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JOURNAL : 


OF THE 


rd 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 34, 1944 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


G. ARTHUR COOPER Lewis V. JUDSON HaRrRaup A. REHDER 
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ERRATA 


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Page 325, col. 2, line 47: For ‘‘marked increase”’ read ‘‘marked local increase.”’ 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 34 


JANUARY 15, 1944 


No. 1 


MEDICINE.—Andreas Vesalius.!| Howarp W. Hacearp, Yale University. 
(Communicated by WiLut1aAM A. Dayton.) 


We commemorate this year the 400th an- 
niversary of the publication by Andreas 
Vesalius of a textbook on human anatomy. 
This recognition, however, is not in grati- 
tude or respect for the anatomical facts that 
he set forth or for the benefit to humanity 
in his or subsequent centuries derived 
directly from the knowledge he gave of the 
structure of the human body. This gratitude 
and this recognition stem from a source far 
deeper and far more fundamental. Vesalius 
was one of that glorious group of revolu- 
tionary leaders whose conflicts were not 
with armies on the battlefield, not for ter- 
ritorial gains or national integrity, but for 
the fundamental right of men to see and 
hear and, seeing and hearing, to believe the 
evidence of their own eyes and their own 
ears. With his scalpel in the dissecting room 
he fought alone for the liberty of human 
thought. Anatomy was only symbolic: his 
field of endeavor might have been religion 
or philosophy—it might have been any 
field of learning. The weapons used by the 
great leaders who have given us the democ- 
racy of thought. and the democracy of be- 
lief-—who have given us intellectual inde- 
pendency and dignity—and the fields in 
which they used these weapons matter 
little; what do count are the battles they 
have won in a common cause. Do not view 
Vesalius as a man who added only to the 
store of human knowledge by telling us the 
structure of the body; view him primarily 
as one who helped to give us freedom of 
thought and opinion; do not view his 
Fabrica as an historical monument to anat- 


+ Address delivered before the WAsHINGTON 
ACADEMY OF SciENcES, November 18, 1943. Re- 
ceived November 25, 1943. — 


omy; but view it as a monument to the 
struggle for truth. 

These words of mine which I use for 
preface would, if they had been said to 
Vesalius, have sounded strange—grandilo- 
quent—yes, they would have sounded silly 
to him. He was a simple and outspoken 
man who could not stomach intellectual 
dishonesty, who had breached the dignity 
of his own profession—and that profession 
was the lowest branch of medicine— 
breached it by pushing away the barber 
who, before the class in anatomy, did the 
mutilating dissection at the haughty direc- 
tion of the professor who deigned to touch 
the body. Vesalius, I am certain, would 
never once have thought of himself as 
struggling for man’s intellectual inde- 
pendence. I am equally certain that he did 
not imagine himself in a struggle of any 
greater magnitude than that, say, of con- 
vincing his teacher in Paris, Jacobus Sylvius, 
that he, Sylvius, did not know the true 
anatomy of the body and that he, Vesalius, 
did. If Vesalius had felt himself a hero, or 
had counted himself a fighter in a struggle 
above the level of the dissecting room, he 
would have shown an egotism that appears 
nowhere in his writings or his actions. It is 


_we who, four centuries later, with the ad- 


vantage of hindsight, can look back and give 
a value to his work that he and his contem- 
poraries could not have given. To him and 
to them his one virtue was his correction of 
anatomical errors and the presentation of 
splendid anatomical illustrations. Today, 
there are far better anatomical textbooks 
than that of Vesalius, and his illustrations 
are now only artistic medical curiosities; da 
Vinci, years before, made drawings that 


wAj\ iz 4g 


2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 1 


were as good. As an anatomist, Vesalius is 
of mild historical interest; his Fabrica, as a 
specimen, is a fine book, but not a great 
book. His greatness and its greatness are 
not in their intended purposes and ends, but 
in: their influence in breaking down a tradi- 
tion that forced an unreality on human 
thought—not alone in anatomy but in all 
medical thought. 

I have used the words ‘‘tradition that 
forced an unreality on medical thought.” 
Let us now, before we turn to the life and 
work of Vesalius, examine something of the 
structure of that tradition. 

As we view medicine over the long ex- 
panse of time, one fact stands out beyond 
all others: medical progress is rare. The 
usual state of medicine is one of stagnation 
and sterility in which, century after cen- 
tury, no new fact, no new application, is 
made; the essence of this stagnation and 
sterility has always been a philosophical 
concept that has, with its ready-made 
answers, stifled the curiosities of men, made 
them content with the knowledge they pos- 
sessed in the belief that they held the ulti- 
mate answers. Medicine progresses only 
when there is dissatisfaction—when igno- 
rance is admitted. 

The first great sterilizing influence on 
medicine—one that held sway from pre- 
historic times—was that which combined 
medicine and religion. This combination 
was the inevitable result of the belief that 
diseases, indeed all the misfortunes of man, 
were due to supernatural influences exer- 
cised at the wills of spirits, gods, and 
demons. Under such a belief there was no 
incentive and no reason to seek the cause 
of disease since the cause was known. All 
that man could do was to devise better 
magic to influence the supernatural crea- 
tures or more clever tricks to outwit them. 


Under this belief man assumed no responsi- 


bility for his physical salvation; that re- 
sponsibility was placed on the spirits or gods 
or demons who controlled his destiny and 
who held disease in their hands as a slave 
driver holds a whip. 

This ancient tradition of primitive medi- 
cine was carried on into the early civiliza- 
tions. The philosophy was not altered, dis- 
satisfaction did not develop, and ignorance 


was not admitted. The alterations were all 
in the externals. The healing temple took 
the place of the tent or cave of earlier times; 
the priest took the place of the savage 
medicine man; and the crude and simple 
spirits that appealed to the savage mind 
were reincarnated as the regimented gods 
and demons and heroes whose names and 
lives are familiar to us from mythology. 

The first break in this priestly healing, 
and consequently the first known period 
of medical progress, came in the classical 
period of Greece. Prior to this break, the 
Grecian medicine was in the hands of the 
priests of Aesculapius. The ministration to 
the ill was in the great and magnificent 
temples devoted to this god. In the statues - 
to him there he was represented as carrying 
in his hand a staff about which twined a 
single snake that remains the emblem of the 
physician even to this day. Represented 
with him was his daughter whose name, 
Hygeia, has given us the English words 
“hygiene,” “hygienic,” and ‘“‘hygienist.” 
The name of his other daughter, Panacea, 
which now means a cure for all diseases, 
has never found a respectable place in 
modern medicine and, with the passage of 
our Federal food and drug laws, has 
diminished in repute even in the field of 
proprietary medicaments. . 

However rigid an impediment to medical 
progress, aS we understand that progress, 
the Grecian healing religion may have been, 
the priests themselves were men of dignity 
and highest integrity. The code of their 
ethics has, like the caduceus of Aesculapius, 
come down to the physician of today; this 
code was incorporated in a temple oath; it 
later was called the oath of Hippocrates, 
and many a doctor of our day, on graduat- 
ing from medical school, has sworn to this 
ancient oath. 

The symbolism in emblem, word, and 
ethics is all that we have retained of this 
priestly medicine. But it was among its 
priests that modern medicine was founded. 
In the Age of Pericles, headed by.a man—or 
he may have been only a name—Hippoc- 
rates, there developed the first scientific 
and progressive medicine of which we have 
any certain knowledge. Under this new 
medicine, man became responsible for his 


: 


JAN. 15, 1944 


own salvation on earth; his problems were 
capable of solution at his own hands; and 
he must seek the solution. Under this phi- 
losophy, which brushed aside the fatalism 
of spiritualistic medicine, there began the 
sound observation by which alone the 
physical nature of man could be discovered; 
by which the causes of his diseases could be 
found out and the remedies obtained. There 
was dissatisfaction with existing knowledge, 
there was frank confession of ignorance, 
and there was deep determination to obtain 
knowledge. And also there was intellectual 
freedom. No man was an authority so great 
that his word must be taken as the truth; 
instead, truth was to be found in the evi- 
dence of eyes and ears and touch and in- 
tegrated with a clear and unbiased logic. 
This period was the great one of medicine; 
it stood out as a mountain peak, to whose 
heights men did not rise again for 18 or 19 
centuries. 

Under Roman conquest the descent be- 
gan; and, with the Fall of Rome, it was 
complete. Men in later days, with the re- 
newal of culture, could again have climbed 
up to the peaks of ancient greatness if the 
way had been open, but in those closing 
years of the Roman period, a barrier—the 
tradition which I mentioned earlier—was 
built across the way. This was the Galenic 
tradition. It was the tradition of authority. 
It was the second great obstacle to the 
progress of medicine, an obstacle that by 
ready-made answers stifled the curiosities 
of men in the belief that they held the ulti- 
mate answers; it closed their eyes and ears 
in the blind and deaf faith in authority. 

The physician Galen, after whom this 
tradition is named, lived in the second 
century A.D. He was a man of great ability; 
he was the founder of experimental physiol- 
ogy, and to him are due basic discoveries in 


anatomy and diagnosis. But, unfortunately, 


he was also the most voluminous medical 
writer of ancient times—dangerous in itself 
and devastatingly so in this instance since 
Galen was also the greatest theorist and 
systematist. We know of 9 books on anat- 
omy; 17 on physiology; 6 on pathology; 16 
essays on the pulse and therapy; 3 books on 
temperament; and 30 on pharmacy. He 
differed from Hippocrates in that instead of 


HAGGARD—ANDREAS VESALIUS 3 


simple observation and interpretation he 
followed a pragmatic system of medical phi- 
losophy. His postulates were based on the 
humoral ideas of Hippocrates, the Pythag- 
orean theory of four elements, and his own 
invention of a spirit or ‘Spneuma”’ permeat- 
ing the body. Using these postulates with 
great ingenuity, he explained every phe- 
nomenon of health and disease in the light 
of pure theory. He had a mania for teleol- 
ogy, which he may have gotten from Aris- 
totle whom he took as his authority. 
Aristotle had said that Nature makes noth- 
ing in vain—that is, every creature serves a 
purpose and is designed for that purpose. 

Unquestionably structure follows func- 
tion in the adaptation of any living creature 
to its environment. But it was not Galen’s 
purpose to show the adaptation. Rather he 
sought to show that fitness to the environ- 
ment was a manifestation of the goodness of 
the Creator. As Neuberger has put it: 
‘Galen made his whole physiological theory 
a skillful and well-instructed special plead- 
ing for the cause of design in Nature, 
whereby he lost himself in a priorz specula- 
tion in attempting to explain Nature’s 
execution before even her mechanism had 
been demonstrated.” And, as Garrison says: 
“He never really sought how an organ func- 
tions but in blind obedience to Aristotle he 
reiterated the transcendental why which 
Kant and Bernard have pronounced forever 
insoluble.” 

His ready-made answers, his polyprag- 
matism, his reason for every phenomenon, 
his purposefulness, his monotheism and 
piety, his assumption of omniscience, all 
appealed to the Moslems who, for a time, 
carried the torch of learning; and they ap- 
pealed also to the Church, which dominated 
the thought of Europe during the next 1300 
years. Up to the time of Vesalius, every- 
thing in anatomy, physiology, diagnosis, 
therapy, and medical theory was referred 
to Galen as the final authority. It was an 
authority from which there could be no ap- 
peal. To deny it might, and did, lead to 
death for heresy. Thus the Galenic tradition 
of enforced authority was the barrier to 
medical progress; it was the barrier that 
was breached by Vesalius; and from this 
breaching the way was opened for modern 


4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


medical progress. From the days of Vesalius 
we date the second great period of medical 
advancement—the period in which you and 
I are fortunate to live, and to which many 
of us here owe our lives. 

Whether Galen had made any dissections 
of the human body we shall never know. 
Probably he had not. At most he may have 
had an occasional glimpse at interior struc- 
tures and some study of some human bones. 
The anatomy that he wrote of was that of 
the ox, the ape, and the hog. But in his 
writings this fact is not stated; it is man 
about whom he appears to be writing and 
to whom he gives a miscellaneous assort- 
ment of organs from the brutes. Man, ac- 
cording to Galen, had the abdominal 
muscles of an ape, a 4- or 5-lobed liver, 
seven segments in the sternum, and two bile 
ducts, and the female had a double-horned 
uterus. Galen further postulated minute 
pores in the septum which separates the 
right and left sides of the heart through 
which the blood was supposed to seep, and 
he found joint lines in the jaws where none 
were ever found afterward. These anatomi- 
cal misfits and vagaries were, to keep an 
anatomical metaphor, the heel of Achilles 
in Galen’s authoritative writings, and to 
them there was added, or subtracted as you 
will, by the scholastics of latter days, a dif- 
ference in the ribs of man and woman dating 
from the birth of Eve. 

These scholastics did not follow the simple 
and obvious procedure of running their 
fingers over the ribs to count them, but in- 
stead, in solemn discussion_with ancient 
authority—not their own observations—as 
premises, they did gymnastics with logie. 
And from this exercise they derived the 
state of man’s ribs, and they believed their 
conclusions as implicitly as they believed 
the teleology, of which they were indeed an 
integral part. Vesalius, in contrast, was one 
of those rude and practical people who out- 
raged the ethics and formality of scholasti- 
cism by feeling and counting the ribs and 
believing what he felt and counted. The 
incredible blindness of scholasticism, the 
belief in authority rather than in fact, is 
summed up for me best in a statement at- 
tributed to a philosopher whose name I can 
not recall. He was being shown some struc- 


vou. 34, No. 1 


ture of the body during an anatomical dis- 
section; the structure differed from the 
authoritative description. His serious and 
considered statement in this dilemma was, 
in effect: ‘I should be inclined to believe the 
evidence of this demonstration if Aristotle 
had not stated specifically to the contrary.” 

It is difficult for us who have been eman- 
cipated in most matters from this type of 
thinking to realize what a hold it can have 
upon the human mind. But the freedom of 
our way of.thinking is as cultivated a one 
as that of blind obeisance to authority. It is 
kept alive by continual cultivation. In a 
generation with other schooling we could 
revert to the subservience to authority and 
be willing to deny the evidence of our own 
eyes and ears. We see something of this in 
the political and racial views of a generation 
that has grown up today in Germany. We 
may call it fanaticism; in reality, however 
undesirable it seems to us, it may be a more 
natural and innate way of human behavior 
than is our democracy of thought. 

Now in the days between Galen and 
Vesalius, there were anatomists of repute 
and there were anatomical dissections of a 
sort. But these anatomists, in the dissec- 
tions they demonstrated, recorded nothing 
to controvert Galen; if some glaring incon- 
sistency forced itself upon them, they 
brushed it aside with the statement that 
the body had changed since Galen described 
Ths 

When the first medical school was 
founded in Europe at Salerno, anatomy was 
taught, so we are told, from dissections of 
the hog. The restorer of human anatomy in 
medical education was Mondino of Bologna. 
In 1315, acting under royal authority, he 
gave a public demonstration of anatomical 
dissection with readings from Galen. In this, 
and in all subsequent dissections until the 
time of Vesalius, the medical student, the 
physician, and the professor did not do the 
dissecting. The spectators sat. or stood in 
the dissecting room; the professor occupied 
a pulpit upon which rested the books of 
Galen; the subject for dissection was on a 
table in front and beneath this pulpit; the 
crude dissection was done by a barber with 
an instrument as large as a cleaver. 

Mondino wrote a textbook of anatomy 


Jan. 15, 1944 


which was issued in manuscript form in 
1316 and was printed in 1478. It was the 
standard textbook in all Italian universities. 
It contained no new facts but was compiled 
from Galen and the Arabic commentators 
-of Galen. In fact, much of the nomenclature 
was Arabic. According to his description, 
the heart was in the center of the body. The 
valves were, to quote, ‘“‘a wonderful work 
of Nature,” but beyond this pious exclama- 
tion of admiration there was no description 
of their function. The blood, according to 
the observations of Mondino, followed pre- 
cisely the course described by Galen in that 
it passed through the septum between the 
right and left side. He says: “To the end 
that the blood which comes to the left 
ventricle from the right, be refined, because 
its refinement is the preparation for the 
generation of vital spirit.’”’ I use this quota- 
tion because this question of the movement 
of the blood was one of the major points at 
which the demonstrations of Vesalius broke 
the Galenic tradition. When he showed that 
the blood did not pass through the septum, 
this finding could not be dismissed on the 
ground of an anatomical variation or of an 
alteration in structure since the days of 
Galen. The passage was basic to Galen’s 
whole concept of physiology. Destroying 
this basis cast doubt not only on Galen’s 
anatomical observations but, far more im- 
portant, it cast doubt upon his whole thesis 
of function. The structures of the body 
might vary; it was obvious that they did in 
gross anatomy as between different men; 
similarly, they might have altered since the 
days of Galen. But it was inconceivable 
that fundamental physiology varied or that 
it had altered since Galen. The structure 
was only the building that housed the 
microcosmos; function—the operation with- 
in—had a more fundamental significance. 

The anatomists who worked between the 
time of Mondino and Vesalius added some 
details to the knowledge of bodily structure 
but none disagreed with Galen. That is, 
none if we except Leonardo da Vinci. He 
believed that a knowledge of artistic anat- 
omy could be gained only at the dissecting 
table. He probably knew Galenic anatomy 
and that of Mondino, but he was his own 
teacher. He left more than 750 sketches of 


HAGGARD——ANDREAS VESALIUS 9) 


bodily structures, strikingly accurate and 
magnificently presented. He was the first 
creative anatomist, but he had no influence 
on the Galenic tradition. He recorded his 
marginal notes in the secretive spirit of the 
times in minor writings. When Vesal'us 
published his Fabrica, and for two centuries 
afterward, Leonardo’s drawings were lying 
unpublished, first as the cherished posses- 
sion of his favorite pupil Melzi, later in the 
Ambrosian Library at Milan, and still later 
forgotten in the Royal Library at Windsor. 

There is one other student of anatomy to 
mention before I come to Vesalius. He is 
Albrecht Diirer. He did nothing to shake 
the Galenic tradition, but in his publication 
on human proportions he made the first at- 
tempt to represent shades and shadows in 
woodcuts by means of crosshatching. This, 
in turn, may have had an influence—and 
this is speculation—upon the work of 
Titan’s pupil van Calcar, who made the 
magnificent wood engravings for the Fa- 
brica of Vesalius. 

Now as to the man himself. Andreas 
Vesalius was born in 1514 under the name 
of Wesalius; the V was substituted for the 
W in the family name in 1537. Three weasels 
were prominently displayed on the coat of 
arms of the family, suggesting that previ- 
ously the family name, which was Whiting, 
had been changed to that of the locality 
that the family claimed as its native place 
—Wesel in the Duchy of Cleves. In the 
family there was a long line of prominent 
physicians who practiced in the courts of 
the period or taught in the universities. 
Andreas’s father was, throughout his life, 
apothecary to Charles V and to Margaret of 
Austria. I mention this court connection 
because it was the father who, on Andreas’s 
early retirement from anatomy, obtained 
for him a place in the court of the Emperor. 

And finally, we know from astronomical 
observations made by Jerome Cardan that 
Andreas was born at 6 o’clock in the morn- 
ing and under favorable stellar influences. 
As a youngster he was sent to the University 
of Louvain, which then was second in 
number of students only to that of Paris. 
Here Andreas obtained an extensive train- 
ing in Greek and Latin, learned much of 
Arabic, and something of Hebrew. But tir- 


6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ing of these dialectics, he, for reasons we do 
not know, turned to the study of anatomy. 
The writings of the church fathers, as ap- 
proved of in the highly orthodox university, 
gave him little substance for the study. For 
an independent, searching mind no satisfy- 
ing anatomical knowledge could be gleaned 
from Albertus Magnus and Michael Scotus. 
And we are told by his contemporaries that 
he soon discovered that the only true text 
of anatomy was the opened body. We are 
told further that he dissected, as has many 
an inquisitive boy, the bodies of mice, 
moles, rats, dogs, and cats. 

In 1533, at the age of 19, he went to the 
Mecca of all medical students—Paris. The 
most notable feature of the medical educa- 
tion at Paris was that it had successfully 
removed the errors which the works of 
Galen had suffered at the hands of the 
Arabic translators. Paris taught pure Galen 
and taught it with a fervor for the orthodox 
as great as any theological institution of the 
period. Of the teachers of great repute 
whom he met in Paris, I mention only one 
because of the conflict that arose later. That 


one was Jacques Dubois, better known as > 


Jacobus Sylvius. He was noted for his in- 
dustry, his eloquence, his command of 
abusive language, and, above all, for his 
avarice. The last of these qualities is testi- 
fied to by his epitaph, which reads: 


SYLVIUS LIES HERE, WHO NEVER GAVE 
ANYTHING FOR NOTHING: 
BEING DEAD, HE EVEN GRIEVES THAT 
YOU READ THESE LINES FOR NOTHING. 


Sylvius started out in life as a philologist, 
but his desire for wealth led him to abandon 
this field and take up medicine. Before he 
had obtained a degree, he began a course 
of medical lectures explanatory of Galen 
and was so successful that the University 
of Paris protested. Consequently, in 1529 at 
the age of about 50, he went to Montpellier 
and obtained his degree. Returning again 
to Paris be became a free-lance teacher and 
again with such effect on university at- 
tendance that the authorities ruled that 
he must once more stop since, so it seemed, 
he had failed to obtain a bachelor’s degree 
before his doctor’s degree. He took two 
years off to satisfy this requirement and 


vou. 34, No. 1 


then, since there could be no further legiti- 
mate protest, he emptied the benches at the 
university as the students flocked to his 
eloquence. Sylvius died in 1555 and, to 
save funeral expenses, was interred in the 
paupers’ cemetery. I have read his epitaph. 

In justice to Sylvius it should be said that 
he was the first professor in France who 
taught anatomy from human dissection. 
But it was dissection after the method of 
Mondino. Never did Galen have a more de- 
vout follower than Sylvius. He declared 
that: ““Galen’s anatomy was infallible, that 
his physiology was divine; and that further 
progress was impossible.’”? And Sylvius, 
with his great learning and equally great 
command of abusive language, was no man 
to be questioned by the 19-year-old Vesa- 
lius, who listened to his lectures and 
watched with distress as the barber mangled 
the anatomical specimen. It is said that in 
sheer desperation the young student some- 
times pushed away the prosectors, took the 
knife in his own hands, and carried out a 
systematic dissection. Recognition was 
given to his ability by one of his teachers, 
Guinter, who said of two of his students: - 
“First, Andreas Vesalius, a young man, by 
Hercules, of singular zeal in the study of 
anatomy; and second, Michael Servede, 
deeply imbued with learning of every kind, 
and behind none in his knowledge of the 
Galenic doctrine.’”?’ As to Michael, there 
was never a more ironic word than that of 
his devotion to Galen; he was the Michael 
Servetus who later, in showing an error of 
Galen, antedated Harvey in postulating the 
circulation of the blood and who, for a 
theological quibble, was burned at the stake 
by order of Calvin and whose books were 
burned with. him. Vesalius succeeded by 
good fortune where Servetus failed. 

In Paris, Vesalius made numerous dis- 
sections and he became a master of the 
bones of the body. This latter knowledge ~ 
was not gained from his professors but in 
the cemeteries, where, as in the grave 
digger’s scene in Hamlet, with the crude 
burials of the times, bones often found their 
way to the surface. 

In 1536—after he had been in Paris three 
years—the Franco-German War broke out 
and Vesalius went to the University of 


Jan. 15, 1944 


Louvain. Soon after his arrival he obtained 
the famous skeleton whose theft is always 
portrayed as the dramatic episode of his 
life. At Paris he had searched for bones in 
‘the cemeteries; jn Louvain he visited the 
gallows outside the city walls and searched 
on the ground. It was there that he found, 
not on the ground but on the gallows, a 
skeleton that was held together by the liga- 
ments and that still possessed the origin 
and insertion of the muscles. It is said to 
have been the skeleton of a famous robber 
who had been roasted to death and then 
picked clean by the birds. There, above the 
eyes of the young anatomist, was what he 
had never seen before, a complete and 
articulated human skeleton. In the past he 
had tried to make one by piecing together 
the bones from many skeletons, gathered 
from different places but this was a prize, 
He climbed the gallows, stole the skeleton, 
and carried it home. One finger, a knee cap, 
and a foot were missing. Again, at night, he 
stole out of the city and searched among the 
decaying bodies until he found the missing 
bones. 

Such dangerous and secret expeditions as 
this soon became unnecessary, for the 
burgomaster of Louvain agreed to furnish 
-Vesalius and his students with anatomical 
material. It was from Louvain that he 
began his career as an author but not on 
anatomy; he published a translation of an 
Arabic work on general medicine. He con- 
ducted public demonstrations of anatomy, 
but some remark of his concerning the seat 
of the soul caused theological criticism and 
threat of formal charges. This threat 
brought caution, and caution brought dis- 
satisfaction. He left Louvain and, in 1537, 
traveled to Venice. 

Here the study of anatomy was actually 
encouraged by the -Theatin monks, who 
_ devoted their lives to the care of the ill. At 
the head of this order was a young man of 
ereat strength of character and _ vision, 
Ignatius Loyola, who was to become the 
founder of the Jesuit order, which was ac- 
cepted by the Pope in the same years that 
Vesalius published his Fabrica. Another 
fortunate meeting for the young anatomist 
was with his countryman Jan Stephen van 
Calcar, student of Titian who was to make 


HAGGARD—ANDREAS VESALIUS 7 


the drawings for the Fabrica. In December 
of the same year that he reached Venice, 
1537, Vesalius received his degree of doctor 
of medicine and almost simultaneously was 
appointed professor of surgery with the 
right to teach anatomy in the University of 
Padua. 

From manuscripts of the period we have 
a fairly clear idea of the way in which he 
taught. The meetings of his classes were in a 
wooden amphitheater, which accommo- 
dated about 500 spectators. Those who at- 
tended were not only medical students but 
also distinguished citizens interested in the 
science of the times. The course occupied 
the full day from early morning until 
evening for a period of three weeks. During 
this entire time, Vesalius lectured, drew 
diagrams, and, with the aid of students, 
made magnificent dissections. No barber 
helped him. He opened the book and turned 
the pages, as it were, of the body himself. 
We have a description of the course he gave 
in December, 1537. Every seat in the 
amphitheater was taken, and all standing 
room was occupied. The professors of the 
university, officials of Padua, members of 
the clergy and learned persons of all ranks 
and positions were there. The crowd ex- 
tended to the very edges of the dissecting 
table. Vesalius—then at the age of 23— 
entered. He made a few remarks as to the 
general importance of anatomy. Then, by 
means of a dog or a sheep, he demonstrated 
the division of the body, the joints, and 
several sorts of flesh, or what today are 
called tissues. Next, he turned to the human 
cadaver and discussed the changes of age 
and the differences of sex. Then came the 
dissection, and with each succeeding day 
there followed a continual demonstration 
with sketches and pertinent discussion of all 
collateral medical, physiological, and patho- 
logical matters. Such was the success of his 
courses that in 1539 and 1540 he was called 
from Padua to Bologna to conduct public 
dissections. Bologna was the ancient home 
of Mondino, who, as you will recall, had - 
revived the practice of teaching human 
anatomy. In Bologna a special amphitheater 
was erected for the dissections by Vesalius. 

In his lectures he could not escape dispu- 
tations, for the errors of Galen were laid 


8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


bare before the audience. Vesalius gave all 
such disputations a close anatomical basis 
and avoided all discussion of theoretical 
physiology. We have an example of this 
later from the Fabrica. There, touching 
upon Galen’s basic theory that the blood 
passed from the right side to the left side 
of the heart through pores in the septum, 
Vesalius says: ‘‘We are driven to wonder 
at the handiwork of the Almighty, by means 
of which the blood sweats from the right 
into the left ventricle through passages 
which escape the human vision.”’ As one of 
his spectators, you could, in pious faith, ac- 
cept that on its face value or, as a skeptic, 
you could read into it what significance you 
wished. | 

The culmination of the career of Vesalius 
at Padua was the publication, in 1543, of 
the Fabrica. It was the result of three years 
of grueling work and no less of constant 
vexation with his friend the artist van 
Calear, who made the woodcuts. These and 
the text were taken over the mountains in 
the summer of 1542 by a merchant named 
Danoni, who delivered them to the printer, 
Oporinus, at Basel. With them there was an 
explanatory letter from Vesalius giving 
minute details of the way in which he 
wanted the book printed. Oporinus at once 
set about having the type cast and the 
pages composed and printed. In those days 
the printer was a scholar, and with him 
there was a group of scholars; he and they 
took over the task not only of printing but 
of revising, editing, and rewriting the 
manuscripts. Early in 1543, however, Vesa- 
lius himself came to Basel and followed the 
book to completion. 

It has been suggested in the past that it 
was Titian himself who made the sketches 
for the woodcuts. This belief led, in the 
years following the publication of the 
Fabrica, to its especially high esteem among 
artists. At the time the woodcuts were 
made, Titian was over 60 and, although still 
vigorous, he was too busy and too honored 
in his established field to undertake the 
drawings for a youthful anatomist in Padua. 
Vesalius did not sign the name of the artist 
in the Fabrica, but increasing evidence 
points to van Calcar. It was he who, in 
1538, made the cuts for certain anatomical 


VOL. 34, No. 1 


sheets which Vesalius issued for his stu- 
dents. The drawings are essentially the 
same as those in the Fabrica, as vividly 
executed and as detailed. 

In the Fabrica, the drawings vary con- 
siderably in merit. Those of the skeleton 
and of the muscles are the best. Those of 
the nervous system are of much less merit. 

The Fabrica consisted of 659 folio pages 
of text: 34 pages of index; 6 pages of preface; 
and 2 pages of a letter to the printer, 
Oporinus. 

From our standpoint, there were many 
unavoidable errors in the anatomical de- 
scriptions in the Fabrica. As Vesalius main- 


‘tained—and soundly so—function can be 


determined only from structure; and there- 
fore it is useless to speculate as to function 
until the structure is known. But even his 
eyes were occasionally blinded by those 
theories of function which he believed were 
facts. He did not know of the circulation of 
the blood but assumed, without apparent 
question, that the blood ebbed and flowed 
in the veins. Hence the anatomical signifi- 
cance of the valves which he saw in the 
veins escaped him completely. He con- 
sidered them mere excrescences that for- 
tunately did not interfere with the flow of 
blood in either direction. 

But such features are carping criticisms. 
The main point is that Galen had been 
wrong. Not wrong in details as Vesalius was 
occasionally, but wrong in plainly observ- 
able facts and in easily demonstrable facts. 
The Fabrica was a denial of Galen. The 
reader could believe Vesalius and his own 
eyes and ears; or he could close his eyes and 
ears and believe Galen. The Fabrica forced 
the issue. And if the reader believed Ve- 
salius and his own senses in anatomy, doubt 
was cast upon all the interlocking system of 
Galenic medicine. 

What is more, the issue now was not be- 
fore a few interested and sympathetic 
spectators in an anatomical amphitheater 
but before the whole world. The Fabrica 
was for all men to read. 

If the physician believed Vesalius, then 
he was forced to throw aside much that he 
had believed and taught and to stop the 
veneration of one who, throughout his 
whole education had been held before him 


Jan. 15, 1944 


as the authority—to discredit the saint, the 
prophet, the dictator of medicine. Men do 
not easily change so radically in matters 
that. would touch them deeply, that would 
shake them from the mental security of an 
orderly and satisfying system of beliefs. 
The intellectual labor of making the change 
bewilders them. To discard what they have 
believed and to follow the teachings of 
another touch upon their egos. Their emo- 
tions rise; and the height of the rise is often 
an indication of depth to which the instru- 
ment has probed their convictions. Sylvius, 
the teacher at Paris, he of the vituperative 
tongue, was a leader in the opposition. He 
spoke of Vesalius as Vesanus (a mad man) 
whose pestilential breath poisoned Europe. 

It is from conflict that views are altered. 
It is only in conflict that sides are taken, 
that wide interest is aroused. This conflict 
was essentially an election; men were mak- 
ing their speeches, as it were, for the candi- 
date of truth: Vesalius vs. Galen. And what 
was most important, many anatomists de- 
cided to settle the choice, not by disputa- 
tion, but by recourse to dissection. 

It was in the midst of this struggle that 
he had precipitated that Vesalius returned 
to Padua from his year’s absence. Padua 
was seething with the controversy. Some of 
his own pupils turned against him. The 
arguments were bitter and personal. Vesa- 
lius was a strong fighter, but he was first 
and foremost an observer and a student. 
Why should he waste his time in arguing 
over the existence of what any fool could 
see with his own eyes? He was disgusted. 
He went to Pisa in 1544 and conducted a 
course in anatomy. He declined the chair in 
that university offered him by the Medici. 
He was tired of the continuing controversy 
—sick of disputes and of persecution by 
members of his own profession. How could 
he study anatomy when interest was only 
in him as the center of a storm and in his 
efforts at defense? In a fit of passion he, at 
the age of 30, threw his manuscripts into 
the fire. This gesture ended his career as a 
scientist. He accepted an appointment as 
physician to Emperor Charles V of Spain. 
Gabriel Fallopius, formerly professor at 
Pisa, and a pupil of Vesalius, was appointed 
at Padua to succeed Vesalius. Fallopius 


HAGGARD——ANDREAS VESALIUS 9 


studied anatomy undisturbed by the storm 
that still raged about his predecessor. 
Vesalius was a court physician; his reputa- 
tion as a physician grew great in Madrid but 
only in Madrid. The scalpel with which he 
had made his dissections grew rusty while 
he treated the maladies of the ladies and 
gentlemen of the court. 

Then in 1561, when he had been 17 years 
away from Padua, he received a book by 
Fallopius—a book of anatomical observa- 
tions. It was a complete confirmation of his 
work. The battle was won. In Padua, in the 
world outside of Spain, one could now speak 
freely against the anatomy of Galen; one 
could use eyes and ears and believe what one 
saw and heard. It was now Fallopius who 
led in anatomy—already men were forget- 
ting Vesalius. That little dart of inescapable 
bitterness that any human being would 
have, even amid his rejoicing at the ac- 
ceptance of his work, is stated deftly by 
Edith Wharton in her poem ‘Vesalius in 
Zante’’: 

Vesalius? Who’s Vesalius? This Fallopius 

It is who dragged the Galen idol down 

Who rent the veil of flesh and forced a way 

Into the secret fortalice of life. 

Then, in 1563, Vesalius made a pilgrim- 
age to Jerusalem. The reason is not known. 
Perhaps it was the restlessness that grew 
out of reading Fallopius and the fact that 
Fallopius had died and the chair at Padua 
was vacant. It may have been a dozen 
reasons, for Vesalius was an impetuous man. 
There is a legend—and I have grave sus- 
picions of all legends of medical history— 
that rests on a letter written in 1565 be- 
tween two physicians of that period: It 
says: ““Doubtless you have heard that he 
went to Jerusalem. The journey had, they 
tell us from Spain, an odd reason. Vesalius, 
believing a young Spanish nobleman whom 
he had attended to be dead, obtained leave 
from the parents to open the body for the 
sake of inquiring into the cause of the illness 
which he did not rightly comprehend. This 
was granted; but he had no sooner made an 
incision into the body than he perceived the 
symptoms of life, and opening the breast 
saw the heart beat. The parents coming 
afterwards to the knowledge of this, were 
not satisfied with prosecuting him for 


10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


murder, but accused him to the Inquisition 
of impiety, in hope that he would be 
punished with greater rigor by the judges of 
that tribunal than by those of the common 
law. But the King of Spain interfered, and 
saved him on condition that by way of 
atoning for the error he should undertake 
a pilgrimage to the Holy Lands.” Edith 
Wharton has put it thus: 


This pilgrimage 
They call a penance—let them call it that; 
I set my face to the East to shrive my soul 
Of mortal sin? So be it. If my blade 
Once questioned living flesh, if once I tore 
The pages of the Book in opening it, 
See what the torn page yielded ere the light 
Had paled its buried characters—and judge! 


VOL. 34, No. | 


Whatever the cause may have been, he 
made the pilgrimage. That was a year, as I 
said, after the death of Fallopius at Padua 
and the chair of anatomy was vacant. Per- 
haps this may have been the cause of the 
journey. If it was, it bore fruit, but fruit 
that was never eaten. In the Holy Land, 
Vesalius received an invitation to resume 
his old chair at Padua. He shipped for 
home. A violent storm swept the Ionian 
Sea, his boat was wrecked on the Island of 
Zante. There, of a sudden and obscure 
malady, he died. He died—the author of 
the Fabrica, which Osler says was ‘‘the 
greatest book ever written, from which 
modern medicine dates.” 


ECONOMICS.—Comparison of two methods of estimating capitalized value of earn- 


ang capacity. A. J. Lorka, New 

Estimates of the capitalized value of 
human earning capacity have been made by 
two different methods. It is rather singular 
that no examination has ever been made 
of the relation between these two methods. 

The first method, dating back to William 
Petty,” computes the capital C which, in- 
vested at an interest rate 7, would yield the 
total annual earnings EF of the population, 
and then regards 


== (1) 


as the capital value of the population of NV 
persons (of all ages and both sexes) or 
C/N as the average value per head of the 
population. 

The second method, developed by Wil- 
liam Farr,’ equates the capital value of a 
wage-earner to the present worth of his net 
future earnings (i.e., earnings less expense 
for his own personal maintenance). De- 
noting the value thus defined by V, for a 
wage-earner of age a, Farr’s method, ex- 
pressed in an algebraic formula, gives 


1 Received October 16, 1943. 

2 Perry, Sir Wiuuram, Political arithmetic, or a 
Discourse concerning the extent and value of lands, 
people, buildings, etc., p. 192. 1699. 

- 3 Farr, Wituram. Journ. Stat. Soc. London, 

1853, p. 43. 


Yorke 


lo 


Lv 


Vi= 


pe LW ,v2t? (2) 


where W, denotes the earner’s neé annual 
earnings at age x to x+1 and v=1/(1-47) is 
the annual discounting factor to reduce fu- 
ture receipts to their present worth at age zx. 
The symbol I,, with its usual significance, 
denotes the number of survivors to age x out 
of ly) born (age zero), and L, is the number 
of persons of ages x to ++] in a “‘life table 
population,” so that within linear approxi- 
mation L,=(Irz+l241)/2. The symbol w de- 
notes the limiting age of life. Since Jp is a 
purely arbitrary constant (the radix. of the 
life table), we can arbitrarily put [)=1. 
Then J, and L,, instead of numbers of in- 
dividuals, represent corresponding propor- 
tions. It will simplify our formulae to adopt 
this convention. 

It is at once obvious that Petty’s and 
Farr’s estimates can not be quite generally 
equivalent, since the total value of the pop- 
ulation, in the sense of Petty’s estimate, 
must depend on the age distribution, as 
must also the value per head deduced from 
it; whereas Farr’s estimate of the value of 
the individual earner does not involve the 
age distribution of the population, as it 
applies specifically to an individual of given 
age. 


JAN. 15, 1944 


The question, however, arises how Farr’s 
estimate, applied to a natural standard 
population, compares with Petty’s applied 
to the same. Such a natural standard is 
presented in a so-called life table popula- 
tion, that is, a stationary population main- 
tained, with constant annual births B and 
an equal number of annual deaths D, under 
the regime of a fixed life table. 

In the stationary population the number 
of individuals between the ages x and x+dz 
evidently is Bl.dx. If w, denotes the aver- 
age annual earnings at age x per head of 
the population of both sexes and of age z, 
then the total earnings of the population 
will be 


E=B [towne (3) 
0 
or, in linear approximation 
FoR So1LW. (4) 
where ; 
W =e (5) 


According to Petty the capital value of 
the population would thus be 


BW. 
ee (6) 


t 


with W, in this case referring to gross earn- 
ings. 

On the other hand, if V, is the average 
value of an individual of age x, in the sense 
of Farr (but averaged over all occupations, 
including unemployed, and both sexes) 
then the sum‘ of these values for all the 
individuals of the population is 


=F f 1,V dx (7) 
0 


or, in linear approximation (trapezoid 
Forma) 


4 We may form this sum in a purely arithmetical 
sense, without committing ourselves to any physi- 
cal interpretation; that is, without enquiring in 
what physical sense, if any, ‘‘Farr Values’? may 
be additive. 


LOTKA—CAPITALIZED VALUE OF EARNING CAPACITY tot; 


=3} Py LV.—BaVol (8) 
0 
and hence, ae (2), with ee, 


oS pe LW wv? 


@ 


0 


(10) 


ys LW .v7til ve 


(11) 


Omitting terms of second degree in the ex- 
pansion of v-V/?=(1-+72)!/?, that is, putting 
p/2=1+7/2 this gives 


J = : ' De eee 
1 
(12) 
= SS LW asish 
0 
or finally, putting 
Xe i 2i aes 
Ago ne 
2 
B | > L.W.- > L.Wewe } 
OE SEE ET eines FG) 


) 


where 6 is (in linear approximation) the 
instantaneous rate of interest correspond- 
ing to an annual rate 7. Petty’s procedure 
for the same stationary population gives 


fi, ben © 
t 4 0 


Thus, even in the simple case of a sta- 
tionary (life table) population, Farr’s pro- 


12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


cedure leads to a result at variance with 
that of Petty. The nature of the difference 
calls for examination. 

The points of difference fall into two 
categories. Those of the first reside merely 
in the kind of data to which the procedures 
have been applied, namely: 

Petty starts from a total gross income of 
a population, and obtains a per capita 
average for the entire population of all 
ages and both sexes by dividing by the 
number of the population. 

Farr applies his procedure to the neé in- 
come of individuals of a specified earning 
capacity. 

The procedure can, however, be applied 
equally to the corresponding gross income, 
and this has actually been the plan adopted 
by A. Barriol.6 Conversely, if the data were 
available, Petty’s method could be applied 
to net income. 

Also, it would be possible to apply Farr’s 
procedure to an average individual repre- 
sentative of all earning capacities and of 
the two sexes jointly. We shall, in what 
follows, assume that this is done, and that 
formula (2) is construed accordingly with 
reference to net earnings. 

Petty’s indirect estimate of the earnings 
of the population as the excess of the total 
income over the income from property is 
questionable. Aside from numerical inac- 
curacies in the data, this method involves 
an error in principle. The earnings of a man 
can not be considered apart from the earn- 
ings of the capital invested in his inanimate 
aids to production. The two form one oper- 
ating unit, and its performance can not be 
summed up by the mere addition of two 
items, one for the human labor, and one 
for the contribution of the machine, plant, 
etc. Even the contributions of the several 
parts of a plant are clearly not additive. 
The productive performance of a motor 
plus machine tool is not the sum of the 
performance of the motor alone—this 
would be zero—plus that of the machine 
tool alone—this also would be zero. In 
the same way the productive performance 


5 Revue Economique Internationale, Dec. 1910; 
March 1911. 


vou. 34, No. 1 


of manufacturing plant without human 
operators would be zero, and the produc- 
tive performance of the human operators 
without the plant, though not necessarily 
zero, would in the majority of cases be 
relatively very small. The performance of 
man plus plant is far from being merely 
the sum of the performance of man alone 
plus that of plant alone. : 

These, then, are incidental differences, 
which, in principle at least, could in part be 
removed by suitable selection of data. 

There remain three fundamental differ- 
ences, not arising merely from the nature 
of the data, but representing inherent de- 
fects of Petty’s method: 

1. Petty’s method gives at best an aver- 
age value per individual of the particular 
population (having a certain distribution 
by sex, age and earning capacity) as 
against Farr’s method, which evaluates the 
individual according to age, the values so 
obtained being then in turn applicable to 
any population. 

2. Petty’s formula as applied to a 
life table population lacks the term 
—B>°*L,W w**?, He has treated the 
capital value of the population as a per- 
petuity, overlooking the fact that actually 
the population suffers a constant drain 
through deaths, which, in a stationary pop- © 
ulation, is replaced by the values of incom- 
ing new births. 

3. A minor correction to apply to Petty’s 
formula is the introduction of the instan- 
taneous interest rate 6 in place of the com- 
mon interest rate 7, to allow for the fact 
that, regarded as an income-yielding capi- 
tal, the population brings a continuous 
income, unlike a loan of money, which 
brings an income at finite intervals. 

These results can be generalized some- 
what. Still considering the case of a popu- 
lation with fixed life table and age-specific 
earning capacity, but with variable annual 
births (and consequently deaths) let us 
denote by B(t—z) the annual births at 
time t—x, so that at time ¢ the number of 
persons of ages x to x+dz will be 
B(t—2z)l,dx. Then, using the instantaneous 
interest rate 6, the Farr value of the popu- 
lation will be 


Jan. 15, 1944 


| [ BU-nlav.e “dade (16) 
0 a 


= f BU-Dlaoe | eedzda 
0 0 


J°B(t—a)l,wda— [°B(t—a)lw dx 
a 5 


(17) 


(18) 


KIRK—A NEW RHODOCRINOID GENUS 13 


Petty’s procedure in analogous application 
would give 


pada BP wate 


; (19) 


which lacks the second term of the result 
given by Farr’s procedure. 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Cribanocrinus, a new rhodocrinoid genus.: Epwin Kirk, 


U. 8. Geological Survey. 


The genus Rhodocrinus, in common with 
other early crinoid genera, has had a great 
number of diverse forms referred to it. Sev- 
eral genera have been separated from this 
amorphous assemblage in the past. It is 
here proposed to erect another genus, C77- 
banocrinus, for the reception of a fairly 
homogeneous. group of species from the 
lower Mississippian. 


