  a  delicate  reticulation  over  the  cells.  The  fundus 
grows  ahead  of  the  alga  and  forms  a  hollow  network  into  which  the  algal 
cells  advance.  The  association  is  not  unlike  that  found  in  Ephebe 
pubescens.  Schneider  finds  the  association  of  fungus  and  alga  so  con- 
stant, that  he  thinks  Chroolepus  ought  to  be  considered  a  lichen  rather 
than  an  alga.     No  lichen  fruit  has  ever  been  found  on  the  plant. 

Lichens  from  the  Antarctic^ — Otto  V.  Darbishire  has  examined 
and  determined  the  Lichens  of  the  South  Orkneys  collected  by  R.  N. 
Rudniose  Brown,  and  he  takes  occasion  to  compare  them  with  those 
found  in  other  similar  localities.  There  are  11  species,  one  of  which,  a 
fruticulose  PlacocUum,  is  new  to  science.  It  grew  abundantly  on  rocks, 
and  somewhat  resembles  Placodium  corallokies.  Darbishire  noes  that 
the  species,  other  than  PI.  fruticulosum,  are  all  Arctic  plants,  and  he 

*  Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  xxxii.  (1905)  pp.  431-3  (1  pi.), 
t  Trans.  Proc.Bot.  Soc.  Edinburgh  (June  1905)  6  pp.  (1  pi.). 


736  SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

draws  attention  to  tlie  great  similarity  between  Arctic,  Alpine,  and 
Antarctic  lichens.  More  records  are  needed  before  a  complete  under- 
standing of  these  floras  can  be  attained. 

Lichenology  for  Beginners.* — J.  Le  Roy  Sargent  publishes  No.  III. 
of  his  papers  explaining  the  structure  and  growth  of  lichens.  He 
describes  the  principal  forms  assumed  by  the  thallus,  and  the  algae  that 
enter  into  relationship  with  the  fungus.  He  then  gives  an  account  of 
the  various  forms  of  fruit,  and  instructs  the  student  how  to  examine  the 
spores. 

Bruce  Fink  f  also  gives  a  paper  on  the  same  subject,  especially  on  the 
microscopic  study  of  Lichens.  An  account  is  given  of  the  parts  of  the 
fruit,  the  apothecium,  the  disk,  and  the  exciple.  Other  special  structures, 
such  as  rhizoids,  cilia,  cephalodia,  and  cyphellaj,  are  described.  The 
object  of  the  paper  is  to  call  attention  to  the  many  features  of  Lichen- 
morphology  which  may  be  observed  in  the  field  with  the  aid  of  a 
hand-lens 

Development  of  Lichen  Fruits.J — Gertr.  P.  Wolff  has  followed  the 
development  of  the  apothecia  in  a  number  of  Lichen  types  :  Graphis 
elegans,  Stereocaulon  Paschale,  Gladonia  gracilis,  G.  degenerans,  and 
G.furcata,  Xanthoria  parietina,  Ramalina  fraxinea  and  Lichina  confinis. 
In  Graphis  elegans  carpogonia  and  trichogynes  were  constantly  found, 
and  numerous  spermogonia.  The  trichogyne  rises  above  the  burst 
epidermis  of  the  tree  on  which  the  lichen  is  established,  and  of  which  the 
vegetative  development  is  entirely  hypophlceodal.  In  Stereocaulon  the 
apothecium  was  found  to  be  of  purely  vegetative  development.  The 
carpogonia  groups  of  hyphae  were  reduced,  and  no  sexual  formation  was 
present.  In  the  species  of  Gladonia  examined  the  sexual  organs  were 
found  to  be  present,  as  also  in  Xanthoria  and  Ramalina.  They  were 
also  presumably  present  in  Lichina,  but  were  not  satisfactorily 
demonstrated. 

Bloomfield,  E.  N.— Lichens  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk. 

[A   list    of  Lichens   collected   by   the   compiler   and   quoted   from    various 
authorities.]        Trans.  Norfolk  and  Norwich  Nat.  Soc,  1904-5,  pp.  117-37. 

Zahlbruckneb,  A. — Flechten,  im  Hochlande  Ecuadors  gesammelt  von  Prof.  D. 
Hans  Meyer  im  Jahre  1903.  (Lichens  collected  by  Prof.  D.  Hans  Meyer  in  the 
high  lands  of  Ecuador  in  1903.) 

[A  number  of  new  species  are  described ;  the  list  contains  42  species.] 

Beih.  Bot.  Centralbl,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  75-84. 

SchizopGayta. 
Schizomycetes. 

Origin  of  Natural  Immunity  towards  the  Putrefactive  Bacteria.§ 
R.  Greig  Smith  has  endeavoured  to  show  : — (1)  That  there  is  a  close 
analogy  or  identity  between  the  production  of  bacteriolytic  bodies  and 
the  digestion  of  food.  (2)  That  bacteria  do  traverse  the  intestinal  wall, 
and  that  negative  experimental  results  regarding  the  same  are  untrust- 

•  Bryologist,  viii.  (1905)  pp.  81-6  (17  figs.).         f  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  86-90. 
t  Flora,  xcv.  (1905)  pp.  31-57  (22  figs.). 
§  Proc.  Linn.  Soc,  N.tS.W.,  1905,  p.  149. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  737 

worthy.  (3)  That  natural  immunity,  especially  towards  the  bacteria 
that  normally  inhabit  the  intestinal  tract,  is  occasioned  and  maintained 
by  the  comparatively  few  bacteria  which,  in  crossing  the  intestinal  wall 
and  possibly  gaining  access  to  the  body  fluids  and  organs,  stimulate 
the  cells  to  produce  immune  bodies.  (4)  That  the  agglutination  of 
bacteria  may  play  a  much  more  active  part  in  the  production  of  immunity 
than  is  generally  supposed. 

Bacteria  and  the  Gum  of  Hakea  Saligna.'"" — R.  Greig  Smith  finds 
that  of  the  bacteria  occurring  in  the  tissues  of  this  plant,  the  most 
probable  producer  of  the  gum  is  one  intermediate  between  B.  acacice  and 
its  variety  B.  metarabinum  ;  but  as  we  do  not  yet  know  that  the  host- 
plant  can  alter  a  gum  once  formed  by  a  bacterium,  it  cannot  be  said  that 
the  gum  is  produced  by  this  micro-organism. 

Bacteria  and  the  Gum  of  Linseed  Mucilage.f  —  R.  Greig  Smith 
found  that  the  gum  bacteria  in  Linum  are  very  numerous,  and  consist 
chiefly  of  two  species. 

(a)  Short  motile  rods,  from  0 "  3-1  ■  0  /*  long,  with  many  peritrichous 
flagella,  and  not  staining  by  Gram  ;  producing  on  glucose-gelatin  plate 
yellowish-white  raised  colonies  with  irregular  margins ;  in  stab  culture 
there  is  a  filiform  growth  in  the  track,  and  a  broad  nail-head  at  the 
surface,  which  sinks  later  in  the  liquefying  medium.  Grown  in  broth, 
it  produces  turbidity,  a  loose  pellicle,  and  a  coherent  sediment.  Indol  is 
formed,  and  nitrates  are  reduced  to  nitrites.     Milk  becomes  slightly  acid. 

(b)  Large  slightly  motile  rods,  from  1*5-5  fx  long,  with  many 
peritrichous  flagella,  staining  irregularly  by  Gram.  Oval  spores  often 
reniform  were  noted.  Glucose-gelatin  plates  show  circular,  white,  liquefied 
areas.  On  saccharose-potato-agar  streak,  a  broad  raised  translucent  white 
slime  was  formed.  Grown  in  broth,  the  medium  remained  clear,  pro- 
ducing flocculent  deposit,  and  slight  surface  ring.  Indol  reaction  was 
obtained  ;  nitrates  were  not  reduced  to  nitrites.  Milk  was  slowly 
peptonised  with  the  production  of  acid. 

Oligodynamic  Action  of  Copper  Foil  on  Intestinal  Bacteria. $ — H. 
Kraemer  finds  from  his  own  experiments  and  the  results  of  other 
observers  that  the  presence  of  metallic  copper  in  water  destroys  B.  coli 
communis  and  B.  typhosus.  The  toxicity  is  due  to  copper  in  a  crystalloid 
form  ;  and  when  copper  foil  is  placed  in  distilled  water,  sufficient  copper 
is  dissolved  in  1-5  minutes  to  kill  bacteria  within  2  hours. 

The  toxicity  may  be  lost  or  neutralised  by  various  substances,  and 
the  oligodynamic  action  depends  on  temperature.  The  effects  of  oligo- 
dynamic copper  on  the  purification  of  drinking  water  are  much  the  same 
as  filtration,  except  that  B.  typhosus  and  B.coli  are  completely  destroyed. 

*  Proc.  Linn.  Soc,  N.S.W.,  1905,  p.  136.  t  Tom.  cit.,  p.  161. 

t  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  xlix.  (1905)  pp.  51-65. 


Dec.  20th,  1905  3  d 


7:;S  SUMMARY    ok   GUERENT    RESEABCHES    RELATING   TO 

MICROSCOPY. 

A.   Instruments,  Accessories,  &c* 
(1)  Stands. 

Note  on  a  Microscope  Presented  by  Linnaeus  to  Bernard  Jussieu.f 
The  Microscope  herewith  presented  for  the  inspection  of  the  American 


Fig.  159. 

*  This  subdivision  coutains  (1)  Stands;  (2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives ;  (3)  Illu- 
minating and  other  Apparatus:  (4)  Photomicrography;  (5)  Microscopical  Optics 
and  Manipulation;  (<">)  Miscellaneous. 

t  Reprinted  and  illustration  reproduced,  by  permission,  from  the  Proceedings  of 
the  American  Society  of  Microscopists  (now  the  American  Microscopical  Society), 
vol.  ix.  1888,  pp.  214-15.  The  instrument  was  exhibited  and  the  description  read 
at  the  meeting  of  the  Society  held  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  on  September  1,  1887.  In  con- 
nection with  this  instrument,  it  is  interesting  to  recall  Mr.  Frank  Crisp's  letter  anent 
Linnseus  and  the  use  of  the  Microscope,  see  this  Journal  (ante,  p.  253). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  7.">9 

Society  of  Microscopists,  says  Jacob  F.  Henrici,  was  found  in  a  lumber 
room  of  the  Harmony  Society,  a  German  community  at  Economy, 
Pennsylvania  (fig.  159).  It  contains,  in  a  drawer  at  the  base  of  the  stand, 
a  Latin  inscription,  signed  by  Bernard  Jussieu,  setting  forth  that  he 
received  the  instrument  from  his  very  dear  friend  Linnaeus,  as  a  gift  of 
friendship,  in  lasting  memory  of  the  pleasant  intercourse  which  they 
had  at  Paris  in  the  month  of  August  1738.  The  Microscope  is  said  by 
the  present  aged  members  of  the  Harmony  Society  to  have  belonged 
formerly  to  Frederick  Rapp,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society,  who 
came  to  America  from  Germany  in  1804,  and  who  died  at  Economy  in 
1834.  He  was  a  man  of  considerable  culture,  and  much  of  the  pro- 
sperity of  the  community  was  due  to  his  intellectual  activity.  No  one 
knows  when  or  hosv  the  instrument  came  into  his  possession,  or  what 
use  he  made  of  it.  The  body  of  the  Microscope  is  of  pasteboard,  or 
papier-mache,  with  wooden  mountings,  and  fixed  vertically  on  a  wooden 
stand.  It  is  provided  with  a  draw-tube,  and  the  adjustment  is  by 
means  of  a  screw.  Ten  objectives  accompany  the  instrument,  each 
consisting  of  a  single  lens,  ranging  in  focal  distance  from  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  to  an  inch.  The  lenses  range  in  diameter  from  six 
millimetres  to  a  centimetre ;  but  when  in  position  they  are  stopped 
down  by  brass  caps  to  an  aperture  of  about  two  millimetres  diameter. 
Unfortunately  one  of  the  lenses  of  the  eyepiece  is  lacking,  and  in  order 
to  exhibit  the  power  of  the  instrument,  I  have  replaced  ib  for  the 
moment  by  a  corresponding  lens  from  my  working  Microscope.  No 
maker's  name  appears  on  any  part  of  the  instrument.  The  inscription, 
in  full,  is  as  follows  : — 

Audax  lapeti  genus 

Ignein  fraude  mala  gentibus  intulit 

Nil  mortalibus  arduum 

—  Hor.  Carm.  Lib.  i.  3. 

In  perpetuara  memoriam 
cousuetudinis  quam  cum 
dulcissimo  suo  sodali 
Carolus  Linne  Parisiis 
habebat  boc  ab  eo  araicitiae 
donum  accepit,  mense 
Augusto,  MDCCXXXVIII 

Bernardus  Jussieu. 

Aside  from  the  interest  attaching  to  this  Microscope  from  its  associa- 
tion with  two  of  the  great  scientific  workers  of  the  last  century,  it  is 
encouraging  to  compare  our  Microscopes  of  to-day  with  this  crude 
instrument,  which  Jussieu  deemed  worthy  of  the  admiration  expressed 
in  Horace's  line,  "  Nil  mortalibus  arduum." 

Wilson  Screw -Barrel  Simple  Microscope.  —  This  instrument, 
fig.  160,  was  kindly  presented  at  the  October  Meeting  by  Major  Meade 
J.  C.  Dennis,  who  says  that  its  date  is  about  1750,  and  that  it  belonged 
to  his  great-grandfather.  The  Society  has  two  other  specimens  of  the 
Wilson  Screw-Barrel  Microscope  in  its  collection ;  one  bears  the  name 
of  Sterrop  as  maker,  and  the  other,  without  a  name,  was  presented  to 
the  Society  by  Mr.  C.  dirties  at  the  June  Meeting,  and  will  be  found 
figured  and  described  in  the  Journal  for  October,  pp.  636-7. 

3  D  2 


740 


SUMMARY   OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


These  three  examples  differ  from  each  other  in  detail,  though  they 
are  very  similar  in  general  construction,  and  are  after  the  pattern  as 
made  by  Adams. 

The  history  of  Microscopes  focusing  by  means  of  a  screw  cut  on  the 
barrel  dates  back  to  Campani  in  16X6,  though  this  arrangement  was 
preceded  in  1665  by  Hook,  whose  Microscope  was  focused  by  means  of 
a  screw  cut  on  the  nose  of  the  instrument.  Grindl  followed  in  16-S7,  and 
Bonanni  in  1691.  Hartsoeker,  in  1604,  further  developed  this  system 
of  focusing,  and  his  instrument  was  clearly  the  prototype  of  the  "Wilson, 
which  was  published  in  1702.  Probably  before  173*  Culpeper  applied 
a  pillar  with  folding  tripod  base  to  the  Wilson  model  ;  he  also  provided 
an  attachment  by  which  it  could  be  converted  into  a  compound  Micro- 
scope. The  Society  possesses  two  examples  of  this  instrument,  the 
workmanship  of  which  is  very  beautiful.  Finally,  Adams  produced  his 
model,  which  had  a  great  sale,  and  was  produced  by  other  makers. 


Fig.  160. 

The  instrument  presented  by  Major  Dennis  is  in  very  good  condition. 
It  has  five  powers,  the  usual  lens  carrier  for  viewing  opaque  objects,  and 
forceps  for  holding  the  objects  ;  the  stem  of  the  forceps  when  thus  used 
is  passed  through  small  holes  in  the  screwed  barrel  at  the  back  of  the 
stage  plates,  as  seen  in  the  figure.  These  holes  are  referred  to  in 
Adams'  description,  but  are  not  visible  in  his  figure  of  the  instrument, 
and  this  is  the  only  example  in  the  Society's  cabinet — including  the 
Culpeper  examples — that  is  provided  with  this  particular  method  of 
holding  the  forceps.  There  is  also  a  double-ended  box  containing  ten 
slides,  having  forty  objects  mounted  between  talcs  in  the  manner  "then 
common. 

Watson's  Praxis  and  Bactil  Microscopes.*— W.  Watson  and  Sons 
have  recently  brought  out  a  new  model,  which  embodies  an  advan- 
tageous method  of  construction.    Solid  castings  from  specially  constructed 

*  W.  Watson  and  Son's  Special  Catalogue  (September  1905)  12  pp.,  11  figs. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


741 


Fig.  101. 


742  SUMMARY    OK   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    UPDATING   TO 


Fig.  162- 


/ 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


743 


moulds  replace  separate  pieces  screwed  together.  Thus  the  foot  and  pillar 
and  the  stage  and  limb  are  both  cast  in  one  solid  piece.  The  two  pieces 
are  connected  by  a  strong  knuckle  joint,  upon  which  the  instrument  is 
inclinable  to  the  horizontal.     As  far  as  the  stand  is  concerned,  there  is 


Fig.  16?.. 


no  difference  between  the  Praxis  (fig.  161)  and  Bactil  (fig.  162)  models. 
The  important  feature  of  the  latter  is  a  new  form  of  mechanical  stage, 
which  has  a  travel  of  2  in.  horizontally  and  H  in.  vertically.  The 
horizontal   movement   (fig.  168)   can  be  removed   by  unscrewing  two 


Fig.  164. 


thumb-screws,  leaving  the  surface  of  the  stage  3|  in.  square,  as  shown  in 
fig.  16-4.  The  compound  substage  is  fitted  with  focusing  rackwork  and 
centring  screws,  and  can  be  turned  out  of  the  optic  axis  when  desired. 
Other  accessories  supplied  are  a  coned  iris  diaphragm  and  a  spiral 
focusing  screw  with  Scop  condenser  in  lieu  of  the  one  previously 
described. 

Beck's  "  Imperial  "  Metallurgical  Microscope.  —  This  Microscope 
(fig.  165)  is  a  modification  of  the  Imperial  Microscope,  specially  made 
for  metallurgical  purposes,  in  which  the  large  concentric  rotating  stage  is 
replaced  by  a  square  mechanical  stage,  the  whole  of  the  stage  and  sub- 


744  SUMMARY   OF  CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

Btage  being  capable  of  focusing  up  and  down  to  an  extent  of  2  in. 
The  body  is  2  in.  in  diameter,  and  a  photographic  lens  maybe  placed  in 


the  centre  for  photographing  large  objects,  with  a  rack-and-pinion  dra„ 
tube  and  sliding  draw-tube,  which  as  well  as  the  nose-piece,  are  removable. 


aw- 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  745' 

The  slow  motion  has  a  double-speed  lever  action  patent  slow  motion 
invented  by  Mr.  Ashe.  The  whole  instrument  is  very  massive,  the 
spread  of  the  tripod  being  8£  inches  by  I)  inches,  the  height  of  the  optic- 
axis  il^  inches,  the  maximum  distance  from  the  nose-piece  to  the  stage 
6  inches. 

A  powerful  clamp  is  supplied  to  the  joint,  and  a  square  hole  in  the 
limb  of  the  Microscope  allows  illuminating  apparatus  to  be  carried  on 
the  Microscope  itself. 

R.  &  J.  Beck's  Metallurgical  Microscope,  "  London  Model." — This 
metallurgical  Microscope  (fig.  1(3(J)  is  on  the  model  of  the  "London" 
Microscope,  except  that  it  is  carried  on  a  much  larger  pillar  and  base. 
The  latter,  which  is  unusually  large  and  steady,  measures  6f  in.  in  length 
by  4J  in.  in  width. 

The  coarse  focusing  adjustment  is  by  spiral  rack-and-pinion,  so 
accurately  fitted  that  even  comparatively  high  powers  can  be  focused 
thereby.  The  fine  adjustment  consists  of  a  triangular  prism  upon  which 
slides  smoothly  a  solid  metal  sleeve  which  fits  this  prism  so  perfectly 
that  there  is  no  lateral  motion.  The  adjustment  is  obtained  by  a  fine 
micrometer  screw  actuating  a  supplementary  pointed  rod  which  impinges 
upon  a  hardened  steel  block.  The  limb  of  the  Microscope  is  so  designed 
that  there  is  ample  room  for  the  fingers  when  turning  the  milled 
heads. 

The  body  is  made  of  a  large  diameter,  1'27  in.,  No.  3  Royal  Micro- 
scopical Society's  standard  gauge,  so  that  a  large  angle  of  view  can  be 
obtained  for  photo-micrography,  or  large  field  eye-pieces  can  be  used  if 
desired. 

The  stage  is  carried  on  an  exceedingly  strong  dovetailed  slide,  and 
has  a  rack-and-pinion  focusing  motion  up  and  down  of  2  in. 

The  mechanical  stage  gives  vertical  and  lateral  motion  of  1  in.  and 
is  very  solidly  constructed.  If  the  mechanical  stage  is  not  supplied,  a 
square  stage,  3f  in.  by  3J  in.  of  solid  construction  is  supplied. 

A  substage  with  screw-focusing  adjustments  is  supplied  in  the  most 
complete  form,  but  the  instrument  may  be  supplied  with  or  without 
this  adjustment.  A  double  mirror  and  strong  case  accompany  each 
instrument. 

Ashe-Finlayson  Comparascope.  —  By  the  use  of  this  apparatus 
(rig.  167),  exhibited  at  the  October  Meeting,  exact  comparisons  may  be 
made  of  two  objects  which  may  be  seen  side  by  side  in  the  same  field  of 
view.  For  certain  classes  of  microscopical  work  this  is  most  valuable. 
It  is  applied  without  any  difficulty  to  any  ordinary  monocular  Micro- 
scope, as  the  apparatus  may  be  screwed  in  like  an  object-glass  and  be 
clamped  at  any  convenient  position  so  that  it  projects  at  right  angles  to 
the  body  of  the  instrument,  either  in  the  front  or  to  one  side  or  the 
other,  according  to  the  most  convenient  position  from  which  to  take 
the  light. 

The  whole  apparatus,  by  means  of  an  adapter  A,  fig.  168,  screws 
into  the  body  of  the  Microscope  in  place  of  the  object-glass,  and  the 
ordinary  object-glass  screws  into  the  apparatus  as  shown  at  0  1. 


746  SUMMARY    OF    CUKHKNT    KKKKAKCHKS    1!KLATIN<!    TO 


I'm.  l(J6. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


747 


The  Comparascope  consists  of  a  mount  into  which  a  second  object- 
glass  0  2  can  be  screwed  at  right  angles  to  the  body  tube.  A  strong  but 
very  light  dovetailed  bar  D  projects  about  3  in.  from  the  Microscope 
tube,  and  carries  upon  it  a  movable  stage  S,  upon  which  an  ordinary 
3  in.  by  1  in.  slide  is  held  by  spring  clips.  At  the  far  end  of  the  dove- 
tailed bar  slides  a  mirror  M  in  gimbals,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  com- 
parascope mount  is  a  right  angle  prism  P,  which  reflects  the  light  from 
the  object-glass  0  2  into  one  half,  while  the  light  from  object-glass  0  1 
proceeds   directly  to   the   other   half  of   the  field    of    the  Microscope. 


I' 16.  167 — View  from  Above. 


Fie.  1G8.— Side  View. 


Fitting  into  the  Comparascope  mount  is  a  thin  septum  E,  which  projects 
sufficiently  far  into  the  body  tube  to  prevent  the  light  from  one  side  of 
the  field  reaching  the  other  half.  The  prism  P  can  be  slipped  out  of 
position  by  means  of  the  milled  head  L  at  any  time,  thus  throwing  the 
Comparascope  out  of  use.  The  stage  S  which  slides  along  the  dovetail 
D,  may  be  clamped  in  any  position  by  the  screw  K  upon  the  rod  R,  and  a 
fine  adjustment  for  focusing  high  powers  is  then  available  by  revolving 
the  milled  head  F.  In  order  that  the  instrument  may  be  equally 
serviceable  for  high  powers,  a  small  substage  carrying  a  condenser  C. 


748 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


with  an  iris  diaphragm  I.  is  supplied.  The  condenser  may  be  focused 
by  means  of  the  milled  head  T,  which  acts  through  a  spiral  slot  and 
moves  it  up  or  down. 

The  partition  E  should  be  of  suitable  length  for  the  Microscope  with 
which  the  Comparascope  is  to  be  used,  so  that  it  is  advantageous  in 
ordering  the  instrument  to  state  the  length  of  the  tube  of  the  purchaser's 
Microscope.  Any  Microscope  object-glasses  can  be  employed,  though  it 
is  generally  convenient  to  use  a  pair  of  object-glasses  of  approximately 
the  same  magnifying  power.  For  those  who  have  not  duplicate  object- 
glasses,  these  can  be  supplied,  the  powers  of  which  will  be  sufficiently 
similar  for  ordinary  work.  Where  extremely  delicate  observations  are  to 
be  made,  specially  paired  object-glasses  can  be  obtained.  In  this  case 
the  two  images  are  identical  in  magnifying  power.  The  apparatus. 
which  has  been  patented,  is  made  by  the  firm  of  R.  and  J.  Beck,  who 
are  the  sole  licensees. 


Fig.  169. 


Vollbehr's  Microphotoscope.— This  apparatus  (fig.  169)  was  de- 
scribed in  the  October  Journal,  p.  G42. 

Reichert's  New  Microscope  Stands  with  Handles.* — The  principal 
feature  of  these  stands  is  the  handle,  a  convenience  which  will  be 
much  appreciated  in  laboratories  and  in  class  work.     The  illustrations 


*  Reichert's  Special  Catalogue,  1905,  16  pp. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


749 


Fig.  170. 


750 


SUMMARY    OK    CURKKNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


(figs.  170-171)  give  the  appearance  of  the  instruments  fitted  with  the  new 
accessory,  and  also  the  class  of  model  to  which  they  have  been  adapted. 


Fig.  171. 


The  addendum  is  an  economical  substitute  for  the  bent-out  limb  which 
has  only  of  recent  years  been  properly  appreciated. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  751 

(2)  Eye-pieces  and  Objectives. 

Direct  Determination  of  the  Curvature  of  Small  Lenses.* — C.  V. 
Drysdale  exhibited  and  described  apparatus  for  the  direct  determination 
of  the  curvatures  of  small  lenses,  such  as  the  objectives  of  Microscopes. 
Parallel  light  from  a  distant  source  falls  upon  a  plane  unsilvered  mirror 
inclined  at  an  angle  of  45°.  Some  of  the  light  is  reflected  and  brought 
to  a  focus  by  an  ordinary  convex  lens.  The  surface  to  be  tested  is 
placed  at  this  point,  and  the  reflected  rays  proceed  as  if  they  had  come 
from  a  point  on  the  surface.  They  pass  through  the  plate  glass  into  a 
telescope  focused  for  parallel  rays,  and  an  observer  sees  an  image  of  the 
distant  source.  If  the  surface  is  convex  and  is  brought  nearer  to  the 
lens,  then,  when  it  reaches  such  a  position  that  its  centre  of  curvature  is 
at  the  focus  of  the  rays  emerging  from  the  lens,  the  light  will  again 
retrace  its  former  path,  and  a  distinct  image  of  the  source  will  be  seen 
in  the  telescope.  In  order  to  obtain  the  two  images,  the  surface  has 
therefore  been  moved  through  a  distance  equal  to  its  radius  of  curva- 
ture. If  the  surface  is  concave,  it  must  be  moved  away  from  the  lens. 
The  author  showed  how  the  method  could  be  carried  out  by  means  of 
an  auxiliary  piece  fitted  to  an  ordinary  Microscope.  He  also  described 
a  method  of  testing  the  spherical  and  chromatic  aberration  of  micro- 
scopic objectives.  Light  from  a  distant  point  is  partially  reflected  by 
means  of  a  piece  of  plate-glass  down  the  axis  of  the  Microscope.  In 
passing  out  of  the  objective  it  is  brought  to  a  focus  upon  a  mirror, 
and  retraces  its  path  along  the  axis  of  the  instrument  until  it  reaches 
the  plate  glass.  It  passes  through,  and  by  means  of  a  telescope  an 
observer  can  view  the  distant  source.  The  light  having  passed  twice 
through  the  lens  to  be  investigated,  the  effects  of  chromatic  and  spherical 
aberration  are  doubled,  and  at  the  same  time  the  effect  of  coma  is 
eliminated. 

(3)  Illuminating-  and  other  Apparatus. 

New  Ultra-Violet  Mercury  Lamp  (Uviol  Lamp).f — 0.  Schott  and 
those  who  work  with  him  at  problems  involving  ultra-violet  rays  have 
found  "  Uviol "  a  convenient  abbreviation.  In  the  construction  of  this 
lamp  full  advantage  has  been  taken  of  that  new  Jena  glass  which  is 
pervious  to  ultra-violet  rays.  Platinum  wires  are  fused  into  the 
extremities  of  a  suitably  shaped,  generally  straight,  uviol-transmitting 
glass  tube  of  from  8  to  30  mm.  diameter,  and  of  a  length  of  from  20  to 
130  cm.  The  platinum  wires  terminate  inside  the  tube  in  the  form  of 
carbon  heads,  and  admit  of  the  use  of  either  pole  as  positive  or  nega- 
tive. Interiorly  the  lamp  requires  a  mercury  charge  of  from  50  to 
150  grm.  according  to  its  size.  The  purpose  of  the  mercury  is  not 
only  to  supply  the  vapour  required  for  illumination,  but  also  to  effect 
the  starting  and  to  divert  heat  in  order  to  cool  the  negative  pole.  The 
lamp  is  started  by  tilting  ;  the  two  poles  then  become  connected  by  the 
mercury,  the  current  having,  of  course,  been  previously  switched  on. 
At  the  first  moment  of  contact  between  pole  and  mercury,  part  of  the 

*  Nature,  lxxi.  (1904)  p.  142. 

t  Schott  and  Ger..  Jena.  Pamphlet  No.  421,  10  pp..  1  pi.,  1  fig.  ;  Nature,  1873 
(1905)  p.  513. 


to: 


SUMMARY    OF    CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING    TO 


latter  is  disintegrated  simultaneously  with  the  formation  of  a  column  of 
Light  and  of  an  induction  track  for  the  current,  which  continues  after 
the  return  of  the  mercury  into  its  original  position.  The  inconvenience 
of  the  long  tube  may  be  reduced  by  adopting  a  U -shape,  which  not  only 
reduces  the  length  to  one-half,  but  is  found  to  facilitate  the  starting 
and  to  enlarge  the  illuminated  area.  This  shape  is  also  more  convenient 
for  application  to  various  parts  of  the  human  body.  Several  of  these 
lamps  may  be  electrically  joined  side  by  side,  above  or  below,  or  in  such 
ways  as  may  be  found  desirable.  The  spectrum  of  the  uviol  lamp  is 
exceedingly  rich  in  lines,  and  extends  down  to  wave-length  253.  The 
specific  intensity  of  the  visible  radiation  fluctuates  between  0*31  and  4-3 
Hefner  candles  per  sq.  cm.  according  to  the  dimensions  of  the  lamp.  It 
follows  that  the  uviol-lamp  is  an  extremely  advantageous  means  of 
converting  electrical  energy  into  effective  radiating  energy  of  short 
wave-length.  It  is  likely  to  be  useful  not  only  in  photography  but  in 
many  chemical  investigations,  and  in  certain  skin  diseases.  It  has  a 
deadly  effect  on  bacteria  and  minute  living  organisms,  as  well  as  on  the 
smaller  species  of  insects.  Under  a  lamp  suspended  during  a  summer 
night  in  a  room  with  windows  opened,  thousands  of  dead  insects  were 
swept  up  the  following  morning. 

Beck's  Eyeshade.  —  This  eyeshade  (fig.  172),  to  obscure  the  un- 
employed eye  in  monocular  Microscopes,  is  specially  adapted  for  Beck"s 
instruments. 


Fig.  172. 


Abbe  Camera  Lucida. — This    camera  lucida  (fig.  173)  is  a  cheap 
form  of  the  Abbe  Camera  Lucida,  and  has  a  cubical  prism  which  is 


Fig.  173. 


provided  with  a  series  of  rotating  tinted  glasses.     The  holder  carrying 
the  prism  and  tinted  glasses  can  be  thrown  on  one  side  on  a  pivoted 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  753 

joint.     The  instrument,  which  is  made  by  the  firm  of  R.  and  J.  Beck, 
is  used  in  the  vertical  position. 

Beck's  Parabolic  Illuminator. — This  apparatus  (fig.  174)  consists 
of  a  mirror  made  of  glass,  silvered  at  the  back.  The  construction  was 
suggested  by  Mr.  Stead  as  being  preferable  to  a  solid  silver  reflector, 
which  becomes  tarnished  when  used  in  the  presence  of  chemicals.  The 
apparatus  slides  on  the  barrel  of  the  objective,  and  is  thus  kept  central, 
and  the  focusing  is  effected  by  moving  it  up  or  down.     The  light  should 


Fig.  174. 

be  thrown  upon  it  from  one  side  by  means  of  a  condensing  lens,  or 
otherwise  from  a  lamp  on  the  same  level.  The  light  is  then  converged 
upon  the  object  in  an  oblique  cone.  When  in  use  the  lower  edge 
almost  touches  the  object.  It  is  provided  with  an  extra  sleeve  for  fitting 
it  to  two  object-glasses.     It  is  only  suitable  for  low  powers. 

Beck's  Parabolic  Illuminator  with  Sorby's  Reflector. — This  (fig. 
175)  is  similar  to  the  preceding,  but  has  the  addition  of  a  silver  mirror 
at  45°  on  a  swinging  fitting,  which  can  be  placed  over  half  the  front  of 


Fig.  175. 

the  object-glass,  and  throws  a  direct  beam  of  light  upon  the  object. 
With  this  apparatus  the  effects  of  oblique  and  direct  light  can  be  rapidly 
contrasted.  It  is  only  suitable  for  low-power  lenses  having  a  long 
working  distanoe.  This  has  both  reflectors  made  of  silvered  glass  as 
in  the  preceding  illuminator. 

Stbehl,  K. — Beleuchtungsprincipien.  Central-Zeit.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech- 

(1905)  pp.  227-8- 

(4)   Photomicrography. 

Vertical  and  Horizontal  Photo-micrographic  Camera. — This  con- 
sists of  a  strong  metal  base,  which  carries  by  means  of  a  hinged  bracket 
a  solid  circular  bar.  This  rod  has  sliding  upon  it  two  strong  brackets, 
the  upper  one  of  which  carries  a  frame  with  folding  ground  glass  and 
runners  to  take  a  double  dark  slide  for  photographic  plates  6J  in.  by 
4f  in. ;  the  lower  bracket  carries  a  tubular  sleeve  which  fits  loosely  but 
in  a  light-tight  manner  over  a  tube  which  may  be  attached  to  the  eye- 

Dec.  20th,  1905  3  e 


754 


SUMMARY   OP  CURRENT    RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 


pieoeend  of  amicroscope  (fig.  17(5).  The  two  brackets  are  each  attached 
to  bellows,  and  are  capable  of  an  extrusion  of  about  80  in.  The  two 
bracket*  slide  easily  op  and  down  the  circular  bar  in  a  slot  or  key-way, 
which  prevents  their  taming  ronnd.  They  are  provided  with  clamp 
screws  to  hold  them  rigidly  at  any  position  on  the  bar. 

The  whole  camera   may  be   used  in   a   vertical   position   over  the 


TT?TVvIVvV^yiv 


a  ^  ^JJ^^JaIaAaaUaW 


7? 


Fig.  176. 

Microscope,  or  in  a  horizontal  position  as  shown  by  the  outline  in 
fignre,  in  which  case  the  extreme  end  stands  upon  two  firm  feet  on  the 
table. 

A  small  table  with  three  levelling  screws  is  supplied  upon  which  the 
Microscope  stands,  and  may  be  adjusted  for  centring  the  picture. 

The  apparatus,  which  is  made  by  the  firm  of  R.  and  J.  Beck,  also 
includes  a  one  Opiate  double  plate-holder,  carriers  for  ^-plates,  and 
light-tight  connection  for  Microscope. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  755 

Focusing  Magnifier.* — This  instrument  (fig.  177),  made  by  Taylor, 
Taylor  and  Hobson,  of  Leicester,  is  intended  for  examining  the  definition 
of  an  image  on  the  camera  screen,  and  is  arranged  to  close  like  a  tele- 


Fig.  177. 

scope  for  compactness.      The  screw-ring  forms  an  adjustable  stop  to 
limit  the  withdrawal  of  the  eye-piece  to  suit  the  sight  of  the  user. 

Leadbhater,  L. — Photographing  Crystals. 

[Lecture  atRotherham  Photographic  Society.] 

English  Mechanic,  lxxxii.  (1905)  pp.  152-3. 

Marktanner-Turneretscher,  d. — Wichtigere  Fortschritte  auf  dem  Gebiete 
der  Mikrophotographie  und  des  projektionswesens. 
Separat-Abdraok  aus  Jahrbuch  f.  Photog.  und  Reproduktionstechnik  f.  das  Jahr 
1905.  HaUe  a.  S.,  Wilhelm  Knapp. 

(5)  Microscopical  Optics  and  Manipulation. 

Braun's  Methods  of  Identifying  Sub-microscopic  Structures 
Allied  Investigations  on  Double  Refraction.f — F.  Braun  has  found 
that  certain  substances — e.g.  electrically  pulverised  metals,  produce  a 
grating-like  structure  when  viewed  with  polarised  light.  This  effect  is 
in  full  agreement  with  the  electro-magnetic  theory  of  light.  It  has 
also  been  found  that  certain  organic  substances  specially  treated  with 
gold  solutions  give  similar  effects.  Hence  it  would  seem  that,  either 
the  finely-divided  gold,  or  some  compound  of  the  gold  and  the  organic 
substance,  must  be  anisotropic.  Braun's  experiments  were  all  made 
with  transparent  light,  but  similar  results  have  now  been  attained  with 
reflected  light.  It  appears  from  these  later  experiments  that  the  light 
which  vibrates  parallel  to  the  grating-bars  is  reflected  more  intensely 
than  that  in  the  perpendicular  direction.  This,  again,  is  in  accordance 
with  theory  and  with  the  behaviour  (only  reversed)  of  the  transparent 
light.  The  method  of  observation  is  to  place  the  object  on  the  stage 
in  the  usual  way,  and  to  arrange  above  it  a  cover-glass  inclined  at  45° 
to  the  horizontal.  The  plane  is  set  horizontally,  and  polarised  light  is 
then  made  to  impinge  on  the  cover-glass ;  it  is  then  reflected  down- 
wards through  the  object  to  the  mirror ;  is  again  reflected,  and  passes 

*  Catalogue.  1905,  p.  23. 

t  Ceutral-Zeit.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  xxvi.  (1905)  p.  188. 

3  E   2 


756  SUMMABY    OF    CURRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING    TO 

through  the  inclined  coverslip  into  the  objective.  By  means  of  a  Zeiss 
vertical  illuminator,  high  magnifications  and  oil  immersions  could  be 
applied.     It  was  found  that  palladium  dust  gave  the  best  results. 

The  examination  of  organic  preparations  involved  greater  experi- 
mental difficulties.  The  light  from  an  electric  arc  projection  lantern 
was  passed  through  a  diaphragm  and  focused  by  a  lens  through  another 
diaphragm  and  a  ground  glass  screen  on  to  a  Zeiss  vertical  illuminator, 
which  reflected  it  down  through  the  Microscope  tube  and  the  objec- 
tive on  to  the  mirror,  which  again  reflected  it  upwards  through  the  pre- 
paration on  to  the  Nicol  eye-piece.  An  arrangement  was  also  made 
so  that  the  mirror  might  reflect  directly  upwards,  thereby  enabling  a 
comparison  observation  with  transmitted  light  to  be  made.  Braun 
succeeded  in  accurately  identifying  by  this  means  the  composition  of  a 
substance  previously  unknown  to  him.  The  arrangement  of  apparatus 
for  examination  by  reflected  polarised  light  is  more  difficult  and 
elaborate  than  in  the  case  of  transmitted  polarised  light,  but  the  results 
give  a  useful  criterion  for  detecting  how  far  the  images  are  due  to  any 
double  refraction  possessed  by  the  substance  itself.  The  author 
describes  several  of  his  methods  for  obtaining  polarised  light. 

Microscopical  Determination  of  the  Position  of  a  Reflecting 
Surface  during  Optical  Contact.* — K.  Prytz-Kopenhagen,  when  the 
surface  is  a  plane  reflecting  solid,  sets  on  the  plane  a  suitable  object  (e.g. 
a  grating  on  a  glass  plate)  appropriately  illuminated.  This  is  then 
viewed  through  a  Microscope  whose  axis  is  perpendicular  to  the  plane. 
The  position  of  sharp  definition  will  be  the  position  of  optical  contact. 
In  the  case  of  a  reflecting  liquid,  its  surface  is,  of  course,  plane,  and  the 
Microscope  is  arranged  as  before.  But  into  the  body  of  the  Microscope 
near  the  eye-piece  focus  is  introduced  a  horizontal  solid  glass  rod,  whose 
outer  end  is  opposite  a  light  source,  and  the  inner  (i.e.  inside  the  tube) 
is  bent  vertically  in  the  axis  of  the  Microscope.  The  end  of  this  vertical 
portion  is  accurately  plane  and  horizontal,  and  bears  two  fine  diamond 
scratches  ^  mm.  apart.  These  scratches  project  an  image  through  the 
objective  towards  the  reflecting  surface,  and  when  adjusted  the  image 
will  be  in  the  reflecting  surface,  and  will  be  the  conjugate  point  of  the 
glass  rod  end.  In  this  position  the  image  on  the  reflecting  plane  may 
now  be  regarded  as  origin.  Just  above  the  objective  is  a  prism  of  very 
obtuse  angle,  the  edge  being  uppermost.  The  effect  of  the  prism  is  to 
throw  the  ray  proceeding  from  the  origin  on  to  the  reflecting  surface 
slightly  out  of  the  microscopic  axis,  so  that  it  reaches  the  eye-piece 
without  being  blocked  out  by  the  glass  rod.  Thus,  the  position  of  clear 
definition  of  the  scratches  will  again  be  the  position  of  optical  contact. 
Descriptions  are  given  of  the  application  of  the  method  to  the  measure- 
ment of  Newton's  rings  and  of  other  physical  quantities. 

Brass.  A. — Grundgesetzeder  Optik. 

[Deals  largelv  with  interference.] 

Central-Zeit.  f.  Opt.  u.  Mech.,  xxvi.  (1905)  Nos.  15-20. 


*  Central-Zeit.  f.  Opt  u.  Mech.,  pp.  242-4  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  757 

B.  Technique.* 
CI)    Collecting-  Objects,   including-   Culture    Processes. 

Cultivating'  Trypanosomes.f  —  Thiroux  cultivated  Trypanosoma 
duttoni  in  the  following  medium  :  beef  or  rabbit  broth,  1000  grm. 
(125  grm.  of  meat  macerated  in  1  litre  of  distilled  water),  Witte's 
pepton  20  grm.,  salt  5  grm.,  agar  20  grm.,  carbonate  of  soda  solution 
(58  grm.  to  the  litre)  10  c.cm. 

The  materials  are  prepared  and  mixed  in  the  customary  way,  except 
that  the  medium  is  not  clarified  with  white  of  egg.  When  made,  it  is 
sterilised  in  the  autoclave  for  20  minutes  at  110°,  and  preserved  in  tubes 
covered  with  caoutchouc  caps. 

When  required  for  use  the  necessary  quantity  is  melted  in  a  water 
bath  and  when  cooled  down  to  45°,  two  volumes  of  defibrinated  rabbit's 
blood  are  added.  It  is  then  made  into  slopes,  and  next  day  the  inocu- 
lations are  made  in  the  condensation  water,  the  blood  being  taken  from 
the  heart  of  a  mouse.  The  first  cultures  develop  in  from  10-15  days  ; 
from  these  sub-cultures  are  made,  and  so  on  until  development  occurs 
on  the  4th  day. 

In  order  to  stain  the  Trypanosomes,  thin  films  are  necessary.  The 
preparations  are  fixed  in  absolute  alcohol  and  stained  by  Laveran's 
method.J 

Cultivation  of  Amoebae. § — A.  Lesage  inoculated  gelose  with  mucus 
from  dysenteric  stools.  The  gelose,  which  had  been  washed  in  running 
water  for  8  days  and  afterwards  sterilised,  was  placed  in  Petri's  capsules 
or  in  tubes.  The  temperature  ranged  from  18°-25°.  In  a  few  days 
amoeba;,  often  motionless,  were  found  buried  among  the  bacteria. 
Cultivations  were  also  made  on  plates  on  which  paracolon  bacilli  were 
growing.  By  this  method  living  amoebae  were  obtained  from  the  human 
intestine  without  passing  through  the  encysted  stage. 

Another  method  was  to  allow  the  amoebae  to  become  encysted,  and  to 
cultivate  the  cysts  thus  obtained.  For  this  purpose  some  mucus  and  a 
little  sterilised  water  were  placed  in  a  covered  capsule.  The  mucus 
dried  slowly  at  a  temperature  of  18°-25°.  After  a  few  days  the  dried 
mucus  was  sown  on  gelose  plates.  In  this  way  about  one  vessel  out  of 
ten  was  found  to  contain  amoebae.  Each  successful  plate  served  to 
obtain  fresh  cultures  of  the  pure  mixed  cultures.  Each  time  the  plates 
were  inoculated  the  amcebaa  were  sown  at  the  bottom  of  the  plate  while 
held  vertically,  the  upper  end  being  inoculated  with  the  food  bacterium. 
The  plates  were  incubated  at  20°.  After  a  few  days  the  amoebae  reached 
the  upper  end,  and  from  this  part  fresh  plates  were  inoculated,  and  so  on. 

*  This  subdivision  contains  (1)  Collecting  Objects,  including  Culture  Pro- 
cesses; (2)  Preparing  Objects ;  (3)  Cutting,  including  Imbedding  and  Microtomes  ; 
(4)  Staining  and  Injecting;  (5)  Mounting,  including  slides,  preservative  fluids,  &c.  ; 
(6)  Miscellaneous.  t  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  566-9  (1  pi.). 

%  See  this  Journal,  190:-?,  p.  117,  itud  1904,  p.  120. 

§  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  10-16  (2  pis.);  Comptes  Rendus,  cxxxix. 
(1904)  pp.  1237-9. 


758 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRKNT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 


All  Btages  in  the  evolution  of  the  amoebae  were  able  to  be  followed 
out  in  the  cultivation  plates. 

For  staining  purposes  the  methods  of  Laveran  and  of  Marino  were 

used. 

New  Bacteria  Filter.* — F.  Kern  describes  a  new  bacterial  filter. 
As  seen  from  the  accompanying  illustration  (fig.  178)  it  consists  of  a 
porcelain  cup,  the  bottom  of  which  is  perforated  and  holds  the  filter 
candle,  with  the  blind  end  upwards  and  the  open  end  fixed  into  the  hole 
in  the  bottom  of  the  cup ;  beneath  this  there  is  a  connecting  pipe  that 
leads  into  the  lumen  of  the  candle  ;  the  cup,  candle  and  connecting  pipe 
are  made  out  of  one  piece  of  porcelain;  the  cup  and  pipe  are  glazed  ; 
by  means  of  a  rubber  cork  the  connecting  pipe  can  be  attached  to  a 

vacuum  flask.  When  the  cup  is  full  of  the 
fluid  to  be  filtered,  the  candle  is  covered 
by  a  glass  bell,  shaped  like  the  candle  but 
rather  larger ;  by  this  means  the  action  of 
the  vacuum  is  not  hindered  by  the  air  that 
would  otherwise  be  drawn  in  above  the 
filtering  level  of  the  candle,  and  it  is  not 
essential  that  the  cup  should  be  completely 
full  of  fluid.  The  author  claims  that  it  is 
a  simple  contrivance,  being  composed  only 
of  one  piece  of  porcelain  and  a  glass  globe, 
both  of  which  can  be  readily  cleaned  and 
sterilised  ;  that  it  will  filter  relatively  small 
quantities  of  fluid  ;  that  it  is  inexpensive. 

Pure  Culture  from  Cells  Isolated  under 
the  Microscope.f — S.  L.  Schouten  obtained 
pure  cultures  from  single  cells  isolated  under 
the  highest  powers  of  the  Microscope,  by 
means  of  fine  glass  needles  controlled  by 
a  special  mechanism.  The  apparatus  em- 
ployed is  represented  in  fig.  179  as  £  natural 
size.  It  consists  of  A  an  iron  plate  stand- 
Fig.  178.  ing  on  four  feet ;  the  Microscope  is  fixed 

by  a  ring  to  the  square  copper  plate  B, 
and  can  be  moved  by  means  of  a  screw  to  the  right  or  left  or  back- 
wards or  forwards.  Of  the  Microscope  there  is  shown  the  stage  F,  the 
Abbe  condenser  G,  the  iris  diaphragm  H,  the  mirror  I,  the  foot  J,  and 
the  objective  K  ;  on  the  stage  is  a  moist  chamber,  the  "  isolation 
chamber,"  which  has  a  special  construction,  the  right  and  left  sides 
being  provided  with  horizontal  clefts,  which  can  be  closed  by  thick 
oil ;  through  these  clefts  are  passed  two  needles  M,  to  be  described 
below.  On  to  the  moist  chamber,  which  can  be  moved  by  means  of  a 
mechanical  stage,  is  brought  the  cover-slip,  on  the  under  side  of  which 
the  isolation  will  take  place.  The  needles  are  provided  with  handles  N, 
resting  on  the  copper  bar  0,  which  can  turn  about  a  pivot  P,  and  at  the 


*  Centralbl.  Bakt..  1««  Abt..  xxxix.  (1905)  p.  214. 
t  Zeitachr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1905)  p.  10. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


759 


•ends  of  these  bars  are  small  steel  disks,  by  means  of  which  they  rest  on 
the  vertical  rods  R  ;  by  means  of  the  spring  S,  R  can  be  screwed  up  or 
down,  the  point  of  M  in  the  moist  chamber  falling  if  R  is  screwed  up, 
and  conversely ;  the  screw  on  R  has  a  very  fine  adjustment,  and  the 
arm  of  the  lever  0  is  about  twice  as  long  as  the  distance  of  P  to  the 
point  of  the  glass  needle,  so  that  very  minute  changes  in  position  can 
be  made  ;  the  pivot  P  is  carried  by  a  copper  bar  V,  which  is  fixed  in  the 
upright  T.  The  glass  needles  have  a  stouter  portion  over  the  position 
of  the  rod  0  of  about  3-4  mm.  thick,  opposite  the  pivot  P  about  ^  mm., 
and  the  fine  ends  are  formed  into  points  and  loops,  and  vary  in  stout- 
ness according  to  the  nature  of  the  organism  to  be  isolated.  The 
Microscope  being  placed  in  position,  the  needles  are  laid  in  cement  on 
the  holders,  and  are  so  arranged  that  the  looped  ends  are  directed 
upwards,  resting  almost  in  the  middle  of  the  objective,  but  rather  deeper 
than  the  upper  margin  of  the  isolating  chamber ;  the  side  clefts  are 
■closed,  the  cover-glass  laid  on  top  of  the  chamber,  and  the  needles  are 
now  pressed  so  deeply  into  the  cement,  that  by  moving  the  screw  S  the 
ends  can  be  made  to  rest  on  the  under  side  of  the  cover-glass ;   the 


Fig.  179. 


•ends  of  the  needles  should  not  be  separated  more  than  300  fi,  and  should 
not  be  exactly  opposite  each  other.  It  is  most  important  that  the  whole 
•circumference  of  the  loop  should  rest  against  the  cover-slip.  The  cover- 
slips  recommended  are  18  by  18  mm.,  thoroughly  cleaned  and  lightly 
spread  with  vaselin  ;  the  moist  chamber  is  a  square  glass  frame,  the  side 
walls  being  2-3  mm.  high  and  5  mm.  broad,  making  a  capacity  of  about 
14  by  14  mm. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  isolation  of  the  cell,  it  is  necessary  to 
ascertain  how  much  of  the  material  from  which  the  isolation  is  to  be 
made  must  be  added  to  a  drop  of  f  p.c.  salt  solution,  so  that  there  are 
not  too  many  cells  at  the  margin  of  the  drop  ;  the  author  gives  details 
of  the  method  he  employs  to  determine  this  suitable  dilution. 

The  suitable  dilution  being  decided  on  and  prepared  in  the  specially 
devised  mixing  chamber,  the  cover-slip  on  which  the  isolation  is  to  be 
made,  is  flamed  and  laid  on  the  mixing  chamber  ;  then  with  a  sterilised 
platinum  needle  are  placed  near  to  each  other  and  equally  distant  from 
the  middle  of  the  slip  and  rather  to  its  left  side,  three  drops  of  the 
sterilised  fluid  in  which  the  culture  is  to  be  made  ;  these  are  known  as 
the  "  culture  drops  "  ;  to  the  right  of  the  middle  and  about  2  mm.  dis- 


7«>0  SUMMARY   OF   OUEEENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

tain  from  each  other,  arc  placed  two  drops  of  a  fp.c.  salt  solution 
containing  the  material  in  the  desired  state  of  dilution;  these  are 
known  as  the  "material  drops";  besides  these  is  also  placed  one  drop 
of  sterilised  \  p.c.  salt  solution.  The  isolating  glass  needles  are  now 
sterilised  ;  this  is  done  by  taking  away  the  loose  side  pieces  of  the 
isolation  chamber,  and  by  turning  off  the  screw  with  which  N  is  fixed 
int<>  ( t  :  \"  is  drawn  carefully  away  from  the  apparatus  ;  the  points  of  the 
glass  needles  are  then  held  in  a  flask  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and 
afterwards  in  a  flask  of  ammonia  ;  they  are  then  returned  to  the  plate, 
the  movable  side  pieces  replaced,  and  the  side  slits  closed  with  thick 
olive  oil.  A  drop  of  water  has  been  previously  placed  on  the  floor  of 
the  isolation  chamber.  The  cover-glass  is  seen  to  be  studded  with  small 
rounded  drops,  indicating  that  the  chamber  is  saturated  with  steam. 