Cribanocrinus, n. g. 


Synonym.—Rhodocrinus (in part of authors). 
Genotype.-—Rhodocrinus wortheni Hall. 


Theca. Dorsal cup typically subglobose to 
urceolate or ovate. Base flattened, de- 
pressed or with a well-defined central in- 
vagination. Maximum diameter of cup 
usually at about one-half its height, or 
lower. The cup contracts distad, having its 
least diameter at the level of the arm 
bases. The tegmen is very small, convex, 
and made up of small plates. The anal 
opening is at the apex of a relatively small 
protuberance that can scarcely be digni- 
fied by the term anal tube. This protuber- 
ance is seldom preserved, and its base may 
be marginal at nearly the level of the arm 
bases, or excentric on the tegmen. Owing 
to the reduced diameter of the cup at the 
level of the arm bases, the arm groups are 
closely spaced. They are somewhat more 
widely separated in the posterior inter- 
radius than elsewhere. 

Typically the surface of the plates is smooth, 
except for the customary fine granulation. The 
plates are convex, becoming tumid in such spe- 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. 
Geological Survey. Received October 25, 1943. 


cies as C. whiter. In some species there is a low, 
inconspicuous rounded ridge traversing the 
radials and brachial series within the cup. In the 
later species of the Keokuk, Borden, and War- 
saw there is a variable development of surface 
ornamentation consisting of low radiating ridges 
or irregular rugosities. 

IBB. Usually entirely enclosed within the basal 

pit and concealed by the column. In forms 

with slight invagination, such as C. 

worthent, they extend beyond the column. 

Very large, may be larger than or some- 

what smaller than the RR. In the majority 

of the species the proximal portions of the 

BB are flexed inward, forming the wall of 

the basal pit. 

RR. Large. 

TBrr. The first JBr is typically quadrangular 
but may be pentagonal, hexagonal, or even 
heptagonal. It is relatively small. [Az is 
small and may be either somewhat smaller 
or larger than J Br;. In most of the species, 
even in individuals of maximum size, 
there is but a single J7 Br incorporated in 
the cup. The number of incorporated 
IIT Brr apparently does not exceed two in 
any case. 

IRR. The interradial fields are narrow at the 
base, widen distad, and then narrow. The 
posterior interradius is appreciably larger 
than the others. The first interbrachials in 
all cases rest on the truncated distal faces 
of the BB. Exceptionally in very large 
specimens, and particularly in C. wachs- 
muthi, two interbrachials may rest on the 
post B. In such cases the second plate ap- 
pears to be a lateral plate of the second 
range that has migrated downward within 
the lifetime of the individual. Usually 


BB. 


14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


there are three plates in the second range 
in the post JR and two in the others. Occa- 
sionally there is a poorly defined median 
row of plates in the post IR, but this is ex- 
ceptional. In the other interradii one com- 
monly finds two plates in each range above 
the second, the increasing and diminishing 
width of the interradius being compen- 
sated for by increased size of the plates 
rather than the presence of additional 
interbrachials. At the level of the arm 
bases the interradial field is narrow, and 
in some cases is little wider than the space 
between the arm bases within a radius. No 
intersecundibrachs have been seen in any 
species referred to the genus. 

Arms. The arms are relatively short and stout, 
tapering rapidly distad. They are uni- 
serial below and compactly biserial above 
the bifurcations. The branching of the 
arms is somewhat variable but falls within 
a well-defined pattern. The first division of 
the free arms takes place on the sixth to 
tenth secundibrach, the number varying 
even as between the halves of a ray. Sev- 
eral species consistently hold this number 
of 20 rami. In other species there may be 
additional bifurcations. One or more of the 
rami may divide in an arm group, and in 
some species all do so, giving a maximum 
of 40 rami. In an occasional radius, in the 
Kinderhook species, there may be but two 
rami. 

Column. The column is relatively stout, circu- 
lar in section, and has a small pentagonal 
lumen. 

Geologic and stratigraphic distribution.—The 
described species of Cribanocrinus are found in 
the Kinderhook, Burlington, Keokuk, and 
Warsaw of the Mississippi Valley and the Bor- 
den of Indiana. It is probable that some Euro- 
pean species fall within the genus. 

Relationships——Rhodocrinus, as is the case 
with several of the early crinoid genera, has a 
very doubtful nomenclatorial status. For the 
purposes of this paper I treat Rhodocrinus ac- 
cording to currently accepted usage, that is, 
with the type species verus based on Miller’s 
(1821) plate 1, figure 2 (opposite p. 107). That 
this usage may not be valid is admitted. The 
validation of Rhodocrinus verus as based on the 
specimen indicated will require a ruling from 
the International Commission of Zoological 


VoL. 34, No. 1 


Nomenclature, if and when that body again 


- functions. 


The dorsal cup of typical Rhodocrinus has a 
flattened base. The sides of the cup are nearly 
vertical, or diverge distad. There may be aslight 
constriction at the level of the lower fixed 
brachials and an outward flare above. There 
are typically three or more secundibrachs in- 
corporated in the cup and intersecundibrachs 
are present. The interbrachial fields are wide 
and merge distad into the tegmen. The radials 
and incorporated brachial series are traversed 
by strong, rounded ridges, and the interbrachial 
fields are somewhat flattened, giving the cup a 
definite pentagonal cross section. Passing from 


- plate to plate throughout the cup are rounded 


ridges. As viewed from below, one sees a well- 
defined stellate pattern, formed by these 
ridges. The tegmen, as seen in an English spe- 
cies nearly allied to the type, is low, with de- 
pressed interambulacral areas. As viewed from 
above, the theca appears definitely lobate. 

There are a number of characters in which 
Cribanocrinus differs from Rhodocrinus. The 
lack of ornamentation in the typical group of 
species of Cribanocrinus or its slight develop- 
ment in the later species is one of the most 
striking differences. The rounded subglobose to 
ovate cup of Cribanocrinus and its constriction 
at the level of the arm bases is perhaps the most 
important difference. Stemming from this are: 
the narrow interbrachial fields, all but cut off 
from the tegmen; the tegmen greatly reduced 
in size; and the relatively great size of the bas- 
als and radials as compared with the primi- 
brachs. The incorporation of but one or two 
ITBrr in the cup and the concomitant lack of 
intersecundibrachs in Cribanocrinus are like- 
wise important, although, of course, in very 
young individuals of Rhodocrinus the same con- 
ditions would obtain. 

In the Kinderhook is a group of species that 
may be referred to Rhodocrinus, such as nanus, 
kirbyt, and cavanaughi. Such strongly orna- 
mented forms, which have other Rhodocrinus 
characters as well, do not pass up into the Bur- 
lington, so far as known. No one can doubt the 
close relationship of the Kinderhook species of 
Rhodocrinus and Cribanocrinus, and that they 
had a common Devonian ancestor. In the Kin- 
derhook species of Cribanocrinus, C. watersi- 
anus, and in the species from that horizon 
identified as wortheni the cup has a subpenta- 


JAN. 15, 1944 


gonal cross section. In the earlier species of a 
genus where much material is available, the ref- 
erence of a given form to one genus or a closely 
allied one is always more or less arbitrary. In 
later phylogeny, when the generic characters 
become well established, there is, of course, lit- 
tle difficulty. 

Remarks.—Specimens of Cribanocrinus are 
very rare. This is probably not due to the fact 
that they were uncommon in the Mississippian 
seas. Rather, the thin plates of the theca made 
for an incompetent structure that was rarely 
preserved. A large percentage of the specimens 
are more or less crushed and are often imper- 
fect. Specimens are rarely found on weathered 
surfaces, the thin plates being readily destroyed. 

Species referred to the genus.— 


Cribanocrinus benedicti (Miller), n. comb. 


Rhodocrinus benedicti Miller, 1892, p. 15, pl. 2, 
figs. 18-20: ‘Keokuk Group, Harrison 
County, Indiana”’ (Borden); 1894, p. 269, 
pl. 2, figs. 18-20.—Wachsmuth and 
Springer, 1897, p. 224. 


Cribanocrinus bridgerensis (Miller and 
Gurley), n. comb. 


Rhodocrinus bridgerensis Miller and Gurley, 
1397,-p. 41, pl. 3, fig. 3: “Burlington or 
Keokuk Group, Bridger Mountains, Mon- 
tana’’ (Madison limestone). 


Cribanocrinus coxanus (Worthen), n. comb. 


Rhodocrinus coxanus Worthen, 1882, p. 29: 
“Upper part of the geode bed, one mile 
below Keokuk” (Keokuk) (The geode bed 
is placed in the Warsaw by some authors) ; 
1883, p. 305, pl. 28, fig. 7—Wachsmuth 
and Springer, 1885, p. 99 (321); 1897, p. 
222, pl. 13, figs. 6, 7. 


Cribanocrinus parvus (Miller), n. comb. 


Rhodocrinus parvus Miller, 1891, p. 39, pl. 5, 
figs. 8, 9: “Keokuk group, Booneville, 
Cooper County, Missouri” (at present 
considered Warsaw).—Wachsmuth and 
Springer, 1897, p. 229. 


Cribanocrinus punctatus (Weller), n. comb. 


Rhodocrinus punctatus Weller, 1909, p. 282, pl. 
11, figs. 15, 16: Fern Glen formation, Jef- 
ferson County, Missouri. 


KIRK—A NEW RHODOCRINOID GENUS ES) 


Cribanocrinus urceolatus (Wachsmuth and 
Springer), n. comb. 


Rhodocrinus worthent Hall, var. wurceolatus 
Wachsmuth and Springer, 1897, p. 221, 
pl. 12, figs. 8a, b: “‘Age of the Lower Bur- 
lington limestone, Lake Valley, New 
Mexico” (Lake Valley limestone). 


Cribanocrinus wachsmuthi (Hall), n. comb. 


Rhodocrinus wachsmuthi Hall, 1861, p. 18: No 
horizon or locality given (Lower Burling- 
ton, Burlington, Iowa).—Wachsmuth and 
Springer, 181) p:. 213 (387); 1897, p. 222, 
pl. 13, figs. 5b—d (not fig. 5a =C. worthent), 
pl 15, fee 7: 


Cribanocrinus watersianus (Wachsmuth and 
Springer), n. comb. 


Rhodocrinus watersianus Wachsmuth and 
Springer, 1889, p. 184, pl. -17, fig. 16: 
Kinderhook, Le Grand, Iowa (Hampton 
formation).—Miuiller, 1889, p. 278, text fig. 
421.—Wachsmuth and Springer, 1890, p. 
184, pl. 17, fig. 16; 1897, p. 221, pl. 12, fig. 
9.—Laudon and Beane, 1937, p. 241, pl. 
155 fies: 


Cribanocrinus whitei (Hall), n. comb. 


Rhodocrinus whitei Hall, 1861a, p. 9: ‘In sand- 
stone of Chemung group at base of Burling- 
ton limestone, Burlington, Iowa’’ (Lower 
Burlington); 1861b, p. 325; 1872, pl. 6, 
figs. 19-21—Wachsmuth and Springer, 
1881, p. 213 (387) ; 1897, p. 223, pl. 13, figs. 
la-—c; pl. 15, figs. 6a, b. 


Cribanocrinus wortheni (Hall), n. comb. 


Rhodocrinus worthent Hall, 1858, p. 556, pl. 9, 
figs. 8a-c: Burlington limestone, Burling- 
ton, Iowa (Lower Burlington).—Wachs- 
muth and Springer, 1881, p. 213 (387); 
1897, pl. 11, fig. 6; pl. 12, figs. 7a—c; pl. 13, 
fig. 5a (as Rhodocrinus wachsmutht). 


LITERATURE CITED 


Hatt, JAMES. Paleontology. Iowa Geol. Surv. 
Rept. 1 (2): 473-724, pls. 1-29. 1858. 
. Descriptions of new species of Crinoidea 
and other fossils, from the Carboniferous 
rocks of the Mississippi Valley. On title 
page: Descriptions of new species of Crinor- 
dea; from investigations of the Iowa Geolog- 
ical Survey. Preliminary notice. Pp. 1-12, 


16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


incl., February 14, 1861; pp. 13-18, incl., 

February 25, 186la. Privately issued, 

Albany, N. Y. 

. Descriptions of new species of Crinoidea 

from the Carboniferous rocks of the Missis- 

sippt Valley. Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. 

Hist. 7: 261-328. “January” 1861b. 

. “Photographic plates.” Plates 1-7. Pri- 
vately issued, Albany, N. Y. Plates dis- 
tributed in covers with reprints of James 
Hall, ‘January’ 1861. Plates bear printed 
title, “St. Mus. N. H. Bul. 1” (New York). 
1872. 

Laupon, L. R., and Beans, B. H. The crinoid 
fauna of the Hampton formation at Le 
Grand, Lowa. Iowa Univ. Studies 17 (6) 
(new ser. no. 345). December 1, 1937. 

Miuuer, J. 8S. A natural history of the Cri- 
noidea, or lily-shaped animals; with obser- 
vations on the genera Asteria, Euryale, 
Comatula and Marsupites. Pp. 1-150, pls. 
1-50. 1821. 

Miturr, S. A. North American geology and 
palaeontology for the use of amateurs, stu- 
dents and scientists. Pp. 1-664. 1889. 

. A description of some Lower Carbontfer- 

ous crinoids from Missouri. Missouri Geol. 

Survey Bull. 4: 1-40, pls. 1-4. 1891. 

. Paleontology. Advance sheets from the 

eighteenth report of the Geological Survey 

of Indiana. Pp. 1-79, pls. 1-12. Septem- 

ber 1892. 

. Palaeontology. In Gorby, S. S., 18th 

Ann. Rept. Indiana Dept. Geol. and Nat. 

Resources, pp. 257-357, pls. 1-12. 1894. 

, and Guruey, W. F. E. New species of 

crinoids, cephalopods and other Paleozoic 

fossils. Illinois State Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 

12: 1-59, index to Bulls. 3-12, pp. 61-69, 

pls. 1-5. January 25, 1897. 


»’ 


VoL. 34, No. 1 


WACHSMUTH, CHARLES, and SPRINGER, FRANK. 
Revision of the Paleocrinoidea. Pt. 2, pp. 
1-237, pls. 17-19. (With 2-page unnum- 
-bered index to pts. 1 and 2.) Proc. Acad. 
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1881: 177-414, 
pls. 17-19. September-November 1881. 

. Revision of the Paleocrinoidea. Pt. 3, 

sec. 1, pp. 1-138, pls. 4-9. Proc. Acad. Nat. 

Sci. Philadelphia, 1885: 225-364, pls. 4-9. 

September-December 1885. 

. New species of crinoids and blastoids 

from the Kinderhook group of the Lower 

Carboniferous rocks at Le Grand, Iowa; 

and a new genus from the Niagara group of 

western Tennessee. Pp. 155-208, pls. 15-17. 

Distributed by the Illinois Geological 

Survey in 1889. 1889. 

. New species of crinoids and blastoids 

from the Kinderhook group of the Lower 

Carboniferous rocks at Le Grand, Iowa; 

and a new genus from the Niagara group of 

western Tennessee. Illinois Geol. Surv. 

8 (pt. 2, sec. 2): 155-208, pls. 14-17. 1890. 

. The North American Crinoidea Camer- 
ata. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 20 and 21: 
1-837, 83 pls. May 1897. 

WELLER, STuART. Kinderhook faunal studies; 
V, The fauna of the Fern Glen formation. 
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 20: 265-332, pls. 
10-15. 1909. 

WortTHEN, A. H. Descriptions of fifty-four new 

species of crinoids from the Lower Carbon- 
iferous limestones and Coal Measures of 
Illinois-Iowa. Illinois State Mus. Nat. 
Hist. Bull. 1, art. 1, pp. 3-388. February 
1882. 

. Description of fossil invertebrates. Tlli- 

nois Geol. Surv. 7 (pt. 2, sec. 2): 265-338, 

pls. 27-30. 1883. 


BOTANY.—The Alaskan species of Puccinellia.t Jason R. SwAaLLen, Bureau of 
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. 


Several years ago, Dr. Eric Hultén, 
Botaniska Museet, Lund University, Swe- 
den, sent a large number of specimens of 
Puccinelua from Alaska for study and 
identification. Most of them were collected 
by Dr. Hultén on rather extensive trips in 
Alaska and Yukon. The report on this 
collection was to have formed the basis for 
the treatment of Puccinellia in Dr. Hul- 
tén’s Flora of Alaska, but it was not 
received until after the second part con- 
taining the grasses had gone to press. Since 


1 Received October 12, 1943. 


the author’s treatment differs considerably 
from that in Dr. Hultén’s flora this account 
was prepared for publication. 

This study is based on the specimens 
sent by Dr. Hultén, those in the U.S. 
National Herbarium, and those in the her- 
barium of the U.S. National Arboretum. 
Dr. J. P. Anderson, who has made exten- 
sive botanical collections in Alaska over a 
period of years, also sent all his specimens 
of Puccinellia to the author for examina- 
tion. The assistance given the author by 
Dr. Hultén and Dr. Anderson is gratefully 
acknowledged. 


Jan. 15, 1944 


Puccinellia is one of the circumpolar 
genera of grasses well represented in North 
America, especially in Alaska. The species 
furnish a considerable amount of forage, 
being leafy, densely tufted grasses. The 
genus is taxonomically a difficult one, the 
species being variable and closely allied. 
Many species have been proposed, but the 
genus as a whole has not been intensively 
studied, and the nomenclature is much in- 
volved. Some species are common to Amer- 
ica and Eurasia, and in the preparation of 
this paper those of the circumpolar regions 
have been studied so far as possible. 


Puccinellia Parl. Fl. Ital. 1: 366. 1848. 


Atropis Rupr. in Griseb. in Ledeb. FI. Ross. 4: 
388. 1853. 


Spikelets several-flowered, usually terete or 
slightly flattened; glumes rather firm, often 
scarious at the tip, 1- to 3-nerved; lemmas usu- 
ally firm, rounded on the back, usually scarious 
and often erose at the tip, 5-nerved, the nerves 
parallel, usually indistinct. Low smooth cespi- 
tose annuals or perennials with narrow to open 
panicles. 

Puccinellia differs from Poa chiefly in the 
rounded lemmas with usually indistinct parallel 
nerves. The species are mostly found on sea- 
shores, in brackish marshes or meadows near 
the coast, or in alkaline soils in the interior. 
They range from the Arctic regions of both 
hemispheres to the middle Western States in 
America, with a few species in southern South 
America; to the British Isles and the north 
coast of the Mediterranean, and to central 
China and Japan in the Old World. One species 
is found in Africa and a few in Australia and 
New Zealand. 


Key To ALASKAN SPECIES 


Anthers 1.8 to 2 mm long; plants low, frequently 
with widely spreading stolons. 1. P. phryganodes 
Anthers not more than 1.5 mm long; plants not 
stoloniferous. 
Panicle branches distinctly scabrous. 
Anthers 0.3 to 0.5 mm long; lemmas mostly 
1.6 to 1.8 mm long; panicle branches very 
slender, distinctly reflexed at maturity... 
ey enki scat Gens os ey: 2. P. hauptiana 
Anthers 0.7 mm long or more; lemmas 2 to 4 
mm long; panicle branches, if reflexed, rela- 
tively stout. 
Lemmas 3 to 4 mm long; anthers 1.3 to 1.5 
mm long; panicle branches usually nar- 


SWALLEN—ALASKAN SPECIES OF PUCCINELLIA 17 


rowly ascending, stout, 10 to 20 cm 
lomipnrte. tee eee nae sic | 3. P. grandis 
Lemmas 2 to 2.5 mm, rarely 3 mm, long; 
anthers not more than 1 mm long; pan- 
icle branches ascending to reflexed, 
slender, rarely more than 5 cm long, not 
Silber. Suerte chen. geaey hs. 4. P. borealis 


Panicle branches glabrous or (in P. nutkaensts) 


only very sparsely scabrous. . 
Lemmas 3.5 to 4 mm long; anthers mostly 
1.3 to 1.5 mm long. 
Panicle branches ascending, elongate. 
Culms 25 to 40 cm tall; spikelets 5- to 
7-flowered, 8 to 10 mm long, the florets 


Spreadings say he 5. P. glabra 
Panicle branches stiffly spreading or re- 
flexed. 


Spikelets 2- to 3-flowered, 5 to 7 mm 
long; lemmas 3.5 to 4 mm long, ob- 
tuse; culms densely tufted, erect, 45 
GonOO cormat Dll ssc 6. P. triflora 

Spikelets 5- to 7-flowered, 6 to 8 mm 
long; lemmas not more than 3.5 mm 
long, acute or subobtuse, sometimes 
irregularly toothed; culms 15 to 30 
cm tall, erect from a rather long de- 
cumbent base...... 7. P. andersoni 

Lemmas not more than 3 mm long, or if so, 
the panicle branches appressed; anthers 
mostly less than 1 mm long. 

Lemmas thin (see also P. kamtschatica), 
strongly nerved; anthers 0.3 to 0.6 
mm long. 

Lemmas 3 to 3.3 mm long; anthers of 
lowest floret 0.3 to 0.4 mm long; culms 
as much as 30 em tall.8. P. alaskana 

Lemmas 2 to 2.5 mm long; anthers of 
lowest floret 0.5 to 0.6 mm long; 
culms usually less than 10 cm tall.... 
Re Pee ee ea ee 9. P. paupercula 

Lemmas firm (thin in P. kamtschatica but 
the nerves not prominent), the nerves 
obscure (except the lateral nerves at 
the base in P. pumila); anthers mostly 
0.8 to 1 mm long. 

Palea longer than the lemma; plants soft 
with slender culms 15 to 25 cm tall; 
panicle branches ascending or, at 
maturity, spreading or reflexed. Lem- 
mas thin, shining, obtuse.......... 
2 atte RN Semen ee, 3, 13. P. kamtschatica 

Palea. equaling the lemma or shorter; 
plants relatively hard, the culms 
densely tufted or coarse; panicle 
branches appressed or stiffly spread- 
ing, usually stout. 

Panicle branches stout, stiffly spread- 
ing or reflexed, naked in lower half. 
Culms stout, erect from a decum- 

bent base; blades erect, flat, 2 to 
2.5 mm wide; lower panicle 
branches in whorls, long and 
short ones intermixed, glabrous or 
obscurely scabrous............ 
RE a etc eatin 10. P. hultent 


18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Culms relatively slender, densely 
tufted, erect or ascending, but the 
base not decumbent; blades 
spreading, usually convolute; 
panicle branches solitary or in 
pairs with no short ones inter- 
mixed, glabrous, with a charac- 
teristic pearly lustre. Pedicels 

. swollen below the spikelets..... 
Ree AV aR athe eae 11. P. pumila 

Panicle branches slender, usually 
closely appressed, sparsely hispid- 

Scabrous ne. 12. P. nutkaensis 


1. Puccinellia phryganodes (Trin.) Scribn. & 
Merr. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 13: 
78. 1910 


Poa phryganodes Trin. Mém. Acad. St. Pétersb. 
VI. Math. Phys. Nat. 1: 389. 1830. 


Perennial; culms 5 to 15 cm tall, erect or as- 


cending from slender rhizomes, frequently with | 


widely spreading stolons; culm sheaths over- 
lapping, those on the stolons usually much 
shorter than the internodes; ligule 0.5 to 1 mm 
long, truncate, decurrent; blades soft, lax, 
mostly involute, 2 to 8 cm, usually less than 5 
cm, long; panicles 2 to 2.5 cm long, few-flow- 
ered, the short glabrous branches appressed, 
naked below; spikelets 3- to 5-flowered, 5 to 7 
mm long; glumes firm, obtuse, the first elliptic, 
1.8 to 2 mm long, 1 nerved, the second elliptic 
to obovate, 2.5 to 3 mm long; lemmas firm, 
obtuse, elliptic, glabrous, the lowest 3.5 to 3.8 
mm long; palea as long as the lemma, subacute, 
the keels glabrous; anthers 1.8 to 2 mm long. 

Type locality: Kotzebue Sound, Alaska. 

Seashores, mud flats, and brackish marshes, 
Pribilof Islands, Alaska, and Greenland. 

SEWARD PENINSULA: Port Clarence, Wal- 
pole 1633, 1718. Norton Sounp: St. Michael, 
Hitchcock 4714. Pripitor Isuanps: St. Paul, 
Johnston, June 8 and July 4, 1923 (H), Hultén 
7330; J. M. Macoun Geol. Surv. Can. 16238. 
ALASKA PENINSULA: Port Moller, Murie 2150. 
SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA: Glacier Bay, Cooper 
130. 


2. Puccinellia hauptiana (Krecz.) Kitagawa, 
Rep. Inst. Sci. Res. Manchukuo 1: 
255.1980 


Atropis hauptiana Krecz. in Kom. Fl. U.R.S.S. 
2: 485, 763, pl. 36, f. 21. 1934. Poa haupti- 
ana Trin. ex Kom. Fl. U.R.S.S8. 2: 485, 763. 
1934, as synonym. 


VOL. 34, No. 1 


Perennial; culms slender, erect to prostrate, 
sometimes forming mats, 10 to 40 em long; 
sheaths mostly longer than the internodes; 
ligule 1.5 to 2.5 mm long, obtuse, decurrent; 
blades 3 to 8 cm long, not more than 1.5 mm 
wide, flat or loosely involute, especially those 
on the innovations, the margins more or less 
scabrous; panicles 3.5 to 15 cm long, the slender 
scabrous, somewhat flexuous, spreading to re- 
flexed branches mostly in rather distant pairs, | 
naked in the lower third or half, the lowest as 
much as 7 cm long; spikelets 3- to 5-flowered, 
3 to 4mm long, appressed; glumes acute or sub- 
obtuse, the first 1 to 1.5 mm long, 1-nerved, the 
second 1.2 to 2 mm long, 3-nerved; lemma of 
lowest floret 1.6 to 2 mm long, obtuse, tinged 
with bronze or purple, glabrous or very sparsely 
pubescent on the callus; anthers 0.3 to 0.6 mm 
long. 

Type locality: Siberia. 

Wet ground and river banks, Siberia; Alaska, | 
Yukon, and Alberta. 

ALASKA: Rampart, Hitchcock 4460; Circle 
City, Hitchcock 4437, J. P. Anderson 2548; 
Tanana, Hitchcock 4641; Fairbanks, Hitchcock 
4576, 4617; Copper Center, Heideman 2, Went 
207(H);-Gulkana, J. P. Anderson 2734; Chi- 
tina, J. P. Anderson 2028. YuxKon: Dawson, 
Hitchcock 4323, 4852. ALBERTA: Banff, Mc- 
Calla 2324. 


3. Puccinellia grandis Swallen, sp. nov. 


Perennis; culmi 50—90 cm alti, dense caespi- 
tosi, erecti vel geniculati; vaginae glabrae, in- 
feriores internodiis longiores, superiores inter- 
nodiis breviores; ligula 2-3 mm longa, obtusa, 
membranacea; laminae firmae, elongatae, 2-3.5 
mm latae, eae innovationum molles, angusti- 
ores; paniculae 10-20 cm longae, ramis appres- 
sis vel denique patentibus, ad apicem scabris, 
basi nudis; spiculae 8-15 mm longae, 5—12-florae, 
appressae; gluma prima 2-3 mm longa, obtusa 
vel subacuta; gluma secunda 3-3.5 mm longa, 
obtusa, minute dentata; lemmata 3-4 mm 
longa, obtusa vel subacuta, obscure nervosa, 
basi sparse pilosa; palea lemma aequans, 
carinis obscure ciliatis; anthéerae 1.3-1.5 mm 
longae. 

Perennial; culms 50 to 90 cm tall, densely 
tufted, erect or geniculate at the lower nodes; 
sheaths glabrous, the lower longer, the upper 
shorter than the internodes; ligule membrana- 


| 7 FEN ss. 
wed 
iv 


Jan. 15, 1944 


ceous, obtuse, 2 to 3 mm long; blades firm, flat 
or drying involute, elongate, mostly 2 to 3.5 
mm wide, those of the innovations often soft 
and fine; panicles 10 to 20 cm long, pyramidal, 
the scabrous branches at first appressed but 
often finally stiffly spreading, usually naked at 
the base; spikelets 8 to 15 mm long, 5- to 12- 
flowered, appressed, rather prominently tinged 
with purple; first glume 2 to 3 mm long, 1- 
nerved, obtuse or sometimes subacute; second 
glume 3 to 3.5 mm long, 3-nerved, broader than 


the first, obtuse, often minutely toothed; lem- 


mas 3 to 4 mm long, rather abruptly narrowed 
to an obtuse or subacute apex, sparsely pilose 
at the base, the nerves rather obscure; palea as 
long as the lemma, obscurely ciliate on the 
keels; anthers mostly 1.3 to 1.5 mm, rarely as 
much as 2 mm long. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 
948937, collected on high sea beaches at 
Seattle, Wash., June 1890, by C. V. Piper (no. 
1451). 

Salt marshes and sandy or rocky seashores, 
Alaska to central California. 

Specimens of this species have previously 
been referred to Puccinellia nutkaensis, which 
is much smaller, the culms mostly 15 to 30 em 
tall, with closely appressed, obscurely scabrous 
branches, the lemmas not more than 3 mm long 
the anthers mostly only 0.8 to 1 mm long. 

ALASKA: Skagway, Hitchcock 4186, 4197, 
4203; Juneau, Hitchcock 4068, 4077; Aurora, 
Piper 4699; Glacier Bay, Cooper 106. YuxKon: 
Whitehorse, Hitchcock 4289. BritisH Co- 
LUMBIA: Cadbow Bay, Macoun 66; Crescent, 
Henry 7; Vancouver Island, Hitchcock 4887, 
Macoun 245, Geol. Surv. Can. 81008, 91951. 
WASHINGTON: Seattle, Prper 1451; Olympic, 
Hitchcock 23448. Onrrcon: Gearhart to Tilla- 
mook Head, Chase 4923; near Gearhart, Shear 
& Scribner 1718. Catirorntia: Eureka, Hitch- 
cock 13085, Tracy 3742, 4820; Samoa, Tracy 
3147; Point Reyes Peninsula, Burtt-Davy 6749. 


4. Puccinellia borealis Swallen, sp. nov. 


Perennis; culmi densi caespitosi, 25-35 cm 
alti, erecti, basi decumbentes; vaginae inter- 
nodiis paulo longiores, glabrae, inferiores mol- 
les rufo-fuscae; ligula 2 mm longa, obtusa vel 
truncata, hyalina; laminae 4-8 cm longae, 1-2 
mm latae, planae, infra glabrae, supra scabrae, 
marginibus scabris; paniculae 10-14 cm longae, 


SWALLEN—ALASKAN SPECIES OF PUCCINELLIA 19 


ramis gracilibus scabris adscendentibus vel re- 
flexis, inferioribus 4—5 cm longis in dimidio in- 
feriore nudis; spiculae 4—6-florae, 4-5 mm lon- 
gae, appressae, breviter pedicellatae; gluma 
prima 1—-1.5 mm longa, acuta; gluma secunda 
1.5-2 mm longa, obovata, obtusa; lemmata 
2—2.3 mm longa, obtusa vel subtruncata, mi- 
nute eroso-ciliata; palea lemmate paulo brevior 
et multo angustior, carinis hispido-ciliatis; an- 
therae 0.6—0.7 mm longae. 

Perennial; culms densely tufted, 25 to 35 em 
tall, erect from a usually decumbent base; 
sheaths mostly a little longer than the inter- 
nodes, glabrous, the lowermost soft, reddish 
brown, loose, papery, becoming more or less 
fibrous; ligule about 2 mm long, obtuse or trun- 
cate, hyaline; blades 4 to 8 cm long, 1 to 2 mm 
wide, flat, glabrous below, scabrous above and 
on the margins; panicles 10-14 cm long, the 
slender scabrous branches ascending to re- 
flexed, in rather distant fascicles of 2 to 4, the 
lower mostly 4-5 cm long, naked for nearly half 
their length; spikelets 4- to 6-flowered, 4 to 
5 mm long, tinged with purple, short-pediceled, 
appressed to the branches; first glume 1 to 1.5 
mm long, acute; second glume 1.5 to 2 mm 
long, obovate, obtuse;lemmas 2 to 2.3 mm long, 
obtuse or subtruncate, minutely erose-ciliate; 
palea a little shorter than the lemma, bifid at 
the apex, about 0.5 mm wide between the his- 
pid-ciliate keels, much narrower than the broad 
lemma; anthers 0.6 to 0.7 mm long. 

Type in the U. §. National Herbarium, no. 
379136, collected on tundra bank, Teller Rein- 
deer Station, near Port Clarence, Alaska, Sep- 
tember 7, 1901, by F. A. Walpole (no. 2015). 

Seacoast and moist ground, mostly along 
rivers, Alaska and Yukon. 

SEWARD PENINSULA: Deering, J. P. Ander- 
son 4788; Kotzebue, J. P. Anderson 4670; Port 
Clarence, Walpole 2015; Nome, Hitchcock 4815, 
J. P. Anderson 4991. Norton Sounp: St. 
Michael, Hitchcock 4700. YuKON VALLEY: 
Fort Yukon, Bates in 1889; Tanana, Henderson 
14988. TaNnana VALLEY: Fairbanks, Hitch- 
cock 4594, J. P. Anderson 1444. YuKon: 
Dawson, Hitchcock 4358. 

These specimens have been referred to P. dis- 
tans (L.) Parl., but they are very different in 
appearance from typical European material. 
The Alaskan plants are perennial, while the 
typical European species appears to be annual; 


20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


the panicle branches are more slender and not 
so densely flowered, and the lemmas not so con- 
spicuously broad at the summit. J. P. Ander- 
son, who has studied the plants of Alaska for 
many years, states that the Alaskan species 
that has been referred to P. distans is appar- 
ently native, not introduced into America as is 
P. distans. 

Puccinellia borealis is closely related to P. 
sibirica Holmb., differing chiefly in the smaller 
florets. None of the Siberian material examined 
agrees with the Alaskan specimens cited above; 
hence, without a specimen of Holmberg’s spe- 
cies for comparison, it seems better to propose 
a new species than to refer these doubtfully to 
Pe estbirica: 


5. Puccinellia glabra Swalien, sp. nov. 


Perennis; culmi 25-40 cm alti, erecti vel basi 
decumbentes, glabri; vaginae glabrae inter- 
nodiis longiores; ligula obtusa, decurrens, 3—5 
mm longa; laminae 5-14 cm longae, 1.5-3 mm 
latae, planae vel ad apicem involutae, glabrae; 
paniculae 10-20 cm longae, ramis adscendenti- 
bus, glabris, 4-10 cm longis, basi nudis; spiculae 
5—-7-florae, 8-10 mm longae, appressae; gluma 
prima 2-3 min longa, 1-nervia, acuta vel sub- 
obtusa; gluma secunda 3—4 mm longa, 3-nervia, 
obtusa, minute ciliolata; lemmata 3.5-4 mm 
longa, obtusa, glabra vel basi sparse pilosa, 
lucida, obscure nervata; paleae in carinis gla- 
brae; antherae 1.3—-1.5 mm longae. 

Rather densely tufted perennial; culms 25 to 
40 cm tall, erect or decumbent at the base, gla- 
brous; sheaths glabrous, longer than the inter- 
nodes; ligule thin, obtuse, decurrent, 3 to 5mm 
long; blades 5 to 14 cm long, 1.5 to 3 mm wide, 
flat or becoming involute toward the tip, 
glabrous; panicles mostly 10 to 20 em long, the 
glabrous branches ascending, 4 to 10 cm long, 
naked at the base; spikelets 5- to 7-flowered, 8 
to 10 mm long, appressed, the florets somewhat 
spreading, pale or tinged with purple; first 
glume 2 to 3 mm long, 1-nerved, acute or sub- 
obtuse; second glume 3 to 4 mm long, 3-nerved, 
obtuse, minutely ciliolate; lemmas 3.5 to 4 mm 
long, obtuse, glabrous, or with a few hairs at 
base, rather thin and shining, the nerves ob- 
scure; palea a little shorter than the lemma, the 
keels not ciliate; anthers 1.3 to 1.5 mm long. 

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 
749542, collected on flats frequently over- 
flowed by tides, Kasilof (‘“‘Kussiloff”’), Kenai 


VOL. 34, No. 1 


Peninsula, Alaska, in 1898 by Walter H. Evans 
(no. 609). 

The relationship of Puccinellia glabra to the 
other Alaskan species is obscure. The relatively 
long ascending panicle branches, the spreading 
florets, and long lemmas are characteristic. 

Tidal flats, Alaska and Kenai Peninsulas and 
Kodiak Island. 

ALASKA PENINSULA: Women’s Peninsula, 
Church in 1916. Kernat PENINSULA, Kasilof, 
Evans 609. Kop1ax Isuanp, Piper 4696, 


6. Puccinellia trifiora Swallen, sp. nov. 


Perennis; culmi erecti, dense caespitosi, 45— 
60 cm alti; vaginae glabrae internodiis paulo 
longiores; ligula 4-5 mm longa, tenuis, obtusa, 
decurrens; laminae 4—6 cm longae vel eae in- 
novationum longiores, 1-1.5 mm latae, molles, 
glabrae, planae vel involutae; paniculae 15-20 
cm longae, ramis fasciculatis abrupte patenti- 
bus vel reflexis basi nudis; spiculae 5-7 mm 
longae, 2—3-florae, appressae, purpurascentes; 
glumae acutae vel subobtusae, prima 1.5-3 mm 
longa, 1—nervia, secunda 2.5-4 mm longa, 3- 
nervia; lemmata 3.5—-4 mm longa, lata, obtusa, 
basi sparse pilosa; palea lemma aequans, carinis 
prominentibus glabris; antherae 1.3-1.5 mm 
longae. 

Erect, densely tufted perennial; culms 45 to 
60 cm tall, glabrous; sheaths glabrous, over- 
lapping or a little shorter than the internodes; 
ligule thin, obtuse, decurrent, 4 to 5 mm long; 
blades 4 to 6 cm long or those of the innova- 
tions longer, 1 to 1.5 mm wide, soft, glabrous, 
flat or becoming loosely involute; panicles 15 to 
20 cm long, the branches glabrous, in rather dis- 
tant fascicles of 2 to 4, naked at base, stiffly and 
abruptly spreading or reflexed, the branchlets 
appressed; spikelets 5 to 7 mm long, 2 or 
3-flowered, appressed, deeply tinged with pur- 
ple; glumes acute or sometimes subobtuse, the 
first 1.5 to 3 mm long, 1-nerved, the second 2.5 
to 4 mm long, 3-nerved; lemmas 3.5 to 4 mm 
long, broad, obtuse, the nerves evident, sparsely 
pilose at the base or nearly glabrous; palea as 
long as the lemma, the keels prominent, gla- 
brous; anthers 1.3 to 1.5 mm long. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 
948675, collected on flat near creek, at Tyoo- 
nok (‘‘Tyoonock’’), Cook Inlet, Alaska, by 
Walter H. Evans in 1897 (no. 480). 

Puccinellia triflora is related to P. glabra, 
differing in the taller culms and stiffly spread- 


JAN. 15, 1944 


ing or reflexed panicle branches, and in the 
spikelets only 2- or 3-flowered. 

This species was also collected on flats that 
are overflowed by spring tides at Kasilof 
(“‘Kussiloff”’), Kenai Peninsula, Evans 684. 


7. Puccinellia andersoni Swallen, sp. nov. 


Perennis; culmi densi caespitosi, erecti, basi 
decumbentes, 15-30 cm alti; vaginae glabrae, 
internodiis longiores, inferiores tenues, rufo- 
fuscae; ligula 2 mm longa, decurrens; laminae 
planae, 5-11 cm longae, 1—2.5 mm latae, gla- 
brae; paniculae 4-8 cm longae, ramis rigidis, 
glabris, adscendentibus vel patentibus, 2-4 
em longis, 1—5-spiculatis; spiculae 5-7-florae, 
6-8 mm longae; gluma prima 2 mm longa, acuta; 
gluma secunda 2.5-3 mm longa, latior, acuta 
vel subobtusa; lemmata 3-3.5 mm longa, acuta, 
dentata, basi sparse pilosa; palea lemma 
aequans, carinis prope apicem sparse scabris; 
antherae 0.8—1 mm longae. 

Perennial; culms densely tufted, erect from 
a decumbent base, 15 to 30 cm tall, with short 
ones, 5 to 8 em tall, apparently from the out- 
side of the clump; sheaths glabrous, longer than 
the internodes, the lower loose, thin, reddish 
brown, becoming fibrous; ligule thin, decurrent, 
2 mm long; blades flat, 5 to 11 cm long, 1 to 2.5 
mm wide, glabrous; panicles 4 to 8 cm long, the 
branches relatively stout, glabrous, stiffly as- 
cending to spreading, 2 to 4 cm long, bearing 1 
to 3 or sometimes 5 appressed spikelets; spike- 
lets 5- to 7-flowered, 6 to 8 mm long; first glume 
2mm long, acute, the second 2.5 to 3 mm long, 
much broader, acute or subobtuse; lemma 3 to 
3.5 mm long, usually acute, sometimes irregu- 
larly toothed, sparsely pilose at the base and on 
the lower part of the prominent nerves; palea as 
- long as the lemma, the keels sparsely scabrous 
near the summit; anthers 0.8 to 1 mm long. 

Type in the herbarium of the U. 8. National 
Arboretum, collected in very wet soil, Point 
Lay, Arctic Alaska, August 5, 1938, by J. P. 
Anderson (no. 4399a). 

This is a rather distinct species and its rela- 
tionship is not evident. The long decumbent 
base, short, stiffly spreading panicle branches, 
and acute, more or less toothed, lemmas are 
characteristic. Only known from the type col- 
lection. Mr. Anderson’s no. 4399 consisted of 
specimens of this species and of Puccinellia 
paupercula. Those of P. andersont have been 


SWALLEN—ALASKAN SPECIES OF PUCCINELLIA 21 


labeled 4399a, while those of P. paupercula 
have been labeled 4399b. 


8. Puccinellia alaskana Scribn. & Merr. Contr. 
U.S. Nat. Herb. 13: 78. 1910 


Puccinellia paupercula var. alaskana Fern. & 
Weath. Rhodora 18: 18. 1916. 


Perennial; culms in small dense tufts, erect 
or ascending, 6 to 30 cm tall; sheaths soft, 
much longer than the internodes; ligule 2 to 3.5 
mm long, hyaline, decurrent; blades flat or 
loosely folded, 2 to 9 cm long, 1 to 2 mm wide; 
panicles 3 to 9 cm long, the short slender 
glabrous branches appressed or ascending; 
spikelets 3- or 4-flowered, 4 to 5 mm long; 
glumes contorted, strongly nerved, the first 1 
to 1.5 mm long, subacute to obtuse, entire, the 
second 2 to 2.5 mm long, 3-nerved, oblong to 
obovate, entire or erose; lemma prominently 
5-nerved, abruptly narrowed to an irregular 
subacute tip, densely pubescent at the base, the 
lowest 3 to 3.3 mm long; palea as long as the 
lemma, ciliate on the keels; anthers of lowest 
floret 0.4 to 0.5 mm long. 

Differs from P. paupercula in its usually 
larger size, flat broader blades, and its longer 
more distant lemmas, densely pubescent below 
(nearly glabrous in P. paupercula). 

Type locality: St. Paul, Pribilof Islands. 

Islands of Bering Sea and Western Alaska. 

SEWARD PENINSULA: Port Clarence, Walpole 
1889. Nunivak Isutanp: Nash Harbor, J. P. 
Anderson 3864. St. Marruew IsLanp: Cole 
in 1899. Pripitor Isuanps: St. Paul, Haley 
in 1925, Hultén 7489, 7498(H), Johnston, June 
30, 1923(H), Kincaid, Aug. 24, 1897, Macoun, 
Aug. 11, 1892, and in Geol. Surv. Can. 94198, 
Merriam, Aug. 4, 1891, Trelease & Saunders 
2960; St. George, W. H. Palmer “Aug. 11,” 
Johnston, Aug. 5, 1920. ALEUTIAN ISLANDS: 
Agattu, Hultén 6319; Semisopochnoi, Steenis 
4619(H); Atka, EHyerdam 994, Hultén 6996, 
7017; Amlia, Eyerdam 1272, 1273; Carlisle, 
Eyerdam 1387; Umnak, Hultén 7086(H); 
“Ogliuga,’ Murie 2108. SHumacin IsLANDs: 
Popof, Kincaid, July 14, 1899. 


9. Puccinellia paupercula (Holm) Fern. & 
Weath. Rhodora 18: 18. 1916 


Glyceria paupercula Holm, Repert. Sp. Nov. 
Fedde 3: 337. 1907. 


22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Perennial; culms very slender in small dense 
tufts, 5 to 15 cm tall, scarcely exceeding the 
blades; sheaths crowded, the lowest rather pa- 
pery becoming shredded in age; ligule 0.5 to 0.8 
mm long, usually not decurrent; blades 2 to 4 
em long, 0.5 to 1 mm wide, flat or usually 
loosely involute, straight or falcate; panicles 1 
to 7 em long, few-flowered, the slender 
glabrous relatively distant branches appressed 
or sometimes spreading, naked below; spike- 
lets 3- to 5-flowered, 4 to 8 mm long, the florets 
not crowded; first glume 1 to 1.5 mm long, 1- 
nerved, acute to subobtuse; second glume 1.5 
to 2 mm long, 3-nerved, subacute to obtuse; 
lower lemma rather strongly 5-nerved, 2 to 2.5 
mm long (rarely to 2.8 mm), elliptic to obo- 
vate, erose, glabrous or very sparsely pilose at 
the base; palea a little shorter than the lemma, 
the keels glabrous; anthers 0.5 to 0.6 mm long. 

Type locality: Mansfield Island, Hudson Bay. 

Rocky and sandy shores, Arctic America. 

Arctic ALASKA: Point Lay, J. P. Anderson 
4399b; Point Hope, J. P. Anderson 4603; Point 
Martin, Johansen 145 (Geol. Surv. Can. 97948). 
- BERING Strait: St. Lawrence Island, Geist, 
July—Aug. 1931; ‘‘Arakamtchetchene”’ Island, 
Wright in 1853-56. AumuTIAN ISLANDS: 
Agattu, Hultén 6320; Unalga, Steenis 4658(H). 


10. Puccinellia hulteni Swallen, sp. nov. 


Perennis; culmi rigidi, erecti, basi deeumben- 
tes, 35-40 cm alti; vaginae internodiis longiores, 
glabrae; ligula 2.5-3 mm longa, tenuis, decur- 
rens; laminae 5-11 cm longae, 2—2.5 mm latae, 
erectae, nervosae, glabrae; paniculae 8-14 cm 
longae, ramis rigide adscendentibus vel paten- 
tibus, glabris vel obscure scabris, inferioribus 
5-8 cm longis, in parte superiore floriferis; 
spiculae 3—4-florae, 5-6 mm longae; gluma 
prima 1.5—2 mm longa, 1-nervia, acuta vel sub- 
acuta; gluma secunda 2-2.5 mm longa, 3- 
nervia, obtusa vel subacuta; lemmata 2.5—-2.8 
mm longa, subobtusa, basi obscure pubescen- 
tia; palea lemmate brevior, minute dentata, 
carinis scabris; antherae 0.8 mm longae. 

Perennial; culms stiffly erect from a decum- 
bent base 35 to 40 cm tall; sheaths much longer 
than the internodes, glabrous; ligule hyaline, 
decurrent, 2.5 to 3 mm long; blades 5 to 11 em 
long, 2 to 2.5 mm wide, narrower on the innova- 
tions, stiff, erect, strongly nerved, glabrous; 
panicles 8 to 14 cm long, the glabrous or ob- 


VoL. 34, No. 1 


scurely scabrous branches stiffly ascending or 
spreading, the lower 5 to 8 cm long with shorter 
ones intermixed, loosely few-flowered above the 
middle; spikelets 3- or 4-flowered, 5 to 6mm 
long; first glume 1.5 to 2 mm long, 1-nerved, 
acute or subacute, the second 2 to 2.5 mm long, 
broader than the first, 3-nerved, subacute or 
obtuse; lemma 2.5 to'2.8 mm long, acutish, ob- 
scurely pubescent on the strong lateral nerves 
at the base; palea a little shorter than the 
lemma, minutely toothed, rather strongly 
scabrous on the keels, especially toward the 
summit; anthers 0.8 mm long. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 
18196138, collected at Port Hobron, Sitkalidak 
Island, Kodiak, Alaska, August 20, 1931, by 
W. J. Eyerdam (no. 131). 

The stiffly erect culms with erect flat blades 
and open panicles with stiffly ascending 
branches of irregular length are characteristic. 
Probably most closely related to P. pumila 
which is much smaller, with short densely 
flowered branches and much more obtuse lem- 
mas. 

Seashores, Kodiak and neighboring islands, 
Kenai Peninsula, and southeastern Alaska. 

Kontak: Old Harbor, Eyerdam 651; Sitkali- 
dak Island, Kyerdam 131. Krnat PENINSULA: 
Tutka Bay, Hultén 7782. SourHEASTERN 
ALASKA: Sitka, Hultén 8582. . 


11. Puccinellia pumila (Vasey) Hitche. Amer. 
Journ. Bot. 21: 129. 1934 


Glyceria pumila Vasey, Torrey Bot. Club Bull. 
15: 48. 1888. 

Atropis kurilensis Takeda, Journ. Linn. Soe. 
Bot. 42: 497. 1914. 

Puccinellia kurilensis Honda, Journ. Fac. Sci. 
Univ. Tokyo See. ITI, Bot. 3: 59. 1930. 


Perennial; culms in loose or rather dense 
tufts, erect or decumbent at the base and 
geniculate-ascending, 10 to 30 cm tall; sheaths 
usually much longer than the internodes; ligule 
1.5 to 2.3 mm long, hyaline, truncate, decur- 
rent; blades flat, as much as 20 cm long, usually 
much shorter, 1 to 2.5 mm wide, scaberulous; 
panicles 2.5 to 15 cm long, the glabrous 
branches stiffly ascending to reflexed, naked in 
the lower half, sometimes in depauperate speci- 
mens bearing only a single spikelet; spikelets 
4- to 6-flowered, 5 to 7 mm long, appressed; 


JAN. 15, 1944 


first glume 1.5 to 2.5 mm long, 1-nerved, sub- 


acute; second glume 2.5 to 3 mm long, 3-nerved, 


subacute; lower lemma about 3 mm long, rather 
abruptly narrowed toward the subacute apex, 
the nerves usually conspicuous, sparsely pubes- 
cent on the callus; palea as long as the lemma, 
the keels glabrous; anthers of lower floret 0.8 
to 1.2 mm long. 

The eastern material which has been re- 
ferred to this species requires further study, at 
least some of it may represent another species. 

Type locality: Vancouver Island. 

Brackish marshes and seashores, Alaska to 
Vancouver Island. 

Koptak: Griggs, Aug. 15, 1915, Piper 4701. 
Cook INLET: Halibut Cove, Coville & Kearney 
2456. Prince WILLIAM Sounp: Orca, Coville 
& Kearney 1336. SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA: 
Sitka, Hitchcock 41394; Skwashianski Bay, 
Piper 4698. 


12. Puccinellia nutkaensis (Presl) Fern. & 
Weath. Rhodora 18: 22. f. 49-53. 1916 


Poa nutkaensis Presl, Rel. Haenk. 1: 272. 1830. 


Perennial; culms relatively slender in dense 
tufts, mostly 15 to 30 cm tall, rarely as much 
as 45 em, erect or sometimes ascending at the 
base; sheaths overlapping or the upper occa- 
sionally shorter than the internodes; ligule 1 
to 2 mm long, obtuse or truncate, decurrent; 
blades 3 to 13 ecm long, 1 to 2 mm wide, soft, 
flat or folded, glabrous or very sparsely sca- 
brous on the upper surface; panicles 5 to 12 em 
long, the few slender glabrous branches ap- 
pressed, naked toward the base, the lower 
rarely more than 5 cm long; spikelets 4- to 
6-flowered, 7 to 8 mm long; first glume 1.5 to 
2 mm long, l-nerved, subobtuse; second glume 
2 to 2.5 mm long, 3-nerved, ovate or broadly 
elliptic, obscurely ciliolate; lemma of lowest 
floret 3 mm long, elliptic, glabrous except for a 
few hairs on the callus and sometimes on the 
lateral nerves near the base; palea as long as 
_ the lemma, sparsely scabrous; anthers 0.8 to 
1.2 mm long. 

Type locality: ‘““Nootka Sound?” 

Beaches and sandy or rocky soil near the 
coast, Alaska. 


SWALLEN—ALASKAN SPECIES OF PUCCINELLIA Dies 


This is on the whole a characteristic and uni- 
form species, apparently the commonest of 
those found in Alaska. 

ALEUTIAN IsuANDs: Atka, Hultén 6989(H), 
7012, Turner 1208. SHUMAGIN ISLANDs: Popof, 
Hultén 7742, Saunders, July 7-18, 1899, Tre- 
lease & Saunders 2946. KopitaKx ISLAND: 
Eyerdam 497, Covtile & Kearney 2240, Trelease 
& Saunders 2942, 2945, 2973, Cole, July 19, 
1899, Kincaid, July 20, 1899. AwtasKa PENIN- 
suLA: Kukak Bay, Coville & Kearney 1588; 
Fox Bay, Griggs, July 28, 1913. Kenat PEn- 
INSULA, Tutka Bay, Hultén 7785 (H). PRINCE 
Witu1aM Sounp: Hinchinbrook Island, Nor- 
berg, June 4, 22(H), and 28, July 14, 1936, 
July 14 and 20, 1937; Knight Island, Eyerdam 
10; Cordova, Hitchcock 4145. YaxuraT Bay: 
Funston 31, Trelease & Saunders 2939. SouTu- 
EASTERN ALASKA: Skagway, J. P. Anderson 
1717(H), 1719, Hastwood 730, 730A, Walker 
808; Yes Bay, Howell 1718, Lynn Canal, 
Krause 276, 276a(H); Juneau, J. P. Anderson 
197; Howkan, Evans 144; Davidson Glacier, 
Cooper 76; Sitka, Coville & Kearney 843, EHvans 
257, Hitchcock 4053, Piper 4697, W. G. Wright 
1585, 1593; Chichagof Island, Norberg 183, 188, 
203; Ketchikan, J. P. Anderson 481. 


13. Puccinellia kamtschatica Holmb. var. 
sublaevis Holmb. Bot. Not. 1927: 209. 1927 


Perennial; culms rather densely tufted, erect 
or somewhat decumbent at the base, 12 to 25 
em high; sheaths smooth, all longer than the 
internodes; ligule membranaceous, about 2 
mm long; blades smooth, rather soft, flat or 
drying involute, not more than 2 mm wide; 
panicles 4 to 10 cm long, the branches rather 
narrowly ascending, or eventually spreading, 
sparsely scabrous, mostly spikelet-bearing in 
the upper half; spikelets 3- or 4-flowered, 3 to 4 
mm long; first glume acute, about half as long 
as the first lemma; second glume much broader, 
obtuse, the tip hyaline; lbommas 2 mm long, 
obtuse, glabrous; anthers 0.6 to 0.8 mm long. 

Type locality: Schtschapina, Kamchatka. 

Cold wet soil, Kamschatka and Alaska. 

SHumMAGIN Is~aNps: Popof, Hultén 7747. 
SouTHEASTERN ALASKA: Glacier Bay, Cooper 
165; Holkham Bay, Cooper 369. 


24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


BOTAN Y.—Five new species of Dryopteris from Peru.' 


United States National Museum. 


The new species of Dryopteris herewith 
described are part of the extensive collec- 
tions made by Dr. J. Francis Macbride in 
Peru under the auspices of Field Museum 
of Natural History in 1922 and 1923, the 
ferns of which were entrusted to the writer 
for study. The series is a valuable one; but 
like most large Andean fern collections ob- 
tained recently it includes a great deal of 
critical material which it is impossible to 
identify without recourse to type specimens 
in European herbaria or, in the case of 
several especially difficult genera such as 
Elaphoglossum, without monographic stud- 
ies. Anything like a complete report is 
thus not feasible at present. Owing mainly 
to Christensen’s ‘‘Revision” and later 
monographs the situation with respect to 
Dryopteris is sufficiently clear, however, to 
justify proposing the present new species, 
all belonging to the subgenus Lastrea. 


Dryopteris assurgens Maxon, sp. nov. 


§Lastrea. Rhizoma epigaeum, oblique ad- 
scendens vel rampans, 15 cm et ultra longum, 
gracile (3-4 mm diam.), brunneum, laeve, levi- 
ter sulcatum, radices crassas perpaucas emit- 
tens, subnudum, parcissime paleaceum, paleis 
adpressis, interdum propinquis sed non imbrica- 
tis, 3-4 mm longis, e basi cordata anguste 
ovatis vel oblongo-ovatis, 1-1.5 mm latis, 
acuminatis, glabris, castaneis, lucidis et reticu- 
latis, marginibus scariosis pallidioribus. Folia ut 
videtur ca. 6, 60-70 cm longa, stipitibus oblique 
affixis, decurrentibus, non imbricatis, 20-25 em 
longis, 2 mm diam., e basi brunnea stramineis, 
epaleaceis, lucidis, glabris; laminae anguste 
lanceolatae, 45-55 cm longae, medio 12-16 cm 
latae, apice acuminatae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, 
basi abrupte angustatae, rhachi straminea, 
glabra; pinnae ca. 25-jugae, pleraeque opposi- 
tae et patentes, infimae (2 vel 3 paria) auriculi- 
formes, deflexae, 5-15 mm longae; pinnae me- 
diales maximae 6-8.5 cm longae, medio 12-16 
mm latae, basi usque ad 18 mm latae, lineari- 
lanceolatae, attenuatae, subpinnatisectae, mem- 
branaceo-herbaceae, glabrae, costis supra stri- 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 
20, 1943. 


VOL. 34, NO. 1 


WiLuiAM R. Maxon, 


gosis et segmentis ciliolatis exceptis; segmenta 
ca. 20-juga, pleraque 5-9 mm longa, 2—2.5 mm 
lata, anguste oblonga, acutiuscula, patentia, 
subfalcata, fere plana, oblique ciliolata, basi 
angustissime conjuncta, ala costae latere 
utroque ca. 0.5 mm lata; segmenta basalia 
superiora maxima, usque ad 1 cm longa et 3.5 
mm lata, saepe crenata et rhachin incumbentia; 
venae 6—8-jugae, obliquae, manifestae sed non 
prominulae, simplices vel (segmentis basalibus 
superioribus) furcatae; sori 6—8-jugi, exacte 
mediales, mediocres, non-indusiati; sporangia 
numerosa, glabra. 

Type in the herbarium of Field Museum of 
Natural History, no. 1136977, collected near 
Playapampa, Peru, altitude about 2700 meters, 
shaded situation in sphagnum, June 16-24, 
1926, by J. Francis Macbride (no. 4517a). The 
description is drawn partly also from an excel- 
lent detached frond mounted on the type sheet 
of Dryopteris furva, the two species, though ut- 
terly unlike, having somehow been combined 
under a single number now divided as no. 4517 
and no. 4517a. 

In its very long, slender, epigaeous rhizome 


and few, very oblique fronds with decurrent 


non-imbricate stipe-bases Dryopteris assurgens 
is similar to D. longicaulis (Baker) C. Chr.? 
and D. cornuta Maxon,* and to these species 
only. It possibly belongs to the group of D. 
sancta (L.) Kuntze. 


Dryopteris furva Maxon, sp. nov. 


§Lastrea. Rhizoma (pars) curvato-adscen- 
dens, 5 cm longum, ca. 8 mm diam., apice laxe 
squamosum, paleis 3-4 mm longis, ovato-del- 
toideis, acutis, integris, concavis, brunneis, 
minute pubescentibus, subopacis. Folia ut 
videtur 10-12, fasciculata, ca. 55 cm longa, sti- 
pitibus ca. 15 cm longis, 1.5 mm diam., brun- 
neis, lucidis, minute pubescentibus, demum 
glabratis; laminae anguste lineares, 40 em 
longae, maxime 4—4.5 cm latae, apice attenua- 
tae, basin versus longe et gradatim angustatae, 
pinnato-pinnatifidae, rhachi stipiti simili sed 
graciliore, parce et minute pubescente; pinnae 


2 Tllustrated in Hook. Icon. Pl. 17: pl. 1658. 
1886 


* Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 19: 245. fig. 1. 
1929. 


Jan. 15, 1944 


infra apicem pinnatifidum ca. 30-jugae, ses- 

siles, pleraeque oppositae, inferiores ca. 8-jugae 
reductae, quarum 4 vel 5 paria infima 1-2 mm 
solum longa, inter se ca. 3 cm distantia; pinnae 
mediales maximae 2-3 cm longae, 8-11 mmlatae, 
oblongae vel anguste deltoideo-oblongae, pa- 
tentes, falcatae, pinnatifidae, apice subacuto 
leviter lobatae, aerophoris basi pinnarum ellip- 
ticis, planis, humilibus, vix perspicuis; seg- 
menta ca. 10-juga, rigide herbacea vel sub- 
coriacea, oblonga, integra, concavo-revoluta, 
costae latere utroque ala 1-1.5 mm conjuncta, 
venis 4—6-jugis, simplicibus, obliquis, utrinque 
prominentibus; costae costulaeque et venae 
subtus substrigillosae, supra (cum parenchy- 
mate) parce strigillosae; sori numerosi, medi- 
ales, mediocres; sporangia glabra; indusia firme 
et rigide affixa, persistentia, pallida, reniformia, 
coplose pubescentia et ciliata, pilis brevibus, 
rigidis, simplicibus. 

Type in the herbarium of Field Museum of 
Natural History, no. 535604, collected near 
Playapampa, Peru, altitude about 2700 meters, 
shaded situation in sphagnum, June 16-24, 
1926, by J. Francis Macbride (no. 4517). 

Although the present species runs to the 
West Indian D. scalpturoides (Fée) C. Chr. in 
Christensen’s key, it obviously needs no com- 
parison with that, nor is it closely related to any 
species previously described. In general appear- 
ance, and especially in their polished brown 
stipe and rachis, individual fronds resemble a 
narrow form of D. pavoniana (KI1.) C. Chr., but 
that species is larger and, though similar in pu- 
bescence, differs greatly in its very slender, 
wide-creeping, branched rhizome, its abruptly 
reduced blades (with only one or two pairs of 
auriculiform or glanduliform basal pinnae), its 
depressed venation and non-indusiate sori, and 
the presence of conspicuous tuberculiform aero- 
phores at the base of the larger pinnae. 


Dryopteris macbridei C. Chr. & Maxon, 
sp. nov. 


§Lastrea. Rhizoma suberectum, crassum, 
fortasse 5-8 cm longum, ca. 1.5 cm diam., con- 
spicue paleaceum, paleis numerosis, imbricatis 
vel apice fastigiatis, e basi anguste retusa ca. 1 
mm lata subulato-attenuatis, ca. 1 cm longis, 
brunneo-castaneis, subflexuosis, glabris, inte- 
gris vel subintegris. Folia ut videtur 8-10, sub- 
erecta, 40-60 cm longa, stipitibus 5-10 cm 
longis, 1.5-2.5 mm diam., basi laxe et decidue 


MAXON—NEW SPECIES OF DRYOPTERIS FROM PERU 25 


paleaceis, dense hirtellis, pilis sordide ochroleu- 
cis, subrectis, 1-1.5 mm longis; laminae lanceo- 
lato-ellipticae, 35-55 cm longae, medio 7-12 
cm latae, apice acuminatae, basin versus ab- 
rupte reductae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, rhachi 
valida stipiti simili; pinnae majores 25-30- 
jugae, sessiles, pleraeque alternae et patentes, 
inferiores reductae ca. 8-jugae, quarum ca. 5 
paria infima minute glanduliformia, inter se 
distantia; pinnae mediales maximae 5-6 cm 
longae, medio 8-10 mm latae, basi 10-13 mm la- 
tae, lineari-lanceolatae, subpinnatisectae, apice 
attenuato oblique lobatae, spongioso-herba- 
ceae, ubique conspicue hirtellae; segmenta 
patentia, ca. 25-juga, pleraque 4-6 mm longa, 
ca. 1.5 mm lata, anguste oblonga, acutiuscula, 
recta, ciliata, marginibus late et valde revolutis, 
basil anguste conjuncta, ala costae latere 
utroque ca. 0.5 mm lata; venae 7—9-jugae, sim- 
plices; sori 6—8-jugae, paulum supramediales, 
magni, conferti, a marginibus late revolutis 
partim occulti, sporangiis non setosis; indusia 
mediocria, persistentia, conspicue setosa, pilis 
rigidis ochroleucis. 

Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 
1193334, collected near Yanano, Peru, altitude 
about 1800 meters, at edge of thicket, June 29, 
1923, by J. Francis Macbride (no. 3828); iso- 
type in herb. Field Museum of Natural History, 
no. 534890. 

In general appearance D. macbrider resem- 
bles D. utafiagensis Hieron., of Colombia and 
Ecuador, of which (besides five specimens from 
Colombia) there is at hand an excellent photo- 
graph of the incomplete type specimen from 
Ecuador (Stiibel 809); also it was regarded by 
Christensen as probably most closely related 
to that species. Among other characters D. 
utanagensis differs sharply, however, in its fal- 
cate segments, which have 10 to 12 pairs of 
veins, margins narrowly and closely revolute, 
pubescence substrigose, sori medial and non- 
indusiate, and under surface mostly exposed. 
In strong contrast are the very deeply and 
widely revolute margins in D. macbridei, which 
nearly meet over the costule, crowding together 
the conspicuously setose-indusiate sori and 
wholly obscuring the leaf tissue. The subhirsute 
or hirtellous condition is nearly uniform 
throughout. . 


Dryopteris densa Maxon, sp. nov. 


§Lastrea. Rhizoma ut fragmento parvo vide- 


26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


tur erectum, magnum. Folia valida, certe sub- 
erecta et caespitosa, saltem 1—1.2 m longa, 
stipitibus 25-30 cm longis, 6-8 mm diam., alte 
suleatis, sordide ochraceo-brunneis, tenuiter 
albido-pilosulis, et praecipue ad basin paleis 
usque ad 1 cm longis e basi ovata longissime at- 
tenuatis ochraceo-brunneis flaccidis tenuibus in- 
structis, demum denudatis; laminae anguste 
ovatae, 80-90 cm et ultra longae, 30-40 cm 
latae, apice acuminatae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, 
basi abrupte angustatae, rhachi albido-pilosula, 
paleis caducis angustis pallidis paucis praedita; 
pinnae ca. 30-jugae, pleraeque leviter adscen- 
dentes vel subrecte patentes, inferiores (4 vel 5 
paria) reductae, suboppositae, deflexae, infimae 
fere alternae, ca. 1 cm longae; pinnae mediales 
maximae 15-23 cm longae, basi et medio 2.5- 
3.9 cm latae, lineares, apicem serratum versus 
longe attenuatae, pinnatifidae, spongioso-her- 
baceae, basi aerophoro ochraceo verruciformi 
humili instructae, costis subtus paleis caducis 
linearibus laxis pallidis paucis praeditis, utrin- 
que cum costulis et pagina superiore laxe pilo- 
sulis; segmenta ca. 30-juga, subrecte patentia, 
leviter falcata, pleraque 12-18 mm longa, medio 
ca. 4 mm lata, deltoideo-oblonga vel e basi dila- 
tata lineari-oblonga, acutiuscula vel false acuta, 
marginibus anguste sed firme revolutis, basi 
late conjuncta, ala costae latere utroque 1.5-2 
mm lata; venae 9-12-jugae, simplices, sub an- 
gulo 45° egredientes, immersae; sori 8—11-jugi, 
mediales, rotundi, magni, creberrimi, sporan- 
giis numerosissimis segmenti paginam infe- 
riorem omnino obtegentibus; indusia perspicua, 
suborbicularia, papyracea, fere plana, albida, 
albido-pilosula, receptaculo elevato firme af- 
fixa, persistentia. 

Type in the herbarium of Field Museum of 
Natural History, nos. 535250 and 535251, col- 
lected at Huacachi, a station near Mufia, Peru, 
altitude about 1950 meters, May 20—June 1, 
1923, by J. Francis Macbride (no. 4175); iso- 
type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 
1193387. 

This is a truly remarkable species. The Na- 
tional Herbarium specimen was sent to Chris- 
tensen, who annotated it (1927) as follows: ‘‘To- 
tally different from all species described. Should 
be described after more complete specimens, if 
at hand.”’ No new collections have since been 
received. Nevertheless the necessary additional 
data are provided by the Field Museum speci- 
mens, which include the lower half of a blade, 


vou. 34, No. 1 


a nearly complete stipe, and a fragment of the 
rhizome. 

Dryopteris densa is a sturdy plant and prob- 
ably grows to a height of 1.5 meters or more. 
The species name refers to the superabundant 
sporangia of the closely crowded sori, com- 
pletely covering the segments beneath from 
costule to tightly revolute margin. Except for 
the presence of the conspicuous but slightly 
folded, elevated, persistent, whitish indusia in 
a double regular row, the sori at maturity have 
lost their distinctness. They are not at all con- 
cealed by the margins. These features, coupled 
with the weakly pilosulous covering of the up- 
per surface of the segments, are noteworthy 
and, in combination, distinctive. As to habitat 
the collector’s note reads, ‘“‘Large clump, in 
thicket.”’ 


Dryopteris dumetorum Maxon, sp. nov. 


§Lastrea. Rhizoma ut videtur late repens 
(pars praesens ca. 10 cm longa), gracile, 3-5 
mm diam., brunneum, laeve, crasse radicosum, 
praecipue apice paleaceum, paleis subulato- 
attenuatis, 4-7 mm longis, basi truncata ca. 
1 mm latis, opace brunneis, albido-pubescenti- 
bus, integris. Folia 3 vel 4, disticha, 45-85 em 
longa, stipitibus 10-20 cm longis, 2-3.5 mm 
diam., suleatis, e basi brunnescente arcuata 
olivaceis vel subferrugineis, hine inde laxe 
paleaceis, hirtellis, pilis valde inaequalibus, 
usque ad 1.5 mm longis; laminae anguste 
lanceolatae, 25-65 cm longae, medio 11-20 em 


-latae, apice acuminatae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, 


basi subgradatim vel abrupte reductae, rhachi 
1-2 mm diam., notis omnibus stipiti simili; pin- 
nae 20—25-jugae, pleraeque alternae, patentes, 
inferiores (2-4 paria) reductae, infimae minu- 
tissimae, remotae; pinnae maximae 5-10 cm 
longae, 12-18 mm latae, lanceolatae vel lineari- 
lanceolatae, basi raro paulum angustatae, apice 
acuminatae, pinnatifidae, herbaceae, basi aero- 
phoro brunneo rotundo duro instructae, costis 
supra subdense subtus parce hirtellis, etiam 
subtus paleis brunneis lineari-lanceolatis parvis 
(1.5-2.5 mm longis, 0.2-0.4 mm latis) paucis 
praeditis; segmenta 18—23-juga, pleraque 5-8 
mm longa, basi 3-4 mm lata, oblonga, false 
acuta, subfalcata, subrecte patentia, margini- 
bus anguste revolutis, basi late conjuncta, ala 
costae latere utroque 1.5-2 mm lata; venae 
7-10-jugae, obliquae, prominulae, simplices, 
cum costulis utrinque oblique hirtellae; sori 


Jan. 15, 1944 


6-9-jugi, mediales, rotundati, mediocres; 
sporangia glabra; indusia ex pilis pluribus al- 
bidis rigidis suberectis longis constata. 

Type in the herbarium of Field Museum of 
Natural History, no. 518164, collected near 
Mito, Peru, altitude about 2700 meters, in 
partly sunny places of thickets, July 8-22, 
1922, by J. Francis Macbride and William 
Featherstone (no. 1667); isotype (an immature 
plant) in U. §S. National Herbarium, no. 
1121953. 


COE—NEMERTEANS OF THE PACIFIC COAST 27 


Dryopteris dumetorum belongs to the general 
group of D. rudis (Kunze) C. Chr., though it is 
not closely related to that species itself. Appar- 
ently it has no very near relatives; but the 
boundaries of this group as defined by Christen- 
sen are not very clear, and its dozen or so spe- 
cies need to be redescribed and compared on 
the basis of better material, the original speci- 
men in several instances having lacked, for 
example, the rhizome. 


ZLOOLOGY.—Geographical distribution of the nemerteans of the Pacific coast of 


North America, with descriptions of two new species.' 


WESLEY R. Cos, Scripps 


Institution of Oceanography. (Communicated by Watpo L. Scumirt.) 


An examination of the nemerteans in the 
collections of the United States National 
Museum revealed two species from the 
Pacific coast of North America believed to 
be new to science, in addition to many 
others from new localities. Most of them 
were dredged on the cruises of the U.S. 
Bureau of Fisheries steamer Albatross off 
the coasts of California, Washington, and 
Alaska and in the seas adjacent to the Japa- 
nese islands. These records are included in 
the following list, which shows the habitat 
and geographical distribution of each of the 
Pacific coast species so far as known at the 
present time. This list will supplement the 
data contained in the “Revision of the 
nemertean fauna of the Pacific coasts of 
North, Central and northern South Amer- 
ica’? (Coe, 1940). The total number of 
species now known from the Pacific coast 
of North America is increased to 99. Of 
these, 65 have been found only on the Pa- 
cific coast of North America, including Ber- 
ing Sea and the adjacent Arctic coast of 
Alaska; 16 occur also on the coasts of 
Japan; 11 on the Atlantic coast of North 
America; 14 in European waters; 5 on 
South African shores; and 7 on the Pacific 
coast of South America. 


Order PALEONEMERTEA 
Family Tubulanidae 


1. Tubulanus albocinctus Coe. Among red 
1 Contributions of the Scripps Institution of 


Oceanography, University of California, new ser., 
no. 216. Received October 27, 1943. 


algae at depths of 100 to 200 meters; off coast 
of southern California. 

2. T. capistratus Coe. Intertidal zone; coast 
of Alaska to Monterey Bay, Calif.; Japan. One 
specimen nearly a meter in length was collected 
by the Albatross in 1906 near Hakodate, Japan. 

3. T. congulatus Coe. Yes Bay, Behm Canal, 
Alaska, 290-400 meters; intertidal zone; Mon- 
terey Bay, Calif. 

4. T. frenatus Coe. Intertidal zone; southern 
California. 

5. T. nothus Birger. Intertidal zone to 40 
meters; coast of Alaska; South Africa; Mediter- 
ranean. The Alaska records are from preserved 
specimens only, and there remains the possibil- 
ity they may actually have represented T. 
annulatus (Montagu), which is similar in mark- 
ings and which is widely distributed on north- 
ern coasts from Greenland to Norway, Great 
Britain and the Mediterranean and has also 
been reported from South Africa. 

6. T. pellucidus Coe. Intertidal zone; coasts 
of New England and southward; Monterey 
Bay to San Diego, Calif. 

7. T. polymorphus (Renier). Intertidal zone; 
northern coasts of Europe; Mediterranean; 
Aleutian Islands, Alaska, British Columbia to 
Monterey Bay, Calif. 

8. T. sexlineatus Griffin. Intertidal zone; 
Alaska to southern California. 

9. Carinomella lactea Coe. Intertidal zone to 
20 meters; Monterey Bay to San Diego, Calif. 
Burrowing form, found on sandy shores of boys. 


Family Carinomidae 


10. Carinoma mutabilis Griffin. Intertidal 


28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


zone to 40 meters; British Columbia to Gulf of 
California. Burrows on sandy shores of bays. 


Family Cephalothricidae 


11. Cephalothrix major Coe. Intertidal zone; 
southern California. 

12. Procephalothrix spiralis Coe. Intertidal 
zone to 20 meters; New England; Alaska to 
San Diego, Calif. 


Order HETERONEMERTEA 
Family Baseodiscidae 


13. Baseodiscus delineatus (Delle Chiaje). 
Widely distributed in both Northern and 
Southern Hemispheres; Mediterranean to Cape 
Verde Islands; Mauritius; Bermuda; Barba- 
dos; Fiji Islands; Chile; Japan; Gulf of Cali- 
fornia. 

14. B. delineatus var. curtus (Hubr.). Coex- 
tensive with the preceding. 

15. B. mexicanus Birger. Gulf of California; 
west coasts of Mexico and Panama; Galapagos 
Islands; intertidal zone to 100 meters; among 
shells and corals. 

16. B. princeps Coe. Alaska to Puget Sound; 
intertidal zone and off shore to depths of 50 
meters or more; off Goloi Island, Alaska, 50 
meters; off Oshima, Japan, 250 meters (Alba- 
tross) ; Sea of Japan 135-290 meters (Albatross) ; 
off Ose Saki, Japan, 260 meters (Albatross); 
south of Hokkaido, Japan, 340 meters (Alba- 
tross). This species was also found by Yamaoka 
(1940) in the intertidal zone at Hokkaido, 
Japan, but was erroneously assigned by him to 
B. curtus Hubr. Supplementing the original 
description by Coe (1901) it has since been 
ascertained that some individuals of B. prin- 
ceps on the coast of Alaska and in Puget Sound 
have the lateral margins and ventral surface 
of the head white or colorless. These white 
areas disappear when the head is strongly con- 
tracted. 

17. B. punnetit Coe. Monterey Bay to Gulf 
of California, Mexico; intertidal zone to 380 
meters. 

18. Zygeupolia rubens (Coe). Intertidal zone 
to 50 meters; southern New England and 
southward to North Carolina; Monterey Bay, 
Calif., to Ensenada, Mexico. 


Family Lineidae 
19. Euborlasia maxima Coe. Gulf of Cali- 
fornia. 
20. HL. hancockt Coe. Coasts of Mexico, Pan- 
ama, and Peru; 17 to 100 meters. 


VOL. 34, No. 1 


21. E. nigrocincta Coe. San Francisco Bay, 
20 meters; Monterey Bay, Calif., to Ensenada, 
Mexico; intertidal zone to 30 meters. 

22. Euborlasia variegata, n. sp. This spe- 
cles was represented in a collection of nemer- 
teans from Alaska by a headless fragment 
about 160 mm in length. The width of the body 
is 7 to 10 mm and the thickness 6 to 8 mm. The 
body is somewhat flattened in the middle in- 
testinal region but becomes rounded poste- 
riorly. The posterior extremity is rounded and 
without caudal cirrus. 

This specimen is put on record because of the 
remarkable and distinctive coloration of the 
body. In spite of preservation in alcohol for 
about two years the color pattern is still con- 
spicuous, consisting of an orange ground color, 
overlaid with bluish black longitudinal bands 
and transverse rings. On some portions of the 
body the black pigment covers most of the 
dorsal and ventral surfaces but in other por- 
tions it is confined to narrow rings which en- 
circle the body. Several adjacent rings become 
wide and confluent on dorsal or ventral surface, 
or both, giving the appearance of broad, in- 
terrupted longitudinal bands connected by nar- 
row lateral rings. This specimen represents a 
ripe female and the abundance of ova pre- 
sumably influences the color pattern to some 
extent. 

Sections show that the bluish-black pigment 
is confined to the cutis and that the pattern is 
formed by the relative thickness of the pigment 
layer, which is thin in certain areas and much 
thicker and denser in others. The epithelium 
and the muscular layers are colorless or yellow 
and the intestinal epithelium and ova deeper 
yellow or orange. 

This specimen (U.S.N.M. 20633) was dredged 
at a depth of about 30 meters in Port Graham, 
Cook Inlet, Alaska, by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt 
in connection with the Alaska King Crab In- 
vestigation, 1941. 

23. Lineus bilineatus (Renier). Northern 
coasts of Europe; Mediterranean; Madeira; 
South Africa; Alaska to San Diego, Calif. 

24. L. flavescens Coe. Southern California to 
Gulf of California, Mexico. 

25. L. geniculatus (Delle Chiaje) (=L. di- 
guett Joubin). Intertidal zone to 30 meters; 
Gulf of California; west coasts of Mexico and 
Panama; Mediterranean and Black Seas; west 
coast of Africa. ; 

26. L. pictifrons Coe. Intertidal zone; Puget 


JAN. 15, 1944 


Sound to coast of Mexico. 

27. L. ruber (O. F. Miiller). Intertidal zone 
to 10 meters; circumpolar; Siberia; northern 
coasts of Europe; Mediterranean: Madeira to 
South Africa; Greenland to southern New 
England; Alaska to Monterey Bay, Calif. 

28. L. rubescens Coe. Monterey Bay to San 
Diego, Calif. 

29. L. torquatus Coe. Coast of Alaska to’ San 
Francisco Bay. 

30. L. vegetus Coe. Found in the intertidal 
zone beneath stones and decaying vegetation 
in estuaries, harbors and bays, as well as in 
crevices of rocks and among corallines and 
other growths exposed to the full force of the 
surf; sometimes above middle of intertidal 
zone; occasionally in brackish water. Com- 
monly associated with dead barnacles and mol- 
lusks; feeds on ciliates and other small organ- 
isms, living or dead. San Francisco Bay, Calif., 
to Ensenada, Mexico. Reproduces asexually by 
fragmentation as well as sexually by fertilized 
eggs; has remarkable regenerative capacity. 

31. Micrura alaskensis Coe. Intertidal zone; 
Prince William Sound, Alaska, to Ensenada, 
Mexico; Japan. 

32. M. impressa (Stimpson). Bering Strait. 

33. M. nebulosa Coe. Dredged at depths of 
120-900 meters off the coasts of Alaska and 
California. 

34. M. nigrirostris Coe. Among kelp hold- 
fasts and other growths on rocks at low-water 
mark and below; southern California. 

35. M. olivaris Coe. Monterey Bay and off 
San Francisco, Calif.; low-water mark to 120 
meters. 

36. M. pardalis Coe. Intertidal zone; Mon- 
terey Bay, California, to Ensenada, Mexico. 

37. M. verrilli Coe. Intertidal zone and be- 
low; Alaska to Monterey Bay, Calif. 

38. M. wilsont Coe. Intertidal zone to 35 
meters; Monterey Bay, California, to Gulf of 
California. : 

39. Cerebratulus albifrons Coe. Muddy flats 
between tide marks and below to depths of 100 
meters or more; Alaska to San Diego, Calif. 

40. C. californiensis Coe. On muddy shores 
and in bays to depths of 35 meters or more; 
Puget Sound to Gulf of California. 

41. C. herculeus Coe. Bering Sea, coast of 
Alaska to central California and off the coast 
to depths of 60 meters or more. 

42. C. lineolatus Coe. Muddy bays, southern 
California, Gulf of California and west coast of 


COE—_-NEMERTEANS OF THE PACIFIC COAST 29 


Mexico; intertidal zone to 70 meters or more. 

43. C. longiceps Coe. Intertidal zone; Ya- 
kutat Bay, Alaska; off Oshima, Japan, 250 
meters. 

44, C. marginatus Renier. Sandy and muddy 
shores to depths of 100 meters; circumpolar; 
Norway to Madeira; Greenland and Labrador 
to Cape Cod; Alaska to San Diego, Calif.; 
Bering Sea (62°N. 173°W.), 70 meters; Japan. 

45. C. montgomeryt Coe. Coast of Siberia; 
Bering Sea; Alaska to Monterey Bay, Calif.; 
Behm Canal, Alaska, 150-400 meters; Moss 
Cape, Belkofski Peninsula, 40 meters; off Hok- 
kaido, Japan, 600 meters. 

46. C. occidentalis Coe. Alaska to San Fran- 
cisco Bay; off central California, 120 meters; 
Cold Bay, Alaska, 40 meters; Bellingham Bay, 
Wash., 20 meters; intertidal zone, Prince Wil- 
liam Sound to Puget Sound. 

A7. C. signatus Coe. Bering Sea, 110 meters. 

48. Diplopleura vivest Joubin. Gulf of Cali- 
fornia, Mexico. 


Order HoPpLONEMERTEA 
MONOSTYLIFERA 
Family Emplectonematidae 


49. Emplectonema biirgeri Coe. Intertidal 
zone to 500 meters; Alaska to Monterey Bay, 
Calif.; off Vancouver Island, 300 meters; 
Chatham Strait, Alaska, 500 meters; off 
Oshima, Japan, 250 meters. 

50. EH. gracile (Johnston). Northern coasts of 
Europe to Madeira; Aleutian Islands and coast 
of Alaska to Ensenada, Mexico; Chile; Kam- 
chatka to Japan; intertidal zone to 100 meters. 
In many localities on northern coasts the most 
abundant of all species of nemerteans. 

51. EH. purpuratum Coe. Aleutian Islands. 

52. Nemertopsts gracilis Coe. Intertidal zone 
and below; Puget Sound to Ensenada, Mexico. 

52a. N. gracilis var. bullocki Coe. Intertidal 
zone; coast of central California. 

53. Paranemertes californica Coe. Monterey 
Bay, Calif., to Ensenada, Mexico; in sandy 
and muddy bays. 

54. P. carnea Coe. Intertidal zone; Alaska 
to Puget Sound. 

55. P. pallida Coe. Intertidal zone; Alaska. 

56. P. peregrina Coe. Commander Islands; 
Aleutian Islands, Alaska, to Gulf of California; 
Kamchatka to Japan. Intertidal zone and be- 
low, among mussels and other growths; often 
very abundant. 


30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


57. Dichonemertes hartmanae Coe. Inter- 


tidal zone; San Diego, Calif. 


Family Carcinonematidae 


58. Carcinonemertes epraltt Coe. Commensal 
parasite on crabs of the genera Portunus, Pu- 
gettia and EKuphylax. Monterey Bay to San 
Diego, Calif.; Peru. 


Family Ototyphlonemertidae 


59. Ototyphlonemertes spiralis Coe. On sandy 
shores of bays; San Diego, Calif. 


Family Prosorhochmidae 


60. Prosorhochmus albidus (Coe). Intertidal 
zone; Monterey Bay, Calif., to Ensenada, 
Mexico. 

61. Oerstedia dorsalis (Abildg.). Intertidal 
zone and below; circumpolar; Norway to 
Mediterranean; Madeira; Nova Scotia to 
Florida; Puget Sound to Gulf of California. 


Danley Sumplipocdee 


62. Zygonemertes albida Coe. Intertidal zone; 
British Columbia to Ensenada, Mexico. 
63. Z. thalassima Coe. Intertidal 

Alaska. 

64. Z. virescens (Verrill). Intertidal zone and 
below to depths of 120 meters; Bay of Fundy, 
New England and southward to North Caro- 
lina; Puget Sound to Gulf of California. 

65. Amphiporus angulatus (Fabricius). Cir- 
cumpolar; Greenland; Davis Strait; Labrador 
to Cape Cod; Bering Strait; Bering Sea; Aleu- 
tian Islands and Kamchatka to Japan; Alaska; 
British Columbia; Puget Sound and southward 
to Point Conception, Calif. 

66. A. bimaculatus Coe. Intertidal zone; 
Alaska to Ensenada, Mexico; off San Diego, 
Calif., 250 meters; Okhotsk Sea, 140 meters. 

67. A. californicus Coe. Intertidal zone to 80 
meters or more; coast of southern California. 

68. A. cruentatus Verrill. Intertidal zone to 
80 meters or more; New England to Florida; 
Puget Sound to San Diego, Calif. 

69. A. flavescens Coe. Monterey Bay, Calif., 
to Ensenada, Mexico. 

70. A. formidabilis Griffin. Bering Island, 
Aleutian Islands, coast of Alaska and soul be 
ward to Niomberey Bay, California. 

71. A. fulvus Coe. Intertidal zone to 85 
meters; southern California. 

2s me gelatunosus Coe. The absence of the 
proboscis in the type specimen did not permit 


zone; 


VOL. 34, No. 1 


a satisfactory description of this species (Coe, 
1905). Specimens collected by the U.S. Fish 
Commission have since become available for 
study and in these the proboscis proves to be 
typical for the genus Amphiporus. The basis is 
pear-shaped, of moderate proportions and not 
quite so long as the rather slender central 
stylet which measures 0.16 to 0.18 mm in 
length in an individual 150 mm long. There 
are four pouches of accessory stylets, with 4-5 
stylets in each, and 15 to 17 proboscidial 
nerves. The body contains a larger proportion 
of gelatinous tissue than has been reported for 
any other species of the genus. Length of body 
100 to 150 mm; width 10 to 16 mm. 

Dredged at a depth of about 300 meters. 
southwest of Kodiak Island, Alaska; at 400 to 
450 meters in Clarence Strait; at 40 meters near 
Port Townsend, Wash., and at 130 meters in 
Uraga Strait, Japan. 

73. A.imparispinosus Griffin. Intertidal zone 
to 50 meters; coast of Siberia, Bering Sea, 
Alaska to San Diego, Calif., and Ensenada, 
Mexico. Abundant in many localities. 

73a. A. imparispinosus var. similis Coe. Dif- 
fers from the typical form in having 2, instead 
of 38, pouches of accessory stylets. Puget 
Sound to Ensenada, Mexico. 

74. A. macracanthus Coe. Dredged in the 
Arctic Ocean off the northern coast of Alaska. 

75. Amphiporus maculosus, n. sp. This 
species is distinguishable from others of the 
genus by the reddish brown spots and blotches 
on the dorsal surface. Another species, A. 
nebulosus Coe, has the dorsal surface more 
nearly covered with confluent dark brown spots 
and blotches, while in A. maculosus they are 
widely separated. A. nebulosus has 18 to 25 
ocelli on each side of head but in the only 
specimen of A. maculosus available for study 
ocelli could not be detected. The stylet basis in 
A. nebulosus is much swollen posteriorly and 
about as long as the stylet, while in A. maculo- 
sus it is only moderately enlarged posteriorly 
and much longer than stylet. The nephridia, 
caecal diverticula and proboscis show minor 
anatomical differences. 