Under  a  low  power  the  points  of  the  needles  are  dipped  into  the  drop 
of  sterile  £  p.c.  salt  solution.  By  a  movement  of  the  Microscope,  the 
loop  of  the  left-hand  needle,  now  full  of  salt  solution,  is  brought,  under 
a  high  power,  exactly  into  the  middle  of  the  field  ;  the  right-hand  needle 
being  about  three  screw-turns  beneath  it.  By  means  of  the  movable 
stage  and  a  low  power  the  isolation  chamber  is  so  placed  that  the  left- 
hand  loop  rests  almost  on  the  margin  of  a  material  drop,  that  is  on  the 
margin  that  lies  nearest  to  the  culture  drops.  With  a  high  power  the 
margin  of  the  drop  is  searched  for  a  bacterium  to  isolate,  a  part  of 
the  margin  being  chosen  where  there  are  not  many  other  bacteria  ;  then 
the  outer  end  of  the  loop  of  the  needle  is  brought  into  contact  with  the 
margin,  whereby  a  little  fluid  will  be  withdrawn  from  the  drop  ;  the 
isolation  chamber  is  then  moved  a  little,  so  that  the  small  drop  of  fluid 
containing  the  bacterium  is  separated  from  the  material  drop.  The 
isolated  bacterium  has  now  to  be  transferred  to  one  of  the  culture  drops. 
Using  a  low  power,  the  chamber  is  moved  so  far  to  the  right,  that  the 
loop  of  the  left-hand  needle  when  raised,  arrives  between  two  culture 
drops  and  near  to  the  margin  of  one  of  them ;  then  under  a  high 
power,  the  loop  is  brought  against  the  cover-slip,  where  it  deposits  a 
drop  that  probably  contains  the  isolated  bacterium  ;  several  drops  are 
deposited  until  this  is  made  certain.  To  bring  the  isolated  bacterium 
into  the  culture  drop,  the  pointed  end  of  the  right-hand  needle  is  used  ; 
under  a  low  power  the  lei t  hand  needle  is  drawn  three  screws'-rings 
down,  and  the  right  hand  needle  is  raised  and  brought  by  the  sliding 
arrangement  of  B,  exactly  under  one  of  the  drops  in  which  there  is  an 
isolated  bacterium  ;  then  under  a  high  power  the  point  of  the  right- 
hand  needle  is  made  to  rest  on  the  cover-slip  in  the  drop,  and  by 
moving  the  isolation  chamber  the  point  of  the  needle  carries  the  drop 
with  the  bacterium  into  the  culture  drop,  the  bacterium  being  kept  in 
sight  during  the  process.  Diagrams  illustrating  the  stages  of  this 
manipulation  accompany  the  description.  The'author  gives  minute 
details  for  carrying  out  these  processes,  for  correcting  errors,  and  for 
avoiding  possible  difficulties,  and  refers  to  the  modifications  required 
when  dealing  with  various  micro-organisms,  and  especially  when  the 
method  is  employed  for  testing  the  favourableness  of  any  particular 
Minn.  He  considers  that  the  method  is  especially  useful  for  studying 
variability  and  pleomorphism. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  761 

Method  for  Collecting  the  Gas  of  Fermentation.*  —  A.  Cache 
recommends  the  following  method  :  Having  poured  the  fluid  medium 
into  an  ordinary  test-tube,  he  places  in  it  a  small  short  test-glass 
inverted,  and  brings  the  whole  into  the  autoclave  ;  during  the  process 
of  sterilisation,  all  the  air  in  the  small  tube  has  escaped,  and,  after 
cooling,  it  is  seen  to  be  full  of  medium.  On  testing  sugar  bouillon 
inoculated  with  an  organism  capable  of  causing  fermentation,  the  gas 
produced  will  collect  in  the  inverted  tube. 

(2)  Preparing^  Objects. 

Examination  of  the  Spermatozoa  of  Ascaris  megalocephala.f — 
L.  Scheben  gives  the  following  details  of  the  method  employed  by  him 
in  the  examination  of  the  male  genital  organs  of  Ascaris  tnegalocephala  : 
The  specimen  is  obtained  as  fresh  as  possible,  and  put  into  the  fixing 
solution,  a  mixture  of  50  parts  of  absolute  alcohol,  50  parts  of  mercuric 
chloride,  and  2  parts  of  acetic  acid,  or  picric  acid  as  used  by  Boveri ;  or 
Zenker's  solution  may  be  used.  The  material  is  cut  up  into  small  pieces, 
and  left  in  the  fixing  solution  for  12  hours,  and  after  removal  of  the 
mercury  by  means  of  iodine  solution,  it  is  placed  in  60  p.c.  alcohol,  and 
from  this  it  is  transferred  to  alcohols  of  progressively  higher  percentages 
up  to  absolute  alcohol,  in  which  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  too 
long  when  once  the  desired  hardness  has  been  reached.  The  object  is 
now  placed  in  xylol,  or  better,  in  pure  chloroform,  covered  by  a  layer  of 
absolute  alcohol,  to  protect  the  specimen  that  floats  on  the  surface  of  the 
chloroform,  from  the  air  ;  when  the  object  is  sufficiently  penetrated,  the 
alcohol  can  be  pipetted  off,  and  the  specimen  is  transferred  to  a  mixture 
of  xylol,  or  chloroform  and  paraffin,  and  after  about  half  an  hour  it  is 
imbedded  in  pure  paraffin.  The  imbedding  process  lasts  about  4  hours 
at  6oc  C.  Sections  were  then  made  ranging  from  4  /jl  to  10  p.  Good 
staining  was  obtained  by  Heidenhain's  hasniatoxylin  method,  and 
counterstaining  with  a  light  green ;  simple  picrocarmine  staining  also 
answered  well ;  the  author  also  stained  with  anilin  dyes,  using  the 
double  stain  of  Heidenhain's  hematoxylin  and  Bordeaux  red.  Besides 
making  sections,  he  also  examined  the  contents  of  fresh  genital  glands 
from  the  living  animal,  by  means  of  a  warm  stage,  in  albumen-glycerin 
or  in  a  weak  solution  of  sugar ;  or  he  fixed  the  contents  expressed  on  to 
a  cover-slip,  in  osmic  acid  vapour,  or  by  the  method  suggested  by 
Van  Beneden  and  Boveri,  and  mounted  in  glycerin. 

Methods  of  Examining-  the  Eyes  and  Frontal  Organs  of  Branchio- 
pods.J — M.  Nowikoff  finds  that  Gilson's  fluid  is  the  best  for  fixing  these 
objects,  but  he  also  got  good  results  with  sublimate  acetic,  or  with  96  p.c. 
alcohol.  For  the  thicker  sections,  that  served  to  show  the  topographical 
relations,  he  stained  with  borax-carmine  and  \  p.c.  Lyons  blue,  or  borax- 
carmine,  osmic  acid,  and  wood  vinegar,  after  Schuberg,  or  with  Delafield's 
hematoxylin  and  picric  acid  fuchsin,  according  to  Van  Gieson.  This 
last  is  also  very  good  for  fine  sections  ;  but  he  found  that  for  these,  in 
order  to   show  the   plasma   structure,  Butschli's   or   M.    Heidenhain's 

*  Centralbl.  Bakt.  Kef.,  lte  Abt.,  xxxvii.(1905)  p.  49. 
t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxix.  (1905)  p.  400.  %  Tom.  cit.,  p.  433. 


,(>-  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT   RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

hematoxylin,  or  R.  Heidenh;iin*s  hematoxylin  potassium  chromate  is 
especially  useful.  Referring  to  the  borax-carmine  stain,  he  notes  that 
ilif  nuclei  <if  the  Branchiopods  have  very  little  stainable  substance,  so 
that  he  stained  the  object  for  about  48  hours  at  :J>5°-40°C. 

For  decolorising  the  eyes  he  uses  free  chlorine  by  a  modification  of 
Mayer's  method  ;  he  fills  a  test-tube  with  96  p.c.  alcohol,  adds  a  few 
drops  of  nitric  acid,  and  puts  a  couple  of  crystals  of  potassium  chlorate 
into  the  mixture  ;  into  the  lower  half  of  the  tube  he  dips  a  thin  layer 
of  wool,  and  lays  it  on  the  head  of  the  animal,  which  had  been  pre- 
viously kept  in  70  p.c.  alcohol  ;  in  this  way  the  object  does  not  rest 
on  the  potassium  chlorate  ;  in  12-24  hours  at  room  temperature,  the 
pigment  will  be  completely  removed  from  the  tissue,  which  has  not 
suffered  any  marked  alteration  from  the  treatment. 

Investigating  the  Anatomy  and  Development  of  the  Venous 
System  of  Chelonia.* — F.  A.  Stromson  killed  the  turtles  with  chloral 
hydrate,  and  injected  through  the  left  abdominal  vein.  The  best  results 
were  obtained  when  the  animals  were  killed  several  days  before  injecting 
them.  The  mass  used  was  mostly  gelatin,  and  in  order  to  prevent  it 
cooling  before  all  the  veins  were  filled,  the  specimens  were  previously 
placed  in  warm  water.  If,  however,  iodide  of  potassium  is  used  to 
lower  the  melting-point  of  the  gelatin,  this  is  not  necessary.  Some  of 
the  turtles  were  injected  with  Huntington's  wax-mass,  and  corroded 
with  strong  hydrochloric  acid. 

The  material  used  for  studying  the  development  of  the  veins  of 
embryos  was  fixed  in  picro-sublimate.  The  embryos  were  dehydrated, 
cleared,  and  imbedded  in  paraffin,  and  serial  sections  were  cut  about 
20  fx  thick.  The  best  staining  results  were  obtained  from  Delafield's 
haematoxylin  and  picric  acid.     Reconstruction  methods  were  freely  used. 

Demonstrating  the  Structure  of  Gutta-percha  Plants.f — A.Charlier, 
when  investigating  the  anatomy  of  gutta-percha  plants,  used  collodion 
sections  of  the  leaf,  and  stained  them  with  acetic  orcanette,  with  orcanette 
and  chloral,  or  with  sudan,  in  order  to  demonstrate  the  lacticiferous  net- 
work. It  was  found  easy  to  macerate  little  bits  of  leaf  in  eau-de-favelle, 
and,  after  carefully  washing  in  dilute  acetic  acid,  to  stain  the  tissue  en 
masse.  The  maceration  in  the  hypochlorite  varied  according  to  the 
thickness  of  the  leaf,  from  24  hours  to  several  days.  These  preparations 
were  mounted  in  glycerin-gelatin. 

In  order  to  study  the  walls  of  the  lacticiferous  vessels,  the  latex  was 
got  rid  of  by  immersing  the  sections  in  chloroform.  The  sections  were 
then  cleared  up  in  hypochlorite  and  afterwards  stained  with  iodine- 
green  and  alum-carmine.  Bismarck  brown  and  Delafield's  haematoxylin 
gave  equally  good  results. 

Demonstrating  the  Structure  of  the  Respiratory  Tract  of  Birds.:}: 
For  demonstrating  the  bronchial  ramifications  of  birds,  G.  Fischer  made 
corrosive  preparations  by  the  aid  of  wax-masses,  celloidin,  photoxylin, 
and  celluloid  solutions. 

*  Amer.  Journ.  Anat,  iv.  (1905)  pp.  453-4. 

t  Journ.  Bot.,  xix.  (1905)  pp.  183-4. 

X  Zoologica,  xix.  (1905)  45  pp..  5  pis.  nnd  2  figs  in  text. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  763 

The  wax  mass  consisted  of  3  parts  white  wax,  2  parts  powdered 
colophonium,  1  part  Venetian  turpentine.  The  mass  was  stained  with 
Berlin  blue  or  with  cinnabar.  The  mass  was  injected  while  the  body 
of  the  bird  was  still  warm,  and  when  the  operation  was  completed  the 
body  was  cooled  down  in  cold  water,  and  then,  after  the  lapse  of  a  few 
hours,  was  transferred  to  pure  hydrochloric  acid  for  maceration.  When  the 
maceration  was  complete,  the  preparation  was  cleansed  in  running  water. 

The  photoxylin  and  celloidin  injections  are  made  by  dissolving  the 
commercial  article  in  equal  parts  of  absolute  alcohol  and  sulphuric  ether, 
and  mixing  the  mass  with  zinc- white  or  cinnabar. 

The  solution  injected  is  at  first  of  a  thin,  syrupy  consistence,  after- 
wards followed  by  a  thicker.  As  the  solvents  evaporate  quickly,  it  is 
necessary  to  give  a  few  turns  of  the  piston-screw  from  time  to  time  so 
as  to  keep  the  tension  up.  According  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  it 
takes  hours  or  days  for  the  injection  mass  to  set  properly.  After  having 
been  macerated  in  pure  hydrochloric  acid,  the  preparation  is  washed  in 
running  water,  and  afterwards  preserved  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol,  glycerin, 
and  water. 

As  hydrochloric  acid  did  not  always  act  satisfactorily,  the  following 
coiTosive  menstruum  was  substituted  :  oxalic  acid  6,  pepsin  1  ■  5,  distilled 
water  200.  This  medium  wras  used,  after  preliminary  treatment,  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  digestion  was  effected  in  a  thermostat  at  40°  C. 

Celluloid  injection  masses  were  chiefly  used  for  blood-vessels.  Cellu- 
loid shavings  were  dissolved  in  pure  acetone,  and  the  solution  mixed  with 
cinnabar  or  zinc-white. 

For  microscopical  sections,  the  thoracic  viscera  (trachea,  lungs,  and 
heart)  were  placed  within  a  bell  jar,  from  which  the  air  could  be 
exhausted  below  and  gelatin  solution  made  to  flow  in  above. 

For  fixing  the  material  for  microscopical  purposes,  five  methods  were 
tried  :  absolute  alcohol ;  formalin,  alone  and  with  the  addition  of  5  p.c. 
acetic  acid,  and  of  saturated  solution  of  sublimate  ;  Zenker's  and  Miiller's 
fluids.  The  sections  were  stained  by  Van  Gieson's  and  by  Weigert's 
methods,  and  with  kresofuchsin. 

Creosote  as  a  Dehydrating  Medium  for  Imbedding  in  Paraffin.* 
W.  Pavlow  recommends  the  following  procedure,  which  he  finds  has 
advantages  over  the  usual  method  of  dehydrating  with  alcohol.  The 
objects,  fixed  in  any  kind  of  fluid,  are  transferred  without  previous 
dehydration  to  creosotum  fagi  for  4-24  hours,  according  to  size,  and 
then  immersed  in  pure  creosote  for  2-8  hours  more.  On  removal,  the 
superfluous  creosote  is  mopped  off  with  blotting  paper,  and  then  the 
objects  are  placed  in  xylol  or  toluol  for  one  hour,  after  which  they  are 
imbedded  in  paraffin  in  the  usual  way. 

Injection  of  Fine  Vessels.t — P.  Konascko  successfully  and  easily 
injects  the  organs  of  small  animals  by  the  following  procedure.  When 
it  is  desired  to  inject,  say,  the  portal  system  of  the  kidney  of  the  frog, 
a  canula  is  introduced  into  the  vena  cava  inferior  or  the  vena  abdomi- 
nalis  anterior.    These  large  vessels  are  then  injected  with  warm  colourless 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (l'J<>5)  pp.  186-7. 
t  Tom.  cit..  pp.  179-80. 


764  SUMMARY    OF   CDBEENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

gelatin.  The  organ  is,  of  course,  placed  in  a  water-bath  during  the 
injection.  When  the  operation  is  completed,  the  preparation  is  re- 
moved and  allowed  to  cool.  It  is  now  easy  to  insert  a  canula  into  the 
liner  vessels,  which  are  distended  by  the  injection-mass.  When  the 
canula  is  fastened,  the  preparation  is  placed  in  warm  water  again.  After 
an  immersion  of  a  few  minutes  the  gelatin  is  liquefied,  and  then  the 
inject  ion -mass  is  easily  syringed  in. 

Demonstrating  the  Spermatogenesis  of  Hydra.* — E.  B.  Downing 
used  a  variety  of  fixatives,  including  osmic-Merkel,  Hermann's, 
Perenyi's  ehromacetic,  Flemming's,  Gilson's  mercuro-nitric,  Carnoy's 
acetic-alcohol,  Kleinenberg's  picro-sulphuric,  Graf's  chromoxalic,  varying 
strengths  of  picro-acetic,  and  hot  corrosive.  The  first  three  were  the  best, 
the  osmic-Merkel  working  especially  well.  A  h  p.c.  solution  of  osmic 
acid  was  used  to  kill  the  animals.  The  hydra  was  placed  in  a  watch- 
glass,  in  as  small  a  drop  of  water  as  would  allow  the  animal  to 
expand  well.  When  expanded,  about  lOc.cm.  of  the  osmic-acid  solution 
was  poured  over  it,  death  mostly  occurring  without  any  contraction. 
After  about  a  minute  the  animal  was  transferred  to  Merkel  for  24  hours. 
It  was  then  dehydrated  in  graded  alcohols,  cleared  in  xylol,  and  im- 
bedded in  paraffin.  A  variety  of  stains  was  used,  the  best  being  iron- 
htematoxylin,  Bordeaux  red,  orange  G,  and  safranin-gentian-violet. 

The  preparations  were  cleared  with  oil-of-bergamot  or  cedar-oil,  and 
the  sections  mounted  in  balsam  or  in  thick  cedar-oil. 

The  best  results  were  obtained  from  the  osmic-Merkel  or  the  Perenyi, 
followed  by  iron-hasmatoxylin  and  Bordeaux-red,  or  for  count  of 
chromomeres,  by  safranin.  Gentian-violet  was  the  best  stain  to  dif- 
ferentiate the  gland-cells  of  the  endoderm,  and  was  used  after  iron- 
hsmatoxylin. 

Decalcification  of  Dental  Enamel.f — C.  F.  Bodecker  remarks  that 
by  the  ordinary  methods  of  decalcification,  the  protoplasmic  constituent 
of  the  enamel  of  teeth  is  torn  off  from  the  dentine  and  gets  washed 
away.  This  disaster  is  avoided  by  the  following  procedure  :  The  pre- 
parations pass  through  the  usual  processes  until  they  come  to  thin 
celloidin.  From  this  they  are  transferred  to  the  decalcifying  solution, 
which  consists  of  thick  celloidin  solution,  to  which  6-10  p.c.  strong 
nitric  acid  has  been  added.  The  consistence  of  the  solution  must  be 
maintained  by  the  occasional  addition  of  ether  and  alcohol. 

The  duration  of  the  decalcifying  process  depends  on  the  size  of  the 
preparation — e.  g.  slices  about  30  /*  thick  are  ready  within  two  weeks, 
while  those  1  mm.  thick  require  about  two  months. 

After  the  preparation  has  lain  in  the  acid  solution  for  a  couple  of 
days  it  assumes  a  chalky  appearance,  but  as  decalcification  proceeds  the 
enamel  becomes  transparent,  so  that  at  last  it  is  almost  imperceptible. 

When  this  stage  is  reached,  the  celloidin  is  allowed  to  harden. 

On  account  of  the  difficulty  of  making  thin  celloidin  sections,  it  is 
advisable  to  imbed  the  block  in  paraffin. 

*  Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.  (1905)  pp.  370-426  (3  pis.). 

t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  190-2  (1  pi.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  765 

Demonstrating  the  Blastoderm  of  Polistes  pallipes.*  —  W.  S. 
Marshall  and  P.  H.  Dernehl  killed  the  eggs  in  hot  water,  and  after  a 
few  seconds  added  an  equal  amount  of  hot  saturated  aqueous  solution 
of  sublimate.  After  an  immersion  of  20-40  minutes  the  eggs  were 
washed  and  placed  in  70  p.c.  alcohol.  Another  method  used  consisted 
in  adding  to  hot  sublimate  solution  an  equal  bulk  of  alcohol  and  pouring 
the  mixture  over  the  eggs,  and  allowing  this  to  act  for  10-20  minutes.     ' 

The  stains  used  were  iron-hamitoxylin,  generally  followed  by  Bor- 
deaux red,  and  the  safranin-methylen-violet,  orange  G  triple  stain. 

Preparing  Fasciolaria  tulipa  and  its  Larval  Excretion  Organs.! 
O.  C.  Glaser  found  that  the  best  fixative  was  Kleinenberg's  picro- 
sulphuric  acid.  The  stains  used  were  borax-carmin,  hsemalum, 
Kleinenberg's  hasmatoxylin,  and  Conklin's  modification  of  Delafield's 
hematoxylin.  In  some  cases  bleu-de-Lyon  and  eosin  in  combination 
were  tried. 

There  was  some  difficulty  in  obtaining  thin  sections,  as  dehydration 
rendered  the  yolk  very  brittle.  For  paraffin  sections  the  best  results 
were  obtained  by  superseding  the  higher  alcohols  and  xylol  with 
70-80  p.c.  alcohol  and  creosote.  This  procedure  enabled  thin  sections  of 
a  mass  containing  some  300  eggs  to  be  easily  made. 

Demonstrating  Neurofibrils.!— G.  A.  Jaderholm  rejects  the  existence 
of  an  endocellular  network  in  ganglion-cells,  and  shows  that  the 
appearances  are  due  to  fixation,  his  view  being  that  the  fibrils  pass 
through  the  cells  without  inosculating. 

He  advocates  Bethe's  method,  which  consists  in  fixing  with  nitric 
acid,  following  this  with  molybdanate  of  ammonia  and  toluidin-blue. 
This  procedure  causes  little  shrinkage,  and  the  appearance  of  an  endo- 
cellular network  is  absent.  By  Donaggio's  method,  which  consists  in 
substituting  pyridin  for  nitric  acid  as  fixative,  the  cells  become  shrunken 
and  the  appearance  of  an  inosculating  endocellular  network  is  produced. 

By  combining  the  two  methods,  shrinkage  and  artefacts  intermediate 
in  degree  were  produced. 

Demonstrating  the  Structure  of  Red  Corpuscles.§— VI.  BJzicka 
washes  the  air-dried  films  with  a  mixture  of  tap  and  distilled  water  in 
order  to  remove  the  haemoglobin.  The  films  are  then  fixed  in  saturated 
aqueous  solution  of  sublimate.  After  thorough  washing  in  running  tap 
water  they  are  mordanted  with  5  p.c.  sodium  nitrate  and  then  washed 
again.  The  films  are  stained  with  a  mixture  of  2  parts  of  5  p.c.  carbol- 
fuchsin  and  1  part  of  1  p.c.  aqueous  china-blue  solution. 

After  washing  in  water  the  preparations  are  dried  and  mounted  in 
Balsam  or  in  cedar-oil. 

Demonstrating  Teeth  of  Mammalian  Embryos.||— K.  von  Korff 
fixed  the  material,  teeth  of  embryos  of  ox  and  pig,  in  sublimate, 
sublimate-alcohol-acetic  acid,  and  in  Flemming's  fluid.  The  last  two 
have  the  advantage  of  not  dissolving  out  the  slight  deposit  of  lime.    The 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxx.  (1905)  pp.  122-54  (2  pis.). 

+  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  80-121  (2  pis.  and  5  figs.). 

X  Arch.  Mikr.  Auat.,  lxvii.  (1905)  pp.  108-23  (2  pis.). 

§  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  82-102  (2  pis.).  ||  Tom.  cit..  pp.  1-17  (1  pi.). 


766 


SUMMARY    OF    (TRRKNT    KRSEABCHB8    RKLATING   TO 


preparations  were  stained  with  Bolution  of  acid  Rubin  and  orange  G  in 
alcohol  and  glycerin,  or  they  were  first  stained  with  Heidenhain's  iron- 
uliiiii  bsemotoxylin. 

(8)    Cutting:,  including-  Imbedding-  and  Microtomes. 

Reichert's  Microtome  with  Handle.* — This  instrument  (fig.  180)  is 
a  modification  of  the  microtome  working  in  conical  bearings  previously 


Fig.  180. 

described  in  this  Journal.t     The  new  features  are  the  handle  and  the 
base,  which  is  sufficiently  heavy  to  insure  stability. 

Flatters'  Microtome. — This  microtome  %  (fig.  181)  devised  by 
A.  Flatters  is  made  of  brass ;  the  tube  or  well  is  3  in.  deep  and  the 
extreme  diameter  1  in.  The  spindle  is  of  the  same  length,  the  screw 
having  28  threads  to  the  inch.  The  spindle  is  fitted  with  a  thumb- 
screw at  the  lower  end  to  admit  of  the  toothed  disks  being  easily  changed. 
A  spring  stop,  the  tension  of  which  can  be  adjusted,  works  on  the  teeth 
of  the  disk,  thus  insuring  a  series  of  sections  of  uniform  thickness.    The 

*  Special  Catalogue,  1905,  p.  9. 
t  See  this  Journal,  189J,  p.  499.  \  Exhibited  at  the  October  Meeting,  1905. 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


767 


three  disks  provided  have  72,  54  and  43  teeth,  giving  sections  ^W> 
ysVtf  and  T^V(T  m-  respectively.  The  thickness  of  the  sections  is  ascer- 
tained by  multiplying  the  notches  in  the  disk  by  the  number  of  threads 
per  inch  on  the  spindle. 


Fig.  181. 


Kig.  181a. 


The  knife-plate,  2f  in.  by  4|  in.,  is  made  of  hardened  brass  polished 
"  dead  flat,"  and  has  an  aperture  the  same  diameter  as  the  tube,  but 
tapers  slightly  to  the  top  in  order  to  prevent  the  specimen  from  turning 


7«;.s 


SUMMARY    OF    CL'KKKNT     l:KSK  A  lt< '  !!KS    RELATING    TO 


or  rising  while  the  sections  are  being  cut ;  it  is  attached  at  one  end  to 
the  headstock  by  a  stout  screw,  and  is  securely  held  in  position  by  a 
reliable  screw  which  is  clamped  under  the  headstock.  The  specimen  to 
lie  cut  is  placed  in  the  well  of  the  microtome, and  paraffin,  m.p.  130°  F., 


Fig.  181b. 


Fig.  181c. 


poured  in  ;  when  set,  any  superfluous  wax  is  removed.  The  "  candle  " 
so  formed  is  then  moved  upwards  by  turning  the  toothed  disk.  The 
sections  are  cut  by  passing  the  knife  obliquely  over  the  knife-plate, 
which  is  always  kept  moist  with  alcohol. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,   MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


769 


The  instrument  is  fitted  with  an  oblong  top  for  sections  too  large 
for  the  ordinary  well ;  it  fits  on  the  top  of  the  microtome  and  is  held  in 
position  by  a  series  of  clamps  ;  the  aperture  is  §  in.  wide  by  J  in.  long 
by  1-J,  in.  deep.  The  carrier  fits  into  the  tube  of  the  microtome,  and  is 
actuated  by  the  spindle  in  the  usual  way. 


**"*  '* » * 


Fig.  181d. 

Preventing  Rolling  of  Paraffin  Sections.* — In  order  to  prevent 
the  rolling  and  crumbling  of  paraffin  sections,  A.  Siding  works  up  a 
little  bit  of  paraffin  with  the  fingers  on  to  a  thin,  transparent  plate  of 
the  same  size  as  the  section  surface,  and  presses  it  on  the  section  surface 
of  the  paraffin  block.  With  a  little  practice  the  right  pressure  for 
obtaining  intimate  union  is  attained.  When  the  section  is  made,  this, 
together  with  the  plate,  is  easily  removed  with  the  finger  to  a  slide  already 
provided  with  adhesive.  For  very  large  sections,  just  warmed  paraffin 
should  be  poured  over  the  section  surface.  The  further  manipulation 
is  the  same  as  that  for  ordinary  paraffin  sections. 


(4)    Staining-  and  Injecting-. 

Easy  Method  of  Staining  and  Mounting  Algae  and  Fungi.f — 
J.  Burton,  in  a  paper  read  at  the  Quekett  Microscopical  Club,  remarked 
that  in  exhibiting  micro-objects  to  friends  who  were  not  particularly 
well  acquainted  with  natural  history,  it  was  always  noticeable  that  they 
showed  most  interest  in  "  common  objects."  A  fly's  foot  or  scales  from 
a  butterfly's  wing  drew  more  attention  and  gave  more  pleasure  than 
rarer  objects  which  were  not  understood.     Among  the  objects  suitable 


*  Zeitsehr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  177-S. 
f  English  Mechanic,  lxxxii.  (1005)  pp.  272-3. 

Dec.  20th,  1905 


8  * 


770  SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING   TO 

for  popular  exhibition,  nothing  could  be  more  beautiful,  when  properly 
displayed,  than  the  very  common  "  moulds,"  which  were  universally 
familiar,  and,  indeed,  only  too  often  more  familiar  than  welcome.  But 
there  was  considerable  difficulty  in  mounting  them,  or  even  in  preparing 
them  for  exhibition  as  temporary  mounts  for  transmitted  light.  This 
was  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  spores  were  very  readily  shed,  and 
the  whole  plant  disorganised,  in  the  dry  air  of  a  room,  and  partly  to  the 
difficulty  of  getting  water  to  penetrate  effectually  among  the  hyphse. 
Some  years  ago  a  friend  had  sent  him  a  bottle  of  fluid  and  some  speci- 
mens  of  micro-algae  preserved  in  dilute  spirit,  with  the  directions, 
"  Wash  out  the  spirit  and  mount  in  the  fluid."  The  result  was  very 
satisfactory,  staining  and  permanent  preservation  being  effected  at  the 
same  time,  with  only  one  medium.  The  method  was  found  to  answer 
equally  well  with  fungi,  the  only  difficulty  lying  in  the  preliminary 
process.  The  fluid  consisted  of  glycerin  to  which  an  alcoholic  solution 
of  Hoffman's  blue  was  added  in  sufficient  quantity  to  obtain  the  desired 
tint.  It  was  essential  that  the  blue  should  be  of  the  best  quality  if 
permanent  results  were  wanted.  Methylen-blue  could  be  used  as  a 
substitute,  but  the  colour  faded  quickly. 

The  method  of  mounting  was  as  follows  : — A  drop  of  alcohol  of 
strength  80  p.c.  to  90  p.c.  was  placed  upon  a  glass  slip.    A  small  portion 
of  the  fungus  was  placed  with  as  little  disturbance  as  possible  in  the 
alcohol,  which  at  once  penetrated  the  fungus.     The  alcohol  quickly 
evaporated  and  another  drop  was  then  placed  on  the  object,  which  was 
left  to  soak  in  it  for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour.     Then  a  drop  or  two 
more  of  dilute  spirit,  say  25  p.c.  strength,  was  added.     When  this  had 
penetrated  the   specimen,    the   slide  was   left  undisturbed   for  several 
hours,  care  being    taken    to  insure   that  the   fluid  did  not  evaporate 
altogether.     By  these  processes  the  initial  difficulty  of  the  resistance 
to  wetting  was  overcome,  and  at  the  same  time  the  tissues  were  fixed 
and  hardened.     After  some  hours  (or  sooner  if  convenient)  the  spirit 
was  washed  out  with  distilled  water.     This  was  done  on  the  slide  with  a 
camel-hair  brush,  with  which  some  of  the  superfluous  spores  were  at 
the  same  time  removed.     While  the  object  was  still  wet  a  drop  of  the 
coloured  glycerin  (diluted  if  the  object  is  a  delicate  one)  was  placed  on 
the  fungus  and  allowed  to  soak  in  thoroughly.     It  was  a  good  plan  at 
this  stage  to  put  the  slip  away  in  the  cabinet  for  a  time.      Finally,  the 
specimen  was  arranged  under  a  Microscope,  the  diluted  glycerin  with- 
drawn with  a  brush,  and  a  drop  of  glycerin  of  full  strength  substituted. 
The  cover-glass  was  then  placed  in  position  and  cemented  down.    Unless 
the  object  was  thick  no  cell  was  required.     The  algse  could  be  treated 
in  the  same  manner,  but  were  much  easier  to  deal  with,  as  they  did  not 
require  such  delicate  manipulation  in  the  early  stages. 

Apparatus  for  Staining  simultaneously  Numerous  Sections.* — 
The  apparatus  devised  by  L.  Neumayer  consists  of  two  hoops,  a  and  b, 
united  by  cross-pieces  e,  e  (fig.  182).  The  hoops,  which  are  2-9  cm. 
high,  are  7*9  cm.  apart,  a  distance  which  easily  admits  the  insertion  of 
the  ordinary  slide.     Upon  the  cross-pieces  rest  the  two  rings  d  and  e, 

*  Zeitschr.  wis*.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1905)  pp.  181-5  (1  fig.) 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANV,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC. 


771 


which  serve  to  support  the  slides.  On  the  inside  of  a  are  80  fillets 
1  •  8  cm.  high,  the  space  between  adjacent  pairs  being  about  0  ■  4  cm. 
The  inner  hoop  b  has  eight  fillets,  which  are  about  2  cm.  apart.  At  the 
intersection  of  the  cross-pieces  is  inserted  a  T-shaped  piece,  which 
serves,  through  the  mediation  of  a  hook,  for  removing  the  frame  from 
the  solutions.  The  frame  is  made  of  cast  iron,  covered  with  white 
enamel,  and,  when  filled  with  slides,  weighs  about  400  grm. 


Fig.  182. 


Demonstrating  the  Neurofibrils  in  Ganglion  Cells.* — A.  Gemelli 
places  pieces  1  cm.  square  in  a  mixture  of  3  p.c.  bichromate  of  potash 
and  1  p.c.  osmic  acid,  in  the  proportion  of  1:8;  a  few  drops  of  sulpho- 
cyanide  of  potash  are  added,  and  after  an  immersion  of  about  half- 
an-hour  the  pieces  are  transferred  to  the  customary  osmic-bichromate 
solution.  In  from  48-72  hours  the  pieces  are  passed  into  the  nitrate 
of  silver  solution.     Sections  were  made  by  the  celloidin  method. 

Apparatus  for  the  Simultaneous  Staining  of  Several  Sections 
fixed  to  Cover-slips  or  Slides.|  —  K.  Melissinos  has  devised  this 
apparatus  (fig.  188).  It  consists  of  a  square  box  K,  80  mm.  long, 
45  mm.  broad  and  high ;  on  the  inner  wall  of  one  side  is  a  plate  A, 
provided  with  grooves,  which  is  held  fast  by  a  small  knob  hi.     The 


+  Anat.  Anzeig.,  xxvii.  (1905)  pp.  449-62  (6  figs.). 
t  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1905)  p.  130. 


3  F  2 


•) 


SUMMARY    OF   CURRENT    RESEARCHES    RELATING  TO 


plate  A  has  twenty  grooves  R,  to  receive  twenty  slides  and  forty  cover- 
slips.  Parallel  to  the  plate  A  and  inside  the  box  is  another  plate  B 
provided  with  the  same  number  of  same  sized  grooves  ;  by  means  of  the 
|(,iilt  ami  a  >\  tin's  plate  is  connected  with  the  screw  *.  If  the  screw  is 
turned  the  plate  15  can  be  brought  nearer  or  farther  away  from  the  fixed 
plate  A.  One  of  the  grooved  plates  carries  at  its  lower  margin  and  on 
the  inner  surface  a  line  thread  which  projects  5  mm.  over  the  surface, 
and  so  serves  to  prevent  the  plate  from  falling  down  into  the  deposit  of 
stain  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  The  movable  plate  B  has  at  either 
side  two  notches,  to  facilitate  the  circulation  of  the  staining  solution, 
washing   fluid,  etc.     Various   sized  and  shaped  glasses  can  be  placed 


Fig.  183. 

upright  in  the  box  ;  the  size  of  the  slide  for  which  it  is  to  be  adjusted 
being  engraved  on  a  scale  sk  in  mm. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  apparatus  are  that  it  can  be  used 
for  slides  or  coverslips  ;  that,  by  adjusting  the  screw,  the  slides  and  slips 
can  be  held  fast  in  the  grooves,  and  do  not  fall  out  when  the  various 
m;i in  fluids  are  poured  off  ;  and  also  with  one  apparatus  a  quantity  of 
material  fixed  to  slides  can  be  treated  in  a  short  space  of  time. 

Examination  of  the  Retina  of  the  Nautilus  and  certain  Di- 
branchiate  Cephalopods.* — H.  Merton  found  that  retinae  of  these  animals 
did  not  stain  by  the  usual  nuclear  and  plasma  dyes ;  with  Delafield's 
hematoxylin  he  obtained  only  a  diffuse  staining,  and  with  borax-carmine 
he  had  no  result,  but  he  was  more  fortunate  with  the  stronger  staining 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Zool.,  lxxix.  (1905)  p.  32<J. 


ZOOLOGY   AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,   ETC.  773 

anilin  dyes,  such  as  toluidin  blue  and  Unna's  polychrome  methylen- 
blue  With  toluidin  bine  he  applied  a  mordant,  using  either  ammonium 
molybdate,  after  Bethe,  or  antimonium  tartrate  (tartar  emetic)  according 
to  Schuberg.  With  this  method  he  could  demonstrate  the  nerve 
fibrillae ;  he  used  as  a  control  stain  the  iron-hsematoxylin  method  of 
M.  Heidenhain,  after  which  he  stained  with  a  1  p.c.  aqueous  solution 
of  acid  fuchsin,  and  obtained  a  most  useful  appearance  ;  also  R.  Heiden- 
hain's  stain  with  aqueous  hematoxylin  and  a  subsequent  mordant  of 
chromate  of  potash  gave  good  results  ;  he  also  obtained  good  prepara- 
tions of  very  thin  sections  with  the  iron-hsematoxylin  method  of  Butschli 
— acetate,  iron  oxide,  and  aqueous  hematoxylin.  Sections  of  :3  p  or 
less  were  only  obtained  if  the  retina  had  been  separated  from  the  under- 
lying thick  layer  of  connective  tissue  before  imbedding.  To  obtain 
thin  sections  of  the  retina  in  conjunction  with  the  connective  tissue  he 
employed  Mastix  collodion  after  Heider. 

To  bleach  the  pigments  he  used  a  mixture  of  85  parts  of  96  p.c. 
alcohol  and  15  parts  of  nitric  acid,  and  a  knife's-pointful  of  KC1  or 
KC103,  care  being  taken  that  the  object  does  not  remain  for  long  in 
contact  with  the  KC1  or  KC103,  lest  the  tissue  be  destroyed. 

For  fixing  the  eyes  of  the  Dibranchiates  he  found  Zenker's  mixture 
was  especially  good.  For  staining  he  used  Heidenhain's  iron-haema- 
toxylin  combined  with  acid  fuchsin  or  orange  ;  and  besides  these  he 
used  Blockmann's  fluid  that  stains  the  nerve  fibres  pale  yellow,  the 
other  constituents  staining  blue,  and  he  obtained  excellent  results  by 
combining  this  reagent  with  borax-carmine,  osmium,  and  wood-vinegar. 

Theory  of  Vital  Staining.* — Y.  Ruzicka,  as  the  result  of  extended 
research,  has  elicited  a  difference  in  the  staining  relations  of  living  and 
dead  protoplasm,  living  protoplasm  staining  red,  dead  protoplasm 
staining  blue,  when  treated  with  an  equimolecular  mixture  of  neutral 
red  and  methylen-blue.  The  method  consists  of  mixing  equal  parts  of 
0  •  05  p.c.  solution  of  neutral  red  and  methylen-blue  in  distilled  water  ; 
some  of  the  mixture  is  dropped  on  a  clean  slide  and  allowed  to  evaporate 
at  85°  C.  in  the  incubator  ;  on  to  the  dried  layer  of  stain  is  brought 
the  object  in  the  same  isotonic  medium,  which  serves  equally  as  a 
solvent  for  the  stain  mixture.  In  seeking  to  explain  his  results  the 
author  considers  that  living  substances  exist  in  a  more  or  less  fluid  con- 
dition, and  consist  of  two  layers  of  different  densities,  an  outer  denser 
and  an  inner  more  fluid  ;  and  he  conceives  that  when  such  a  cell  is 
surrounded  by  fluid  its  outer  layer  would  behave,  in  respect  to  the 
separate  fluids,  as  a  membrane  ;  and,  assuming  that  the  staining  process 
proceeds  according  to  the  laws  of  simple  diffusion,  and  will  continue 
until  the  concentration  of  the  fluids  on  either  side  of  the  membrane  are 
equal,  a  mixed  violet  tone  would  result.  But  as  this  does  not  occur,  he 
concludes  that  his  results  do  not  admit  of  a  simple  physical  explanation. 
The  author  suggests  two  other  explanations  :  either  the  methylen-blue 
cannot  penetrate  into  the  living  cell  because  the  outer  cell  layer  opposes 
an  insuperable  barrier  to  its  molecules  (but  this  is  not  tenable,  for 
living  cells  can  be  stained  well  by  methylen-blue)  ;  or  it  is  possible  that 

*  Zeitschr.  wiss.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1905)  p.  91. 


774      SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  RESEARCHES  RELATING  TO 

l.otli  stains  penetrate  the  cell,  but  that  one  undergoes  changes  according 
as  the  cell  is  alive  or  dead,  so  that  only  one  stain  is  represented.  The 
author  <,rives  as  an  example  the  central  nucleus  that  stains  blue  in  an  other- 
wise only  red-stained  cell,  and  to  the  blue-stained  bacteria  contained  in 
i  lie  nutrient  vacuole  of  a  red-stained  amoeba,  and  concludes  that  both  the 
red  and  the  blue  stain  are  to  be  found  in  the  stained  object,  and  points 
out  that  the  simultaneous  presence  of  both  stains  in  the  cell  would  be 
demonstrated  by  the  addition  of  hydrogen  peroxide,  a  mixed  violet 
stain  resulting.  The  author  concludes  that  with  the  use  of  his  mixed 
stain,  the  methylen-blue  is  present  in  the  living  cell,  and  that  the 
neutral  red  is  present  in  the  dead  cell,  but  by  the  chemical  influence  of 
the  protoplasm  they  are  rendered  invisible.  And  further,  that  the 
neutral  red  staining  of  the  living  cell  is  a  chemical  process,  whilst  the 
methylen-blue  staining  of  a  living  cell  is  a  vital  phenomenon,  but  has  a 
physical  basis. 

(5)  Mounting,  including-  Slides,  Preservative  Fluids,  &c. 

Method  for  Mounting  Celloidin  Sections.* — D.  Cristina  proposes  the 
following  method.  The  sections,  being  cut  and  stained,  are  transferred 
to  alcohol  at  94°  for  a  short  time  ;  from  this  reagent  they  are  taken  by 
means  of  strips  of  blotting  paper  and  transferred  to  specially  prepared 
glass  slides  :  these  have  been  spread  with  glycerinated  albumen  (egg 
albumen  5  parts,  neutral  glycerin  1  part)  ;  the  paper  strip  with  the 
sections  attached  is  laid,  section  side  down,  on  the  prepared  surface  of 
the  slide,  other  dry  strips  being  laid  over  it  and  gentle  pressure  made 
with  the  finger.     The  sections  remain  firmly  fixed. 

Method  of  Staining  and  Permanently  Preserving  Urinary 
Sediment.f — P.  Fiorentini  and  M.  Signer  stain  the  deposit  obtained  by 
centrifuging  or  by  sedimentation  with  the  Ehrlich  triacid  mixture,  and 
then  treat  the  material  with  glycerin  slightly  acidulated.  Treated  in 
this  way  permanent  and  cntrast-stained  preparations  of  urinary  deposit 
are  easily  obtained.     The  authors  are  vague  as  to  time  and  acidity. 

(6)  Miscellaneous. 

Keeping  Polyzoa.}— F.  St.  John  Parker  hit  upon  the  idea  of  taking 
only  a  few  small  colonies  and  dividing  these  among  several  aquaria,  thus 
allowing  the  groups  ample  room.  He  found  this  plan  answered  perfectly, 
and  he  writes  : — "  I  can  keep  Polyzoa  in  captivity  for  very  much  longer 
periods  than  I  found  possible  before  adopting  my  present  plan.  Last 
September  I  found  some  specimens  of  Fredericella  sultana,  some  of 
which  were  alive  in  March  this  year,  when  an  accident  unfortunately 
destroyed  them.  I  have  at  present  a  number  of  small,  but  flourishing, 
colonies  of  both  Fredericella  and  Plumatella  repens  in  the  small  square 
glass  tanks  which  can  be  bought  at  Beck's  for  about  8s.  each.  Small 
groups  of  about  half-a-dozen  or  so  individuals  are  all  that  are  needed 
for  the  Microscope  to  make  a  really  fine   display,  under  dark-ground 

*  Zeitschr.  wise.  Mikrosk.,  xxii.  (1904)  p.  99. 

+  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  187-9  (1  pi.). 

X  English  Mechanic,  lxxxii  (1905)  p.  187. 


ZOOLOGY    AND    BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  775 

illumination.  Another  advantage  of  rny  plan  is,  the  larger  colonies  are 
left  behind  in  their  natural  habitats,  and  the  danger  of  extermination 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  My  method,  as  detailed  above,  I  have  found 
equally  successful  for  PlumaMla,  Lophopus,  Alcyonella,  FredericeUa, 
Cristatella,  etc.  Of  course,  in  the  case  of  such  voracious  creatures,  ample 
food  must  be  supplied,  and,  from  my  own  extended  observations,  I 
conclude  that  this  is  largely  vegetable.  Where  practicable,  I  invariably 
keep  the  specimens  supplied  with  water  from  the  original  habitat  ;  but 
when  that  could  not  be  done,  I  have  found  tap-water,  with  the  addition 
of  some  clear  river-water,  to  answer  very  well.  Experiments  with  tap- 
water  alone  have  not  been  so  successful." 


Metallography,  etc. 

Etching  of  High  Carbon  Steel.* — E.  H.  Saniter  having  failed  to 
obtain  good  etching  of  high  carbon  steels,  especially  in  the  tempered 
condition,  with  iodine,  2  p.c.  nitric  acid  or  picric  acid,  tried  Sauveur's 
method  of  dipping  in  strong  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1  ■  42)  and  washing  at 
the  tap.  This  gave  better  results,  but  several  treatments  were  required 
to  obtain  the  desired  etching.  He  then  tried  dipping  the  specimen  in 
absolute  alcohol,  followed  by  strong  nitric  acid  and  washing  at  the  tap. 
This  gave  a  good  etching  with  only  one  treatment.  The  specimen 
should  be  held  in  a  pair  of  forceps  and  moved  about  rapidly  in  the  acid. 
Fresh  acid  must  be  used  for  each  etching. 

Metallography  of  Iron  and  Steel.f — R.  A.  Hadfield,  in  his 
Presidential  Address  to  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  regrets  the  tendency 
to  multiply  the  names  of  micro-constituents,  and  suggests  the  terms 
"  martensitic  structure,"  "  sorbitic  structure,"  as  being  less  liable  to 
misconstruction  than  the  terms  "  martensite,"  "  sorbite."  The  marked 
differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  currently  accepted 
designations  of  the  constituents  of  steel  should  lead  to  caution  in  their 
use.  The  address  deals  with  a  very  wide  range  of  topics  connected  with 
the  metallurgy  of  iron  and  steel. 

Experiments  relating  to  the  Effect  on  Mechanical  and  other 
Properties  of  Iron  and  its  Alloys  produced  by  Liquid  Air  Tem- 
peratures.:): —  R.  A.  Hadfield,  after  giving  a  resume  of  previous 
investigations  into  the  properties  of  metals  at  low  temperatures,  describes 
his  methods  of  mechanically  testing  at  the  temperature  of  liquid  air,  and 
gives  the  results  of  mechanical  and  electrical  tests,  some  1600  in  number, 
carried  out  on  an  extensive  series  of  alloys.  At  — 182°  C,  commercially 
pure  iron,  which  is  highly  ductile  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  becomes 
brittle  and  has  a  much  greater  tensile  strength.  Great  increase  in 
tenacity  and  decrease  in  ductility  also  result  when  carbon  steels  (0 '  1  p.c. 
to  1-5  p.c.  carbon)  are  cooled  to  —182°  C.  Brinell  hardness  tests  con- 
firm these  conclusions.     Nickel  on  the  contrary  improves  both  in  tenacity 

*  Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,  x.  (1905)  p.  156. 

t  Journ.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  lxvii.  (1905)  pp.  85-7. 

t  Tom.  cit,  pp.  147-219  (14  figs.,  37  diagrams);  Discussion,  pp.  220-55. 


776  SUMMARY   OF  CUKRENT   RESEARCHES   RELATING   TO 

and  ductility  when  submitted  to  liquid  ail  temperatures,  and  the  effect 
of  nickel  upon  iron  when  alloyed  with  it  is  to  diminish  the  tendency  of 
the  latter  metal  to  become  brittle  at  low  temperatures.  Microscopic 
examination  of  etched  specimens  at  -  1H2°  C.  did  not  give  any  indica- 
tions of  changes  in  micro-structure  caused  by  the  low  temperature.  An 
exceUent  feature  of  the  paper  is  the  comprehensive  bibliography  appended. 

In  the  discussion  on  this  paper  W.  F.  Barrett  gave  details  of  the 
singula]'  electric,  magnetic,  and  thermo-electric  properties  of  Hadfield's 
iron-manganese-nickel  alloy.  H.  le  Chatelier  and  L.  Dumas  advanced 
hypotheses  explaining  the  great  differences  in  the  effect  of  low  tempera- 
tures on  different  iron  alloys.  F.  Osmond  disputed  Hadfield's  conclusions 
as  to  the  allotropic  theory. 

The  Types  of  Structure  and  the  Critical  Ranges  on  Heating  and 
Cooling  of  High  Speed  Tool  Steels  under  Varying  Thermal  Treat- 
ment.*— H.  C.  H.  Carpenter  has  obtained  cooling  and  heating  curves  of 
16  specimens  of  steel,  containing  one,  two,  or  three  of  the  alloy  metals 
chromium,  tungsten,  and  molybdenum  in  varying  percentages.  The 
carbon  varied  from  0*25  p.c.  to  1*81  p.c.  For  iron-chromium-carbon 
alloys  the  author  concludes  that  (1)  the  initial  temperature  from  which 
the  metal  is  cooled  is  almost  without  influence  on  the  position  of  the 
critical  point,  and  (2)  increase  of  chromium  tends  to  raise  the  critical 
point.  He  also  considers  that,  contrary  to  the  widely  accepted  belief,, 
the  presence  of  chromium  hastens  instead  of  retarding  the  transformation 
of  hardening  carbon  into  annealing  carbon  during  cooling.  The  action 
of  tungsten  and  molybdenum  in  high-speed  steels  is  to  hinder  or  prevent 
the  changes  which  result  in  a  softening  of  the  alloy,  and  to  impart  a 
high  resistance  to  tempering.  The  steels  examined,  when  cooled  from 
temperatures  not  higher  than  000°  C,  pass  through  a  critical  change  at 
about  700°  C.  If  the  initial  temperature  is  raised,  the  same  rate  of 
cooling  being  maintained,  the  critical  change  is  usually  split  into  two  or 
more  parts  and  spread  over  a  range  of  temperature  from  700°  to  300°  or 
400°  C,  or  even  lower.  Molybdenum  is  more  active  than  tungsten  in 
promoting  this  split.  When  suitably  treated,  the  alloys  useful  as  high- 
speed steels  have  a  polyhedral  or  "  austenitic  "  structure. 

Heat  Treatment  and  Fatigue  of  Steel.f — F.  Rogers  has  carried 
out  a  large  number  of  mechanical  tests  (tensile  and  fatigue)  on  samples 
of  three  steels  containing  respectively  0"14  p.c,  0"27  p.c,  and  0*82  p.c 
carbon,  heat  treated  in  different  ways.  The  alternating  stress  machine 
was  of  the  Wohler  type,  the  fatigue  tests  carried  out  on  it  exhibited 
great  irregularities.  The  author  concludes  that  overheating  lowers  the 
elastic  limit  greatly,  while  increasing  Young's  modulus,  these  two  effects 
both  tending  to  reduce  the  resilience  of  the  steel  enormously.  Steel 
fatigued  beyond  a  certain  limit  cannot  be  restored  by  heat  treatment 
alone.  Microscopic  examination  of  polished  and  strained  specimens 
demonstrated  that  fatigue  cracks  tend  to  select  a  path  through  ferrite. 

The  Elastic  Properties  of  Steel  at  High  Temperatures.^- B. 
Hopkinson  and  F.  Rogers  have  found  that  with  rise  of  temperature,  up 

*  Journ.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  lxvii.  (1905)  pp.  433-73  (14  pis.). 

t  Tom.  eit..  pp.  486-94. 

X  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  Ser.  A,  No.  7<!  (1905)  pp.  419-25  (3  figs.). 