Body moderately slender, narrowed posteri- 
orly; head with inconspicuous oblique grooves. 
Length of type specimen 36 mm, width 3 mm, 
thickness 2 mm after preservation. 

Color of body pale gray, with numerous red- 
dish brown spots and blotches on dorsal sur- 
face; head without spots. These markings vary 


JAN. 15, 1944 


in size from dots to large blotches, usually 

separated by much larger spaces without pig- 
ment. The spots in this specimen cover less 
than one-third the dorsal surface. Ventral sur- 
face pale gray. 

Ocelli could not be detected either in the 
specimen cleared in oil or in the sections. 

Proboscis sheath extends entire length of 
body. Proboscis large, stylet basis pear-shaped, 
about twice as wide posteriorly as anteriorly 
and twice as long as the posterior diameter. 
Central stylet two-thirds as long as basis. In 
this specimen there are 18 large proboscidial 
nerves. Each of the two accessory stylet 
pouches contains three stylets. 

Cerebral sense organs large, situated anterior 
to brain, each with a relatively large canal 
leading anteriorly to an oblique groove on 
lateroventral surface near tip of head. Cephalic 
glands voluminous. 

Nephridia extend anteriorly as far as pos- 
terior borders of cerebral ganglia. Intestinal 
“caecum extends forward on ventral side of 
pylorus but terminates some distance posterior 
to brain; caecal diverticula short, not reaching 
brain. Gonads more numerous than intestinal 
diverticula; oviducts open ventrolaterally. 

The single known specimen was collected at 
Lagoon Reef, St. Paul Island, Bering Sea. 
Type, U.S.N.M. no. 16797. 

76. A. nebulosus Coe. Intertidal zone; coasts 
of Alaska and Japan. 

77. A. occidentalis Coe. Dredged at depths of 
70 to 170 meters off the coast of Washington. 

78. A. pacificus Coe. Dredged at depths of 
70 to 180 meters in the Bering Sea and off the 
coasts of Washington and California. In two 
specimens from Bering Sea the ocelli are more 
numerous than figured by Coe (1895) and are 
arranged in two groups on each side of head. 
The anterior, marginal, group on each side con- 

_ sists of about 10 large and 8 smaller ocelli, while 
the posterior, cerebral, group has about 8 large 

and 6 small ocelli. Most of the cups of those in 
the marginal groups are directed forward and 
those of the cerebral groups backward. 

79. A. paulinus Punnett. Pribilof Islands, 
Bering Sea. 

80. A. punctatulus Coe. Intertidal zone; 
Catalina Island, Calif. 

81. A. rubellus Coe. Intertidal zone to 200 
meters; coast of southern California. 

82. A. tigranus Coe. Intertidal zone; British 
Columbia and Puget Sound. 


COE—NEMERTEANS OF THE PACIFIC COAST 31 


Family Tetrastemmatidae 


83. Amphinemertes caeca Coe. Dredged with 
tunicates at a depth of 5 meters; Kodiak Island, 
Alaska. 

84. Tetrastemma aberrans Coe. 
zone; coast of Alaska. 

85. T. bicolor Coe. Shallow water; Kodiak 
Island, Alaska. 

86. T. bilineatum Coe. Intertidal zone; San 
Diego, California. 

87. T. candidum (Miller). Circumpolar; 
Greenland and Norway to Madeira; South 
Africa; Labrador to New England and south- 
ward; Alaska to Ensenada, Mexico. 

88. T. nigrifrons Coe. Intertidal zone; Puget 
Sound to coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica; 
Japan. 

89. T. quadrilineatum Coe. Intertidal zone; 
Monterey Bay, Calif. to Ensenada, Mexico. 

90. T. reticulatum Coe. Southern California; 
intertidal zone. 

91. T. sexlineatum Coe. Dredged at a depth 
of 35 meters near San Clemente Island, Calif. 

92. T. signifer Coe. Intertidal zone to 10 me- 
ters; Monterey Bay to San Diego, Calif.; lo- 
cally common on kelp holdfasts. 


Intertidal 


POLYSTYLIFERA REPTANTIA 
Family Drepanophoridae 


93. Drepanophorus crassus (Quatrefages). 
Dredged at depths of 2 to 100 meters or more; 
Arctic Ocean; European coasts; tropical Pa- 
cific islands; Cape San Lucas, Mexico; Panama; 
West Indies; Peru. 

94. D. ritteri Coe. Dredged at depths of 50 to 
300 meters off coast of southern California. 


POLYSTYLIFERA PELAGICA 
Family Planktonemertidae 


95. Planktonemertes agassizii Woodworth. 
Bathypelagic at depths of 1000 meters or more 
off coasts of Panama and Ecuador. 


Family Nectonemertidae 


96. Nectonemertes pelagica Cravens and 
Heath. Bathypelagic at depths of 100 meters 
or more off coasts of California and northern 
South America. 


Family Pelagonemertidae 


97. Pelagonemertes brinkmannt Coe. Bathy- 
pelagic at depths of 600 meters or more. Bering 
Sea and off coasts of Alaska, Aleutian Islands 
and Kamchatka. 


Bye JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Family Dinonemertidae 


98. Dinonemertes mollis Coe. Bathypelagic 
at depths of 600 meters or more; off coast of 
Mexico. 

Order BpDELLONEMERTEA 
Family Malacobdellidae 


99. Malacobdella grossa (Miller). Commen- 
sal in various species of bivalve mollusks. 
Northern coasts of Europe, Mediterranean; 
Nova Scotia to Chesapeake Bay; Puget Sound 
to California. 

REFERENCES 


Cor, WresLeyY R. WNemerteans of the west and 
northwest coasts of America. Bull. Mus. 


_ vou. 34, No. 1 


Comp. Zool. 47: 1-319. 1905. 

. Revision of the nemertean fauna of the 

Pacific coasts of North, Central and northern 

South America. Allan Hancock Exped. 2: 

247-323. 1940. 

. Biology of the nemerteans of the Atlantic 
coast of North America. Trans. Connecticut 
Acad. Arts and Sci. 35: 129-328. 1943. 

GRIFFIN, B. B. Description of some marine 
nemerteans of Puget Sound and Alaska. 
Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 11: 193-218. 1898. 

WHEELER, J. F.G. Nemerteans from the South 
Atlantic and southern oceans. Discovery 
Reports 9: 215-294. 1934. 

YAMAOKA, TerticHt. The fauna of Akkesht 
Bay, IX; Nemertini. Journ. Fac. Sci. 
Hokkaido Imp. Univ. (ser. 6, Zool.) 7: 
205-2638. 1940. 


Obituary 


The premature death of CHARLES ELMER 
REsSER, on September 18, 19438, at the age of 
54, deprived the AcapEmy of one of its newest 
members. Born in East Berlin, Pa., on April 28, 
1889, young Resser grew up in country under- 
lain by the Cambrian rocks and fossils to which 
he devoted much of his later life. He graduated 
from Pennsylvania State Teachers College in 
1912 and in 1913 received his A.B. degree from 
Franklin and Marshall College. Here he came 
under the influence of the inspiring geologist, 
Justin Roddy, who imparted his enthusiasm 
for fossils and the earth sciences to his student. 

In 1914 Dr. Resser became assistant to 
Charles D. Walcott, great student of the 
Cambrian. Working under this mentor for 
some years, he received his paleontological 
training and his wide knowledge of the Cam- 
brian period and its fossils. In 1915 he became 
assistant curator of paleontology in the U. S. 
National Museum and associate curator in 
1923. From 1929 until his death he held the 
title of curator of stratigraphic paleontology. 

Although Dr. Resser’s practical training was 
received under Walcott, he continued his more 
formal education at Princeton and George 
Washington Universities, receiving the Ph.D. 
degree from the latter in 1917. In 1915 he was 
appointed part-time instructor in geology and 
geography in the George Washington Uni- 
versity and was advanced to assistant professor 
in 1923. This position was relinquished in 19382. 
Dr. Resser also taught geology in the Uni- 
versity of Maryland for several years. 

After the death of Walcott in 1927, Dr. 
Resser became custodian of the Cambrian col- 
lections and devoted most of his time to re- 
search on the fossils and stratigraphy of this 
period. He made field investigations in the 


Great Basin, Rocky Mountains, and Canadian 
Rockies and in his later years made several 
trips into the southern Appalachians to study 
Cambrian strata. Two visits were made to 
Europe for the same purpose. This concen- 
trated effort on one period of time gave Dr. 
Resser a knowledge of Cambrian fossils, par- 
ticularly trilobites, which enabled him to see 
relationships between strata in this country 
and abroad that had hitherto been unsuspected. 
His untimely death abruptly terminated sever- 
al ambitious programs that would have brought 
to fruition the results of his life’s studies. 

Although Dr. Resser’s scientific interest lay 
in Cambrian fossils, he was perhaps equally 
devoted to the service of his fellow men through 
his activities in church and educational affairs. 
He was long time president of the District of 
Columbia Sunday School Association, a mem- 
ber of the Board of the Central Union Mission, 
and chairman of the Board of Trustees of the 
Washington City Church of the Brethren. He 
was a member of the Board of Trustees of 
Bridgewater College and was active in behalf 
of other colleges of his church. 

Foremost of Dr. Resser’s honors was the 
D.Se. conferred by his alma mater, Franklin 
and Marshall College, in 1934. He was a fellow 
of the Geological Society of America and a 
member of Sigma Gamma Epsilon. 

In 1908 Dr. Resser married Anna M. Evans, 
who, with his two children, Harold and Mrs. 
Helen R. Yates, survives him. By his death 
Christianity has lost a devoted servant and 
geology and the AcapEMy a member who was 
not granted time to fulfill his best promise. 
His affable disposition and kindly ways will be 
missed by all his friends. 

G. A. CooPER 


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CONTENTS 
Page 
Mepicine.—Andreas Vesalius. Howarp W. HAGGARD............. 1 
Economics.—Comparison of two methods of estimating capitalized 
value of earning capacity. Av J. Lorka. 2 10 
PALEONTOLOGY.—Cribanocrinus, a new rhodocrinoid genus. Epwin 
FAIRE oe ee ee Se ed ee 13 
Borany.—The Alaskan species of Puccinellia. JASON R. SwALLEN... 16 
Botrany.—Five new species of Dryopteris from Peru. Winiram R. 
EASON occ op Woot che he igtars a eae elle Rit ne gl ee ae 24 
ZooLocy.—Geographical distribution of the nemerteans of the Pacific 
coast of North America, with descriptions of two new species. 
WasLey dh. Con... eda es es 20 
OBITUARY: CHARLES ELMER RESSER.. 00... 22032 ee 32 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Wo 


Vou. 34 FeBruaRY 15, 1944 No.. 2 


i 


JOURNAL \m,, 2 


OF THE 


“WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


G. ARTHUR CooPER Jason R, SWALLEN L. V. Jupson 
U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL BURBAU OF STANDARDS 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


W. Epwarps Dremine C. F. W. MunseBecx 
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCINTY 
Harapp A. ReHDER Epwin Kirx 
BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY GEOLOGICAL SOCIBTY 
CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT Wiiu1amM N. Fenton 
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


JAMES I. HOFFMAN 
CHEMICAL SOCINTY 


PUBLISHED MONTHLY 
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VOLUME 34 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


FEBRUARY 15, 1944 


No. 2 


ETHNOLOGY.—Western Mediterranean island names and survival of Arabic’s 


most divergent dialect.* 


JoHN P. HARRINGTON, Bureau of American Ethnol- 


ogy, and GrorcE M. Baraxart, Board of Economic Warfare. (Communicated 


by M. W. STIrRuina.) 


The present article has as its aim the as- 
sembling and placing on record the latest 
and most accurate information on the 
names of certain sizable islands of the west- 
ern half of the Mediterranean Sea, mention- 
ing the high points of the linguistic and 
other history of these, and at its end the 
outlining in some detail of the survival on 
the Maltese Archipelago of what is Arabic’s 
most divergent dialect or language, one 
curiously beset with Italian. The island 
name etymologies include that of the Arabic 
name of Etna Mountain, Sicily’s prominent 
geographical feature. Original expatiation 
on Maltese Arabic has been curtailed to 
save space. Grateful acknowledgment is 
due to J. Whatmough, professor of com- 
parative philology, Harvard University; 
Philip K. Hitti, professor of Oriental lan- 
guages and literatures, Princeton Uni- 
versity; Julian H. Bonfante, professor of 
Italian language and literature, Princeton 
University; Mario A. Pei, Department of 
Romance Languages, Columbia University; 
Arthur Jeffery, professor of Semitic lan- 
guages, Columbia University; Elio Giantur- 
co, Law Library, Library of Congress; 
Habib Kurani, Office of War Information; 


A. B. Antar, Office of War Information; 


and several others. Henry B. Collins, Jr., 
Bureau of American Ethnology, contrib- 
uted a bibliography. Especially are we 
obligated to Professor Hitti, speaker of 
Arabic, who became independently in- 
terested and turned over to us his notes on 


the mention of Pantelleria Island in the 


1 Received November 11, 1943. 


33 


geography of Yaaquut; to Professor Bon- 
fante, who has written us four times; to Dr. 
Kurani, who contributed the unique ety- 
mology of the Arabic name of Etna; and to 
Mr. Antar, who has furnished clippings and 
has assisted on ten different points. Mr. 
Gianturco, who talks Italian as his mother 
tongue and has an unusual knowledge of 
Latin, has helped in a negative way more 
than in a positive one. Realizing that all 
etymologies go back only a jog, he has had 
fun even with our triumphs. For instance, 
the famous city of western Sicily is known 
in Italian as Palermo; its name crops up in 
Greek, even in Modern Greek, as Pénormos, 
which sounds in Greek exactly asif it means 
very much of a harbor, being formed like 
pan-agathos, good indeed. But it has for 
years bothered Gianturco to know why 
Italian has in this name a form that shows 
no nicety of conformity with the Greek. At 
last he mustered sufficient courage to ask 
Dr. Herbert H. Vaughan, Department of 
Romance Languages, University of Cali- 
fornia, how the change came about—and was 
told: the Saracens brought it about! It is 
possible that PAnormos is a corruption of 
an aboriginal language land name and is not 
Greek or Italian at all. We are indebted es- 
pecially to Professor Hitti and to Mr. Antar 
for their independent finding of the articles 
by Dr. Bernard Lewis in the Arabic Listener 
and in the Rabat newspaper Hs-Sa‘aada. 
Dr. Hitti copied passages from the same in 
his own hand, and Mr. Antar translated all 
of the same prior to the incorporation of 
important points into the present article. 
Finally, Dr. Kurani, whose knowledge is 


FEB 12 44 


34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


better than any dictionary because based 
on wide reading of Egyptian and other 
newspapers, checked on all the Arabic 
names of places herein, and his checking 
was verified by Arabic dictionaries and, on 
top of this, thoroughly by the researches of 
Paul Vogenitz. 

Throughout the following it should be 
borne in mind that not only Greek and Latin 
island names, but also Arabic, are feminine. 

Spellings with y and with the macron 
of Latin names taken over from the Greek 
have been in some few instances retained 
for practical purposes. 


THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA 


By far the largest sea on the face of the 
earth, with exception of island-bounded 
ones, is the Mediterranean of the Old World, 
by its vast saltwater-filled depression all 
but separating Eurasia and Africa. Leading 
off from the Mediterranean to the north 
are the wide-mouthed Adriatic Sea and the 
narrow-mouthed Black Sea; whereas the 
Caspian Sea, formed by a depression similar 
to that which originated the Mediterranean, 
is landlocked and is not connected with the 
Mediterranean at all. The Sahara Desert, 
some distance south of the Mediterranean 
and paralleling it in its extension across 
northern Africa, lies partly below ocean 
level and would if filled with water become 
what might be termed a second and more 
southerly Mediterranean Sea. The strangest 
fact about the Mediterranean Sea, as re- 
gards languages, is that it is nameless. In 
the most various languages it is merely 
referred to as the sea. Basque itxaso, also 
itsaso, Latin mare, Phoenician *yaam, 
Arabic bahr, Ancient Egyptian im, Tuareg 
Berber egeriu—all mean ‘‘sea”’ and are used 
of the Mediterranean. If the speaker wishes 
to be specific, the sea is described as the sea 
here, the southern sea, the northern sea, our 
sea, or the like. Thus Arabic sometimes 
says bahr-no, our sea. The name Mediter- 
ranean itself is in origin a description, saying 
the sea amid the lands. Ancient Egyptian 
Uatch-ur, god of the Mediterranean Sea, is 
the only example we can find of the Medi- 
terranean appearing as a named divinity. 
There was no general name of the lands of 
the northern shore of the Mediterranean, 


VOL. 34, No. 2 


or to any extent of the eastern shore, but 
there was a name for the southern shore. 
Ancient Egyptian applied Lebu to the 
region west of Egypt, and Greek shows this 
same word in its Libtiee, which was applied 
by the Greeks to northern Africa west of 
Egypt, an application still more or less 
followed in Latin with the Latin spelling 
Libya, although the term Africa, applied 
to all the region south of the Mediterranean 
became the general designation, and in 
Italian Libia is restricted to the region just 
west of Egypt. To Arabic speakers, all 
north Africa west of Egypt was, and is, 
Mayrib, a term which also means the west 
in general. The Strait of Gibraltar, narrow 
outlet of the Mediterranean, was known to 
the Greeks as the Pillars of Hercules, but 
the Phoenician name of the Strait of Gi- 
braltar is unknown. 

The portion of the Mediterranean Sea 
comprised between the islands of Corsica, 
Sardinia, and Sicily and the peninsula of 
Italy was known among other names to the 
ancient Greeks as Tuurreendios Pélagos, 
alias Tuurreenikos Pélagos, meaning the 
Etruscan Sea, taken into Latin as Mare 
Tyrrhénum, and is standardized in Italian 
as Mar Tirreno, and in English as the 
Tyrrhenian Sea. 


GENERAL HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 


Before the names of the islands of the 
western Mediterranean are presented, a pre- 
liminary anchoring should be gained in the 
general history of the region, for this history 
has everywhere been much the same. 

The islands were at the dawn of written 
history, and doubtless during long pre- 
historical times, inhabited by populations 
speaking languages that early became ex- 
tinct as a result of military conquest. Not 
one of the aboriginal island languages has 
survived even to the extent of going on 
inscriptional record, but each of them has 
no doubt left topographical and gentilitious 
names, or words used as names, and perhaps 
other words as well, incorporated into the 
language of newer comers. Some of these 
words are at the present remote date no 
doubt still existent, but only in a battered 
and bartered form which is indefinite for 
linguistic purposes. Parallelism would sug- 


= \ 
alae yi tb 


Frs. 15, 1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES 30 


gest that diversity of language, possibly to 
the extent of there having been two or 
several stocks, obtained on the islands. 
There may have been a condition like the 
string of vastly diversified Berber languages 
which extended along the north African 
coast until driven inland by the -Arabs, 
where the Berber languages still obtain. 

But the archeology of the western Medi- 
terranean insular peoples is not question- 
able or silent. Stone towers and other struc- 
tures still stand or have been uncovered. 
Excavation has already yielded temples and 
the artifacting of cultures from nonscrip- 
torial times, while future ages will vastly 
increase and definitize this archeological 
record. Aboriginal insular blood doubtless 
also persists on each of the islands. 

There came to these islands two Semitic 
thrusts from the far-away eastern end of 
the Mediterranean, where the so-called 
Semitic family of languages obtained, both 
of them of course water-borne. The first 
of these was the Phoenician thrust, very 
early in origin, starting from the region of 
Tyre and impelled by trade and coloniza- 
tion; the second was the Arabic, also known 
as the Saracen, thrust, originating at the 
close of what is known to European his- 
torians as the Early Middle Ages, starting 
from inner Arabia, largely land-borne, and 
impelled by religion and colonization. 

It is one of the minor aims of this paper to 
present a new etymology of the word 
Phoenician, worked out by the senior 
author. Greek Phéinix, m, Phoenician, 
genitive Phodinikos, feminine Phdiniissa, 
is the standardized form of ancient Greek 
and survives into modern Greek, in which 
latter the vowel of the penult is, however, 
short, the pronunciation being Fi{nix, 
m, genitive Finikos. Latin Poenus, later 
Puunus, m, Phoenician, diminutive noun 
Puunulus, adjective Puunicus, stipulates an 
unrecorded ancient Greek *Phdéinos, m, 
Phoenician, adjective *Phdinikos, lacking 
the -ik- formative and therefore being 
what in Greek would be called heteroclitic, 
just as the Messapian language of ancient 
Italy had panos, m, bread, versus Latin 
panis, m, bread, and Gothic, a North 
Germanic language, had fisks (earlier 
*piskos), m, fish, versus Latin piscis, m, 


fish. One of the common Greek words for 
red was phoinix; and if one looks up red in 
Yonge’s English-Greek dictionary, phdinix 
will be found to lead off the entry of equiva- 
lent words. Phoiniikdé-pedos, m, lit. red- 
bottomed, was one of the Greek terms for 
the Red Sea, and phoiniiké-pteros, m, lit. 
red-feathered, is indicated by ancient 
Egyptian to have been the Greek word for 
the ibis of Egypt, the ancient Egyptian for 
ibis meaning red. It has been generally ac- 
cepted that Phoinix was applied to’ Phoe- 
nician because of tawny or ruddy appear- 
ance, but our new etymology is that the 
term was applied because of the association 
of the Phoenician with the snail crimson 
industry. 

Brief mention should be made here of this 
industry, which had its headquarters among 
the Phoenicians at Tyre and to which a 
Phoenician was by the Greeks at sight, or 
at mention, aligned. Several species of snail 
could be used, but notably two species of 
the genus Murex were concerned. Greek sea- 
farers early ran into Phoenician sea-farers, 
the latter engaged in gathering snails. 
Pliny describes in Latin the details of the 
dyeing process by which a sort of pus secre- 
tion of the head of the snail was made to 
produce encrimsoned cloth of a color 
known to the ancients as royal “purple.” 
One gets the impression in reading this ac- 
count that the coloring was sometimes dim 
or unsuccessful. Snail encrimsoning was 
largely abandoned already in the Middle 
Ages, and modern analJine and cochineal 
dyeing has relegated it to merely historical 
curiosity. The snail species, however, still 
survive, and are well known, having, ac- 
cording to communication received from 
Dr. Paul Bartsch, United States National 
Museum, been thoroughly studied by 
conchcologists. 

As to the anterior history of the word 
*Phdinos alias Phoinix, we can point out 
only that this word does not occur in what 
fragmentary Phoenician language record- 
ings we possess, nor does it occur in the 
closely related Hebrew, from which we have 
a much larger fund of words. Nor is it the 
ancient Egyptian word for Phoenician or 
Phoenicia. One can not say anything about 
commonness of occurrence as regards such a 


36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


language as ancient Egyptian, where we are 
fortunate to get any occurrence at all, but 
there occurs in Egyptian Poun-t, Arabia, 
including the lands of the Persian Gulf, and 
since -t is a feminine postfix, one can well 
perceive in Poun- a possible source of 
Greek *Phéinos. Egyptian Tchah, also 
Kefti, are the names of Phoenicia. On record 
also are Egyptian Kharu, Syria, and Reth- 
enu, Syria and Palestine together. It may be 
that Greek *Phéinos is an Oriental word in 
origin, but what we actually know is that 
it meant in Greek evidently dyester, and 
if assumption of Greek origin is correct 
derivation may well have been from Greek 
phénos, murder, Aryan *chwonos, for there 
occurs in Greek phoinés, for *aGhwon-yé-s, 
poetical, red with blood. If Greek deriva- 
tions are here in order, one can also get 
*Phdéinos from phoitaoo, to rove, a new 
etymology proposed by the senior author. 

Phoenician inscriptions indicate that the 
Phoenicians never referred to themselves 
as Phoenicians, but as Canaanites, and for- 
tunately we know considerable about the 
Canaanites from non-Phoenician sources. 
The Phoenician language was termed by the 
Phoenicians themselves Canaanitic. 

The Phoenicians’ first Mediterranean 
island conquest was Cyprus, a large island 
of the eastern part of the Sea in front of 
Tyre and therefore outside the field of the 
present article. Their subsequent and great- 
est conquest was not an island, but the 
planting of Carthage on the north African 
coast in what is now called Tunisia, for 
which purpose a native Berber-speaking 
population had to be dealt with. This colony 
of Carthage, which became a vast city 
eclipsing even the mother Tyre itself, was 
apparently known to the Phoenicians only 
by the descriptive term Qert Haadaast, 
meaning the new city, the first word mean- 
ing city and the second meaning new. This 
_ name was too much in its sounds for either 
Greek or Latin, and the standardized Greek 
corruption became Karkhedéon, the Latin 
Cart(h)aago. One casts about, according to 
the training of philology, to discover some 
other word in Latin toward which the 
foreign name became assimilated, and 
thinks at once of Latin caartilaago, carti- 
lage. Both Cartaago and caartilaago are 


VOL. 34, No. 2 


feminine and are phonetically much alike. 
In later Phoenician history it became hard 
to say whether colonization of islands was 
perpetrated from Tyre or from Carthage, or 
from both. Eastern Spain became a power- 
ful Phoenician center, and one of the towns 
established there was known as the new 
new-city, in Latin as Cartaago Nova, to 
which the Spanish descendant form, Cart4- 
gena, still in use and applied to the same 
settlement, bears interesting testimony. 

The Phoenician name of the inner harbor 
of Carthage is also known to us. It was 
Qaatoon, lit. the small one, corrupted and 
standardized in Greek as Kéothoon and 
having nothing to do with the name 
Carthage. 

The Mediterranean was during a long 
period a Phoenician lake, and since history 
comes to us from Greek and Latin we are 
left largely in the dark as to Phoenician 
history. It can be safely assumed, however, 
that the Phoenicians in the history of many 
of the islands preceded the Greeks, but 
whether as mere traders or as linguistic 
supplanters is a matter to be determined by 
archeology and history of each individual 
island, and is sometimes only to be sur- 
mised. The Phoenicians very occasionally 
ventured beyond the Strait of Gibraltar to 
trade with the Britain or Ireland barbarian 
inhabitants, where they could have been 
described as Mediterraneans. 

The account of the so-called Punic wars 
between Rome and Carthage is one of the 
chapters best known in history. The second 
Punic War, terminating in 202 B.C., left 
the Phoenicians with only Africa, and the 
Third Punic War, ending in 146 B.C., put — 
an end to Carthage. The war culminated in — 
five days of frenzied street fighting in the 
city of Carthage. Phoenician mastery of 
the Mediterranean was followed by Roman. 

As has been stated above the Phoenician 
language was Canaanitic, so similar to 
Hebrew that a speaker of one language 
could with a little practice understand the 
other. As history has turned out, the most 
remarkable fact about the Phoenician lan- 
guage is that it gave the alphabet to Greek, 
thus causing Greek to become a written 
language. Not only Greek but also Latin 
and Etruscan became written languages, 


Fes. 15, 1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES 37 


written in forms of the Greek alphabet. 
Western Phoenician disappeared with the 
fall of Carthage, but in the east Phoenician 
lingered on, and it is not known just when 
it became extinct. Phoenician became sup- 
planted by Latin in the west, by Aramaic in 
the east. 

Arabic Fiiniiqii, adj, Phoenician, plural 
_ Funiugiiyiin, simply shows an Arabicized 
form of the Greek. 

The second Semitic wave, like the first, 
was largely anchored to northern Africa but 
originated in the religious movement of 
Mohammed, 570-632 A.D. The name 
Mohammed, in Arabic Muhammad mean- 
ing the elevated one, is one of the most 
famous in history, his hegira, or flight, from 
which Mohammedans date their era, having 
occurred in 632. Semitic, in a form different 
from Phoenician, was carried west more 
thoroughly than the Phoenicians had ever 
carried it, to supplant the endemic lan- 
guages of the entire coast of north Africa 
and to be spoken by a ruling class through- 
out the southern half of Spain and the large 
islands of the western Mediterranean. 
The entire Iberian Peninsula was known in 
Arabic as Al-Andalus, whereas in Spanish 
Andaluz, andaluz means only Andalusian 
and the former province was called Anda- 
lucia, English Andalusia. The Arabic is from 
the Spanish, and the Spanish is from alow 
Latin *Vandaluuc, the Latin gentilitious 
noun being Vandalus, and this for Vandalic 
*“Wandils, expressly determined by Pliny 
to have meant rover. In Arabic-speaking 
northern Africa, poetry was written about 
Al-Andalus. The Arabic language, carried 
west, broke up in course of time into sepa- 
rate dialects or languages, and there came 
into being west of Egypt 11 varieties: 
(1) Hispano-Arabic, (2) Balearic, (3) Mor- 
ocean, (4) Algerian (including Tunisian), 
(5) Corsican, (6) Sardinian, (7) Sicilian, 
(8) Pantellerian, (9) Lampedusan, (10) 
Maltese, and (11) Libyan. All these were 
known collectively in Arabic as the tongues 
of the Mayrib, also transliterated Mayreb, 
that is, the tongues of the West. Numbers 
1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are extinct, having 
yielded in every instance to some variety or 
another of lLatin-derived Romance _lan- 
guage. 


In Arabic the generic name of the lan- 
guage as a whole, and the name of any one 
of these languages or dialects, is ‘Arabii. 

How Latin-originated Romance came 
into several of the islands causing extinc- 
tion of Arabic is a matter of individual 
island history, one about which thick vol- 
umes can be written. Of all the islands, only 
on Malta and adjacent Gozo does Arabic 
survive. 


THE BALEARIC ISLANDS 


The Balearic Islands are situated in the 
central part of the sea off the eastern coast 
of Spain and southeast of the large Cata- 
lonian-speaking city of Barcelona. The 
Balearic islands of size are four in number: 
Majorca, Minorca, Iviza, and Formentera; 
in Spanish: Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, and 
Formentera; in Catalonian the same as in 
Spanish except that the name of the third- 
mentioned island is spelled Ibica. The Ba- 
learic islands constitute the Spanish prov- 
ince of Baleares, but the older usage is to 
apply the Spanish term Baleares to Majorca 
and Minorca Islands only and to apply the 
Spanish term Pitiuses to Iviza and For- 
mentera. 

Greek Gumneesios is the adjective mean- 
ing Balearic inanimate or animate. The 
masculine plural is what is mostly in use 
referring to the aboriginals or natives, while 
the islands are termed Gumneesiai Néesoi. 
Although expressly told that this term re- 
fers to the custom of the aborigines of 
going naked during the summer seasons, 
there was in ancient times a contradictory 
and evidently incorrect etymology to the 
effect that the name was a memory of a 
vigorous light-armed defense which the 
islanders put up against early Greek in- 
vaders, connecting the term with Greek 
gumneées, light-armed soldier, and a form 
Gumnéetides Néesoi, the adjective being as 
from a singular Gumnéetis, is also occurrent 
in Greek. Gumneesios is derivative to 
Greek gumnés, naked, and this last is surely 
for *nugwndés. In Greek, the adjectives 
Baleaaris, Baleaaréus, and Baleaarikés are 
also on record. Some of the Greek forms 
have i for e, as do also the forms of Latin, 
or the second vowel is omitted altogether. 
Gumneesios.is the standard Greek term. 


38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The Greek term, with the spelling 
Gymnésius, occurs in Latin, but the regular 
Latin term is: Baleaaris, Baleaaricus, adj, 
Balearic, also with i for e in these, or with 
omission of the second vowel, and this name 
also occurs in Greek, but with an impromi- 
nency comparable to that of Gumneesios in 
Latin. From Latin descends Spanish Balear, 
balear, adj., Balearic; Catalonian ditto. 
Spanish speaks of las islas baleares, Cata- 
lonian of les illes baleares. A pronunciation 
occurring in several of the Spanish dialects 
and notably that of American Spanish is: 
Balyar, balyar. Since Latin Baleaaris has 
no known etymology, it may have its 
provenience from the aboriginal language 
or languages of the Balearic Islands, which 
may have been allied to Berber, or indeed 
to Basque. Basque does not assist toward 
etymology of Latin Baleaaris. Basque has 
borrowed the Spanish or Catalonian word. 

Arabic Balyaar, f, a Balearic island, plu- 
ral Balyaaraat, is from Romance. The com- 
mon Arabic adjective is Balyaarii, pertain- 
ing to a Balearic entity, plural Balyaari- 
iyiin. The Balearic Islands are called in 
Arabic Djazaa’ir Al-Balyaaraat, but better 
Arabic for them is, according to Dr. Kur- 
ani, simply Djazaa’ir Al-Balyaar. The 
olden, and still somewhat used, Arabic term 
for the Balearic Islands is: Al-Djazaa/ir 
A&s-Sarqiiya(h), lit. the Eastern Islands. 

We shall probably never know the earlier 
names, if there were any, of the larger two 
Balearic Islands. These islands were re- 
ferred to in Greek merely by descriptive 
terms: Méizoon, f, larger, and Méioon, f, 
smaller, in Latin by Maajor, f, larger, and 
Minor, f, smaller, comparatives of the 
Greek and Latin adjectives for large and 
small, respectively. Only in late Latin do 
we find Maajoorica and Minoorica, these 
being feminines of adjectives in -ic- and 
formed exactly like Latin Corsica. We have 
above given the standard Spanish ° cor- 
ruptions of these Latin descriptive names 
and have stated that the Catalonian de- 
scendants are the same. The noteworthy 
fact is that the name of the larger island 
has in its Spanish and Catalonian form, Il, 
although Spanish has mayor, Catalonian 
major, larger, and one should in this con- 
nection notice that Catalonian majorca 


VOL. 34, No. 2 


equals Spanish mazorca, ear of corn. That 
an older usage was to confine the term 
Balearics to these two islands has also been 
mentioned above. 

One also says in Arabic Al-Kubra(y), 
The Larger, and As-Suyra(y), The Smaller, 
of Majorca and Minorca, respectively, but 
the usual Arabic designations are May- 
urgqa(h) and Minurqa(h), from the Rom- 
ance. 

In contradistinction to Majorca and 
Minorca, there was a Greek adjective 
pitudeis, piny, from Greek pitus, f, pine, 
equated to Latin piinus, f, pine in Greek- 
Latin dictionaries, applied by the Greeks 
to the group of islands consisting principally 
of Iviza and Formentera, since this group 
was in part covered with coniferous trees. 
The Greek feminine plural as Pitudussai, 
uncontracted Pitudédessai, the piny ones, 
Latinized as Pityiisae, and in Spanish 
Pitiuses, showing simplification of Greek 
double s into single s of Latin, as in several 
such names. This Greek group name would 
be rendered in Latin as Piineae, but the 
Greek name was taken over bodily into 
Latin and was never translated. Greek 
Pitudussa was also the name of two differ- 
ent piny islands located elsewhere. Knoche 
(Herman), Flora Balearica, vol. 1, pp. 270— 
271, Montpellier, 1921, states that there 
are two species of the family Pinaceae on 
Iviza Island: (1) Pinus pinea L., concerning 
which he quotes Barcelo as follows: “In 
montosis aridis Ivizae frequens, le bois de 
cet arbre employé dans la construction des 
navires’; and (2) Pinus halepensis Muill., 
stated to be commoner on Iviza, at least 
at the present time, than P. pinea. Evi- 
dently both of these species were termed by 
the Greeks pitus. : 

The only name of one of the Balearic 
Islands that may be of native insular origin 
is Iviza. The name of this island is recorded 
in Greek in four spellings: Ebesos, Ebusos, 
Ebousos, and Ebosos. Ebousaios is one of 
the possible adjectives that can be formed 
in Greek. Latin shows Ebusus, Eboosiia, 
while an adjective on record from Pliny 
is Ebusitaanus. We have in a Phoenician 
inscription Ibrusim, which has been con- 
jectured to be a plural versus Greek Ebesos, 
r being accounted for as possibly due to 


Fes. 15,1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES 


Libyan pronunciation of Phoenician. Iviza 
is not only the name of the island but of 
the town on the island. In the museum at 
Iviza town there are on exhibit Phoenician 
and other local finds. 

The Arabic is Ibisa(h), from the Ro- 
mance. 

Just south of Iviza is the still smaller 
island of Formentera. There is on record in 
the Greek dictionaries designation of three 
different islands by the term snaky, and 
Formentera is the island of the Balearic 
group designated by this name. Greek 
ophideis, adj., snaky, from 6phis, snake, has 


as its feminine ophidussa, uncontracted 


ophidessa, the snaky one, and this is the 
Greek name of Formentera Island. Latin 
merely imitated Greek spelling the name 
Ophitsa. The real, or earlier, name will 
probably never be known. The island 
emerges in modern times under the name 
Formentera, a name like the ancient one 
merely descriptive, but unlike the name 
Pantelleria, which we shall consider below, 
having an easy etymology. The ordinary 
Catalonian word for wheat is blat, m, but 
there is also a word forment, m, which is 
used mostly in two couplings: forment 
eandial, Spanish trigo candeal, summer 
wheat, and forment rotg alias forment 
rojal, Spanish rubi6n, red wheat. Blat can 
be substituted for forment in these two 
expressions. Catalonian forment is from 
Latin fruumentum, n, grain. Catalonian 
formentera, f, means wheat granary, trans- 


- latable into Spanish as triguera, and with 


this one can compare Spanish Granada, 
literally granary. 

The Phoenicians probably reached the 
Balearic Islands before the Greeks, and 
Phoenician language inscriptions have been 
found there. But it is uncertain whether 
the Phoenician language ousted the ab- 
original one, or ones. Not knowing whether 
a native, Phoenician, or Greek language ob- 
tained in the islands at the time, we have 
information that Latin was introduced into 
the islands subsequent to the fall of Car- 
thage, and this doubtless developed into the 
dialect of Catalonian that still obtains on 
the Balearics. The definite article of this 
dialect begins with s-, from Latin ipse, a 
feature common to Sardinian Italian dia- 


a9 


lects. When Arabic speakers entered south- 
ern Spain from Africa in 711 A.D. and es- 
tablished a kingdom there, the Balearic 
Islands remained untouched, and it was not 
until 903 that a Hispano-Arabic expedition 
from Cordova conquered the islands, if one 
can judge from analogy with the history of 
southern Spain and of Corsica certainly not 
extinguishing the Latin-based language. In 
1203 the Balearic Islands became an inde- 
pendent kingdom with the help of the Ara- 
gonese of northeastern Spain, so that the 
conquest of the Spanish over the speakers of 
Arabic in Spain in 1492 had no effect on the 
Balearic islanders. 


CORSICA 


Greek Kurnos, Kurnia, Korsfs, f, Corsica. 
Greek adjectives are Kurnios, Kurnaios, 
and others. Latin follows Greek in showing 
Corsis, but also Corsica (originally the 
feminine of an adjective; compare Latin 
Maajoorica, Minoorica), and the name 
Corsica persists in modern Italian. Corsica 
persists as the standard name in Italian. 
But Italian has as its adjective corso. 
French has Corse, corse, both as the name 
of the island and as the adjective, the island 
name being derivable from Latin Corsis. 
One can see in these forms possibly the bat- 
terings from a native name of the island, 
from some place name of the island, or from 
some term for inhabitant. 

Arabic Kursika(’), Kursika(h), 
Italian. 

The earliest surmised inhabitants of 
Corsica possibly spoke Ligurian, tongue of 
the nearby mainland coast to the north. 
These were followed in succession by 
Greeks, Etruscans, Phoenicians, and Ro- 
mans. Arabs, said to have come from Spain, 
conquered Corsica in 810, about a century 
before the Balearic Islands were conquered, 
but lost Corsica again about 930. At the 
present time, the island of Corsica consti- 
tutes the Department of Corsica, which is a 
department of France. 


from 


SARDINIA 


Greek Sardéo, f, declined like Sapphéo, 
name of the poetess, also less standardly 
Sardéon, f, and Sardénos, f. The Greek ad- 
jective is Sdrdos, as well as other forms. 


40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Latin Sardinia, adjective Sardus. Italian 
Sardegna, adjective Sardo. Perhaps Sardos 
is the more original appearance and from 
some insular term. 

Arabic Sardinya(’), Sardinya(h), from 
Latin and Italian. 

Sardinia has had, like Corsica, a long and 
motley succession of ethnic occupants. 


SICILY 


Sicily is the largest island of the Mediter- 
ranean. The eastern coast of Sicily was very 
early colonized by Greeks, while the west- 
ern part of Sicily was colonized and held by 
Phoenicians. Wars between these two 
ethnic groups were carried on for genera- 
tions. The Greek colonies were first started 
in 735 B.C., the term for the variety. of 
eastern Sicilian aboriginal tribesman en- 
countered by the Greeks being Sikelés. 
Ancient accounts also give another sus- 
piciously similar sounding term: Sikanés. 
From Sikeldés the Greeks coined a name for 
the eastern part of Sicily and for the whole 
island: Sikelia, from which came Latin 
Sicilia and from this Italian Sicilia (of same 
spelling but of different pronunciation). 
The Greek colonists also formed a term for 
the whole island: Triinakria, literally the 
three-cornered one, which may have had 
a short vowel in the first syllable. The regu- 
lar Greek adjective for three-cornered was, 
in contrast, trigoonos. 

According to Greek source, the Phoeni- 
cians first appeared in Sicily in 536 B.C. 
Greek and Phoenician languages may have 
caused extinction of the aboriginal tongue, 
or tongues, of Sicily. With the winning of 
the Second Punic War, Sicily became 
Rome’s earliest province. The Latin lan- 
guage became established there and through 
the centuries became the Sicilian dialect of 
Italian, but not to the doing away with 
Greek until something like 1700 A.D. 

Arabic Siqliya(h), Sicily, an old borrow- 
ing from Greek and Latin and from Ro- 
mance before the k or c was fronted, a 
word considerably used in Arabic. One 
should notice the emphatic initial 5, which 
keeps company with the q. 

With the fall of the Roman Empire, 
Sicily became part of the Vandal kingdom, 
later of the Visigothic. Later Sicily went 


VOL. 34, No. 2 


with the Eastern Empire, which perhaps 
pleased the Greek-speaking colonists of the 
eastern shore. Then came the Arabian 
period of Sicilian history, concerning which 
there is a 3-volume work by Amari giving 
sources in Arabic. The article in the Rabat, 
Morocco, newspaper Es-Sa‘aada under date 
of July 5, 1943, is translated by Mr. Antar 
in part as follows: 

The Arabs occupied Sicily in the year 827 a.p., 
during the time of Ma‘awya Ibn Sefyaan. During 
that period one of the Sicilians had rebelled 
against the Byzantine governor and had asked 
for aid from Ziyaada Al-Aylabii, Amiir of Qayra- 
waan [in what is now Tunisia], who sent an Arab 
fleet of 70 warships and 10,000 Moslem troops 
under the leadership of ‘Asad Ibn Al-Foraat. The 
Moslem troops landed at the island and occupied 
Palermo and the western part of Sicily. ... By 
902 the Arabs had occupied the whole island of 
Sicily, which became a part of the Arab Empire. 
From Sicily the Arabs launched a campaign of 
conquest into the southern part of Italy and oc- 
cupied Bari, Taranto, and other cities... . Their 
literature and culture flourished in Sicily which 
... produced a number of literary men, poets, 
historians. ... The Arabic language was used by 
the administration for literary and commercial 
purposes until the middle of the 6th century of 
the Mohammedan era.... We are told that the 
Christian as well as the Moslem population lived 
in a peaceful atmosphere. ...It was in Sicily 
that several books were translated from Arabic 
to Latin and from these knowledge was diffused 
into Europe. Such a book was the medical treatise 
of Imaam Al-Raazil. ... This book has been the 
foundation of the study of medicine in Europe. 


It was from southern Italy that the 
Normans conquered Sicily from the Arabs 
during the period from 1060 to 1090. As is 
plain from the quotation above, the Sicilian 
variety of Italian persisted throughout the 
Arabic occupancy, so that at that period 
there were spoken in Sicily three languages, 
each with great and growing dialecticality: 
Italian, Arabic, and Greek. 

No one knows just when Arabic became 
extinct in Sicily, yielding to Italian, but 
Arabic land names, some of them coined in 
Arabic and some of them taken into Arabic 
from other or older languages, still obtain in 
Sicilian Italian. 

The most notable geographical feature of 
the entire island of Sicily is Etna Mountain, 
the largest volcano of Europe, which rises 
about 10,000 feet high beside Sicily’s east- 
ern shore and is visible from the outlying 


Me ies Mialiav In Sicilian: ‘Italian ‘this 


mountain is called Mongibello, which evi- 
dently consists of Mon-, mountain, plus the 
first part of the Arabic name of the moun- 
tain, which name is Djabal Hutaamaat, 
literally ash-residue mountain, the last word 
from the verb huttam, to shatter. This in- 
formation is furnished by Dr. Habib 
Kurani. In ancient Greek, Etna Mountain 
was called Aitnee, from which descends 
Aitnee, pronounced Ettni of the Greek 
dialect spoken in southernmost Italy, also 
standard Italian Etna, in the Abruzzi dia- 
lect clipped to Etn. For +t instead of th in 
Aitnee compare ancient Greek aitria, clear 
sky, commonly aithria. With the entire 
word compare Old Irish aed, fire. 

Greek is no longer spoken in Sicily, but 
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (1194— 
1250), published a book of Sicilian laws in 
both Italian and Greek, which indicates 
that Sicilian Greek at that time obtained. 
At, the present, Greek is spoken only in 
Calabria and in Terra d’Otranto, both situ- 
ated in southernmost Italy. This Greek 
dialect has been thoroughly looked into by 
Italian scholars and is believed by them to 
come from the period of Byzantine rule. 
Rohlfs, however, thinks it comes from the 
time of the ancient Greek colonies of Sicily 
and that it shows only Byzantine dressing 
and influencing, basing his conclusions on 
the occurrence in the dialect of pre- 
Byzantine words. 


PANTELLERIA 


Pantelleria is the name of a small water- 
less island roughly midway between the 
western prong of Sicily and the northern 
coast of Africa, and also of the town addi- 
tionally called Oppidulo at the northwest 
end of this island. . 

The ancient name of the island appears in 
Greek in three spellings: Késsura, Késura, 
and Korsura. The Latin merely follows the 
Greek, calling the island Cosyra. This name 
may well have been taken from the in- 
digenous language of the island, whatever 
that was. Phoenicians, who knew and 
colonized the island, perhaps called it by 
the same name; at least we do not know 
what they called it. A Phoenician etymology 
of the name Koéssura is therefore more or 


' Fes. 15, 1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES 41 


less absurd, since the name is not known to 
be Phoenician in origin. 

Arabic took over the Latin-descended 
Romance name which it found in use for 
the island as Qawsara(h), rarely spelled 
Qawsara(’), with q for Romance hard ec, 
with aw anomalously for Romance o, with 
s instead of s because of the gq, and with a 
for y or i. Arabic already had a similar- 
sounding word, qawsarra(h), a kind of 
basket woven of reeds for holding dates, but 
the soon-to-be-standardized name of the 
island was different from this in that it had 
r instead of rr. Professor Hitti located the 
mention of Qawsara(’) (spelled with final ’ 
in the source!) in Yaaquut (Ibn Abdallaah 
Al-Hamawii), Ma‘djam ’Al-Buldaan [geog- 
raphy, lit. compilation of countries], vol. 4, 
p. 200. This work was written at Mosul, 
1228. The following translation is by Mr. 
Antar: “Others mention Qawsara(’), with | 
final ’, as an island in the Mediterranean be- 
tween Mahdiis [which is apparently an 
Arabic name of what is now Tunisia or of 
some place therein] and Sicily. Ibn’ Al- 


Qattaa confirms Qawsara(h) as an island 
-in the sea which was conquered by the 


Moslems in the days of Ma‘aawiya and re- 
mained in their occupation until the days of 
Ibn Marwaan. Then it was destroyed.”’ Mr. 
Antar, who speaks Iraqan Arabic, knows 
well the Arabic word qawsarra(h), a kind 
of basket made of reeds used for tamr, 
dates. The name Qawsara(h) is still used 
of the island in Arabic, but became lost to 
Romance generations ago when the island 
was conquered by the Arabs. 

Pantelleria was conquered back from 
Arabic-speaker possession into Romance- 
speaker possession by an expedition led by 
Roger of Sicily in 1123, and apparently 
from that, or from some subsequent time, 
but possibly from a time prior to the recon- 
quest, the island emerges to speakers of 
Romance no longer as Cosyra, but as 
Pantelleria, a name that has found its way 
into Modern Greek, Arabic, Turkish, etc., 
but from Romance source, the name Cosyra 
being perpetuated to the present day by 
Arabic speakers of North Africa. That the 
name Cosyra must still have been in vogue 
for the island at the time of the Arabic 
Conquest is evidenced by the fact that con- 


42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


quering Arabs evidently learned the name 
of the island to be Cosyra and took over into 
their own language that name. 

The present official or governmental 
Italian spelling of the name is Pantelleria, 
but there are also on record two other 
Italian forms: Pantalleria and Pantellaria. 
The unwritten accentuation is on thei. The 
initial p alone is sufficient to suggest that 
the word is Romance and not Arabic, since 
Arabic has no p and such a word as Peter 
is pronounced in Egyptian Arabic Butrus. 
The 1] of the name need not worry us, for 
Italian is noted for interchanging | and Il 
freely in some words. For instance, one 
hears and writes lila, lilla, lilac. The name 
Pantelleria has a Romance and Greek- 
derived appearance, and we shall see below 
that it is doubtless an Italian and medieval 
Latin word derivatory to Greek. 

After weeks of concentration on the ety- 
mology of Pantelleria, we would say that 
the etymology is by no means hopeless, and 
that even with our present documentation 
an extent of plausibility can be gained. The 
etymology is just difficult enough to make 
it entrancing. 

Du Cange (Charles du Fresne), Glossar- 
ium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis, still 
constitutes our principal thesaurus of 


Medieval Latin. Du Cange, one of France’s © 


greatest scholars, lived 1610 to 1688, and 
his Glossarium was first published at Frank- 
furt am Main 1669. The latest edition of 
this work, printed at Niort, France, in 
1883, consists of ten great volumes, and a 
new and vastly enlarged edition remains 
yet to appear, but undoubtedly will appear 
in the future. The Du Cange Glossarium, 
vol. 6, p. 144, has an entry on ‘“‘pantaleria,”’ 
- which is apparently the same word as the 
name of the island, in which this word is 
found to mean the same as panthera and 
to occur just once, this occurrence being 
in the Statutes of Mondovi (called Mons 
Regalis, royal mountain, in Medieval 
Latin), Piedmont. Although Du Cange un- 
fortunately does not give the date of this 
occurrence, if indeed the date were known, 
but states only that the quotation is from 
folio 204. Mondovi was founded in 1198, so 
no occurrence could be prior to that date. 
The wording of the occurrence is: ‘‘subter 


VOL. 34, No. 2 


pantalerias,’”? beneath canopies. The word 
pantaleria is flatly stated by Du Cange to be 
derivatory to panthera, of which he has an 
entry on the following page as meaning: a 
canopy in which merchants expose their 
wares for sale, and gives for this shorter 
word another sole documentary occurrence 
in the Statutes of Asti, Piedmont, the date 
of occurrence lacking as in the instance of 
pantaleria. Du Cange indicates that the 
meaning: of panthera as canopy is an exten- 
sion of its meaning as duck-net, Seabird-net, 
and that panthera in any meaning is the 
same as Medieval Latin pantera, panteria, 
both of which he gives under the entry 
pantera. 

Turning to the much famed ‘“Vocabo- 
lario” of Fanfani, the first edition of which 
came out in 1863, one finds that pantera, 


-alias pantiera, continues to exist as an un- 


usual word in modern Italian and has three 
meanings: (1) duck-net, evidently also sea- 
bird-net; (2) ditch or natural run where 
such a net is placed or could be placed; and 
(3) gay woman. Meanings 2 and 3 are un- 
known to even widely versed speakers of 
Italian but are on record in Fanfani. Greek 
dictionaries show pantheeros an adjective 
meaning catching all kinds of wild animals, 
and the neuter of this adjective, pantheeron, 
to be used as a noun meaning a net for all 
kinds of wild animals in contradistinction 
to a fish-net, the derivation being from pan, 
all, and theer4oo, to catch or hunt wild 
animal or animals. Compare Greek théera, 
a catching or hunting of wild animal or 
animals. Latin takes over pantheeron, a 
neuter noun, as panther, a masculine noun. 
Greek panthéera, a catching of all kinds of 
wild animals, is taken into Latin as pan- 
theera, f, with the Greek meaning, and a 
purist would have to derive Medieva! Latin 
pant(h)era from this rather than from Latin 
panther. The word has found its way not 
only into Italian, but into French, in which 
language pantiére, f, means draw-net, 
shooting-pouch. The peculiar Medieval 
Latin meaning of display-canopy rests on 
an extension due to some resemblance that 
such a canopy bore to such a net. 

As if the above were not already enough 
evidence for the ferreting out of the prob- 
able provenience of the name Pantelleria, 


Fes. 15, 1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES 43 


Avolio (Corrado), Saggio di Toponomastica 
Siciliana [Essay toward a Treatise on Sicil- 
ian Landnames], 7n Supplementi Periodici 
all’ Archivio Glottologico Italiano, Torino, 
1898, vol. 4, p. 98, announced his finding 
of a place name Pantiddaria situated near 
Mineo in the province of Catania, Sicily. 
With the apparent clusivizing of the ll to dd 
compare that shown in Gozzo, Ghawdax, 
Italian and Maltese Arabic names, respec- 
tively, of the island of Gozo, for which see 
below. Mineo is on maps and is situated 
about 50 miles northeast of the coastal city 
of Syracuse. Syracuse was called in Greek 
Surakousai, with preplacing of the definite 
article, and was spoken of in ancient times 
in Greek as the largest city of Sicily. Syra- 
cuse was in origin a colony founded from 
Corinth in 733 B.C., and we are expressly 
told that it was so called because there was 
a place nearby called Suraké6o in the Sikelés 
language. Latin still keeps the Greek plural, 
having the form Syracusae. Italian Sira- 
cusa, the word having become singularized, 
is the name of the city and of a province. 
Mineo is a “comune,”’ this Italian term 
being translated into English as borough. 
We have been unable to find any map that 
gives Pantiddaria, but Avolio is an author- 
ity of the highest reputation and calls at- 
tention to the resemblance of this name to 
the name of the island. 

We accept Medieval Latin pantaleria as 
the same word as the name of the island. 
The undocumented point is how this word 
became applied as the name of the island. 
There are three possibilities: (1) that there 
was some spot where there was, or might be, 
a duck-net or seabird-net, and the existence 
of such a place would also account for the 
name Pantiddaria in Sicily; (2) that a dis- 
play-canopy was, or perhaps was on occa- 
sion, erected on the island; (3) that there 
was a gay woman, or gay woman place, on 
the island. The two latter contingencies 
would perhaps presuppose the name to have 
been originally applied to the town. It is 
barely possible that thorough questioning 
of living informants at the island or at 
Pantiddaria, Sicily, may result in advance- 
ment of knowledge, or that further docu- 
mentation may be found. 

In addition to Qawsara(h), which is the 


regular Arabic name of the island, Arabic 
also shows some use of Bantalariiya(h), 
with b for p because the Arabic alphabet 
has no p, and with an unusual degree of 
variation in spelling, rarely with t for t and 
regularly with | for ll. Italian e of the sec- 
ond and third syllables becomes a in Arabic. 
Final (’) instead of (h) also occurs. 


LAMPEDUSA 


Lampedusa is the principal one of the 
group of small islands situated midway be- 
tween Malta and the coast of Africa, the 
official Italian name for which group being 
Isole Pelagie, this being based on an ancient 
Greek Néesoi Peldgiai, lit. islands of the 
open sea, pélagos, though largely overlap- 
ping with thélassa in meaning, referring 
more to the open or high sea. One map calls 
this group in English the Pelage Islands. 
The Arabic rendition of the group name 
would be Djazaa’ir Al-Bahr. 

Greek Lupadéussa, Lampedusa, was 
taken into Latin as Lopadusa, with the 
usual rendering of Greek ss as s. Both Greek 
and Latin forms are possibly from an insu- 
lar endemic name; and it will be noticed at 
once that both lack m, whereas Italian has 
Lampedusa. When we look around for some 
form toward which the name has become 
analogized, we have only to _ consider 
Lampione Island, 13 miles west of Lampe- 
dusa, which has the m, it being unnecessary 
to refer to other forms in amp in ancient 
and Modern Greek and in Latin and Italian. 

The Arabic name of the island is Lam- 
baduusa(h) or Lambaduusa(’), from the 
Italian name, Italian e of the second syl- 
lable appearing in Arabic as a. 


MALTA 


Malta and its adjacent islands lie south 
of the southeastern corner of Sicily, as 
Pantelleria lies south of Sicily’s western 
corner. 

Greek Melitee, Malta, is possibly a name 
taken from the indigenous island language. 
Latin, with its rules of accentuation differ- 
ent from Greek, has Melita, from the Greek, 
but with antepenult accented, though Greek 
accents the penult. From the Latin form 
comes Old French melide, melite, utopia. 
From the Latin comes also Italian Malta, in 


44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Abruzzi pronunciation shortened one step 
further to Malt. 

Arabic Malta(h) is from Italian and is 
always with t, whereas Maltese Arabic has 
Malta, this dialect or language doing away 
with all emphaticism of consonants. Dr. 
Kurani informs us that in Arabic Malta(’) 
is a rare spelling and that he has also heard 
Maliti, the last as a sporadic direct borrow- 
ing from the modern Greek Melitee. 

Malta is the principal island of what is 
called the Maltese Archipelago, but the 
island just north of Malta and nearly as 
large is almost as much mentioned. This 
northern island is Greek Gdaulos, possibly 
of insular origin, and from the Greek is 
taken Latin Gaulus. From Latin form 
come Italian Gozzo and Maltese Arabic 
Ghawdex, both of these showing the 
clusivizing of 1, to which we have compared 
above that apparently contained in the 
name Pantiddaria. English has simplified 
the Italian form to Gozo. 

The history of Malta is largely that of 
Sicily: early Greek and Phoenician coloni- 
zation, followed by Roman conquest and 
introduction of what became the Sicilian 
dialect of Italian. In 395 Malta went with 
the Eastern Roman Empire. There were 
three Arabic invasions, but they have left 
little survival except the language. In Malta 
alone Arabic has survived, becoming ex- 
tinct in Sicily, Pantelleria, and Lampedusa. 
The British acquired the Maltese Archi- 
pelago in 1800 after the French had held it 
for two years. 


MALTESE ARABIC 


As stated above, the only Arabic of the 
western Mediterranean islands is that of 
Malta and Gozo, and this is also the most 
curious dialect of Arabic that can anywhere 
be slated. It leans evidently on the extinct 
Sicilian and southernmost Italian mainland 
Arabic, for many words existing only in the 
Sicilian dialect of Italian, such as Sicilian 
Italian clummu, lead (the metal), are tell- 
tale. 


PHONETICS OF MALTESE ARABIC 


That of the Maltese Archipelago is the 
only Arabic written with Latin letters, this 
romanization in Malta having antedated 


VoL. 34, No. 2 


that of Rumania and Turkey by several 
centuries. Maltese Arabic is written using 
29 letters, counting touched-up ones, and 
with Italian values. For instance, j has the 
sound of English y. 

Vowels.—Maltese has the five vowels a, 
O, u, e, 1, short and long, not merely short 
as in Italian. The most common diphthong 
is ie, pronounced asin Italian chiesa, church. 
Thus ktieb, book. 

Consonants.—The most astonishing feat- 
ure of the Maltese consonants, and of the 
phonetics of the language in general, is that 
there are no so-called emphatic consonants. 
In Hebrew three emphatics have merged 
into s, but in Maltese Arabic all emphatic 
consonants have become their nonemphatic 
correspondents. Hamzated alif occurs but is 
unwritten. The results of a terrible impact 
of Italian are found especially throughout 
the consonantism of Maltese. Some Maltese 
words are metathesized: artal, altar, for 
Italian altar. The letter x has the value of §. 


MORPHOLOGY OF MALTESE ARABIC 
ACTIONAL 


Verb.—The verb is constructed like werds 
of the other etymal classes out of tricon- 
sonantal groups, rarely out of quadricon- 
sonantal or biconsonantal, or out of bi- 
consonantal with one consonant defective, 
and may be simple or formed according to 
any one of eight derivative classes. The 
fourth class, active in other Arabic dialects, 
is vestigial only in Maltese Arabic,causative 
meaning having passed to the second class. 
There is no infinitive, but there is a dever- 
bal noun. . 

Adverb.—As in the verb, one can distin- 
guish primitive and derived adverbial 
formation. Adverbs can be _ practically 
grouped as answering the questions how, 
when, or where. 

The preposition is a transitive adverb. 
Prepositions are classed as inseparable and 
separable. 

Conjunction.—Conjunctions are sentence, 
phrase, and word connectives of adverbial 
or particle origin. One noticeable feature is 
that the Arabic wa-, and, written in ordi- 
nary Arabic as a prefix, isin Maltese written 
as a separate word: u, and. 

Interjection—The language is rich in 


Fes. 15, 1944 HARRINGTON & BARAKAT: MEDITERRANEAN ISLAND NAMES 45 


interjections. Sometimes an interjection is 
a contracted phrase; thus jommi, oh my!, 
for ja ommi, oh my mother! (ja, oh!; omm, 
f, mother). 


SUBSTANTIVAL 


Noun.—The Maltese noun has il- pre- 
fixed as a definite article, identical in form 
with the masculine definite article of 
Italian. Maltese is the only Arabic dialect 
which has il-; Egyptian and all the non- 
Maltese which leans on Egyptian Arabic 
has el-; the Classical and Middle East pro- 
nunciation is al-. That Italian influence 
partly accounts for the Maltese definite 
article having this form is perceived by the 
requirement in Maltese of, for instance, the 
idiom 1-Italja, just as is the idiom in Italian 
itself, whereas extraneous Arabic merely 
says Itaalyaa(’). The noun has masculine 
and feminine gender; six nouns of feminine 
form are masculine. There are two kinds of 
plural: (1) determinate, used for designat- 
ing from 3 to 10 if the noun has no dual, 
from 2 to 10 if the noun has a dual; (2) in- 
determinate, denoting collectivity or ma- 
terial. Certain nouns can form a dual. Ac- 
cording to formation, there are broken 
plurals and postfixal plurals. Some nouns 
have doublet plurals; for instance, durba, 
stroke, forms as its plural both draabi and 
draabijiet. Maltese has no case. Occasional- 
ly Arabicity crops out. It is a common trait 
of Arabic to refer to “‘the sons of Turkey” 
and the like, whereas other languages use 
such an expression only figuratively or po- 
etically. Maltese not only has this Arabic 
usage, but man in general is bniedem, liter- 
ally a son of Adam. The Maltese noun has 
five diminutive formations. 

Adjective-—The adjective is handled on 
the whole like the noun but is a mere qual- 
ity denoter. The adjective follows the noun, 
and in such an expression as ‘‘the door is 
large’ one has to use two definite articles: 
In Maltese one says: il-bieb il-kbir, the- 
door (is) the-large, but in the entire ex- 
traneous Arabic speaking world one says: 
al-bab kabiir, the-door (is) large. 

Pronoun.—Only the third person singular 
of the etymal personic has sexual gender 
distinction. The forms are: 


jien(a), I ahna, we 
int(i), you intom, ye 
hu(wa), he numa, they 
hi(ja), she 


The possessive personopostfixes used 
with a noun are: 


-l, -Ja, my -na, our 
-ek, -ok, -k, your -kom, yer 
-u, -h, his -hom, their 
-ha, her 


The demonstrativals are: 
daan, m, diin, f, this 
daak, m, diik, f, that 

Interrogativals are: 

xl, what? 
min, who? 


The cardinal numerals from 1 to 10 are: 


wiehed, 1 sitta, 6 
tnejn, 2 sebgha, 7 
theta, 3 tmienja, 8 
erbgha, 4 disgha, 9 
hamsa, 5 ghaxra, 10 


SAMPLE TEXT OF MALTESE ARABIC 


Missier-na, li inti fis-smewwiet, yi- 
tqaddes ism-ek, Our Father in heaven, 
hallowed be thy name. 

missier, father, pls. missiriet, missirijet 
(Sicilian Italian misseri, also patri, father). 

sema, sky, pl. smewwiet. 

tqaddes, fifth class, to be sanctified. 

isem, name. 

This same passage in standard Sicilian 
Italian, the language which Maltese Arabic 
probably replaced in Malta, should be com- 
pared: Patri nostru, chi (also largely spelled 
ki) stai in celu, sia santificatu lu to nomu. 
(Contrast the standard Italian: Padre 
nostro chi sei ne’ cieli, sia santificato il tuo 
nome; and the standard Arabic: Abaana(’) 
al-laéii fis-samaawaat, liyataqaddas ismuk.) 


SUMMARY 


The aboriginal languages of the large 
islands of the western Mediterranean are 
extinct, and so is Phoenician. Arabic sur- 
vives only on the Malta group. Otherwise 
these islands show only Romance, derived 
from Latin. The five island names Iviza, 
Corsica, Sardinia, Lampedusa, and Malta 
are possibly of native insular origin. The 
island names Majorca, Minorca, and Cor- 
sica are feminines of Latin adjectives in -ic-. 


46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


BOTANY.—Three new species of Alsophila from Colombia and British Honduras. 
Wiuiiam R. Maxon, U. 8. National Museum. 


The term ‘‘tree-fern,” though occasion- 
ally applied to treelike members of Poly- 
podiaceae, is tacitly restricted by botanists 
to the family Cyatheaceae, being in fact 
its vernacular equivalent. This usage, long 
in effect, is based on the treelike propor- 
tions of a great majority of the Cyatheaceae, 
which have strong upright woody trunks, 
commonly 5 to 10 meters high, surmounted 
by a crown of huge, finely dissected fronds. 
But just as the leaf blade ranges from 
quadripinnate to once-pinnate (even simply 
strap-shaped) in the hundreds of species 
constituting this group, so also there is 
every intermediate condition from massive 
towering fern-trunks to slender shorter ones, 
to others of moderate size that are weakly 
ascending or even prostrate (though bearing 
a crown of good-sized fronds), and still 
others with short decumbent rhizomes and 
small, simply pinnate fronds that are not 
larger than some of our common wood-ferns 
(Dryopteris), which in general appearance 
they considerably resemble. 

Seven tropical American species of Also- 
phila with simply pinnate fronds and short, 
ascending or erect rhizome are currently 
recognized, all these being at hand. Three 
are added herewith. The assemblage is a 
heterogeneous one, and the species are for 
the most part not closely enough related to 
justify detailed comparison. 


Alsophila haughtii Maxon, sp. nov. 


Rhizoma erectum, usque ad 10 cm longum et 
1.2 cm diam., deorsum copiose et crasse radi- 
cosum, apice paleaceum, paleis deltoideo-ovatis, 
acutiusculis, paulum supra basin affixis, 3-4 
mm longis, 1.5—2 mm latis, medio brunnescenti- 
bus, striatis, lucidis, marginibus albidis. Folia 
6-8, polysticha, usque ad 40 cm longa, patentia 
vel decurvata; stipites 10-12 cm longi, 1-2 
mm diam., sordido-olivacei, inermes, incon- 
spicue hirtelli (pilis septatis ochroleucis), 
paleacei, paleis numerosis, late oblongo-ovatis, 
acutiusculis vel obtusis, 4-6 mm longis, 2-3 mm 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
Beco taouiee Institution. Received November 


latis, supra basin asymmetricam punctillo af- 
fixis, patentibus, sursum gradatim minoribus; 
laminae lineares vel lineari-oblongae, apice 
sensim acuminatae, basi paulum angustatae, 
usque ad 28 cm longae et 7 cm latae, 1-pin- 
natae, rhachi olivacea, hirtella, parcissime 
paleacea; pinnae ca. 16-jugae, patentes, anguste 
oblongae, pleraeque 2.5-3.5 cm longae et 10-13 
mm latae, breviter petiolulatae, apice rotunda- 
tae, basi truncatae vel aequaliter subcordatae, 
vix auriculatae sed utrinque rotundatae, basin 
versus late crenatae, sursum: remote et obscure 
vel leviter crenatae, apice ipso valde crenato- 
dentatae, textura membranaceo-herbaceae, su- 
pra glabrae, infra costis glabratis basin versus 
paleis albidis rotundatis parvis paucis primum 
praeditae; venae 10—12-jugae, liberae, tenues 
sed prominulae, 2—4-jugae basales pinnatim 


ramosae, venulis 3-6 parallelis, mediales plerae-. 


que 1-furcatae, apicales simplices; sori in- 
framediales, inter se subremoti, medio dorso 
venularum infimarum anteriorum posteriorum- 
que vel (gregibus minoribus) solum anteriorum 
siti, parvi, receptaculo rotundo, sporangiis 
plerumque delapsis; paraphyses ut videtur 
paucae, parvae, cinereae, simplices. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 
1705805, collected on Cerro Armas, Depart- 
ment of Santander, Colombia, altitude 1,300 


to 1,500 meters, on the face of sandstone cliffs, 


July 26, 1936, by Oscar Haught (no. 1957). 

Except for Alsophila kuhnit (Hieron.) C. 
Chr., of Colombia, A. haughtii is by far the 
smallest member of the family Cyatheaceae 
known. It belongs apparently to that small 
group of tropical American species called 
Trichopteris by Presl, which includes A. corcova- 
densis (Raddi) C. Chr., A. dichromatolepis 
Fée, A. elegans Mart., A. marginalis Klotzsch, 
A. sagittifolia Hook., and A. williamsit Maxon, 
these agreeing essentially in type of soriation 
and, with the exception of A. williamsit, in 
having bipinnate blades and free veins. With 
A. williamsti,? which is wholly anomalous in its 
long-stalked simple pinnae, several-rowed sori, 
and large semi-octagonal costal areoles, it 
needs no comparison. The persistent broad, 
concave, pale scales of the stipe and rhizome 
recall those of A. dichromatolepis. 


2 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 24: 46. pl. 17. 1922, 


VOL. 34, NO. 2 


So sb gh eat 


47 


NEW SPECIES OF ALSOPHILA 


MAXON 


Frp. 15, 1944 


One-half natural size. 


Fig. 1.—Alsophila parva Maxon. 


4s JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Alsophila parva Maxon, sp. nov. 


Rhizoma suberectum, ca. 15 cm longum et 
1.5 cm diam., crasse radicosum, paleaceum, 
paleis adpresso-imbricatis, subdeltoideis, ca. 5 
mm longis, 1.5-2 mm latis, longe acuminatis, 
aterrimis, crassis, opacis, subintegris. Folia ut 
videtur pauca, 70 cm longa; stipites 20 cm longi, 
2-3.5 mm diam., olivaceo-brunnescentes, supra 
hirtelli et obtuse sulcati, subtus glabrati, basin 
versus decidue paleacei, paleis anguste triangu- 
laribus, longe acuminatis, 5-9 mm longis, 1.5—2.5 
mm latis, faleatis, haud crassis, brunnescenti- 
bus, minute eroso-denticulatis; laminae exacte 
ovatae, apice abrupte acutae, basi angustatae, 
50 cm longae, 25 cm latae, pinnato-pinnatifidae, 
rhachi epaleacea, glabrescente; pinnae infra 
apicem lobatum 7-jugae, alternae, remotae, 
patentes, oblongae, infra ad insertionem aero- 
phoro maculaeformi instructae, infimae 7-8 cm 
longae, 3-4 cm latae, petiolulatae (5 mm); pin- 
nae mediales subsessiles, 13-14 cm longae, 4—5 
em latae, apice abrupte acuminatae, basi sub- 
truncata paulum angustatae, membranaceo- 
herbaceae, pinnatifidae, costa supra substrigosa, 
infra cum costulis et venis atque parenchymate 
pilis glanduliformibus unicellularibus hinc inde 
primum praedita; segmenta 10- vel 11-juga, 
late oblonga, paulum obliqua, 1—-1.5 cm longa, 
8-12 mm lata, apice oblique rotundata, con- 
tigua vel pleraque leviter imbricata, costae 
latere utroque ala 8-10 mm lata confluentia, 
sinubus vix apertis, costulis infra ad inser- 
tionem aerophoro maculaeformi instructis; 
venae 8—10-jugae, remotae, prominulae, basales 
pleraeque simplices, arcuatae, ad sinum egredi- 
entes, apicales simplices, alterae plerumque 
infra medium furcatae vel steriles bis (raro ter). 
furcatae; sori 3—4-jugi, mediales, magni, inter 
se 3-4 mm distantes, receptaculo globoso, 
paraphysibus perpaucis minutissimis instructo. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 
1140061, collected in forest near Cérdoba, De- 
partment of El Valle, Colombia, altitude 80 
to 100 meters, May 6-8, 1922, by Ellsworth P. 
Killip (no. 5254). Duplicates were distributed 
to the Gray Herbarium, the New York Botani- 
eal Garden, and the Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia. 

Although the present plant suggests in a 
general way the subgenus Cnemidaria of 
Hemitelia, it must nevertheless be referred to 
Alsophila, since the sorus is completely non- 


VOL. 34, NO. 2 


indusiate, lacking even the vestige of a minute 
inferior scale such as is noted in a few species of 
Alsophila. A suggestion of Cnemidaria is found 
also in a single instance of the junction of op- 
posed basal veins by a transverse veinlet, and 
in other minor anomalies of venation. The 
presence of suborbicular black aerophores at 
the base of the costae and especially the cos- 
tules throughout is a conspicuous character. 


Alsophila ursina Maxon, sp. nov. 


Rhizoma erectum, fortasse 10-15 cm longum 
(pars praestans 6 cm), ca. 2.5 cm diam., crasse 
radicosum, apice praecipue paleaceum, paleis 
numerosis, tenuibus, lanceolatis vel ovatis, 
longe acuminatis, 7-10 mm longis, 1.5—-2.5 mm 
latis, brunneis, marginibus albidis integris 
abrupte scariosis exceptis. Folia pluria, cespi- 
tosa, ca. 1.25 m longa; stipites ca. 15 cm longi, 
7-10 mm diam., brunnei, valde sulcati, ubique 
dense paleacei, paleis 1—-1.5 cm longis, e basi 
lanceolata longissime attenuatis, brunneis, 
plerisque deflexis, numerosissimis et persistenti- 
bus; laminae lineares vel anguste oblanceolaiae, 
ca. 110 cm longae, medio ca. 25 cm latae, apice 
acuminatae, basin versus gradatim angustatae, 
pinnato-pinnatifidae, rhachi stipiti simili, solum 
laminae apicem versus interrupte alata, ubique 
paleacea, paleis sursum gradatim minoribus; 
pinnae 35—40-jugae, fere horizontales, infimae 
oblongae, ca. 4 cm longae, apice rotundato- | 
obtusae, petiolulatae (3 mm); pinnae mediales 
alternae, non contiguae, pleraeque sessiles, 
lineares, 11-13 cm longae, basi et medio 2.5-3 
cm latae, apice acutae vel acutiusculae, pin- 
natifidae, herbaceae; costae supra substrigosae, — 
subtus minute fibrillosae et paleis 2-4 mm 
longis lineari-attenuatis divaricatis rigidis brun- 
neis intructae; segmenta ca. 16-juga, late 
oblonga, 8-10 mm longa, 5-6 mm. lata, apice 
oblique rotundata, faleata, subintegra vel un- 
dulata, late conjuncta, ala costae latere utroque 
2-3 mm lata, supra glabra, subtus in venis 
primum minute fibrillosa, parenchymate gla- 
bro; venae ca. 8-jugae, sub angulo 45° egredi- 
entes, prominulae, acroscopicae pleraeque sim- 
plices, basiscopicae pleraeque paulum supra 
medium acutissime furcatae; sori 4—6-jugi, 
paulum supramediales, inter se remotae, 
mediocres, receptaculo globoso; sporangia nu- 
merosa, paraphyses teneras cinereas brevis- 
simas maxime superantia, 


Frp. 15, 1944 


Type in U. S. National Herbarium, nos 
1791403-404, collected on Antelope Ridge, 
Stann Creek Valley, British Honduras, Febru- 
ary 5, 1940, by Percy H. Gentle (no. 3197). It 
consists of a nearly complete frond (lacking 
only the extreme tip), attached to the apical 
portion of the caudex. Additional material of 
this collection is in the Herbarium of the 


REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALAN PARASITES OF CRABS 49 


University of Michigan and the National 
Herbarium. 

Alsophila ursina is notable for the very dense 
persistent covering of long, spreading or 
retrorse, bright brown scales of its stipe and 
rachis. These give it a remarkable shaggy ap- 
pearance, which has suggested the specific 
name. 


ZOOLOGY .—Rhizocephalan parasites of hermit crabs from the Northwest Pacific.' 
Epwarp G. REINHARD, Catholic University of America. 


Only two rhizocephalan parasites of 
hermit crabs have previously been reported 
from the Northwest Pacific: Peltogasterella 
socialis Kriiger from Puget Sound (Potts, 
1915) and Peltogaster sp. from Nanaimo, 
British Columbia (Boschma, 1931). The 
material discussed in the present paper in- 
cludes five genera and eight species, of 
which one genus and four species are new. 
This is not surprising in view of the limited 
attention the Rhizocephala have received 
in North America and the absence of any 
studies on these animals from Alaskan 
waters, where many specimens of the pres- 
ent collection were gathered years ago by 
the United States Fish Commission steamer 
Albatross. 

A small but interesting lot of Rhizo- 
cephala from Puget Sound received from 
- Dr. Roland Walker of Troy, N. Y., in 1940 
provided the nucleus for the present study. 
This collection was especially noteworthy 
because on one species of crab, Orthopagurus 
schnutti (Stevens), there were three different 
rhizocephalans, two of which were new 
species. A personal search by the author of 
the general collection of Paguridae in the 
United States National Museum brought 
to light many additional parasitized hermit 
crabs, hitherto unstudied, and a few others 
were obtained from the Museum of History, 
Science and Art, Los Angeles, Calif. 

Grateful acknowledgments are due Dr. 
Waldo L. Schmitt and his associate Clar- 
ence R. Shoemaker for many courtesies and 
ever-ready help extended the author during 
his visits to the division of marine inverte- 
brates of the United States National Mu- 
seum. To my former student, Sr. Mary 


1 Received December 20, 19438. 


Andrew Rauwolf, thanks are also extended 
for laboratory assistance in studying some 
of the Puget Sound material. 


Family PELTOGASTERIDAE Lilljeborg 
Genus Peltogaster Rathke 
Peltogaster paguri Rathke 


Material examined.—Coal Harbor, Unga 
Island, Alaska Peninsula, 8-9 fathoms, 1872, 
six specimens on six Pagurus capillatus (Bene- 
dict), W. H. Dall coll. U.S.N.M. 80471. 

Unalaska, Aleutian Islands, tidal zone, July 
10, 1937, two specimens on one Pagurus hir- 
sutiusculus (Dana), V. B. Scheffer coll. 
U.S.N.M. 145827. 

There is only one previous record of Pelto- 
gaster paguri from the Pacific Ocean, that of 
Kriiger (1912), who mentioned this parasite as 
occurring on Pagurus gracilipes (Stimpson) 
from Japan. One specimen from each of the 
above hosts has been sectioned, and they 
exhibit no peculiarities when compared with 
specimens from the North Atlantic. This spe- 
cies probably parasitizes a number of other 
hermit crabs in the Alaska region. A peltogaster 
on Pagurus trigonocheirus (Stimpson) (U.S. 
N.M. 80472) and another on Pagurus cornutus 
(Benedict) (U.S.N.M. 80481), both from the 
Bering Sea, appear to be this species, but these 
specimens are too poorly preserved to permit 
certain identification and were not sectioned. 

For anatomical details and literature on 
Peltogaster pagurt see Boschma (1928, 1933); 
for life history and host-parasite relationship 
see Reinhard (1942, 1942a, 1942b). 


Peltogaster boschmae, n. sp. 
Fig. 3 
Cotypes—San Juan Archipelago, Wash., 
north shore of Stuart Island, 45 fathoms; off 


50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


False Bay, San Juan Island, 10-20 fathoms; 
south of Skipjack Island, 32 fathoms; August, 
1940, three specimens on three Orthopagurus 
schmitti (Stevens), Roland Walker and Mel- 
ville Hatch coll. 

The host crabs in all three cases were females 
of about 4 mm carapace length and carried the 
parasite on the left side of the abdomen be- 
tween the first and second pleopod. The speci- 
mens were oriented with their long axis parallel 
to the long axis of the host and with the mantle 
aperture directed forward. All three have been 
sectioned. 

Diagnosis—Body small, plump, curved. 
Stalk in the center of the dorsal surface, with 
elongated shield. Colleteric glands simple, at 
level of stalk. Male organs coextensive with 
shield; testes straight, bordered by distinct 
basement membrane, vasa deferentia coiled 
near their terminations. Ganglion overlapped 
by anterior ends of testes. 

Description.—The dimensions of the largest 
specimen are: length 3.8 mm, breadth 1.5 mm, 
thickness 1.7 mm. Another specimen, slightly 
smaller, measures in length 3.3 mm, in breadth 
1.5 mm and in thickness 1.5 mm. The third 
was damaged but its size must have been 
almost identical with the latter. Despite their 
small size, all three are mature animals with 
embryos present in the mantle cavity. 

The slightly elevated mantle aperture lies at 
the anterior end of the animal but appears to 
be anterolateral because of the curvature of 
the sac. A prominent, slightly sinuous shield, 
resembling that found in Peltogaster pagurt, 
attaches the central stalk to the dorsal surface 
of the animal. At its insertion into the body 
wall of the host the stalk lacks the projections 
of chitin which radiate from the holdfast of 
P. pagurt. 

The smooth external cuticle is 5u to 9u thick. 
Well developed muscles, including those of the 
sphincter, characterize the mantle, which is 
variable in thickness. It is thicker dorsally than 
ventrally and presents a number of low eleva- 
tions on its inner surface. Although the nature 
of the retinacula was not ascertained, indica- 
tions of their presence were occasionally seen 
on the internal cuticle examined in sections. 

The mesentery is nearly as broad as the 
visceral mass and together they give a some- 
what columnar appearance in transverse sec- 
tion. They extend the entire length of the sac. 


VOL. 34, No. 2 


All the organs, except the ovaries, are confined 
to the midregion demarcated by the dorsal 
shield. 

In ‘‘reading”’ the serial sections, the anterior 
ends of the testes are encountered before the 
ganglion comes into view. This organ in trans- 
verse section is shaped somewhat like an ox- 
yoke and rests ventrally against the front tips 
of the testes. In Peltogaster pagurt the ganglion 
is located anterior to the blind ends of the 
testes. 

The male genital organs are comparatively 
thin-walled straight tubes and the hyper- 
trophied region (honeycomb wall) is not so 
pronounced as in P. pagurt. The outer surface 
of each testis is composed of a rather thick 
structureless membrane which is enveloped ex- 
teriorly by a thin layer of connective tissue 
cells. The presence of this membrane may be 
taken as a specific feature, since nothing like 
it occurs in the testes of P. pagurt. At their 
posterior ends, the testes gradually pass into 
the vasa deferentia which are fairly long and 
become coiled near their terminations on the 
lateral surfaces of the visceral mass. 

The colleteric glands begin in front of the 
stalk and end at the level of the stalk. They 
therefore occur in sections with the anterior 
portions of the testes. In one of the smaller 
specimens they are broadly crescentic in cross- 
sectional appearance but in the largest speci- 
men they are more irregular. The epithelial wall 
of the gland is well developed. 

There can be no doubt that this is the para- 
site studied and figured by Boschma (1931) 
under the name Peltogaster sp. in his account 
of the Rhizocephala of Dr. Th. Mortensen’s 
Pacific Expedition, 1914-16. His material con- 
sisted of four specimens found on small un- 
identified pagurids collected at Nanaimo, 
British Columbia. The largest specimen had a 
length of 4 mm. As far as Boschma’s deserip- 
tion goes, it agrees in every detail with the ani- 
mals described above. He noted the well- 
developed shield, the central stalk, the position 
and general characteristics of colleteric glands, 
testes, and vasa deferentia, but failed to ob- 
serve the ganglion and the histology of the 
testes, the two main points, which, together 
with size, distinguish this species from P. 
pagurr. | 

‘Differences in size,’ remarks Boschma, ‘‘do 
not furnish sufficient evidence for regarding the 


XN 


RS Sas 


TWEE Bar es 
PUTER NLRO S 
bhp IK he “SA 


SS BP _-GN 


( S 


Se) 
iy 


~----RT 


ID 


Fig. 1.—Angulosaccus tenuis, n. gen. and sp., from Parapagurus armatus Benedict, off Washington. 
A, Dorsal aspect of external sac viewed in tetralin, X38. Lines C’ and D’ indicate planes of sections C 
and D, respectively. B, Right lateral aspect of same external sac, X3. C, Transverse section through 
region of colleteric glands, X25. D, Section passing through testes and stalk, X25. 

Fig. 2.—Peltogaster depressus, n. sp. A, From Pagurus capillatus (Benedict), Kodiak Island, Alaska, 
dorsal surface, 5. B, Various retinacula from internal cuticle, 300. C, Transverse section through 
anterior portion of dorsal shield, X18. 

Fig. 3.—Peltogaster boschmae, n. sp. A, From Orthopagurus schmittt (Stevens), San Juan Archipelago, 
Washington, lateral view, <7. B, The same, dorsal surface, with anterior end directed towards the 
left, <7. C, Portion of transverse section at anterior edge of stalk, X67. 

CG, colleteric gland; DS, dorsal shield; GN, ganglion; LV D, left vas deferens; MC, mantle cavity; 
MO, mantle opening; RCG, right colleteric gland; RT, right testis; ST, stalk; VM, visceral mass. 


52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


specimens from Nanaimo as representatives of 
a species which differs from Peltogaster pagurt. 
But on the other hand I do not feel justified to 
identify them as P. pagurt. For the present it 
is better to wait till more material from the 
locality has been examined.”’ 

The San Juan Archipelago, from which my 
specimens were obtained, is sufficiently close 
to the Nanaimo region to be considered the 
same general locality and accordingly I identify 
the Nanaimo specimens with the species de- 
scribed here and name the animal P. boschmae 
in honor of Dr. Boschma. 


Peltogaster depressus, n. sp. 
Fig. 2 


Type.—Off Karluk, Kodiak Island, Alaska, 
31 fathoms, July 19, 1897; one specimen on 
Pagurus capillatus (Benedict), Albatross coll. 
U.S.N.M. 80476. 

Additional specuomen.—Bering Sea, 57° 43’ 
00’’ N., 164° 42’ 00” W., 31 fathoms, July 29, 
1893; one specimen on Pagurus capillatus 
(Benedict), Albatross coll. 

The hosts in both instances are males of 
15-16 mm carapace length, and the parasites 
were attached to the abdomen, ventrolateral 
to the first pleopod, with their longitudinal axis 
parallel to that of the host. Both specimens 
have been sectioned, and the slides of the type 
are in the U. 8. National Museum. 

Diagnosis.—Sac flattened in dorsoventral 
direction, mantle opening on dorsal side near 
anterior margin, stalk central arising from 
fusiform dorsal shield. Testes straight, vasa 
deferentia coiled. Colleteric glands adjoining 
anterior portions of testes. Visceral mass fan- 
shaped in cross section. Retinacula consisting 
of two to five spindles on a prominent ex- 
crescence. 

Description.—Compared with the other spe- 
cies of Peltogaster, this species is remarkably 
flat and broad. The type specimen has the 
following dimensions: 10.5 mm long, 5 mm 
wide, 3 mm thick. The measurements of the 
second are: 19 mm long, 10 mm wide, 5 mm 
thick. 

The smaller parasite is practically straight, 
the larger one bent a little to the right. Both 
are flat dorsally and slightly arched ventrally. 
The mantle opening, at the. anterior end, is 
peculiar in being shifted dorsally. It is.a small 
aperture surrounded by a very low corrugated 


VOL. 34, NO. 2 


papilla. The stalk, approximately central in 
location, is comparatively narrow and arises 
from a fusiform dorsal shield. The insertion of 
the stalk in the body of the host is a heavily 
chitinized holdfast having branched marginal 
projections. 

In both specimens the mantle cavity is spa- 
cious and contains numerous developing eggs. 
The visceral mass in cross section is rather fan- 
shaped, its mesenterial portion being much 
narrower than the broad distal portion which 
is flattened or slightly concave. It is well sup- 
plied with muscles: a circular layer at the 
periphery, and slender bundles at the interior, 
some of which run vertically, others trans- 
versely, and others diagonally. 

In most other details of internal anatomy the 
animals resemble Peltogaster paguri very 
closely. The male genital organs and the col- 
leteric glands are located under the dorsal 
shield, the glands being adjacent to the germi- 
nal or anterior portions of the testes. Coiled 
vasa deferentia pass backwards from the 
tubular testes as in P. paguri and end within 
the limits of the shield. The ganglion lies a 
short distance in front of the blind ends of the 
testes. 

The retinacula that occur on the thin in- 
ternal cuticle furnish further evidence that this 
is a distinct species. Each retinaculum (Fig. 2, 
B) is a rather tall and broad hillock, from the 
sides or summit of which arise two to five 
spindles, or rarely a single spindle. These have 
a more or less pointed extremity and a nar- 
rowed, stalklike basal part. They vary in thick- 
ness and length in the same cluster. Usually 
there is one large spindle 20u to 24y in length 
in each group along with others of lesser length. 
The smallest are 5u to 6u long. In Peltogaster 
paguri the spindles are fairly uniform in size, 
about 16yu long, are often single, and arise from 
the summit of a much less prominent excres- 
cence. 


Genus Peltogasterella Kriiger 


Because of the new species described below 
the diagnosis of this genus (Boschma 1933) is 
here amended: 

Gregarious, external sacs elongate, more or 
less cylindrical. Mantle opening at the anterior 
extremity, stalk at or near the posterior ex- 
tremity. Mesentery broad (as in Peltogaster). 
Testes enclosed in a common sac, dorsally 


Fr. 15, 1944 


situated in the posterior third of the animal. 
Vasa deferentia short, opening backwards into 
the mantle cavity. Colleteric glands near 
middle of body at lateral surfaces of the 
visceral mass, consisting of simple flattened 
cavities. Nauplius larvae, on Paguridea. 