ZOOLOGY   AND   BOTANY,    MICROSCOPY,    ETC.  777 

to  800°  C,  the  stress  strain  relations  in  steel  undergo  a  change,  the 
"  time  effect "  or  "  creeping  "  becoming  much  greater.  A  test  piece 
4  in.  long,  about  0 '  2  in.  diameter,  with  enlarged  ends  screwed  into  steel 
bars  li  in.  diameter,  was  heated  in  a  vertical  electrical  resistance  tube 
furnace.  Tension  up  to  1^  tons  per  square  inch  could  be  rapidly  applied. 
At  temperatures  of  600°-800°  C,  the  effect  of  applying  the  stress  was 
to'  produce  an  immediate  extension  followed  by  a  slow  drawing  out. 
On  removal  of  load  an  immediate  shortening  occurred,  followed  by  a 
slow  contraction.  Young's  modulus  was  found  to  decrease  considerably 
with  rise  of  temperature. 

Metallography  Applied  to  Foundry  Practice.* — A.  Sauveur  de- 
scribes the  microscopical  outfit  adapted  for  the  examination  of  cast-iron 
specimens.  Vertical  illumination  is  more  generally  useful  than  oblique,, 
which  gives  a  negative  image. 

Special  Steels. f — L.  Guillet  summarises  the  results  of  his  well 
known  investigations  on  alloy  steels.  He  deals  chiefly  with  ternary 
steels  (containing  iron,  carbon,  and  a  third  element),  some  quaternary 
steels  being  also  considered.  The  author  is  convinced  that  vanadium 
steel,  containing  less  than  0 '  7  p.c.  of  that  element,  is  likely  to  increase 
largely.  Titanium  steels  and  cobalt  steels  are  devoid  of  any  practical 
interest.  While  the  micrographic  character  of  pearlite  steels  furnishes 
only  very  partial  indications  of  their  mechanical  properties,  it  may  be 
at  once  concluded  from  the  martensitic  structure  of  a  steel  that  it  has  a 
high  tensile  strength  and  elastic  limit.  A  polyhedral  steel  has  a  low 
elastic  limit,  high  elongation,  great  resistance  to  shock,  and  a  hardness 
depending  on  the  alloy  element.  Graphite  steels  are  useless  for  practical 
purposes,  the  presence  of  this  constituent  causing  fragility. 

Induction  Galvanometer  for  the  Study  of  Freezing  and  Critical 
Points.J — Dejean  describes  a  modified  Desprez-d'Arsonval  galvano- 
meter, in  which  the  moving  frame  carries  two  distinct  coils.  One  of 
these  is  connected  to  a  thermo-electric  couple  inserted  in  the  specimen 
under  observation.  Variations  of  temperature  cause  rotation  of  the 
two  coils,  thus  inducing  in  the  second  coil  a  current  which  is  measured 
by  another  sensitive  galvanometer.  The  induced  current  is  proportional 
to  the  velocity  of  rotation  of  the  coils,  and  therefore  depends  upon  the 
rate  of  heating  or  cooling  of  the  specimen.  A  method  of  automatic 
reoording  is  described,  and  critical  point  curves  of  a  number  of  samples 
of  steel  are  o-iven. 


e>* 


The  Crystallisation  of  Iron  and  Steel.§ — In  this  introduction  to 
the  study  of  metallography,  a  course  of  six  lectures  by  J.  W.  Mellor,  the 
subject  is  dealt  with  in  an  elementary  manner,  controversial  matter 
being  touched  upon  very  briefly.  Starting  with  the  general  phenomena 
of  crystallisation,  allotropy,  and  entexia,  the  author  considers  the  modes 
of  solidification  and  subsequent  cooling  of  solutions,  taking  particular 
instances  of  alloys  as  examples.  The  formation  of  the  various  constitu- 
ents of  iron-carbon  alloys  by  the  cooling,  slow  or  rapid,  of  a  homogeneous 

*   Iron  and  Steel  Mag.,  x.  (1905)  pp.  309-13. 

t  Tom.  cit.,  pp.  314-21  (3  tigs.).  J  Rev.  Met.,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  701-4  (4  figs.). 

§  London:  Longmans,  Green,  and  Co.,  1905,  x.  and  144  pp..  65  figs. 


778  SUMMARY    OK    CURRENT    RESEARCHES. 

liquid  solution  of  carbon  in  iron,  is  clearly  explained.  The  law  of  mass 
actions  and  the  influence  of  passive  resistance  in  opposing  the  change 
of  an  unstable  condition  to  one  of  stability,  are  fully  considered  in  their 
great  effect  upon  the  final  constitution  of  steel  subjected  to  thermal 
treatment.  The  author  supplies  a  real  want  by  a  brief  statement,  i n- 
telligible  to  the  student  commencing  the  subject,  of  the  phase  doctrine 
as  applied  to  the  study  of  alloys.  The  influence  of  the  crystalline  struc- 
ture of  iron  and  steel  upon  their  behaviour  when  subjected  to  stress  is 
dealt  with  on  the  lines  developed  by  Stead,  Ewing,  Rosenhain,  and 
others.  The  slip  band  theory  of  the  plastic  deformation  of  steel  is 
adopted.  Possibly  too  much  importance  is  attached  to  intracrystalline 
weakness  in  steel,  the  results  obtained  by  recent  workers  tending  to 
show  that  intracrystalline  weakness  is  more  serious,  and  that  fracture,  in 
structural  iron  and  steel,  usually  proceeds  through  the  crystals  along 
cleavage  planes.  The  chapter  devoted  to  the  preparation  and  examina- 
tion of  microscopical  specimens  gives  the  approved  methods  of  polishing, 
etching,  mounting,  etc.  A  useful  feature  is  the  appended  glossary, 
which  closely  follows  that  drawn  up  by  a  committee  of  the  Iron  and  Steel 
Institute.  Throughout  the  work  the  standpoint  taken  is  that  of  the 
allotropists,  though  the  subcarbide  theory  of  Arnold  is  stated  as  an 
alternative  explanation  of  the  hardness  of  quenched  steel.  The  book 
may  be  recommended  as  a  lucid  outline  of  the  metallography  of  iron 
and  steel  as  this  somewhat  complex  subject  stands  at  the  present  time. 

Betlby,  E.  T.,  &  H.  N.— The  Influence  of  Phase  Changes  on  the  Tenacity  of  Ductile 
Metals  at  the  Ordinary  Temperature  and  at  the  Boiling  Point  of  Liquid  Air. 

Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  Ser.  A,  No.  76  (1905)  pp.  462-8  (4  figs.). 

Delyille,  P. — The  Influence  of  Titanium  on  Pig  Iron  and  Steel. 
[A  resume  of  tlie  available  information  on  the  subject.] 

Iron  and  Steel  Mag.  (1905)  pp.  230-4. 

Dillner,  Gi'Nnar,  &  Eustrom,  A.  F.— Magnetic  and  Electric  Properties  of 
Various  Kinds  of  Sheet  Steel  and  Steel  Castings. 

Joum.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  lxvii.  (1905)  pp.  474-80. 
Gardner,  J.  C— Effects  caused  by  the  Reversal  of  Stresses  in  Steel. 

Tom.  cit.,  pp.  481-3. 
Houghton,  S.  A.— Note  on  the  Failure  of  an  Iron  Plate  through  "fatigue." 

Tom.  cit.  pp.  383-9  (2  figs.);  Discussion,  pp.  M90-4. 
Leca  rme,  J.— Cementation  of  Steel. 

[A  reply  to  H.  le  Cbatelier's  criticism  of  the  author's  former  paper  on  the 
subject— see  J.R.M.S.,  1905,  p.  069.  It  is  pointed  out  that  much  of  the 
experimental  proof  of  the  author's  statements  was  omitted  from  the  article 
referred  to,  with  the  object  of  condensing  it.] 

Rev.  Met.,  ii.  (1905)  pp.  720-1. 
Rogers,  F.— Troostite. 

[The  author  combats  Boynton's  view  of  troostite  as  /3  iron,  and  gives  evidence 
to  show  that  it  contains  carbon.] 

Joum.  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  lxvii.  (1905)  pp.  4S4-6. 


779 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  18th  of  October,  1905,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  W. 
Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  F.P.S.,  etc.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes   of   the  Meeting  of  the  21st   of   June,    1905,  were 
read  and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  President. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Library,  exclusive  of  exchanges  and 
reprints,  received  since  the  last  Meeting,  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of 
the  Society  were  voted  to  the  donors. 

Bausch,   E.,   Manipulation    of   the    Microscope.    4th  ed.~l  rphe  p^Ugh^g 

(Rochester,  N.Y.,  1901        / 

Bausch.  E.,  Use  and  Care  of  the  Microscope.    Extracts! 
from  Manipulation  of  the  Microscope.    (Rochester,  N.Y.,>  Do. 

1902)      ) 

Czapski,  S..  Grundziige  der  Theorie  der  optischen  Instru-j       Messrs.  Carl  Zeiss. 
mente  nach  Abbe.     2nd  ed.     (8 vo,  Leipzig,  1904)        ../ 

Lee,   A.  B..    The  Microtomist's  Vade    Mecum.      6th  ed.l  ™     Author 

(8vo,  London,  1905) j 

Mellor,  J.  W.,   The  Crystallisation   of   Iron  and    Steely  ^    p^Ugj^g 

(8vo,  London,  1905) / 

Bohr,  M.    von,    Der   Bildezeugung  in  optischen  Instru-J       ^^   ^  Ze  .gg 
menten.     (8 vo,  Berlin,  1904)     .1 

1'\  'h p    1 JZTdctOT  of  ths 
Egyptian  Govt.  School 
of  Medicine 

Scales,  F.,  Elementary  Microscopy.    (8vo,  London,  1905)  The  Publishers. 

Thirty-third  Annual  Report  of  the  Local  Government  1  The  Medical  Officer  of 
Board.  Supplement  containing  the  Report  of  the  Medical  >  the  Local  Government 
Officer  for  1903-4.     (8vo,  London,  1905)         )  Board. 

An  Old  Wilson  Screw-Barrel  Microscope Major  Meade  J. C.  Dennis 

An  old  Wilson  Screw-barrel  Simple  Microscope,  date  about  1750, 
and  now  presented  to  the  Society  by  Major  Meade  J.  C.  Dennis,  was 
exhibited,  and  a  written  description  of  the  instrument  by  Mr.  Parsons 
was  read  to  the  meeting  by  Dr.  Hebb. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Major  Dennis  for  this 
donation. 

Mr.  E.  Moffat  read  a  short  paper  describing  a  new  and  simple  form 
of  camera  for  use  with  the  Microscope,  illustrating  his  remarks  by 
reference  to  a  diagram.  The  arrangement  referred  to  was  also  exhibited 
in  the  room. 

The  thanks  of  the  meeting  were  voted  to  Mr.  Moffat  for  his  com- 
munication. 


780  PROci:i:i)i.\<;s  of  tiik  society. 

A  turn,  of  Microtome  devised  and  used  by  Mr.  Flatters  for  cutting 
the  very  beautiful  vegetable  sections  which  were  so  well  known  to  most 
Fellows  of  the  Society,  was  exhibited  by  Dr.  Hebb,  who  read  a  short 
paper  descriptive  of  the  chief  points  in  its  mechanism  and  the  advan- 
bages  claimed.  The  instrument  was  afterwards  handed  round  for  the 
inspection  of  those  present. 

The  President  said  tiny  were  very  glad  to  have  had  the  opportunity 
of  seeing  this  form  of  Microtome,  which  seemed  a  very  good  one  for  the 
purpose  tor  which  Mr.  Flatters  used  it.  _ 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Mr.  Flatters  for  his  exhibit, 
aiid  to  Dr.  Eebb  for  reading  the  description  of  it. 


Mr.  E.  E.  Hill,  for  Messrs.  Beck,  exhibited  and  described  the  Ashe- 
Finlayson  Comparascope,  an  instrument  which  could  be  easily  fitted  to 
any  ordinary  Microscope  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  two  objects,  by 
showing  both  in  the  field  of  the  Microscope  at  the  same  time. 

The  President  said  he  believed  they  had  the  instrument  before  them 
in  a  rough  form  some  time  ago,  when  it  was  exhibited  by  Mr.  Finlayson, 
and  were  now  very  glad  to  see  it  in  its  finished  condition.  It  seemed 
likely  to  be  extremely  useful  to  microscopists,  especially  as  it  could  be 
applied  to  any  Microscope,  and  afforded  a  ready  means  of  comparing 
objects  directly  under  circumstances  which  rendered  it  possible  to  easily 
detect  slight  differences. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Mr.  Hill  for  this  exhibit 
and  description. 

A  paper  by  Professor  Henry  G-.  Hanks,  of  San  Francisco — a  Corre- 
sponding Fellow  of  the  Society— entitled,  "  Notes  on  Aragotite,  a  rare 
Californian  Mineral,"  was  read  by  the  Secretary. 

The  President  believed  that  this  paper  was  one  of  great  interest  to 
mineralogists,  and  they  were  much  indebted  to  the  author  for  sending  it 
to  them."  He  noticed  that  some  of  the  measurements  were  given  in 
decimal  parts  of  an  inch,  instead  of  in  millimetres  and  microns,  which 
had  now  become  so  generally  adopted  that  it  was  rather  to  be  regretted 
that  the  old  measurement  had  been  given  in  this  instance. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  the  author  of  the  paper, 
and  to  Dr.  Hebb  for  reading  it. 


The  President  called  the  attention  of  the  Fellows  present  to  an 
exhibition  on  the  table  of  a  number  of  Slides  from  the  Collection  recently 
presented  to  the  Society  by  Mr.  W.  M.  Bale.  A  specially  interesting 
feature  of  this  exhibit  was  a  collection  of  Orchid  seeds,  which  were 
excellently  mounted  and  gave  a  good  idea  of  the  extremely  simple  struc- 
ture of  these  minute  seeds.  Those  who  had  not  already  seen  them 
would,  he  felt  sure,  be  very  pleased  to  look  at  them  after  the  Meeting. 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    SOCIETY.  781 

The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited  :- 

The  Society  : — An  Old  "Wilson  Screw-Barrel  Microscope. 

The  following  Slides  from  the  Collection  presented  by  Mr.  W.  M. 
Bale  : — Seeds  of  the  following  Orchids  :  Caladenia  Patersoni,  Calochilus 
Robertsoni,  Diuris  metadata,  Pterostylis  nutans,  Thelymitra  aristata, 
T.  longifoUa  ;  Spores  and  Elators  of  Scale  Moss,  Fossombronia  ? ;  Spores 
of  Liverwort,  Fimbriaria  ;  ditto  Targionia  ;  Capillitium  and  Spores  of 
Stemonitis  (Myxomycetes)  ;  Capillitium  and  Spores  of  Trichia  ;  Crystals 
from  "Wine  ;  Gizzard  of  large  Grey  Grasshopper  ;  Starch  of  Canna. 

Mr.  E.  Moffat : — Portable  Photomicrographic  Camera. 

Dr.  Hebb  :— The  Flatters  Microtome. 

Messrs.  R.  &  J.  Beck  : — The  Ashe-Finlayson  Comparascope. 


New  Fellows. — The  following  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows  : — 
Messrs.  Thomas  Skelton  Cole,  Alfred  Douglas  Hardy,  and  John  Perceval 
Lord. 


MEETING 

Held  on  the  15th  of  November,  1905,  at  20  Hanover  Square,  "W. 
G.  C.  Karop,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.,  Vice-President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  Meeting  of  the  18th  of  October,  1905,  were 
read  and  confirmed,  and  were  signed  by  the  Chairman. 


The  List  of  Donations  to  the  Society  since  the  last  Meeting  (exclu- 
sive of  exchanges  and  reprints)  was  read,  and  the  thanks  of  the  Meeting 
were  voted  to  the  donors. 

From 
Flatters,  A.,  Methods  of  Microscopical  Research.    (8vo,  London \      T,     p  ,,.  , 

and  Manchester.  1905) J      l  "e  «""»«*■ 

Goeldi,  E.  A.,  Memorias  do  Meseu  Goeldi.     IV.  Os  Mosquitosl         j,,      .    ., 

no  Para.     (Para,  1905) J 

Index  Catalogue  of  the  Library  of  the  Surgeon-General's  Office,  I  m,     Q  n         , 

United  States  Army,  2nd  Series,  Vol.  X.     (8vo,  Washing- 1  '  "e  y£e™r^nen 


ton,  1905) 


Lucernal  and  Solar  Microscopes  by  Adams        Mr.  Wynne  E.Baxter 


The  Old  Microscope  presented  to  the  Society  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Baxter 
was  exhibited,  and  explained  by  Mr.  Rousselet  to  be  one  described  by 
Adams  in  his  book  published  in  1787  as  "Adams'  Improved  Lucernal 
Microscope,"  several  examples  of  which,  though  differing  somewhat  in 
form,  were  already  in  the  Society's  Collection.  The  one  before  the 
Meeting  was  arranged  for  viewing  both  opaque  and  translucent  objects. 
The  Solar  Microscope,  also  presented,  was  described  in  the  same  work 
as  "  Adams'  Improved  Solar  Microscope,"  and  was  intended  to  be  illu- 
minated by  sunlight  reflected  from  a  mirror  through  an  opening  in  a 
shutter. 

The  Chairman  said  it  was  a  little  difficult  to  understand  how  they 
obtained  sufficient  light  for  an  instrument  of  that  kind,  as  the  oxy- 
hydrogen  light  had  not  at  that  date  come  into  use.     And  with  regard 


782  PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE   SOCIETY. 

to  the  Solar  Microscope,  it  was  clear  that  the  reflected  ray  would  move 
m  accordance  with  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun — did  the  observer 
have  to  come  outside  the  shutter  to  put  it  into  position  when  required, 
or  had  thi'y  any  kind  of  heliostat  ? 

Mr.  Rousselet  said  there  was  a  screw  arrangement  connected  with 
the  minor  by  which  it  could  be  moved  so  as  to  follow  the  sun. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Mr.  Baxter  for  his  donation. 


Dr.  Hebb  said  they  had  received  a  small  piece  of  apparatus  called 
a  Focusing  Magnifier— sent  by  Taylor,  Taylor,  and  Hobson,  of  Leicester, 
for  exhibition  and  inspection  at  the  Meeting — a  photographic  auxiliary 
which  would  no  doubt  be  found  useful  to  those  who  were  interested  in 
photography.     A  description  of  this  was  read  to  the  Meeting. 


Dr.  Hebb  also  exhibited  an  elaborately  constructed  turntable,  the 
invention  of  Mr.  Flatters  and  Mr.  William  Bailey,  which  was  driven  by 
clockwork,  and  geared  in  such  an  ingenious  manner  that  almost  every 
kind  of  motion  could  be  obtained  by  it.  It  would  describe  a  circle,  an 
ellipse,  or  even  a  square.  The  apparatus  appeared  to  require  consider- 
able skill  to  use  it,  though  no  doubt  anyone  accustomed  to  the  mechanism 
of  a  lathe  would  be  able  to  do  so  without  much  difficulty. 

A  detailed  description  of  the  machine  was  read  to  the  Meeting. 

The  Chairman  remarked  that  the  instrument  was  a  very  ingenious 
one,  and  it  was  interesting  to  have  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing 
it,  but  it  was  doubtful  if  anyone  present  would  have  occasion  to  mount 
objects  in  such  numbers  as  to  need  an  apparatus  of  this  elaborate 
construction. 

The  thanks  of  the  Meeting  were  voted  to  Mr.  Flatters  for  sending 
this  very  beautiful  piece  of  mechanism  for  exhibition. 


A  Nernst  Lamp,  for  use  in  enlarging  photographs  and  also  for  use 
with  the  Microscope,  was  sent  for  exhibition  by  Mr.  R.  W.  Paul,  who 
was  unfortunately  unable  to  be  present  to  give  information  as  to  its 
advantages. 

Dr.  Hebb  said  he  had  one  of  these  in  use  in  the  Laboratory  of 
Westminster  Hospital  which  answered  very  well,  though  personally  he 
did  not  like  to  use  such  a  strong  light,  and  had  therefore  handed  it  over 
to  his  laboratory  attendant. 

Mr.  C.  L.  Curties  said  he  exhibited  a  similar  lamp  at  the  Society's 
Meeting  some  time  ago,  and  supplied  the  one  to  which  Dr.  Hebb  had 
referred. 

The  Chairman  regretted  that  they  had  no  paper  to  be  read  that 
evening,  but  Mr.  Watson  Baker  had  arranged  an  exhibition  of  dissec- 
tions of  the  Tsetse  Fly,  of  Trypanosomes,  and  of  a  blood-sucking  maggot, 
which  would  be  found  of  great  interest.  They  were  much  indebted  to 
him  for  bringing  them  on  that  occasion. 

The  thanks  of  the  Society  were  voted  to  Mr.  Watson  Baker. 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   THE    SOCIETY.  783 

Mr.  F.  W.  Watson  Baker  said  that  in  addition  to  the  slides  illus- 
trating the  Anatomy  of  the  Tsetse  Fly  which  were  on  exhibition  there 
were  two  or  three  others  of  special  interest.  It  seemed  that  amateurs 
found  difficulty  in  obtaining  specimens  of  the  Tsetse  Fly  in  this  country, 
especially  in  a  condition  fit  for  preparation  as  Microscopic  objects.  They 
usually  arrived  either  too  dry  or  damaged.  The  specimens  which  were 
exhibited  and  which  had  been  prepared  from  a  large  number  of  insects 
would,  therefore,  probably  be  of  interest  to  the  Fellows  of  the  Society. 

The  slide  showing  Trypanosomes  gave  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the 
characteristic  parasite  of  Sleeping  Sickness,  of  which  the  Tsetse  Flies 
are  the  medium  of  infection. 

He  also  brought  a  specimen  of  the  larva  of  Ochromyia,  together 
with  the  perfect  insect.  The  larva  lives  in  the  sandy  earth,  and  attaches 
itself  to  the  flesh  and  sucks  the  blood  of  the  natives,  causing  very 
troublesome  wounds. 

There  was  also  a  specimen  of  the  ova  of  Schistosoma  Sinense,  which 
he  believed  had  not  previously  been  shown  at  the  Society.  It  was  a 
recently  discovered  parasite  found  in  the  body  of  a  Chinaman  who  died 
at  Singapore. 

The  Chairman  said  that  a  very  brief  notice  of  this  maggot  (Ochro- 
myia. hdeola)  would  be  found  in  "  Braun's  Animal  Parasites  of  Man," 
3rd  edition,  1903.         

The  following  Instruments,  Objects,  etc.,  were  exhibited  : — 

The  Society  : — Lucernal  and  Solar  Microscopes  by  Adams. 

Dr.  Hebb  : — Flatters'  Clockwork  Turntable  for  turning  oval  cells 
and  rings  ;  Taylor,  Taylor  and  Hobson's  Focusing  Magnifier. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Watson  Baker  : — Dissections  of  Tsetse  Fly,  Glossina 
palpalis,  Leg  and  Foot,  Abdominal  Membrane,  ditto  Spiracle,  Mouth, 
Trachea,  Antennae,  Halteres,  Wing,  Egg,  Thoracic  Spiracle  ;  Trypano- 
somes ;  Blood-sucking  Maggot  and  Fly  {Ochromyia  luteola) ;  Ova  of 
Schistosoma  Sinense  in  Section  of  Liver. 

Mr.  E.  W.  Paul: — Nernst-Paul  Lamp  for  use  in  conjunction  with 
the  Microscope.  

New  Fellows. — The  following  were  elected  Ordinary  Fellows : 
Mr.  Louis  Charles  Southall  Broughton,  Dr.  F.  M.  Floyd,  and  Dr.  Henry 
Getty  s. 


785 


INDEX 


Abbe,  Ernst,  156 
Aberrations,  562 

—  Optical,    Specification    and    Measure- 

ment, 56:-! 
Abric,  P.,  Development  of  Sacculina.  54 

—  Nematoblasts  of  Eolids,  432 
Absorption-Image  and  Diffraction-Image, 

654 

Abyssal  Crabs,  698 

Acanthocepbala  of  Birds,  185 

Monograph,  596 

Acari,  Myrmecophilous,  311 

Accipitres,  Comparative  Osteology,  428 

Achromatic  Interference  Bands,  Simple 
Method  of  Producing,  568 

Achromatisation  of  Approximately  Mono- 
chromatic Interference  Fringes  by  a 
Highly  Dispersive  Medium,  and  the 
consequent  Increase  in  the  Allowable 
Path-difference,  521 

Acrochsetium  and  Chantransia,  339 

Actiniae,  Chilian,  321 

Actiuiaria,  Mesenteric  Musculature,  321 

Actlnomyxidia.  Sexual  Reproduction,  601 

Adametz,  L.,  Formation  of  Volatile  Al- 
kaloids by  Bacillus  nobilis,  363 

Adams,  J.,  Chantransia  Alarias,  77 

—  Effect  of  Very  Low  Temperatures  on 

Moist  Seeds,  714 
Aderliold,  — .,  Effect  of  Leaf-Fungi  on  the 

Productive  Power  of  the  Plant,  608 
Aderliold,  R.,  Infection  Experiments  with 
Thielavia  basicola,  619 

—  Sclerotinise  of  Fruit  Trees,  618 
Adipogenic  Function  in  Vertebrates  and 

in  Crustacea,  47 

of  the  Mammalian  Liver,  169 

Adjustment,  Fine-,  Differential  Screw,  102 
Adolph,  H.,  Motion  of  Spermatozoa,  422 
Adrenals,  Method  of  Differentiating  Cor- 
tical from  Medullary  Portions,  384 
^Ecidium,  Deformation  caused  by,  730 
JEgagropila  sauteri,  79 
Aerobic  Organisms,  Decomposition  of  Cel- 
lulose, 98 
Estivation  of  Botrylloides  gatcoi,  47 
Affinities  and  Distribution  of  Cambarus, 
697 

Dec.  20th,  1905 


Agar-Agar  and  Paraffin  Method  for  Im- 
bedding Plant  Tissues,  527 

Agar,  and  Gelatin,  etc.,  Apparatus  for 
Dissolving  and  Filtering  large  Quan- 
tities, 658 

—  Nutrient,  Varieties  in  Growth  of  Bacil- 

lus pyocyaneu8<  112 
Agren,  H.,  Collembola  of  Lapland,  182 
Agricultural  Microbiology,  475 
Air-Sacs  of  ( 'hainaeleons,  581 
Albinism,  Heredity  of,  and  Mendel's  Law, 

33 
Albugo  Lepigoni  and  some  Peronospoiess, 

Studies  on  Fertilisation,  82 
Alchemilla,  Apogamy,  451 
AlciopidsB,  Alleged  Otocysts,  184 
Alcippe  lampas,  Notes,  313 
Alcock,  A.,  Indian  Ocean  Paguroids,  436 

—  New  Apodous  Amphibian  from  India, 

44 

—  New  Species  of  Cymonomus  437 
Alcohol,  Mucor  Species,  618 
Alcvonaria,  Deep-Sea,  from  Indian  Ocean. 

445 
Alder,  J.,  The  British  Tunicata,  583 
Alder,  Sclerotium  Disease,  619 
Aldrich,  J.  M.,  Catalogue  of  N.  American 

Diptera,  591 
Alga,  Green,  Chemical  Stimulation,  332 
Algse  and  Fungi.  Easy  Method  of  Staining 
and  Mounting,  769 

—  Antarctic,  339 

—  Brown  Colouring  Matter.  721 

—  Effect  of  Low   Temperature   on    Zoo- 

spores, 331 

—  Fresh-water,  of  East  Greenland.  466 
of  the  East  Indies,  467 

—  Finland.  723 

—  Green,  Cultivation,  720 

—  Marine,  Arctic  and  North  Atlantic,  i  22 
Behaviour  in  Relation  to   Salinity, 

76 

of  Barbadoes,  464 

of  East  Greenland,  215 

of  Jan  May  en,  215 

of  North  and  West  France,  338 

of  South  Orkney,  615 

—  Microscopic,  Imbedding,  530 

—  Morphology  and  Biology,  76 

—  of  Germany,  723 

3   G 


TNi; 


INDKX. 


Algrc  of  Lake  Baikal,  339 

—  of  Lower   Austria,  723 

—  of  the  WVser  District,  466,  723 

—  Staining  and  Preserving,  1  15 

Algal  Plow  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  215 

Algology,  Marine.  615 

Alimentary   System,  Abnormal,  in  Opis- 

thorchi8  filineus,  57 
Alkaloids,'  Formation  by  Bacillus  nobilis, 

:;t;:; 
Allen,  B.M.,  Eyoof  Bdellostoma  ettouti,  298 
Allen,  E.  J.,  New  British  Sabellarian,  184 
Allium,  Daily  Periodicity  of  Cell-division 

and  of  Elongation  in  Root,  198 
Attohbophora  faeiida,  Maturation,  438 
Alloys   and    Metals,  Ferromagnetic.     On 

Magnetisation  and  Magnetic  Change  of 

Length  of  Temperatures  ranging  from 

-186°  C.  to  +1200°  C,  671 
Alloys,  Iron-Carbon,  Constitution,  670 

—  of  Copper  and  Aluminium,  670 

—  of  Iron,  and  Iron.  Experiments  relating 

to  the  Effect  on  Mechanical  and  other 
Properties  produced  by  Liquid  Air 
Temperatures,  775 

—  of  Silver  and  Cadmium,  Certain  Pro- 

perties, 119 
Aluminium  and  Copper  Alloys,  670 

—  Bronze,  Special   Constituent  Obtained 

by  Quenching,  536 

—  Steels,  392 

Amand,  A.,  "  Bios  "  of  Wildiers,  449 
Amanita  muscarius.  Chemistry,  475 
Amblyopsis,  History  of  the  Eye,  46 
Amia  calva,  Natural  History,  45 
Amitosis  in  Cestoda,  187 
Ammoccetes,  Granular  Cells  in  Epidermis, 

37 
Amoeba,  Contractile  Vacuole,  191 

—  Genus,  600 
Amcebse,  Cultivation,  757 
and  Staining,  112 

—  Movement  and  Reactions,  190 

—  of    Tropical    Dysentery,   Cultivation, 

200 

—  Physical  Imitations  of  Activities,  60 
Amphibia,    Radium    Effect  on    Develop- 
ment, 34 

—  Structure  of  Seminal  Duct,  683 
Amphibian   Excretory   System,    Develop- 
ment, 3d 

Amphibians,    Sixth   Branchial    Pouches, 
577 

—  Structure  of  Red  Blood  Corpuscles,  425 
Amphioxus,  Cell  Migration  in  Caecum  and 

Mid-gut,  680 

—  Crystalloids,  426 

—  Reproductive  Organs,  429 

—  Segmental  Veins,  40 
Amphiphura  ptllucida,  Resolution,  107 
Amphipod,  Salt-Marsh,  Life  of,  437 
Amphipods,  Ceylonese,  61)8 

—  Phagocytic  Cells,  54 


Amphispores  of  Grass  and  Sedge  Rusts, 

347 
Anabaena,  Reproduction,  211 
Anaerobic  Cultures  with  Phosphorus,  259 

—  Organisms,  Method  for  Growing  under 

Aerobic  Conditions,  659 
Anal  Glands,  Human,  682 
Anatomy  and  Phylogeny  of  Haliotis,  431 

—  and   Phvsiology,  Comparative,  of   the 

Eye,  579 

—  of  Cephalopoda,  Notes,  430 

—  of  Seed  Plants,     See  Contents,  xxii 

—  Physiological,  of  Fungus  Galls,  476 
Ancestry,  Arboreal,  of  Mammalia,  300 
Anchylostoma,     Blood-Coagulating     Sub- 
stance, 185 

Anderson,   R.   J.,   Persistence    of    Trade 

Impressions.  684 
Andrews,  C.  W.,  New  Order  of  Ungulate 

Mammals,  43 
Andrews,  E.  A.,  Removing  Avian  Blasto- 
derms, 380 

—  Spermatozoa  of  Crayfish,  54 

—  Sperm- Receptacle  of  Cambarus,  097 
Anemiopsis  californica,  Anatomy,  195 
Angiosperms,  Structure  of  Sieve-Tubes,  64 
Animal  and  Human  Blood,  Simple  Method 

for  Distinguishing,  388 
Anisogamy  in  Gregarines,  323 

—  in  Alonocystis,  446 

Annandale,  N.,  Aquatic  Glow- Worm,  589 

—  Notes  on  Larva  of  a  Coreid  Bug,  694 
Annelid  Egg,  Mosaic  Development,  314 

—  Gall-forming,  on  Ophiuroid,  700 
Annelids,  Central  Nervous  System,  700 

—  Neurofibrils  in  Ganglion  Cells,  699 

—  of  Cette,  594 

—  Tube-formation,  55 
Annulata.     See  Contents,  xvii 
Anodonta,  Distaplia,  and   Synapta,  Ner- 
vous System,  579 

Anolix   carolinensis,    Effect    of    Heat    on 

Colour-Changes,  173 
Anona,  Development  in  Ovule  and  Seed, 

604 
Antennary     Sense-Organs     of     Tryxalis 

nasuta,  51 
Antheraea  yana-mai,  Pigment  of  Silk,  51 
Antipatharians,  Southern,  599 
Antipodal  Cells,  Structure  and  Function, 

450 
Ants  and  Plants,  Relation  between,  453 
Ants'  Nest  Beetles,  308 
Ap.  rture  Table,  106 
Aphides,  Viviparous,  Maturation,  306 
Aplanatic  Combinations  of  Lenses  with  or 

without  Achromatism,  Construction,  501 
Aplysia,  Physiological  Studies,  304 
Apocynum,  Points  in  Life-History,  604 
Apodous  Amphibian  from  India,  New,  44 
Apogamy  in  Alcliemilla,  451 
Apospory,  Cytology,  710 
—  in  Asplenium  dimorphum,  716 


INDEX. 


'87 


Appel,  O.,  Diseases  of  Cacao,  90 

—  and  others,  Diseases  of  Trees,  348 
Appendicitis,  Bacteriology,  032 
Araceae    and    Liliaceae,    Development    of 

Central  Cylinder.  64 
Arachnida.    See  Contents,  xvi 

—  Structure  and  Classification,  53 
Araehnological  Notes,  435 

'•  Aragotite,"  a  Rare  California  Mineral, 

Notes  on,  073,  780 
Araiospora,  Cytology,  418 
Arc  Lamps,  Optical,  646 
Arcangeli,  A.,  Studies  of  Usnea,  481 
Arohiascidia  neapolitana,  o03 
Ariola,    V.,    Heteromorphism    in    Rock 

Lobster,  183 
Armadillo,  New  Flea,  591 
Arndt's  Double  Saw,  664 
Arnesen,   E.,  Blood-vessels  of    Rhyncho- 

bdellids,  595 
Arnold,  J.,  Glands  of  Frog's  Skin,  682 
Arpya  vinula,  Larvae,  Notes,  588 
Arrhenoid  Changes  in  a  Fish,  428 
Arrow,  G.  J.,  Sound  Production  in  Lamel- 

licorn  Beetles,  308 
Arsenic,  Detection    by  Growth   of  Peni- 

cilliura,  91 
Artari,  A.,  Cultivation  of  Green  Algae,  720 
Artemia  salina,  698 

Arteries,  Fixation  of  Tissues  by  Injection 
into,  380 

—  Nutritive,  of  Long  Bones.  171 

—  Pulmonary,  Development  in  Roe-deer, 

35 

—  Staining,  384 

Artery,  Subclavian.  Origin  in  Chick,  423 
Arthaud-Berthet,  J.,  Agricultural  Micro- 
biology. 475 
Arthropoda.     See  Contents,  xiv 
Arthropods,  Insertion  of  Muscles  on  Skele- 
ton, 179 
Arthur,  J.  C,  Amphispores  of  Grass  and 
Sedge  Rusts,  347 

—  Mexican  Rusts,  622 
Artom,  C,  Artemia  salina,  698 
Ascaris,  Chromosomes,  701 

Ascaris    megatocephala.    Examination    of 
Spermatozoa,  761 

Gonad  Walls,  701 

Ascidian  Heart,  Physiological  Polarisation, 
177 

—  New  Type,  47 

Ascidians,  Solitary,  Fertilisation,  688 
Ascomycetes,  Bi-nucleate  Cells,  473 

—  Cytological  Researches,  473 

—  Development,  343 

Ascus  form  of  Aspergillus  fumigntus,  85 
Asexual  Reproduction,  Phenomena  of,  in 

Salmacina  and  Filigrana,,  594 
Ashe-Finlayson  "Comparascope,"414,  745 , 

780 
Aspergillus,  345 
Aspergillus  fumigatus,  Ascus  form,  85 


Asplenium  dimorphum,  Apospory,  716 
—  seelosii,  455 

Astacus  fluviatilis,  Rudimentary  Gill,  183 
Asterid,  Development,  with  Large  Yolked 

Eggs,  704 
Asymmetry  and  Spiral  Swimming,  61 
Atkinson,   G.    F ,   Edible  and   Poisonous 

Fungi,  351 
Auditory  and  Olfactory  Sense  of  Spiders. 

309 
Auerbach,  L.,  Intra-  and  Extra-Cellular 

Nerve  Nets  in  Vertebrates,  168 
Aulastoma,  Digestive  Apparatus,  185 
Austen,  E.  E.,  Diptera,  etc.,  of  Uganda. 

693 
Autophytography ;    a    Process    of    Plant 

Fossilisation,  333 
Axolotl,  Maturation  and  Fertilisation,  164 


B. 


Babes,   A.,   Influence   of   Ovariotomy   in 

Goat,  423 
Bachmann,  H.,   a   New  Chlamydomonas, 

467 
Bacilli,  Typhoid,  Differential  Staining  in 

Sections,  385 
Bacillus  acidificans  presamigines  casei,  362 

—  anthracis  and  other  Spore-bearing  Bac- 

teria, Spore-Production  by,  96 

—  coli  communis  and   B.  typhosus,  Differ- 

ence of  Behaviour  in  Media  con- 
taining Sulphate  of  Copper  and 
Red  Prussiate  of  Potash,  660 

in    Drinking    Water,    Quantitative 

Estimation,  375 

—  conjunctivitidis  subtiliformis,  363 

—  enteriditis      spomgenes,     Detection     in 

Water,  110 

—  flavo-aromaticus  and  Bacillus  jasmino- 

cyaneus,  362 

—  freudenreichii,  631 

—  fusiformis  232 

—  helizoidex,  a  bacillus  that  forms  Colonies 

with  Snail-like  Movements,  98 

—  hypothermos,  a  Micro-organism  Patho- 

genic for  Cold-blooded  Animals,  358 

—  involutus,  485 

—  jasmino-cyaneus     and     Bacillus    flavo- 

aromaticus,  362 

—  macerus,  an  Acetone-forming  Bacillus, 

630 

—  nobilis,  Formation  of  Volatile  Alkaloids, 

363 
Bacillus  of  Leprosy,  Cultivating,  261 
Bacillus  puratyphosus  "J?,"  Identity  with 

Loeffier's  B.  typhosus  murium,  231 

—  pyocynneus,  Varieties  in  the  Growth  on 

Nutrient  Agar.  112 

—  subtilis.  Group  of  Bacteria,  232 
Bacillus,  Tubercle,  412 


3  g  2 


788 


INDEX. 


Bacillus,  Tubercle,  Differentiation  of 
Human  and  Bovine,  634 

Staining  with  Fosin,  529 

liacilhiH  typhosus  ami  B.  colt  communis, 
Difference  of  Behaviour  in  Media 
containing  Sulphate  of  Copper  and 
Bed  Prussiate  of  Potash,  660 

Differential    Staining    in    Sections, 

265 

Flagella,  371 

Isolating   from    Mood   and   Organs 

after  Death,  111 

murium,    Loeffler's.    Identity    with 

B.  paratyphosus  "B,"  231 

Photomicrographs  by  W.  J.  Dibden, 

394 

—  violacew  Manilas,  362 

—  zopfii,  Morphology  and  Biology,  97 
Bacteria,  Anaerobic,  Plate  Culture,  110 

—  and  Fungi,  Colour  Changes.  68 

—  and  Gum  of  Baked  saligna,  737 
of  Linseed  Mucilage,  737 

—  and  Moulds,  Variations  in  Colours,  98 

—  Diagnostic  Media  for  Study,  110 

—  Filter,  New,  758 

—  found    in   the    Intestine  of    Larva  of 

Mosca  olearia,  483 

—  Gas-producing,  found  in  Milk,  Compar- 

ative   Study  of    Sixty-six  Varieties, 
485 

—  Intestinal.    Oligodynamic    Action     of 

Copper  Foil,  737 

—  of  Flax  "  Retting,"  96 

—  Putrefactive,   Origin    of  Natural    Im- 

munity towards,  736 

—  Typhoid,  Fuchsin-Agar  as  a  Diagnostic 

Medium,  ">78 
Bacterial  Cultures,  Method  for  Preserving 
for  Class  Purposes,  533 

—  Disease  of  Cauliflower,  99 

—  Infection  of  Cabbages,  489 

—  Niveau  of  Beijerinck,  484 

—  Origin  of  Macrozamia  Gum,  482 

—  Rods  of  Pelomyxa  palustris,  630 
Bactericidal  Action  of  Cestodes,  440 
Bacteriological  Examination  of  Water  in 

Atlantic  Ocean,  111 

—  of  Appendicitis,  632 

—  of  Plague,  378 
Bacterium  acacise,  Nutrition,  99 

—  cyaneum,  A  New  Chromogenic  Organ- 

ism. 236 
Bacterium  that  obtains  its  Carbon  Food 
from  the  Air,  98 

—  Variable  Galactan,  235 
Bacteroids  and  Hyphoids.  218 

Baki  r,  ('.,  Electric  Lamp  for  the  Micro- 
scope, 252 

Baker,  C.  P.,  Fleas  and  Disease,  694 

Baker,  P.  C.,  Spire  Variation  in  Pyrami- 
dula  alternata,  49 

Baker,  F.  W.  W.,  Exhibition  of  Tsetse  Fly 
and  Trypanosomas,  782,  783 


Baker,  J.  G.,  Revised  Classification  of 
Roses,  714 

Balanoglossus,  Commensal  Polynoid,  314 

Balducci,  E.,  Notes  on  Larvae  of  Arpyia 
vinula,  588 

Baldwin,  W.,  Fossil  Scorpion  from  Lan- 
cashire, 182 

Bale,  W.  M.,  Exhibition  of  Slides  pre- 
sented by,  780 

Balfour,  A.,  Trypanosomes  in  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Soudan,  61 

Ballowitz,  E.,  Hyperdactylism.  580 

—  Olfactory  Cells  of  Lamprey,  296 

—  Spermatozoa  of  Discoglossus  pictus.  166 

of  Lamprey,  294 

Bamboo-Beetle  and  Coffee-Plant,  590 
Bancroft,  F.    W.,    ^Estivation  of  BotryJ- 

loides  gascoi,  47 

—  Physiological  Polarisation   in  Ascidian 

Heart,  177 

Banker,  H.  J.,  Notes  on  the  Variability  of 
Hypothele  repanda,  223 

Banks,  N.,  North  American  Spiders,  696 

Baptisia  tindoria,  Blackening,  198 

"  Barszcz,"  489 

Basidiomycetes,  Spore  Dispersion,  and  the 
Biological  Value  of  the  Basidium,  223 

Basidium,  Biological  Value,  and  Spore 
Dispersion  in  Basidiomycetes,  223 

Bastien,  L.,  ( Yiuses  of  Senility,  430 

Bath,  New  Imbedding,  114 

Bather,  F.  A.,  New  Devonian  Ophiurid, 
319 

Batrachium  longirostris,  Development  of 
Embryo-Sac  and  Embryo,  605 

Baudouin,  M ,  Fixation  of  Lernxenicus 
sardinse,  437 

Bauer,  A.,  Regeneration  of  Limbs  in  Tad- 
poles of  Frog,  423 

Baumgartuer,  W.  G.,  Individuality  of  the 
Chromosomes,  292 

Baur,  E..  Studies  in  Myxobacteria,  733 

Bausch,  E.,  Manipulation  of  the  Micro- 
scope, 656 

Bausch  and  Lomb's  Adjustable  Drawing 
Board,  512 

—  Improved  Form  of  Camera  Lucida,  511 
Baxter,  W.  E.,  Adams'  Improved  Lucernal 

Microscope,    and   Adams'  -Improved 
Solar  Microscope,  presented  by,  781 

—  Ladd's  Student's  Microscope,  238 
Bayer,  H.,  Determination  of  Sex,  167 
Bdellostoma  stouti.  Eye,  298 

beans,  Haricot,  Disease,  728 
Beck,  O,  123,  268 

—  Optical  Bench  and  Large  Camera,  268 

—  The  Consideration  of  the  Equivalent 

Planes  of  Opiical  Instruments,  560 
Beck,  R.  and  J.,  Abbe  Camera    Lucida, 
753 

—  Ashe-Finlayson  Comparascope.  780 

—  Eyeshade,  752 

—  Imperial  Metallurgical  Microscope,  743 


INDEX. 


789 


Beck,  R.  and  J.,  Metallurgical  Microscope, 
M  London  Model,"  745 

—  Monochromatic  Trough,  507 

—  New  Vertical  Illuminator  for  Metal- 

lurgical Examinations,  506 

—  Parabolic  Illuminator,  753 
with  Sorby's  Reflector,  753 

—  Vertical  and    Horizontal   Photo-inicro- 

graphic  Camera,  753 
Becquerel.    P.,    Germination     of     Moss- 
Spores  and  the  Nutrition  of  their  Pro- 
tonemas  in  Artificial  Media,  69 
Bedot,   M.,    History   of    Investigation    of 

Hydroids,  599 
Bee,  Honey.  Preparing  and  Staining  Eye, 
525 

Structure  and  Development  of  the 

Compound  Eye.  433 
Bees'  Eggs.  Poison,  691 

—  Experiments    on    the    Attraction   by 

Flowers.  453 
Beet  Disease,  Practical  Notes,  224 

—  Diseases,  350 

—  Sugar,  and  Fodder,  Cercospora  beticola 

parasitic  on,  622 

Diseases-  90,  624 

in  Bohemia,  226 

Beetles  in  Ants'  Nests,  308 

—  Lamellicorn,  Sound  Production,  308 
Beijerinck,  M.  W.,  Bacterium  that  obtains 

its  Carbon  Food  from  the  Air,  98 
Bell,  F.  J.,  South  African   Echinoderms, 

443 
Bell,  R.  G.,  Notes  on   Insect  Bionomics, 

586 
Belone  acus,  Follicles  and  Egg-envelopeB, 

422 
Benham,  W.  B.,  Genital  Ducts  in  Oligo- 
chsBta,  56 

—  New  Species  of  Genus  Phreodrilus,  56 
Bennett  its.  Pro-embryo,  195 

Bentley,  C.  A.,  Leucocytozan  of  the  Dog, 

447* 
Bergen,  J.  Y.,  Relative  Transpiration  of 

Old  and   New   Leaves  of  the   Myrtus 

Type,  198 
[Jergendal,  D.,  Structure  of  Carinoma,  598 
Berghs,  J.,  Heterotype  division,  448 
Bergnn,  P., Spore  Formation  in  Biddulphia 

mobiliensis,  721 
Berlese,  A.,  Myrmecophilous  Acari,  311 
Bernards,  C,  Kinetic  Centres  in  Plants. 

709 
Berner,  O.,  Plate   Culture   of  Anaerobic 

Bacteria,  110 
Berr\,  E.  W..  Fossil  Grasses  and  Sedge.s, 

610 
Berwick,    T.,    Demonstration  of   Masked 

Chlorophyll  iu  Laminaria,  214 
Bessey,  0.  E.,  Classification  of  Protophyta. 
210 

—  Stomata  of  Holacantha,  195 
Bethe.  A..  Staining  Nerve  Fibrils,  666 


Bettencourt,  A.,  Epidemic  Cerebrospinal 
Meningitis  and  its  Specific  Cause,  235 

Bibliography,  Botany,  71-76,  80,  81, 
91-95,100,201-209,216,217,227-230, 
237,  329,  333-338,  341,  342,  352-358, 
363,  452,  455-458,  460-464,  468-471, 
479-482,  491,  611-615,  617,  624-627, 
629,  717-720,  725-727,  734-736 

—  Microscopy,  103,  106, 109, 110, 114,  118. 

253,  258,  262,  264,  265,  266,  372,  381, 
387,  389,  393,  499,  502,  512,  513,  520, 
522-524,  534,  536,  644,  652,  654,  667. 
672,  753,  755,  756,  778 
Bibliotheca  Zoologica,  583 
Biddulphia  mobiliensis.  Spore  Formation. 

721 
Bigelow,  H.  B.,  Sense  of  Hearing  in  Gold- 
fish, 176 
Billard,  O.,  Development  of  Hydranths  of 

Campanularidse  and  Plumularidae,  189 
Billet,  A.,  Culture  of  a  Frog's  Trypano- 

some  in  a  Leech,  323 
Biltz,  W.,  Ultramicroscopic  Observations 
on  the  Decomposition  of  Sulphur  from 
Thiosulphuric    Acid  and   of  Selenium 
from  Selenic  Acid,  107 
Bi-nucleate  Cells  in  Ascomycetes,  473 
Biological   Significance   of   the   Thermo- 
clme,  301 

—  Stations,  Fresh-water,  430 

—  Theories,  685 

Biology  at  Jena  during  the  Nineteenth 

Century,  583 
Bionomics,  Insect,  Notes.  586 
"  Bios  "  of  Wildiers,  449 
Birch  and  other  wood,  Destruction  of  by 

Polyporus  nigricans,  223 
Bird  Tapeworm,  New,  440 
Birds,  Acanthocephala,  185 

—  and  Mammals,  Fossil,  in  the  British 

Museum,  Guide,  427 

—  Canadian,  Catalogue,  172 

—  Chromaffin  Tissue,  426 

—  Classification,  300 

—  Demonstrating  Structure  of  Respiratory 

Tract,  762 

—  Lumbar  Spinal  Cord,  295 

—  Monograph  of  Acanthocephala,  596 
Birge,  E.   A.,  The   Thermocline  and   its 

Biological  Significance,  301 
Black  Rot,  Notes  on  the  Occurrence,  218 
Blackening  of  Baptisia  tinctoria,  11*8 
Bladder  in  Frog,  Monstrosity  of,  174 
Blakeslee,  A.   F.,    Two    Conidia-bearing 

Fungi,  728 
Blakesley,  T.  H.,  On  certain  Methods  of 
Lens    Measurement    and    Testing,    to- 
gether with  some  Recommendations  as 
to  Nomenclature  and  Description,  562 
Blanco's  Flora  de  Filipinas,  60'.) 
Blastoderm   of  Polistes  pallipes.   Demon- 
strating, 765 
Blastoderms,  Avian,  Removing,  380 


790 


INDEX. 


Blastoids,  Bovision,  58 
Bl  ustonieres  "i  Salmonidee,  Telophase,  293 
Blatta,  Developmenl  of  Head  Sk<  leton,30'i 
Bleohi  r,  ('..  Apparatus  tor  Dissolving  and 

filtering  Large  Quantities  of  Gelatin  and 

Agar,  etc.,  658 
Blendinger,  W.,  The  Mammaliau  Cribrum. 

42 
Bleu-de-Lyon  iind  Picric  Acid,  ]\Iethod  of 

Contrast-Staining,  665 
Blodgett,  I-..  B.,  Points  in  the  Life-History 

of  Apocynnm,  604 
Blood-Coagulating  Substance  in  Anehy- 

lostoma,  185 
Blood    Corpuscles,   lied,   in   Amphibians. 
Structure,  425 

—  for  Examination,  Needle  for  obtaining, 

389 

—  Formation  in  Osseous  Fisbes,  660 

—  Human  and  Animal,  Simple  Method  for 

Distinguishing,  388 

—  Parasite  of  Frog,  New,  601 

—  Spreader.  525 

—  System,  Tunicate,  430 
Blood-vessels  in  Lumbricus,  Anatomy  and 

Histology,  315 

—  of  Rhynchobdellids,  595 
Blumenthal,  J.  M..  Methods  of  Staining 

the-  Diphtheria  Bacillus,  386 
Boas.  J.  E.  V.,  Cockchafer-years,  693 
Bochenck,  A.,  Nervous  Sytem  of  Anodonta, 

Distaplia  and  Synapta,  579 
Bodecka,  C.  F.,  Decalcification  of  Dental 

Enamel,  764 
Body,  Animal.  Tube  plan  of  Structure,  301 

—  Cavity    and    Gonads    in    SalmonidaB, 

Development,  37 

Boeke,  J.,  Development  of  Myocardium  in 
Teleo.-ts,  1(58 

Boettger,  O.,  Scientific  Value  of  Con- 
chology,  48 

Bbhl,  U..  Development  of  Body  Cavity  and 
Gonads  in  Salmonidse,  37 

Biihin  and  Oppel's  Microscopical  Tech- 
nique, 118 

Bohn.  G.,  Tidal  Periodicity  in  Littorina 
rudis,  431 

—  Tidal  Synchronism  of  Littoral  Animals, 

19 
Boissevain,  M.,  Anatomy  and  Histology  of 

Dentaliuin,  690 
Bolleter,  E.,  Fegatella  conica,  718 
Bomhijx  mori,  Experiments-  588 
Bone  Development,  Studies,  294 

—  Marrow,  Examination,  380 

Bones,  Inferior  Pharyngeal  in  Genus 
Orestias.  175 

—  Long,  Nutritive  Arteries,  171 
Bonhott,     H,    Differential     Staining     of 

Bacillus  Typhosus  in  Sections,  265, 385 

—  Identity  of  Lneffler's  Bacillus  typhosus 

murium  with    the    Bacillus   paraty- 
phosus  "  B,"  231 


Bonbote,   J.    L..  Coloration   in   Mammals 

and  Birds,  41 
Bonne,   ('.,    Development  of   the   Venous 

System  in  the  Mole,  167 
Bonnet,  A  .  New  Nematode  from  Helix.  57 
Bonnevie,  K..  Maturation  in  Enteroxenos 

ostergreni,  431 
Bonnier,  G.,  Biology  of  Saprolegnieae,  343 

—  Nuclear  Fusion  in  Yeast  Spores,  219 
Boraginaccse  and  Solanacese.  Inflorescence, 

450 
Borcea,   I.,   Development    of    Kidney    in 
Elasmobranchs,  168 

—  Persistent   Segmental   Canals  in  Cen- 

trina,  582 

Borchert,  M.,  Central  Nervous  System  of 
Torpedo,  425 

Bordas,  L.,  Accessory  Glands  of  the  Silk- 
Producing  Apparatus  in  Caterpillars, 
180 

—  Glands  of  Hemiptera,  434 

—  Poison-Glands  of  Latrodectus,  696 

—  Salivary  Glands  in  Sepa  cinerea,  434 
Biirgeren,  F.,  Arctic  and  North  Atlantic 

Marine  Algae,  722 

—  Siphonocladus,  465 

Bonier.  C,  Structure  of  Pedipalpi.  696 
Bornet.  E.,  Acrochaetium  and  Chautransia, 

339 
Bosse,  A.  W.  v.,  Dictyosphaeria,  616 
Botanical  Relationship  between  Tropical 

Africa  and  America,  609 
Botanists,  British  and  Irish,  70 
Botany,  English,  Notes  on  the  Drawings, 
70 

—  of  Funafuti,  333 

—  of  the  Southern  Islands  of  New  Zea- 

land, 610 
Botrylloides  gascoi,  ^Estivation,  47 
Botrytis  Disease  of  Tulips  and  Lily  of  the 

Valley,  728 
Boudier,   M.,  and  others,  French    Myco- 
logy. 350 
Bougainvillia  fruticosa,   a    variety  of  B. 
ramosa,  444 

—  Parasitism  of  Larval   Phoxichilidium 

on,  592 
Bouin,  P.,  Ergastoplasm  and  Mitochondria, 
578 

—  Telophase  in  Blastomeresof  Salmonidse, 

293 
Boule,  M..  Evolution  of  Mammals,  580 
Boulger,  G.  S.,  British  and  Irish  Botanists, 

70 
Bourquelot,  E.,  Trehalose  in  Fungi,  381 
Bourquin,  J.,  Cestodes  of  Mammals,  187 
Boutan,    L.,    Bamboo-Beetle   and    Coffee- 
Plant,  590 

—  Coffee-Beetle,  181 

Bouvier,  E.  L.,  Atlantic  Penaeidae  and 
Stenopidae.  594 

—  Commensal  Crab  on  a  Sea-Urchin,  31 1 
Boveri,  T.,  Number  of  Chromosomes.  574 


INDEX. 


'91 


Bovine    and    Human    Tubercle    Bacillus 

Differentiation,  634 
Brachet,  A.,  Kxperimental  Researches  on 

egg  of  Hand  Jusca,  422 
Bradley,  ().  C,  Notes  on  Skull  of  a  Lion. 

686 
Brain,  Human,  Research  Methods,  40 

—  in    Bony    Fishes,    Central    Gustatory 

Paths,  691 

—  of  Teleost,  Torus  longitudinalis,  36 

—  of  the  Chrysochloris,  428 

—  Weight  in  Vertebrates.  685 
Braithwaite,  R.,  British  Moss-Flora,  613 
Branchellion,  Oogenesis,  595 
Branchial  Pouches,  Sixth,  in  Amphibians, 

577 
Brancliiopods,    Methods     of    Examining 

Eyes  and  Frontal  Organs,  761 
Branchiopods,  Unpaired  Eye  and  Frontal 

Organ,  55 
Branchiostoma  elongatum,  582 
Brand,  F.,  Cladophoraceae,  340 
Brasil,  L.,  Anisogamy  in  Gregarines,  323 
in  Monocystis,  446 

—  Phagocytary    Resorption    in    Seminal 

Vesicles  of  Lumbricus,  43S 
Braun,  F.,  Methods  of  Identifying  Sub- 
microscopic  Structures  and  Allied   In- 
vestigations on  Double  Refraction,  755 
Braune,  H.,  Influence  of  Nitrogen  on  Iron 

and  Steel,  668 
Braus,  H.,  Transplantation  of  Primordia, 

576 
Breathing  Organ,  New,  in  Mites,  435 
Breeding  Habits  of  Chitons,  689 
Brehm,  V.,  Fresh-water   Plankton   Crus- 
tacea, 437 
Bretscher,  K.,  Xerophilous  Enchytrceidse 

of  Switzerland,  185 
Breuil,  P.,  Examining  Caoutchouc  by  the 
Aid  of  the  Microscope,  389 

—  Special      Constituent      Obtained      by 

Quenching  Aluminium  Bronze,  536 
Brigns,     E.     M.,    Life-History    of    Case 

Bearers,  591 
Brinell,  J.  A.,  Reichert's  Microscope   for 
determining    Hardness  of    Substances, 
247 
Briosi,  G.,  New  Lichen  Type,  357 
Britten,  J..  British  and  Irish  Botanists,  70 
Brittleness  of  Cemented  Mild  Steels,  669 
Britzelmayer,  M.,    Lichenological    Notes, 

357,  481 
Broek,  A.  J.  P.  v.  d.,  Placenta  of  Seal, 

166 
Bromelin,  Effects  of  Toxic  Agents  upon 

the  Action  of,  608 
Brouiia,  — .,  Lacteal  Secretion,  682 
Browicz,  T.,   Secretory    Function  of  Nu- 
cleus of  Hepatic  Cells,  578 
Bruchmann,  H.,    Prothallium   of    Ophio- 
glossum  vulgatum,  202 

—  The  Rhizophores  of  Selaginella,  716 


Bruini,  G.,  Thermophilic  Microflora  of  the 

Human  Intestine,  361 
Brumpt,    E.,   Trypanosoines   and    Hsemo- 

gregarines  of  Teleosts,  323 
Brunelli,  G.,  Ovary  of  Termites,  694 
Bruntz,  L.,  Phagocytic  Cells  in   Amphi- 

pods,  54 
Bryophyta.     See  Contents,  xxv 
Bryozoa  from  Franz-Josef  Land,  58 
Bubak,  F.,  Diseases  of  Sugar  Beet,  90 
in  Bohemia,  226 

—  Infection  Experiments  with  Uredinese, 

87 
Bubalidae,  Male  Genital  Apparatus,  692 
Buerger,  L.,  Identification  of  Colonies  of 

Pneumococcus,  657 

—  New  Method  of  Capsule  Staining,  665 
Buffa.  P.,  Locomotion  of  Snakes,  173 
Bugnion,  E.,  Stalked  Eggs  of  Bliyosa  per- 

suasoria,  308 

Bupleurum.  Leaf  -  Nervation  in  Some 
Species,  603 

Burckhardt,  R.,  Pre-Aristotelian  Zoology, 
302 

Burdon-Sanderson,  Sir  J.,  Relation  of  Oxi- 
dation to  Functional  Activity,  41 

Burke,  J.  B.,  Spontaneous  Action  of  Radio- 
active Bodies  on  Gelatin  Media,  524 

Burns,  G.  P.,  Traumatic  Curvature  in 
Roots,  607 

Burton,  J.,  Easy  Method  of  Staining  and 
Mounting  Algse  and  Fungi,  769 

Bussy,  L.  P.  de,  Development  of  Megalo- 
batrachus  maximus,  680 

Butler,  E.  J.,  Plant  Diseases  in  India 
during  1903,  348 

Butterflies  from  India  and  Ceylon.  Notes, 
692 

Butterfly  Destroyers  in  Southern  China, 
692 

Byatt,  H.  A.,  Numerical  Proportion  of 
Mimic  to  Model,  588 

Bykowaki,  L.,  Study  of  Fierasfer,  579 


C. 

Cabbages,  Bacterial  Infection,  489 

Cacao,  Diseases,  90 

Cache,  A.,  Method  for  Collecting  the  Gas 
of  Fermentation,  761 

Cadmium  and  Silver  Alloys,  Certain  Pro- 
perties of,  119 

Caldwell,  J.  S.,  Effects  of  Toxic  Agents 
upon  the  Action  of  Bromelin,  608 

Calegari,  M.,  Asplenium  seelosii,  455 

Calibration  of  Extensometers,  Interference 
Apparatus  for,  565 

Calleja,  O,  Supra-renal  ( 'apsules,  297 

Callipsygma  and  Rhipidosiphon,  77 

Callymenia  phyllophora,  215 

Caiman,  W.  T.,  Ceylonese  Cumacea 
698 


792 


INDEX. 


Caiman,  W.  T,  Now  Species  of  River-Crab 

from  Yunnan,  698 
Cambarus.  Affinities  anil  Distribution,  697 

—  Sperm-Rfceptaole,  697 

i  ambridge  Scientific  Instrament  Co.,  Hori- 
zontal Travelling  Micro- 
scope, 637 

New  Imbedding  Bath.  114 

<  ameia  for  U«e  with  the  Microscope.  779 

—  Lnoida,  Abbe.  752 

BauBchand  Lomb's  Improved  Form, 

511 

—  Ocular,  Leitz',  502 

—  Photomicrographic,  Vertical  and   Hori- 

zontal. 7  .">:'• 
(  amerano,  L.,  The  Koman  Mole,  43 

—  Variations  of  Toads,  44 
Campanula!  idae    and    Plnmularidai.    De- 
velopment of  Hydranths,  1S9 

<  ampbell,  D.  H..  Affinities  of  Ophioglos- 

saceaB  and  Marsiliaceae.  454 
•  amus,  F..  Sphagna  from  the  Environs  of 

Paris,  73 
I  anadian  Birds,  Catalogues,  172 
Canines,  Rudimentary  Upper,  in  Elk,  300 
( 'anker  of  Fruit  Trees,  224 
Cannon,  W.  A..  Transpiration  of  Fouqui- 
eria  splendens,  711 

—  Water-t  'onducting    Systems    of    some 

Desert  Plants,  603 
Caoutchouc,  Examining  by  Aid  of  Micro- 
scope, 389 

<  apillitium     of     Tylostoma,     Diagnostic 

Value.  89 
Caprellidae,  ( 'eylonese.  698 
Capside  Staining,  New  Metliod,  665 
Carbohydrates,  Nutrition  of  Fungi,  66 
Carbon    Nutrition    of    Green    Plants    by 

Organic  Substances,  197 
Carboniferous  Ferns,  What  were  the?  137 
Carinoma,  Structure,  598 
Carlgren,  <  >.,  Polyparium  ambulans,  599 

—  The  Mesenteric  Musculature  of  Actini- 

aria.  321 
I   up.  Renal  Tuberculosis,  48S 
Carpenter.  F.  W.,  Reactions  of  the  Pomace 

Fly,  590 
Carpenter,  (4.  H.,  (  eylonese  Pantopoda,  097 

—  Injurious  Insects  in  Ireland,  591,695 
Carpenter,    II.    C.    H..    The    Types    of 

Structure  and  the  Critical  Ranges  on 
Heating  and  Cooling  of  High  Speed 
Tool  Steels  under  Varying  Thermal 
Treatment,  776 

<  artaud,  G.,  Scientific  Development  of  the 

Art  of  Polishing,  535 

Cartilaginous   (ells,   Comparative   Histo- 
logy, 4] 

i  as.-  Bearers,  Life-History,  591 

.  I.  I...  Notes  on  the  Pleurotomidse, 
18 

,  J.,  Uritish  Fresh-water  Rhizopods, 
61,323 


Cassia  tomentosa,  Spindle  Formation  in  the 

Pollen-Mother-Cells,  193 
(  astellani,  A.,  Protozoa  in  Human  Faeces, 

6H0 
Castings,  Ingot-Iron,  Defects,  390 
Castle,    W.    E.,    Mendel's   Law    and    the 

Heredity  of  Albinism,  33 
Castration,  Influence  on  Size,  294 
(  at,  Pancreatic  Bladder,  580 
(  atalpa  Hybrids,  Anatomy,  603 
Caterpillars,   Accessory   Glands   of   Silk- 
producing  Apparatus.  180 

—  Regeneration  in  Larval  Legs,  589 
Cats,  Micro-Organism  causing  Epidemic 

Disease,  360 
Caulerpa  prolifera,  Polarity  and  Organ- 
Formation,  465 
Cauliflower.  Bacterial  Disease,  99 
Caullery,  M.,  New  Enteropneustan  Familv, 
58 

—  Sexual  Reproduction  in  Actinomyxidia, 

601 
Cave-Beetles.  Two  New.  51 
Cavernularid.  New,  from  Ceylon,  445 
Cavia  cobaya.  Perineal  Sac,  300 
Cedar-wood    Oil,    Method  for    Freeing 

Paraffin  from,  533 
Cell  Contents.     See  Contents,  xxii 

—  Histology,  38 

—  Migration   in   Caecum   and  Mid-gut  of 

Amphioxus,  6S0 

—  Morphology  and  Biology,  080 

—  of  tbe  Cyanophyceae,  Structure,  325 
Cell-Division  and  Elongation   in  Root  of 

Allium,  Daily  Periodicity,  198 
Cell-Structure  of  Cyanophyceae,  448 
Celloidin  Method  for  Hard  Plant  Tissues, 

202 
-  Sections,  Method  for  Mounting,  774 
Cells,    Actively  Functioning,   Chromidial 
Apparatus,  578 

—  Artificial,  Germination  and  Growth,  681 

—  Epithelial  and   Connective   Tissue,  in 

Hirudo,  701 

—  Isolated  under    tbe    Microscope,  Pure 

Cultures,  758 
Cellulose,  Decomposition  by  Aerobic  Or- 
ganisms. 98 
Centrina,    Persistent    Segmental    Canals, 

582 
Centrosomes   and    ( 'y tasters   in   Artificial 
Parthenogenesis,  167 

—  Formation   in    Enucleated    Egg-Frag- 

ments, 575 
Cephalochorda,  Maldive,  176 
Cephalochordates,  Pelagie,  2'.i7 
Cephalopod,    Symbiosis    of  Hydractinian 

with,  5x4 
Cephalopoda,  Notes  on  Anatomy,  430 

—  See  Contents,  xiii 

I  Vphalopods  and  Chitons.  Egg-Envelopes, 
304 

—  (  eylonese.  088 


INDEX. 


793 


n      I 


Cephalopoda,  Muscles  of  the  Mantle,  68S 
Cephalopyge  trematoides,  305 
Oeramiacese  of  New  Zealand,  722 
Ceratodus,  Development  of  Vascular  and 

Respiratory  Systems,  294,  576 
Ceratolejeunea,  618 

Cerbuti,  A.,  Nucleolar  Dissolution,  422 
Gercospora    beticola,   parasitic    on   Sugar 

and  Fodder  Beet,  622 
Cereals,  Infection  by  Smut  Spores,  730 

—  Inter-relation  of  Pests,  225 
Cerebellum  of  Pig,  Ganglion  Cells,  425 
Cerebrospinal  Meningitis,  Epidemic,  and 

its  Specific  Cause,  235 
Cereus  giganteus,  Mechanical  Adjustment 

to  Varying  Quantities  of  Stored  Water, 

329 
Cestode  Larva,   New,  Parasitic,  in   Man, 
596 

—  New  Genus,  57 
Cestodes  and  Nematodes,  Descriptions,  57 

—  Arctic,  440 

—  Bactericidal  Action,  440 

—  Bird,  of  Eastern  Asia,  702 

—  Copulation,  596 

—  Histology.  702 

—  Notes,  440 

—  of  Mammals,  187 

Chabrie,  M.  C.,  Construction  Principle  of 
an  Optical  Apparatus  for  obtaining  very 
large  Magnifications  (the  Diastoloscope), 
108 
Chad  wick,  H.  C,  Ceylonese  Crinoids,  705 
Chaetopterus,  Commensals  in  Tubes,  699 
Chalmers,  S.  D.,  Aberrations,  562 

—  Measurement  of  Refractive  Index,  562 

—  Theory  of  Symmetrical  Optical  Objec- 

tives, 501 
Chalon,  J.,   Marine   Algae  of  North  and 

West  France,  338 
Chamaeleon,  Respiratory  Ehytlim,  44 
Chamaeleons,  Air-Sacs,  581 
Chance  Brothers'  Cover  Glasses  of  Thin 
Glass  for  Microscopic  Preparations, 
656 
Optical   Properties  of  Glasses  pro- 
duced by,  654 
Chantransia  Alarix,  11 
Chantransia  and  Acrochaetium,  339 
Chapman,  A.  C,  Wild  Yeast  Infection,  85 
Chapman,   F..  Australian    Fossil    Fishes, 

175 
Chapman,   T.    A.,    Pupal    Suspension   of 

Thais,  588 
Charabot,  E.,  Distribution  of  Essential  Oil 

in  au  Annual  Plant,  67 
Characters.  Acquired,  Inheritance  in  In- 

seeta,  307 
Charlier,  A.,  Demonstrating  the  Structure 

of  Gutta-Percha  Plants,  762 
Ohatelier,  H.  le,  International  Committee 
for  Investigating   the  Constituents   of 
Steel,  534 


Ohatelier,  H.  le,  Technique  of  Microscopic 

Metallography,  669 
Chatin,  J.,  Comparative  Histology  of  <  ar- 

tilaginous  Cells,  41 
Cheese  Making.  Micro-Organisms,  033 
Chelonia,  Gadow's  Hypothesis  of  Ortho- 
genetic  Variation,  581 

—  Investigating  Anatomy  and   Develop- 

ment of  Venous  System,  762 
Chemical  Changes  in  Seed  Plants.     See 

Contents,  xxiv 
Cherries,  Rotting  of,  by  Glceosporium,  88 
Cheshire,  F.  J.,  Rock  Crystal,  255 
Chester,  F.  D.,  Bacillus  subtilis,  group  of 

Bacteria,  232 
Chick,  Origin  of  Subclavian  Artery,  423 
Child,  C.  M.,  Amitosis  in  Cestoda,  187 
Chilton,   C.,    Distribution    of   Terrestrial 

Isopods    Introduced    into    Australasia, 

699 
Chironomid  Larvae,  592 

—  New,  693 

Chitons  and  Cephalopods,  Egg- Envelopes, 
304 

—  Breeding  Habits,  689 
Chlamydomonas,  467,  468 
Chlorochytnum,  4H5 
Chlorophyceae,  New,  465 
Chlorophyll.   Masked,    Demonstration    iu 

Laminaria,  214 
Cholera  Spirillum,  Biology,  361 
Cholodkovsky,  N.,  Entomological  Notes,  52 
Chorionic  Villi,  Absorption  of  Fat,  425 
Christ,  H.,  Chinese  Ferns,  (111 
Christensen,  C,  Index  Filicum,  454 
Christman,  A.  H.,  Sexual  Reproduction  in 

the  Rusts,  449 
Christy.  C,  Congo  Floor-Maggot.  694 
Chromaffin  Tissue  in  Birds,  426 
Chromidial  Apparatus  of  Actively  Func- 
tioning Cells,  578 
Chromosomes.  Development  in  Selachian 
Ovum,  679 

—  Individuality,  292 

—  Number,  574 

—  of  Ascaris,  701 
Chroolepus  aureus  a  Lichen,  735 
Chrysler,    M.  A.,    Development    of     the 

Central     Cylinder    of    Araceae    and 
Liliaceae,  64 

—  Regeneration  in  Zamia,  193 
Chrysochloris,  Brain,  428 
Chrysomonadinse,  80 

Chun,  C.  Notes  on  Anatomy   of  Cepha- 
lopoda, 430 
Chytridiaceae,  471 

Cicadidae,  Australian,  Monograph,  434 
Ciliary  Action,  Hydraulic  Theory,  124 

—  Movements,  Experiments,  46 
Cincinnulus  tricltomanis,  73 

(  irripeds.  Chilian.  314 

Cladaphoraceaa,  340 

Cladocera,  so-called  "  Olfactory  Setae,"  437 


794 


INDEX. 


<  lados])  ilium.  Diseases  due  to,  "J"J<» 

ChJadathriz  chromogi  ties,  Decomposition  of 

Albuminoids,  632 
(lark,  A.    II..    Habits    of    West    Indian 

Whitebait,  687 

<  lansen,  I'..  Development  of  Asoomycetes, 

MX 
Clegg,  M.  T.,  Cultivation  and  Staining  of 

\iucfbffi,  112 
Clean  nteia  markhamiana,  212 
Cligny,  M.  A.,  Geographical  Variation  in 

Pleuronectids,  429 
Clinton,    G.    P.,    North    American    Usti- 

lagina).  HI."' 
Olivia,  Arrangement  of  starch  in  Starch- 
Sheath  of  Perianth,  607 
Cloeou  ami  Periplaneta,  Stucture  of  Ocelli, 

307 
Clostridium  polymyza,  491 
Cobalt  Steels,  534 
Cobli,  N.  A.,  Fresh-water   Nematodes  of 

New  Zealand.  316 
•Cockayne,   L..   Botany   of    the    Southern 

Islands  of  New  Zealand,  610 
Cockchafer-years,  (593 
Cockroach,  Development  of  Head  Skele- 
ton, 181 

—  Digestion,  307 

—  Nerve-t  ells,  52 
Cockroaches,  Palaeozoic,  307 

Coe,  W.  K.,  Anatomy,  Development,  and 
Habits  of  Geonemertes  agricola,  441 

—  North  American  Nemerteans,  441,  703 

—  Sexual  Phases  in  Geonemertes,  317 
Coelentera,  List  of  Irish,  444 

—  See  Contents,  xx 
Ccelonporidiuin  BlatteUas.  447 
Coffee- beetle,  1S1 

Coffee-Plant  and  Bamboo-Beetle,  590 

Coffein,  Effect  on  Typhoid  and  Coli 
Cultures.  377 

Cohn.  L.,  Tentacle  Apparatus  of  Dacty- 
letra  calcarata,  420 

Coker.  R.  E.,  Gadow's  Hypothesis  of 
Orthogenetic  Variation  in  (helonia,  581 

(  ol,  A.,  Arrangement  of  Vascular  Bundles 
in  Stem  and  Leaves  of  some  Dicotyle- 
dons, 03 

i  'ole,  F.  J.,  Notes  on  Myxine,  688 

Cole,  L.  J.,  Pycnogonids  of  Bermuda,  184 

—  Ten-legged  Pycnogonids,  310 
Coleoptera,  Notes,  692 

Coli    and    Typhoid    Cultures,    Effect    of 

<  'offein.  377 
Collecting  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvi 
Collembola  of  Lapland,  182 
Collins,  J.  R.,  Hanging-Drop  Preparations, 

117  ' 

Collins,  S.  F.,  Chlorochytrium.  465 
I  loloration  in  Mammals  and  Birds,  41 
Colour-Changes  in  Fungi  and  Bacteria,  08 

of  Anolis  caroUnemi8,  Effect  of  Heat 

on.  173 


I  olour  in  Plants,  Nature,  63 
Colouring  Matter,  Brown,  in  Alga?.  721 

—  Matters,    Artificial,  Affinity   for   Con- 

nective Tissue.  530 
Colours  in  Metal  Glasses  and  in  Metallic 

Films,  1(17 
-  of  Moulds  and  Bacteria,  Variations,  98 
Comatulidae,    Regeneration    and    Svzygy, 

705 
Comephorus,  Gills  and  Teeth,  174 
Comere,  J.,  Diatoms  of  the  Montague  Noire. 

Pyrenees,  213 
Comes,  S.,  Follicles  and  Egg-Envelopes  in 

Belune  acus,  422 
Commensals    in     Tubes    of    Chscopterus, 

699 
"  Comparascope,"  the  Ashe-Finlayson,  267, 

414,745,780 
Comparing  Normal  with  Abnormal  Tissues 

under    the   Microscope,   Two   Methods, 

116 
Conchology,  Scientific  Value,  48 
Condenser,  Abbe,  used  as   an  Objective. 
644 

—  Reichert's  New  Achromatic,  371 

Swing-out  and  Iris  Diaphragm,  249 

Conidia-bearing  Fungi,  Two,  728 

Conn,   H.    W.,   Fresh-water    Protozoa   of 

Connecticut,  707 
Connective  Tissue,  Affinity   of  Artificial 

Colouring  Matters  for,  530 
Conrady,  A.  E.,  120,  123,  395 

—  An    Experimental     Proof    of    Phase- 

Reversal  in  Diffraction-Spectra,  150 

—  On  the  Application  of  the  Undulatory 

Theory    to    Optical    Problems,    395, 
401 

—  Theories  of  Microscopical  Vision,  540, 

541 

Conte,  A.,  New  Nematode  from  Helix,  57 

Cooke,  E.,  Structure  atid  Development  of 
Epiplwgus  virginiana,  326 

Cooke,  M.  C,  and  others,  Diseases  of  Cul- 
tivated Plants,  349 

Cooling  and  Heating  of  High  Speed  Tool 
Steels,  Types  of  Structure,  and  Critical 
Ranges  under  Varying  Thermal  Treat- 
ment. 776 

Copal  as  a  Mounting  Medium,  387 

Copeland,  E.  B.,  Variation  of  Californian 
Plants,  199 

Copper  and  Aluminium  Alloys,  670 

—  Effects  on  Fungi,  470 
Copulation  in  Cestodes,  596 
Copulatory  Organs  in  Mammals,  172 
Coral  Polyps,  Morphology.  322 
Cornu  Ammonia  in  Man,  169 
Corpuscles,  Red,  Demonstrating  Structure, 

705 
Cortinarius,  Genus,  622 
Corymorpha,  Biological  Studies,  320 
Cosentino,  A.,  Elastic  Tissue  of  Prostate, 

426 


INDEX. 


795 


Cotton,  E.  C,  Identification  of  Trees  in 

Winter,  199 
Cotton  Plant,  Fungoid  Diseases,  623 
Cotylaspis  insiynis,  Habits  and  Structure, 

317 
Coulter,  J.  M.,  Gametophyte  and  Embryo 
of  Torreya  taxifolia,  328 

—  Regeneration  in  Zamia,  193 
Council,  New,  135 

—  Report  for  1904,  131 
•Coutiere,  H..  Abyssal  Crabs,  698 

—  Epipodites  of  Eucyphota,  698 

—  Notes  on  Crustacea,  435 

—  Scales  of  Pandalidae,  312 
Couvreur,    — .,   Respiratory    Rhythm    in 

Chamaeleon,  44 
Cover-Glass  Holder,  All-Metal,  117 
Cover-Glasses   of  Thin  Glass  for  Micro- 
scopic Preparations,  656 
Crab,  Commensal,  on  Sea  Urchin,  311 

—  Hermit,  Metamorphoses,  593 
Crabs,  Miurosjioridian,  601 

Crampton,  C.  R.,  Intra-Organismal  Selec- 
tion, 579 

•Cranial  Nerve  in  Selachians,  New,  46 

Craspedotella,  an  Example  of  Conver- 
gence, 707 

Crawley,  H.,  Ccelosporidium  Blattellx, 
447 

—  Movements  of  Gregarines,  446 
Crayfish,  Spermatozoa,  54 

Creite,  — .,  Isolating  Tetanus  Bacillus 
from  the  Spleen,  111 

Creosote  as  a  Dehydrating  Medium  for 
Imbedding  in  Paraffin,  763 

Cribrum,  Mammalian,  42 

Crinoid,  New.  189 

Crinoids,  Ceylonese,  705 

Crisp,  F.,  Linnaeus  and  the  Use  of  the 
Microscope,  253 

Cristina,  D.,  Method  for  Mounting  Celloi- 
din  Sections,  774 

Crocker,  E.  G.,  Effects  of  Stress  upon 
Metals,  391 

Crossland,  C,  Fungus  Flora  of  Hearth- 
rug, 90 

Cruciferae,  Structure  of  Flower,  450 

Crustacea  and  Vertebrates,  Adipogenic 
Function,  47 

—  Fresh-  and    Brackish- Water,   of  East 

Norfolk,  54 

—  Fresh-water  Plankton,  437 

—  Notes,  435 

—  See  Contents,  xvi 
Cryptogams.     See  Contents,  xxiv 
Crystallisation  of  Iron  and  Steel,  777 
Crystalloids  in  Amphioxus,  426 
Crystals  in  Hirudo  and  Pontobdella.  439 
Ctenophora,  Primitive  Germ-Cells,  445 
Cuboni,  G.,  Disease  of  Olive  Trees,  619 

—  Schrospora  macro*pora,  82 
Cucumnriu  Montagui,  Note,  704 
Cucumaria,  Species  from  Plymouth,  189 


Cucurbitaceaj,   Comparative   Embryology, 

197 
Cue'not,  L„  Is  there  a  Relation  between 
Size  of  Eggs  and  Sex  in  Lepidoptera  ? 
180 

—  Phagocytary  Organ  of  Decapods,  312 
CulicidsB  of  Cameroon  and  Togo,  694 
Cultivating  the  Bacillus  of  Leprosy,  261 

—  Trypanosomes,  757 

Cultivation  and  Staining  of  Amoebae,  112 

—  of  Amoeba?,  757 

—  of  Green  Alga?,  720 

—  of  the  Amoebae  of  Tropical  Dysentery, 

260 

—  of  the  Leishman  Body,  378 

—  of    Tubercle    Bacilli    from    Bacterial 

Mixtures,  259 

—  pure,  of  Yeast,  New  Method  for  obtain- 

ing, 377 
Cultural  Experiments  with  Biologic  forms 

of  the  Ervsiphaceae,  Further,  219 
Culture     Experiments     with     Morchella, 
471 

—  Processes.     See  Contents,  xxxvi 

—  Pure,  from   Cells    Isolated    under  the 

Microscope,  758 
Cultures    and    Smears   from    Throat   and 

Nose,  Examination.  666 
Cumacea,  Ceylonese,  698 
Cumings,   E.  R.,   Development  of  Fene- 

stella,  703 
Curehod,   H.,    Bacterial    Niveau  of  Bei- 

jeriuk,  484 
Curties,    C.   L.,    Improved    Dark-ground 
Illuminator   for   High    Powers,   538, 
782 

—  Old  Microscope  by  Shuttleworth,  635 

—  Pocket  Botanical  and  Universal  Micro- 

scope, 636 

—  Three  Old  Microscopes  presented  by, 

537 

—  Wilson    Screw-Barrel    Simple     Micro- 

scope, 636 
Curtis,  — .,  Affinity  of  Artificial  Colouring 

Matters  for  Connective  Tissue,  530 
Curvature  of  Small  Lenses,  Direct  Deter- 
mination, 751 

—  Traumatic,  in  Roots,  607 
Curves  of  Growth,  685 

Cushman,   J.   A.,    Division    in    Desmids 
under  Pathologic  Conditions,  212 

—  Localised  Stages  of  Common  Roadside 

Plants,  199 

—  Zygospores  of  Desmids,  466 
Cutting  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvii 
Cyauophj  ceae,  211,341 

—  Structure  Of  Cell,  325,  448 
Cyclothone  acclinidens,   Nervous    System, 

298 
Cylinder,  Central,  of  Araceae  and  Liliaceae, 

Development.  <>4 
Cymouoinus,  New  Species,  437 
(  ypridina,  Female  Gonads.  594 


INDEX. 


<'y-t<>)>u.-   eandidut,   Contribution    to    the 

Study,  83 
<  ytaaters   and   On'rosomes  in  Artificial 

Parthenogenesis,  167 
i  ytological  Changes  in  Kidney,  426 

—  Researches  on  some  Ascomycetes.  473 

—  Studies  and  Heredity,  709 
•  ytology,  ( General,  4 18 

—  of  Apoepory,  Tin 

—  of  Aiaiospora,  448 

—  of  NemaHon  mnliijidum,  77 

—  of  the  h'orras  of  Stigeoclonium,  * ;  1 0 

I  ontents,  xxii 
(  ytoplasm  and  Nucleus,  delations,  38 

—  Metameric,  in  Gregariue,  446 

—  of  Amphibian  Ovum,  Experiments,  574 
Cytosporii.  New,  Morphology,  88 
Czapaki'a  Elements  of  the  Theory  of  Opti- 
cal [nstrnments,  653 


1) 

hactyhtra  calcarata,  Tentacle  Apparatus, 

42i; 
Daday,  E.  v..  Fresh-water  Microfauna  of 

Paraguay,  ."i83 
of  Turkestan,  47 

—  Microscopic  Fresh-water  Animals  from 

Asia  Minor,  47 
Dall,  W.  H.,  Land  and  Fresh-water  Shells 

of  the  Bahamas,  690 
Damas,  D..  Studies  on  Tunicates,  177 
Dantan,  L.,  Ichthyological  Notes,  428 
Daphnia   pulex.   Reactions   to   Light  and 

Heat,  55 
Darbishire.    <  >.     V..    Lichens     from     the 

Antarctic,  7:;."> 
Dark  Field  Illumination,  520 
Dark-Ground    Illuminator,   Improved,  for 

High  Powers,  f>38 
1  »auj)hin,  J.,  Growth  of  Fungi  in  Artificial 
Media,  713 

—  Influence  of  Radium  on    the   Growth 

of  Fungi.  69 
I  'avenport,  C.  B.,  Variations  in  Pecten,  49 
Davenport,  G.  O,  Reproduction  and  Varia- 
tion in  Sagartia  lucise,  .£)9 
Davis,  B.  M..  General  Cytology,  448 

—  Notes  on  Young  Enteropneusta,  442 

—  Oogenesis  in  Vaucheria,  78 

—  Young  Stages  of  some  Enteropneusta, 

58 
Decalcification  of  Dental  Enamel,  764 
Decapoda,  Minute  Structure  of  Heart,  313 
Decapods  and  Stomatopods.  East  African. 
698 
-  Fresh-water,  of  Celebes.  183 

—  Phagocytary  Organ,  312 
I  >i  colopoda  of  Eights,  311 

Deegener,  P.,  Development  of  the  Gut  in 
Insects  during  Metamorphosis,  179 


Deflandre,  C,  Adipogenic  Function  in 
Vertebrates  and  in  Crustacea. 
47 

of  the  Mammalian  Liver,  169 

—  Demonstrating     Fat    in     the    Animal 

Liver,  665 

Dehydrating  Medium  for  Imbedding  in 
Paraffin,  Creosote  as,  763 

Dehydration,  Incomplete.  Imbedding  with. 
526 

Deineka,  D..  Structure  of  the  Swim  Blad- 
der, 174 

Dejean,  — .,  Induction  Galvanometer  for 
the  Study  of  Freezing  and  Critical 
Points,  777 

Dekhuyzen,  M.  C.  Epithelium  of  Stomach, 
170 

Delacroix,  G..  Bacterial  Infection  of  Cab- 
bages, 489 

Delacroixin  coronata,  617 

Delden,  A.  v.,  Bacteria  of  Flax  "  Retting," 
97 

—  Bacterium  that  obtains  its  Carbon  Food 

from  the  Air,  98 

Dell,  J.  A..  Structure  and  Life-History  of 
Psychoda  sexpunctata,  (593 

Dendroceratida,  Studies,  706 

Deudroccela,  Development  of  Fresh-water, 
597 

Dennis,  Major  M.  J.  C,  Wilson  Screw- 
Barrel  Simple  Microscope,  presented  by, 
739,  779 

Denuiston,  R.  H..  Structure  of  the  Starch- 
Grain,  193 

Dentalium,  Anatomy  and  Histology,  690 

—  and  Patella,  Germinal  Localisation,  305 

—  Structure,  690 

Depe'iet,  C,  Evolution  of  Mammals,  686 

of  Tertiary  Mammals,  427 

Deposit,  Centrifuged,  Method  for  Remov- 
ing Small  Quantities,  387 
Dermatobia  hominis,  53 
Dermoid  Cysts  of  Ovary  and  Testis,  165 
Dernehl,  P.  H.,  Demonstrating  the  Blasto- 
derm of  Polistes  pallipes.  765 
Descoffre.   A..    The   Yeasts   of   Charente, 

620 
Desmids,  Division  under  Pathologic  Con- 
ditions, 212 

—  from  Victoria,  724 

—  Zygospores,  466 

De  Toni,  G.  B.,  Floiideae,  214 
Deuteromycetes  and  Pyrenomycetes,  No- 
menclature of  Organs,  476 
Development  and  Structure  of  Epipliegus 
virgin' ana,  326 

—  of  Ascomycetes,  343 

—  of  Monascus,  344 

Dewitz,  J.,  Metamorphosis  of  Insect 
Larvae,  51 

Diastoloscope,  The,  Construction-Principle 
of  an  Optical  Apparatus  for  obtaining 
very  large  Magnifications,  108 


INDEX. 


797 


Diatoms  and  other  Microscopic  Plants. 
Movements,  397,  554 

—  Microspores,  213 

—  of  the  Montagne  Noire,  Pyrenees,  213 

—  of  the  Orba,  466 

—  of  the  Territories,  616 
Dibdin,  W.  J.,  398 

—  Flagella  of  Bacillus  typhosus,  374 

—  Slide  and  Photomicrographs  of  Bacillus 

typhosus,  394 
Dibothriocephalus  latus  in  Dogs,  187 
Dichromatism  in  Lina  lapponica,  Inheri- 
tance, 590 
Dicotyledon,    Arrangement     of    Vascular 
Bundles  in  Stem  and  Leaves,  63 

—  Heterorhizy,  330 
Dictyosphseria,  616 

Dietel,  P.,  Distribution  of  Uredineae  on 
their  Host  Plants,  87 

—  Notes    on     Uredospores    of     TJromyces 

brevipes  and  U.  punctatostriatus,  221 

—  The  Genus  Phragmidium,  346 
Diffraction  Image  and  Absorption- Image, 

654 

—  in  Optical  Instruments,  563 

—  Spectra,  Experimental  Proof  of  Phase- 

Reversal,  150 

—  Theory  and   Geometrical  Optics,  Dis- 

crepancy   in     Actual     Instances     of 

Telescope  and  Microscope  Objectives, 

644 
Digby,  L.,  Cytology  of  Apospory,  710 
Digestive  Apparatus  of  Aulastoma,  185 
Digestion  in  Cockroach,  307 
Dimon,  A.  C,  Study  of  the  Mud  Snail, 

584 
Dimorphism  in  English  Species  of  Num- 

mulites,  446 

—  in  the  Nummulites,  445 

—  Sexual,  in  Rat  Louse,  590 

Diphtheria  Antitoxin,  Methods  for  Deter- 
mining the  Immunity  Unit  for  Stan- 
dardising, 658 

— ■  Bacillus,  Methods  of  Staining,  386 
Diplodia  and  Macrophoma,  Relationship, 

88 
D'Ippolito,  G.,  Sclerospora  macrospora,  83 
Diptera,  etc.,  of  Uganda,  693 

—  New  Genus  from  the  Falkland  Islands, 

591 

—  North  American,  Catalogue,  591 

—  Some  New  Sense-Organs,  180 
Dipterocarpese.  Secretory  Apparatus,  326 
Discoglossii*  pictus,  Spermatozoa,  166 
Disease  and  Fleas,  694 

—  and  Micro-Organisms,  708 

—  of  Figs,  90 

—  of  Hitricot  Beaus,  728 

—  of  Larch,  220 

—  of  Oaks,  84 

—  of  Potato,  88 

—  of  Sugar  Beet,  624 

—  Practical  Notes  on  Beet,  224 


Disease,  Sclerotium,  of  Alder,  til'.) 

—  Tobacco,  due  to  Sclerotinia,  218 
Diseases,    Bovine,  Ticks  as  Transmitters. 

435 

—  due  to  Cladosporinm,  220 

—  Fungoid,  of  ( 'otton  Plant,  623 

—  of  Beet,  350 

—  of  Cacao,  90 

—  of  Cultivated  Plants.  349,  7:;:; 

—  of  Fishes,  447 

—  of  Plants,  732 

with   Methods  of   Prevention   or 

Cure,  227 

—  of  Sugar  Beet,  90 
iu  Bohemia.  226 

—  ot  Trees,  348 

—  Plant,  349 

during  the  Year  1903,  349 

Handbook,  623 

in  India  during  1903,  348 

Disselhorst,  R.,  Comparative  Histology  of 

Ducts  and   Accessory  Glands  of  Male 

Gonads,  38 
Distaplia,  Synapta  and  Anodonta,  Nervous 

System,  579 
Distaso,  A.,  Structure  of  Dentalium,  690 
Distomes,  New,  5S 
Distribution  and  Affinities  of  Cambarus. 

697 
Division,  Heterotype,  448 

—  Longitudinal,     in    Opalinu     runarum, 

323 
Dixon.  H.  H.,  Supply  of  Water  to  Leaves 

on  a  Dead  branch,  711 
Dodd,  E.  P.,  Maternal   Instinct  in  Rhvn- 

chota,  181 
Doderlein,  L. .  Sea-Urchins  of  Germai  i  Deep- 

Sea  Expedition,  443 
Doerr,  R.,  Spirillum  pyogenes,  360 
Dog,  Heart  Muscle,  297 

—  Leucocytozoan,  447 

Dogiel,  A.  S.,  Nerve-endings  of  Nail  Layer 
in  Man,  681 

—  Staining    Nerve-Endings    in   Skin    of 

Mammals,  666 

Dolchinia  mirdbilis,  303 

Domaschko,  A„  Gonad  Walls  in  Asearis 
megalocephala,  701 

Dorogostaisky,  V.,  Algae  of  Lake  Baikal. 
339 

Doubliug  of  Lines  in  the  Abbe  Experi- 
ments not  due  to  the  Diaphragms  above 
the  Objective.  521 

Douin,  I..  Cincinnulus  trichomanis.  !'.'< 

Dourine,  Tryjmuosome,  601 

Downing,  E..  Demonstrating  the  Sperma- 
togenesis of  Hydra.  705.  7t!4 

Drabble,  E.,  Anatomy  of  Palm  Routs,  194 

Drawing  and  Photographing  Microscopical 
Sections,  Simple  Apparatus,  651 

—  and   Projection   Apparatus,  Edinger's, 

650 

—  Apparatus,  Micropantograph  as,  5o;» 


7'.  is 


INDEX. 


Drawing  Board,  Bauson  and   I.omb's  Ad- 
justable, 512 

Giesenliagen's,  5(i8 

l.eitz'.  508 

Dreyling,  L.,  Wax-Glands  in  Meliponidae, 

L79 
Drigalski  Medium,  Simplification,  259 
Droseros,  West  Australian,  :!3:> 
Dry-rut,  475 
Drysdale,  C.  V..  Direct  Determination    of 

the  Curvature  of  Small  Lenses  751 
Drysdale,   ( '.    V.,   The   Specification   and 

Measurement    of    Optical    Aberrations, 

563 
Dublin,  L.  I.,  Germ-Cells  in  Pedicellina 
americana,  442 

—  Preparing   Germ-Cells    of    Pedicellina 

americana,  :i80 
Dnbuisson,   H.,  Absorption    of    Yolk    in 

Viper  Embryos,  165 
Duchaussoy.  EL,  Dry-Rot.  475 
Ducke,  A.,  Social  Wasps  of  Para,  309 
Duerden,    J.    E.,    Morphology    of   Coral 

Polyps,  322 
Dunaiiella,  New  Genus  of  Polyblepharideae, 

340 
Dutton,  J,  E.,  Congo  Floor-Maggot,  694 
Dworetzky,   A.,   Cultivation   of  Tubercle 

Bacilli  from  bacterial  Mixtures,  259 
Dysentery,  Epidemic  or  Bacillary,  96 

—  Tropical,   Cultivation   of    Amoebae   of, 

260 


E. 


Ear-Bones  of  Vipera  and  Tropidonotus,  299 
Earthworm,  Variation  and  Correlation,  315 
Eastman,  C.  R.,  Edestus  and  its  Relatives, 
45 

—  Fossil  Plumage,  44 

Eberhardt,  A.,  Contribution  to  the  Study 

of  Cijstnpus  candidus,  83 
Echidna  and  Reptiles,  Skull,  686 
Echinouocci  of  Domestic  Animals,  186 
Echinoderma.     See  Contents,  xix 
Eehinoderms,  Ceylonese,  705 

—  ( )rigin  of  Water-Vascular  System,  443 

—  South  African,  443 
Echiurus,  New  Species,  595 
Edestns  and  its  Relatives,  45 
Edingers  Projection  and  Drawing  Appara- 

tus,  i;5() 
Edwards,  A.  M.,  Diatomsof  the  Territories, 
616 

—  Trochiscia  moniliformis,  466 
Edwards,  C.  L., Species  of  Holothuria,  704 
Egg,  Annelid.  Mosaic  Development,  314 

—  <  if  Hit  nafusca,  Experimental  Researches, 

122 

ling,  H.,  Eyelids  of  Mammals,  170 
Egg-Envelopes   and   Follicles    of   Belone 

'"•us.  422 
in  Cephalopoda  and  Chitons,  304 


Egg  Fragments,  Enucleated,  Formation  of 

Centrosomes,  575 
Eggs,  Abnormal,  in  Fowls,  34 

—  Large    Yolked,    Development    of    an 

Asterid  with,  704 

—  of  Haminea  solitaria,  Preparing  and 

Staining,  263 

—  of     Mactra,    Cytology    and     Artificial 

Parthenogenesis,  691 

—  of  Tardigrada,  310 

—  Ovarian,  of  Guinea-Pig,  421 

—  Size  of,  and  Sex  in   Lepidoptera.     Is 

there  a  Relation  between?  180 

—  Stalked,  of  Rhyosa  perstiasoria,  308 
Ehrnrooth,  E.,  Simple  Method  for  Distin- 
guishing between  Human  and  Animal 
Blood,  388 

Eigenmann,  C.  H.,  History  of  the  Eye  of 

Amblyopsis,  46 
Elasraobranchs,  Development  of  Kidney, 

168 
Elastic  Tissue  of  Prostate,  426 
Electrical  and   Thermal   Effects   in   Soft 
Iron,  667 

—  Warm-Stage,  677 

Electrolysis,  Use,  for  Metallic  Impregna- 
tion and  Staining  of  Tissues,  666 
Elenkin,  A.,  Observations  on  Endosapro- 
phytism  in  Heteromerous  Lichens,  1*5 

—  Polymorphism   of  Everm'a  furfuracea, 

628 

—  Theory  of  Endosapropby  tism  in  Lichens, 

356 
Elk,  Rudimentary  Upper  Canines,  300 
Ellermann,  V.,  Bacillu*  fusiformis,  232 
Embryo  and   Embryo-Sac  of  Batrachium 

hngirostris,  Development,  605 

—  and  Gametophyte  of  Torreya  taxifolia, 

328 

—  Human,  Closure  of  Nasal   Apertures, 

577 
Development  of  Islands  of  Langer- 

hans,  680 
Embryogeny  of  Ginkgo,  65 

—  Comparative,  of  the  Cucurbitaceae,  197 
Embryology   of  Vertebrates.      See    Con- 
tents, viii 

Embryonic  Envelope  of  Sipunculids,  56 
Embryos,  Apparatus  for    Automatic  Fix- 
ation, 379 

—  Mammalian,  Demonstrating  'eetb,  765 
Embryo-Sac  and   Embryo  of  Batrachium 

longirodris.  Development,  605 
Emerson,  J.  J.,    Relationship    of    Macro- 

phoma  and  Diplodia,  88 
Emerson,  J.  T.,  Blackening   of    Baptisia 

tinctoria,  198 
Enamel,  Dental,  Decalcification,  764 
Enchytraeidae,  Xeropbilous,  of  Switzerland, 

185 
Enderlein,  G.,  New  Flea  from  Armadillo, 
591 

—  New  Flightless  Fly,  309 


INDEX. 


799 


Enderlein,  G.,  New  Genus  of  Diptera  from 
Falkland  Islands.  591 

—  Sexual  Dimorphism  in  Rat  Louse,  590 

—  Studies  on  Lice,  53 

Enders,  H.  E.,  Commensals  in  Tubes  of 
Chaetopterus,  699 

Eiido,  S.,  Method  for  Detecting:  Typhoid 
Bacilli,  376 

Endocellular  Tubules,  296 

Endocladia  muricata,  214 

Endosaprophytism  in  Heteromerous  Li- 
chens. Observations,  95 

—  in  Lichens,  Theory,  356 
Endosperm,  Nuclear  Divisions,  709 
Endotropic  Mycorhiza,  Study,  329 
Engineer's  Metallurgical  Microscope,  364 
Engler,  — ..  Syllabus  der  Pflanzenfamilien. 

71 

Engler,  A.,  Botanical  Relationship  be- 
tween Tropical  Africa  and  America,  609 

Engler,  K..  Abnormal  Alimentary  System 
in  Opisfhorchis  felineus,  57 

Enteropneusta,  58,  442 

Enteroxenos  ostergreni,  Maturation,  431 

Entomological  Notes,  52 

Entomophytes,  Biology,  728 

Entoprocta,  Excretory  Apparatus,  318 

Entozoa,  Australian,  57 

Enwald,  K.  H.,  Finland  Algae,  723 

Enzyme-secreting  Cells,  Demonstrating, 
264 

Eolids.  Nematoblasts,  432 

Ephemerids,  Palme'n's  Organ,  182 

Epidermal  Cells,  Interconnections,  424 

in  Lizards,  300 

Epidermis  of  Ammoccetes,  Granular  Cells, 
39 

Epididymis.  Epithelium,  38 

Epiphegus  virginiana,  Structure  and  De- 
velopment, 326 

Epipodites  of  Eucyphota,  698 

Epithelium  of  Stomach,  170 

—  of  the  Epididymis,  38 

Equivalent  Planes  of  Optical  Instruments, 
the  Consideration  of,  560 

Erect  Image  Preparation  System  for  Pre- 
paration Microscopes,  Reichert's  New, 
368 

Ergastoplasm  and  Mitochondria,  578 

Ergot,  Biology,  729 

Erigone  Group  of  Spiders,  182 

Eriksson,  J..  On  tlie  Vegetative  Life  of 
some  Urediueae,  221 

Erysiphaceae,  345 

—  Further    Cultural    Experiments    with 

Biologic  Forms  of,  219 

—  of  Japan,  619 

—  Specialisation  of  Parasitism,  474 
Erythrocytes,  Structure,  425 
Eseherich,  K.,  Monograph  of  Lepismatidae, 

182 
Esterly,  C.  O.,  Physiological  Polarisation 
in  Ascidian  Heart,  177 


Esterly,  C.  O.,  Structure  and  Regenera- 
tion of  Poison  Glands  of  Plethodon 
oregonensis.  %2'J~ 

Etching  of  High  Carbon  Steel,  775 

—  of  Steel  Sections,  Notes,  390 
Eucyphota,  Epipodites,  698 
Eudendrium,  Early  Development,  60 
Eumesostominae,  597 

—  Viviparity,  1S8 
Euonyiiius,  White  Mildew  of,  345 
Evans.  A.  W.,  Ceratolejeunea,  613 

—  Hepaticae  from  Florida,  460 
Evernia  furfuracea.  Polymorphism,  628 
Evolution  of  Mammals,  580 

—  Theory,  164 

Ewart,  J.  C,  Multiple  Origin  of   Horses 

and  Ponies,  171 
Excretory  Apparatus  in  Entoprocta,  318 

—  System,  Amphibian,  Development,  36 

of  Fresh-water  Triclads,  188 

Exhibition  of  Lantern  Slides  lent  by  Mr. 

Flatters,  540 

—  of  Pond  Life,  396 

—  of  Slides  from  Collection  recentlv  pre- 

sented by  W.  M.  Bale,  780 
of  Oribatidae,  398 

—  of  Tsetse  Fly  and  Trypanosomes,  782 
Exormotheca,  Distribution  and   Mode  of 

Life,  719 
Exten&ometers,  Interference  Apparatus  for 

Calibration  of,  565 
Eye,  Comparative  Anatomy  and  Physiology, 
579 

—  Compound,  of  the  Honey  Bee,  Struc- 

ture and  Development.  433 

—  of  Amblyopsis,  History,  46 

—  of  Bdelloztoma  stouti,  298 

—  of  Honey  Bee,  Preparing  and  Staining, 

525 

—  of  Pecten  irradians,  50 

—  of  Protopterus  anneclans,  682 

—  Unpaired  and  Frontal  Organ  of  Branch - 

iopods,  55 
Eye-lids  of  Mammals,  170 
Eye-pieces  for  the  Microscope.     See  Con- 
tents, xxxiii 
Eyes  and  Frontal  Organs  of  Branohiopods, 

Methods  of  Examining,  761 

—  of  Vertebrates,  42 
Eyeshade,  Becks',  752 


F. 


Faeces,  Human,  Protozoa,  600 

Fage,    L.,    Modifications    of    Segmental 

Organs  in  Epitokous  Polychaets.  700 
Falck,  R.,  Spore  Dispersion  in  the  Basi- 

diomycetes,  and  the  Biological  Value  of 

the  Basidium,  223 
Fallopian   Tube,  Passage  of  Mammalian 

Ovum  into,  575 


KOU 


INDEX. 