Two species known. 


Peltogasterella socialis Kriiger 
Fig. 5 


Material examined.—Yaquina Light, Oregon- 
Washington coast, 34 fathoms, September 2, 
1914; 7 specimens of 3-4 mm length on one 
Pagurus alaskensis (Benedict), Albatross coll. 
U.S.N.M. 80461. 

Straits of Juan de Fuca, Wash., 53 fathoms, 
September 2, 1891; 10 specimens of 8 mm 
length on one Pagurus aleuticus (Benedict), 
Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80462. 


Kasaan Bay, Prince of Wales Island, south- 
eastern Alaska, 42-47 fathoms, July 1903; 
3 specimens of 7-8 mm length on one Pagurus 
U.S.N.M. 


aleuticus (Benedict), Albatross coll. 
80466. 


REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALAN PARASITES OF CRABS 53 


Northwest of Unimak Island, Alaska, 41 
fathoms, June 24, 1890; 52 specimens of 5-9 
mm length on Pagurus splendescens Owen 
(40 on one host, 12 on another), Albatross coll. 
U.S.N.M. 80467. 7 

Alaska, Bering Sea, 56° 12’ 30’’ N., 162° 13’ 
00” W., 47 fathoms, June 28, 1890; 6 specimens 
of 3 mm length on one Pagurus splendescens 
Owen, Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80468. 

In external form the specimens conform to 
the descriptions and drawings of previous 
authors (Kriiger, 1912; Potts, 1915; Boschma, 
1933; Hiro, 1935). Boschma is the only one 
who has given details of the internal anatomy, 
and to his description a number of new points 
are here added. 

Diagnosis.—Body slender, cylindrical, con- 
cave dorsally; length at least three times the 
breadth; broadest near anterior pole. Stalk 
thin, feebly chitinized, arising dorsally from 
posterior pole. Testes in posterior third of 
body, enclosed in common sac; vasa deferentia 
short and straight, opening posteriorly. Col- 
leteric glands simple, placed slightly posterior 


Fig. 4.—Peltogasterella subterminalis, n. sp. A, From Pagurus hemphilli (Benedict), San Miguel 
Island, Calif., lateral view of cleared specimen, X8. B, From Orthopagurus schmitti (Stevens), San 
Juan Lom Wash., lateral view, <8. C, Stalk of specimen from P. hemphilli, X17. D, Eye of nauplius 
larva, 400. 

Fig. 5.—Peltogasterella socialis Kriiger. A, From Pagurus aleuticus (Benedict), Straits of Juan de 
Fuca, Wash., lateral view of cleared specimen, X8. B, From Pagurus splendescens Owen, Alaska; im- 
mature animal with undeveloped mantle opening (at left); dorsolateral view of cleared specimen, 
X13. C, Eye of nauplius larva, X400. D, Saccular type of testis; entire organ dissected from parasite, 
X180. Note pigment spots in testis. 

Fig. 6.—Clistosaccus pagurt Lilljeborg. A, Mantle aperture and adjacent area, <7. B, Specimen from 
Pagurus capillatus (Benedict), Bering Sea, lateral view, x5. 

MO, mantle opening; S T, stalk; TE, testis; VM, visceral mass. 


54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


to middle of body. Ganglion at extreme an- 
terior end of visceral mass. External cuticle 
smooth, thin; internal cuticle without reti- 
nacula. 

Description.—The specimens examined can 
be divided into two forms, those having tubular 
testes and those with saccular testes. The tubu- 
lar type was found in the parasites on P. 
alaskensis and in those on P. splendescens 
from Alaska, Bering Sea. All other specimens 
had saccular testes (Fig. 5, D). Unfortunately, 
the parasites with tubular testes were all very 
young animals, so a possibility exists that this 
may be a juvenile feature. 

However, the specimens that Boschma 
examined, also parasites of P. alaskensis from 
the same general locality as ours, were mature 
animals of 6 to 8 mm length, and these evi- 
dently possessed tubular testes since he states 
that the testes and vasa deferentia formed a 
more or less straight tube and that the testes 
gradually passed into the vasa deferentia. 

It is relatively easy to see the gross appear- 
ance of the testes of Peltogasterella, previous to 
sectioning, by examining the animal in a clear- 
ing oil which renders it transparent. We used 
tetralin (tetrahydronaphthalene) for this pur- 
pose. Viewed in this way, the tubular testes of 
a 4-mm animal were found to measure 360yu 
in length and 108u in width for the left testis 
and 328u in length and 99u in width for the 
right testis. Measurements of saccular testes 
from 6-to-7 mm animals gave lengths varying 
from 167y to 184y and an average width of 85y. 
In the case of the saccular testes the vasa 
deferentia emerge quite abruptly. 

Since in all other structural details these two 
forms of Peltogasterella seem identical, I do not 
think it necessary to separate them into differ- 
ent species, particularly since we cannot be 
sure which form of testes Kriiger’s type speci- 
mens possessed. 

Regardless of whether the testes are tubular 
or saccular, they are always enclosed in a 
common sac, a feature that Boschma fails to 
mention but that evidently existed in his speci- 
mens as evidenced by his figure 6. This sac is 
filled with a mesenchymatous tissue in which 
the gonads are embedded. The testes proper 
are comparatively thin-walled with a distinct 
basement membrane. In the majority of cases 
they contain brownish pigment spots. 

The vasa deferentia, which are included in 


VOL. 34, NO. 2 


the sac only at their point of origin, diverge to 
open on the lateral surfaces of the mesentery. 
They are relatively thin, short and uncoiled. 

The colleteric glands, seen in cross sections 
as comparatively tall, narrow sacs with a 
simple unfolded lumen, extend in mature ani- 
mals about 300u in a dorsoventral direction 
along the lateral surfaces of the visceral mass in 
a locus slightly posterior to the center of the 
body. At the very beginning of the visceral 
mass, a small ganglion is located. 

The mantle is uneven in thickness, varying 
from 20u to 60u in the same cross section. Its 
musculature is feebly developed. The external 
cuticle of mature specimens measures 5yu to 
Su in thickness. On the thinner internal cuticle 
no retinacula were found. 

Since the visceral mass in a 6-mm specimen 
is solidly packed with large eggs, and early 
embryos are likewise present in the mantle 
cavity, it is likely that more than one brood of 
nauplii is produced. The much shrunken 
visceral mass, practically devoid of eggs, oc- 
curring in an 8-mm specimen which has prac- 
tically mature nauplii in the mantle cavity is 
interpreted as a sign of old age. Fifteen nauplii 
from this specimen were measured. They 
varied in length from 207u to 247 with an 
average of 230u. The pigmented eye of the 
nauplius is relatively large, 32u to 36y long, 
and has a characteristic shape (Fig. 5, C). 


Peltogasterella subterminalis, n. sp. 
Fig. 4 


Cotypes.—Off San Juan Island, Wash., 20-30 — 
fathoms, August 5, 1940; 10 specimens, of 4 
to 5 mm length on two Orthopagurus schmitts 
(Stevens), Roland Walker and Melville Hatch 
coll. 

Additional specimens.—Cuylers Harbor, San 
Miguel Island, Calif., July 1939; 35 specimens 
of 5 to 6.5 mm length on six Pagurus hemphillt 
(Benedict), Museum of History, Science and 
Art, Los Angeles, Calif. U.S.N.M. 80464. 

Stephens Passage, Alaska, 198 fathoms, 
July 14, 1903; 4 specimens of 5 mm length on 
one Pagurus aleuticus (Benedict), Albatross 
coll. U.S.N.M. 80463. 

Afognak Bay, Afognak Island, Alaska, 19 
fathoms, August 3, 1903; 15 specimens of 3 
to 5 mm length on one Pagurus dalli (Bene- 
dict), Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80459. 

Alaska Peninsula, 54° 55’ 00” N., 159° 52’ 


Fu. 15, 1944 


00” W., 35 fathoms, August 4, 1888; 12 speci- 


mens of 3 mm length on one Pagurus splen- 
descens Owen, Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80480. 
The specimens on Orthopagurus schmiatts 


from the Friday Harbor region (San Juan 


Island) have been selected as the cotypes. Four 
of these were sectioned and two macerated in 
an effort to discover retinacula. The remainder 
have been deposited in the collections of the 
United States National Museum. One speci- 
men from each of the other hosts was likewise 
sectioned, and some others were examined 
either cleared or as stained whole mounts. 
Diagnosis.—External form slender, cylindri- 
cal; mantle opening at anterior extremity, 
tilted dorsally; stalk near posterior extremity 
but not terminal, arising from a thin conical 
shield. External cuticle thin, smooth; internal 
cuticle without retinacula. Male genital glands 
saccular, pigmented, in front of stalk; vasa 
deferentia short, straight, opening posteriorly. 
Colleteric glands simple, in anterior half of 


_ body. Ganglion at anterior end of visceral mass. 


Description.—These parasites differ exter- 
nally from P. socialis in being smaller and more 
uniform in diameter with a stalk that arises 
from a slightly elevated conical shield near the 
posterior end but never terminal in position 
(bence the specific name subterminalis). In- 
ternally, the chief difference lies in the position 
of the colleteric glands which are farther for- 
ward than in P. socialis. Moreover, this species 
appears to average fewer specimens per host 
than is the case with its congener socialis. 

The largest specimen encountered measured 
6.5 mm in length. The average length of 21 
adult individuals was 5.2 mm. Width and 
thickness are approximately equal, varying 
from 1.2 to 1.7 mm in adult specimens. 

The mantle, which measures from 20y to 50u 
in thickness, has rather numerous lacunae and 
well-developed bands of circular muscle. Longi- 
tudinal muscle fibers are practically restricted 
to the ventral side of the animal where they 
interrupt the circular layer. The external 
cuticle is 4u to 8y thick. ? 

The visceral mass appears rounded in cross 
sections of immature animals, but becomes 
laterally compressed when embryos are present 
in the mantle cavity. On the lateral edges of 
the visceral mass are to be found the paired 
colleteric glands, the left gland being slightly 
anterior to the right. Their position is a little 


REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALAN PARASITES OF CRABS 


55 


less than half the distance from anterior to 
posterior ends of the animal. The dorsoventral 
height of these glands, measured at the highest 
portion, is 200yu to 225u; the lateral width about 
90u to 140p. 

The testes lie in front of the stalk, often so 
close that the shield covers them. As is the 
case with the colleteric glands, the left testis 
begins a little anterior to the right, and is often 
larger. The testes have a length of 215yu to 250u 
and a maximum width of 110u to 130y. As in 
P. socialis both are enclosed in a single sac and 
have a well-defined basement membrane. The 
vasa deferentia are likewise similar to those 
of P. socialis. 

A ganglion is present at the anterior extrem- 
ity of the visceral mass and a sheet of what may 
be nervous tissue is sometimes seen as a thin 
transverse band between the ovaries and male 
genital organs. 

The nauplii of this species differ from those 
of P. socialis in their smaller size and in the 
size and shape of the pigmented eye (Fig. 4, 
D). Twelve measured specimens averaged 202y 
in length (max. 216u, min. 1904) and 135y in 
width (max. 148y, min. 126u). The eye meas- 
ures 22u to 27u in length as compared with 
32u to 36u for socialts. 

There is a small gregarious European pelto- 
gastrid, Gemmosaccus sulcatus? (Lilljeborg), 
which presents some points of resemblance to 
this new species of Peltogasterella. In both, the 
stalk is posterior and the testes are saccular 
and pigmented. But in Gemmosaccus the stalk 
is located at a distance of about two-thirds 
from the anterior end, while here the distance 
is greater, being about five-sixths of the total 
length. Moreover, the finer points of the in- 
ternal anatomy of subterminalis such as the 
conspicuous testicular sac, and the character 
of the nauplius larvae likewise, definitely place 
it in the genus Peltogasterella. 

This general resemblance of our species to 
Gemmosaccus sulcatus suggests that Kriiger’s 
report of finding the latter species on the coast 
of Japan may be erroneous. Kriiger’s (1912) 
account is brief and unsatisfactory, and it may 
be that the parasites he called Peliogaster sul- 
catus were actually Peltogasterella of the species 
described here. 

2 This species also occurs in the literature under 


the names Peltogaster sulcatus or Chlorogaster 
sulcatus. 


06 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Angulosaccus, n. gen. 


Diagnosis.—Gregarious, body elongate, pos- 
terior portion reflexed laterally. Mantle open- 
ing at anterior extremity, stalk dorsal at the 
angle between anterior and posterior arms. 
Mesentery and visceral mass broad. Ganglion 
near anterior end. Colleteric glands simple. 
Testes saccular, paired, situated in front of 
stalk, with vasa deferentia emerging anteriorly. 
On Paguridea. 

Genotype.—Angulosaccus tenuts, n. sp. 

In all respects, except one, Angulosaccus 
conforms to the structural characteristics of 
the Peltogasteridae. The forwardly directed 
vasa deferentia, however, constitute a unique 
feature, certainly of generic significance, al- 
though not important enough in my opinion 
to justify setting up a new family. Inclusion of 
this new genus in the Peltogasteridae, necessi- 
tates, however, a redefinition of the family, 
since in all known genera of Peltogasteridae, 
except Angulosaccus, the testes open back- 
wards into the mantle cavity. For the latest 
diagnosis of the family see van Baal (1937). 


Angulosaccus tenuis, n. sp. 
Figs. 1; 7, A 


Cotypes.—Off Washington, 47° 22’ 00” N., 
125° 48’ 30” W., 877 fathoms, June 29, 1889; 
12 specimens on one Parapagurus armatus 
Benedict, Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80479. 

Of the 12 specimens attached to the abdomen 
of the host, two were made into stained whole 
mounts, two were cut into serial sections, and 
one damaged specimen was used to study the 
nature of the cuticula. 

Diagnosis.—Body slender, broadest near an- 
terior end, posterior third reflexed dextro- 
laterally. Testes immediately in front of stalk, 
with straight vasa deferentia opening ante- 
riorly. Colleteric glands about midway between 
stalk and mantle opening. No retinacula. 

Description.—In external form the sacs are 
long, slender, and cylindrical, and are sharply 
bent at the region of the stalk so that the ani- 
mal is somewhat V-shaped, but with the pre- 
peduncular arm considerably longer than the 
postpeduncular. The anterior arm is curved in 
a dorsosinistral direction, and at its forward 
extremity a small inconspicuous mantle open- 
ing is present. 


VOL. 34, No. 2 


Eleven of the specimens are almost identical 
in size, measuring about 10 mm in length for 
the anterior arm and from 3 to 4 mm in length 
for the posterior arm. From a maximum width 
of 3mm near the mantle opening, the sac tapers 
to a width of 1.5 mm within the first half of 
its length and thereafter remains relatively 
uniform to the posterior extremity, which de- 
creases slightly to 1 mm in width. One speci- 
men was very small, having a total length of 
5.38 mm of which 3.8 mm represented the an- 
terior arm. 

The external cuticle is smooth and about 5yu 
thick. The internal cuticle lacks retinacula. 
Because the soft tissues of the mantle had, to 
a large extent, disintegrated, as is to be ex- 
pected in specimens preserved for more than 
half a century, nothing further could be learned 
about the nature of the mantle. 

The mesentery and visceral mass are broad 
and extend the whole length of the sac. In the 
entire region in front of the colleteric glands the 
visceral mass, in both sectioned specimens, has 
a rather broad midventral notch. Since preser- 
vation occurred shortly after the animals had 
released eggs into the mantle cavity, the 
visceral mass contained only a pair of thin ir- 
regular egg cords, which could be traced to 
their connections with the colleteric glands. 

A small ganglion is located in the mesentery 
a short distance behind the mantle opening. 

The colleteric glands, found on the dorso- 
lateral sides of the visceral mass a little more 
than halfway between the mantle opening and 
the stalk, have a simple undivided lumen. They 
measure 225u to 300u in a dorsoventral direc- 
tion, 100u to 135y laterally, and 325yu to 450u 
in anteroposterior direction. 

The two saccular testes le dorsally, just in 
front of the stalk. They are comparatively 
small, measuring 250u to 265u in length and 
170pu to 180yu in width. The thin vasa deferentia 
are not coiled and run forward a distance of 
300u to 450u, being therefore longer than the 
testes. Each vas is lined with chitin through- 
out its length. 

The stalk is fairly broad and arises from a 
disk-shaped plate. Both are chitinized, but not 
heavily so, the chitin measuring 20u to 30u 
in thickness. 

The curious shape of this species is remi- 
niscent of that of Gemmosaccus delager de- 
scribed by Duboscq (1912) from the coast of 


Fes. 15, 1944 


France, except that the latter species is bent 
in a ventral direction. 


Family CiisTosaccIDAE Boschma 


Genus Clistosaccus Lilljeborg 
Clistosaccus paguri Lilljeborg 


Figs. 6; 7, B 


This is the only known species of the genus 
Clistosaccus. It has been found on the following 
hermit crabs: Pagurus bernhardus, Anapagurus 
chiroacanthus and A. forbesi, and Pagurus 
pubescens. All previous records are from the 
North Atlantic region. I am now able to report 
its occurrence in the North Pacific and add 
several new hosts. 

This animal is also referred to in the litera- 
ture as Apeltes paguri Lilljeborg, but Boschma 
(1928) has shown that the two alleged species 
are different stages of one species only, Clisto- 
saccus being the younger form, Avpeltes the 
older mature form. 

Material examined.—Bering Sea, 54° 48’ 00’ 
N., 165° 13’ 30”’ W., 70 fathoms, June 24, 1890; 
five specimens on five Pagurus capillatus (Bene- 
dict), Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80474. 

South of Alaska Peninsula, 54° 20’ 30” N.., 
163° 37’ 00” W., 61 fathoms, May 21, 1890, 
one specimen on one Pagurus capillatus (Bene- 
dict), Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80460. 


South of Alaska Peninsula, 54° 05’ 30” N., 
162° 54’ 00” W., 49 fathoms, May 21, 1890; 
three specimens on two Pagurus dalli (Bene- 
U.S.N.M. 80475. 


dict), Albatross coll. 


REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALAN PARASITES OF CRABS 57 


Kodiak Island, Alaska, off Karluk Head, 122 
fathoms, July 19, 1897; three specimens on one 
Pagurus splendescens Owen, Albatross coll. 
U.S.N.M. 80473. 

The 12 specimens varied from 7 to 25 mm 
in length. The mantle opening when present 
has the appearance of an arched cleft on the 
summit of a short, smooth elevation. The arms 
of the opening enclose a pluglike extension of 
the visceral mass which projects to the exterior. 
Lilljeborg (1861) described the mantle opening 
of A peltes (=Clistosaccus) as having an inferior 
border in the form of an obtuse point. If 
‘dorsal’ is substituted for “‘inferior’” this de- 
scription is essentially correct. All but two of 
the specimens had this type of opening; one, 
the smallest of 7 mm length, lacked a mantle 
opening; the other, of 10 mm length, had the 
beginning of a mantle opening, which had not 
yet perforated. 

Boschma (1928) remarks that older speci- 
mens of Clistosaccus can not usually be dis- 
tinguished from Peltogaster paguri without 
recourse to microscopic sections. There are, 
however, good external diagnostic features. The 
stalk of attachment in Clistosaccus is broad, in 
P. paguri it is much narrower; Clistosaccus 
completely lacks the thick chitinous dorsal 
shield (hence ‘‘A peltes’’) which in P. paguri ex- 
tends prominently anteriorly and posteriorly 
from the stalk and is the feature that suggested 
the name Peltogaster.2 Moreover, at no stage in 


3 Rathke, who gave the name to the genus, was 
mistaken in considering the shield-bearing surface 
as the ‘“‘gaster’”’ or ventral side of the animal. 


Fig. 7.—A, Angulosaccus tenuis n. gen. and sp., on Parapagurus armatus Benedict, Washington. 
B, Clistosaccus paguri Lilljeborg on Pagurus capillatus (Benedict), Alaska. Both natural size. 


58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


development does Peltogaster have a mantle 
opening like that described above for Clistosac- 
cus. 

Two specimens were sectioned and compared 
with material from the North Atlantic, but no 
essential difference could be detected between 
east and west coast animals. The single sac- 
like testis in the anterior region with its two 
short vasa deferentia and the lobulated col- 
leteric gland at the posterior end of the visceral 
mass are as described by Boschma. Likewise, 
_ his statement that the internal cuticle lacks 
retinacula can be confirmed. 

It may be mentioned that the visceral mass 
in normal specimens reaches only to the poste- 
rior margin of the stalk, which is located in 
the posterior half of the body, at variable rela- 
tive distances from the middle. There is thus a 
fairly extensive post-peduncular region often 
present where internal organs are lacking. 


Family Uncertain 


Genus Thompsonia Kossmann 
Thompsonia sp. 


Material examined.—San Juan Archipelago, 
Wash., off False Bay, San Juan Island, 10-20 
fathoms, Aug. 5, 1940; seven specimens on one 
Orthopagurus schmitti (Stevens), Roland Walk- 
er and Melville Hatch coll. 

These parasites are small ovoid or pear- 
shaped sacs attached to the dorsal surface of 
the anterior abdominal segments of the host. 
The stalk of attachment is very short and has 
a proximal constriction. Stumps or scars of 
about 20 stalks are present on the abdomen in 
addition to the 7 stalked sacs still remaining. 
These sacs were mature since they contain cy- 
pris larvae. 

The body of the parasite, exclusive of the 
stalk, measures 1.2 to 1.5 mm in length and 0.8 
to 1.0 mm in thickness. The stalk is one-sixth 
or less the length of the body. The cypris 
larvae appear to lack pigmented eyes. 

Boschma (1933) is of the opinion that in the 
present state of our knowledge it is impossible 


VOL. 34, NO. 2 


to decide which of the named forms of Thomp- 
sonia are distinct species. In accordance with 
this view I believe it best not to give a specific 
name to these specimens on Orthopagurus. The 
host, however, constitutes a new record for this 
genus. The parasites have been deposited in 
the collections of the United States National 
Museum. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Baatu, I. van. Brtological results of the Snellius 
expedition. II. Rhizocephala of the families 
Peltogasteridae and Lernaeodiscidae. Tem- 
minckia (Leiden) 2: 1-96. 1937. 

BoscumMa, H. Rhizocephala of the North At- 
lantic. Danish Ingolf Expedition 3(10): 


1-49. 1928. 

Rhizocephala. In: Zoology of the 
Faroes (Copenhagen) 2(art. 28): 1-3. 
1928a. 

Rhizocephala. Papers from Dr. Th. 


Mortensen’s Pacific Expedition, 1914-16. 
Vid. Medd. Dansk Naturh. Foren. 89: 
297-380. 1931. 

The Rhizocephala in the collection of 
the British Museum. Journ. Linn. Soc. 
London 38: 473-552. 1938. 

Dusposca, O. Sur les Peltogastrides des cétes 
de France. Arch. Zool. Exp. et Gén. 
(5) 9, Notes et Revue, pp. ix-xv. 1912. 

Hiro, F. The fauna of Akkeshi Bay. II. Cir- 
ripedia. Journ. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido (6), 
Zool. 4: 213-229. 1935. 

Kriticer, P. Uber ostasiatische Rhizocephalen. 
Abh. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. (math.-phys. 
Ki.) Suppl. 2(8); 1-6. for” 

LILLJEBORG, W. Supplément au mémotire sur 
les genres Liriope et Peltogaster. Nova 
Acta Reg. Soc. Scient. Upsal. (3) 3: 73- 
102. 1861. (English translation in Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) 7: 47-63, 1861.) 

Ports, F. A. On the rhizocephalan genus 
Thompsonia and its relation to the evolution 
of the group. Publ. Dept. Marine Biol. 
Carnegie Inst. Washington 8: 1-32. 1915. 

REINHARD, E. G. The endoparasitic develop- 

ment of Peltogaster paguri. Journ. 
Morph. 70: 69-79. 1942. 

The reproductive role of the com- 

plemental males of Peltogaster. Journ. 

Morph. 70: 389-402. 1942a. : 

Studies on the life history and host- 

parasite relationship of Peltogaster paguri. 

Biol. Bull. 83: 401-415. 1942b. 


* 


= 


Sar 


Fes. 15, 1944 


COE: NEMERTEANS FROM ARCTIC SEAS 


59 


ZOOLOGY.—Nemerteans from the northwest coast of Greenland and other Arctic 
seas.| WESLEY R. Cog, Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (Communi- 


cated by Waupo L. ScHMITT.) 


A small collection containing 12 speci- 
mens of nemerteans was obtained in July, 
1940, by Capt. Robert A. Bartlett at depths 


of 23 to 115 meters off the northwest coast 


of Greenland. The four species represented 


are of interest because none of them had 


been reported previously from that locality. 
All, however, had been collected formerly 
from other portions of the coast of Green- 
land and elsewhere in the Arctic. In this 
paper the distribution of each of these 
species as known at the present time is in- 
dicated, and a supplementary account is 
given of such organ systems as had hereto- 


_ fore been inadequately described. A list of 


the 30 other species that have been found 
in the Arctic is appended, with the geo- 
graphical distribution of each. 


Tubulanus annulatus (Montagu) 


Gordius annulatus Montagu, 1804. 
Carinella annulata Birger, 1895, 1903. 


One incomplete individual was dredged at a 
depth of 50 to 115 meters 1 mile northwest of 
Conical Rock. This specimen is 3 to 4 mm in 
width, indicating an individual having a total 
length of 20 to 30 cm when living. 

This species is widely distributed on the 
eastern shores of the North Atlantic, from 
Norway and Great Britain to the Mediter- 
ranean; it has also been found in the South 
Atlantic, near the Cape of Good Hope (Stimp- 
son, 1856). It is closely similar to T. nothus 
Burger, which has likewise been found near the 
Cape of Good Hope (Wheeler, 1934). In the 
Arctic it was previously dredged near King 
Karl Land; also off Cape Platen and in the 
Karajek Fiord, Greenland. Only a few other 
species of nemerteans are known to have such 
an extensive geographical distribution. 


Micrura purpurea (Dalyell) 
Gordius purpureus spinifer Dalyell, 1853. 


Micrura purpurea Joh. Miller, 1858; Birger, 


1903. 


! Contribution of the Scripps Institution of 
Oceanography, University of California, new ser., 
no. 217. Received October 27, 1943. 


Four large individuals evidently belonging to 
this species were dredged at depths of 45 to 115 
meters 1 mile northwest of Conical Rock, 
northwest Greenland. The specimens after 
preservation measured 60 to 90 mm in length 
and 4 to 5 mm in width, indicating a length in 
life of 150 mm or more. As is the case with 
many other invertebrates, these worms fre- 
quently reach a larger size in the Arctic than in 
warmer regions. Individuals from the coast of 
Scotland average considerably larger than 
those of the same species in the Mediterranean 
and if the specimens in this collection are cor- 
rectly identified, those of the Arctic regions 
become even larger. The same condition holds 
for Tubulanus annulatus. 

This species is common on the European 
coasts from Scotland to the Mediterranean. It 
occurs from the intertidal zone to a depth of 
200 meters or more. In the Arctic it was previ- 
ously reported from Karajak Fiord, Green- 
land; also from Hinlopen Strait at a depth of 80 
meters. 


Cerebratulus barentsi Biirger, 1895 


One incomplete specimen measuring 11 mm 
in width was dredged at a depth of 24 meters 
off the north shore of Wolsterholm Sound, 
northwest Greenland. The deep reddish brown 
pigmentation of the body was still retained 
after preservation for three years. 

This species is known only from Arctic seas, 
having been reported from Kara Strait, from 
the sea north of Spitsbergen, Hinlopen Strait, 
Karajak Fiord, Greenland, off Amsterdam Is- 
land, and elsewhere at depths of 40 to 1000 
meters. 


Amphiporus groenlandicus Oersted, 1844 


The collection contained six specimens of 
this common Arctic species. These measured 
60 to 80 mm in length and 4 to 6 mm in width. 
They were dredged off the north shore of 
Wolsterholm Sound, northwest Greenland at 
a depth of about 20 meters. 

These specimens were without ocelli and 
agreed in all essential respects with the pub- 
lished descriptions of this well-known species. 


60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Serial sections of one individual showed that 
the internal anatomy conforms with that of 
other individuals described by Biirger (1895, 
1903) from other portions of the Arctic seas. 

Since Biirger’s account contained no de- 
scription of the armature of the proboscis nor 
of the reproductive organs, such descriptions 
may be included here. The stylet basis is 
rather slender, conical or elongated pear-shaped 
and about twice as long as the basal diameter. 
In these specimens the bases measure from 
0.08 to 0.10 mm in length and 0.035 to 0.05 mm 
in diameter at the base. 

The central stylet is nearly equal to the 
basis in length. With one exception the pro- 
boscis was provided with 2 pouches, each con- 
taining 3 to 5 accessory stylets. In one of the 
six specimens one of the pouches was divided 
into two parts. The number of proboscidial 
nerves varies from 16 to 18. 

The cerebral sense organs are large and situ- 
ated immediately anterior to the brain, with 
posterior extensions on the ventral sides of the 
dorsal ganglia. Large nerves unite them with 
the dorsal ganglia and from each of them a 
slender canal extends forward to open ventro- 
laterally in an oblique groove near the tip of 
the head. 

The nephridia extend forward as far as the 
lateral borders of the brain. Near the posterior 
end of the nephridial system a large efferent 
duct opens ventrolaterally on each side of the 
body. The intestinal caecum extends forward 
nearly to the brain and sends lateral branches 
as far as the dorsal sides of the dorsal ganglia. 

The gonads are much more numerous than 
the intestinal diverticula, as many as four or 
even six Ovaries or spermaries being cut in a 
single transverse section of the body. They are 
situated both dorsally and ventrally to the 
lateral nerve cords, but the genital ducts with 
few exceptions open dorsolaterally. 

Each of the six specimens was infested by 
protozoan parasites. These were most abun- 
dant within the blood vessels but others were 
imbedded in the adjacent connective tissue 
parenchyma. 

This species is widely distributed in Arctic 
seas, having been reported from both the east- 
ern and western coasts of Greenland, from 
Hinlopen Strait, Barents Sea, and from the 
waters off King Karl Land, Jena Island, Franz 
Joseph Land, and Spitsbergen at depths of 4 to 


VOL. 34, No. 2 


450 meters. A similar species, A. caecus Verrill, 
was dredged at a depth of about 35 meters off 
the New England coast north of Block Island, 
Mass. Coe (1943) suggested the possibility that 
the two supposed species may later prove to be 
specifically identical. 

Other species previously reported from the 
Arctic seas include the following: 

Tubulanus groenlandicus (Bergendal). North 
Greenland. 

Lineus koalensis Uschakow. Barents Sea. 

Lineus maris-albt Uschakow. White Sea. 

Lineus ruber (O. F. Miller). Circumpolar; 
coasts of Siberia; Greenland; Norway and 
Great Britain to Mediterranean; Madeira and 
South Africa, Labrador to southern New Eng- 
land; Alaska to California. 

Lineus saint-hilairi Uschakow. White Sea. 

Micrura impressa (Stimpson). Bering Strait. 

Micrura lithothamnii Uschakow. Kola Fiord. 

Cerebratulus brevis Uschakow. White Sea. 

Cerebratulus fuscus (McIntosh). Off the 
coasts of Greenland and elsewhere in Arctic 
seas; Great Britain and Norway to Mediter- 
ranean. 

Cerebratulus greenlandicus Punnett. Green- 
land and North Greenland. 

Cerebratulus marginatus Renier (=C. fuscus 


Verrill). From off King Karl Land, Bremer 


Sound, Hinlopen Strait, Amsterdam Island, 
and Hast Spitsbergen. This species has a wide 
circumpolar distribution, being found on Euro- 
pean coasts as far south as Madeira; on the 
eastern North American coast southward to 
Cape Cod and farther south in the offshore 
current; on the western North American coast 
southward to southern California and in the 
western Pacific as far south as Japan. 

Cerebratulus melanops Coe and Kunkel. Gulf 
of St. Lawrence and northward. 

Cerebratulus rigidus Isler. Novaya Tne 


Cerebratulus zachst Uschakow. White Sea 


and Kara Strait. 

Emplectonema derjugint Uschakow. Kola 
Fiord, Barents Sea. 

Emplectonema neest (Oersted). 
Greenland, Iceland, Norway and Great Britain 
to Mediterranean. 

Nemertopsis actinophila Birger. Coasts of 
Baren Island; Ross Island; King Karl Land; 
Lomme Bay; Hinlopen Strait; from low-water 
mark to 240 meters. 

Amphiporus angulatus Grapdicias): This com- 


Coasts of - 


= 

c: 
3 

* 


sgt i tl 


Fen. 15, 1944 


mon and widely distributed Arctic species 
appears to have been described also by Verrill 
as A. stimpsoni, A. heterosorus, A. multisorus, 
and A. superbus; also by Punnett as A. thomp- 
sont and in part as A. arcticus. Greenland, 
Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, Labrador, Nova 
Scotia, and southward to Cape Cod on or near 
the coast and farther south beneath the off- 
shore Arctic current. On the west coast of 
North America the species extends from the 
Arctic Ocean through Bering Sea, along the 
coast of Alaska and southward to Point Con- 
ception, California. On the Asiatic coast it 
occurs from Kamchatka to Japan. 

Amphiporus hastatus McIntosh. Coasts of 
southern Greenland and northern Europe. 

Amphiporus lactifloreus Johnston. Shores of 
Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans, extending 
southward to the Mediterranean Sea and on 
the American coast to Cape Cod; intertidal 
zone to 200 meters. 

Amphiporus littoralis (Uschakow), Gurjano- 
vella littoralis Uschakow. Barents Sea, White 
Sea. 

Amphiporus macracanthus Coe. Arctic coast 
of Alaska. 

Amphiporus murmanicum Uschakow. Kola 
Fiord. 

Amphiporus pulcher (Johnston). Coasts of 
Spitsbergen, Norway, and Great Britain to 
Mediterranean; Greenland to Massachusetts 
Bay. Some of the specimens described by 
Punnett as A. arcticus evidently belonged to 
this species. 

Tetrastemma albicollis Uschakow. Kola Fiord. 

Tetrastemma arctica Uschakow. White Sea, 
Novaya Zemlya. 

Tetrastemma candidum Miller. Circumpolar; 


PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 61 


Greenland to Madeira; South Africa; Alaska to 
Mexico. 

Tetrastemma laminariae Uschakow. Kola 
Fiord; Novaya Zemlya. 

Uniporus borealis (Punnett). Davis Strait. 

Drepanophorus crassus Quatrefages. Widely 
distributed in Arctic, Antarctic and Tropics; 
dredged at a depth of 250 meters near Franz 
Joseph Land; coasts of Europe, Madeira, 
Mauritius, Kerguelen, Samoa, Tonga, Panama, 


West Indies. 
REFERENCES 


Btreer, Orro. Bertrage zur Anatomie, Syste- 
matik und geographische Verbreitung der 
Nemertinen. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 61: 16- 
37. 1895. 

. Die Nemertinen. Fauna Arctica 3: 57- 
64. 1908. 

Cor, W. R. Nemerteans of the west and north- 
west coasts of America. Bull. Mus. Comp. 
Zool. 47: 1-819. 1905. 

. Revision of the nemertean fauna of the 

Pactfic coasts of North, Central and northern 

South America. Allan Hancock Pacific 

Exped. 2: 247-323. 1940. 

. Biology of the nemerteans of the Atlantic 
coast of North America. Trans. Connecticut 
Acad. Arts and Sci. 35: 129-328. 1943. 

Punnett, R. C. Arctic nemerteans. Proc. 
Zool. Soc. London, 1901: 90-107. 1901. 

Uscuakow, P. Zur Fauna der Nemertinen des 
Weiszen Meeres. Explor. des Meeres d’ 
U.R.S.S. Inst. Hydrolog. Leningrad, 1926. 

. Contribution to the fauna of nemerteans 

in the Barents Sea. Trans. Inst. Sci. Ex- 

plor. of the North, pp. 55-66. Moscow, 
1928a. 

. Beschreibung einige Nemertinenarten 
vom Barents-Meere, Weiszen Meere und 
Nowaja-Semlja. Zool. Jahrb. 54: 407-424. 
1928b. 

WHEELER, J. F.G. Nemerteans from the South 
Atlantic and southern oceans. Discovery 
Reports 9: 215-294. 1934. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


CHEMICAL SOCIETY 
549TH MEETING 


The 549th meeting (59th annual meeting) 
was held at the Cosmos Club on January 14, 
1943. The reports of officers for 1942 were read 
and accepted. The membership of committees 
for 1948 was announced. Dr. P. Honic, com- 
missioner of the Board for the Netherlands- 
Indies, Surinam, and Curacao, spoke on 
Agriculture and nutrition in the Netherlands 
Indies. 


550TH MEETING 


The 550th meeting was held at the Cosmos 
Club on February 11, 1948. Dr. C. B. Purvss, 
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
spoke on The distribution of unsubstituted hy- 
droxyl groups vn some technical cellulose acetates 
and ethers. 

551st MEETING 


The 55l1st meeting and the annual dinner of 
the Society were held at the Y.W.C.A. on 
March 11, 1943. The Hillebrand Prize for 1942 


62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


was awarded to J. F. Scuarrer, of the Geo- 
physical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of 
Washington, in recognition of his work on 
phase relations in silicate systems. Dr. N. L. 
Bowen, of the University of Chicago, spoke 
on High temperature chemistry of the silicates. 
552p MEETING 

The 552d meeting was held at the Cosmos 
Club on April 8, 1948. Dr. R. W. Catrns, di- 
rector of the Experiment Station, Hercules 
Powder Co., addressed the Society on The 
properties of explosives. 

5538p MEETING 


The 553d meeting was held jointly with the 
Washington Academy of Sciences in the audi- 


torium of National Museum on April 22, 1943. 


Dr. Linus Pautine, of the California Institute 
of Technology, spoke on Chemical studies of 
the structure of antibodies. 


554TH MEETING 


The 554th meeting was held at the Catholic 
University of America on May 13, 1943. At the 
conclusion of a general meeting, the following 
divisional meetings were held: 

Biochemistry, J. P. GREENSTEIN, presiding 

The effect of dietary deficiency of certain B 
vitamins on the growth of tumors. Haroup P. 
-Morrzis (National Cancer Institute). 

New tests in the guanidine field. M. X. SuLuI- 
VAN (Georgetown University). 

A histochemical analysis of thyroid colloid. 
I. Gersu (U. 8. Naval Hospital). 


Organic Chemistry, Howarp S. Mason, presiding 

The preparation of diazomethane. F. O. Ric, 
RaupeH Rosperts, and H. P. Warp (Catholic 
University). 

A survey of some researches on ketones and di- 
ketones. R. P. Banrnes (Howard University). 

Explanation of some reactions in the carbo- 
hydrate field by application of the concept of suc- 
cessive electron displacement. H. S. IsBEuy 
(National Bureau of Standards). 


Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, 
H. P. Warp, presiding 
The electron microscope in ceramics. H. F. 
McMourpie (National Bureau of Standards). 
Separation of small amounts of chromium from 
vanadium with ethyl acetate. Marcaret D. 
Foster (U. 8. Geological Survey). 


VOL. 34, No. 2 


Determination of glass in Portland cement. 
ARMIN W. Heuz (National Bureau of Stand- 
ards). 


Physical Chemistry, DARRELL V. SICKMAN, 
presiding 

The effect of hydrogen-ion concentration on 
overvoltage. G. E. KimBautui (Columbia Uni- 
versity). 

Calculation of vapor pressure. F. R. Br- 
CHOWSKY (Catholic University). 

Investigation of the structure of the wool fiber 
by the electron microscope. CHARLES W. Hock 
and H. F. McMuropie (Textile Foundation 
and National Bureau of Standards). 


555TH MEETING 


The 555th meeting was held at the Cosmos 


Club on October 14, 1943. Dr. H. Mark, of © 


the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, spoke 
on The elasticity of high polymers. 


556TH MEETING 


The 556th meeting was held at the Cosmos 
Club on November 11, 1948. Dr. H. A. Bru- 
son, Resinous Products and Chemical Co., 
spoke on Newer developments in phenolic- 
formaldehyde resins. The election of officers for 
1944 was held with the following results: Presi- 
dent, E. R. Smiru; Secretary, M. M. Harine; 
Treasurer, L. A. SHrnn; Councilors, F. G. 
BRICKWEDDE, N. L. Drax, H. L. HALumr, 
R. M. Hann, 8. B. Henpricks, J. H. HIBBEN, 
B. H. Nicouet, I. C. ScHoonover, J. RK. 
Spires, M. X. Suuuivan, E. Wicuers; Man- 
agers, J. J. Fanny, R. Gitcurist, W. L. HALL, 
A. T. McPuerson, C. E. Wuirs, J. K. Wore. 


557TH MEETING 


The 557th meeting was held at the George 
Washington University on November 24, 19438. 
After a general meeting, the following group 
meetings were held: 


Biochemistry, M. X. SULLIVAN, presiding 

Chemistry of the castor bean allergen. JOSEPH 
R. Spizs and E. J. Couuson (Allergen Investi- 
gation, Agricultural Research Administration) 

The successful treatment of blood dyscrastas by 
a new member of the vitamin B complex. 

The reduction of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by tussues 
in vitro. BENTON B. WESTFALL (National Insti- 
tute of Health). 


Fup. 15, 1944 


Organic Chemistry, W. Warp PieMan, presiding 

Precise macroanalysis of carbon and hydrogen 
by combustion. D. D. WaaMman and F. D. Ros- 
SINI (National Bureau of Standards). 

A study of the in vivo conversion of methionine 
to cystine by means of the carbon and sulphur 
isotopes. G. KinmMErR (University of Maryland). 

Choice of reagents in the Diels-Alder synthesis 
of compounds with angle groups. L. W. Butz, 
M. Orcuin, W. Nupenserec, B. M. Gappis, 
and E. W. J. Burz (Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry). 

A probable relationship between turanose and 
maltose. C. S. Hupson (National Institute of 
Health). 

Acetolysis of trimethylene-d-mannitol; 2,5- 
Methylene-d-Mannitol. A. T. Nuss, R. M. 
Hann, and C. 8. Hupson (National Institute 
of Health). 


Physical Chemistry, F. D. Rossrn1, presiding 

Significance of internal structure in gelatiniz- 
ing silicate minerals. K. J. Murata (U. 8. Geo- 
logical Survey). 

Standards for pH determinations. RocEr G. 
Batss (National Bureau of Standards). 

Time-temperature freezing and melting curves. 
Aucustus R. Guascow, Jr., Wutuiam J. 


OBITUARIES 63 


TayYLor, and FrepERICcK D. Rossini (National 
Bureau of Standards). 


Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, 
RALEIGH GILCHRIST, presiding 

Determination of boron in steel and tron by the 
distillation-titration (Chapin) method. Joun L. 
Hacue (National Bureau of Standards). 

Determination of beryllium in ores. ROLLIN E. 
STEVENS and MaxweLu K. Carron (U. S. 
Geological Survey). 

Analytical separations by means of controlled 
hydrolytic precipitation. RALEIGH GILCHRIST 
(National Bureau of Standards). 


558TH MEETING 


The 558th meeting was held in the audi- 
torium of the National Museum on December 
9, 1943. Dr. R. D. Cocuttt, of the Northern 
Regional Research Laboratory, spoke on Fer- 
mentation as a tool in the industrial uttlization 
of farm products. Dr. C. A. Browne, of the 
Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chem- 
istry, addressed the Society in commemoration 
of the 50th anniversary of its affiliation with 
the American Chemical Society. 

EpGar REYNOLDS SmiTH, Secretary 


@Obituaries 


AEs HrpuicKa, founder of physical anthro- 
pology in America, former president of this 
ACADEMY, and one of the world’s foremost 
anthropologists, died in Washington on Sep- 
tember 5, 1943. Born at Humpolec, Bohemia, 
March 29, 1869, he came to the United States 
at the age of 13. In 1892 he graduated from the 
Helectic Medical College, New York City, and 
in 1894 from the New York Homeopathic 
Medical College. In 1894 he became research 
interne at the State Hospital for the Insane, 
Middletown, N. Y., and in 1896 was appointed 
associate in anthropology at the Pathological 
Institute of the New York State Hospitals. 

Hrdlicka’s studies of the American Indian 
began in 1898 with an expedition to Mexico. 
From 1899 to 1902 he made trips to the South- 
west and Mexico for the American Museum of 
Natural History. 

In 1903 Dr. Hrdli¢ka came to the National 
Museum as an assistant curator to establish a 


Division of Physical Anthropology. In 1910 he 
became curator of the division, a position re- 
tained until 1941 when he retired to continue 
his research as associate in anthropology. To 
enumerate the accomplishments of Dr. Hrd- 
li¢ka’s long and fruitful career and to record the 
profound influence he exerted on physical 
anthropology would require far more space 
than is available here. He published more than 
350 books and articles. He was a member of the 
National Academy of Sciences, the American 
Philosophical Society, the American Academy 
of Arts and Sciences, and numerous other 
American and foreign societies. He received 
the honorary degree of D. Nat. Sc. from Briinn 
University in 1926 and Se.D. from Charles Uni- 
versity, Prague, in 1929. 