Families  of  Palasarotio  Lepidoptera,  Syn- 
opsis, 132 
Fantham,    11.    B,    Hermaphroditism    in 
T,  ftvda  ijr.rca,  687 

—  New  Species  of  Lankesterella,  707 
Farneti,  R.,  New  Lichen  Type,  3.r)7 
FatouAa  hrpatica,  Oogenesis  and  Develop- 
ment, 597 

Fatciolaria  tulipa  and  its  Larval  Excre- 
tion Organs,  Preparing,  765 

Fasoli,  Gh,  Staining  Negri's  Bodies  in 
Hydrophobia,  386 

K;it,  Absorption  by  Chorionic  Villi,  425 

—  Bodies  in  Plant  Nuclei,  624 

—  in  Animal  Liver,  Demonstrating,  665 

—  in  Tissue,  Demonstrating  Infiltration, 

387 
Fat-Cells  in  Glandular  vesicularesof  Cattle, 

683 
Fatigue  and  Heat  Treatment  of  Steel,  776 
Fauna,  Antarctic,  684 

—  of  Wells,  684 
Faunas,  Cave,  301 

Fauvel,  P..  Alleged  Otocysts  of  Alciopid», 

184 
Favaro,  G.,  Caudal  Hearts  and  Sinuses  in 

Teleosts.  687 
Faweett,  E.,  Ossification  of  Pterygoid  in 

Man,  427 
Feathers,   Tactile,   Innervation   and    De- 
velopment, 686 
Federley,  H.,  Fusion  of  Ustilago  Conidia, 

730 
Fegatella  conica,  718 
Felt,  E.  P.,  Mosquitos  of  New  York  State, 

180 
Female   Sex,    Morphological   Superiority, 

293 
Fenchel,    A.,    Synonymy    of    Tubularia 

larynx,  705 
Fenestella,  Development,  703 
Ferguson,  M.  C,  Life  History  of  Pinus,  196 
Fermentation,  Fungi  causing,  83 

—  Method  for  Collecting  the  Gas,  761 

—  with  Mucor,  472 

Fernandez,  M.,   Tunicate   Blood   System, 

430 
Fern-Plant    Compared   with   Moss-Sporo- 

gonium.  458 
Ferns,  Chinese,  611 

—  of  Tropical  America,  71 

—  What  where  the  Carboniferous?     137 
Ferret.  (Estrous  Cycle,  34 

Ferry,  R.,  Immunity  from  the  Poison  of 

Fungi,  352 
Fertilisation   and  Maturation  of  Haminea 
eolitaria,  292 

—  in  Mites,  435 

—  in  Saprolegniese,  82 

—  of  Albugo  Lepigoni  and  some  Perono- 

sporese,  Studies,  82 
Fierasfer,  Studv,  579 
Figs,  Disease,  90 


Filatow,  D.  P.,  Development  of  Amphibian 

Excretory  System,  36 
Filigrana  and  Salmacina,   Phenomena  of 

Asexual  Reproduction,  594 
Filter,  New  Bacteria,  758 
Fink,    B.,    How    to    Collect    and   Study 
Lichens,  357 

—  Licbeuology  for  Beginners,  736 
Finlayson,  D.,  the  Ashe-Finlayson  "Com- 

purascope,"  267,  414 

Fioreutini,  P.,  Method  of  Staining  and 
Permanently  Preserving  Urinary  Sedi- 
ment, 774 

Firth,  — .,  Epidemic  on  Bacillary  Dysen- 
tery, 96 

Fischer,  A.,  Cell-Structure  of  the  Cyano- 
phycese,  448 

—  Locking  Arrangement  for  Microscopical 

Demonstrations,  645 

—  New  Method  for  Staining  Glycogen,  385 
Fischer,  E.,  Biological  Species  of  Parasitic 

Fungi,  and  the  Development  of  New 
Forms,  226 

—  Sclerotium  Disease  of  the  Aider,  619 

—  Swiss  Uredinese,  347 

Fischer,  E.,  and  others,  Uredineae,  730 
Fischer,  G.,  Demonstrating  the  Structure 

of  the  Respiratory  Tract  of  Birds,  762 
Fish,  Arrhenoid  Changes,  42S 
Fishes,  Australian  Fossil,  175 

—  Bony,    Central     Gustatory    Paths     in 

Brain,  691 
!    —  Ceylonese,  687 

—  Cranial  Osteology,  45 

|   —  Development  of  Gills,  167 

—  Diseases,  447 

—  Fresh-water,  Flagellata  in  Blood,  446 

—  of  Panama  Bay,  176 

—  Osseous,    Demonstrating   Blood    Form- 

ation, 660 
Fission  in  Trichonympha,  191 
Fixation  and  Staining  Muscle  Fibre,  660 

—  Automatic,  of  Embryos,  Apparatus,  379 

—  in  Sublimate,  Use  of  Iodine  after,  383 

—  in  vacuo,  527 

Fixing  and  Staining  Nuclei,  660 
I   Flagella  of  Bacillus  typhosus,  374 
■■   Flagellata  in  Blood  of  Fresh-water  Fishes, 
446 
Flagellate  Parasites,  Two,  191 
Flatters,  A.,  Lantern  Slides  lent  for  Ex- 
hibition, 540 

—  Microtome,  766.  780 

—  and  Bailey,  W.,  Turntable,  782 
Flax  "  Retting,"  Bacteria,  96 
Flea,  New,  from  Armadillo,  591 

—  Structure  of  Female,  308 
Fleas  and  Disease,  694 

Flechsig,  P.,  Research  Methods  on  Human 

Brain,  40 
Fleischmann,   A.,  Apparatus  for  Making 

Wax  Plates  for  Reconstruction  Models. 

389 


INDEX. 


801 


Fleure,  H.  J.,  Anatomy  and    Phylogeny 

of  Haliotis,  431 
Floor-Maggot,  Congo,  694 
Flora  de  Filipinas,  Blanco's,  609 
— ■  Fossil,  of  the  Culm  Measures  of  Devon, 
69 

—  Marine,  of  N.  Atlantic,  N.  Pacific,  and 

Polar  Sea,  722 

—  of  Australian  Alps.  200 

—  of  the  Malayan  Peninsula,  609 
Florideae,  214  " 

—  Parasitic,  of  California,  464 
Flower,  Structure  of,  in  Cruciferse,  450 
Flowers,  Experiments  on  the  Attraction 

of  Bees  by,  453 
Floyd,  R.,  Nerve-Cells  of  Cockroach,  52 
Fly,  New  Flightless,  309 
Foa,  A..  Fission  in  Trichonympha,  191 

—  Two  Flagellate  Parasites,  191 

Foa,  P.,  Demonstrating  Fat  by  Infiltration 

in  Tissue,  387 
Focimetry,  Photogrammetric,  255 
Focusing  Magnifier,  755,  782 
Fcetal  Membranes.  679 
Folch,  K.,  Supra-renal  Capsules,  297 
Folg,  F.,   Epidermal    Organs   in    Lizards, 

300 
Follicles    and    Egg-Envelopes  of    Belone 

acus,  422 
Follicular      Epithelium      in      Melolontha 

vulgaris,  Function,  434 
Food-Fishes  of  North  Sea,  175 
Foot,  Gecko's.  Minute  Structure,  581 

—  of  House-Fly,  433 

Foot,  K.,  Maturation  in  Allolobophora 
foetida,  438 

Foote,  J .  S.,  Tube  Plan  of  Structure  of  the 
Animal  Body,  301 

Forceps,  Modification  of  Cornet's,  38S 

Ford,  S.  O.,  Anatomy  of  Psilotum  triquet- 
rum,  201 

Forgan,  W..  Differential  Screw  Fine  Ad- 
justment, 102 

Fnrmtte  Broth  in  the  Differential  Dia- 
gnosis of  Micro-Organisms,  657 

Fiirster,  A,,  Origin  of  Double  Mons- 
trosities, 678 

Forster,  E.,  Contraction  of  Smooth  Muscle 
Cells,  40 

Forti,  A.,  Phytoplankton  of  Asia  Minor, 
79 

Foslie,  M.,  Lithothamnia  of  the  Adriatic 
and  Morocco,  215 

Fossil  Grasses  and  Sedges,  610 

Foundry  Practice,  Metallography  Applied 
to.  777 

—  Work,  Metallography  Applied  to,  535 
Fouquiera  splendens,  Transpiration,  711 
Fowler,  E.  S.  G.,  Method  for  Preserving 

Bacterial   Cultures  for  Class  Purposes, 
533 
Fowler,  G.  H.,   Structure   of    Radiolaria, 
191 


Fowls,  Abnormal  Eggs,  84 

Fractures,  Metallic,  Further  Observations 
on  Slip-bands,  391 

Fraenkel,  — .,  Isolating  Bacillus  typhosus 
from  Blood  and  Organs  after  Death.  Ill 

Franca,  C,  Epidemic  Cerebrospinal  Men- 
ingitis and  its  Specific  Cause,  235 

Frank,  — .,  Phellomyces  sclerotioplwrus.  621 

Freckman,  W.,  Diseases  of  Plants,  with 
Methods  of  Prevention  or  Cure,  227 

Fredericq.  L.,  Planaria  alpina  in  Belgium, 
597 

Freeing  Paraffin  from  Cedar-wood  Oil, 
Method,  533 

Fremont,  C,  Possible  Non-Brittleness  of 
Steel  under  certain  Conditions,  119 

Freudweiler,  H.,  Vascular  System  of 
Oligochaeta,  700 

Fringes,  Achromatisation  of  Approxi- 
mately Monochromatic  Interference,  by 
a  Highly  Dispersive  Medium,  and  the 
consequent  Increase  in  the  Allowable 
Path-difference,  521 

Fritsch,  F.  E.,  CEdogonium,  79 

—  Plankton  of  Three  English  Pavers.  209 

—  Reproduction  of  Anabceua,  211 

—  Studies  on  Cyanophycese,  341 
Fritsch,  K.,  Seedlings  of  Gesueriacese,  65 
Frog,  Lens  Formation,  424 

—  Monstrosity  of  Bladder.  174 

—  New  Blood  Parasite,  601 

Froggatt,  \V.  W.,  Australian  Thysanoptera, 
52 

—  Monograph  of  Australian  Cicadidae.  434 
Frog,  Effect  of  Ovarian  Extract,  687 
Frog's  Liver,  Fibrillar,  Structure.  169 

—  Skin,  Glands,  682 
Frogs,  Genera,  428 

Fron,  G.,  Culture  Experiments  with  Mor- 

chella,  472 
Fruit  Decay  caused  by  Fungi.  S9 

—  Trees,  Sclerotiniaa.  618 

Fruits,  Fossil,  from  the  Tertiary  Lignites, 
453 

—  of  Opuntia,  Notes,  451 

Frye,  T.  ( '.,  Points  in  the  Life-History  of 

Apocynum,  604 
Fuchsin-Agar  as  a  Diagnostic  Medium  for 

Typhoid  Bacteria,  378 
Fugent— A  New  Stain,  384 
Fuhrmann,  F.,  Minute   Structure  of  the 
Suprarenals  in  Guinea-Pig,  170 

—  Paraffin  Imbedding  Bath,  381 

—  Preparing  Suprarenal  Bodies  of  Guinea- 

Pigs,  262 

—  Two  Varieties  of  Vibrio  aquatilis  flnor- 

escens,  633 
Fuhrmann,  O.,  Bird   Cestodes  of  Eastern 
Asia,  702 

—  Diseases  of  Fishes,  447 

—  New  Trematodes,  187 

Fujita,  T..  Germinal  Layers  in  Gastropods, 
178 


Dec.  ,20th,  1905 


3  H 


802 


INDKX. 


Fuller,  W.  N.,    Variation   ami   I  orrelation 

in  the  Earthworm,  315 
Fungal  Parasites  of  Insects,  47S 

of  Tea  Plant,  224 

Fungi.  Abnormalities,  352 

—  ami  Algro,   Easy   Method  of  Staining 

ami  Mounting,  709 

—  and  Bacteria,  Colour  Changes,  68 

—  causing  Fermentation.  83 

—  Edible  and  Poisonous,  351 

—  Effect  of  Turgesence,  351 

—  Effects  of  ( 'opper  on,  476 

—  Fruit  Decay  caused  by,  89 

—  Growth  in  Artificial  Media,  713 

—  unperfeoti,  Research,  620 

—  Influence  of  Radium  on  Growth,  69 

—  Injury  due  to  Frost  followed  by,  89 

—  New  Parasitic.  351 

—  Nutrition  by  Carbohydrates,  60 

—  of  the  Mark  Brandenburg,  732 

—  Parasitic,    Biological  Species   and  De- 

velopment of  New  Forms,  226 
Experiments,  623 

—  Poison,  Immunity,  352 

—  Poisoning  by,  226 

—  Recent  Researches  on  the  Parasitism, 

222 

—  See  Contents,  xxvii 

—  Sowerby's  Drawings,  478 

—  Trehalose,  351 

—  Two  Conidia-bearing,  728 
Fungicides,  Report,  225 

Fungoid,  Diseases  of  Cotton  Plant,  623 
Fungus  Flora  of  Hearth-rug,  90 

—  Galls,  Physiological  Anatomy,  476 

—  of  Lolium  temulentum,  ill 

—  Turf,     Assimilation    of     Atmospheric 

Nitrogen,  226 
Fusari,  R.,  Nerve-Endings,  681 


G. 

Gadzikiewiez,    W.,    Minute   Structure    of 
Heart  in  Decapoda,  313 

—  Structure  of  Heart  in  Malacostraca,  436 
Gaehtgens,  W.,   Bacillus  jasmino-cyaneus 

and  Bacillus  flavo-aromaticus,  362 
Galactan  Bacterium,  Variable,  235 
Gallaud,  I.,  Delacroixia  coronata,  617 

—  Endotropic  Mycorhiza,  712 

—  Study  of  Endotropic  Mycorhiza,  329 
Gall-forming  Annelid  on  Ophiuroid,  700 
Galls,  Nematode,  in  Mosses,  459 
Galvanometer,   Induction,    for    Study  of 

Freezing  and  Critical  Points,  777 
Gamble,    -.,  Flora  of  the  Malayan  Pen- 
insula, 609 
Gamctophyte    and    Embryo    of    Torreya 

taxifolia,  328 
Ganglion  Cells  of  Cerebellum  of  Pig,  425 
Carbowski,  T.,  Factors  of  Morphogenesis, 
34  ° 


Garry,  F.  N.  A.,  Notes  on  the  Drawings 

for  "  English  Botany,"  70 
Gas-Gland    in     Swim -Bladder,    Minute 
Structure,  686 

—  of  Fermentation,  Method  for  Collecting 

761 
Gastropods,  Germinal  Layers,  178 

—  See  Contents,  xiii 

—  Senility,  689 

Gaupp,  E.,  Skull  of  Echidna  and  Reptiles, 
680 

Gautie',  A.,  Quantitative  Estimation  of  the 
Bacillus  coli  in  Drinking  water,  375 

Gautier,  — .,  Respiratory  Rhythm  in 
Chamseleon,  44 

Gecko's  Foot,  Minute  Structure,  581 

Geese,  Septicaemia  affecting,  233 

Gelatin  and  Agar,  etc.,  Apparatus  for 
Dissolving  and  Filtering  large  Quan- 
tities, 658 

Gemelli,  A.,  Demonstrating  the  Neuro- 
fibrils in  Ganglion  Cells,  771 

—  Neurofibrils  in  Ganglion  Cells  of  Anne- 

lids, 699 
Gemmill,  J.  F.,  Ichthyonema  grayi,  316 
Gendre,  E.,  Oogenesis  of  Branchellion,  595 
Genera,  New — 
Botany : 

Bicarpellites,  454 

Brandonia,  454 

Calliospora,  622 

Chrysogluten,  357 

Cladophoropsis,  465 

Dendrostilbella,  477 

Dunaliella,  340 

Garcinodochium,  477 

Hicoroides,  454 

Leptosarca,  339 

Mansonia,  715 

Monocarpellites,  454 

Petrosiphon,  465 

Peyssonneliopsis,  464 

Polystrata,  340 

Prunoides,  454 

Rubioides,  454 

Sapindoides,  454 

Zygorhizidium,  471 
Zoology : 

Acrotelsa,  182 

Algaricoides,  706 

Arcliiascidia,  303 

Bothriogaster,  187 

Braunsina,  182 

Bunonema,  440 

Csecincola,  703 

Cephalallus,  692 

Cephalocrius,  692 

Chaeodiadema   189 

Clavactinia,  705 

Colypurus,  099 

Craspedotella,  707 

Ctenolepisma,  182 

Difflugiella,  323 


INDEX. 


803 


Genera,  New  (Botany) — emit. : 

Echinomysis,  594 

Erigonidium,  182 

Falconieria,  182 

Fusticularia,  44."> 

Herdmania,  47 

Heterolepisma,  1S2 

I^ernella.  706 

Isolepisma,  182 

Juncoptilum,  445 

Lepidospora,  182 

Leuceruthrus,  703 

Limifossor,   304 

Lycastoides,  56 

Microdina,  318 

Mycterotypus,  693 

Neomermis,  186 

Olindioides,  60 

Onychocamptus,  47 

Ostiolum,  58 

Pelagosphaera,  700 

Penardia,  61,  323 

Pentanymphon,  55 

Pipetta,  696 

Pleraphysilla,  706 

PleiociTcoides,  596 

Protpphyra,  61 

Pseudofeltria,  183 

Rhynchomesostoma,  597 

Silvestrella,  182 

Stylochocestus,  703 

Sympterura,  319 

Taeniacystis,  446 

Tatria,  57 

Thalaraoplana,  703 

Therraobia.  182 

Thripomorpha,  309 

Typhlocirolana,  594 

Voeltzkowia,  698 

Woodworthia,  703 

Zalusa,  591 
Genera  of  Frogs,  428 
Genital    Apertures,    Male,  Variations    in 

Number  and  Arrangement  in  Nephrops 

norvegicus,  312 

—  Apparatus,  Male,  in  Bubalidae,  692 
of  Trichoptera,  53 

—  Ducts  in  Oligochaeta,  56 

External,   in    Sarcopsylla,    Specific 

Peculiarities,  591 
Male,  in  Sloths,  581 

—  Organs,  Secretions,  165 

Genthe,  K.  W.,  Notes  on  Alcippe  lampas, 

313 
Genus,  New,  of  Terrestrial  Nematode,  440 
Geographical  Variation  in  Pleuronectids,   j 

429 
Geonemertes  wjricola,  Anatomy,  Develop- 
ment, and  Habits,  441 

—  Sexual  Phases,  317 
Georgia,  Explorations,  454 
Geotropic  Response  in  Stems,  330 
Gephyrea  of  Japan,  315 


Gepp,  A.  &  E.  S.,  Antarctic  Algae,  339 

—  Leptosarca,  464 

—  Penicillus  and  Rhipocephalus,  212 

—  Rhipidosiplion  and  Callipsygma.  77 

—  South  Orkney  Marine  Alga?,  615 
Gerassimow,  J.  J.,  On   the   Size   of    the 

Nucleus,  326 
Gerber,  — .,   Structure   of  the   Flower  in 

Cruciferae,  450 
Geihardt,     U.,     Copulatory     Organs     in 
Mammals,  172 

—  Passage  of  the  Mammalian  Ovum  into 

Fallopian  Tube,  575 
Gerhartz,  H.,  Structure  of  Seminal   Duct 

in  Amphibia,  683 
Germ-Cells  in  Pedicellina  americana,  442 

of  Pedicellina  americana,  preparing, 

380 

Primitive,  of  I'tenophora,  445 

Germinal  Layers  in  Gastropods,  178 

—  Localisation  in  Patella  and  Dentalium, 

305 

Germination  of  Spores,  332 

Gerould,  J.  H..  Embryonic  Envelope  of 
Sipunculids,  56 

Gerydus  chinensis,  Habits,  091 

Gesneriacese,  Seedlings,  65 

Gibson,  C.  M.,  Infection  Experiments 
with  Uredinewe,  87 

Gibson,  R.  J.  H.,  Axillary  Scales  of  Aqua- 
tic Monocotyledons,  710 

Giemsa,  — .,  New  Method  of  Making 
Romanowski's  Chromatin  Stain,  115 

Gierse,  A.,  NervouB  System  of  Cychthone 
acclinidens,  298 

GJesenliagen's  Drawing  Board,  508 

Gilbert,  C.  H.,  Fishes  of  Panama  Bay, 
176 

Gilbert,  N.  C,  New  Trematodes,  703 

Gill  of  Pearl  Oyster,  432 

—  Rudimentary,  in  Astacus  fluviatilis,  183 
Gill,  T.,  Habits  of  the  Sculpin,  582 
Gillanders,    A.    T.,    Notes    on    Arboreal 

Insects,  695 
Gillmore,  G.  A.,  Heart  Muscle  of  Dog,  297 
Gillot,  X.,  Pitcher-formation  in  Saxifrages, 

326 
Gills  and  Teetli  of  Comephorus,  174 

—  of  Fishes,  Development,  167 
Ginkgo,  Embryogeny,  65 

Gins,  L.,  Arrangement  of  Starch  in  the 
Starch-Sheath  of  the  Perianth  of  Clivia, 
607 

Glage,  — .,  Swine  Septicaemia,  490 

Glauds,  Human  Anal.  682 

—  Intra-epithelial,  578 

—  of  Frog's  Skin,  682 

—  of  Hemiptera,  434 

—  Poison,  of  Plethodon  oregonensis,  Struc- 

ture and  Regeneration,  297 
Glandulse  vesiculares  of  Cattle,  Fat-Cells, 

683 
Glaser,  O.  C.  Growth  of  Oysters,  690 

d    H  2 


804 


INDEX. 


GlnBer.  O.  0..  Preparing  Feuoiolaria  fulipa 

and  its  Larval  Excretion  Organs,  765 
Glass,  Optical.  Possible  Directions  of  Pro- 
gress, .">7'2 

—  Surfaces,  Polishing,  567 

—  Tanks,  Small,  Method  of  Constructing, 

253 
Glasses    produced    by   Chance    Brothers, 

( )ptical  Properties,  o'.">  I 
Glazebrook,    K.    T.,    International    Com- 

niittee  tor  Investigating  the  Constituents 

of  Steel,  534 
Glischrobacterium  as  the  (  ause  of  Mucous 

Fermentation  of  Urine  in  Man,  234 
Gloeocapsa,  Remarks,  210 
Glceosporium,  Rotting  of  Cherries,  88 
Glow-worm,  Aquatic,  589 
Glycogen  in  Liver  Cells,  Position,  39 

—  New  Method  for  Staining,  385 
Gnathia  maxillaris.  Life  History,  313 
Gnathophausia,  Luminosity,  312 
Goat,  Influence  of  Ovariotomy,  423 
Goding,  F.  W.,  Monograph  of  Australian 

(  icadidae,  434 

Godlewski,  E.,  Influence  of  Nervous  Sys- 
tem in  Regeneration,  423 

Goebel,  K.,  Aposporyin  Asplenium  dimor- 
phum.  716 

—  On  the  Distribution  and  Mode  of  Life 

of  Exormotbeca,  719 

—  The  Rhizophores  of  Selaginella,  717 
Goeldi,  E.  A.,  Mosquitoes  of  Para,  309 
Goethe,  R.,  Canker  of  Fruit  Trees,  224 
Goette,  A .,  Origin  of  Lungs,  579 
Gofjgio,  E.,  Experiments  on  Tadpoles,  293 
Gold   Chloride,   New   Method    of    Rapid 

Staining  Nervous  Tissue,  664 
Goldfish,  Sense  of  Hearing,  176 
Goldschmidt,  R.,  Branch? 'ostoma  elongatum, 
582 

—  Chromidial     Apparatus     of     Actively 

Functioning  Cells,  578 

—  Maturation,  Fertilisation,  ami  Develop- 

ment in  Zoogonu*  mirus,  596 

—  Pelagic  Cephalochordates,  297 
Gonad  Walls  in  Ascaris megalocephala,701 
Gonads  and  Body  Cavity  in  Salmonidae, 

Development,  37 

—  and  Kidneys  of  Haliotis,  585 

—  Female,  of  Cypridina,  594 

of  Hydrachnids,  Secretion  in,  183 

—  in  Starved   Planarians,   Degeneration, 

187 

—  Male,  Comparative  Histology  of  Ducts 

ami  Accessory  Glands,  38 

—  of  Phyllophorus   urna,  Internal    Secre- 

tion, 598 

—  of  Taitin  sinuosa,  187 

.coccus,  Differential  Stain,  664 
-  Simple  Medium  for  Cultivating,  377 
Gopher,  Implantation  of  Ovum,  35 
Gordiidse,   Structure   and    Relationships, 


Gordon,  J.  \\\.  128 

—  Apparatus  for  Photomicrography,  651 

—  Diffraction  in  Optical  Instruments,  563 

—  High  Power  Microscopy,  372 

—  Tbe     Theory    of    Highly    Magnified 

Images,  I,  121 
Gordon,  M.  H.,  Differentiation  of  Strepto- 
cocci, 259 

—  Origin  of  a  Rose-coloured  Yeast,  85 
Gorgonidae,  Axis,  706 

Gorini,  C,  Bacillus  acidificans  presamigenes 

casei,  362 
Gorka,  A.,   Salivary  Secretion  of  Snail, 

585 
Gorter,  A..  Theory  of  Sleep.  171 
Goto,  S.,  New  Leptomedusan,  60 
Grasses  and  Sedges,  Fossil,  610 
Grassi,  B.,  New  Chironomid,  693 
Gratings,    Images    of.    Influence    on,    of 

Phase-Differences  amongst  their  Spectra, 

152 
Grave,  C,  Tentacle  Reflex  in    Holothu- 

rians,  704 
Gravier,     C,    Polynoid    Commensal     of 
Balanoglossus.  314 

—  Ptychodera  erythrtea,  598 

—  Sexual  Forms  in  Fresh-water  Nereids, 

439 
Grayson's  Bands,  Resolution,  521 
Gregarine,  Metameric  Cytoplasm  in,  446 
Oregarines,  Auisogamy,  323 

—  Movements,  446 

Gre'goire,  V.,  Heterotype  Division,  448 
Greig,   E.  D.  W..   Human    and    Animal 

Trypanosomiasis,  707 
Greil,  A.,  Origin  of  Lungs.  423 

—  Sixth  Branchial  Pouches  in  Amphibians. 

.  577 
Grijns,    G.,   Ascus    form    of    Aspergillus 

fumigatus,  85 

Grips,  — .,  Swine  Septicaemia.  490 

Gross,  J.,  Palmen's  Organ  in  Ephemerids, 

182 

—  Spermatogenesis    of    Syromastes    mar- 

ginatus,  589 
Grosz,  S.,  Perineal  Sac  in  Cavia  cobaya, 

300 
Grout,    A.    J..     Easy     Identification     of 

Hepaticae.  73 
Growth,  Curves,  685 

—  in  Physa  taslei,  Effect  of  Temperature, 

49 

—  of  Seed  Plants.     See  Contents,  xxiii 
Gruber,  M.,  Clostridium  polymyza,  491 
Griinberg,  K.,  Culicidae  of  Cameroon  and 

Togo,  694 

—  New  OSstrid  Larvae  from  Hippopotamus, 

433 
Gruvel,  A.,  Chilian  Cirripeds,  314 

—  Polymorphism  of  Spermatozoa,  34 
Gryllus  ilomesticus,  Thorax,  1S1,  434 
Gueguen,   F.,   Effect    of    Turgesence    in 

Fungi,  351 


INDEX. 


805 


Gueuther,  K.,  Significance  of  the  Nucle- 
olus in  the  Maturing  Ovum,  166 

Guerin,  P.,  Secretory  Apparatus  of  the 
Dipterocarpese,  326 

Guilliermond,  A.,  Morphology  and  Cyto- 
logy of  Yeasts,  729 

Guillet,  L.,  Alloys  of  Copper  and  Alu- 
minium, 67U 

—  Aluminium  Steels,  392 

—  Classification  of  Ternary  Steels,  535 

—  Cobalt  Steels,  534 

—  Special  Steels,  777 

Guinea-Pig,  Minute  Structure  of  Supra- 
renals,  170 

Ovarian  Eggs,  421 

Preparing  Suprarenal  Bodies,  262 

Guitel,   F.,   Comparative    Description    of 

Lepadogaster    bimaculatus    and    micro- 

ctfilialus,  429 
Gum  of  Hackea  saligna  and  Bacteria,  737 

—  of  Linseed  Mucilage  and  Bacteria,  737 
Gungl,    O.,   Anatomy    and    Histology   of 

Blood  Vessels  in  Lutnbricus,  315 
Gurney,   R.,   Fresh    and    Brackish-water 

Crustacea  of  East  Norfolk,  54 
Gurwitsch,  A.,  Experiments  on  Cytoplasm 

of  Amphibian  Ovum,  574 

—  Morphology  and  Biology  of  the   Cell, 

680 

Gut  in  Insects,  Development  during  Meta- 
morphosis, 179 

Gutheis,  S„  Fertilisation  in  Solitary 
Ascidians,  688 

Gutta-percha  Plants,  Demonstrating  Struc- 
ture, 762 

Guttenberg,  H.  E.  v.,  Physiological 
Anatomy  of  Fungus  Galls,  476 

Guttman,  A.,  Practical  Notes  on  the  Beet 
Disease,  224 

Gymnoblastic  Hydroids  of  Western 
Mediterranean,  320 

Gymnosperms,  Megaspore  Membrane,  604 


H. 

'•  H.,"   Construction    of    Aplanatic    Com- 
binations of  Lenses,  witli    or   without 
Achromatism,  501 
Haberlandt,  G.,   Sense-Organs  of  Plants, 

67 
Hacker,  V„  Radiolarian  Skeleton,  600 
Hadfield,  R.  A.,  Experiments  relating  to 
the  Effect  on  Mechanical  and  other 
Properties  of  Iron  and  its  Alloys  pro- 
duced by  Liquid  Air  Temperatures, 
775 
—  Metallography  of  Iron  aud  Steel,  775 
Haeckel,  E„  Biology  at  Jena  during  the 

Nineteenth  Century,  583 
Haematozoon,  New,  in  Squirrel,  601 
Hsemoflagellates  in  Teleosteans,  323 
Haemogregarine  in  Psammodromus  alqirus, 
62 


Hsemogrega  lines    and    Trypanosomes     of 

Teleosts,  323 
Hsemosporidia  of  Rana,  323 
Hagemann,  — .,  Simplification  of  the  Dri- 

galski  Medium,  259 
Hakea  saligna,  Gum  and  Bacteria,  737 
Haliotis,  Anatomy  and  Pliylogeny,  431 

—  Kidneys  and  Gonads,  585 

Hall,  E.  H.  and  others,  Thermal  and 
Electrical  Effects  in  Soft  Iron,  667 

Haller,  B.,  Structure  of  Tracheate  Syn- 
cerebrum,  306 

Hallez,  P '.,Bougainvilliafruticosa,  a  variety 
of  B.  ramosa,  444 

—  Parasitism  of  Larval  Phoxichilidium  on 

Bougainvillia,  592 
Halphen,  G.,  Theory  of  Histological  Stain- 
ing, 530 
Halstead,  B.  D.,  Report  on  Fungicides,  225 
Hambach,  G.,  Revision  of  the  Blastoids,  58 
Haminea  solitaria.  Maturation  and  Fertili- 
sation, 292 

Preparing  and  Staining  Eggs,  263 

Hancock,  A.,  The  British  Tunicata,  583 
Hancock,  J.  L.,  Habits  of  Striped  Meadow- 
Cricket,  695 
Handlirsch,  A.,   Classification   of    Hexa- 
poda,  52 

—  Phylogeny  of  Insects,  586 

Hanel,  E.,  Cepludopyge  trematoides,  305 

Hanging-Drop  Preparations,  117 

Hanks,  H.  G.,  Notes  on    "  Aragotite."  a 

Rare  Californian  Mineral,  673,  780 
Hansen,  E.  C,  Development  of  Yeast  in 

the  Soil,  620 
Hansen,  H.  J.,  Classification  of  the  Tar- 

tarides,  696 
Hans<,rirg,  A.,  The  Alga?  of  Lower  Austria, 

723 
Hardness  of  Metals,  118 

—  of  Substances,  Reichert's  Microscope  for 

determining,  247 
Hardy,  A.  D..  Desmids  from  Victoria,  724 
Hargitt,  C.  Early  Development  of  Euden- 

drium,  60 
Hargitt,  C.  W.,   Notes  on  Hydromedusae 

from  Naple3.  320 
Harman,  N.   B.,    Accessory  for  Freezing 

Microtomes,  52S 
Harper,  R..  Explorations  in  Georgia,  454 
Harrison,  F.  C,  Bacterial  Disease  of  Cauli- 
flower, 99 

—  Comparative  Study  of  Sixty-six  varieties 

of  Gas-producing  Bacteria  found  in 
Milk,  4S5 
Harrison,    R.    G.,   Peripheral    Nerves    of 
Vertebrates.  HIS 

—  Relation  of  Nervous  System  to  Develop- 

ing Musculature.  37 
Hartlaub,  C,  Magellan  and  Chilian  Hy- 

droid.s.  599 
Haselwood,  J.  E.,   Old  Microscope  by  N. 

Adams,  :'>'.»7 


Sllfi 


INDEX. 


Bailsman, W.,  The  Detection  of  Arsenic  by 

< ivw Hi  of  PeDicillium,  91 
Hautefeuille,  -  -.,  Renal  Tuberculosis  in  a 

I  .up,  488 

Haynes,  J.  A.  Qeotropic  Response  in 
Stems,  830 

Head  skeleton  of  Cockroach,  Develop- 
ment. 181 

Hearing,  Sense  of,  in  Goldfish,  176 

in  Insects,  17'.' 

ll.art  and  Kidney  in  IManorhis,  Develop- 
ment. 584 

— Asoidian,  Physiological  Polarisation,  177 

—  in  Decapnda,  Minute  Structure,  313 

—  in  Malacostraca,  Structure,  436 
Heart-Muscle,  Molluscan,  Histology,  304 
of  Dog,  297 

Hearts,  Caudal,  and  Sinuses  in  Teleosts, 

687 
Heat  Treatment  and  Fatigue  of  Steel.  776 
Heath,  H,  Breeding  Habits  of  Chitons,  689 

—  Morphology  of  a  SolenoL- aster,  585 

—  Nervous  System  and  Subradular  Organ 

in  Solenogastres,  431 

—  New  Genus  of  Solenogastres,  304 
Heating  and  Cooling  of  High  Speed  Tool 

Steels,  Types  of  Structure  and  Critical 
Ranges  under  Varying  Thermal  Treat-   | 
ment,  776 

Hebb.  Dr.  R.  G.,  267.  779,  780,  782 

Hecke,  L.,  Infection   of  Cereals  by  Smut   , 
Spores,  730 

Heicke,  A.,  Anatomy  of  Madreporaria,  59 

Heinemann,  P.,  Mesoderm  Formation  and 
the  Structure  of  the  Tail  in  Atcidian 
Larvae,  303 

Heinisch.  W.,  Chemistry  of  Amanita  mus- 
carius,  47.") 

Heliotropism  Induced  by  Radium,  607 

Helix,  New  Nematode  from,  57 

//« lis  pomatia,  Spermatozoon,  48 

Heller.  <_>.,  Rothberger's  Neutral  Red  Re- 
action, 375 

Helminthology  and  Parasitology,  Re- 
searches, 186 

Helminths,  New,  441 

from  West  Africa,  186  I 

Hemieellulose  as  a  Keserve  Substance  in 
European  Forest-trees,  330 

Hemiptera,  Glands,  434 

Henderson,  E.  H.,  Development  of  an 
Asterid  with  Large  Yolked  Eggs,  704 

Henderson,  W.  D.,  Deep-Sea  Alcyonaria 
from  Indian  Ocean,  445 

—  Notes  on  Infnsorians,  446 
Henneberg,— ,,Leitz'  New  Microtome,  661 
Henneberg,  W.,  Research  on  Yeast,  474 

—  Study  of  Yeast,  85 

—  Vitality  of  Yeast  in  Varying  Conditions, 

21!) 
lb  imings,  P.,  and  others.   Fungi  of  the 

Mark  Brandenburg,  732 
Notes  on  Uredineae,  222 


Henriei.  J.  F..  Note  on  a  Microscope  Pre- 
sented by  Linnaeus  to  Bernard  Jnesieu, 
73S 
Henry  ( '.,  Causes  of  Senility,  430 
Hensel,  E.  P.,  Movements  of  Petals,  714 
Hepatic  Cells,  Peculiar  Structures,  39 

Secretory  Function  of  Nucleus.  578 

Hepaticfe,  Easy  Identification,  73 

—  from  Florida,  460 

—  Rare  Scottish,  73 

—  Scottish,  459 

Herbst,  C,  Artificial  Production  of  Vitel- 
line-Membrane  in  Unfertilised  Ova  of 
Sea  Urchin,  318 

Herdman,  W.  A„  Gill  of  Pearl  Oyster,  432 

—  Structure  of  the  Pearl  Oyster,  691 

—  and  J.  B.,  Ceylonese  Echinoderms.  705 
Heredity  and  Cytological  Studies.  709 
Herissey.  H.,  Trehalose  in  Fungi,  351 
Hermaphroditism  in  Testudo  grseca,  687 
Herrara,  A.  L.,  Biological  Theories.  685 
Herrick,  C.   J.,  Central  Gustatory  Paths 

in  Brain  of  Bony  Fishes,  681 
Herrmann.  M.,  Object-Stage  with  Sliding 

Measurement  Adjustment,  497 
Herubel,  M.  A.,  Integumentary  Structures 

of  Sipuuculids,  595 
Hest,  J.  J.  V.«  Vacuoles  in  Yeast-Cells, 

729 
Heteromorphism  in  Rock  Lobster,  183 
Heterorhizy  in  Dicotyledons,  330 
Heterotype  Division,  448 
Hewlett,   K.    T.,    Detection    of    Bacillus 

enteriditis  sporogenes  in  Water,  110 
Hexactinellida,  Studies,  190 
Hexapoda,  Classification,  52 
Heydrich.  F.,  A  New  Genus  of  Squama- 

riaceae,  340 
Heyn,   E.,    Constitution    of    Iron-Carbon 

Alloys,  670 
Hk-kson,    S.     J.,    Micro-Organisms     and 

Disease,  708 
Hieronymus.     G.,      Ferns     of     Tropical 

America,  71 
Hill,  A.  W,  Structure  of  Sieve-Tubes  of 

Angiosperms,  64 
Hill,  E.  E.,  Ashe-Finlavson  Comparascope, 

78(1 
Hiltner,  L.,  and  others.  Diseases  of  Beet, 

350 
Hilzheimer,  — .,  Variation  in  Tiger's  Skull, 

427 
Hilzheimer.  M.,  Hypopharynx  of  Hymen- 

optera,  179 
Hinterberg,  — ..  Varieties  in  the  Growth 

of  Bacillus  pyocijaneu*  on  Nutrient  Agar, 

112 
Hippopotamus,  New  CEstrid  Larva,  433 
Hirschler.   J.,   Regeneration   of    Anterior 

End  of  Body  in  Pupae  of  Lcpidoptera,51 
Hirschwald's  New  Microscope  Model  and 

Planimeter-Ocular,  64<> 
Hirudinea,  Metamerism,  185 


INDEX. 


807 


Hirudo  and  Pontohdella,  Crystals.  4:39 

—  Epithelial  and  Connective  Tissue  Cells, 

701 
Histological  Staining,  Theory,  530 
Histology.     See  Contexts,  ix 
Histolysis  (if  Muscles  on  Larval  Muscidoe, 

591 
Hlava,  S.,  New  Parasitic  Rotifer,  189 
Hockauf,  J.,  and   another.  Poisoning  by 

Fungi,  226 
Hodgson,  T.  V.,  New  Pycnogonid  from  the 

South  Polar  Regions,  55 

—  Pentanymphon  antarcticu/m,  310 
Hoek,  P.  P.  C,  Food-Fishes  of  North  Sea, 

175 
Hofbauer,    J.,    Absorption     of     Fat     by 
Chorionic  Villi,  425 

—  Studies  on  the  Placenta,  6*78 
Hoffendahl,  K...    Structure   and    Develop- 
ment of  Pcecilasma  aurantium,  436 

Hoffman,  E.,  Spirochxtn  pallida,  602 
Hoffman,     R.     W.,     Ventral     Tube    of 

Tomoceros,  182 
Hohnel,  F.  V..  Mycology.  477 
Holacantha,  Stomata,  195 
Hollrung,  M.,  Disease  of  Sugar  Beet,  624 

—  Plant  Diseases  during  the  year  1903, 
*   349 

Holm,      T.,      Anatomy      of     Anemiopsis 

calif  or  idea,  195 
Holmes,  E.,  Polariscope,  509 
Holmes,    E.    M.,   South    Orkney    Marine 

Algae,  615 
Holmgren,  E.,  Epithelial  and  Connective 

Tissue  Cells  in  Hirudo,  701 
Holothuria.  Species,  704 
Hoiothurian,  New.  from  French  Coast,  599 
Holothurians.  Korean,  704 

—  Tentacles  Reflex.  704 
Holothuioids,  Antarctic,  444 

—  Deep  Sea.  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  444 
Holt.  E.  W.  L..  New  Schizopods,  594 
Holway,    E.    W.    D.,     North     American 

Uredineae,  622 
Honda,  K.,  On  the  Magnetisation  and  the 
Magnetic  Change  of  Length  in 
Ferro-magnetic  Metals  and  Alloys 
at  Temperatures  ranging  from 
-186-  C.  to  4-  1200°  C.,  671 

—  The  Elastic  Properties  of  Steel  at  High 

Temperatures,  776 
Hopkinson,  K,  The  Effects  of  Momentary 

Stresses  in  Metals,  391 
Hopkinson,  J.,  The  British  Tunicata,  583 
Horder,  E.,  All-Metal  Cover-Glass  Holder. 

117 
Hormuzaki,  K.  v.,  Synopsis  of  Families  of 
Palaearctie  Lepidoptera,  432 

—  Parasites  of  the  Pearl  Oyster.  702 
Hornell,  J.,  Pearl  Oysters,  586 
Horses  and  Ponies,  Multiple  Origin.  171 
Hosch,  — .,  Eye  of  Protopterus  annectens. 

682 


Hot-Air  Chamber,  Pfeiffer's,  371 

Hot  Stage,  New.  419 

Houard,  C,  Anatomical  Investigations  on 

Stem-Galls,  327 
House-Fly,  Foot,  433 
Howe,  M.  A.,  New  Chlorophycese,  465 
Hoyer,  M.  H.,  Lymph  Hearts  of  Rana,  40 
Hoyle.  W.  E.,  Ceylonese  Cephalopoda,  688 
Hrdlicka,   Brain  Weight   in  Vertebrates, 

685 
Hubbard,   M.   E.,   Correlative    Protective 

Devices  in  Salamanders,  174 
Hue,  L'A.,  Lichen  Cephalodia,  628 
Human  and  Animal  Blood,  Simple  Method 
for  Distinguishing,  388 

—  and  Bovine  Tubercle  Bacillus,  Differen- 

tiation, 634 
Humidity    and    Nutrition,    Influence    on 

Lepidoptera,  588 
Hus,  H.  T.  A.,  Spindle  Formation  in  the 

Pollen-Mother-Cells  of  Cassia  tomentosa, 

193 
Hybrids,  Catalpa,  Anatomy,  603 
Hyde,  J.  H,  Eye  of  Pecten  irradians,  50 
Hydra,    Demonstrating    Spermatogenesis, 
764 

—  Movements  and  Reactions,  319 

—  Spermatogenesis,  705 
Hydrachnids,  Secretion  in  Female  Gonads, 

183 
Hydractinian,  Symbiosis  with  a  (  ephalo- 

pod,  5S4 
Hydrant hs  of  Campanularidae  and  Plumu- 

laridse,  Development,  189 
Hydraulic  Theory  of  Ciliary  Action.  424 
Hydroids.  Antarctic,  59 

—  Ceylonese,  705 

—  Gymnoblastic,   of    Western    Mediter- 

ranean, 320 

—  History  of  Investigation,  599 

—  Magellan  and  Chilian,  599 
Hydromedusa3  from  Naples,  Notes,  320 
Hydrophilus  piceus,  Variations,  693 
Hydrophobia,  Staining  Negri's  Bodies,  386 
Hymenoptera,  Hypopharyux.  179 

—  Urate  Cells,  589 
Hyperdactylism,  5S0 
Hyphoids  and  Bacteroids,  218 
Hyphomycetes.  474.  621,  732 
Hypocreaceae,  Tropical,  84 
Hypopharynx  of  Hymenoptera,  179 
Hypophysis,  Human,  Structure,  40 

—  in  Vertebrates,  Structure,  1 69 
Hypothele  repanda,  Notes  on   the  Varia- 
bility, 223 


Icthyological  Notes,  428 
IrMhyonema  grayi,  316 

Ichthyosauria.  Triassic,  Types  of  Limb- 
Structure,  299 
Identification  of  Trees  in  Winter,  199 


Sos 


INDEX. 


Ijima.  I.,  New  Cestode  Larva  Parasitic  in 
Man,  596 

—  Studies  on  the  Hexactinellida,  100 
Ik.  ilu,  I ..  <  Jephyrea  of  Japan,  315 

Dlig,  G ..   luminosity  of  G-nathophausia, 
312 

—  New  Mysid  Genus,  504 

Illing,  G..  Fat-Cella  in  Glandvlai  vesicu- 
lar.* of  Cattle,  683 

Illuminating  and  other  Apparatus.  See 
Contents,  xx\iv 

Illuminator,  Beck's  Parabolic,  753 

with  Sorby's  Reflector,  753 

—  for  ( ►paque  Objects,  J.  E.  Stead's,  372 
Koristka's,  510 

—  Improved      Dark-ground,    for     High 

Powers,  538 

—  New    Vertical   for   Metallurgical   Ex- 

aminations, 5(  Ki 

—  Vertical, Improved  Methods  of  Working 

with.  251 
Image-formation  in   Optical   Instruments 

from    the    Standpoint    of    Geometrical 

Optics,  Von  Rohr's,  654 
Images,  Highly  Magnified,  Theory,  1 
Imbedding  Bath,  New,  114 

—  in  Paraffin,  I  reosote  as  a  Dehydrating 

Medium,  763 

—  Objects.    See  Contents,  xxxvii 
Paraffin,  381 

—  Microscopic  Alga?,  530 

—  with  Incomplete  Dehydration.  526 
Imhof.  <;.,  Lumbar  Spinal  Cord  in  Birds 

295 
Imitations,  Physical,  of  the  Activities  of 

Amoebae,  60 
Imms,  A.  D.,  Marine  Pseudoscorpion  from 

the  Isle  of  Man,  310 
Immunising     Powers    and    Virulence    of 

Micro-Organisms,  631 
Immunity,  Natural,  towards  putrefactive 
Bacteria,  Origin,  736 

—  of  Plauts  to  their  own  Poison,  453 

—  Unit     for     Standardising     Diphtheria 

Antitoxin,  Methods  for  Determining, 
658 
Index  Filicum,  454 

—  Ocular,  Simple  form,  37o 

Infection     Experiments    with     Thielavia 

bast  cola,  619 
Inflorescence   of    Boragiuaceae  and    Sola- 

nacese,  450 
Infusorians,  Notes,  446 
Injecting  Objects.    See  Contents,  xxxviii 
Injection  into  Arteries,  Fixation  of  Tissues 
by,  380 

—  of  Fine  Vessels,  763 
Insect  Bionomics,  Notes,  586 

—  Larvae,  Metamorphosis,  51 

tnsecta,  Inheritance  of  Acquired  Charac- 
ters, 307 

—  Protective  Resemblance,  306 

—  See  Contents,  xiv 


Insects,  Arboreal,  Notes,  t!95 

—  Development  of  Gut  during  Metamor- 

phosis, 179 

—  Fungal  Parasites,  478 

—  Injurious,  in  Ireland,  591,  695 

—  Phylogeny,  586 

—  Sense  of  Hearing,  179 

Instinct,  Maternal,  in  Rhynchota,  181 
Instruments.  Accessories,    etc.     See   Con- 
tents, xxxiv 

—  Mechanical  Design  of,  573 
Integumentary  Structures  of  Sipunculids, 

595 

Interference  Bands,  Achromatic,  Simple 
Method  of  Producing,  568 

Interferometer,  Simple  Pattern  of  Michel- 
son,  573 

Interstitial  Gland  of  Testis.  Function, 
294 

Intestinal  Parasites.  Alleged  Toxic  Action. 
186 

Intestine,  Human,  Thermophilic  Micro- 
flora, 361 

—  in   Tadpoles,   Influence    of     Food    on 

Length,  173 
Intestines     of    Infants,    Distribution     of 
Microbes,  359 

Micro-Organisms  in,  632 

Intra-Epithelial  (i lands,  578 
Intra-Organismal  Selection,  579 
Invertebrate     Fauna,    Plymouth   Marine, 

177 
Invertebrates,  Spermatozoa,  576 
Iodine,  Use  after  Fixation  in  Sublimate, 

383 
Ippolito,  G.  D.,  Diseases   due   to   Clado- 

sporium,  220 
Iridescence  of  Pigeon's  Neck,  44 
Iron  and  its  Alloys.  Experiments  relating 

to  the  Effect  on  Mechanical  and  other 

Properties    produced     by    Liquid    Air 

Temperatures.  775 
Iron  and  Steel,  Crystallisation,  777 

■ Influence  of  Nitrogen,  668 

Metallography,  775 

Methods  for  Detecting  the  more 

Highly  Phosphorised  Portions, 
284 
Iron-Carbon  Alloys,  Constitution,  670 
Irou,  Soft,  Thermal  and  Electrical  Effects, 

667 
Irritability  of  Seed  Plants.    See  Contents, 

xxii 
Isaria  Forms  of  Penicillium,  220 
Islands  of  Langerhans,  in  Human  Embryo, 

Development,  680 
Isopod,  New  Cave,  594 
Isopods,  New  Genus.  699 
—  Terrestrial,    Introduced    into   Austral- 
asia, Distribution,  699 
Issel,  R.,  New  Parasitic  Rotifer,  189 
Istvanffi,  G.  d.,  Two  New   Pests   of  the 

Vine  in  Hungary,  224 


INDEX. 


809 


Istvanffi,  J.  v.,  The  Wintering  of  Perono- 

spora  in  the  Vine,  217 
Itersen,  V.,  Decomposition  of  Cellulose  hy 

Aerobic  Organisms,  98 


Jackson.  D.  D.,  The  Movements  of  Dia- 
toms and  other  Microscopic  Plants,  397, 
554 
Jacobi,  A.,  Species  of  Poeciloptera,  435 
Jaderholni,  E.,  Antarctic  Hydroids,  59 

—  Demonstrating  Neurofibrils,  765 
Jaeger,  A.,  Swim-Bladder  of  Fishes,  175 
J'agerskiold,  L.  A.,  New  Genus  of  Terres- 
trial Nematode,  440 

Jakimoff,  W.  L.,  Trypanosomes  of  Nagana 

and  Mai  de  Caderas,  447 
Jamhunathan,   N.    S.,   Habits    and    Life 

History  of  a  Social  Spider,  592 
Jammes,    L.,   Alleged    Toxic    Action    of 
Intestinal  Parasites,  18ij 

—  Bactericidal  Action  of  Cestodes,  440 
Janicke,  C.  v.,  Copulation  in  Cestodes,  596 
Janosik,  J.,  Development  of  Mammalian 

Kidney,  35 

Janse,  J.  M.,  Polarity  and  Organ-Forma- 
tion in  Caulerpa  prolifera,  465 

Jaw,  Lower,  Reptilian,  300 

Jeffrey,  E.  C,  Fossil  sequoia,  65 

Jeleniewski,  Z.,  Epithelium  of  the  Epidi- 
dymis, 38 

Jena,  Biology  during  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  5S3 

Jenkinson,  J.  W.,  Maturation  and  Fertili- 
sation in  the  Axolotl,  164 

Jennings,  H.  S..  Asymmetry  and  Spiral 
Swimming,  61 

—  Behaviour  of  Lower  Organisms,  322 

—  Movement  and  Reactions  of  Amoebae,  190 

—  Physical  Imitations  of  the  Activities  of 

Amoebae,  60 
Jet,  Locke's  High  Power,  647 
Johnson,  D.  S.,  Seed-Development  in  the 

Piperales,  60."i 
Johnson.  T.,  Willow  Canker,  474 
Johnston,  H.  P.,  Fresh-water  Nereids,  56 
Johnston,  S.  J.,  Australian  Entozoa,  57 
Johnstone,  J.,  Ceylonese  Fishes,  687 
Jones,  C,  Three-Colour  Photography,  104 
Jones,  M  ,Micro-Organisrn  showing  Rosette 

Formation,  483 
Jones,  W.  &  S.,  Old  Microscope  by,  635 

—  Pocket  Botanical  and  Universal  Micro- 

scope, 636 
Jdnsson,  H.(  Arctic  and  North  Atlantic 
Marine  Algae,  722 

—  Marine  Algae  of  East  Greenland,  215 
of  Jan  Mayen,  215 

Jordi,  E.,  Uromyces  on  Leguminosse,  89 

—  and  others,  Studies  of  Uredineae,  86 


Joseph,  F.  H.,  Fugent — A  New  Stain,  384 
—  Use  of  Acid  Media  in  Isolation  of  the 

Plague  Bacillus,  378 
Joseph,  H.,  Crystalloids  in  Amphioxus.  426 
Julin,  G,  Archiascidia  neapolitana,  303 
Jungner,  J.  B.,  Inter-relation  of  Pests  of 

Cereals.  225 
Jussieu,  Bernard.  Note  on  a  Microscope 

presented  by  Linnaeus  to,  738 


K. 