Dr. Hrdlitka’s anthropological studies took 
him to many parts of the world. The thousands 
of skulls and skeletons he brought back to the 
National Museum form the nucleus of one of 


64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


the world’s greatest collections of human 
skeletal material. His six Catalogs of human 
crania in the United States National Museum 
collections, presenting measurements on about 


7,000 non-White crania, constitute one of the 


most valuable sources of basic anthropometric 
data in existence. The seventh catalog, now in 
press, records measurements on 600 skulls ex- 
cavated on Kodiak and the Aleutian Islands 
and comparable data on prehistoric and 
modern Siberian crania measured on his last 
trip to Russia in 1939. This is but one of the 
notable results accruing from Dr. Hrdlicka’s ten 
expeditions to Alaska between 1926 and 1938. 

His volume, The old Americans, 1925, a 
physical study of over 1,000 white Americans 
whose ancestors for three or more generations 
had been born in this country, is the most 
important study of its kind that has been made. 

Hrdli¢ka’s interest in the origin and an- 
tiquity of the Indian led to critical examination 
of numerous finds of alleged geologically 
ancient man in America (Skeletal remains at- 
tributed to early man in America, 1907; Early 
man wn South America, 1912; and others to 
1937). In each instance his verdict was the 
same—a vigorous denial of antiquity. This un- 
compromising viewpoint was not relaxed even 
in the light of numerous discoveries. in the 
West showing association of man with fossil 
-vertebrates. 

He made many trips to Europe and other 
parts of the world to examine sites and physical 
remains of paleolithic man (The most ancient 
skeletal remains of man, 1914; The skeletal re- 
mains of early man, 1930). He maintained that 
Neanderthal man was ancestral to Homo 
sapiens, in opposition to the prevailing theory 
that the Neanderthalers were a collateral 
branch that disappeared on the advent of 
modern man. His theory is supported by the 
recent discovery of paleolithic remains in 
Palestine that are intermediate in many re- 
spects between Neanderthal and modern man. 
In 1927 he received the Huxley Medal and 
presented the Huxley Memorial Lecture before 
the Royal Anthropological Society of Great 
Britain on The Neanderthal phase of man. 

In 1918 Dr. Hrdlicka founded the American 
Journal of Physical Anthropology and was 


VOL. 34, NO. 2 


largely responsible for establishing the Ameri- 
can Association of Physical Anthropologists in 
1928. The 1940 volume of the Journal was 
published in his honor, on his 70th birthday. 
In Czechoslovakia a similar honor was be- 
stowed by another journal he had helped to 
establish, Anthropologie, the 1929 volume of 
which was issued in commemoration of his 
60th birthday. 

In 1896 Dr. Hrdlitka married Marie S. 
Dieudonnee, who died in 1918. In 1920 he 
married Mina Mansfield, who survives him. 

Henry B. Couuins, Jr. 


ALLEN CULLING CLARK, member of this 
AcapEMY and one of its vice-presidents for 
many years, died on May 16, 1943. He was 
born in Philadelphia, Pa. on February 23, 
1858, of New England parentage and became 
a resident of the District of Columbia when his 
family moved here in 1863. Educated in the 
District public schools and graduated in law 
from the National University Law School, he 
was admitted to the Bar of the District shortly 
after his twenty-first birthday. 

In 1885 his vision of the future of insurance 
led him to found a company in West Virginia 
that later became the Equitable Life Insurance 
Co., of Washington. As secretary of this firm he 
worked long and earnestly for its growth, the 
entire financial policy being largely directed 
and controlled by him. 

Mr. Clark had a sustained interest in histo- 
rical research. Besides being the author of four 
books, he wrote about 40 historical papers, 
nearly all of which were published in the Rec- 
ords of the Columbia Historical Society. He 
took great care to ensure that his historical 
publications were accurate. Although his liter- 
ary style was regarded as being that of an in- 
dividualist, yet it did catch and hold the inter- 
est of the reader. He was honored each year 
beginning in 1916 by being elected president of 
the District of Columbia Historical Society. 
He was also a member of the Maryland, Vir- 
ginia, and Mississippi Valley Historical Socie- 
ties. 

Mr. Clark married Sarah Pearce, who died in 
1910. There were four children, all of whom are 
living. 


* } i le 


CONTENTS 


Botrany.—Three new oe of “4 Leophila from Colombia and } Br ritish 
Honduras. Wr.iiam R. MAXON 7 tee 


west Pacific. Epwarp G. rae lec a. 


ZooLocy.—Nemerteans from fhe northwest coast of Greenland and 
other Arctic seas. Wersiey R. COB. eee eee 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals . 


Vou. 34 Marcu 15, 1944 No. 3 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


G. ArtHuR CooPrER Lewis V. Jupson Haraup A. REHDER 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 34 


Marcu 15, 1944 


No. 3 


ETHNOLOGY .—The requickening address of the Iroquois condolence council.” 


J. N. B. Hewirt, late ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology. 


(Edited 


by WitiiamM N. Fenton, Bureau of American Ethnology.) 


INTRODUCTION 


[As originally organized the presentation 
of the Requickening Address was postponed 
by an extended discussion of the League of 
the Iroquois, Deganawi’dah its founder, 
and an organic theory of social organization 
that seeks to explain certain characteristics 
of Iroquois social institutions, such as con- 
federation, family, kin, clan, moiety, tribe, 
chiefship, and clan apportionment by tribe, 
the status of Iroquois woman, and the 
meaning of the symbolic council fire. These 
subjects, while pertinent to an understand- 
ing of Iroquois society, do not bear directly 
on the subject and appear therefore as ex- 
planatory notes after the text, while the 
discussion of the Condolence and Installa- 
tion Ceremony itself is retained as introduc- 
tion. Those readers who feel the need of 
background material on the League of the 
Iroquois may profit by reading the explana- 
tory notes before plunging into the subject 
itself. ] 


1 Received November 26, 1943. 

2? The manuscript of this paper, originally en- 
titled ‘‘The Requickening Address, or Fifteen 
Burdens, the Third Ritual of the Convocation to 
Condole the Dead Federal Chieftains (Yaa’nehr 
(M.) ) and Install Candidates for Chiefship in the 
Council of the Iroquois League,”’ is a revision of 
Mr. Hewitt’s article ‘The Requickening Address 
of the League of the Iroquois” in the Holmes An- 
niversary Volume (1916), and it had been sub- 
mitted for publication in 1936 shortly before his 
death. In later years, however, Hewitt’s style, 
which had always been characterized by indirec- 
tion and an attempt to translate Iroquois ideology 
into English that gradually acquired private 
meanings, had become so involved that many of 
his sentences needed recasting for reading. In the 
spring of 1939, shortly after I joined the Bureau of 
American Ethnology, the manuscript was turned 
over to me for revision. Aside from style, the text 
raised many points that needed clarifying in the 


65 


The Requickening Address, the subject 
of this paper, is the third of five essential 
rituals used in the Condolence Council, 
which is the tribal convocation for condol- 
ing deceased federal chieftains and installing 
candidates in the vacant chiefships. In the 
order of their first appearance in the cere- 
mony the five rituals of Condolence and 
Installation are: (1) Journeying on the 
trail, sometimes called the Eulogy or Roll 
Call of the Founders of the League; (2) 
Welcome at the Woods’ Edge; (3) Requick- 
ening; (4) Six Songs of Farewell; and (5) 
Over the Great Forest. The Requickening 


field to render the discussion intelligible to other 
students. Since I had not been so long steeped in 
Iroquoiana as Hewitt, I found it profitable during 
field trips spread over 1939-1943 to take up vari- 
ous points in the manuscript with the brothers 
Simeon and Hardy Gibson, sons of the Late Chief 
John Arthur Gibson and nephews of Cayuga Chief 
Abram Charles, Hewitt’s principal sources for the 
ceremonial texts. American ethnology should be 
grateful to the Gibson family for preserving these 
ancient political ceremonies. The editor acknowl- 
edges his gratitude for the help that present 
members of that family have extended him. 

Initialed footnotes are by the editor (W.N.F.) 
unless attributed to the author (J.N.B.H.). Para- 
graphs enclosed in brackets are condensations by 
the editor and opinions of his informants. The 
editor does not necessarily subscribe to all opin- 
ions of the author. 

Abbreviations employed to designate dialects 
of Iroquois are as follows: M., Mohawk; Oe., 
Oneida; Oa., Onondaga; C., Cayuga; and &., 
Seneca. The orthography of Iroquois words has 
been considerably simplified to eliminate dia- 
critical marks commonly used in phonetic tran- 
scription of Indian languages, except the stress 
mark and the apostrophe for the glottal stop. 
Vowels have their common continental values. 
When long they are doubled; followed by ‘‘n” 
they are nasalized; and double ‘‘nn”’ occurring in 
the middle of a word denotes nasalization of the 
preceding vowel followed by initial ‘‘n’”’ commenc- 
ing the following syllable-—W. N. Fenton. 


66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Address derives its distinctive name from 
its symbolic power and function of restoring 
life—requickening—through prescribed acts 
and set forms of words—to the dead chief 
in the person of a legally chosen clansman; 
and the name also derives from its ascribed 
power to requicken and heal the sorely 
wounded body and soothe the grief-stricken 
mind of a sorrowing cousin phratry of 
tribes; and this end is accomplished by 
raising up or installing a clansman of the 
deceased who shall bear the same official 
name and live instead of the dead lawgiver. 
Thus in the civil polity of the Iroquois 
peoples an office never dies; only its bearer 
dies. The name is one; the bearers are many. 

Thus the five rituals for Condolence and 
Installation of chiefs comprised an institu- 
tion of vital importance for maintaining 
the integrity and efficient functioning of the 
Iroquois state. It must be remembered, 
however, that this great convention of 
tribes was in no sense a funeral ceremony, 
since the dead officers had already been 
buried with fitting rites; but it was rather 
a memorial service for the honored dead, a 
fitting preparation of the mourners and of 
their unscathed cousin tribes for celebrating 
the investiture of candidates chosen for 
preferment. When all sorrow had been 
wiped away, the new candidate was shown 
and the antlers of office were placed on his 
head. Then followed a feast and a social 
dance, known as “rubbing their antlers 
together.” 

Power of the condolence ritual.—The Iro- 
quois conception of the state, composed of 
statesmen and stateswomen and expressed 
in the ordinances of the League, required 
that the number of federal chiefs constitut- 
ing the federal council should be maintained 
undiminished. And the elders, chiefs, and 
matrons of the Iroquois tribes looked to the 
orenda, or mystic power, which they be- 
lieved was inherent in the words of the 
chants and in the rituals of condolence and 
installation themselves, for the preservation 
of their political integrity and welfare. The 
founders of the Iroquois League [whom 
Hewitt called prophet-statesmen], or at 
least their descendants, thought that this 
ceremony was so laden with magic power, 
which was useful in achieving welfare and 


VOL. 34, No. 3 


yet so uncontrollable and sinister when 
evoked out of season, that it was believed 
imperative to hold this solemn assembly 
only in autumn or in winter. This was be- 


“cause the rites were so deeply concerned 


with the dead and with the powers that 
quicken and preserve the living from the 
hostile activities of the Great Destroyer 
that it was thought that the rites might be 
deadly and destructive to growing seeds and 
plants and maturing fruits, should their per- 
formance occur during spring or summer, 
the period of rebirth and growth. Their 
purpose in part was to nullify and overcome 
the destructive powers of Nature and to re- 
store to its normal state the mystic potence 
of the stricken phratry of tribes. Indeed it 
was taught that the death of even one per- 
son weakened the orenda of the people, and 
naturally the death of a leader to whom 
the people looked for guidance was a much 
greater blow; and to restore the life of the 
people the several institutions for con- 
dolence and installation were devised to 
thwart the vicious assaults of death on the 
power of the people to live in health and 
peace. 

The Requickening Address is noteworthy 
and unique in several important aspects. It 
sheds light on the psychology, mental 
stamina, and imaginative powers of the 
teachers and leaders of the Iroquois tribes 
during the Stone Age of America. Briefly, 
it portrays in symbolic language the un- 
flinching mental courage and fortitude of 
these Indian state builders when sorely 
afflicted by the pain and sorrow occasioned 
by the death of respected leaders and when 
confronted with other imminent losses. 

The role of the condoling phratry—The 
Requickening Address dramatically por- 
trays the celebrant, in the person of the 
speaker, as gathering together the torn and 
scattered remains of the stricken phratry of 
tribes; as bringing back to the devastated 
hearth of their council fire, while their ad- 
versary Death, the Great-faceless, hovers 
above them, the scattered fire-brands (i.e., 
the living federal chiefs) which were dis- 
persed when the Great Destroyer in a rage 
kicked and stamped out the council fire 
with his feet; the speaker charges this being, 
who is a fiend by nature and who is faceless, 


Mak. 15, 1944 


with having caused the present calamity; 
and he says that the grandfathers of the 
ancient times failed to recognize the linea- 
ments of his face, but the Great Destroyer 
is conceived as going about at all times with 
his club couched at the very top of men’s 
heads, and exulting: ‘It is I, I will destroy 
all things.’”’ Then the celebrant is portrayed 
as making preparations to undo and repair 
the destruction that this being has wrought; 
he pours the Water-of-pity down the 
mourner’s throat before him and rearranges 
the organs in his breast and wipes away the 
gall-colored spots of bitterness engendered 
by grief from within his body; and finally 
he declares to the mourner before him, 
““Now, I have finished thy restoration. I 
now stand you back among the ranks of 
living men. Direct my eyes to the candidate 
to be installed. This is the sum of my 
words.” 

Thus, in highly redundant phrases, the 
Requickening Address paints in bold strokes 
the evils and wounds that daily befall a 
people—the calamitous effects of death’s 
power over the lives and welfare of the 
mourning phratry of tribes; and it affirms 
that by counteracting the effects of these 
evils it restores the dying people to new life 
in the person of their newly installed chief. 

Condolence law.—A fixed rule or regula- 
tion of the federal organization of the 
League was that in the event that one or 
more federal chiefs in either tribal phratry 
should die, the tribes of this moiety became 
mourners for a year, or until the vacant 
chiefships had been filled, in accordance 
with strict rules of civil and ritualistic pro- 
cedure that governed the proceedings of 
the Condolence Council. At that time it is 
the official duty of the ‘‘cousin”’ tribes, ‘‘the 
unscathed ones,”’ to perform the elaborate 
rites and ceremonies that are used to re- 
habilitate the mourning ‘“‘cousin” tribes 
stricken by death, who, during the mourn- 
ing period, can not, or may not, transact 
any public business. — | 

More simply stated, the above procedure 
ig reciprocity between moieties that ob- 
tains at the community and tribal level 
and is projected as custom law of the 
League. In the deaths of individuals, the 
clans of the opposite moiety to that of 


HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 67 


which the deceased was a member invari- 
ably conduct the rites, and the clans of his 
phratry are likewise mourners. In the 
League, whole tribes play the roles of 
clans. |] 

The loss of one person from an Ohwachira 
(uterine or maternal family) is indeed great; 
and it was thought necessary to restore this 
loss by replacing the lost person by one or 
more persons, according as the deceased was 
of more or less importance and standing in 
the community. [This principle operated in 
the adoption of prisoners in ancient times, 
and it functioned in the succession of chiefs 
until recently. | 

In Iroquois polity it was not the duty of 
the members of the bereaved blood-kin 
group [bilateral family (Goldenweiser)], 
maternal family, or clan to effect this re- 
placement; but it was rather the duty and 
obligation of all those persons of alien ma- 
ternal families who are connected by mar- 
riage with the afflicted maternal family, and 
who are specifically called ronton’ni (masc. 
pl.), or sadon’ni (2d person sing.); the noun 
stem being -fon’nz, or -don’nt. [There is no 
term in the English language that satisfied 
Hewitt for translating this term, but 
Adon’ni means approximately “‘my father’s 
lineage.’’] 

[It is interesting and necessary, Hewitt 
thought, to submit tentatively the following 
definitions of the term: Adon’ni (in certain 
dialects the d is softened to t) denotes all 
tribes, the maternal families of whose clans 
have contracted marriage, through males, 
with the maternal family of ego. The group 
of which Adon’ni is a specific name includes 
all of the men and women of the maternal 


families, clans, and tribes, who have con- 


tracted marriage relationships with ego’s 
maternal family, and therefore it includes 
the father of ego. In other words, it is ego’s 
father’s lineage. 

This raises a nice theeretical point. If 
Hewitt’s definition of this term is carried 
to its logical conclusion, it sets up the con- 
ditions for original moiety exogamy among 
the Iroquois tribes, in which clan and phra- 
try (or moiety, for there are only two phra- 
tries) behave as if there were two intermar- 
rying lineages with maternal descent.| 

The articles of the ritual of the Requick- 


68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


- ening Address end with this term, and so 
may be applied to either the Father side or 
the Mother side, the use of course depend- 
ing on the side from which the celebrant 
(speaker) of the ritual is chosen.’ It is thus 
seen that the translation of this term by 
‘‘Father’s Brothers’”’ does not include all the 
persons named by it. 

The version of Chief John A. Gibson.— 
Sometimes the ritual has been recited in 
‘blank verse”’ by the great native speakers 
of a past generation. [Hewitt had heard it so 
rendered, but the text from which he made 
the following translation is not in that form. 
The original is a carefully revised Onondaga 
Iroquois text, which was dictated to Hewitt 
by the late highly esteemed Federal Chief 
John Arthur Gibson, bearer of the chiefship 
title, Sganyadai’iyo’, ‘‘Handsome Lake,”’ 
the first title on the Seneca list, and repre- 
senting the Turtle clan. -At the time the dic- 
tation was made Chief Gibson had been 
completely blind for 24 years. During this 
time he had represented the Seneca of his 
maternal family in the Federal Council of 
the Six nations of the Iroquois on Grand 
River, Ontario, Canada. Born of a noble 
lineage, he became an astute and worthy 
expounder of the ideals of Deganawi’dah, 
founder of the League of the people of the 
Longhouse. 

Somewhat later, this text was revised 
with the aid of two other federal chiefs, 
Abram Charles (Cayuga), who died in 1929, 
and John Buck, Sr. (Onondaga), also de- 
ceased. Only minor corrections and amend- 
ments were found necessary. | 

Chief Gibson, a Seneca, who spoke On- 
ondaga or Cayuga equally well, was for 
years principal speaker for the Onondagas 
at all their ceremonies, and consequently he 
dictated the form of Requickening Address 
in use by his phratry, ‘‘the Three Brothers,” 
who are also called ‘‘Adon’ni,”’ and are com- 
posed of the Mohawk, Seneca, and Onon- 
daga tribes. By substituting the words ‘‘the 


3 In actual practice, however, the term is cus- 
tomarily used by the Four Brothers’ side (Oneida, 
Cayuga, Tuscarora, and Tutelo) in addressing the 
Three Brothers’ side (Mohawk, Onondaga, and 
Seneca) in this particular ceremony. Thus it ap- 
pears on the texts collected by Hewitt and Golden- 
wees and all of my informants affirm it.— 


VOL. 34, No. 3 


Two Brothers,” i.e., the Oneida and Cayuga 
tribes, instead of the words ‘‘the Three 
Brothers,’ and also the word ‘‘My Child” 
or ‘‘My offspring,” and the kinship terms 
arising from this relationship, the form of 
this address would then be the one used by 
the tribal phratry, which Hewitt called 
Mother or Offspring, that the. Iroquois 
sometimes refer to as the Younger Brother 
Nations. [In modern times, since the admis- 
sion of the Tuscarora, Tutelo, Nanticoke, 
and Delaware tribes to the latter phratry 
of tribes, the phrase ‘‘the Four Brothers” 
has displaced that of ‘the Two Brothers,”’ 
which obtained until the beginning of the 
eighteenth century. | 

“Fifteen Matters.’’—In its full form the 
Requickening Address consists of 15 articles 
but only when condoling for a chief that was 
murdered. For an ordinary condolence only 
14 articles are used; and so, commonly, it is 
called ‘““The Fourteen Matters.’’ These- are 
accompanied in delivery by 14 skeins or 
strings of wampum as attesting tokens, 
which the Onondaga call Ne’’Adon’daksh’ha@’, 
freely rendered, ‘“‘the Aittestations.” 

The Address is composed of two parts, 
the first part containing 3 and the second 
part 12 of the 15 burdens. The first part is 
spoken or intoned by an appointed speaker 
from the unscathed tribal phratry beside the 
temporary fire, which is lighted beside the 
thorny bushes which fringe the forest and 
cleared lands surrounding the lodge-of-as- 
sembly [longhouse]; whence its name, 
‘““The fire-beside-the-thorny-shrubs”’ or sim- 
ply ‘‘At-the-woods’-edge.”’ The fire is 
kindled by a brand drawn from the prin- 
cipal-fire in the lodge-of-assembly by the 
bereaved tribal phratry for the express 
purpose of greeting the visiting tribal phra- 
try with the Chant of Welcome. Of course, 
either moiety of tribes may be in the role of 
the unscathed because at that time it is not 
in mourning. 

The three articles or burdens of the first 
part deal with the eyes, ears, and throat of 
the bereaved phratry and derive their names 
from their supposed function of restoring 
fully the faculties of seeing, hearing, and 
speaking, which had been destroyed or at 
least impaired by the shock of the chief’s 
dying. (Figs. 1, 2, 3.) 


Mar. 15, 1944 


The late Cayuga Chief Abram Charles 
[who died February 14, 1929], was a pro- 
found student of the origin and laws and 
institutions of the League of the Iroquois. 
[Chief Charles was able to explain to Hew- 
itt’s satisfaction the actual or traditional 
facts underlying certain obscure rites and 
passages in the native records.] Chief 
Charles alone of all my native informants 
was able to give me, for example, the tra- 
ditional reason for kindling the temporary 
fire ‘‘Beside-the-thorny-bushes,’’ where the 
first three articles or burdens of the Re- 
quickening Address are intoned by a cele- 
brant for the unscathed phratry. 

It was after an acquaintance of more than 
12 years that Chief Charles concluded that 
the writer [Hewitt] could appreciate the 
reasons for kindling this temporary fire 
“Beside the Thorny Bushes.”’ In reply to a 
question which had been asked in previous 
interviews, Chief Charles is quoted: 


In olden times when death had ruthlessly 
stricken a loved one, the nearest kindred would 
indulge in excessive, even frantic, expressions of 
grief, commonly casting herself on the hearth 
among the ashes which were thrown over the head 
and shoulders, there to mix with tears and drivel 
from the mouth and with blood oozing from many 
‘lacerations on the body; there the mourner re- 
mained for long periods of time, until the bitter- 
ness of grief would in a measure become as- 
suaged. 


Naturally, a mourner in such condition 
would not be thought fit to appear in public 
at a formal assembly of chiefs of allied 
tribes. So by analogy, a tribe or phratry of 
tribes, which had lost its trusted leader, 
was likened to such a mourner writhing on 
her ash heap; and therefore, before taking 
a seat in a formal assembly at which repre- 
sentatives of neighbor peoples would be 
present, it was thought proper and neces- 
sary, as Chief Charles quaintly declared, 
“to clean up a little bit’’ by wiping away the 
tears, by dislodging the obstruction in the 
ears, and by clearing from the mourner’s 
throat the accumulated mucus and phlegm. 
Such, it seems, was the courtesy due to the 
afflicted mourning phratry. 

This closes the prescribed ceremonies 
‘“‘Beside-the-thorny-shrubs,”” and then the 
two tribal phratries separately enter the 


HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 69 


lodge-of-assembly (longhouse) from oppo- 
site sides, a warrior chief of the mourners 
leading the condolers by the arm. Then, 
after three other chants—Eulogy of the 
Founders, Six Songs, and Over the Great 
Forest— have been sung alternately by the 
two tribal moieties, then the twelve remain- 
ing articles or burdens of the Requickening 
Address are delivered; first by the condoling 
moiety and later by the mourners, when the 
wampum strings which accompany each 
“word” are returned across the fire. Each 
burden recites an injury to life but affirms 
its cure within the hour by virtue of the 
orenda, magic power, inherent in the rites 
and in the very words spoken by the cele- 
brant. 

For convenience, or by custom, when in- 
toning the 12 articles or burdens each mes- 
sage is accompanied by a string or skein of 
wampum beads; the first three should be 
attested likewise, but these confirming 
strings are customarily omitted from the 
ceremony, and on such occasions it is said, 
referring to this omission, ‘‘Our words are 
bare and clear.” 

All the five chants making up the cere- 
mony of condolence and installation are, 
with a single exception, the Eulogy, used 
in two parts, between which like parts of 
other chants are regularly interpolated. [Al- 
though this type of reciprocal singing, first 
by the leading moiety and then by the other 
moiety, is characteristic of other Iroquois 
ceremonies, this peculiar method of inter- 
locking the parts of these chants remained a 
moot question with Hewitt.| 

At least six hours of ceremonial activity 


intervene between the delivery of the Three 


Burdens of the first part At-the-Woods’- 
edge and the recitation of the Twelve Bur- 
dens of the second part of the Requickening 
Address. [Since the first part occurs third on 
the program, Hewitt called it the Third 
Chant; the second part, however, concludes 
the main features of the Condolence Coun- 
cil. There remain only the Installation, or | 
Charge to the New Chief, a terminal feast, 
and a social dance in the evening. | 

When the closing words of the Chant fo 
Welcome, solemnly congratulating the vis- 
iting cousin phratry for its safe arrival At- 
the-woods’-edge, have been intoned by the 


70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


appointed chanter in behalf of the be- 
reaved tribal phratry, then the chosen 
speaker for the unscathed tribal phratry, 
whose minds are filled with pity, stands be- 


VOL. 34, No. 3 


side the ashes of the wayside fire-pit and 
intones the first three articles or burdens of 
the Requickening Address, called ‘“The 
Tears,” ‘‘The Ears,”’ and ‘‘The Throat.” 


TEXT OF THE REQUICKENING ADDRESS 


FIRST PART 
THE FIRST ARTICLE—TEARS: OR ONE’S 
EYES 


The Orator says: 

Oh, my offspring,‘ lo, verily, this present 
day, such as is this day in kind and aspect, He 
Himself, He the Finisher of our Faculties, He 
the Master of All [Dehayenhyaawa’gih] (He 
the Sky rememberer), has made. Even He has 
prepared the light of this day, such as it is 
(I say). 

Now therefore, they who are customarily 
called the Three Brothers are journeying along 
the path of the Ritual as it was prepared for us 
by our forefathers upon whom our minds rested 
in confidence (I say). : 

It is that, therefore, that brings their persons 
here, the calamity, so hopeless and dreadful, 
which has befallen thy person, this one (in- 
dicating), thou whom I have held in my bosom, 
thou noble one [Sayaa’neh Federal Chief] the 
two of you who are the Two Brothers (The 
Oneida and the Cayuga) (I say). 

It is that, therefore, as to that, verily, this 
present day, I thrust aside the door-flap from 
the place where thou art lying as an object that 
is black; it is that in the midst of great darkness 
thou art sitting too prone in grief, thy back 
alone visible in the thick darkness (I say). 
Thou whom I have weaned. | 

It is that, therefore, that I shall stoop low 
there at the edge of thy ash-pit, grasping my 
knees, and that, therefore, I shall utter such 
words that I shall with them soothe and appease 
by caresses any displeasure of thy guardian 
spirit (I say). 

It is that, therefore, that I come for the sake 
of my Offspring (i.e., the mother’s side) (I say)). 

Itis that, therefore, that this present day, we, 
thou and I, seat outselves side by side, and that, 
therefore, it is here in the very midst of very 
many tears (I say). 

It is that, therefore, that the cause of it, 
indeed, of the dreadful thing that has stricken 
thy person, this one (indicating), thou noble 


4 Cayuga say: howeyanen’don’. 


one whom I have been wont to hold in my 
bosom (I say). 

It is that, therefore, that now today has been 
caused to be vacant the seat of husk matting, 
the place whereon he who was a co-worker with 
thee, and upon whom rested the eyes of the 
wise minds in full confidence, was wont to be 
seated (I say). 

It is that, therefore, that has caused it to be 
so, the being that is demonic in itself, the being 
that is faceless because its lineaments were un- 
known to our ancestors, the Great Destroyer 
that it is, which every day and every night 
roams about with its weapon couched, yea, 
uplifted, at the very tops of our heads, wherein 
it and its kind desiring it, and so they severely 
boast “It is I, I will destroy all things, even 
the Commonwealth of the League”’ (I say). 

It is that, therefore, that there it delivered a 
vital stroke whereby it snatched away from 
thee one in whom thou didst trust for words of 
wisdom and comfort; and now in his turn it has 
borne him away, it may be indeed, now, there- 
fore, today, thou dwell amidst many tears (I 
say). 

It is that, therefore, oh, thou my offspring, 
thou yaa’nehr (thou Federal Chief), are not 
thy Father’s blood-kin, the Three Brothers, 
making their preparations, and now, therefore, 
let them say ‘‘Now do we pass our hands 
through thy tears in sympathy; now, we wipe 
away the tears from thy face, using the white 
fawn-skin of pity.’’? Now, therefore, let them 
say, ‘‘We have wiped away thy tears.’ Now, 
therefore, in peace of mind, thou wilt continue 
to look around thyself, enjoying again the 
light of the day. Now, also, thou wilt again be- 
hold what is taking place on the earth, whereon 
is outspread the handiwork of the Master of 
All Things. Now also thou wilt again see thy 
sister’s sons and daughters (thy nephews and 
nieces), as they move about thy person, even 
to the least of them, the infants. Now, thou 
wilt see them all again (I say). 

Now, therefore verily, thou wilt again do 
your thinking in peace, this one, my offspring, 


ad ma ‘ Beas Sr 


te ree 


Mar. 15, 1944 


thou yaa'nehr (Federal Chief), thou whom I 
have been wont to hold in my bosom (I say). 

Enough, therefore, verily, that even for one 
brief day, also in peace, mayst thou do thy 
thinking (I say). 

Thus, perhaps, let them do, The Three 
Brothers, who had been so called ever since the 
establishment of their affairs (the institution 
of the League) (I say). 

Now, therefore, do thou know, this one, my 
weanling, that now the Word (attested by 
wampum strings) of thy Adon’nz is on its way 
hence to thee. (Fig. 1.) 


THE SECOND ARTICLE—THE EARS: 
HEARING 


Oh, my offspring, there is a different matter, 
and we will say as we continue to speak that it 
comes to pass where a great.calamity has be- 
fallen one’s person that the passages of the ears 
become obstructed and the hearing is lost. One 
then hears not the sounds made by mankind, 
nothing of what is taking place on the earth. 

It is that, therefore, that this dreadful thing 
has indeed befallen thy person, thou my wean- 
ling, thou, you Two Brothers (I say), thou 
yaa'nehr (Federal Chief). | 

Is it not then true that what has befallen 
thy person is so calamitous that it must not 
be neglected? Indeed, now thou hearest nothing 
of the sounds made by mankind as they move 
to and fro about thy person, nor anything of 
what is taking place on the earth. Now, there- 
fore, let the Three Brothers say, ‘‘We have 
made our preparations, and so we proceed to 
restore thy person by removing the obstacles 
obstructing the passages of thy ears.’’ Now, 
therefore, thou wilt again hear when one will 
address words to thee on whatever matter it 
may be, words which may be directed to thee 
personally, thou yaa/nehr (Federal Chief), and 
next in order, the sounds made by thy sister’s 
sons and daughters (thy nephews and nieces), 
moving around thy person. Now, thou wilt 
again hear all things, also all that is taking 
place on the earth, all these things thou wilt 
again hear. And, now, also thou wilt be able to 
hear clearly when we Three Brothers address 
you ceremonially in the Chief Place (I say). 

It is that, therefore that we do this that 
even for one brief day also in peace, mayst 
thou do thy thinking, thou, my offspring, thou 
yaa'nehr (Federal Chief), thou, my weanling 
(I say). 


HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS fal 


Thus, perhaps, let them do, the Three 
Brothers, who had been so denominated ever 
since the establishment of their affairs (namely, 
the institution of the League) (I say). 

Now, therefore, do thou know, this one, my 
weanling, that now the Word (attesting wam- 
pum strings) of thy Adon’ni is on its way hence 
(to thee) (I say). (Fig. 2.) 


THE THIRD ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE 
THROAT 


Oh, my offspring, there is still another matter 
to be considered now, and we will say, as we 
continue speaking, that it comes to pass where 
a great misfortune has befallen a person, where 
the Great Destroyer has been harshly cruel, 
that the throat of the flesh-body becomes sorely 
obstructed, so that then it is plainly to be seen 
that the vitality of the person’s life has become 
lessened, also that of the mind of that person 
(I say). 

Verily, therefore, this has happened to thy 
person, this one, my offspring, thou yaa'nehr 
(Federal Chief), this one, whom I have been 
wont to hold in my bosom. 

Is it not then the fact that what has befallen 
thy person is so dreadful that it must not be 
neglected? Is it not true that thy flesh-body has 
become choked up? Now, verily, thou canst 
breathe only with great difficulty, also thou 
art not able to say anything except in distress. 
Now, therefore, surely the powers of thy life 
are greatly weakened by it (I say). 

Now, then, verily, let the Three Brothers de- 
clare: We have now made our preparations, 
and now, therefore, we remove from thy throat 
of thy flesh-body again the throttling obstruc- 
tions (I say). 

Now, verily, again thou wilt breathe with 
ease and comfort, and now, too, thou wilt 
again move thy members with ease (I say). 
Now, too, thou wilt again speak with pleasure 
when soon we, thou and I, will mutually greet 
each other in the Chief Place (I say). 

It is that, therefore, that we do this, that 
even for one brief day, and also in perfect peace, 
mayst thou do thy thinking, thou my offspring, 
thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), this one (in-— 
dicating) whom I have been wont to hold in 
my bosom (I say). 

In this manner, perhaps, let the Three 
Brothers, so denominated ever since the time 
they had established their Commonwealth, do 
this (I say). 


72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Now, therefore, my weanling know it, that 
the Word (attesting wampum strings) of thy 
Father’s Kinsmen, is on its way hence (to thee) 
(I say). This is the sum of our words at this 
place. (Fig. 3.) 

(Remember that these three articles of the 
Requickening Address are delivered at the 
rites which take place at the Fire-kindled-near- 
the-thorny-bushes, marking the limits be- 
tween the forest and the clearing surrounding 
the Lodge of Assembly, usually called, ‘““The- 
fire-beside-the-thorns.”’ The remaining 12 arti- 
cles, except one, are reserved for later presenta- 
tion in the Lodge of Assembly, as already ex- 
plained above. The article omitted is the one 
used only in case of a murder.) 


SECOND PART 
THE FOURTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: 
WITHIN HIS BREAST 

The Orator of the unscathed visiting tribal 
sisterhood now continues: Oh, my offspring, 
now there is still another thing that ever occurs 
wherever and whenever a great calamity has 
befallen a person; verily, this affliction comes 
when the being demonic of itself, the Faceless 
One, the lineaments of whose face our ancestors 
failed to discern, the Great Destroyer, puts 
forth excessive ferocity against one. 

It is ever true -that the organs within the 
breast and the flesh-body are disordered and 
violently wrenched without ceasing, and so 
also is the mind, Now, verily, therefore, there 
always develop yellow spots within the body. 
Verily, now, the life forces of the sufferer always 
become weakened thereby. This ever takes 
place when the Great Destroyer puts forth 
excessive ferocity against one in causing such 
great affliction (I say). 

Oh, my offspring, thou art now such a suf- 
ferer, Oh, my offspring, verily, in this manner 
too thou hast suffered this affliction, this one, 

thou yaa’nehr (thou Federal Chief) (I say). 

~ Isnot what has befallen thee then so dreadful 
that it must not be neglected? For, at the 
present time, there are wrenchings without 
ceasing within thy breast, and also within thy 
mind. Now truly, the disorder now among the 
organs within thy breast is such that nothing 
can be clearly discerned. So great has been the 
affliction that has befallen thee that yellow 
spots have developed within thy body,® and 
truly thy life forces have become greatly 


VOL. 34, NO. 3 


weakened thereby; truly thou dost now suffer 
(I say). 

It is that, therefore, that in ancient times it 
thus came to pass that the hodiyaane’hshon’, 
the Federal Chiefs, our grandsires, made a 
formal rule, saying, ‘‘Let us unite our affairs; 
let us formulate regulations; let us ordain this 
among others that what we shall prepare we 
will designate by the name, The Water-of-pity 
(Djawakahon’den’) and which shall be the es- 
sential thing to be used where Death has caused 
this dreadful affliction, inducing bitter grief.” 

And, so, in whatever place it may be that 
such a tragedy will befall a person, it shall be 
the duty of him whose mind is left wnscathed 
by it to take up and make use of the ‘“‘ Water- 
of-pity,’’ so denominated by us, by taking it in 
hand, and then by pouring it down the throat 
of the one on whom the great affliction has 
fallen; and, it shall be that when the ‘‘ Water- 
of-pity’’ shall have permeated the inside of his 
body, it will at once begin the work of re- 
organizing all the many things there which 
have been disarranged and disordered by the 
shock of the death, not only in his body but 
also in his mind; and it will also remove utterly 
all the yellow (gall) spots from his throat and 
from the inside of his body (I say).® 

Oh, my offspring, this great tragedy has be- 
fallen thee too. Do thou know it, therefore, 
that now the Three Brothers so called from the 
beginning have made their preparations. Now, 
verily, therefore, they take up the ‘‘Water-of- 
pity’? and now, then, let them say, We now 
pour into thy body the ‘‘Water-of-pity.” Oh, 
my offspring, it shall, therefore, come to pass 
when this ‘‘Water-of-pity”’ settles down in thy 
body it shall at once begin the work of re- 
storing to order the organs which have been 
disarranged and disordered in thy body, and 
will bring order to thy mind also; all things will 
be restored and readjusted, and also all the 
yellow (gall) spots in thy body will be severally 
cleared away from thy body; now, therefore, 


5 These yellow spots are symptoms of “gall 
trouble” for which the prog regularly take 
emetics in springtime.—W.N.F. 

6 The ‘‘Water-of-pity”’ that is poured down the 
mourner’s throat is consonant with other Iro- 
quois medical practice. The midwife drops an 
infusion of poplar bark down the baby’s throat 
to purge its bowels, and the council of animals 
cure the good hunter by dropping the sacred Little 
eee Medicine down his throat and revive him. 
—W.N.F. 


Mar. 15, 1944 


all things shall be in good condition as to the 
powers of thy life. Then, therefore, there will 
be health and comfort in thy life (I say). 

Thus, therefore, for one brief little day 
mayst thou think thy thoughts in peace, thou 
noble one, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), whom 
I have been wont to hold in my bosom (I say). 

In this manner, then, it may be, let the 
Three Brothers, so denominated ever since 
they established their Commonwealth expedite 
this matter (I say). 

Now, therefore, do thou know it, thou noble 
one, thou whom I have been wont to hold in 
my bosom, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), that 
the Word (attesting wampum string) of thy 
Adon’nt is now on its way hence to thee (I say). 
(Fig. 4.) 


THE FIFTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE 
BLOODY HUSK-MAT BED 

Now, Oh, my offspring, there is still another 
matter to be considered at this time. 

It is this, that it invariably comes to pass 
where a great calamity has befallen a person 
that a trail of blood is smeared over the husk- 
mat couch of that person. Now, invariably of 
course that one’s place of rest is not at all 
pleasant, sitting cross-legged in wretchedness 
(I say). 

Thus, therefore, art thou stricken in thy 
person in this very manner, Oh, my offspring, 
whom I have been wont to hold in my, bosom, 
thou noble one, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief). 
Is not then what has befallen thy person so 
dreadful that it must not be neglected? Now, 
at this time is there not a trail of blood smeared 
over thy husk-mat couch? Today, thou dost 
writhe in the midst of blood (I say). 

Now, therefore do thou know it, that the 
Three Brothers have made their preparations, 
that now, therefore, let them say it, ‘‘Now, théh, 
we wipe away the several bloody smears from 
thy husk-mat resting place. That, therefore, 
we have employed the skin of the spotted 
fawn (=words of pity and comfort) to wipe 
away the bloody trails from thy husk-mat” (I 
say). 

That that, therefore, shall come to pass, 
there will be a day at some future time when 
our minds shall again be parted. And that that 
shall be, therefore, when thou shalt arrive 
again where thy husk-mat couch is, it shall be 
in the highest degree peaceful and pleasant 


HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 73 


when thou wilt resume thy seat where thou 
art wont to rest (I say). 

Thus, therefore, may it be that for the one 
poor brief day, also in peace, thou mayst carry 
on thy thinking in contentment, this noble one, 
thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), whom I have 
been wont to hold in my bosom (I say). 

In this manner, perhaps, let the Three 
Brothers, so denominated ever since their Com- 
monwealth was completed, do this. 

Now, therefore, do thou know it, Oh, my 
offspring, that the Word (attesting wampum ° 
string) of thy Adon’nz is on its way thence to 
thee (I say). (Fig. 5.) 


* THE SIXTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: 
THE DARKNESS OF GRIEF?’ 

Now, Oh, my offspring, there is still another 
matter to be considered at this time. 

It is this, that where a direful thing befalls a 
person, that person is invariably covered with 
darkness, that person becomes blinded with 
thick darkness itself. It is always so that the 
person knows not any more what the daylight 
is like on the earth, and his mind and life are 
weakened and depressed (I say). 

This very thing, then, has befallen thee, my 
weanling, thou noble one (Federal Chief), 
whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom. 

Is not then what has befallen thy person so 
direful that it must not be neglected? Now, 
therefore, at this time thou art become thick 
darkness itself in thy grief. Now, thou knowest 
not anything of the quality of the light of day 
on the earth (I say). 

Now, Oh, my offspring, do thou know it, 
that now the Three Brothers have made their 
preparations, and now, therefore, let them say, 
“Now therefore, we make it daylight again for 
thee. Now, most pleasantly will the daylight 
continue to be beautiful when again thou wilt 
look about thee whereon is outspread the handi- 
work of the Finisher of our Faculties on the 
face of the earth” (I say). 

Thus, therefore, for one brief little day 
mayst thou think thy thoughts in peace, thou 
noble one, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), my 
weanling (I say). 

In this manner, then, perhaps, let the Three 
Brothers, so denominated ever since they estab- 


7 When a chief dies, everything gets dark, hence 
the ‘‘Deep Darkness” of grief is as the night.— 
S. Grpson.  ~ 


74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


lished their Commonwealth, effect this matter 
(I say). 

Now, therefore, do thou know it, my off- 
spring, thou noble one, thou whom I have been 
wont to hold in my bosom, thou yaa'nehr 
(Federal Chief), that the Word (attesting 
wampum string) of thy Adon’ni is on its way 
hence to thee (I say). (Fig. 6.) 
THE SEVENTH ARTICLE OR_ BURDEN: 

THE LOSS OF THE SKY 
_ Oh, my offspring, now there is another mat- 
ter to be considered at this time. 

It is that, then, that where a great calamity 
has befallen a person it invariably comes to 
pass that the sky is lost to the senses of that 
person; invariably he does not know anything 
of what is taking place in it (I say). 

Verily, my offspring, this very thing has be- 
fallen thy person, thou noble one, thou yaa’ nehr 
(Federal Chief). Verily, then is not what has 
befallen thy person not to be neglected? Now, 
therefore, the sky is completely lost to thy 
view. Now, thou dost know nothing of what is 
taking place in the sky (I say). 

So, now, therefore, do thou know it, that 
now the Three Brothers have made their 
preparations, and now then let them say, 
“Now, then, we beautify again the sky for you. 
It shall now continue to be beautiful. Now, 
thou wilt do thy thinking in peace when thy 
eyes will rest on the sky. The Perfector of our 
Faculties, the Master of All Things, intended 
that it should be the source of happiness to 
mankind” (I say). 

Thus, therefore, for one brief little day, also 
in peace, mayst thou do thy thinking, thou 
noble one, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), my 
offspring (I say). 

In this manner, perhaps, let them do it, the 
Three Brothers, so denominated ever since 
they had established their Commonwealth (I 
say). 

Now, therefore, do thou know it, my off- 
spring, that the Word (attesting wampum 
string) of thy Father’s blood kin is going hence 
to thee (I say). (Fig. 7.) 

THE EIGHTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: 

' HIS SUN IS LOST 

Oh, my offspring, now there is still another 
matter for serious thought. Thus it invariably 
comes to pass where a great calamity has be- 
fallen a person that the Sun is lost to that per- 


VOL. 34, NO. 3 


son’s senses. Then such a person knows nothing 
about the movements of the Sun, nothing of its 
drawing nearer and nearer to him; he is then in 
darkness (I say). 

This very thing, therefore, has happened to 
thee, my weanling, thou noble one, thou yaa’- 
nehr (Federal Chief). The Sun is now lost to 
thee. Verily, then, is not what has befallen thy 
person not to be neglected? No more art thou 
aware of the movements of the Sun, nothing of 
its drawing nearer and nearer to thee (I say). 