Kalt,     — .,    Comparative     Anatomy    and 

Physiology  of  the  Eye,  579 
Kamon.  K.,  Olfactory  Buds  in  Vertebrates, 

169 
Kane,    W.    F.    de    V.,    Distribution     of 

Niphargus,  54 
Kara-Kurt,  Monograph,  592 
Karop,  G.  G,  120,  130,  398 
Karsten,  G..  Microspores  of  Diatoms,  213 
Kauffman,  C.  H.,  Genus  (  ortinarius,  622 
Keelev,  F.  J.,  Spencer  Objective,  103 
Kellicott.  W.  E.,  Daily  Periodicity  of  Cell- 
division  and  Elongation  in  Root  of 
Allium.  198 

—  Development  of  Vascular  and  Respira- 

tory Systems  of  Ceratodus,  576 

—  Development   of  Vascular    System    of 

Ceratodus,  294 
Kellogg,  V.  L.,  Experiments  on  Bombyx 
mori,  588 

—  Notes  on  Insect  Bionomics.  586 

—  Regeneration  in  Larval  Legs  of  Cater- 

pillars. 589 

—  Regeneration  in  Linckia  diplax,  59S 
Kelsey,  J.  A.,  Report  of  Fungicides,  225 
Kern,*F.,  New  Bacteria  Filter,  758 
Kershaw,     J.,     Butterfly     Destroyers     in 

Southern  China,  692 

—  Habits  of  Gerydus  chinensis,  691 
Keysselitz,   — ..    Flagellata  in    Blood    of 

Fresb-water  Fishes,  446 
Kidney  and  Heart  in  Planorbis,  Develop- 
ment, 584 

—  Cytological  Changes.  426 

—  Development  in  Elasmobranchs,  168 
of  Mammalian,  35 

Kidneys  and  Gonads  of  Haliotis,  585 
Kindshoven.  J.,  Diseases  of  Plants,  with 

Methods  of  Prevention  or  Cure,  227 
Kinetic  Centres  in  Plants,  709 
King,  — .,  Floraof  the  Malayan  Peninsula, 

609 
King,  C.  A..  Cytology  of  Arainspora,  448 
Kingsford,  T.  G.,  Method  of  Constructing 

Small  Glass  Tanks,  253 
Kingsley,  J.  S..  Reptilian  Lower  Jaw,  300 
Kinkelin,  F.,  Medusas  from  the  Devonian, 

59 
Kinzel,  W„  Influence  of  Light  on  Sporo- 

gonium-formation  in  Liverworts,  6<»7 


810 


INDEX. 


Kirchner,  < >.,  Diseases  of  Plants,  732 
Elrkwood,  J.  E.,  <  'ompaiative  Embryology 

of  the  CucurbitaceaB,  197 
Kitchen,    V.    P.,    Variation    in    Mditxa 

aurtnta,  482 
BJebuhn,  H.,  Botrytia  Disease  of  Tulips 
and  Lily  of  the  Valley,  728 

—  Best  arch  of  Fungi  imperfecti,  620 

—  Uredineaj,  475 

Klein,  E.,  Origin  of  b  Rose-coloured  Yeast, 
85 

—  Vibrio  canlii.  362 

Klem,  M.  .]..  Revision  of  Palaeozoic  Palae- 

eohinoidea,  59 
Kloumann.  F..  Effect  of  Coffein  on  Typhoid 

and  Coli  Cultures.  'Ml 
Kcebler.    P...    Dee])    Sea    Hnlotburoids   of 
Indian  Ocean,  444 

—  New  Holothurian  from  French  Coast, 

599 
Kofoid,  C.  A.,  Craspedotella  an  Example 
of  Convergence,  707 

—  New  Opalinid,  (Jl 

—  River  Plankton,  177 

Kohl,  F.  G.,  Leitz'  "  Universal  "  Micro- 
photographic  Apparatus,  518 

—  Structure   of  the  Cell   of  the    Cyano- 

phyceae,  325 
Kohler,   A.,  Photomicrography  with  the 

Aid  of  Ultra- Violet  Light,  103,  513 
Koiransky.    E.,     Peculiar    Structures    in 

Hepatic  Cells,  39 
Kolmer,  W.,  Crystals  in  Hirudo  and  Pon- 

tobdella,  439 
Konascko.  P..Injectiouof  Fine  Vessels,  763 
Koning,   C.   J.,   Tobacco   Disease   due   to 

Sclerotinia,  218 
Konradi.  D.,  Is  Rabies  Transmissible  from 

Mother  to  Offspring,  580 
Korff,    K.    v..    Demonstrating    Teeth    of 

Mammalian  Embryos,  765 
Koristka's  Illuminator  for  Opaque  Objects, 
510 

—  Large  Model  Microscope,  101 

Mineralogical  Microscope.  492 

Kniotiieff,  A.,  Dolchinia  mirabilis,  303 

—  <  i  ills  and  Teeth  of  Coniephorus,  174 
Kose,  W.,  Chromaffin  Tissue  in  Birds, 426 
Kostanecki,  K.,  Artificial  Parthenogenesis 

in  Mactra,  305 
—  Cytology  and  Artificial  Parthenogenesis 

in  Eggs  of  Mactra,  691 
Kourbatoff.  M.,  Metallography  of  Quenched 

Steels,  392 
Kowalewski,  M  ,  New  Cestode  Genus.  57 
Kraemer,  H.,  Nature  of  Colour  in  Plants. 
63 

—  Oligodynamic  Action  of  Copper  Foil  on 

Intestinal  Itacteria,  737 
Kraepelin,  K.,  Geographical  Distribution 

of  Scorpions,  695 
Kranzlin,     P.,    Illustrations    of    German 

Orchids.  To 


Krahelaka,  M  .  Merogonic  Developmentof 

Sea-Urchin  Ova,  598 
Krawany,  J.,  Central  Nervous  System  of 

Annelids,  700 
Krodel,  E.,  Influence  of  Low  Temperatures 

on  Pupae,  50 
Kruppomeniaand  Radulaeof  Selenogastrcs, 

584 
Kulczynski.  V.,  Arachnological  Notes,  435 
Kunstler,  J..  Abnormal  Eggs  in  Fowls,  34 
Kurzwelly,  W.,  Resistance  of  Dried  Plants 

to  Poisonous  Substances,  608 
Kiister,  E.,  Formation  of  Roots  and  Shoots 
in  Cuttings,  67 

—  Innervation  and  Development  of  Tactile 

Feathers,  686 

—  Development  of  Islands  of  Langerhans 

in  Human  Embryo,  680 
Kuyper.  H.  P..  Development  of  Monascus, 
344 

—  Perithecium  of  Monascus,  84 


Laboulbeniaceae  from  the  Vorarlberg,  85 

Lacteal  Secretion.  682 

Ladd's  Student's  Microscope,  238 

Ladreyt,  F.,  Urns  of  Sipunculus  nudu*,  oti 

Lafar,  F.,  Handbook  of  Technical  Mycology, 
90,  352.  624 

Lagerheim,  G.  v.,  Disease  of  Figs,  90 

Laidlaw,  F.  F.,  Ceylonese  Polyclad  Tur- 
bellaria,  703 

Laing,  R.  M.,  Ceramiacese  of  New  Zea- 
land. 722  . 

Lamellibranchiata.     See  Contents,  xiv 

Lamellicorn  Beetles,  Sound  Production, 
308 

Laminar ia  bullata,  214 

Laminaria.  Demonstration  of  Masked 
Chlorophyll,  214 

Lamp  for  the  Microscope,  Baker's  Electric, 
252 

—  Nernst,  7S2 

—  New     Ultra-Violet     Mercury      Lamp 

("Uviol"  Lamp),  751 

—  Optical  Arc,  646 

Lampn,  E.,  Researches  on  some  Liverworts, 

458 
Lamprey,  Development  of  Olfactory  Or^an, 
577 

—  Olfactory  Cells,  296 

—  Ovum,  575 

—  Spermatozoa,  294 

Land,  W.  J.  G.,  Gametophyte  and  Embryo 
of  Torreya  tazifolia,  328 

Langelaan,  J.  W.,  Form  of  the  Trunk- 
Myotome.  685 

Langerhans,  Islets  of,  in  Teleostei,  39 

Lankester.  E.  R.,  Structure  and  Classifica- 
tion of  Arachnida.  53 

Lankesterella,  New  Species,  707 


INDEX. 


811 


Larch  Disease.  220 

I -arson,   E.,   Fresh-water   Algae    of    East 

Greenland,  466 
I  -urva  of  a  Coreid  Bug,  Notes,  694 
Larvae,    Anuran,    Kegeneration   of   Tail- 
tissues,  35 

—  Asoidian,    Mesoderm    Formation    and 

Structure  of  Tail,  303 

—  Chironomid,  592 

—  of  Arpyia  vinula,  Notes,  588 

Larval  Legs  of  Caterpillars,  Regeneration, 

589 
Lasnier,  E.,  Diseases  due  to  Oladosporinm, 

220 
Lass,  M.,  Structure  of  Female  Flea,  308 
Latham,  E.,    Stimulation   of  Sterigmato- 

cystis,  713 
Latieiferous  Tubes  in  Leaves,  Course,  326 
Latrorlectus,  Poison  Glands,  696 
Latzcl,  R.,  Outlines  of  Zoology,  42 
Laubert,  R.,  Leaf-Disease  of  Bibesalpinum, 
88 

—  Morphology  of  a  New  Cytospora,  88 
Launoy,  L.,  Experiments  on  Ciliary  Move- 
ments, 46 

Laurent,  J.,  Carbon   Nutrition   of  Green 

Plants  by  Organic  Substances,  197 
Lauterborn,  R.,  Chironomid  Larvae,  592 
Laveran,  A.,  Effect  of  Human  and  Ape 
Serum  on  Trypanosoma,  62 

—  Pseudo-Haematozoa,  447 

—  Ticks     as     Transmitters     of     Bovine 

Diseases,  435 

—  Trvpanosomes  and  Tsetse  in    French 

Guinea,  192 

—  Trypanosomes  of  French  West  Africa, 

192 
Lawrence,  W.  L.,  and  others,  Diseases  of 

Cultivated  Plants,  733 
Lazarus- Barlow,  W.  S.,  New  Hot  Stage, 

419,  537 
Lea,  A.  M.,  Ants'  Nest  Beetles,  308 
Leaf-disease  of  Bibes  alpinum,  88 
Leaf-fungi,  Effect  on  Productive  Power  of 

Plant,  608 
Leaf-Nervation  in  some  Species  of  Buple- 

urum,  603 
Leaves,  Course  of  Latieiferous  Tubes,  326 

—  Old  and   New,   of  the   Myrtus   Type, 

Relative  Transpiration,  198 

—  on  a  Dead  Branch,  Supply  of  Water, 

711 

Leavitt,  C.  K.,  Callymenia  phyllophora, 
215 

Lebailly,  C,  Haemoflagellates  in  Teleos- 
teans,  323 

Lebia  scapula-ris.  Metamorphosis,  433 

Lecarme,  J.,  Brittleness  of  Cemented  Mild 
Steels,  1,69 

Leche,  W.,  Brain  of  the  Chrysochloris,  428 

Lederer,  M.,  Lichen  Flora  in  the  Neigh- 
bourhood of  Amberg,  627 

Leduc,  S.,  Germination  and  Growth  of 
Artificial  Cells,  681 


Lee,  A.  B.,Miciotoinist's  YadeM<cuiu,t>67 

—  Spermatozoon  of  Helix  pomatia,  48 
Lee,  T.  G„  Implantation  of  Ovum  in  the 

Gopher,  35 
Leech,  Culture  of  Frog's  Trypanosome  in, 

323 
Lef'evre,  G.,  Artificial  Parthenogenesis  in 

Thulassema  mellita,  439 
Le'ger,  L.,  Metameric  ( lytoplasm  in  ( Srega- 

rine,  446 
Legros,  v.,  Photograinmctric   Focimetry, 

255 
Leguminosae,  Uromyces  on.  89 
Leguminous  Plants,  Soil   Inoculation  for, 

452 
Lehman.     K.    B.,    Bacterial    Niveau    of 

Beijeriuck,  484 
Leidy,   J.,   Jun.,   Researches   in  Helmin- 

thology  and  Parasitology,  186 
Leishman  Body,  Cultivation,  37S 
Leishman-Donovan  Bodies,  and  Trypano- 
somes, 192 
Leitz,  E.,  Apparatus   for   Observation    of 
Ultra-Microscopical  Particles,  502 

—  Camera  Ocular,  502 

—  Demonstration  Microscope,  495 

—  Drawing  Board,  508 

—  Mechanical  Stage,  497 

—  Mineralogical  Stand  No.  I.,  492 
No.  II.,  495 

—  New  Formula  Object  Glass,  499 
Microtome,  661 

Objectives,  500 

—  Thermometric  Stages,  507 

—  Triple  Revolver  with  Large  Protection 

Diaphragm,  507 

—  "  Universal  "   Microphotographic    Ap- 

paratus, 518 

—  Universal  Projection  Apparatus,  504 
Lejeuue,    P.,    The    Cooling   of    Steel   in 

Quenching,  392 
Lemmermann,    E.,    Algal    Flora    of    the 
Sandwich  Islands,  215 

—  Fresh-water  Algae  of  the  East  Indies, 

467 

—  Marine  Phytoplankton,  724 

—  Phytoplankton  of  some  Plon  Lakes,  209 
Lemoult,  P.,  Affinity  of  Artificial  Colour- 
ing Matters  for  Connective  Tissue,  530 

Lendenfeld,  R.  v.,  Antarctic  Fauna,  684 
Lens  Formation  in  Frog,  424 

—  Measurement  and  Testing,  on  Certain 

Methods,  together  with  some  Recom- 
mendations as  to  Nomenclature  and 
Description,  562 
Lenses.  Construction  of  Aplanatic  Combi- 
nations with  or  without  Achromatism, 
501 

—  Small,    Direct   Determination    of    the 

Curvature,  751 
Lenz,   H.,   East    African    Decapods    and 

Stomatopods,  698 
Leonard,  E.  L.,  Bacterium   cyaneum :    A 

New  Chromogenic  Organism,  236 


8 1 2 


INDEX. 


Lepadogaster  bimaoulatue  and  mieroceplin- 
his.  Comparative  Description,  -429 

—  nriorooephaltu  and   bimaoidatus,  <  om- 

parativc  Description,  429 
Lepidoptera,  Influence  of  Nutrition    and 
Humidity,  588 
is  there   a    I  .'elation    between  Size  of 
Egge  and  Sex?  180 

—  Modifications  in  Development,  180 

—  Palaearctic,  Synopsis  of  Families,  432 

—  Regeneration  of  Anterior  End  of  Body 

in  Pupae,  51 
Lepismatids,  Monograph,  182 
Leppin  ami  Masche's  Projection  Apparatus 

with  Optical  Bench  Extension,  647 
Leprosy,  Cultivating  Bacillus,  261 
Leptomedusan.  New.  60 
Leptosarca,  161 

Lertueenicus  Sardinae,  Fixation,  437 
Lesage,  A.,  Cultivation  of  Amoebae,  7.">7 

—  Cultivation  of  the  Amoebae  of  Tropical 

Dysentery.  260 
I  • -zezynski,   R..    Ditt'erential    Stain    for 

Gouococcus,  061 
Leucocytozoan  of  Dog,  447 
Levelling  Apparatus,  New.  259 
Lice,  Studies.  53 
Lichen  Cephalodia.  628 

—  Flora  in  Neighbourhood  of  Amberg,  627 

—  Fruits.  Development,  736 

—  Spores,  Multi-nucleate  Condition,  481 

—  Type,  New,  357 
Lichenological  Notes,  481 
Lichenolo<jy  for  Beginners,  628, 736 
Lichens,  Classification,  627 

—  from  the  Antarctic,  735 

—  Habitats,  230 

—  Heteromerous,  Observations  on  Endo- 

saprophytism,  9f> 

—  How  to  Collect  and  Studv,  357 

—  Notes,  229.  357 

—  of  Finisterre,  627 

—  fiee  Contents,  xxx 

—  Theory  of  Endosaprophytisrn,  356 
Lichtenheld,  G.,  Echinococci  of  Domestic 

Animals,  ls6 
Lignau,  N.,  Kegeneration  in  Protodrilus. 

438 
Lignites.  Fossil  Fruits  from  the  Tertiary, 

453 
Liliacea:    and    Araceae,   Development   of 

Central  Cylinder,  64 
lily  of  the  Valley  and  Tulips,  Botrytis 

Disease,  728 
limb-Structure  in  Triassic  lchthyosauria, 

Types,  299 
Limbs,  Regeneration  in  Tadpoles  of  Frotr, 

423 
Limnndia  lenticularis,  Sense-Organs,  699 
Limpet,  Tortoise-Shell,  Habits,  689 
Linn   lapponica.   Inheritance   of  Dichro- 

matism,  590 
Linckia  diplax,  Regeneration,  598 


Lindan,  G.,  Hyphomycetes,  474.  621,  732 
Lindroth,    I.,   Destruction    of    Birch   and 
other  Wood  by  Polyporm  nigricans,  223 
Lingard,     A.,    Giant     Trvpanosoma    in 
Bovine  Blood,  191 

—  Trypanosome  of  Dourine,  601 

I  .innseus  and  the  Use  of  the  Microscope,  253 

—  Microscope  Presented  to  Bernard  Jus- 

sieu,  738 
I  .instow.,  O.  v.,  Descriptions  of  Nematodes 
and  Cestodes.  57 

—  New  Helminths.  441 

■  —  from  West  Africa.  186 

Species  of  Strongyloides.  702 

—  Notes  on  Nematodes,  186 

Linville,  H.  R.,  Tube-formation  in  An- 
nelids, 55 

Lion,  Notes  ou  Skull,  686 

Lipschutz,  15..  Simple  Medium  for  Culti- 
vating Gonococcus.  377 

Lipskeron,  M.,  Methods  of  Staining  the 
Diphtheria  Bacillus,  386 

Lister,  A.  &  G„  Notes  on  Mycetozoa,  478 

Lister,  J.  J.,  Dimorphism  in  English 
Species  of  Nummulites,  446 

—  Dimorphism  in  the  Nummulites,  445 
Lithothamnia  of  the  Adriatic  and  Morocco. 

215 
Littoral  Animals,  Tidal  Synchronism,  49 
Littorina  rudis.  Tidal  Periodicity.  431 
Livanow,  N.,  Metamerism    of  Hirudinea. 

185 
Live-Box,  Modification  of  Rousselet,  532 
Liver.  Animal,  Demonstrating  Fat,  665 

—  Cells,  Position  of  Glycogeu  in,  39 

—  Frog's,  Fibrillar  Structure,  169 

—  Mammalian,  Adipogenic  Function,  169 
Liverworts,  Influence  of  Light  on  Sporo- 

gonium-formation,  607 

—  Researches,  458 

Livingston,  B.  E ,  Chemical  Stimulation 
of  a  Green  Alga,  332 

—  Relation  of  Soils  to  Vegetation,  200 
of    Transpiration     to     Growth    in 

Wheat,  712 
Lizards,  Epidermal  Organs,  300 
Lloyd.  C.  G..  Mycological  Notes,  476,  622, 

731 
Lobster.  Rock,  Heteromorphism,  183 
Locke's  High  Power  Jet,  647 
Locking    Arrangement   for   Microscopical 

Demonstrations,  645 
Locomotion  in  Nucula,  306 

—  of  Snakes,  173 

Locy,   W.    A.,    New    Cranial    Nerve    in 

Selachians.  46 
Loeb,  L.,  Blood-Coagulating  Substance  in 
Anchylostoma,  185 

—  Ovarian  Eggs  of  Guinea-piss,  421 
Loewenthal.  N.,  Granular   Cells  in  Epi- 
dermis of  Ammoccetes,  39 

Loewenthal,  W.,  Chytridiaceas,  471 

—  Experiments  with  Parasitic  Fungi,  623 


INDEX. 


813 


Lohnis,  F.,  Bacillus  Freudenreiclrii,  631 
Loisel,  G.,    Effect  of  Ovarian  Extract  of 
Frog,  087 

—  Secretions  of  the  Genital  Organs,  165 
Lolium  temulentum.  Fungus,  477 
Lomun,  J.  C.  C,  Decolopoda  of  Eiglits,  311 

—  New  Pycnogonid,  096 

London,  K.  S.,  Demonstrating  the  Finer 
Structure  of  the  Nervous  System,  384 

Longstaff,  G.  B.,  Notes  on  Butterflies  from 
India  and  Ceylon,  692 

Lonnberg,  E.,  Material  for  the  Study  of 
Ruminants,  43 

—  Rudimentary  Upper  Canines    in    Elk, 

300 
Lord,  J.  E ,  Fauna  of  Wells,  684 
Lotscher,  P.  K.,  Structure  and  Function 

of  the  Antipodal  Cells,  450 
Lotsy,  J.  P.,  x-Generation  and  2  x-Gene- 

ration,  61 1 
Loup,  Military  Staff,  or  Microphotoscope. 

642 
Lower  Organisms,  Behaviour,  322 
Lubosch,  W.,   Development   of    Olfactory 
Organ  of  Lamprey,  577 

—  Ovum  of  Lamprey,  575 
Lue-iola  italica,  Luminosity,  589 
Ludwig,    H.,    Gall-forming    Annelid    on 

Ophiuroid,  700 
Lumbricus,    Anatomy    and    Histology   of 
Blood  Vessels,  315 

—  Phagocytary    Resorption    in    Seminal 

Vesicles,  438 
Luminosity  of  Gnathophausia,  312 

—  of  Luciola  italica,  589 
Lungs,  Origin,  423,  579 

Lustrier,  G.,  and  others,  Plant  Diseases, 

349 
Luther,  A.,  Eumesostominae,  597 
Lutz,  A.,  Brazilian  Tabanidse,  592 
Lutz,  J.,  Abnormalities  in  Fungi,  352 

—  Mycological  Notes,  225 
Lymph  Hearts  of  Rana,  40 

Lyon,  H.  L.,  Embryogeny  of  Ginkgo,  65 
Lyster,  C.  R.  C,  Electrical  Warm  Stage, 
538,  677 

M. 

Maas,  O.,  Classification  of  Medusae,  444 
McAndrew.  J.,  Notes  on  Lichens,  229 
McCracken,  1..  Inheritance  of  Dichroma- 

tism  in  Lina  lapponica,  590 
Mace,  M.  E.,  Decomposition  of  Albumin- 
oids by  Cladothrix  chromogenes,  632 
Mcintosh,  D.  C,  Proportions  of  the  Sexes 
in  Nephrops  uorvegicus,  312 

—  Variations   in   Number   and  Arrange- 

ment of  Male  Genital  Apertures  in 

Nephrops  norvegicus,  312 
M'lntosh,  W.  C,  Notes  on  Polychseta,  184 
Maclaren,  N.,  Structure  and  Affinities  of 

Trematodes,  703 


Maclaren,  N./Two  Interesting  Trematodes 

317 
McMurrich,  J.  P.,  Chilian  Actiniae,  321 
Mucoun,  J.,  Catalogue  of  Canadian  Birds, 

172 
Macrophoma  and  Diplodia.  Relationship. 

88 
Macrozamia  Gum,  Bacterial  Origin,  482 
Mactra,  Artificial  Parthenogenesis,  305 

—  and  Pecten,  Adductor  Muscles.  691 

—  Cytology  and  Artificial  Parthenogenesis 

in  Eggs,  691 
Macvicar,  S.  M.,  Rare  Scottish  Hepaticae, 
73 

—  Scottish  Hepaticae,  459 
McWeeney,  E.  J.,  Staiuiug  the  Tubercle 

Bacillus  with  Eosin,  529 
Madreporaria,  Anatomy,  59 
Magnetisation  and    Magnetic   Change  of 

Length  in    Ferromagnetic   Metals  and 

Allo\s  at   Temperatures  ranging   from 

-186°  C.  to  +1200°  C,  671 
Magnifier,  Focusing,  755 
Magnus,  P.,  Mycological  Notes.  219 

—  Sclerotinia  crataegi,  473 

Mahen,  J..  Pitcher-formation  in  Saxi- 
frages, 326 

Maiden,  J.  H„  Botany  of  Funafuti,  :!;;:; 

Mail,  W.,  Method  for  Freeing  Paraffin 
from  Cedar-wood  Oil,  533 

Maire,  R.,  Cytological  Researches  on  some 
Ascomycetes,  473  , 

—  Fat  Bodies  in  Plant  Nuclei.  624 
Major,  C.  J.  F..  Orkney  Vole.  301 
Malacostraca,  Structure  of  Heart,  436 
Malaquin,    A.,    Phenomena    of    Asexual 

Reproduction   in   Salmacina    and    Fili- 
grana,  594 
Malassez,    L.,    The    Notation    of    Micro- 
scopical Objectives,  500 
Mammalia,  Arboreal  Ancestry.  300 
Mammals  and  Birds,  Fossil,  in  the  British 
Museum,  Guide,  427 

—  British,  172 

—  Copulatory  Organs,  172 

—  Evolution,  580,  686 

—  Eyelids,  170 

—  Intranuclear  Fat  in  Supra-renals.  297 

—  Tertiary,  Evolution,  427 

—  Yitellogenons  Layer  and  Mitochondria 

in  Ova,  576 
Man,  Cornu  Ammonia  in,  169 

—  Ossification  of  Pterygoid,  427 

Man,  J.  G.  de,  New  Free-living  Nematode 

from  Patagonia,  316 
Managetta,  G.  B.  v.,  Persio-acetic  Acid  as 

a  Stain  for  Vegetable  Tissue,  664 
Mandoul,   H,   Alleged    Toxic   Action    of 
Intestinal  Parasites,  186 

—  Bactericidal  Action  of  Cestodes,  440 
Manganese,    Sulphides   and    Silicates,   in 

Steel,  265 
Mangin,  L.,  Stearophara  radicicola,  472 


81-1 


INI'KX. 


Manipulation,   Microscopical.     See   Con- 
tents, XXXV 

Mansoniere,  a  New  Tribe  <>f  the  Natural 

( trder  Sterculiaoess,  715 
Marceau,  P.,  Adductor  Muscles  of  Mactra 
ami  Pooten,  691 

—  Muscles  of  the  Mantle  in  Cephalopods, 

688 
Marcus.  H.,  Demon  stinting  Blood  Forma- 
tion in  Osseous  Fishes,  660 
Mareehal,   J..    Development    of    Chromo- 
somes in  the  Selachian  Ovum,  679 
Marino,  F.,  Staining  Protozoa,  2^4 
Markings  of  Organisms,  Origin,  302 
Marpmnn.   <;.,  Diagnostic  Media  fur  the 

Study  of  Bacteria,  lit) 
Marrassini,  A.,  Difference  of  Behaviour  of 
Bacillus  typhosus  and  B.  coli  communis 
in  Media  containing  Sulphate  of  Copper 
and  Red  Prussiate  of  Potash.  660 
Marrow,  Bone,  Examination,  :iS(l 
Marshall,   F.   H.   A.,    OSstrons   Cycle   in 

Ferret,  34 
Marshall,     W.     S.,     Demonstrating     the 
Blastoderm  of  Polistes  pallipes,  765 

—  New  Trematodes,  To:: 

Marsiliacea? 1 1  nd  Ophioglossacere,  Affinities, 

454 
Martensen,  T.,  Siamese  Sea-Urchins,  189 
Marval,  L.  de,Acanthocephala  ofBirds,185 

—  Monograph  cm  Acanthocephalaof  Birds, 

596 

Marx.  H.,  Simple  Method  for  Distinguish- 
ing between  Human  and  Animal  Blood, 
388 

Mascha,  E.,  Structure  of  Wing-Feathers, 
683 

Maasalongo,  ( '.,  Deformation  caused  by  an 
iEcidium,  730 

Massee,  <<.,  Bi-nucleate  Cells  in  Asco- 
mycetes,  473 

Mateos,  R..  Supra-renal  Capsules,  297 

Matthew,  W.  D.,  Arboreal  Ancestry  of 
Mammalia,  300 

Mattiesen,  E,,  Development  of  Fresh- 
water Dendrocoela,  597 

Maturation  and  Fertilisation  of  Haminea 
solitaria,  292 

—  Fertilisation     and     Development     in 

Zoagonus  mirus,  596 

—  in  Allolobtiphora  fcetidu,  438 
Maublanc.  A.,  Vegetable  Pathology,  225 
Maxwell,  J.  C.,  Colours  in  Metal  Glasses 

and  in  Metallic  Films,  107 
May  Flies  and  Midges  of  New  York,  693 
Mayer,  P.,  Ceylonese  Caprellidse,  698 

—  New    Method  of  using  the  Plankton 

Searcher,  369 

—  Zoologiseher  Jahresbericht,  6S4 
Mayus,  O.,  Course  of  Laticiferous  Tubes 

in  Leaves,  326 
Maze',  P.,   Micro-Organisms    of    Cheese- 
Making.  633 


Maziaraki,  S..  Relations  between  Nucleus 

and  Cytoplasm,  38 
Mazza,  A.,  Marine  Algulogy,  615 
Meadow-Cricket,  Striped,  Habits.  695 
Measurement    Adjustment,   Object-Stage 

with  Sliding,  497 
Meat  Poisoning,  Micro-Organisms  486 
Media,  Acid,    Use  in  Isolation   of  Plague 
Bacillus,  378 

—  Aqueous,  Rapid  Method  of   Mounting 

in,  532 

—  Diagnostic,  for  the  Study  of  Bacteria, 

110 

—  (relatin,  Spontaneous  Action  of  Radio- 

active Bodies,  524 

—  Simple,  for  Cultivating  Gonococcus,  377 

—  Simplification  of  the  Drigalski,  259 
Medusa?,  Classification,  444 

—  from  the  Devonian,  59 
Megalobatrachus    maximus,  Development, 

680 

Megaspore  Membrane  in  Gymnosperms, 
604 

MeliponidsB,  Wax-Glands,  179 

Melissinos,  K.,  Apparatus  for  the  Simul- 
taneous Staining  of  Several  Sections 
fixed  to  Cover-slips  or  Slides,  771 

Melitsea  aurinia.  Variation,  432 

Mellor,  J.  W.,  The  Crystallisation  of  Iron 
and  Steel,  777 

Melolontha  vulgaris,  Function  of  Follicular 
Epithelium,  434 

Membrane  of  Zygospore,  218 

Membranes,  Foetal,  679 

Mendel's  Law  and  the  Heredity  of 
Albinism,  33 

Mendelssohn,  M.,  Action  of  Radium  on 
Torpedo,  428 

Mendoza,  A.,  Staining  the  Tubercle 
Bacillus  with  Eosin,  529 

—  Staining  Tubercle  Bacillus,  665 
Mentemartini,   L.,  and  others.  Notes  on 

Uredinese,  346 
Mercier,   L..  Experimental   Phagocytosis, 

680 
Merk,  L.,  Interconnections  of  Epidermal 

Cells,  424 
Merlin,  A.  A.  C.  E.,  Foot  of  House-Fly, 
433 

—  Modification  of  the  Rousselet  Live-Box, 

532 

—  Photograph  of  Pleurosigma  angulatum, 

267 
Merton,  H.,  Examination  of  the  Retina  of 
the  Nautilus  and  certain  Dibranchiate 
Cephalopods,  772 
Merogonic    Development    of    Sea-Urchin 

Ova,  598 
Merriam,  J.  C,  Types  of  Limb-Structure 

in  Triassic  Ichthyosauria,  299 
Merrill,  E.  D.,  Blanco's  Flora  de  Filipinas, 
609 

—  Philippine  Plants,  70 


INDEX. 


815 


Mery,  J.  K.,  Regeneration  and  Non-Sexual 

Reproduction  in  Sagartia,  321 
Mesnil,  F.,  New  Enteropneustan  Family, 
58 

—  Sexual  Reproduction  in  Actinoinyxidia, 

601 
Mesoderm  Formation  and  the  Structure  of 

the  Tail  in  Ascidian  Larvae,  303 
Mesozoic  Plants,  Japanese,  610 
Metal  Glasses  and  Metallic  Films,  Colours, 

107 
Metallography  Applied  to  Foundry  Work, 
535,  671,  777 

—  Microscopic,  Technique,  669 

—  of  Iron  and  Steel,  775 

—  of  Quenched  Steels,  392 

—  See  Contents,  xxxix 

Metals  and  Alloys,  Ferromagnetic,  On 
Magnetisation  and  Magnetic  Change 
of  Length  at  Temperatures  ranging 
from  -186°  C.  to  +1200°  C,  671 

—  Effects  of  Momentary  Stresses,  391 
of  Stress,  39 1 

—  Hardness,  118 
Metamerism  of  Hirudinea,  185 
Metamorphoses  of  Hermit  Crab,  593 
Metamorphosis  of  Insect  Larvae,  51 
Methyl-Green,  Pyronin,  386 

Meves,  P..  Structure  of  Red  Blood 
Corpuscles  in  Amphibians,  425 

Mevburg,  H.,  Studies  in  Bone  Develop- 
ment, 294 

Meyer,  E.,  The  Origin  of  the  Water  Vas- 
cular System  of  Lchinoderms,  443 

Mevlan,  C.,  Mosses  of  the  Jura,  719 

Michael,  A.  D.,  135,  267,  398 

—  Oribatidse,  398 

Michaelson,    W.,    Oligoehaeta     of     Late 

Baikal,  594 
Michelski,     J.,    Baciltu*    conjunctivitidis 

tubtiliformis,  363 
Microbe,   New,  of   Pulmonary    Phthisis, 

487 
Microbes,  Distribution  in  the  Intestines  of 

Infants,  359 
Microbiulogy,  Agricultural,  475 
Microfauna,  Fresh-water,  of  Paraguay,  583 

of  Turkestan,  47 

Micro-Metallography,  Practical,  268 
with  Practical  Demonstration,  273 

—  Metallurgy,  270 
Micrometer,  The  Parallel  Plate,  566 
Micro-Organism     causing     an     Epidemic 

Disease  among  Cats,  360 

showiug  Rosette  Formation,  483 

Micro-Organisms  and  Disease,  708 
Formate  Broth  in  Differential   Dia- 
gnosis, 657 

in  the  Intestines  of  Infants,  632 

of  Cheese  Making,  633 

of  Meat  Poisoning,  486 

of  Nitrification,   Methods    for    Iso- 
lating. 376 


Micro-Organisms.  Virulence  and  Immu- 
nising Powers.  631 

Micro-Pantograph  as  a  Drawing  Apparatus, 
509 

Microphotngraphic  Apparatus,  Leitz' 
"Universal,"  518 

Microphotoscope,  or  Military  Staff  Map 
Loup,  642,  748 

Microscope,  Adams'  Improved  Lucernal. 
781 

Solar.  781 

—  Engineer's  Metallurgical.  364 

—  Hirschsvald's   New   Model   and   Plani- 

meter-Ocular,  640 

—  Horizontal  Travelling.  637 

—  Images,  Experiment  in  Connection  with 

the  Theory  of,  539 

—  Koristka's  Large  .Model,  101 
Mineralogical,  Large  Model,  492 

—  Ladd's  Student's,  238 

—  Leitz'  Demonstration,  495 

Mineralogical  Stand  No.  I.,  492 

No.  II.,  495 

—  Linnaeus  and  the  Use  of,  253 

—  Lucernal,    presented    by    Lieut. -Col. 

Tupman,  397 

—  made  by  N.  Adams,  397 

—  Metallurgical,  Beck's  "  Imperial."  743 
"  Loudon  Model,"  745 

—  Manipulation,  656 

—  Old,  by  Shuttleworth,  537,  635 

by  W.  &  S.  Jones,  635 

Wilson  Screw-Barrel,  537 

—  Pillischer's  New  Model  "Kosmos,"  639 

—  Pocket   Botanical    and    Universal,   by 

W.  &  S.  Jones,  537,  636 

—  Portable.  239 

—  Presented    by    Linnaeus    to     Bernard 

Jussieu,  Note  on,  738 

—  Reichert's,   for  Determining  Hardness 

of  Substances,  247 

Large  Mineralogical  Stand,  247 

Stand,   No.  Ia,  fitted  with  Tip- 
up  Stage  Clips,  243 

Medium  Dissecting,  366 

New,  for  Brain  Sections,  367 

New  Large  Stand  Al,  241 

Mineralogical  Stand,  245 

—  Simple,  Wilson  Screw-Barrel,  636 

—  specially  adapted  for  Mineralogical  In- 

vestigations at  High  Temperatures, 
639 

—  Stands  with  Handles,  Reichert's  New, 

748 

—  Studnicka's  Pancratic  Preparation,  643 

—  Swift's  New  Compound  Metallurgical, 

366 

—  Tafner's  New  Preparation  Stand,  368 

—  Wilson      Screw-Barrel,   Simple,     739, 

779 

—  Zeiss'  New  Laboratory  Stand,  240 
Microscopes,  Comparison    of  British   and 

Foreign  Students',  523 


316 


INDEX. 


IfiorOSOopee,  Preparation,  lieichert's  New 
Erect  Image  Preparation  System  for, 
368 

—  Watson's  ••  Praxis"  and  "  Bactil,"  740 
Microscopic    Fresh-water    Animals    from 

Asia  Minor,  47 

—  Metallography,  Technique,  669 

—  Plants  and  Diatoms,  Movements,  397, 

554 
Microscopical    Demonstrations,     Locking 
Arrangements.  645 

—  Determination  of  the  Position  of  a  Re- 

flecting Surface  during  Optical  Con- 
tact, 750 

—  Manipulation.     -See  Contents,  xixv 

—  Optics.     See  Contents,  xxxv 

—  Technique,  Bohm  and  Oppel's,  118 
See  Contents,  xxxvi 

—  Vision,  Theories,  540,  541 
MicrOBOOpist's  Screen,  374 
Microscopy,  Elementary,  656 

—  Elements  of  Applied,  :>74 

—  High  Power,  372 

—  See  Contents,  xxsiii 
Microspores  of  Diatoms,  213 
Microsporidian  in  Orabs,  601 
Microtome,  Flatters',  766,  780 

—  Freezing,  Simple,  528 

—  Leitz'  New,  661 

—  Reichert's  Medium,  382 

with  Handle,  766 

Microtomes.     See  Contents,  xxxvii 

—  Freezing,  Accessory,  528 
Microtomists'  Vade  Mecum,  667 
Midges  and  May  Flies  of  New  York,  693 
Migula,  W.,  The  Algae  of  Germany,  723 
Milburn,   T.,    I'olour   Changes  in   Fungi 

and  Bacteria,  68 

—  Variations   in   the  Colours  of  Moulds 

and  Bacteria,  98 
Mildew,  White,  of  Euonymus,  345 
Milk,  Gas-producing  Bacteria   found   in, 

Comparative  Study  of  Sixty-six  Varieties. 

485 
Millais,  J.  G.,  British  Mammals,  172 
Miller,   E.    F„    Multiplex     Slide-holding 

Device  for  Staining  Sections,  530 
Miller.  W.  S.,  Pancreatic  Bladder  in  (  at. 

580 
Milne,  A.  D.,  Tick  Fever  in  Uganda,  53 
Mimic,  Numerical   Proportion  to   Model, 

588 
Minchiu.  E.  A.,  Phylogeny   of  Hexacti- 

nellid  Sponges,  189 
Minckert,  W.,  Histology  of  Cestodes,  702 

—  New  Crinoid,  J  89 

—  Regeneration    and    Syzygy   in    Coma- 

tulidse,  705 
Mineral,  "  Aragotite  "  a   Rare  California, 

Notes  on,  673 
Mineralogical     Investigations     at    High 

Temperatures,      Microscope      specially 

adapted  for,  639 


Mingazzini,  P..  Pelagic  Sipunculid,  700 
Mirantle,   M.,  Biology   of  Entomophytes, 

728 
Mite,  Terrestrial,  adapted  to  Marine  Life, 

592 
Mites,  Fertilisation.  435 

—  New  Breatliing  Organ,  435 
Mitochondria  and  Ergastoplasm,  578 

—  and    Vitellogenous   Layer    in    Ova   of 

Mammals,  576 
Model,  Numerical  Proportion    to    Mimic, 

588 
Moffat,   E.,   Camera    for    Use    with    the 

Microscope,  779 
Mole,  Development  of  Venous  System,  167 

—  Roman,  43 

Molisch,  H.,  Brown  Colouring  Matter  in 
Algae,  721 

—  Heliotropism  Induced  by  Radium,  607 
Moller,  A.,  Mycorhiza  of  Pines,  65 
Moller,   W.,    Ear-Bones    of    Vipera    and 

Tropidonotus,  299 
Molliard,  M.,  Animal  Parasites  and  Floral 
Teratology,  68 

—  Culture    Experiments  with  Morchella, 

471 
Mollisou,  T.,  Function  of  the  Follicular 
Epithelium  in  Melolontha  vulgaris,  434 
Mollusca.     See  Contents,  xiii 
Molluscan  Heart-Muscle,  Histology,  304 
Molluscs,  Primitive,  Myocardium,  303 
Monascus,  Development,  344 

—  Peritiiecium,  84 

Monks,  S  P.,  Variability  and  Autotomy 
of  Phataria,  442 

Monoblepharideae,  471 

Monocotyledons,  Aquatic,  Axillary  Scales, 
710 

Monocystis,  Auisogamy,  446 

Monstrosities,  Double,  Origin,  678 

Montgomery,  S.  H.,  Morphological  Supe- 
riority of  the  Female  Sex,  293 

Moore,  G.  T.,  Soil  Inoculation  for  Legu- 
minous Plants,  452 

Moore,  J.  P.,  New  Species  of  Sea-MouBe, 
438 

Morchella,  Culture  Experiments,  471 

Morgan,  A.  P.,  American  Mycology,  623 

Morgan,  H.  de  R.,  Micro-Organisms  of 
Meat  Poisoning,  486 

Mori,  N.,  Micro-Organisni  causing  an 
Epidemic  Disease  among  Cats,  360 

Moroff,  T.,  Development  of  Gills  of  Fishes, 
167 

Morphogenesis.  Factors,  34 

Morphological  Superiority  of  Female  Sex, 
293 

Morphology  of  a  New  Cytospora,  88 

Morrison,  A.,  West  Australian  Droseras, 
333 

Morrow,  J.,  An  Interference  Apparatus  for 
the  Calibration  of  Extensometers,  565 

Morteo,  E.,  Diatoms  of  the  Orba,  466 


INDEX. 


817 


Mogca  olearia.  Researches  on  Bacteria 
found  in  Intestine  of  Larva,  483 

Mosely,  M.,  Rudimentary  Gill  in  Abacus 
fluviatilis,  183 

Mosquitos  of  New  York  State,  180 

—  of  Para,  309 
Moss-Flora,  British,  til  3 
Moss-Spores,  Germination  and  Nutrition 

of  their  Protonemas  in  Artificial  Media, 
69 

Moss-Sporogonium  Compared  with  Fern- 
Plant,  458 

Mosses,  European,  205 

—  Nematode  Galls,  459 

—  New  and  Rare  Scottish,  459 

—  of  the  Jura,  719 

Mostyn,  C,    Resolution   of    Arnphipleura 

pellw.ida,  107 
Motz-Kossowska,   S.,   Gymnoblastic   Hy- 

droids  of  Western  Mediterranean,  320 
Mould  Ferments  from  India,  225 
Moulds     and      Bacteria,     Variations     in 

Colours,  98 
Mounting  and  Staining  Algae  and  Fungi, 
Easy  Method,  7ti'.» 

—  Celloidin  Sections,  Method,  774 

—  in  Aqueous  Media,  Ripid  Method,  532 

—  Medium,  Copal  as,  387 

—  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxviii 
Movements  of  Diatoms  and  other  Micro- 
scopic Plants,  397,  545 

Mucilage,  Gum  of  Linseed,  and  Bacteria, 

737 
Mucor,  Fermentation  with,  472 

—  Species  and  Alcohol.  618 
Mucorini,  Circulation  of  Protoplasm,  713 
Mud  Snail,  Study,  584 

Mueller,  O  ,  Laminaria  bullnta,  214 
M idler,  J.,  Two  New  Cave-Beetles,  51 
Miiller,  W.,  Inflorescence  of  Boraginacese 

and  Solunacese,  450 
Mulon,  P.,  Intranuclear  Fat  in  the  Supra- 

renals  of  Mammals,  297 
Murray,  G.,  Ciementsia  Markhamiana,  212 
Murray,  J.,  New  Rotifers  from  Scotland, 
318 

—  Pelagic  Organisms  in   Scottish  Lakes, 

588 
Murrill,   W.   A.,   Polyporacese    of    North 

America:  XL  A  Synopsis  of  the  Brown 

Pileate  Species,  731 
Muscatello,    G.,   Observations   on    Peziza 

ammnphila,  618 
Muscidse,  Larval,  Histolysis  of   Muscles, 

591 
Muscle  Cells,  Smooth,  Contraction,  40 

—  Smooth,  Spiral  Coiling  of  Nucleus  of 

Cells,  680 
Muscles,  Adductor,  of  Mactra  and  Pecten, 
691 

—  of  the  Mantle  in  Cephalopods,  688 

—  Insertion   of  Skeleton  of   Arthropods, 

179 


Musculature,     Developing,     Relation     of 
Nervous  System  to,  37 

—  Mesenteric,  of  Actiniaria,  321 
Museum,  British,  Guide  to  Fossil  Mam- 
mals and  Birds,  127 

Musgrave,  VV.  E.,  Cultivation  and  Staining 

of  Amoeba,  1 1 2 
Musk  Fungus,  Distribution,  89 
Muth,  F.,  Witches'  Broom  on  Pear  Trees, 

728 
Muto,  S.,  Bacillus  helixoides,    a  Bacillus 

that     forms    Colonies   with    Snail-like 

Movements,  98 
Mycetozoa,  Notes,  478 

—  See  C<  intents,  xxx 

Mycologieal  Notes,  219,  225,  476,  622,731 
Mycology,  477 

—  American,  623,  732 

—  British,  477 

—  French,  350 

—  Technical  Handbook,  90,  352,  624 
Mycorlrza,  Endotropic,  Study,  329,712 

—  of  Pines,  65 

Myers,  B.  D.,  Fixation  of  Tissues  by  In- 
jection into  the  Arteries,  380 
Myocardium,    Development    in   Teleosts, 
1<;8 

—  in  Primitive  Molluscs,  303 
Myrmeco^hilous  Acari,  311 

Myrtus  Type  of  Old  and  New    Leaves, 

Relative  Transpiration,  198 
Mysia  Genus,  New,  594 
Myxiue,  Notes,  688 

—  Studies,  733 
Myxobacteriaa,  478 


N. 


Nabarro,  D.,  Human  and  Animal  Trypano- 
somiasis, 707 

Nabias,  B.  de,  New  Method  of  Rapid 
Staining  Nervous  Tissue  with  (.old 
Chloride,  664 

Nagana  and  Mai  de  Caderas,  Trypano- 
somes  of,  447 

Nasal  Apertures,  Closure,  in  Human 
Embryo,  577 

Nautilus  and  certain  Dibranchiate  Cepha- 
lopods, Examination  of  Retina,  772 

Neal,  H.  V.,  Development  of  Ventral 
Nerves  in  Selachii,  36 

Nechitsch,  A.,  Mould  Ferments  from  India,. 
225 

Needham,  J.,  Fungus  Flora  of  Hearth- 
rug, 90 

Needham,  J.  G.,  May  Flies  and  Midges  of 
New  York,  693 

Needle  for  Obtaining  Blood  for  Examina- 
tion, H89 

N<  ger,  F.  W.,  Germination  of  Spores,  332 

Nelson,  E.  M.,The  Tubercle  Bacillus.  412, 
539 


Dec.  20th,  1905 


3  I 


818 


INDEX. 


.Xnittilioii  miiltijhlum,  Cytology,  77 
Neniatohlasts  of  Eolids,  482 
Nematode  Calls  in  Mosses,  459 

—  New  Free-living,  from  Patagonia,  316 
from  Helix,  57 

—  Terrestrial,  New  Genus,  440 
Nematodes    and    Cestodes,    Descriptions, 

57 

—  Fresh-water,  of  New  Zealand,  316 

—  Notes,  186,  Mil 

Nematohelmintlies.    See  Contents,  xviii 
Nemerteans,  North  American,  441,  703 
Neniukoff,    D.,   Digestion    in   Cockroach, 

307 

Nepa  cinerea,  Salivary  Glands,  434 

Nephrops  norvegicw,  Proportion  of  Sexes, 
312 

Variations  in  Number  and  Arrange- 
ment of  Male  Genital  Apertures, 
312 

Xi  n  icaht  nvata,  184 

Nereids,  Fresh-water,  56 

Sexual  Forms,  439 

Nernst  Lamp,  782 

Nerve-Cells  of  Cockroach,  52 

—  Endings,  6S1 

in  Skin  of  Mammals,  Staining,  666 

of  Nail  Layer  in  Man,  691 

—  Fibrils,  Staining,  666 

—  Nets  in  Vertebrates,  Intra-  and  Extra- 

Cellular,  168 

—  Sheath,  New,  in  Sensory  Nerves,  296 

—  Sheaths,  Sensory,  Method  of  Staining, 

385 
Nerves,  Peripheral,  of  Vertebrates,  168 

—  Regeneration,  424 

—  Sensory,  New  Nerve  Sheath,  296 

—  Ventral,  in  Selachii,  Development,  36 
Nervous  System  and  Subradular  Organ  in 

Solenogastres,  431 

Central,  of  Annelids,  700 

of  Torpedo,  425 

Defining  the  Finer  Structure,  384 

Influence  in  Regeneration,  423 

of  Anodonta,  Distaplia  and  Synapta, 

579 

of  Cyclothone  acclinidens,  298 

of  Trieladidse  from  Baikal,  188 

Relation  to  Developing  Musculature, 

37 
Nestler,  A.,  The  Fungus  of  Lolium  temu- 

li  ntum,  477 
Neumann,  — .,  Bacteriological   Examina- 
tion of  Water  in  Atlantic  Ocean,  111 
Neumann,  R.  O.,  Pathogenic  Capsulated 
Streptococcus  from  the   Naso-pharynx, 
234 
N'eumayer,   L.,    Apparatus    for    Staining 
Simultaneously  Numerous  Sections,  770 
Neurofibrils,  Demonstrating,  765 
—  in  Ganglion  Cells,  Demonstrating,  771 

of  Annelids,  699 

Neuroglia,  Studies,  295 


Neutral  Red  Reaction,  Rothberger's, 
375 

Newell,  E.  A.,  Fossil  Flora  of  the  Culm 
Measures  of  Devon,  69 

Newts,  Spermatophores,  679 

Nieberle,  — .,  Swine  Septicaemia,  490 

Nierstrass,  H.  F.,  Kruppomenia  and  the 
Radulaa  of  Solenogastres,  584 

Nikolski,  M.,  Nutrition  of  Fungi  by  Carbo- 
hydrates, 66 

Niphargus,  Distribution,  54 

Nitrification,  Methods  for  Isolating  Micro- 
organisms of,  376 

Nitrogen,  Atmospheric,  Assimilation  by  a 
Turf  Fungus,  226 

—  Influence  on  Iron  and  Steel,  668 
Niveau,  Bacterial,  of  Beijerinck,  484 
Nopcsa,  F.  B.,  Symbiosis  of  Hydractinian 

with  a  Cephalopod,  584 
Nordenskiold,  E.,  Minute  Structure  of  the 

Tick,  183 
Norman.    A.    M.,    Note     on     Cucumaria 
Montagui,  704 

—  The  British  Tunicata,  583 
No8e-Piece,  Leitz'  Triple  Revolver   with 

Large  Protection  Diaphragm,  507 
Notation     of    Microscopical     Objectives, 

500 
Notoryctes  typhlops,  Anatomy,  172 
Nowikoff,  M„  Methods  of  Examining  the 
Eyes  and  Frontal  Organs  of  Branchi- 
opods,  761 

—  Sense-Organs  of  Limnadia  lenticularis, 

699 
Nuclear  Divisions  in  Endosperm,  709 

—  Fusion  in  Yeast  Spores,  219 

—  Structures,  Accessory,  in  Spermatozoa, 

423 
Nuclei,  Plant,  Fat  Bodies,  624 
Nucleolar  Dissolution,  422 
Nucleolus,  Significance  in  the   Maturing 

Ovum,  166 
Nucleus  and  Cytoplasm,  Relations,  38 

—  of  Hepatic  Cells,  Secretory    Function, 

578 

—  of  Smooth  Muscle  Cells,  Spiral  Coiling, 

680 

—  On  the  Size  of,  326 
Nucula,  Locomotion,  306 

—  New  Sensory  Organ,  585 
Nudibranchs,  Maturation,  178 
Nutnmulites,  Dimorphism,  445 

in  English  Species,  446 

Nusbaum,  J.,   Minute  Structure  of  Gas- 
Gland  in  the  Swim-Bladder,  683 

—  Study  of  Fierasfer,  579 

Nussbaum,  M.,  Intra-Epithelial  Glands, 

578 
Nutrition    and    Humidity,   Influence    on 
Lepidoptera,  588 

—  of  Seed  Plants.     See  Contents,  xxiii 
Nuttall,  G.,  Biology  of  Piroplasma  canis, 

447 


INDEX. 


819 


O. 


Oaks,  Disease,  84 
Obituary,  Ernst  Abbe,  156 
Object-glass,  New  Formula,  499 
Objective,  Abbe  Condenser  UBed  as,  644 

—  Spencer,  103 
Objectives,  Leitz'  New,  500 

—  Microscopical,  Notation,  500 

—  Keicbert's,    with    Bourguet's     Spring 

Safety  Action,  249 

—  See  Contents,  xxxiii 

—  Symmetrical  Optical,  Theory,  501 

—  Telescope  and  Microscope,  Discrepancy 

between     Diffraction     Theory     and 
Geometrical   Optics  in   Actual    In- 
stances, 644 
Object-Stage,  with   Sliding  Measurement 

Adjustment,  497 
Oceanu,   P.,  Influence  of  Ovariotomy  in 

Goat,  423 
Ocelli  in  Periplaneta  and  Cloeon,  307 
Ocular,  Camera,  Leitz',  502 
GSdogonium,  79 
Oenogyna  baeticum,  308 
GCstrid  Larva,  New,  from  Hippopotamus, 

433 
CEstrous  Cycle  in  Ferret,  34 
Oil,  Essential,  Distribution  in  an  Annual 

Plant,  67 
Olfactory  and  Auditory  Sense  of  Spiders, 
309 

—  Buds  in  Vertebrates,  169 

—  Cells  of  Lamprey,  296 

—  Organ,  Development  in  Spinax  niger, 

167 

of  Lamprey,  Development,  577 

"  Olfactory  Seta?,"  so-called,  of  Cladocera, 

437 
Oligochaeta,  Genital  Ducts,  56 

—  of  Lake  Baikal,  594 

—  Vascular  System,  700 
Olive  Trees,  Disease,  619 

Oltmanns,  F.,  Morphology  and  Biology  of 
Algae,  76 

Omelianski,  W.,  Formate  Broth  in  the 
Differential  Diagnosis  of  Micro- 
organisms, 657 

—  New  Colourless  Thiospirillum,  629 
Oogenesis  and   Development  of  Fasciola 

hepatica,  78 

—  in  Vaucheria,  78 

—  of  Branchellion,  595 

Opalina  ranarum,  Longitudinal  Division, 
323 

Opalinid,  New,  61 

Opaque  Objects,  J.  E.  Stead's  Illuminator, 
372 

Ophioglossaceae  and  Marsiliaceaj,  Affini- 
ties, 454 

Ophioglossum  vulgatum,  Prothallium,  202 

Ophiuroid,  Gall-forming  Annelid,  700 

—  New  Devonian,  319 


Opisthenogenesis,  Notes,  295 
Opisthorchis  felineus,  Abnormal  Alimen- 
tary System,  57 
Optical    Aberrations,    Specification    and 
Measurement,  563 

—  Bench  and  Large  Camera,  26S 

—  Contact,    Microscopical  Determination 

of  the  Position  of  a  Reflecting  Sur- 
face during,  756 

—  Convention,  The,  559 

—  Dictionary,  374 

—  Glass,  Possible  Directions  of  Progress, 

572 

—  Instruments,     Consideration     of     the 

Equivalent  Planes,  560 

Czapski's  Elements  of  the  Theory, 

653 

—  Paradox,  417,  557 

—  Problems,  Application  of  the  Undula- 

tory  Theory,  401 

—  Properties    of    Glasses    produced     by 

Cbance  Brothers,  654 
Optics,  Geometrical,   Von   Rohr's  Image- 
formation    from    the    Standpoint    of, 
654 

—  Microscopical.     See  Contents,  xxxv 
Opuntia,  Notes  on  the  Fruits,  451 
Orchids,  German,  Illustrations,  70 
Orestias,    Inferior    Pharyngeal   Bones    in 

Genus,  175 
Organ-Formation  and  Polarity  in  Caulerpa 
prolifera,  465 

—  Peculiar,  in  Phryganids,  694 
Organisms,  Origin  of  Markings,  302 
Organs  of  Pyrenomycetes    and   Deutero- 

mycetes,  Nomenclature,  476 
Oribatid  Mites    from    Neighbourhood   of 

Cambridge,  53 
Oribatidae,  Exhibition  of  Slides,  398 
Orthogenetic     Variation      in     Chelonia, 

Gadow's  Hypothesis,  581 
Ortmann,  A.  E.,  Affinities  and  Distribution 

of  Cambarus,  697 
Osborn,  H.  L.,  Habits  and   Structure  of 

Cotylaspis  insignis,  317 
Osmond,  F.,  Scientific  Development  of  the 

Art  of  Polishing,  535 
Osseous     Tissue,    Peculiar,    of    Sunfish, 

170 
Ostenfeld,  C.  H.,  Studies  on  Phytoplank- 

ton,  210 
Osteologv,    Comparative,    of    Accipitres, 
428 

—  Cranial,  of  Fishes.  45 

Ostergren,  H..  Korean  Holothurians,  704 

—  Northern  Synaptids,  599 
Osterhout,  W.  J.  V.,  Fixation  in  Vacuo, 

527 

—  Imbedding  Microscopic  Alga?,  530 
with  Incomplete  Dehydration,  526 

—  Rapid  Method  of  Mounting  in  Aqueous 

Media,  532 

—  Simple  Freeziug  Microtome,  528 


3  I  2 


S20 


INDEX. 


Ostrrhout,  W.  J.  V.,  Simple    Slide-holder, 

582 
Otterwslder,  A.,  Fruit  Decay  caused  by 
Fungi,  89 

—  Rotting  of  Cherries  by  Glceosporium,  88 
( )t'i<-yats,  Alleged,  of  Aloiopidse,  184 
Otto,  — .,  Bacteriological   Examination  of 

Water  in  Atlantic  Ocean,  1 1 1 
Ondomnns,  C.  A.  J.  A.,  Disease  of  Larch, 
220 

—  New  Parasitic  Fungi,  351 

—  Tobaco  Disease  due  to  Sclerotinia,  218 
Ova  of  Mammals,  Vitellogeuous  Layer  and 

Mitochondria.  576 
Sea-Urcliin,    Merogonic     Develop- 
ment, 598 

Unfertilised,  of  Sea-Urchin,  Artificial 

Production    of    Vitelline     Mem- 
brane, 318 
Ovarian  Extract  of  Frog,  Effect,  687 
Ovariotomy  in  Goat,  Influence  of,  423 
Ovary  and  Testis,  Dermoid  Cysts,  165 

—  of  Termites,  694 
Ovogenesis  of  Sagitta,  315 
Ovularia,  Two  Supposed  Species,  218 
Ovule  and  Seed  of  Anona,  Development, 

604 
Ovum,  Amphibian,  Experiments  on  Cyto- 
plasm, 574 

—  Implantation  in  the  Gopher,  35 

—  Mammalian,   Passage    into    Fallopian 

Tube,  575 

—  Maturing,  Significance  of  Nucleolus  in, 

166 

—  of  Lamprey,  575 

—  of  Spermophilus,  Implantation,  166 
Oxidation,    Relation   to    Functional    Ac- 
tivity, 41 

Oxyuris  vermicularis  in  Peritoneal  Cavity, 

185 
Oyster,  Pearl,  Gill  of,  432 

—  Pearl,  Parasites,  702 

Stru  ture,  691 

Oysters,  Growth,  690 


Pace,    S.,    Species    of    Cucumaria    from 

Plymouth,  189 
Packard,  A.  S.,  Notes  on  Opisthenogenesis, 
295 

—  Origin  of  Markings  of  Organisms,  302 
Paddas,  Trypanosomes,  192 
Paguroids,  Indian  Ocean,  436 

Pairing  of  liana  temporaria,  299 
Pahcarctic      Lepidoptera,    "Synopsis     of 

Families,  432 
Pulse-echinoidea,  Palaeozoic,  Revision,  59 
Palm  and  Sole  in  Primates,  Ridges,  685 

—  Roots,  Anatomy,  194 
Palme'n's  Organ  in  Ephemerids,  182 
I'micratic   Preparation  Microscope,  Stud- 

nicka's,  643 


Pancreatic  Bladder  in  Cat,  580 
Pandalidaa,  Soles,  312 
Panek,  M.  K„  "  Barszcz,"  489 

Pantopodii,  Ceylonese,  697 
Paraffin  and  Agar- Agar  Method  for  Im- 
bedding Plant  Tissues,  527 

—  Imbedding  Bath,  381 

—  Method  for  Freeing  from  Cedar- wood 

Oil,  533 

—  Sections,  Preventing  Rolling,  769 
Parallel  Plate  Micrometer,  566 
Parasites,  Animal,  and  Floral  Teratology, 

68 

—  Fungal,  of  Insects,  478 

—  Internal,  of  Salmon   702 

—  Intestinal,  Alleged  Toxic  Action,  186 

—  of  Pearl  Oyster,  702 

Parasitic  Florideae  of  California,  464 

—  Fungi,  Biological  Species,  and  Develop- 

ment of  New  Forms,  226 

Experiments,  623 

Parasitism,  Artificial,  66 

—  in  Erysiphacese,  Specialisation,  474 

—  of  Fungi,  Recent  Researches,  222 

—  of  Larval  Phoxichilidium  on  Bougain- 

villia,  592 
Parasitology     and     Helminthology,     Re- 
searches, 186 
Parker,  F.  St.  J.,  Keeping  Polyzoa,  774 
Parker,  G.  H.,  Effect  of  Heat  on  Colour- 
Changes  of  Anolis  carol inensi*,  173 

—  Maldive  Cephalochorda,  176 

—  Phototropism  of  Vanessa  anfiopa,  50 
Parkes,  W.  C.  C,  Use  of  Acid  Media  in 

Isolation  of  the  Plague  Bacillus,  378 
Parthenogenesis  Artificial,  Cy tasters  and 
Centrosomes,  167 

—  Artificial,  in  Mactra,  305 
in  Thalassema  mellita,  439 

—  in  Wikstrsemia  indica,  328 

—  Natural  and  Artificial,  290 
Pascher,    A.,    Sexual     Reproduction     in 

Stigeoclonium,  72 1 
Passerini,    N.,    Luminosity     of    Luciola 
italica,  589 

—  Terrestrial   Mite   adapted    to    Marine 

Life.  592 

Passion-Flower,  Regeneration,  327 

Patella  and  Dentaltum,  Germinal  Localisa- 
tion, 305 

Path-Difference,  allowable,  Achromatisa- 
tion  of  Approximately  Mom 'chromatic 
Interference  Fringes  by  a  Highly  Dis- 
persive Medium,  and  the  Consequent 
Increase  in,  521 

Pathologv,  Vegetable,  617 

Paul,  R.  W.,  Locke's  High  Power  Jet,  647 

—  Nernst  Lamp,  782 

—  Optical  Arc  Lamps,  646 

Paulsen.  O.,  Plankton  Investigation  Round 

Icelmd.  340 
Pavlow,   W.,  Creosote  as  a  Dehydrating 

Medium  for  Imbedding  in  Paraffin,  763 


INDEX. 


821 


Peaire,  N.  D.  F.,  Oribatid  Mites  from  the 

Neighbourhood  of  Cambridge,  53 
Pearl  Oyster,  Structure,  691 

—  Oysters,  5S6 

Pearl,  R.,  Variation  and  Correlation  in  the 

Earthworm,  HI 5 
Pecten    and    Mactra,  Adductor    Muscles, 

691 
Pecten  irradians,  Eye,  50 

—  Variations,  49 

Pectoral    Fin,  Shifting   during   Develop- 
ment, 294 
Pedicellina  americana,  Germ  Cells,  442 

Preparing  Germ  Cells,  380 

Pedipalpi,  Structure,  696 
Peglion,  V.,  Disease  caused  by  Penicillium 
glaucum,  621 

—  Vegetable  Pathology,  617 

—  White  Mildew  of  Euonymus,  345 
Peiser,  J.,  Microscopist's  Screen,  374 
Pelagic  Organisms  in  Scottish  Lakes,  583 

—  Tunicate*  of  the  San  Diego  Region,  430 
Pellegrin,  J.,  Inferior  Pharyngeal  Bones 

in  Genus  Orestias,  175 
Pelomyxa  palustris,  630 
Penaeidae  and  Stenopidso,  Atlantic,  594 
Peuard,  E.,  Contractile  Vacuole  in  Amoeba, 
191 

—  Genus  Amoeba,  600 

Penhallow,  D.  P.,   Anatomy   of  Catalpa 

Hybrids,  603 
Penicillium,    Detection     of    Arsenic     by 

Growth  of,  91 
Penicillium  glaucum,  Disease  caused  by, 
621 

—  Isaria  Forms,  220 

—  Morphological   and  Biological  Charac- 

teristics, 221 
Penicillus  and  Rhipocephalus.  212 
Pentanymphon  antarcticum,  310 
Perazzo,   U.,   Variations    in   Hyilrophilus 

piceus,  693 
Perez,  C,  Histolysis  of  Muscles  on  Larval 

Muscidse,  591 

—  Oogenesis  of  Branchelliou,  595 

—  Microsporidian  in  Crabs,  601 

—  Phagocytic  Absorption  of  Spermatozoa, 

576 
Perianth  of  Clivia,  Arrangement  of  Starch 

iu  Starch-Sheath,  6()7 
Perineal  Sac  in  Cavia  cobaya,  300 
Periodicity,   Daily,   of  Cell-Division   and 

Elongation  in  Root  of  Allium,  198 

—  of  Growth  in  Thickness  in  Tropics,  198 
Periplaneta  and  Cloeon,  Structure  of  Ocelli, 

307 
Perithecium  of  Monascus,  84 
Perkins,   G.   H„  Fossil   Fruits   from   the 

Tertiary  Lignites,  453 
Peromelia  glceophila,  467 
Peronospora  in  Vine,  Wintering,  217 
Peronosporse  and  Albugo  Lepigoni,  Studies 

on  Fertilisation,  82 


Perotti,   R.,   Methods   for    Isolating    the 

Micro- Organisms  of  Nitrification,  376 
Perrier,  R.,  Antarctic  Holothuroids,  444 

—  Male  Genital  Organs  in  Sloths,  581 
Perrone,  — .,  Bacteriology  of  Appendicitis, 

632 
Persio-acetic  Acid  as  a  Stain  for  Vegetable 

Tissues,  664 
Pests  of  Cereals,  Inter-relation,  225 

—  Two  New,  of  the  Vine  in  Hungary,  224 
Petals,  Movements,  714 

Peter,  K.,  New  Yolk  Stain,  386 

Petersen,  H.  E.,  Leaf- Nervation  in  some 
Species  of  Bupleurum,  603 

Petersen,  O.,  Position  of  Glycogen  iu  Liver 
Cells,  39 

Petkowitsch,  D.  S.,  Fuchsin-Agar  as  a 
Diagnostic  Medium  for  Typhoid  Bac- 
teria, 378 

Petri,  L.,  Diagnostic  Value  of  the  Capilli- 
tium  of  Tylostoma,  89 

—  Disease  of  Haricot  Beans,  728 
of  Olive  Trees,  619 

—  Researches  on   the  Bacteria  found  in 

the  Intestine  of  the  Larva  of  Mosca 
olearia,  483 
Petrunkevitch,  A.,  Natural  and  Artificial 

Parthenogenesis,  290 
Peziza  ammophila,  Observations,  618 
Pfeffer,  G.,  Zoogeographical  Relations  of 

South  America,  582 
Pfeiffer's  Hot-Air  Chamber,  371 
Phagocytary  Organ  of  Decapods,  312 

—  Resorption    in    Seminal     Vesicles     of 

Lumbricus,  438 
Phagocytic  Absorption  of  Spermatozoa,  576 
— ■  Cells  in  Amphipods,  54 
Phagocytosis,  Experimental,  680 
Phase-Differences,  Influence  of,  on  Images 

of  Gratings  amongst  their  Spectra,  152 
Phase-Reversal    in    Diffraction    Spectra, 

Experimental  Proof,  150 
Phataria,  Variability  and  Autotomy,  442 
Phellomyces  sclerotiophorus,  621 
Philippi.  E.,  Arrhenoid  Changes  in  a  Fish, 

428 
Phillips,  E.   F.,  Preparing  and  Staining 
Eye  of  Honey  Bee,  525 

—  Structure    and    Development    of    the 

Compound  Eye  of   the  Honey   Bee, 
433 
Phillips,  O.  P.,  Cyanophyceaj.  211 

—  Structure  of  the  Cell  of  the  Cyanophy- 

cese,  325 
Phisalix,  O,  Poison  in  Bees'  Eggs,  691 

iu  Viper's  Eggs,  581 

Phosphorised  Portions  in  Iron  and  Steel, 

Methods  for  Detecting  the  More  Highly, 

284 
Phosphorus.  Anaerobic  Cultures  with,  259 
Photugrammetric  Kocimetry,  255 
Photograph    of   Pleurosigma    angulatum, 

taken  by  Mr.  Merlin,  267 


SL'2 


INDEX. 


Photograpbio  Plates,  Action  of  Wood  on, 

332 
Photographing  and  DrawingMicroseopical 

BectionB,  Simple  Apparatus,  <>.~>1 
Photography,  Three-Colour,  104 
Photomicrographio  Camera,  Vertical  and 

Horizontal,  7515 
Photomicrographs  oiBaeiUus  typhosus,  394 
Photomicrography  and  Photoinicrometry, 
100 

—  J.  W.  Gordon's  Apparatus,  (351 

—  Perfectly  Steady  Stand,  652 

—  See  Contents,  xxxv 

—  with  the   Aid  of  Ultra-Violet   Light, 

103,  513 
Photoni ierometry  and   Photomicrography, 

106 
Phototropism  in  Animals,  41 

—  in  Vanessa  antiopa,  50 
Pboxichilidinm,    Larval,    Parasitism    on 

Bougainvillia,  592 
Phragmidium,  The  Genus,  346 
PhreodriluB,  New  Species,  56 
Phryganids,  Peculiar  Organ.  694 
Phthisis,  Pulmonary,  New  Microbe,  487 
PhyUaotinia  corylea,  729 
Phyllophorus  uma,  Internal  Secretion  in 

Gonads,  59S 
Phylogeny  and  Anatomy  of  Haliotis,  431 

—  of  ilexactinellid  Sponges,  189 

—  of  Insects,  586 

—  of  Mammalian  Tongue,  172 

—  of  Post-caval  Vein,  429 

Physa   taslei,   Effect  of  Temperature   on 

Growth,  49 
Physiology  and  Anatomy,  Comparative,  of 
the  Eye,  579 

—  of  Seed  Plants.     See  Contents,  xxiii 
Phytoplankton  of  Asia  Minor,  79 

—  Marine,  724 

—  of  Donjec.  212 

—  of  some  Plbn  Lakes,  209 

—  Studies,  210 

Pick,  F.  K.,  Genus  Raspailia,  190 
Picquenard,  — .,  Lichens  of  Finisterre,  627 
Picric  Acid  and  Bleu-de-Lyon,  Method  of 

Contrast  Staining,  665 
Pictet,    A.,   Influence    of   Nutrition    and 
Humidity  on  Lepidoptera,  588 

—  Modifications  in  the  Development  of 

Lepidoptera,  180 
Pierce,  G.  J.,  Artificial  Parasitism,  66 
Pig,  Forest,  of  Central  Africa,  43 

—  Ganglion  Cells  of  Cerebellum,  425 
Pigeon's  Neck,  Iridescence,  44 
Pigment  of  Silk  of  Antherosa  yana-mai, 

:>\ 

Pillischer's  New  Model  "Kosmos,"  639 
Pines,  Mycorhiza,  65 

—  Rusts.  221 

Pinus,  Life  History,  196 
Piollet,   P.,    Nutritive   Arteries  of   Long 
Bones,  171 


Piovanelli,  G.,  Three  New  Parasitic  Roti- 
fers, 188 
Piperales,  Seed  Development,  605 
Pirone,  R.,  Use  of  Iodine  after  Fixation  in 

Sublimate,  383 
Piroplasma  cants,  Biology,  447 
Pitcher-formation  in  Saxifrages,  326 
Pittard,   E.,   Influence   of  Castration    on 

Size,  294 
Placenta,  Comparative  Anatomy,  166 

—  of  Seal,  166 

—  Studies  on,  678 

Plague  Bacillus,  Use  of  Acid   Media  in 
Isolation,  378 

—  Bacteriology,  378 
Planaria  alpina  in  Belgium,  597 
Planarian,  Laud,  from  Ohio,  317 
Planarians,     Starved,     Degeneration      of 

Gonads,  187 
Planimeter-Ocular  and   New   Microscope 

Model,  Hirschwald's,  640 
Plankton  Crustacea,  Fresh-water,  437 

—  Investigation  round  Iceland,  340 

—  Northern,  79 

—  of  Lake  Lacens,  467 

—  of  Three  English  Rivers,  209 

—  River,  177 

—  Searcher,  New  Method  of  Using,  369 
Planorbis,   Development  of    Kidney   and 

Heart,  584 
Plant  Diseases,  349 

during  the  Year  1903,  349, 733 

Handbook,  623 

in  India  during  1903,  348 

—  Distribution  of    Essential  Oil    in   an 

Annual,  67 

—  Effect    of    Leaf-fungi    on    Productive 

Power,  608 

—  Tissues,  Agar- Agar  and  Paraffin  Method 

for  Imbedding,  527 

Hard,  Celloidin  Method,  262 

Plants  and  Ants,  Relation  between,  453 

—  Asiatic,  200 

—  Californian,  Variation,  199 

—  Common  Roadside,   Localised   Stages, 

199 

—  Cultivated,  Diseases  of,  319,  733 

—  Desert,  Water-Conducting  Systems  of 

some,  603 

—  Diseases,  732 

with  Methods  of  Prevention  or  Cure, 

227 

—  Dried,   Resistance  to   Poisonous    Sub- 

stances, 608 

—  Green,  Carbon   Nutrition   by   Organic 

Substances,  197 

—  Host,  Distribution  of  Uredinese  on,  87 

—  Immunity  to  their  own  Poison,  453 

—  Japanese  Mesozoic,  610 

—  Kinetic  Centres,  709 

—  Leguminous,  Soil  Inoculation  for,  452 

—  Nature  of  Colour,  63 

—  Patagonian,  69 


INDEX. 


82a 


Plants,  Philippine,  70 

—  Rhizomatous,  Appreciation  of  Depth, 

67 

—  Sense-Organs,  67 

Plate  Culture  of  Anaerobic  Bacteria,  110 

Plates,  Wax,  for  Reconstruction  Models, 
Apparatus  for  Making,  389 

Platyhelniintb.es.     See  Contents,  xviii 

Plethodon  oregonensie,  Structure  and  Re- 
generation of  Poison  Glands,  297 

Pleuronectes  cynoglossus,  Early  Stages,  424 

Pleuronectids,  Geographical  Variation,  429 

Pleurosigma  angulatum,  Photograph  taken 
by  Mr.  Merlin,  267 

Pleurotonridae,  Notes,  48 

Plowman,  A.  B.,  Celloidin  Method  for 
Hard  Plant  Tissues,  262 

Plowright,  C,  B.,  British  Mycology,  477 

Plumage.  Fossil,  44 

Plumatella  punctata,  539 

Plurnularidse  and  Campanularidse,  De- 
velopment of  Hydrauths,  189 

Pneumococcus,  Identification  of  Colonies, 
657 

Peecilasma  aurantium,  Structure  and  De- 
velopment, 436 

Poeciloptera,  Species  of,  435 

Poison-Gland  of  Snakes,  Jaw-Muscles  in 
Relation  to,  173 

of  Latrodectus,  696 

of  Plethedon    oregonensis,  Structure 

and  Kegeueration,  297 

Poison,  Immunity  of  Plants  to  their  own, 
453 

—  in  Bees'  Eggs,  691 

—  in  Viper's  Eggs,  581 

—  of  Fungi,  Immunity,  352 
Poisoning  by  Fungi,  226 

—  Micro-Organisms  of  Meat,  486 
Polara,  G.,  Internal  Secretion  in  Gonads 

of  Phyllophorus  urna,  598 
Polariscope,  509 
Polarity  and  Organ-Formation  in  Caulerpa 

prolifera,  465 
Polishing  of  Glass  Surfaces,  567 

—  Scientific  Development  of  the  Art,  535 
Polistes   pallipes,   Demonstrating    Blasto- 
derm, 765 

Pohblepharidese,  New  Genus  of,  340 
Polychseta,  Notes,  184 
Polychsets,    Epitokous,     Modification     of 
Segmental  Organs,  700 

—  Setal  Pockets,  438 
Polymorphism  of  Evernia  furfuracea,  628 

—  of  Spermatozoa,  34 

Polynoid  Commensal  of  Balanoglossus,  314 

Polyparium  ambulans,  599 

Polyporacese  of  North    America. — XL  A 

Synopsis  of  the  Brown  Pileate  Species, 

731 
Polyporus  nigricans,  Destruction  of  Birch 

and  other  Wood,  223 
Polystichum,  202 


Polyzoa,  Keeping,  774 

Pomace  Fly,  Reactions,  590 

Pond  Life,  Exhibition,  396 

Ponies  and  Horses,  Multiple  Origin,  171 

Pontobdella  and  Hirudo,  Crystals,  439 

Porifera.     See  Contents,  xx 

Potato,  Disease,  88 

—  Diseases,  348 

—  Leaves,  Brown  Discoloration.  90 
Potzsch,  O.,  Development  of  Kidney  and 

Heart  in  Planorbis,  584 

Poulton,  E.  B.,  Inheritance  of  Acquired 
Characters  in  Insecta,  307 

Pourievitch,  M.  K.,  Influence  of  Tempera- 
ture on  Respiration,  607 

Powell,  J.  G.  R.,  Copal  as  a  Mounting 
Medium,  387 

Poynting,  J.  H.,  The  Parallel  Plate  Micro- 
meter, 566 

Prain,  D.,  Asiatic  Plants,  200 

—  Mansonieae,  a  New  Tribe  of  the  Natural 

Order  Sterculiaceae,  715 
Pratt,  H.  S.,  New  Distomes,  58 
Preparing   and  Staining    Eye  of  Honey 

Bee,  525 
—  the  Eggs  of  Haminea  solitaria, 

263 

—  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxvii 
Prepin,    O,    Culture    Experiments    with 

Morchella,  472 
Preservative!  Fluids.  See  Contents,  xxxviii 
Preserving   Bacterial    Cultures   for   Class 

Purposes,  Method,  533 
President,  The,   131,  136,   267-269,   394, 

395,  397-399,  780 
President's  Address:  What  were  the  Car- 
boniferous Ferns  ?  135,  137 
Price-Jones,    O,    Examination    of    Bone 

Marrow,  380 
Primates,  Ridges  on  Sole  and  Palm,  685 
Primordia,  Transplantation,  576 
Pritchard,  G.  B.,  Australian  Fossil  Fishes, 

175 
Pritchett,  A.  H,  Auditory  and  Olfactory 

Sense  of  Spiders,  309 
Pro-embryo  of  the  Bennettitse,  1 95 
Projection      and      Drawing      Apparatus, 
Edinger's,  650 

—  Apparatus,  Leitz'  Universal,  504 
with     Optical      Bench     Extension, 

Leppin  aud  Masche's,  647 
Prostate,  Elastic  Tissue,  426 
Protective    Correlated    Devices    in    Sala- 
manders, 174 

—  Resemblance  in  Insecta,  306 
Prothallium  of  Ophioglossum  vulgatum,  202 
Protodrilus,  Regeneration,  438 
Protophyta,  Classification,  210 
Protoplasm,  Circulation  in  the  Mucorini, 

713 
Protopterus  annectans,  Eye,  692 
Protozoa,  Fresh-water,  of  Connecticut,  707 

—  in  Human  Faeces,  600 


824 


INDEX. 


Protozoa,  Staining,  264 

—  8et    OONTBNTS,  xxi 

Prunet,  A..  Notes  on    the  Occurrence  of 

Blaok  Rot,  218 
Prytz,  K.,  Mioroscopioa]  Determination  of 

the    Position    of    a    Kcllecting   Surface 
daring  Optical  Contact,  756 

rsitiiiinoilrtmiuxalijirus,  Ha3mogregarine,62 

Prieii(ln-H8emHl.07.<<a,  1 17 

PBeniloscorpion,  Marine,  from  Isle  of  Man, 

310 
Pseudo-tuberculosis  and  Tuberculosis,  487 
Peilotwn  triquetrum,  Anatomy,  2U1 
Payehoda  eexmmetata,  Structure  and  Life 

I  listory,  693 
Pteridophyta.     See  Contents,  xxiv 
Pterygoid  in  Man,  Ossification,  427 
Ptychodera  erythrsea,  Tilts 
Puociniae  found  on  Umbelliferae,  221 
Pugh,  W  .  T.  G.,  Examination  of  Cultures 

and  Smears  from  Throat  and  Nose.  666 
Pupae.  Influence  of  Low  Temperatures,  50 
Pupal  Suspension  of  Thais,  588 
Pycnogonid,  New,  696 

from  South  Polar  Regions,  55 

Pycnogonids  of  Bermuda,  184 

—  Ten-legged,  310 

I'i/ramiihila  ulternata.  Spire  Variation,  49 
l'vrenomycetes  and  Deuteromycetes,  No- 
menclature of  Organs,  476 
Py renin  Methyl-Green,  386 

Q. 

Quenching   Aluminium    Bronze,    Special 

Constituent  Obtained,  536 
Quercus  rubra  and  other  Woody  Plants, 

Witches'  Brooms  of,  477 


R. 

Rabies,  Is  it  Transmissible  from  Mother 

to  Offspring?  580 
Racovitza,  E.  G.,  New  Cave  Isopod,  ."194 
Radio-active  Bodies,  Spontaneous  Action 

on  Gelatin  Media,  524 
Radiolaria,  Notes,  706 

—  Structure,  191 
Radiolarian  Skeleton,  600 
Radium.  Action  on  Torpedo,  428 

—  Effect  on  Development  of  Amphibia,  34 

—  Heliotropism  Induced  by,  607 

—  Influence  on  Growth  of  Fungi,  69 
Radl,  E.,  Phototropism  in  Animals,  41 

—  Sen.se  of  Healing  in  Insects.  17!) 
Radulse  of    Solenoga&tres,  and    Kruppo- 

menia,  584 
Rae,  C.  British  Mycology,  477 
Kajat.  BI.  II.,  Effect  of  Temperature  on 

Growth  in  J'hysa  taslei,  49 
Ramsch,  A.,  Female  Gonads  of  Cypridina, 

594  J* 


Rana  fusca,  Experimental  Researches  on 
Egg,  422 

—  temporaria,  Pairing,  299 
Rana,  Haemosporidia,  323 

—  Lymph  Hearts,  40 
Ranatra  fusca,  Stridulation,  52 
Raper,  C.  V..  A  New  Spherometer,  255 
Raspailia,  Genus,  190 

Rat  Louse,  Sexual  Dimorphism,  590 
Ratz,  S.v.,  Dibuthriocephalus  latus  in  Dogs, 

187 
Raunklaer,  C,  Appreciation  of  Depth  in 

Rhizomatous  Plants,  67 
Rauther,  M..  Structure  and  Relationships 

of  Gordiidae,  595 
Rayleigh,     Lord,    An    Optical    Paradox, 
417 

—  The  Polishing  of  Glass  Surfaces,  567 
Reconstruction     Models,     Apparatus     for 

Making  Wax  Plates,  389 

Red  String  of  Sugar  Cane,  231 

Reed,  H.  S.,  Demonstrating  Enzyme- 
secreting  Cells,  264 

Refraction,  Double,  Braun's  Methods  of 
Identifying  Sub-microscopic  Structures 
and  Allied  Investigations  on,  755 

Refractive  Index,  Measurement,  562 

Regeneration  and  Non-Sexual  Reproduc- 
tion in  Sagartia,  321 

—  Influence  of  Nervous  System,  423 

—  in  Larval  Legs  of  Caterpillars,  5S9 

—  in  Linckia  diplax,  598 

—  in  Passion-  b  lower,  327 

—  in  Protodrilus,  438 

—  in  Zamia,  193 

—  of  Anterior  End  of  Body  in  Pupae  of 

Lepidoptera,  51 
Reichert,  C,  Large  Mineralogical  Stand, 
247 

—  Large  Stand,  No.  Ia,  fitted  with  Tip-up 

Stage-Clips,  243 

—  Medium  Dissecting  Microscope,  366 
Microtome,  382 

—  Micro-cope  for  Determining  Hardness 

of  Substances,  247 

—  Microtome  with  Handle,  766 

—  New  Achromatic  Condenser,  371 
Erect  Image  Preparation  System  for 

Preparation  Microscopes,  368 

Large  Stand,  A  1,  with  Extra  Wide 

Tube   and   New   Lateral    Micro- 
meter Screw,  241 
Microscope  for  Brain  Sections,  367 

—  New  Microscope  Stands  with  Handles, 

748 
Mineralogical  Stand,  245 

—  Objectives    with     Bourguet's     Spring 

Safety  Action,  249 

—  Swing-out   Condenser    and    Iris    Dia- 

phragm, 249 

—  Tafner's  New  Preparation  Stand,  368 
Reighard,  J.,   Natural   History   of  Amia 

calva,  45 


INDEX. 


825 


Reinhard,  L.,  Phytoplankton  of  Donjec, 

212 
Reis,  K.,  Minute  Structure  of  Gas-Gland 

in  the  Swim-Bladder,  683 
Reitman,  — .,  Varieties  iu  the  Growth  of 

Bacillus  pyocyaneus  on  Nutrient  Agar, 

112 
Reitzenstein,  W.  v.,  Structure  of  Ocelli  in 

Periplaneta  and  Cloeon,  307 
Rejsek,    J.,    Implantation    of    Ovum    of 

Spermophilus,  166 
Renal  Tuberculosis  in  Carp,  488 
Rendle,  A.  B.,  Patagonian  Plants,  69 
Rennie,  J.,  Islets  of  Langerhans  in  Tele- 

ostei,  39 
Report  of  Council  for  1904,  131 
Reproduction,    Asexual,    Phenomena    in 
Salmacina  and  Filigrana,  594 

—  Non-Sexual,     and      Regeneration     in 

Sagartia,  321 

—  of  Anabsena,  211 

—  Sexual,  in  Rusts,  449 
Reproductive  Organs  of  Amphioxus,  429 
Reptiles  and  Echidna,  Skull,  686 

—  Peripheral  Cell-Groups  in  Spinal  Cord, 

296 
Reptilian  Lower  Jaw,  300 
Resink,  A.  J.,  Fcetal  Membranes,  679 
Resolution  of  Grayson's  Bands,  521 
Respiration,  Influence  of  Temperature  on, 

607 
Respiratory  and  Vascular  Systems  of  Cera- 
todus,  Development,  576 

—  Rhythm  in  Chamaeleon,  44 

—  Tract  of  Birds,  Demonstrating  Struc- 

ture, 762 
Retina  of  the  Nautilus  and  certain  Di- 

branchiate  Cephalopods,  772 
Retzius,  G.,  Accessory  Nuclear  Structures 

in  Spermatozoa,  423 

—  Closure  of  Nasal  Apertures  in  Human 

Embryo,  577 

—  Spermatozoa  of  Invertebrates,  576 
Rhabdopleura,  Position,  441 
Rheinberg,  J.,  120,  121 

—  A  Simple  Method  of  Producing  Achro- 

matic Interference  Bands,  568 

—  Doubling  of  Lines  in  the  Abbe  Experi- 

ments  not   due   to  the  Diaphragms 
above  the  Objective,  521 

—  Ernst  Abbe,  156 

—  The  Influence  on  Images  of  Gratings  of 

Phase-Differences      amongst      their 
Spectra,  152 

—  Theory  of  Microscope  Images,  Experi- 

ment, 539 
Rhipidosiphon  and  Callipsygma,  77 
Rhipocephalus  and  Penicillus,  212 
Rhizophores  of  Selaginella,  716 
Rhizopods,  British  Fresh-water,  61 

—  Fresh-water,   New   and   Little  Known 

British,  323 
Rhizopus  oligosporus,  618 


Rhyncliobdellids,  Blood-vessels,  595 
Rhynchota,  Maternal  Instinct,  181 
llhyosa  permasoria,  Stalked  Eggs,  308 
Ribes  alpinum,  Leaf-Disease,  88 
Richardson,  H.,  New  Genus  of  Isopods,099 
Kiche,  A.,  Theory  of  Histological  Staining, 

530 
Richters,  P.,  Eggs  of  Tardigrada,  310 
Rick,  J.,  Laboulbeniacese  from  the  Vorarl- 
berg,  85 

—  Tropical  Hypocreacese,  84 

Riddle,  L.  C,  Development  of  the  Embryo- 
sac  and  Embryo  of  Batrachium  Inngi- 
rottris,  605 

Ridewood,  W.  G.,  Cranial  Osteology  of 
Fishes,  45 

Riemer,  — .,  Septicaemia  affecting  Geese, 
233 

Ries,  J.,  A  Perfectly  Steady  Stand  for 
Photomicrography,  652 

—  Needle  for  obtaining  Blood  for  Examina- 

tion, 389 
RMges  on  the  Sole  and  Palm  in  Primates, 

685 
Riley,     W.    A.,    Development    of    Head 

Skeleton  in  Blatta,  307 

—  Development    of    Head     Skeleton    in 

Cockroach,  181 
Ris,  F„  Peculiar  Organ  in  Phryganids,  694 
Ritter,  W.  E.,  New  Type  of  Ascidian,  47 

—  Notes  on  Young  Enteropneusta,  442 

—  Pelagic  Tunieates  of  San  Diego  Region, 

430 

—  Young  Stages  of  some  Enteropneusta, 

58 

River-Crab  from  Yunnan,  New  Species,  698 

Robinson,  T.,  Notes  on  Radiolaria,  706 

Rock  Crystal,  255 

Rodella,  A.,  Micro-Organisms  in  the  Intes- 
tines of  Infants,  632 

Roe-deer,  Development  of  Pulmonary 
Arteries,  35 

Rogers,  F.,  Heat  Treatment  and  Fatigue 
of  Steel,  776 

—  The  Elastic  Properties  of  Steel  at  High 

Temperatures,  776 
Rogers,  L.,  Trypanosomes  and  Leishman- 

Donovan  Bodies,  192 
Rogers,  W.  S.,  Old  Microscope  by  W.  &  S. 

Jones,  635 
Rohde,  E.,  The  Histology  of  the  Cell,  38 
Rohler,  E.,  Antennary   Sense   Organs   of 

Tryxalis  naxuta,  51 
Rohr,  M.  v.,  Image  Formation  in  Optical 
Instruments  from  the  Standpoint  of 
Geometrical  Optics,  654 

—  Photomicrography    with    Ultra-Violet 

Light,  513 
Rolfs,  F.  M.,  Potato  Diseases,  348 
Rolling  of  Paraffin  Sections,  Preventing, 

769 
Romanowski's     Chromatin     Stain,     New 

Method  of  Making,  115 


SLY, 


INDEX. 


Ronciiti,  N.,  Development?  in  Ovule  and 

Seed  ot  Anona,  604 
Root-Elongation     and    Cell-Division     of 

Allium,  Daily  Periodicity,  198 

Root-Hairs,  1  >evelopment,  606 
Roots  and  Shoots  in  Cuttings,  Formation, 
67 

—  Distribution  of  Statoliths.  :;:;! 

—  Traumatic  Curvature,  607 

Rose,  T.  K.j  Certain  Properties  of  Alloys 
of  Silver  and  Cadmium,  1  lit 

Roselle,  P.  D.,  Specific  Peculiarities  of 
External  Genital  Organs  in  Sarcopsylla, 
591 

Rose'n,  N.,  Jaw-Muscles  of  Snakes  in  Rela- 
tion t<>  the  Poison-Gland,  17:5 

Bosenau,  M.  J.,  Blood  Spreader,  525 

—  Methods  for  Determining  the  Immunity 

Unit    for  Standardising   Diphtheria 
Antitoxin,  658 
Bosenhain.  W.,  Further  Observations  on 
Slip-Bands   in    Metallic    Fractures, 
391 

—  Possible    Directions    of    Progress    in 

Optical  Glass,  572 

—  The  Mechanical  Design  of  Instruments, 

573 
Roses,  Revised  Classification,  714 
Rosette  Formation,  Micro-Organism  show- 
ing, 483 
Ross,  H.  C,  Electric  Warm-Stage  for  Use 
with  the  Microscope,  combined  with  a 
Nernst  Lamp  to  Illuminate  the  Micro- 
scope, 250 
Ross,  P.  H.,  Tick  Fever  in  Uganda,  53 
Rossikov,  K.  N.,  Monograph  on  the  Kara- 
Kurt,  592 
Rossiter,  T.  B.,  Gonads  of  Taenia  sinuosa, 

187 
Rost,  E.  R.,  Cultivating  the  Bacillus  of 

Leprosy,  261 
Roth,   A.,   Structure   and    Movements   of 

Spermatozoa,  422 
Roth,  G.,  European  Mosses,  205 
Rothman,  E.  A.,  Glischrobacterium  as  the 
Cause  of  Mucous  Fermentation  of  Urine 
in  Man,  234 
Rotifera.     See  Contents,  xix 
Rotifers,  New,  from  Scotland,  318 

—  Three  New  Parasitic,  188 
Rousselet,  C.  F.,  Adams'  Improved  Lucer- 

nal  and  Solar  Microscopes,  781 

—  Lucernal     Microscope      presented     by 

Lieut.-Col.  Tupman,  397 

—  Old  Microscope  of  the  Culpeper-Soarlet 

type,  made  by  N.  Adams,  397 

—  Plumatella  punctata,  539 

—  Three  Old   Microscopes   presented   by 

Mr.  C.  L.  Curties.  537 
Roux,  J.,  Fresh-water  Decapods  of  Celebes, 
186 

—  Genera  of  Frogs,  428 
Rubaschkin,  W.,   Studies  on   Neuroglia, 

295 


Ruffini,  A.,  Method  of  Staining  Sensory 
Nerve  Sheaths,  385 

—  New  Nerve  Sheath  in  Sensory  Nerves, 

296 
Ruhland,  W.,  Disease  of  Oaks,  84 

—  Effects  of  Copper  on  Fungi,  476 

—  Sclerotinise  of  Fruit  Trees,  618 

—  Studies  on  the  Fertilisation  of  Albugo 

Lepigoni  and  some  Peronosporese,  82 
Ruminants,  Material  for  the  Study.  43 
Russo,  A.,  Internal  Secretion  in  Gonads 

of  Phyllophorus  urna,  598 
Rusts,  Grass  and  Sedge,  Amphispores,  347 

—  Mexican,  622 

—  of  Pines,  221 

—  Sexual  Reproduction,  449 

Ruzicka,  V.,  Demonstrating  the  Structure 
of  Red  Corpuscles.  765 

—  Theory  of  Vital  Staining,  773 


S. 


Sabellarian,  New  British,  184 

Sabin,  C.  G.,  Origin  of  Subclavian  Artery 
in  Chick,  423 

Sablon,  L.  de,  Moss-Sporogonium  Com- 
pared with  Fern-Plant,  458 

Sabussow,  H.,  Nervous  System  of  Tricla- 
didae  from  Baikal,  188 

Saccardo,  P.  A.,  Sylloge  Fungorum,  476 

Saccharomyces  anomalus,  On  the  Oc- 
currence in  Brewing  of  Sake,  619 

Sacculina,  Development,  54 

Sagartia  luciee,  Reproduction  and  Varia- 
tion, 59 

Sagartia,  Regeneration  and  Non-Sexual 
Reproduction,  321 

Sagitta,  Ovogenesis,  315 

St.  Aubyn-Farrer,  O,  Portable  Micro- 
scope, 239 

Saite,  K.,  On  the  Occurrence  of  Saccharo- 
myces anomalus  in  the  Brewing  of  Sake, 
619 

Saito,  K.,  Fungi  Causing  Fermentation,  83 

—  Rhizopus  oligosporus,  618 

Sake',  On  the  Occurrence  of  Saccharomyces 
anomalus  in  Brewing  of,  619 

Sakurai,  T.,  Development  of  Pulmonary 
Arteries  in  Roe-Deer,  35 

Salamanders,  Correlated  Protective  De- 
vices, 174 

Salivary  Glands  in  Nepa  cinerea,  434 

—  Secretion  of  Snail,  585 

Salmacina  and  Filigrana,  Phenomena  of 

Asexual  Reproduction,  594 
Salmon,  E.  S.,  Erysiphaceffl,  345 
of  Japan,  619 

—  Further    Cultural    Experiments    with 

Biologic  Forms  of  the  Erysiphaceaa, 
219 

—  Specialisation    of    Parasitism    in    the 

Erysiphaceae,  474 


INDEX. 


827 


Salmon,  E.  S.,  Internal  Parasites,  702 

—  Two  supposed  Species  of  Ovulaiia,  '218 
Salmonidre,  Development  of  Body-Cavity 

and  Gonads,  87 

—  Telophase  in  Blastomeres,  293 
Bait-Marsh  Amphipod,  Life  of,  437 
Sanchez,  D.,  Endocellular  Tubules,  296 
Sanfelice,    P.,    Streptothrix    psewlo-tuber- 

culosis,  362 

—  Tuberculosis  and  Pseudo-tuberculosis, 

487 
Baniter,  E.  H.,  Etching  of  High  Carbon 

Steel,  775 
Sanzo,  L.,  Apparatus  for  the   Automatio 

Fixation  of  Embryos,  379 

—  Use  of   Electrolysis  for  the  Metallic 

Impregnation  and  Staining  of  Tissues, 
666 
Saprolegniece,  Biology,  343 

—  Fertilisation,  82 

Sarcopsylla,  Special  Peculiarities  of  Ex- 
ternal Genital  Organs,  591 

Sargent,  F.  Le  R.,  Lichenology  for 
Beginners,  628, 736 

Sargent,  P.  E.,  Torus  longitudinalis  of 
Teleost  Brain,  36 

Sauvageau,  C,  Sphacelariacese,  76 

Sauveur,  A.,  Metallography  Applied  to 
Foundry  Work,  535,  671,  777 

Savill,  T.  D.,  Staining  Arteries,  384 

Saw,  Arndt's  Double,  664 

Saxifrages,  Pitcher-formation,  326 

Scaffidi,  V.,  Structure  of  Human  Hypo- 
physis, 40 

Scagliosi,  — .,  New  Method  of  Spore- 
Staining,  385 

Scales,  Axillary,  of  Aquatic  Monocotyle- 
dons, 710 

Scales,  F.  S.,  Elementary  Microscopy,  656 

Scales  of  Pandalidse,  312 

Sch'afer,  E.  A.,  Hydraulic  Theory  of 
Ciliary  Action,  424 

—  Structure  of  Erythrocytes,  425 
Schaper,  A.,  Radium  Effect  on  Develop- 
ment of  Amphibia,  34 

Schardinger,  F.,  Bacillus  macerus,  an 
Acetone-forming  Bacillus,  630 

Scharz,  C,  Bacillus  hypothermos,  a  Micro- 
organism Pathogenic  for  Cold-Blooded 
Animals,  358 

Schaudinn,  F.,  Spirochxta  pallida,  602 

Sclteben,  L.,  Examination  of  the  Sperma- 
tozoa of  Ascaris  megalocephala,  761 

Schellenberg,  D.  H.  C,  Rusts  of  Pines, 
22] 

Schellenberg,  H.  C,  Hemicellulose  as  a 
Reverse  Substance  in  European 
Forest-Trees,  330 

—  New  Sclerotiniae,  84 

Schepotieff,  A.,  Position  of  Rhabdopleura, 
441 

—  Setal  Pockets  in  Polychaets,  438 
Scherffel,  A.,  Chrysomouadinese,  80 


Schiff-Giorgini,  B.,  Difference  of  Beha- 
viour of  Bacillus  typhosus  and  B.  colt 
communis  in  Media  containing  Sulphate 
of  Copper  and  Red  Prussiate  of  Potash, 
660 

Schiffner,  V.,  Nematode  Galls  in  Mosses, 
459 

Schiller,  J.,  Stipular  Formations,  449 

Schively,  — .,  Structure  and  Development 
of  Epiphegus  virginiana,  326 

Schizomycetes.     See  Contents,  xxx 

Schizophyta.     See  Contents,  xxx 

Schizopods,  New,  594 

Schlaginhausen,  O.,  Ridges  on  the  Sole 
and  Palm  in  Primates,  685 

Schlapfer,  V.,  Modification  of  Cornet's 
Forceps,  388 

Schlater,  G.,  Fixation  and  Staining  Muscle 
Fibres,  660 

—  Spiral   Coiling  of  Nucleus  of  Smooth 

Muscle  Cells,  680 
Schmidt,  H.,  Minute  Structure  of  Gecko's 

Foot,  581 
Schmitter,   F.,    Cytological    Changes    in 

Kidney,  426 
Schnaudigel,  O.,  Eyes  of  Vertebrates,  42 
Schneider,  A.,  Axis  of  Gorgonidse,  706 

—  Chroolepus  aureus  a  Lichen,  735 

—  Classification  of  Lichens,  627 
Schneider,  K.  C,  Primitive  Germ-Cells  of 

Ctenophora,  445 

Schneider,  P.,  Oxyuris  vermicularis  in 
Peritoneal  Cavity,  185 

Scholl,  L.  H.,  Identification  of  Trees  in 
Winter,  199 

Schorler,  B.,  Distribution  of  the  Musk 
Fungus,  89 

Schott,  O.,  New  Ultra-Violet  Mercury 
Lamp  (Uviol  Limp),  751 

Schouteden,  H.,  Longitudinal  Division  in 
Opalina  ranarum,  323 

Schouten,  S.  L.,  Pure  Culture  from  Cells 
Isolated  under  the  Microscope,  758 

Schreen,  v..  New  Microbe  of  Pulmonarv 
Phthisis,  487 

Schroder,  U.,  Ventral  Sensory  Organs  of 
PaloloWorm,  l!14 

Schroter,  A.,  Circulation  of  Protoplasm  in 
the  Mucorini,  713 

Schubmann,  \Y.,  Oogenesis  and  Develop- 
ment of  Fasciola  hepatica,  597 

Schulte,  F.,  Anatomy  of  the  Genus  Usnea, 
230 

Schultze,  O.,  Regeneration  of  Nerves,  424 

Schweikart,  A.,  Egg-Envelopea  in  Cepha- 
lopoda and  Chitons,  304 

Sclerospora  macrospora,  82,  83 

Sclerotinia  crataegi,  473 

Sclerotrnia,  Tobacco  Disease  due  to,  218 

Sclerotinia?,  New,  84 

—  of  Fruit  Trees,  618 
Sclerotium  Disease  of  the  Alder,  619 
Scorpion,  Fossil,  from  Lancashire,  182 


828 


INDEX. 


BoorpioDB,  Geographical  Distribution.  695 

1 1    n  ,   The   President's  Address: 

w  i  at    were   the   Carboniferous  Ferns? 

187  .    , 

Bcourfield,  D.  J.,  Fresh-water  Biological 

Stations,  480 

—  So-called  "Olfactory  Setae"  of  Clado- 

cera,  437 
Borew-Barrel  Microscope,  Wilson,  Simple, 

7:;:'.  77-.» 
Beulpin,  Habits,  582 

Bdrinko,  O.  V..  Method  of  Differentiating 
the  Cortical  from  the  Medullary  Portions 
of  Adrenals,  :is  I 
Si  al,  Placenta,  166 
Sea-Mouse,  New  S|>ecies,  438 
Sea- Urchin,     Artificial      Production     of 
Vitelline  Membrane  in  Unfertilised 
Ova,  318 

—  Commensal  Crab,  311 

—  Ova,  Merogonic  Development,  598 
Sea-Urchins  of  German  Deep-Sea  Expe- 
dition, 443 

—  Siamese,  189 
Seaweed  Industries,  016 
Secretary,  The,  395 

Secretions  of  the  Genital  Organs,  165 
Secretory  Apparatus  of  the  Dipterocarpeae, 

326 
Sections,  Several,  fixed  to  Cover-slips  or 
Slides,   Apparatus     for    the   Simul- 
taneous Staining  of,  771 

—  Celloidin,  Method  for  Mounting,  774 

—  Numerous,    Apparatus     for     Staining 

Simultaneously,  770 
Sedges  and  Grasses,  Fossil,  610 
Seed  and  Ovule  of  Anona,  Development, 

604 
Seed-Development  in  Piperales,  605 
Seeds,  Effect  of  Very  Low  Temperatures, 

714 
Seedlings  of  Gesneriacese,  65 
Segmental  Canals,  Persistent,  in  Centrina, 

582 

—  Organs,    Modifications    in    Epitokous 

P.dychaets,  700 
Sekera,    E.,    Viviparity   in   the   Eumeso- 

stoniinse,  188 
Selachian  Ovum,  Development  of  Chromo- 
somes, 679 
Selaehians,  New  Cranial  Nerve,  46 
Selacliii,  Development  of  Ventral  Nerves 

36 
Selaginella,  Rhizophores,  716 
Sellards,  A.  W.,  Anaerobic  Cultures  with 

Phosphorus,  259 
Si  llards.    E.   H.,   Palaeozoic  Cockroaches, 

:;07 
Si  In  us,  C.  F.,  Two  Methods  for  Comparing 
Normal  with  Abnormal  Tissues  under 
the  Microscope,  1J6 
S  eltt  r,  — .,  Spore-Production  by  Bacillus 
anthracis  and  other  Spore-bearing 
Bacteria,  96 


Semadeni,  O.,  Pucciniae  found  on  Umbelli- 

ferao,  221 
Semichon,  L.,  Urate   Cells    in    Hymeno- 

ptera,  589 
Seminal   Duct    in    Amphibia,    Structure, 
683 

—  Vesicles    of    Lumbricus,  Phagocytary 

Resorption,  438 
Senility,  Causes,  430 
Sense-Organs    in    Diptera,    Some     New, 

180 

—  of  Limnadia  lenticular  is,  699 

—  of  Plants,  67 

Sensory  Organ,  New,  in  Nucula.  585 

—  Ventral  Organs  of  Palolo  Worm,  314 
Septicaemia  affecting  Geese,  233 

—  Swine,  490 
Sequoia,  Fossil,  65 

Serbinow,  J.  L.,  Chlamydomonas,  468 

—  Peromelia  gloeophila,  467 
Serkowski,  S.,  New  Levelling  Apparatus, 

259 

Setal  Pockets  in  Polychaets,  438 

Setchell,  W.  A.,  Parasitic  Florideae  of 
California,  464 

Seurat,  G.,  Commensal  Crab  on  a  Sea- 
Urchin,  311 

Sex  and  Size  of  Eggs  in  Lepidoptera.  Is 
there  a  Relation  between?  180 

—  Determination,  167 

—  Female,  Morphological  Superiority,  293 
Sexes,  Proportion  in  Nephrops  norvegicus, 

312 
Sexual  Dimorphism  in  Rat  Louse,  590 

—  Forms  in  Fresh-water  Nereids,  439 

—  Phases  in  Geonemertes,  317 

—  Reproduction  in  Actinomyxidia,  601 
in  Rusts,  449 

—  Reproduction  in  Stigeoclonium,  721 
Sharp,  D.,  Notes  on  Coleoptera,  692 
Shattock,  S.  G.,  Dermoid  Cysts  of  Ovary 

and  Testis,  165 

—  New  Methods  for  Comparing  Normal 

with    Abnormal   Tissues   under   the 
Microscope,  116 
Shattuck,  C.  H.,  Morphological  Study  of 

Ulmus  americanus,  710 
Shells,    Land    and   Fresh-water,   of    the 

Bahamas,  690 
Shimizu,  S  ,  On  the  Magnetisation  and  the 
Magnetic  Change  of  Length  in  Ferro- 
magnetic  Metals   and  Alloys  at  Tem- 
peratures  ranging   from   —186°  C.    to 
+  1200°  C,  671 
Shipley,  A.  E.,  Notes  on  Cestodes,  440 
on  Nematodes,  440 

—  Parasites  of  the  Pearl  Oyster,  702 
Shoots  and  Roots  in  Cuttings,  Formation, 

67 
Shufeldt,  R.  W.,  Classification  of  Birds, 

300 
Shuttleworth,  Old  Microscope  by,  635 
Siding,  A.,  Preventing  Rolling  of  Paraffin 

Sections,  769 


INDEX. 


829' 


Sieve-Tubes  of  Angiosperms,  Structure,  64 

Signer,  M.,  Method  of  Staining  and  Per- 
manently Preserving  Urinary  Sediment, 
774 

Silk- Producing  Apparatus  in  Caterpillars, 
Accessory  Glands,  180 

Silver  and  Cadmium  Alloys,  Certain 
Properties  of,  119 

Silvestre,  F.,  Metamorphosis  of  Lebia 
scapularis,  433 

—  Oenogyna  baeticum,  308 

—  Primitive  Thysanuran,  300 
Simmonds,  — .,  Isolating  Bacillus  typhosus 

from    Blood   and    Organs   after   Death, 

111 
Simmons,   H.   G.,   Marine   Flora   of   the 

N.  Atlantic,  N.  Pacific,  and  Polar  Sea, 

722 
Simpson,  J.  J.,  New   Cavernularid   from 
Ceylon,  445 

—  New  Type  of  Siphonogorgid  Aleyon- 

arian,  706 
SinuBes  and  Caudal  Hearts  in    Teleosts, 

687 
Siphonocladus,  465 
Siphonogorgid   Alcyonarian,    New   Type, 

706 
Sipunculid,  Pelagic,  700 
Sipunculids.  Embryonic  Envelope,  56 

—  Integumentary  Structures,  595 
Sipunculus  nudus,  Urns,  56 

Size,  Influence  of  Castration  on,  294 

Skeletun  of  Head  in  Blatta,  Development, 
307 

Skorikow,  A.,  New  Species  of  Echiurus, 
595 

Skrobansky,  — .,  Method  of  Contrast- 
Staining  with  Bleu-de-Lyon  and  Picric 
Acid,  665 

Skull  of  a  Lion,  Notes,  686 

—  of  Echidna  and  Reptiles,  686 

—  Variation  in  Tiger's,  427 

Skulls  of  Teleosts  in  Relation  to  Mode  of 
Life,  174 

Sleep,  Theory  of,  171 

Slide-holder,  Simple,  532 

Slide-holding  Device,  Multiplex,  for  Stain- 
ing Sections,  530 

Slides.    See  Contents,  xxxviii 

Slip-Bands  in  Metallic  Fractures,  Further 
Observations,  391 

Sloths,  Male  (ienital  Organs,  581 

Small  wood,  A.  M.,  Preparing  and  Staining 
the  Eggs  of  Haminea  solitarin,  263 

Smallwood.  M.  E.,  Life  of  Salt-Marsh 
Amphipod,  437 

Smallwood,  W.  M.,  Maturation  and  Fer- 
tilisation of  Haminea  solitaria,  292 

—  Maturation  in  Nudibrancha,  178 
Smeatn,  W.  C,  Notes  on  the  Etching  of 

Steel  Sections,  390 
Smith,  A.  J.,  Blood-Coagulating  Substance 
in  Anchylostoma,  185 


Smith,  B.,  Senility  in  Gastropods,  689 
Smith,   F.   P.,   Spiders    of   the    Erigone 

Group,  182 
Smith,  G.,  Life-History  of  Gnathia  maxil- 

laris,  313 
Smith,  H.  M.,  Seaweed  Industries,  616 
Smith,  R.  G.,  Bacteria  and  the  Gum  of 
Hakea  saligna,  737 

—  and   the   Gum  of  Linseed   Mucilage, 

737 

—  Bacterial  Origin  of  Macrozamia  Gum, 

482 

—  Nutrition  of  Bacterium  Acacise,  99 

—  Origin  of  Natural  Immunity  towards 

the  Putrefactive  Bacteria,  736 

—  Red  String  of  the  Sugar  Cane,  231 

—  Variable  Galactan  Bacterium,  235 
Smith,  S.,  Differentiation  of  the  Human 

and  Bovine  Tubercle  Bacillus,  634 
Smith,   W.    G.,   Sowerby's    Drawings  of 

Fungi,  478 
Smut  Spores,  Infection  of  Cereals,  730 
Suail,  Mud,  Study,  584 

—  Salivary  Secretion,  585 

Snakes,  Jaw-Muscles  in  Relation  to  the 
Poison-Gland,  173 

—  Locomotion,  173 

Snow,  L.  M.,  Development  of  Root-Hairs, 

606 
Soar,  0.  D.,  Two  New  British  Water-Mites_ 

183 
Soil,  Development  of  Yeast,  620 

—  Inoculation     for    Leguminous    Plants,. 

452 
Soils,  Relation  to  Vegetation,  200 
Solanacese  and  Boraginacese,  Inflorescence, 

450 
Sole  and  Palm  in  Primates,  Ridges,  686 
Solenogaster,  Morphology,  585 
Solenogastres,  Nervous  System  and  Sub- 

radular  Organ,  431 

—  New  Genus,  304 

—  Radulse  of,  and  Kruppomenia,  584 
Solereder,  H.,  Witches'  Brooms  of  Quercus 

rubra  and  other  Woody  Plants,  477 
Somcrville,  A.,  Polystichum,  202 
Soiumerfcldt,    E.,    Microscope    specially 

adapted  for  Mineralogical  Investigations 

at  High  Temperatures,  639 
Sorauer,  P.,  Handbook  of  Plant  Diseases, 
623 

—  Injury  due  to  Frost  followed  by  Fungi, 

89 
Sorensen,  W.,  Classification   of  the  Tar- 

tarides,  696 
Soulie',  A.,   Development   of  the  Venous 

System  in  the  Mole,  167 
Soulie',  H.,  Hsemogregarine  in  Psammo- 

dromus  algirus,  62 
Soulier,  A.,  Autu  lids  of  Cette,  594 
Sound  Production  in  Lamellicorn  Beetles, 

308 
Sowerby's  Drawings  of  Fungi,  478 


830 


INDEX. 


Spalding,  E.  S.,  Mechanical  Adjustment 
in  Ctreua  giganteut  to  Varying  Quanti- 
ties of  Stored  Water,  829 

Species,  Formation,  170 

Spectra,  Influence  on  Images  of  Gratings 

of  rhasc-DiHcrenecs  amongst  their,  152 
Spemann,  H.,  Lens  Formation  in  Frog, 

421 
Spenoer  Objective.  103 
Spengel,    J.    W.,    New    Enteropneustan 

Species  From  Naples,  58 
Spermatogenesis  of  Hydra,  705 
Demonstrating,  7G4 

—  of  Syromaste*  marginatum  589 
Spermatophores  of  Newts,  679 
Spermatozoa,   Accessory    Nuclear    Struc- 
tures, 423 

—  Motion,  422 

—  of  Aacarit  megalocephala,  Examination, 

761 

—  of  Crayfish,  5  1 

—  of  1 Hscoglossus  pictus,  166 

—  of  Invertebrates,  576 

—  of  Lamprey,  2H4 

—  Phagocytic  Absorption,  576 

—  Polymorphism,  34 

—  Structure  and  Movements,  422 
Spermatozoon  of  Helix  pomatia,  48 
Sperm-Cells,  Human,  Corpuscle  of,  679 
Spei-mophilus,    Implantation     of    Ovum, 

166 
Sperm-Receptacle  of  Cambarus,  697 
Speschnew.  N.  N.,  Fungal  Parasites  of  the 

Tea  Plant.  224 
Sphacelariacese,  76 
Sphagna  from  Environs  of  Paris,  73 
Spherometer.  New,  255 
Spider,  Social,  Habits  and  Life  History, 

592 
Spiders,  Auditory   and   Olfactory   Sense, 
309 

—  North  American,  696 

—  of  the  Erigone  Group,  182 

Spiess,  ('.,  Digestive  Apparatus  of  Aula- 

stoma,  185 
Spinal  Cord,  Lumbar,  in  Birds,  295 

of  Reptiles,  Peripheral  Cell-Groups, 

296 
Spinax  Niger,  Development  of  Olfactory 

Organ,  167 
Spindle  Formation  in  the  Pollen-Mother- 

Cells  of  Cassia  tomento&a,  193 
Spire  Variation  in  Pyramidula  alternata, 

lit 

Spirilium,  Cholera,  Biology,  361 
Spirillum  pyogenes,  360 
Spirochasta  pallida,  602 
Spirochsetffl  of  Syphilis,  Staining.  529 
Spitta,  E.  .1..  395 
Sponges,  Chilian,  600 
-  Hexactinellid,  Phytogeny,  189 
Spore   Dispersion  in  the  Basidiomyoetes, 

and  the  Biological  Value  of  the"  Basi- 

dium,  223 


Spore  Formation  in  Biddulphia  mobiliensis, 
721 

—  Production  by  Bacillus    anthraci*  and 

other  Spore-bearing  Bacteria,  96 

—  Staining,  385 

New  Method,  385 

Spores.  Germination,  332 

—  Lichen.  Multi-nucleate  Condition,  481 
Sporogonium-formation  in  Liverworts,  In- 
fluence of  Light,  607 

Spring  Safety  Action,  Reichert's  Objec- 
tives with  Bourguet's,  249 
Squamariacese,  New  Genus  of,  340 
Squirrel  from  Burma,  New,  686 

—  New  Hsematozoon  in,  601 
Stage,  Leitz'  Mechanical,  497 
Tliermometric,  507 

—  Watson's  Mechanical  for  Bactil  Micro- 

scope, 743 
Stager,  R.,  Biology  of  Ergot,  729 
Stages,   Localised,  in  Common  Roadside 

Plants,  199 
Stain,  Differential,  for  Gonococcus,  664 

—  for    Vegetable     Tissue,     Persio-acetic 

Acid,  664 

—  New,  Fugent,  384 

—  New  Yolk,  386 

—  Romanowski's  Chromatin,  New  Method 

of  Making,  115 
Staining  and  Cultivating  Amoebae,  112 

Fixation  of  Muscle  Fibres,  660 

Fixing  Nuclei,  660 

Metallic   Impregnation   of  Tissues, 

Use  of  Electrolysis,  666 
Mounting  Algas   and   Fungi,  Easy 

Method,  769 
Permanently     Preserving    Urinary 

Sediment,  Method,  774 

Preparing   Eggs   of  Haminea    soli- 

taria,  263 

Eye  of  Honey  Bee,  525 

Preserving  Algae,  115 

—  Arteries,  384 

—  Capsule,  New  Method,  665 

—  Differential,   of    Bacillus    typhosus    in 

Sections,  265 
of  Typhoid  Bacilli  in  Sections,  385 

—  Diphtheria  Bacillus,  Methods,  386 

—  Glycogen,  New  Method,  385 

—  Histological,  Theory,  530 

—  Negri's  Bodies  in  Hydrophobia,  386 

—  Nerve-Endings  in  Skin  of  Mammals, 

666 

—  Nerve  Fibrils,  666 

—  Nervous   Tissue   with   Gold   Chloride, 

New  Method  of  Rapid,  664 

—  Objects.     See  Contents,  xxxviii 

—  Protozoa,  264 

—  Sections,  Multiplex  Slide-holding  De- 

vice, 530 

—  Sensory  Nerve-Sheaths,  Method,  385 

—  Simultaneous,  of  Several  Sections  fixed 

to  Cover-slips  or  Slides,  Apparatus, 
771 


INDEX. 


831 


Staining  Simultaneously  Numerous   Sec- 
tions, 770 

—  Spore,  385 

New  Method,  385 

—  the  Spirochietffi  of  Syphilis,  529 

—  the  Tubercle  Bacillus  with  Eosin,  529 

—  Tubercle  Bacillus,  6G5 

—  Vital,  Theory,  773 

—  witli   Bleu-de-Lyon   and   Picric    Acid, 

Method  of  Contrast-,  665 

Stamm,  R.  H.,  Insertion  of  Muscles  on  the 
Skeleton  of  Arthropods,  179 

Stand,  Perfectly  Steady,  for  Photomicro- 
graphy, 652 

Standard  Yard,  Imperial,  368 

Stands,  Microscope.     See  Contents,  xxxiii 

Stansfield,  H.,  A  Simple  Pattern  of 
Michel  son  Interferometer,  573 

Starch,  Arrangement  in  Starch-Sheath  of 
Perianth  of  Clivia,  607 

Starch-Grain,  Structure,  193 

Starks,  E.  C.,  Fishes  of  Panama  Bay, 
176 

Starratt,  S.  A.,  Effect  of  Heat  on  Colour- 
Changes  of  Anolis  carolinensis,  173 

Statham,  J.  C.  B.,  Cultivation  of  the 
Leishman  Body,  378 

Statoliths,  Distribution  in  Roots,  331 

Stead.  J.  E.,  269,  272 

—  Engineer's   Metallurgical    Microscope, 

364 

—  Methods  for  Detecting  the  more  Highly 

Phosphorised  Portions  in   Iron  and 
Steel.  284 

—  Micro  -  Metallography    with    Practical 

Demonstration,  273 

—  Micro-Metallurgy,  270 

—  On  Practical  Micro-Metallography,  268 

—  Sulphides  and   Silicates  of  Manganese 

in  Steel,  265 
Stead's  Illuminator  for  Opaque  Objects, 

372 
Stearophora  radicicola,  472 
Stebbing,  J.,  New  Blood  Parasite  of  Frog, 

601 
Stebbins,   J.   H.,   Jun.,   Haamosporidia  of 

Rana,  323 
Steel  and  Iron,  Crystallisation,  777 

Metallography,  775 

Influence  of  Nitrogen,  668 

Methods  for  Detecting  the  more 

Highly  Phosphorised  Portions, 
284 

—  Cooling  in  Quenching,  392 

—  Elastic  Properties  at  High  Tempera- 

tures, 776 

—  Heat  Treatment  and  Fatigue,  776 

—  High  Carbon,  Etching,  775 

—  International    Committee   for    Investi- 

gating the  Constituents,  534 

—  Possible  Non-brittleness  under  certain 

conditions,  119 

—  Sections,  Notes  on  Etching,  390 


Steel  Sulphides  and  Silicates  of  Manganese 

in,  265 
Steels,  Aluminium,  392 

—  Cobalt,  534 

—  High  Speed  Tool,  Types  of  Structure 

and  Critical  Ranges  on  Heating  and 
Cooling  under  Varying  Thermal 
Treatment,  776 

—  Mild,  Brittleness  of  Cemented,  669 

—  Quenched,  Metallography,  392 

—  Special,  777 

—  Ternary,  Classification,  535 
Stefanowska,  M.,  Curves  of  Growth,  685 
Stem-galls,  Anatomical  Investigations,  327 
Stems,  Geotropic  Response,  330 
Stenopidse  and  Penaeidae,  Atlantic,  594 
Stenta,  M.,  Nereicola  ovata  Keferstein,  184 
Stephens,  J.,  List  of  Irish  Ccelentera,  444 
Sterculiaoeae,  Natural  Order,  Mansouieae, 

New  Tribe  of,  715 
Sterigmatocystis,  Stimulation,  713 
Sterzi,  A.  I.,  Peripheral   Cell-Groups  in 

Spinal  Cord  of  Reptiles,  296 
Sterzi,   G.,    Structure   of    Hypophysis    in 

Vertebrates,  169 
Stevens,   N.    M.,   Ovogenesis  of    Sagitta, 

315 
Stiasny,  G.,  Excretory  Apparatus  in  Ento- 

procta,  318 
Stigeoclonium,  Cytology  of  Forms,  616 

—  Sexual  Reproduction,  721 
Stimulation,  Chemical,  of  a  Green  Alga, 

332 
Sti pular  Formations,  449 
Stirling,  J.,  Flora  of  the  Australian  Alps, 

200 
Stirton,  J.,  New  and  Rare  Scottish  Mosses, 

459 
Stitz,   H.,   Genital   Apparatus   of  Trich- 

optera,  53 
Stoll,    O.,    Morphological   and    Biological 

Characteristics  of  Penicillium  Species, 

221 
Stomach,  Epithelium,  170 
Stomata  of  Holacantha,  195 
Stomatopods  and  Decapods,  East  African, 

698 
Stoney,  G.  J.,  On  "  An  Optical  Paradox," 

557 
Stoppenbrink,  F.,  Degeneration  of  Gonads 

in  Starved  Planarians,  187 
Stracke,   G.   J.,    Immunity   of  Plants   to 

their  own  Poison,  453 
Strahl,  H.,  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the 
Placenta,  166 

—  Involution   ot    Uterine   Mucous   Mem- 

brane in  Tarsius,  166 

—  Studies  on  the  Placenta,  679 
Strasburger,  E.,  Apogamy  in  Alchemill 

451 

—  Cytological  Studies  and  Heredity,  709 
Straub,    W.,    Physiological     Studies     on 

Aplysia,  304 


MM  2 


INDEX. 


Btrebel,  M..  Magellan  Species  of  Trophon, 
178 

Stnlil,  K.,  Diffraction-Image  and  Absorp- 
tion-Ima^e,  654 

—  Discrepancy  between  Diffraction  Theory 

and  (-Jeoinrtrical  Optics  in  Actual 
Instances  of  Telescope  and  Microscope 
Objectives,  644 

—  Limit  of  Visibility  of  Isolated  Elements 

in  the  Microscope,  521 
Streptococci,  Differentiation,  259 
Streptococcus,  Pathogenic,  ( 'apsulated  from 

Nuso- Pharynx,  234 
Streptcthrix  pseudo-tuberculosis,  362 
Stress,  Effects  upon  Metals,  391 
Stresses,  Momentary,  in   Metals,   Effects, 

391 
Stricht,  0.  v.  d.,  Vitellogenous  Layer  and 

Mitochondria  in  Ova  of  Mammals,  576 
Stridulation  in  Ranatra  fusca,  52 
Strobell,  E.  C,  Maturation  in    Allolobo- 

phora  fcetida,  438 
Stromson,  F.  A..   Investigating  the  Ana- 
tomy and  Development  of  the  Venous 

System  of  Chelonia,  762 
Strong,   R.   M.,   Iridescence   of    Pigeon's 

Neck,  44 
Strong,  R.  P.,  Virulence  and  Immunising 

Powers  of  Micro-Organisms,  631 
Strongy loides,  New  Species,  702 
Structure  and  Development  of  Seed  Plants, 

Reproductive.     See  Contknts,  xxii 
Structure  and  Development  of  Seed  Plants, 

Vegetative.     See  Contents,  xxii 
Struuk.  H.  F.,  Diseases  of  Cacao,  90 
Stschelkanovzew,    J.    P.,    Maturation   in 

Viviparous  Aphides,  306 
Studnicka,   F.  K.,  Pancratic  Preparation 
Microscope,  643 

—  The  Abbe   Condenser  used  as  an  Ob- 

jective, 644 
Sub-microscopic       Structures,        Braun's 

Methods    of    Identifying,    and    Allied 

Investigations  on    Double     Refraction, 

755 
Subradular  Organ  and  Nervous  System  in 

Solenogasties,  431 
Sugar  Cane.  Red  Strinpr,  231 
Suhr,  J.,  Algae  of  the  "Weser  District,  466, 

723 
Snnd,  O..  Development  of  Olfactory  Organ 

in  Spinux  niger,  167 
Sunfish,  P.  culiar  Osseous  Tissue,  170 
Supino,  F.,   Pi  culiar   Osseous   Tissue   of 
Sunfi-h,  170 

—  Skulls  of  Teleosts  in  Relation  to  Mode 

of  Life,  174 
Suprarenal   Bodies  of  Guinea-Pigs,  Pre- 
paring. 262 

—  Capsules.  2.i7 

Suprarenal*  in  ( J uinea-Pig,  Minute  Struc- 
ture. ITo 

—  of  Mammals,  Intranuclear  Fat,  297 


Swim  Rlander,  Minute  Structure  of  Gas- 
Gland,  683 

Suschkin,  P.,  Comparative  Osteology  of  the 
Accipitres,  428 

Suspension,  Pupal,  of  Thais,  588 

Sutcliffe,  W.  H.,  Fossil  Scorpion  from 
Lancashire,  182 

Sweet,  G.,  Anatomy  of  Notoryctes  typhlops, 
172 

Swellengrebel,  — .,  Morphology  and  Bio- 
logy of  Bacillus  Zopfii,  97 

Swift's  New  Compound  Metallurgical 
Microscope,  366 

Swim-Bladder  of  Fishes,  175 

Structure,  174 

Swimming,  Spiral,  and  Asymmetry,  61 

Swine  Septicaemia,  490 

Swinnerton,  H.  H.,  Shifting  of  Pectoral 
Fin  during  Development,  294 

Sydow,  P.  #  H.,  Uredineae.  475 

Sykes,  M.  L.,  Protective  Resemblance  in 
Insecta,  306 

Syllabus  der  Pfianzenfamilien,  71 

Sylloge  Fungorum,  476 

Symbiosis  of  Hydractinian  with  a  Cepha- 
lopod,  584 

Symmetrical  Optical  Objectives,  Theory, 
501 

Synapta,  Anodonta  and  Distaplia,  Nervous 
System,  579 

Synaptids,  Northern,  599 

Syncerebrum,  Tracheate,  Structure,  306 

SypkeDS,  B.,  Nuclear  Divisions  in  Endo- 
sperm, 709 

Syromastes  marginatus.  Spermatogenesis, 
58  J 

Syzygy  and  Regeneration  in  Comatulidae, 
705 

Szymanski,  M.,  New  Bird  Tapeworm,  440' 


T. 


Tabanidae,  Brazilian,  592 
Tadpoles,  Experiments,  293 

—  Influence  of  Food  on  Length  of  Intes- 

tine, 173 

—  of  Frogs,  Regeneration  of  Limbs,  423 
Taenia  sinuosa.  Gonads,  187 

Tafner's  New  Preparation  Stand,  368 

Tail  in  Ascidian  Larvae,  Mesoderm  Forma- 
tion and  Structure,  303 

Tail- tissues.  Regeneration  in  Anuran 
Larvae,  35 

Takasu,  K.,  Ganglion  Cells  of  Cerebellum 
of  Pig,  4-'5 

Tandler,  J.,  Simple  Apparatus  for  Drawing 
and  Photographing  Microscopical  Sec- 
tions, 651 

Tanks,  Small  Glass,  Method  of  Construct- 
ing, 253 

Tapeworm,  Bird,  New,  440 

Tardigrada,  Eggs,  310 


INDEX. 


833 


Tarozzi,  G.,  Method  for  Growing  Anaerobic 

Organisms    under   Aerobic   Conditions, 

659 
Tarsias,   Involution  of   Uterine    Mucous 

Membrane,  166 
Tartarides,  Classification,  696 
Tascheuberg,   O.,   Btbliotheca  Zoologica, 

583 
Tattersall,  W.  M.,  New  Scbizopods,  594 
Taylor,    Taylor    and    Hobson,    Focusing 

Magnifier,  755,  782 
Tea  Plant,  Fungal  Parasites,  22 4 
Techet,  K.,  Behaviour  of  Marine  Algse  in 

Relation  to  Salinity,  76 
Technique,     Microscopical,     Bohm     and 
Oppel's,  118 

—  Microscopical.     See  Contents,  xxxvi 
Teeth  and  Gills  of  Comephorus,  174 

—  of  Mammalian  Embryos,  765 
Teleosteans,  Haemofia^ellates  in,  323 
Teleostei,  Islets  of  Langerhans,  39 
Teleosts,  Caudal  Hearts  and  Sinuses,  687 

—  Development  of  Myocardium,  168 

—  Skulls,  in  Relation  to   Mode  of  Life, 

174 

—  Trypanosomes    and    Hsemogregarines, 

323 
Tellyesniczky,  K.  v.,  Fixing  and  Staining 

Nuclei,  660 
Temperature,   Effect    of  Very    Low,   on 
Moist  Seeds,  714 

—  Influence  on  Respiration,  607 

—  Low,  Effect  on  Zoospores  of  Algse,  331 

Influence  on  Pupse,  50 

Tentacle,  Apparatus  of  Dactyletra  calca- 

rata,  426 

—  Reflex,  in  Holothurians,  704 
Teodoreseo,  E.  C,  Dunaliella,  a  New  Genus 

of  PolyblepharidesB,  340 

—  The   Effect  of    Low   Temperature  on 

Zoospores  of  Algse,  331 
Teratology,  Floral,  and  Animal  Parasites, 

68 
Termites,  Ovary,  694 
Ternary  Steels,  Classification,  535 
Ternety,  C,  Assimilation  of  Atmospheric 

Nitrogen  by  a  Turf  Fungus,  226 
Tertiary  Mammals,  Evolution,  427 
Testis  and  Ovary,  Dermoid  Cysts,  165 

—  Function  of  Interstitial  Gland.  294 
Testudo  grseca,  Hermaphroditism,  687 
Tetanus  Bacillus,  Isolating  from  Spleen, 

111 

Tbais,  Pupal  Suspension,  588 

Thalassema  mellita,  Artificial  Partheno- 
genesis, 439 

Thallophyta.     See  Contents,  xxv 

Thaxter,  R.,  A  New  Species  of  Wynnea, 
618 

Theory  of  Highly  Magnified  Images,  1 

Thermal  and  Electrical  Effects  in  Soft 
Iron.  667 

Thermocline  and  its  Biological  Signifi- 
cance, 301 

Dec.  20th,  1905 


Thermophilic   Microflora  of   the   Human 

Intestine,  361 
Thesing,  E.,  Spore  Staining,  385 
Thickness,    Periodicity    of     Growth     in 

Tropics,  198 
Thielavia  basicola,  Infection  Experiments, 

619 
Thiele,  J.,  Chilian  Sponges,  600 
Thiospirillum,  New  Colourless,  629 
Thiroux,  — .,   Cultivating  Trypanosomes, 

757 
Thiroux,  M.,  Trypanosoma  paddx,  601 

—  Trypanosomes  in  Paddas,  192 

—  Trypanosoma  duttoni,  708 

Thomas,  O.,  Forest  Pig  of  Central  Africa,  43 

—  New  Squirrel  from  Burma,  686 
Thompson,  J.,  Photomicography  and  Photo- 

micrometry,  106 
Thompson,    M.     T.,     Metamorphoses     of 

Hermit  Crab,  593 
Thompson,  R.   B.,  Megaspore   Membrane 

in  Gymnosperms,  604 
Thomson,    J.    A.,    Deep-Sea    Alcyonaiia 
from  Indian  Ocean,  445 

—  Southern  Antipatharians,  599 

Thon,  K.,  New  Breathing  Organ  in  Mites, 

435 
— ■  Secretion  in  Female  Gonads  of  Hydrach- 

nids,  183 
Thorax  of  Gryllus  domesticus,  181,  4:>4 
Thornely,  L.  R.,  Ceylonese  Hydroids,  705 
Three-Colour  Photography,  104 
Thysanoptera,  Australian,  52 
Thysanuran,  Primitive,  306 
Tick  Fever  in  Uganda,  53 

—  Minute  Structure,  183 

Ticks  as  Transmitters  of  Bovine  Diseases, 

435 
Tidal  Periodicity  in  Idttorina  rudis,  431 
Tiger's  Skull,  Variation,  427 
Tischler,  G.,  Distribution  of  Statoliths,  in 

Roots,  331 
Tissier,  H,  Distribution  of  the  Microbes  in 

the  Intestines  of  Infants,  359 
Tissues,    Normal     and     Abnormal,    Two 

Methods     for     Comparing     under    the 

Microscope,  116 
T.,  J.  Q.,  Staining  and  Preserving  Algse, 

115 
Toads,  Variations,  44 
Tobacco  Disease  due  to  Sclerotinia,  218 

—  Wilt  Disease,  100 

Todd,  J.  L.,  Congo  Floor  Maggot,  694 
Tokarski,   J.,    Phylogeny   of   Mammalian 

Tongue,  172 
Tomoceros,  Ventral  Tube,  182 
Tongue,  Mammalian,  Phylogeny,  172 
Topsent,   E.,  Studies  on   Dendroceratida, 

706 
Tornier,  G.,  Air-Sacs  of  Chaniseleons,  581 
Torpedo,  Action  of  Kadium  on,  428 

—  Central  Nervous  System,  425 

Torre  Bu^no,   J.    R.   De,  Stridulation   in 
Banatra  fusca,  52 

3   K 


83  l 


INDEX. 


Torrey,  II.  B.,  Biological  Studies  on  Cory- 

morpha,  :'>-J<i 
Torrey,    K.    15.,    K<  generation    and    Non- 
Sexual  Reproduction  in  Sagartia,  321 
Torreya  Utvifolia,  Gametophyte  and  Em- 

bryo,  328 
Tonu  longitudinalis  of  Teleost  Brain,  36 
roeh,  .1.  iv..  Internal  Parasites  of  Salmon, 

702 
Totzaaer,  R.  J.,  Kidneys  and  Gonads  of 

Haliotis,  585 
Tourney,  J.   W.,  Notes  on  the   Fruits  of 

Opuntia,  451 
Toxio  Agents,  Effects  upon  the  Action  of 

Bromelin,  008 
Tracheate  Syncerebrum,  Structure,  306 
Trade  Impiessions,  Persistence,  684 
Transpiration  of  Fouquieria  splendens,  711 

—  Relation  to  Growth  in  Wheat,  712 

—  Relative,  of  Old  and   New  Leaves  of 

the  Myrtus  Type,  198 
Transplantation  of  Primordia,  576 
Tra verso.    G.   B.,    Nomenclature    of    the 

Organs  of  Pyrenomycetes  and  Deute- 

romycetes,  476 

—  Sclerospora  macrospora,  83 
Trea>urer's  Account,  1904,  134 
Trees,  Diseases,  348 

—  Fruit,  Canker,  224 

—  Identification  in  Winter,  199 
Trehalose  in  Fungi,  351 
Trematodes,  New,  187,  703 

—  Structure  and  Affinities,  703 

—  Two  Interesting,  317 

Treoster,  C,  Dark  Field  Illumination,  520 
Tretjakoff,D.,  Chromosomes  of  Ascaris,701 
Trichonympha,  Fission,  191 
Trichoptera,  Genital  Apparatus,  53 
Tricladidse  from  Baikal,  Nervous  System, 

188 
Triclads,  Fresh-water,  Excretory  System, 

188 
Trochistia  moniliformis,  466 
Trophon,  Magellan  Species,  178 
Tropidonotus  and  Vipera,  Ear-Bones,  299 
Trotter,  A.,  Plankton  of  Lake  Laceuo,  467 
Trouessart,  E.,  Fertilisation  in  Mites,  435 
Trough,  Monochromatic,  507 
Trow,  A.  H.,  Fertilisation  in  the  Sapro- 

legniese,  82 
True,  F.  W.,  Whalebone  Whales  of  Western 

North  Atlantic,  42 
Trunk-Myotome,  Form,  685 
Trypanosoma  duttoni,  708 
Trypanosoma,  Effect  of  Human  aud  Ape 
Serum,  62 

—  Giant,  in  Bovine  Blood,  191 
Trypanosoma  paddx,  601 

Try  |  anosome,  Frog's,  Culture  in  Leech,  323 

—  of  Dourine,  601 

Trypanosomes    and    Hsemogregarines    of 
Te  hosts,  323 

—  and  Leishman-Donovan  Bodies,  192 

—  and  Tsetse  in  French  Guinea,  192 


Trypanosomes,  Cultivating,  757 

—  in  Anglo-Egyptian  Soudan,  61 

—  in  Paddas,  192 

—  of  French  West  Africa,  192 

—  of  Nagana  and  Mai  de  Caderas,  447 
Trypanosomiasis,    Human    aud    Animal, 

707 
Tryxalis  nasuta,  Antennary  Sense-Organs, 

51 
Tschirch,  A.,  Heterorhizy  in  Dicotyledons, 

330 
Tsetse     and     Trypanosomes    in     French 
Guinea,  192 

—  Fly  and  Trypanosomes,  Exhibition,  782 
Tubercle     Bacillus,     Differentiation      of 

Human  and  Bovine,  634 

Staining,  665 

Tube-Formation  in  Annelids.  55 

Tube  Plan   of   Structure  of  the   Animal 

Body,  301 
Tubercle  Bacilli,  Cultivation  from   Bacte- 
rial Mixtures,  259 

—  Bacillus,  The,  412,  539 
Tuberculosis  and  Pseudo-tuberculosis,  487 

—  Renal,  in  Carp,  488 
Tubeuf,  V.,  Disease  of  Potato,  88 
Tubularia  larynx.  Synonymy,  705 
Tubules,  Endocellular,  296 

Tulips  and  Lily  of  the   Valley,  Botrytis 

Disease,  728 
Tuuicata,  British,  583 

—  Blood  System,  430 

—  See  Contents,  xiii 

Tunicates,    Pelagic,    of   the    San   Diego 
Region,  430 

—  Studies,  177 

Tupman,  Lt.-Col.  G.  L.,  Lucernal  Micro- 
scope, 397 
Turbellaria,  Ceylonese  Polyclad,  703 
Turgesence  in  Fungi,  Effect,  351 
Turner,  — .,  Hardness  of  Metals,  118 
Turntable,  by  A.  Flatters  and  W.  Bailey, 

782 
Tuzson,    J.,    Object-Stage    with    Sliding 

Measurement  Adjustment,  497 
Tylostoma,   Diagnostic    Value    of    Capil- 

litium,  89 
Typhoid    and    Coli    Cultures,    Effect    of 
Coffein,  377 

—  Bacilli,  Endo's  Method  for  Detecting, 

376 

—  Bacteria,  Fuchsin-Agar  as  a  Diagnostic 

Medium,  378 

U. 

Ule,  E.,  Relation  between  Ants  and  Plants, 

453 
Ulmus  americanus,  Morphological  Study, 

710 
Ultra-Microscopic    Observations    on    the 

Decomposition  of  Sulphur  from  Thio- 

sulphuric  Acid  and  of  Selenium  from 

Selenic  Acid,  107 


INDEX. 


835 


Ultra-Microscopical  Particles,  Leitz'  Appa- 
ratus for  Observation,  502 

Ultra-Violet  Light,  Photomicrography, 
513 

Mercury     Lamp,     New     ("  Uviol " 

Lamp).  751 

Photomicrography  with  the  Aid 

of,  103 

Umbelliferse,  Pucciniae  found  on,  221 

Undulatory  Theory,  Application  to  Optical 
Problems,  395,  401 

Ungulate  Mammals,  New  Order,  43 

Unionidse.  North  American,  Derivation, 
690 

Urate  Cells  in  Hymenoptera,  589 

Uredineaj.  86,  475,  730 

—  Distribution  on  their  Host  Plants,  87 

—  Infection  Experiments,  87 

—  North  American,  622 

—  Notes,  222,  346 

—  On  the  Vegetative  Life  of  some,  221 

—  Swiss,  347 

Urinary  Sediment,  Method  of  Staining  and 

Permanently  Preserving,  774 
Urns  of  Sipunculus  nudus,  56 
Uromyces  brevipes  and  V.  punctatostriatus, 
Notes  on  Uredospores,  221 

—  punctatostriatus  and  U.  brevipes,  Notes 

on  Uredospores,  221 
Uromyces  on  Leguniinosse,  89 
Ursprung,  A.,   Periodicity  of  Growth  in 

Thickness  in  Tropics,  198 
Usnea.  Anatomy  of  the  Genus,  230 

—  Studies,  481 

UstilaginesB,  North  American,  345 

Ustilago  Conidia,  Fusion,  730 

Uterine   Mucous   Membrane   in    Tarsius, 

Involution,  166 
Uyeda,  Y.,  Tobacco  Wilt  Disease,  100 
Uzel,  J.,  Cercospora  betic.ola  Parasitic  on 

Sugar  and  Fodder  Beet,  622 


V. 


Vacuole,  Contractile  in  Amoeba,  191 
Valle'e,    M.,    Ticks    as    Transmitters    of 

Bovine  Diseases,  435 
Vanessa  antiopa,  Phototropism,  50 
Vaney,    C,     Deep-Sea    Holothuroids    of 
Indian  Ocean,  444 

—  New  Holothurian  from   French  Coast, 

599 
Vanha,  J.,  Brown  Discoloration  of  Potato 

Leaves,  90 
Variability  of  Hypoihele  repanda.  Notes, 

223 
Variation  of  California  Plants.  199 
Vascular  and  Respiratory  Systems  of  Cera- 
todus,  Development,  576 

—  Bundles  in  Stem  and  Leaves  of  some 

Dicotyledons,  Arrangement,  63 

—  System  of  Ceratodus,  Development,  294 
of  Oligochseta.  700 


Vassal,   J.   J.,    New    Haaniatozoon    in    a 

Squirrel,  601 
Vaucheria,  Oogenesis.  78 
Vegetable  Pathology,  225,  617 
Vegetation,  Relation  of  Soils  to,  200 
Vegetative  Life  of  some  Uredineae,  221 
Vein,  Post-Caval,  Phylogeny,  429 
Veins,  Segmental,  in  Amphioxus,  46 
Veley,  L.  J.,  Bacterial  Rods  of  Pelomyxa 

palustris,  630 
Venous  System,  Development,  in  the  Mole, 
167 

of  Chelonia,  Investigating  Anatomy 

and  Development,  762 
Ventral  Tube  ot  Tomoceras,  182 
Vermaat,  P.,  Epithelium  of  Stomach,  170 
Vertebra ta.     See  Contents,  viii 
Vertebrates    and    Crustacea,   Adipogenic 
Function,  47 

—  Brain  Weight,  685 

—  Eyes,  42 

—  Intra-  and  Extra-Cellular  Nerve  Nets, 

168 

—  Olfactory  Buds,  169 

—  Peripheral  Nerves,  168 

—  Structure  of  Hypophysis,  169 
Vertical  Illuminator,  Improved   Methods 

of  Working  with,  251 

New,  for  Metallurgical  Examina- 
tions, 506 

Vessels,  Fine,  Injection,  763 

Vezey,  J.  J.,  269 

Viala,  P.,  Stearophora  radicicola,  472 

Vibrio  aquatilis  fluoresceins,  Two  Varieties, 
633 

—  cardii,  362 

Vickers,  A.,  Marine  Alga?  of  Barbadoes, 

464 
Vigier,  P.,  Histology  of  Molluscan  Heart- 
Muscle,  304 

—  Myocardium  in  Primitive  Molluscs.  303 
Villard,  J.,  Pigment  of  Silk  of  Anthercea 

y  ana-ma  i,  51 
Vine,  Two  New  Pests,  in  Hungary,  224 

—  Wint.  ring  of  Peronospora  in,  217 
Viper  Embryos,  Ahsorption  of  Yolk,  165 
Vipera    and     Tropidonotus,    Ear  -  Bones, 

299 
Viper's  Eggs,  Poison  in,  581 
Vire',  A.,  Cave  Faunas,  301 
Virulence    and    Immunising    Powers    of 

Micro-Organisms,  631 
Visibility   of   Isolated    Elements   in    the 

Microscope,  Limit,  521 
Vision,  Microscopical,  Theories  of.  540,  541 
Vital  Staining,  Theory,  773 
Vitality  of  Yeast  in  Varying  Conditions, 

219 
Vitelline  Membrane,  Artificial  Production 

in  Unfertilised  Ova  of  Sea  Urchin,  318 
Vitellogenous  Layer  and  Mitochondria  in 

Ova  of  Mammals,  576 
Viviparity  in  Eumesostominse,  188 
Viviparous  Aphides,  Maturation,  306 

3   K   2 


836 


INDEX. 


VK-s.  F..  Histology  of  Molluscan  Heart- 
Muscle,  804 

—  Locomotion  of  Nooula,  806 

—  Myooardiom  in  Primitive  Molluscs,  303 

—  New  Sensory  Organ  in  Nucula,  585 
\    .-lino,  r.,  Phyllactinia  oorylea,  729 
Voinov,   D.    N.,    Function   of  Interstitial 

Gland  of  Testis,  294 
Vole,  Orkney,  301 
Vollbelir,  <  >.',  Microphotoscope,  or  Military 

Staff  Map  Loup,  642,  748 
Volvos.  Swiirnis.  191 
Voss,   F..  Thorax  of  Gryllus  domerficus, 

181,  134 
Vuillemin,  P.,  Hyphoids  and  Bacteroids, 
218 

—  Isaria  Forms  of  Penicillium,  220 

—  Membrane  of  Zygospore,  218 


W. 


Waelsoh,  L.,  Bacillus  involutes,  485 
Wagner,  G.,  Movements  and  Reactions  of 

Hydra,  319 
Walker,  A.  O.,  Ceylonese  Amphipods,  698 
Walker,  J.  F.,  Formation  of  a  Species,  170 
Walker,  J.  W.  T.,  Human  Anal  Glands, 

682 
Walsem,  G.  C.  v.,  Method  of  Removing 
Small  Quantities  of  Centrifuged  De- 
posit. 387 

—  Simple  Form  of  Index  Ocular,  370 

—  The  Micro-Pantograph  as  a  Drawing 

Board,  509 
Walton,  L.  B.,  Laud  Planarian  from  Ohio, 

317 
Warburton,  C,  Oribatid  Mites  from  the 

Neighbourhood  of  Cambridge,  53 
Ward,  H.  B.,  Dermatobla  hominis,  53 
Ward,  H.  M.,  Action  of  Wood  on  Photo- 

graphic  Plates,  332 
Ward,  M.,  Recent  Reserches  on  the  Para- 
sitism of  Fungi,  222 
Warm-Stage,  Electric,  for  use   with   the 
Microscope,     combined     with     a 
Nernst  Lamp  to   Illuminate   the 
Microscope,  250 

Electrically  Heated,  538,  677 

New  Form,  f>37 

Warner,  F.  M.,  Endocladia  muricata,  214 

Wasps,  Social,  of  Para,  309 

Water,   Bacteriological    Examination,    in 

Atlantic  Ocean,  111 
Water-Conducting  Systems  of  some  Desert 

Plants.  6(13 
Water-Mites,  Two  New  British,  183 
Water- Vascular  System  of  Echinoderms, 

Origin,  443 
Waters,  A.  W.,  Bryozoa  from  Franz-Josef 

Land,  58 
Watkin,  E.  L.,  An  Interference  Apparatus 

for  the  Calibration  of  Extensometers,  565 
Watkins-Pitchford,    H.,    Bacteriology    of 

Plague,  378 


Watson's  Mechanical  'Stage  for  "  Bactil " 
Microscope,  743 

—  "  Praxis  "  and  "  Bactil "  Microscopes, 

740 

Wax-Glands  in  Meliponidae,  179 

Wax  Plates  for  Reconstruction  Models, 
Apparatus  for  Making,  389 

Wedding,  K.  H.,  The  Detects  in  Ingot- 
Iron  Castings,  390 

Wederhake,  — .,  Corpuscle  of  Human 
Sperm-Cells,  67'J 

Wehrner,  C.,  Aspergillus,  345 

—  Fermentation  with  Mucor,  472 

—  Fungi  causing  Fermentation,  83 

—  Mucor  Species  and  Alcohol,  618 
Weismann,  A.,  Evolution  Theory,  164 
Wery,  J.,  Experiments  ou  the  Attraction 

of  Bees  by  Flowers,  453 
Wesche',  W.,  Some  New  Sense-Organs  in 

Diptera,  180 
Wesenberg-Lund,  — .,  JEgagropila  sauteri, 

79 
West,  G.  S.,  Desmids  from  Victoria,  724 
West,  G.  T.,  Remarks  on  Gloeocapsa,  210 
West,  W.,  Habitat  of  Lichens,  230 
Whales,    Whalebone,   of  Western    North 

Atlantic,  42 
Wheat,     Relation     of     Transpiration     to 

Growth,  712 
Wherry,  W.  B.,  Biology  of  the  Cholera 

Spirillum,  361 
White,  C.  A.,  Derivation  of  N.  American 

Unionidae,  690 
White,  C.  H.,  Autophytography,  333 
Whitebait,  West  Indian,  Habits,  687 
Whitney,  — .,  Pyronin  Methyl-Green,  386 
Wichmann,  H.,  New  Method  for  Obtaining 

Pure  Cultivation  of  Yeast,  377 
Wiedershiem,  R.,  Cornu  Ammonis  in  Man. 

169 
Wieland,  G.  R.,  Pro-Embryo  of  the  Ben- 

nettitese,  195 
Wikstrcemia  indica,  Parthenogenesis.  328 
Wilhelmi,  J.,  Excretory  System  of  Fresh- 
water Triclads,  188 
Will,  H.,  and  others,  Research  on  Yeast. 

86 
Willcox,  M.  A.,  Habits  of  Tortoise-Shell 

Limpet,  689 
Wille,  N.,  Northern  Plankton,  79 
Williamson,  H.  O,  Early  Stages  of  Pleuro- 

nectes  cynoglossua,  424 
Willow  Canker,  474 
Wilson,   C.   E.  A.,  Elements  of  Applied 

Microscope,  374 
Wilson,  E.  B.,  Cytasters  and  Centrosomes 
in  Artificial  Parthenogenesis,  167 

—  Germinal  Localisation  in  Patella  and 

Dentalium,  305 

—  Mosaic   Development   in   the   Annelid 

Egg,  314 
Wilson   Screw-Barrel  Simple  Microscope, 

636,  739,  779 
Wilt  Disease,  Tobacco,  100 


INDEX. 


837 


Wing-Feathers,  Structure,  683 
Winkler,    H.,    Parthenogenesis    in    Wik- 
strcemia  indica,  328 

—  Regeneration  in  Passion-Flower,  327 
Wintrebert,    P.,    Regeneration    of    Tail- 
\    tissues  in  Anuran  Larvae,  35 
Witches'   Brooms  of    Quercus  rubra   and 

other  Woody  Plants,  477 

on  Pear  Trees,  728 

Wize,  C,  Fungal  Parasites  of  Insects,  478 

Wolfe,  J.  J.,  Cytology  of  Nemalion  multi- 
fidum,  77 

Wolff,  G.  P.,  Development  of  Lichen 
Fruits,  736 

Wolff,  M.,  Fibrillar  Structure  in  Frog's 

K  Liver,  169 

Wolterstorff,  W.,  Pairing  of  liana  tempo- 
raria,  299 

Wood,  Action  on  Photographic  Plates,  332 

Wood,  R.  W.,  Achromatisation  of  Approxi- 
mately Monochromatic  Interference 
Fringes  by  a  Highly  Dispersive 
Medium,  and  the  Consequent  Increase 
in  the  Allowable  Path-Difference,  521 

Woodland,  W.,  Monstrosity  of  Bladder  in 
Frog,  174 

—  Phylogeny  of  Post-caval  Vein,  429 
Woolley,  P.  G.,  Bacillus  violaceus  Manilas, 

362 
Worm,   Palolo,  Ventral   Sensory   Organs, 

314 
Woronin,  M.,  Monoblepharideae,  471 
Wynnea,  A  New  Species,  618 


Xerophilous  Enchytraeidae  of  Switzerland, 

185 
X-Generation  and  2  x-Generation,  611 


Yard,  Imperial  Standard,  368 
Yatsu,   N.,   Cytology    of    the    Forms    of 
Stigeoclonium,  616 

—  Formation    of    Centrosomes    in    Enu- 

cleated Egg- Fragments,  575 
Yeast-Cells,  Vacuoles,  729 

—  Development  in  the  Soil,  620 

—  New  Method  for  Obtaining  Pure  Culti- 

vation, 377 

—  Research,  86.  474 

—  Rose-coloured,  Origin  of,  85 

—  Spores,  Nuclear  Fusion,  219 


Yeast,  Study,  85 

—  Vitality  in  Varying  Conditions,  219 

—  Wild,  Infection,  85 

Yeasts,  Morphology  and  Cytology,  729 

—  of  Charente,  620 

Yerkes,  R.  M.,  Reactions  of  Daphniapulex 

to  Light  and  Heat,  55 
Yokoyama,  M.,  Japanese  Mesozoic  Plants, 

610 
Yolk  Absorption  in  Viper  Embryos,  165 
York,   H.   H.,   A  gar- Agar    and    Paraffin 

Method   for  Imbedding  Plant  Tissues, 

527 
Yung,  E.,  Influence  of  Food  on  Length  of 

Intestine  in  Tadpoles,  173 


Zacharias,  O.,  Swarms  of  Volvox,  191 

Zatnia,  Regeneration,  193 

Zander,  E.,  Male  Genital  Apparatus  in 

Bubalida;,  692 
Zarnik,  B.,  Cell  Migration  in  Caecum  and 
Mid-Gut  of  Amphioxus,  680 

—  Reproductive   Organs    of  Amphioxus, 

429 

—  Segmental  Veins  in  Amphioxus,  46 
Zederbauer,    E.,    Fresh-water    Plankton 

Crustacea,  437 

—  Myxobacteriae,  478 

Zeiss'  New  Laboratory  Stand,  240 
Zeller,  E.  v.,  Spermatophores  of  Newts, 
'     679 
Zellner,  J.,  Chemistry  of  Amanita  mus- 

carius,  475 
Zickes,   H.,   New    Method  for  Obtaining 

Pure  Cultivation  of  Yeast,  377 
Zograf,  N.  v.,  Unpaired  Eye  and  Frontal 

Organ  of  Branchiopods,  55 
Zoo-geographical     Relations      of      South 

America,  582 
Zoogonus  minis,  Maturation,  Fertilisation, 

and  Development,  596 
Zoologischer  Jahresbericht,  684 
Zoology,  Outlines,  42 

—  Pre-Aristotelian,  302 

Zoospores  of  Algae,  Effect  of  Low  Tem- 
perature on,  331 

Zopf,  W.,  Multi-nucleate  Condition  of 
Lichen  Spores,  481 

Zschokke,  F.,  Arctic  Cestodes,  440 

Zygospore,  Membrane,  218 

Zygospores  of  Desmids,  466 


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