So, now therefore, do thou know it, that the 
Three Brothers have made their preparations. 
Now, then, let them say it, ““Now, we attach 
the Sun again in its place for thee; that then 
shall come to pass when the time shall come for 
the dawning of a new day, that verily thou 
shalt see the Sun when it shall come up out 
of the horizon, when, indeed, our Elder Brother 
(The Sun), who lights up the earth shall come 
over it’’ (I say). ) 

Thus, then, my offspring, thy eyes shali rest 
on it as it draws ever closer to thee. That, 
therefore, when the Sun shall reach, or place 
itself in mid-heaven then around thy person 
rays or haloes of light will abundantly appear. 
Then, indeed, shall thy mind resume its wonted 
moods; then also wilt thou remember the many 
things of whatsoever kind they may be, per- 
taining to the welfare of thy people, thy chil- 
dren, and thy grandchildren, matters, indeed, 
in which thou hadst been toiling (I say). 

Thus, then, may it be, that for one brief little 
day thou mayst do thy thinking in peace, thou 
noble one, thou yaa’nehr (Federal Chief), thou 
my weanling (I say). 

In this manner, therefore, let the Three 
Brothers, so denominated ever since the insti- 
tution of their Commonwealth, do this. 

Now, therefore, do thou know it, my off- 
spring, that the Word (attesting wampum 
string) of thy Adon’ni is on its way hence to 
thee (I say). (Fig. 8.) 

THE NINTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE 
HEAP OF CLAY ON THE GRAVE! 

Oh, my offspring, now, again, there is an- 
other matter for consideration. Now, this other 

8 This refers to the mound of freshly upturned 
earth or clay over a new grave. Chief Charles 
gave the Onondaga form heyo’dadgwaiin’da’; 
Cayuga is heyo’daa’gwa’ont. Simeon Gibson 
thought it odd of his uncle to confuse the two 


forms. Symbolizing death, the string is entirely 
black. 


es ae 
= ees 


te te 


Mar. 15, 1944 


things concerns the course of action caused in a 
case where a great tragedy has stricken a per- 
son, where it occurred with outrageous harsh- 
ness, for invariably the mind of that person is 
simply tossed and tormented on the grave of 
him in whom he fondly trusted. 

So then this self-same thing has happened to 
thee, thou noble one, thou yaa/nehr (Federal 
Chief). Now, it is that thy mind is simply lying 
there on the grave of the one whom thou didst 
trust. Is not what has befallen thee so serious 
that it must not be neglected? So, therefore, do 
thou know it, that the Three Brothers have 
completed their preparations, and let them say, 
‘““We now level the rough ground over the grave 
of him in whom thou didst fondly trust.”’ Now, 
then, they place over it a fine slab of wood, and 
now too they pull up several kinds of grasses 
which they will cast on it for, truly, there are 
two different things that always take place dur- 
ing the days and during the nights; one is that 
it may become very hot, but now it will then 
not reach into the place where his corpse lies; 
the other is that it may rain heavily, but now it 
will then not reach the place where his bones lie 
(I say). And so the bones of him on whom thou 
didst fondly trust shall rest peacefully and un- 
disturbed (I say). (Fig. 9.) 

THE TENTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: THE 

INTERPOLATED CLAUSE: TWENTY 

IS THE PENALTY FOR 
HOMICIDE? | 

And, more than this, we now restore thy land 
to orderliness, and now the Three Brothers say, 
“We have pity for your lost homeland. Now, 
we rush forward, throwing ourselves here and 
there, in that we may now gather together 
again thy other bones, so widely scattered as 
they have been by the Being Malefic in Itself, 
the Being that is Faceless—the Being that is 
the Great Destroyer—Death”’ (I say). 

More than this (I say), that our departed 
grandsires made a ruling, in that they said that 
twenty (strings of wampum) shall be the value 
of this [i.e., a death by murder], at that price did 
they fix it, in that they denominated it by this: 
That it shall be worth (or valued at) twenty 
(strings of wampum); they declared that one 
shall bind their bones thereby [i.e., to keep 
them from being murdered by a clan or tribal 
enemy] (I say). 


° Cf. Hewitt, The Requickening Address of the 
League of the Iroquois, p. 174. 1916. 


HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS ma 


Do thou know it, furthermore, this one (indi- 
cating), my offspring, that now, do not the 
Three Brothers take that up now, and that 
now, completing their preparations, let them 
say it, ‘‘Now, we bind thy bones one and all, 
restating the value of twenty (strings of wam- 
pum) on them” (I say). 

Now, then my offspring, thou wilt again do 
thy thinking in peace in future. Thus, there- 
fore, let it be, that for one brief little day thou 
mayst do thy thinking in peace and content- 
ment. 

In this manner, therefore, let the Three 
Brothers, so denominated ever since they had 
established their commonwealth, do this (heal- 
ing act) (I say). 

And, now, my offspring, do thou know it, 
that the Word (attesting wampum string) of 
thy Adon’ni is on its way hence to thee (I say). 
(Fig. 10.) 


THE ELEVENTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: 
THE COUNCIL FIRE 

Now, another thing (I say): That our grand- 
sires, now long dead, and in whom our minds 
rested in trust, decreed, because they did not 
know its face, the face, indeed, of that Being 
that abuses us every day, every night, that Be- 
ing of Darkness, lying hard by the lodges where 
it is black night, yea, that Being which here at 
the very tops of our heads, goes about menac- 
ing with its couched weapon—with its uplifted 
hatchet—eagerly muttering its fell purpose, “‘I, 
I will destroy the Work—the Commonwealth,” 
they decreed, I say, that therefore they would 
call it the Great Destroyer, the Being Without 
a Face, the Being Malefic in Itself, i.e., Death. 

More than this it has already done; it has put 
forth its lethal power there in thy frail lodge of 
bark, this one (indicating), my weanling, my 
offspring, thou noble one, and so snatching 
therefrom one on whom thou didst depend for 
words of wisdom and kindly service. 

And so now, at this very moment, there is in 
that lodge of bark a vacant mat because of this 


- stroke. 


And, in striking this cruel blow, it scattered 
the Fire-brands (i.e., the yaa’nehr or the Fed- 
eral Chiefs) widely asunder from the place 
where thou art wont to kindle thy (Council) 
Fire, and, now, more than this, the Great De- 
stroyer has danced exultingly stamping that 
hearth under foot. 


76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Thou sittest there now with bowed head; 
thou no longer dost meditate on anything 
whatsoever of thy former affairs—wherein thou 
wast laboring for thy niece and for thy nephew, 
i.e., the men and the women of thy people; yea, 
for thy children, and also for thy grandchildren, 
who run about thy sides, and for these also who 
are still swathed to cradle-boards, and also for 
those children who, still unborn, whose faces, 
still underground, are coming toward thee; yea, 
for these warriors and for these women; that is 
the extent, indeed, of the solicitude and vigilant 
~ care which were in the hands of him, thy uncle 
—thy mother’s brother—who has departed, 
while he labored for their daily welfare, and 
who at this moment is floating away far home- 

ward (I say). 

$0, now, do thou know it, this one, thou 
yaa'nehr, my offspring, thou noble one, that the 
Three Brothers have perfected their prepara- 
tions, and so let them say it, ‘‘Now, we gather 
again the scattered Fire-brands [i.e., the Fed- 
eral Chiefs], and now, indeed, do we rekindle 
the (Council) Fire for thee. And now, in fact, 
verily, the smoke shall rise again, and that 
smoke [=the business of the Council] will be 
fine, and it will even pierce the sky.”’ 

So, now again, the eyes of the peoples—alien 
to us, perhaps—shall see again, also, the full 
number of our Council Fires [i.e., the tribal 
governments]. . 

Now, again, indeed, we raise thee up to full 
stature, erect among thy people. We also cheer 
up thy mind. More than this, we again set thee 
in order around the place where we have re- 
kindled the (Council) Fire for thee, my off- 
spring. 

Let the Three Brothers, furthermore, say it, 
“Do thou again transact the business upon 
which thou wert hitherto engaged promoting 
the welfare of the prosperity of thy families 
(ohwachira).” 

Thus, furthermore, let it be so, that for one 
poor short day, thou mayst continue to think 
in peace, thou yaa’nehr, my offspring, thou no- 
ble one, my weanling. 

In this manner, then, shall they now perform 
this duty of requickening, the Three Brothers, 
so denominated ever since their affairs had been 
completed (I say). 

Lastly, more than these things, do thou know 
it, thou yaa’nehr, my weanling, thou noble one, 


VOL. 34, NO. 3 


that the Word (attesting wampum string) of 
thy Adon’ni is now going hence to thee (I say). 
(Fig. 11.) 

THE TWELFTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: 
THE CREATOR’S ASSISTANTS— 
MATRON AND WARRIOR. 

(Fig. 12.) 

Now, there is another thing to be considered, 
today (I say). It is that wherein the Perfector 
of our Faculties who dwelleth in the sky did es- 
tablish this matter, in that He desired that He 
should have assistants everywhere, even down 
to the earth, that these latter assistants shall 
devote their solicitous care to the number of 
matters which pertain especially to the earth, 
and which, I have ordained, He says, one and 
all. 

It is that, in fact, that first among others, He 
caused the body of our mother—the woman— 
to be of great worth and honor. He purposed 
that she shall be endowed and entrusted with 
the duties pertaining to the birth—the becom- 
ing—of men, and that she shall, in the next 
place, circle around the fire in preparing food,— 
that she shall have the care of all that is 
planted by which life is sustained and sup- 
ported, and so the power to breathe is fortified; 
and moreover that the warriors shall be her as- 
sistants (I say). 

So that, too, is a great calamity, that, it may 
be, the Great Destroyer will make a sudden 
stroke there in the ranks of our mothers, and 
that he will thus snatch away one there, so that 
her body shall fall. The evil of this misfortune 
is that a long file of expected persons shall fall 
away, which, indeed, would have come in the 
many-fold lines of grandchildren who would 
have been born from her in the future. 

In that case, moreover, her assistants, the 
warriors, will then just stand around listlessly, 
but grieving. 

For, now, that one on whom they so much 
depended is now, very probably, floating away 
to the homeland, and now the minds of all 
those who still remain have fallen low (in grief) 
(I say). 

So now, moreover, the Three Brothers, hav- 
ing perfected their preparations, do say, “Let 
us comfort them now and raise up their minds.” 
And that, indeed, shall happen—they will now 
again devote themselves to their cares and 
their duties (I say). 


Mar. 15, 1944 


[Hoyaa’neh, the Federal Chief. (Fig. 13.)] 

More than this, now, thou yaa’nehr, thou no- 
ble one, my offspring, thou hast a nephew and a 
niece, that is to say, the warriors and the 
women. They are and shall be thy immediate 
care (I say). 

And that more than this (I say), thou 
yaa'nehr, thou noble one, thou shalt and must 
give a full hearing to whomsoever will speak to 
thee for counsel or for service. That, too, let the 
Three Brothers say, ‘‘Do ye heed and obey one 
another.”’ It is, in fact, a grievous thing, should 
it be that thou, noble one, should cast over thy 
shoulder whatsoever word is spoken to thee. 

That mood of mind may have place only 
when the time is near in which the feet of thy 
people will hang over the abyss of the sundered 
earth (of impending ruin). There is no one dwell- 
ing beneath the sky who has the power to come 
out therefrom, when that shall have come to 
pass. Furthermore, this great responsibility 
rests both upon thee and upon thy niece and 
thy nephew—that ye listen to and obey one an- 
other (I say). 

Thus, too, let it be done, that for one poor 
short day, thou mayest continue -to think in 
contentment, my offspring, thou noble ruler, 
whom J have been wont to hold in my bosom. 

In this manner then, perhaps, let them do it, 
the Three Brothers, so denominated ever since 
they were in the prime growth of their affairs (I 
say). 

- Now, more than this, do thou know it, this 
one (zndicating), my offspring, thou noble ruler, 
whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom, 
the Word (attesting wampum string) of thy 
Adon’ni is on its way hence to thee (I say). 
(Figs. 12 and 13.)}° 


THE THIRTEENTH ARTICLE OR 
BURDEN: ANYTHING CAN 
HAPPEN ON EARTH— 
EVEN INSANITY 


Now, another thing, I say. That, verily, it is 
a direful thing for the mind of him who has suf- 
fered from a grievous calamity to become in- 


10 Hewitt’s personal copy of his 1916 paper, in 
the Holmes Anniversary Volume, bears a penciled 
insertion ‘“‘Hoyd’ne’,”’ the Federal Chief, on p. 177 
after line 3; this agrees with Chief Abram Charles’ 
set of Requickening strings, of which XIII is 
Hoya’ne’ [the Chief]; while in the present text 
this is the fifteenth burden.—W.N.F. 


HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 74 


sane, that, in fact, the powers causing insanity 
are immune from everything on this earth, and 
has the power to end the days of man, and that 
it may be caused by the lack or falling away of 
the mind. 

That, more than this, do thou know it, my 
offspring, whom I have been wont to hold in 
my bosom, that the Three Brothers have now 
perfected their preparations, and now, further- 
more, let them say it, that ‘‘We forbid thee in 
this matter. We caution thee, let not the minds 
of thy people become insane from grief; let the 
matter, instead, remain in perfect peace” (I 
say). 

Thus, furthermore, let it be that for one poor 
short day thou mayest continue to think in con- 
tentment and peace, thou noble ruler, my off- 
spring, whom I have been wont to hold in my 
bosom (I say). 

In this manner, then, may it be, let the 
Three Brothers, so denominated ever since they 
were in the prime of their affairs, do it thus. 

Now more than this, do thou know it, this 
one (zndicating), my offspring, thou noble ruler, 
whom I have been wont to hold in my bosom, 
the Word (attesting wampum string) of thy 
Adon’ni is on its way hence to thee (I say). 
(Fig. 14.) 


THE FOURTEENTH ARTICLE OR 
BURDEN: THE TORCH OF 
NOTIFICATION” 


Now, another thing I say. That when our 
grandsires who have departed this life, con- 
joined their affairs, they made a decree, saying: 
‘““Here we place two rods together, and therein, 
moreover, we fix a torch between the two rods. 
We, every one of our council fires, own this 
torch equally. Moreover, this torch shall be one 
of the essential things wherever be the place in 
which a direful thing may occur” (I say).¥ 


11In the Cayuga set of Requickening strings 
which Abram Charles conveyed to Hewitt, this 
string is numbered XIV.—W.N.F. 

12 No. XV in Chief Charles’ set; and in Hewitt’s 
summary papers Hihnological Studies among the 
Iroquois Indians (Exploration and Field Work of 
the Smithsonian Institution, 1926: 246. 1927; and 
‘““The League of Nations”’ of the Iroquois in Canada 
(Ibid., 1929: 204. 1930). 

18 Torches were formerly made by binding shell 
bark hickory rind around the end of a stick. A 
supply of these was always kept in the longhouse 
of assembly.—S. GIBson. 


78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


If it so be, that one will see what may cause 
them death then that person shall take this 
torch and that person shall indeed start at once 
through the Lodge of the League, and in such 
manner shall he go that in the shortest possible 
time that person shall pass the Lodge of the 
League, and all the council fires shall have no- 
tice of the message, even that very night. 

And it shall be done in such manner that 
there shall be no traces—no ‘‘forms—of lying 
down on the path.’”’ Now, more than this, the 
Three Brothers say, ‘‘Now we again put the 
torch between the two poles, and we also now 
put back there the small pouch of an (un- 
known) animal containing the Short [Purple 
String of Notification (Hewitt, Ethnological 
Studies... , 246)] wampum which we equally 
own”’ (I say). 

Thus, furthermore, let it be, that for one 
poor short day, thou noble ruler, my offspring, 
thou mayest continue to think in contentment. 

In this manner, then, perhaps, let them do it, 
the Three Brothers, so denominated while they 
were in the prime of their affairs. 

Now, furthermore, do thou know it, thou no- 
ble one, my offspring, their Word (wampum 
string) is going hence to thee (I say). 

These are the number of words, then, that 
the Three Brothers desired to address to thee, 
this one (indicating), my offspring, thou noble 
ruler, whom I have been wont to hold in my 
bosom. Now more than this, we do expect that 
all our words, thus addressed to thee, have 
come to pass, for thy peace and welfare. 

Now, more than this, do thou know it, this 
one (indicating), thou yaa’nehr, my offspring, 
thou noble ruler, whom IJ have been wont to 
hold in my bosom, the Word (attesting wam- 
pum string) of thy Adon’ni is on its way hence 
to thee (I say). 


VOL. 34, No. 3 


THE FIFTEENTH ARTICLE OR BURDEN: 
THE APPEAL FOR THE CANDIDATE 
Now, another matter let us consider this day. 

Thou must give strict attention to the words, 

thou yaa’nehr, my offspring, whom I have been 

wont to hold in my bosom. 

Now, again I have set in order all thy affairs. 
Now furthermore, the Three Brothers have 
been noticing that the mat whereon thy co- 
worker was wont to rest has been caused to be 
vacant (I say). 

Moreover, that they upon whom our fore- 
fathers depended for wisdom and guidance, in 
uniting their affairs, decreed, saying: “It mat- 
ters not, indeed, on which side of the Council 
Fire-there is a loss, it shall be possible, and it 
shall be urgent that they shall again set the 
candidate’s face fronting the people; that they 
shall again raise him up (requicken), that they 
shall again name him, and that also he shall 
again stand upright in front of the people (I 
say).” 

More than this, thou yaa’nehr, my offspring, 
thou noble ruler, the Three Brothers are on the 
ceremonial path; and so now let them say it, 


“Do thou now point out to us the one who shall 


be our co-worker’’ (I say). 

Thus, now, thou yaa'nehr, my offspring, thou 
noble ruler, do thou know it; we Three Brothers 
have completed the ceremony. 

Now, then lastly, that which gave us notice 
of this matter (a short string of black wam- 
pum) now goes hence to thee. _ 

Also, do thou know it, thou yaa’nehr (Fed- 
eral Chief), my offspring, thou noble ruler, that 
immediately now the Three Brothers, shall rise 
to depart homeward; and there, moreover, at 
the forest’s edge, they will lay down their 
pouches for the night (I say). 

There it is. 


The Requickening Strings of Wampum of the Cayuga Nation (collected in 1919 from Chief Abram 
Charles, Six Nations Reserve, Canada, by J. N. B. Hewitt): Fig. 1.—oga’hthri, Tears, or one’s eyes: 
Seeing. Fig. 2.—hahondaga’ronde’, His ear openings: Hearing. Fig. 3.—dehanya’doo’gen, One’s 
throat is full: Speaking. Fig. 4.—eya’dagon’wah, Within his breast. Fig. 5.—ondyeendak’khwa’, One’s 
customary resting place: The bloody husk-mat bed. Fig. 6.—dayo”gaah, The deep darkness of grief. 
Fig. 7.—wa’hodronhya’‘hdoon, One has lost sight of the Sky. Fig. 8.—wa’hohdrahgwa'hdoon, One has 
lost the Sun. Fig. 9.—heyo’dadgwatin'da’, At the Grave. Fig. 10.—Dewa’hshen niyot'hwaks, Twenty 
is the cost—for homicide. Fig. 11.—deyonshdjisdadon’hkwa’h, At the hearth of the home: The Council 
Fire. Fig. 12.—Onthonwi'sas; hohsken’engeh'da’, Woman and Warrior: The Creator’s Assistants. 
Fig. 13.—Hoyaa’neh, the Federal Chief. Fig. 14.—hya’hden de’aonhwendjana’goo’was, Anything can 
happen on earth—even suicide or insanity. Fig. 15.—gahashra‘heen’, The Torch. 


Mm 
7) 
= 
a 
a) 
am) 
< 
e) 
Z 
—_ 
Z 
_ 
Na 
'S) 
e 
=) 
<; 
fel 
fa 
m 
e 
(eo) 
=) 
ey 
eo) 
fam 
Leal 
H 
i) 
| oo | 
es 
<3 
a 


Figs. 1-15.—For explanation, see opposite page. 


Mar. 15, 1944 


80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


voL. 34, NO. 3 


EXPLANATORY NOTES ON THE IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY 
AND ITS SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 


Deganawi'dah, founder of the League.—The 
League, or Confederation, of Five Iroquois 
Tribes, had already been formed by the year 
1570 a.p. This accomplishment derived chiefly 
from the unwearied labors during several dec- 
ades of one man who was named Deganawt'dah 
from a dream which his mother experienced 
during her pregnancy. Deganawi’dah was, tra- 
dition informs us, born of a virgin mother, and 
his paternity, like that of all other great na- 
tional heroes, came from Heaven; however, it 
tells nothing of his nationality or tribal descent. 
It sufficed Iroquois tradition that Degana- 
wi’dah was a divine man. Therefore, no ethnic 
brood (band) or land claimed him as a son. 
During the years of his great work he consist- 
ently declined chiefship or official position, but 
in imitation of his refusal to assume an official 
title, the class of Pine Tree Chiefs—Chiefs of 
Merit—was later instituted. The traditional 
annals put his place of birth in the immediate 
vicinity of Bay of Quinte, in northeastern Lake 
Ontario, which at his time was in Huron terri- 
tory. 

Authentic tradition relates that the mother 
and grandmother of Deganawi’dah were mem- 
bers of a moribund uterine family (Ohwachira), 
which, therefore, lacked sufficient status in the 
community to be thought worthy of having 
their clan membership mentioned, and so tra- 
dition is silent as to their clan. 

The mother of Deganawi’dah was ‘“‘born with 
a caul.”” At that time the belief was popular 
among her people that this was a good omen. 
The Giver of Life destined such a child to grow 
in the knowledge of esoteric doctrine and spir- 
itual powers through proper discipline and 
teaching by close blood relations. To accom- 
plish this divine purpose, they held the future 
mother of Deganawi’dah closely concealed 
from birth to maidenhood, keeping her strictly 
hidden from all kin and other persons, except 
her own mother who served as guardian. The 
guardian must not only maintain a ceaseless 
vigil over the ward by night and day, but also 
teach the candidate the esoteric wisdom be- 
longing particularly to her own uterine family, 
ever emphasizing the pupil’s duty to attend 
carefully the words and cautions whispered by 
surrounding spirits and the Giver of Life. 

In view of the tabus and confinement attend- 


ing the education and rearing of such a child to 
puberty, and particularly a girl, it is not 
strange [Hewitt reasoned] that she should be 
thought worthy to receive life directly from the 
Giver of all life and to become a mother with- 
out natural intercourse. So in tradition she be- 
came the virgin mother of her first born; and 
from this, too, is derived her name, Djigonsah- 
sée’, ‘‘she whose face is doubly pure’—imply- 
ing physical as well as moral beauty and recti- 
tude.¥4 

The foresight, unwearied efforts, broad 
statesmanship, and the disinterested love of 
mankind, which made of Deganawi’dah a re- 
markable personality, primarily shaped and 
later perfected the peculiar organic institutions 
on which the League of the Five Iroquois tribes 
rested. [Despite Hewitt’s enthusiasm for the 
great man theory of history, the editor feels 
that the League rested rather on basic princi- 
ples of Iroquois social organization already 
operative in the tribes which confederated.| 
These were the Mohawk, Onondaga, and Sen- 
eca tribes of the one moiety, which was known 
as the Male or Father group (moiety), and the 


14 Djigonhsa’sen’, is ‘fat face,’’ according to 
S. Gibson, and it means one of great influence.— 
W.N.F. 

The name which the poet annalists of Iroquois 
tradition bestowed on the mother of Dega- 
nawi’dah was Djigonsahsee’e’, the literal signifi- 
cance of which is “a face, doubly pure and 
spotless”; i.e., ‘‘a face which is new, pure, and 
spotless in a superlative degree,’ exceeding in 
these qualities and attributes those of a new born 
baby, because she had given birth to a son whose 
life she had received from the Creator of life. 

[In spite of a uniform contrary tradition... 
(Hewitt) . . . in 1931 was successful in recovering 
the authentic tradition, showing conclusively 
what for some years he had suspected.) Undis- 
criminating popular tradition had unwittingly 
displaced the real mother of Deganawi’dah by an 
unhistorical figure named Djigonhsa’’sen’, ‘‘the 
wild cat,” or, literally, “fat face.’’ This name was 
loosely applied by Iroquois speakers to the Neu- 
tral and Erie Nations, and the early French ex- 
plorers called the latter the “Cat Nation.” This, 
then, was a tribal name, and there is no evidence 
that it was also a personal name except as used 
by false tradition. This fortunate recovery of the 
true name of Deganawi’dah’s mother and of the 
attendant circumstances has clarified a number of 
contradictory incidents and corrected some serious 
incongruities in Deganawi’dah’s traditional biog- 
raphy, which is the origin legend of the founding 
of the Iroquois League.—J.N.B.H. : 

See also Hewitt, Field studies among the Iroquois 
tribes. Explorations and Field Work of the 
Smithsonian Institution, 1931; 178. 1932. 


Mar. 15, 1944 


Oneida and Cayuga, of the other moiety, con- 
stituting the Female or Mother group. [The 
Father group is, according to Hardy Gibson, 
also known as the Three Brothers; while the 
Four Brothers side comprises Oneida and 
Cayuga, possessing the right to install chiefs 
(the hai/hai’ privilege), and the Tuscarora (ad- 
mitted to the League before 1722), and the 
Tutelo and Delaware, who joined the League 
afterward. | 

Moiety or dual division—The remarkable 
and ineffaceable dualism that characterizes the 
functioning of. Iroquois social institutions rests 
[Hewitt thought] on certain cosmic and biologic 
ideas and concepts implicit in their beliefs re- 
garding the manner in which the universe of 
“Matter and Mind” came into being and by 
which it exists. Failure to recognize this obvi- 
ous but persistent duality in Iroquois social 
institutions led some writers [notably Golden- 
weiser and Lowie] needlessly to use the phrases 
‘Sn control” and ‘‘tripartite arrangement” 
when attempting to explain the significance of 
the positions which certain clans take in tribal 
councils, and by the Onondaga tribe in the 
Council of the Iroquois League; however, in 
these councils the positions occupied by certain 
clans and by the Onondaga tribe does not in- 
fringe or militate against this higher duality." 

The longhouse as social symbol.—To under- 
stand the meaning and purpose of the great me- 

15 Goldenweiser’s reports on Iroquois field work 
remain the only brilliant expositions of Iroquois 
social organization, although the bulk of his field 
notes remain unpublished in the editor’s hands. 
Inasmuch as Hewitt could not bring his materials 
to the point of publication, his criticism of later 
students is neither fair nor entirely accurate, as 
Goldenweiser blueprinted a spatial arrangement 
that had existence in practice (Goldenweiser. On 
Iroquois Work, 1912, Canada Department of 
Mines, Summary Report, Geological Survey, 
1912, 464-475, Ottawa, 1914, and On Iroquois 
Lele 1913-14, Ibid., 19138, 365-372, Ottawa, 
1914. 

I find an unpublished squib by Hewitt in criti- 
cism of Robert H. Lowie’s article Queries (Amer. 
Anthrop., n.s., 36: 324-335. 1934). He resented as 
superficial Lowie’s statement that ‘“‘the Iroquois 
League councils formed a tripartite instead of the 
otherwise customary dual grouping...’ The 
Iroquois League council was organized originally 
into two brotherhoods, the first, of three tribes: 
Mohawk, Seneca, and Onondaga; and the second, 
of two tribes: Oneida and Cayuga. The Onondaga, 
being the firekeepers, did not sit with their 
brothers the Mohawk and Seneca but sat apart 
from both as judges of the correctness of the pro- 
ceedings and as such were prohibited from discuss- 
ing questions before the council. The Onondaga 


were nevertheless included in the expression ‘‘We 
three brothers.” —W.N.F. 


HEWITT: IROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 81 


morial service to condole dead League officials 
and to install new candidates to office some ex- 
planation of the social and political organiza- 
tion of the Iroquois tribes and their confederacy 
is necessary. 

Near the last quarter of the sixteenth cen- 
tury, five linguistically cognate tribes—the 
Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and 
most of the Seneca—had united in a confeder- 
acy that they called Ganonsyon’nv’, ‘the com- 
pleted longhouse,”’ and that English historians 
call the League of the Iroquois. At the time of 
confederacy these five tribes as independent 
states occupied central New York between 
Schenectady and the Genesee River. Subse- 
quently, when the unincorporated factions of 
the Seneca were admitted into the League, it 
was done on condition that their two chief 
warriors should be made members of the fed- 
eral council with certain special rites and 
duties. In the face of bitter opposition, the 
astute prophets and statesmen, Deganawi’dah 
and Hiawatha, for the latter had suffered per- 
sonal discomfort from sorcery, blood feud, and 
cannibalism, accomplished a peaceful reforma- 
tion and social revolution in the social forms, 
scope, and purposes of government among the 
peoples that formed the five tribes. These 
changes were at once fundamental and far- 
reaching in immediate results and influenced 
subsequent history of neighboring tribes and 
colonial ventures in northeastern America. 

Deganawi’dah at his mother’s suggestion had 
sought the cooperation of a reputed cannibal, 
who resorted upon occasion to this practice 
which although current was rather the excep- 
tion among his people. After a lengthy con- 
ference, Deganawi’dah aroused in him a latent 
love for mankind, causing him to resolve firmly 
to renounce his former way of life and to adopt 
Deganawi dah’s principles of reason, righteous- 
ness, law, and peace. Tradition says that 
Deganawi/dah named him Hiawatha. The lat- 
ter from then on became the disciple and collab- 
orator of Deganawi’dah in the difficult task 
of organizing the League. Strangely enough, 
tradition makes both of these heroes master 
sorcerers, a reputation they received from their 
fellows because they achieved noteworthy suc- 
cess against insidious opposition and particu- 
larly because they overcame the power and bit- 
ter antagonism of Dehadoda’/ho, that master 
sorcerer and man-eater of the Onondaga. 

The biological analogy of society—[Hewitt 


82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


thought that tribal society rested on certain 
fundamental organic analogies.] A fundamental 
clan and tribal dualism, already alluded to, 
consisted in the symbolic recognition of sexual 
principles, male and female, which lay at the 
very bottom of Iroquois civil and religious 
institutions. This formal acknowledgment of 
the complementary character of the interrela- 
tion of the sexes was first wrought into the 
structure of the tribe. [Hewitt attributes this 
to the prevailing inhibition of sexual relations 
between certain maternal lineages or Ohwachira 
which he calls uterine families.] In turn this ban 
on promiscuity may have determined the group- 
ing of the maternal families into clans. Hence, 
arose the rule that clan members must avoid 
sex relations among themselves. And, there- 
fore, the maternal families, if more than one in 
number, which composed a clan, were sisters 
to each other. 

This symbolization of the sexes in the tribal 
and federal institutions of the Iroquois was 
designed to secure and promote the fertility 
of the community; and it seems to have been 
the effect of a naive trust in the esoteric power 
of symbols." 

Family.—[The simplest unit of Iroquois 
society is the ‘‘fireside,”’ or the primary family 
of husband and wife and their children who live 
with them. ] 

Lineage.—|[Stemming from the fireside fam- 
ily by virtue of common residence in the long- 
house of the matriarch is the household of fact 
and legal fiction composed of a lineage of per- 
sons tracing descent from a common mother 
and forming an exogamic incest group called 
the Ohwachira, the maternal or uterine family. 
This is the primary unit of Iroquois govern- 
ment. In time it might occupy several long- 
houses in several villages. | 

Clan.—[An Iroquois clan is composed of two 
or more maternal families who behave as if the 
members of each generation were siblings, or as 
if they constituted a single maternal family. 


14% The editor feels, in view of the character 
of clan organization among the Muskhogean 
peoples of the Southeast and among the Siouan 
and Algonquian peoples of the upper Mississippi 
and the Great Lakes region, which like that of the 
Iroquois was given to classificatory kinship sys- 
tem, unilateral descent, and sibs, that Hewitt’s 
view of Iroquois clan organization is essentially 
unhistorical. One might attribute a “naive trust 
in the esoteric power of symbols, a form of belief 
so characteristic of inchoate mentation...” to 
Hewitt and not to the Iroquois.—W.N.F. 


VOL. 34, NO. 3 


Hewitt calls these sisterhood relationships. Ac- 
tually the two families may be derived from a 
single lineage, but frequently the links con- 
necting collateral lines have been forgotten; or 
long ago a woman was adopted whose de- 
cendents in the female line may not know that 
they were not true kindred of their clansmen. 
The Iroquois clan, therefore, is a legal fiction, 
but the maternal family is a physical reality. 
Iroquois constantly confuse the two. As time 
passes family lines are forgotten but clanship 
is remembered so that in a given generation in- 


_ dividual behavior is strongly colored by mem- 


bership in a clan.| 


Anciently, the uterine or maternal families were 
units in marrying. Big bear married Small bear, 
etc. Later people married only within the tribe, 
i.e., Cayugas were reluctant to marry Onondagas, 
etc. Now they marry between tribes. I think that 
after the formation of the League marriage was 
across the fire. My father, Chief John A. Gibson, 
said that it was preferable to marry in the op- 
posite moiety rather than on the “‘same side of the 
fire.’—-SIMEON GIBSON. 


Phratry.—One or more clans constituted a 
sisterhood (phratry) of clans, and two such 
sisterhoods (phratries) of clans composed an 
Iroquoian tribe. Two similar sisterhoods (tribal 
phratries) constituted the League of the Iro- 
quois. The first sisterhood (tribal phratry)—the 
Mohawk, Onondaga, and the Seneca tribes— 
represented symbolically the Male principle or 
the Father side; and the second sisterhood (tri- 
bal phratry), the Oneida and Cayuga tribes, 
represented the Female principle in nature or 
the Mother side. [This is clearly a moiety sys- 
tem with reciprocity between the dual divisions 
as the keynote of its functioning. ] 

It is important to remember when reading 
the rituals of the Condolence Council that the 
foregoing dualism is embodied in the terms of 
address employed between participating tribal 
phratries. One phratry of tribes condoles the 
other—the side which has lost one or more of- 
ficers; it intones the prescribed rituals to com- 
fort and restore the minds of the mourners. It 
does this in the name of the father’s clansmen, 
Adon’ni ‘‘the sires,’’ of the mourners who are 
addressed as if they were ‘‘our brother’s ¢chil- 
dren, our offspring.” — 

Clan, tribe, and chief.—Three is the smallest 
number of clans found in Iroquois tribal or- 
ganization. The Mohawk and Oneida each have 
this number. Each of these clans has three 


Ma. 15.7 1944 


ohwachira, maternal families each bearing a 
distinctive name and respectively owning a 
male chiefship title, which is held in trust by 
the matron of the family, and the incumbent to 
the title represents the family in both the tribal 
and federal councils in the transaction of public 
business.!7 Yaa’nehr is the native Mohawk dia- 
lectic form for the federal chiefship status. 
Further, the Mohawk and Oneida tribes, re- 
spectively, having three clans each, have nine 
chiefships in the council meetings held by 
males, and nine trusteeships held by females. 
[Hewitt says that attendance at councils is 
optional with female officers, but it would seem 
that within recent years matrons seldom at- 
tended councils. According to Hardy Gibson, 
the matron does not come to the council when 
she has someone to represent her there. How- 
ever, the chiefs may invite the matrons to at- 
tend when a special issue involving the welfare 
of the whole tribe such as the sale of land is be- 
ing discussed.] Now the maternal families in 
the same clan regarded one another as “‘sisters’ 
(siblings), but they do not on that account in- 
terfere with one another’s affairs. The joint 
action of the three maternal families consti- 
tutes the action of the clan they represent. De- 
fined in terms of representation and jurisdic- 
tion, Iroquois chiefs, both male incumbents and 
female trustees, were not clan officers strictly 
speaking. Rather these officers represent the 
maternal familiés which own their titles and 
which, for cause, could recall them from their 
official positions. 

The three clans of the Mohawk and Oneida 
tribes were grouped in each tribe into two com- 
plementary kinship units or moieties, the one 
group representing the male or father princi- 
ple, and the other, the female or mother princi- 
ple in nature. Each of these groups is customa- 
rily called a sisterhood (phratry) of clans. 

Remember that the Bear clan in these two 
tribes is actually constituted of three Bear 
Ohwachira (maternal families), which are the 


17 Hewitt’s original manuscript reads, ‘‘a male 
chiefship title and a female chiefship title... ,’ 
which is correct insofar as the statuses occupied 
by male federal chief and matron of the appointing 
family receive masculine and feminine forms of 
the same term, but all the evidence that I have 
been able to gather indicates that the clan and 
family were represented in council by a male 
chief, the holder of the title. Behind him at home, 
his mother or sister or mother’s sister, as the case 
might be, literally held the short string of office, 
the wampum emblematic of his status.—W.N.F. 


HEWITT: TROQUOIS REQUICKENING ADDRESS 83 


Adult Bear lineage, the Weanling Bear, and the 
Nursing. Bear lineages, so that, strictly speak- 
ing, the so-called ‘‘Bear clan’”’ is really a sister- 
hood (phratry) of Bear maternal families; and 
the same statement is true of the Turtle and 
Wolf clans, for they are constituted of three 
kinds of animals bearing the name. 

Members of the clans or of the tribal sister- 
hoods (phratries) of the male or father side of 
the symbolic council fire address the members 
of clans or tribal sisterhoods (phratries) of the 
female or mother side across the fire as ‘‘cou- 
sins.”’ Reciprocally, members of the clans or 
tribal sisterhoods (phratries) on the female or 
mother side of the fire likewise claim ‘‘cousin- 
ship’ with the members of the father side. . 

There is, however, a higher form of ritualistic 
address which is special and peculiar to one or 
the other of the two basic organic units (moie- 
ties), i.e., to the male or father group of clans 
or tribes, or to the female or mother group of 
clans or tribes. As defined above, speakers of 
the mother groups (moieties) address the op- 
posite moiety, and the father groups, as ‘‘my 
father’s clansmen” (agadonihee’nun’ (Oa.)) or 
(agadoni’shun’ (Oe. and C.)) or ‘‘our father’s 
clansmen.” Conversely, the speakers for the 
father groups address the mother groups as 
‘my offspring’? (gunya’daa’wen’ (Oa.)) (used 
by M.-Oa.-S., Three Brothers for Four Brothers) 
or ‘our offspring,” because in the “‘fireside’’ 
family of husband and wife, the children belong 
to the mother side of the lodge, and as this is 
the symbolic mother-group—the mother-clan 
group or tribe group (moiety)—it is also the 
“offspring’”’ side or group (moiety); but this 
side (moiety) may be also addressed as the 
“Woman (gono/ha’ (Oa.)) or the ‘‘Woman- 
hood” (gontonwi’sas (Oa.)), as may be seen in 
the words of the Farewell Chant in the me- 
morial ceremony of condolence and installa- 
tion. 

It is thus seen that the fundamental dualism 
in the organic structure of the Iroquois League 
is based on an analogy with nature and consists 
of the concepts: male sex principle, father, or 
fatherhood in nature, on the one hand; and the 
female sex principle, mother, or motherhood in 
nature, on the other. Ceremonial obligations 
between the two moieties are conceived as re- 
ciprocal or complementary functions. 

Moreover, the rule tracing descent of rights, 
duties, membership in a family, succession to 
office, and property, through the female line, is 


84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


not in the least affected by the device of this 
symbolic duality or moiety system in tribal 
organization. The men of the half representing 
the male or father principle have rights or 
obligations which the men of the group repre- 
senting the female or mother principle do not 
exercise or possess. Within the League council 
authority is equal although certain offices carry 
specific responsibilities. In rank and preroga- 
tives the federal chiefs of the League, both male 
incumbents and female trustees, were in all 
respects coequal; speciai functions in the coun- 
cil chamber did not add to their rank, author- 
ity, or to their jurisdiction. 

Clan apportionment—The Mohawk tribe 
had three clans: Turtle, Wolf, and Bear. The 
first two, Turtle and Wolf, formed a phratry 
[sisterhood, according to Hewitt], addressing 
each other as “brothers” (sisters); and the 
Bear clan alone comprised the other moiety, 
being composed of three maternal families 
(eponymic Ohwachira). In the council chamber 
the three Turtle chiefs acted as ‘‘firekeepers”’ 
(or judges); and as such, they did not discuss 
the subject matter before the tribal council. 
The Wolf and Turtle clans addressed the Bear 
clan as ‘“‘cousin,”’ and reciprocally. In consider- 
ing an issue, the three Wolf chiefs first discussed 
the question before the Council, and having 
reached a decision they passed the question 
over the symbolic council fire to the chiefs of 
the Bear clan, who then discussed it. When the 
latter had reached a decision, the two decisions, 
agreeing or conflicting, were referred to the 
firekeepers (judges), the Turtle chiefs, who in 
case the two decisions agreed confirmed them; 
but in the event of a disagreement between 
them they referred the matter back to the 
chiefs of the Wolf and the Bear clans, with sug- 
gestions as to how the two opinions might be 
reconciled. 

The Oneida tribe had the same three clans, 
but enumerated them somewhat differently: 
Wolf, Turtle, and Bear. Wolf and Bear formed 
a phratry, and again Bear alone comprised the 
other moiety, again being composed of three 
maternal families, each represented by a fed- 
eral male chief, appouited by a matron. But in 
the Oneida council the Wolf chiefs were the 
firekeepers (judges), and the council procedure 
was the same as with the Mohawk.18 


18 See Fenton, Problems arising from the his- 
toric northeastern position of the Iroquois. Smith- 
sonian Mise. Coll. 100: 204-205, 217-218. 1940. 


\4 } 


i 
| 
be 


VOL. v.94 3 


Acting as judges in the council chamber in no 
wise gave the clan or tribe, as the Onondaga in 
the council of the League, who furnished the 
firekeepers any measure of ‘‘control,’’!® nor did | 
it effect a rearrangement of the clan or tribal 
organization. 

[For the Seneca tribe, Hewitt had recorded 
names of nine clans: Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Tur- 
tle; Hawk, Sandpiper (variously called Snipe, 
Plover, and Kiulldeer), Deer, Doe(?), and 
Heron (sometimes called Swan).”° Only five of 
these had an unequal representation in the | 
federal council of the League, as follows: Sand- 
piper (three chiefs), Turtle (two), Hawk, Wolf, 
and Bear (one each).] 

Names of nine Onondaga clans were recorded: 
Wolf, Turtle (Tortoise), Bear, Deer, Eel, Bea- 
ver, Hawk, Sandpiper (Plover, or Snipe), and 
Pigeon Hawk. The Wolf, Bear, Sandpiper, 
Hawk, and Pigeon Hawk clans each had only 
one Federal Chiefship; but the Beaver, Turtle, 
and Eel clans each had two Federal Chiefships, 
while the Deer clan had three. The reason for 
this disparity in representation in the Federal 
council is still unclear. ' 

[For some reason, Hewitt did not list the 
Cayuga clans and the apportionment of chiefs 
among them, but his notes include the follow- 
ing: Ten Cayuga titles were distributed among 
Bear clan (three), Hawk (one), Turtle (two), 
Long-legged Wolf (one), Wolf (one), Large 
Plover (one), Plover (one) (Seth Newhouse, 
1917). A list by Chief Abram Charles is in sub- 
stantial agreement. Here again several clans 
were without representatives. | 

Troquots woman.—A further fact must be 
kept in view. Every male Federal Chief (yaa’- 


19 Dr. Alexander Goldenweiser had used this 
convenient phrase, and apparently Hewitt felt 
that its use implied administrative authority.— 

.N.F. 


20 Lewis Morgan (The League of the. Iro- 
quoits, New York, 1901) gives, for the Seneca: 
Bear, Wolf, Beaver, Turtle; Deer, Snipe, Heron, 
Hawk—which is still true of the Seneca nation in 
western New York. The Eel clan is sometimes 
added to the latter moiety. Goldenweiser, who 
investigated this matter thoroughly at Six Na- 
tions Reserve (Canada), lists the old Seneca align- 
ment (before confederation): Turtle, Wolf, Bear, 
and Ball; Hawk, Deer, Duck, Snipe, and Eel. And 
the new alignment, which differs only in the latter 
moiety, is: Deer, Hawk, Sand Snipe, Big-snipe, 
and (Duck). The “new? arrangment (after con- 
federation) represents the grouping of the clans 
on ceremonial occasions; and it is not known 
to what side the Eel clan of the Seneca belonged 
after Confederacy (Goldenweiser, Field Notes 
MS., vol. 5, p. 29.) —W.N.F. 


Mar. 15, 1944 


nehr) represented a maternal family (Ohwa- 
chira) which owned his official title and which 
was presided over by a matron or woman Fed- 
eral Chief (Goyanehrgoo’nah) who had the 
right, and the imposed duty to exercise this 
right in the event of an emergency, to occupy a 
seat in the Federal Council. Moreover, the 
woman Federal Chief with the advice and con- 
sent of the Federal Chief locally administers 
the affairs of the maternal family she heads. 

Language usage in designating the woman 
Federal Chief is indicative of her preeminent 
position and of the prerogatives of this unique 
official. [In theory, at least, she had dominance 
over the male chief, in contrast with our own 
society in which the reverse may be true.| 

The native Iroquois for the title of the male 
Federal Chief in the Mohawk and other rhota- 
cist dialects is royaa’nehr, the noun stem being 
-yaanehr, i.e., “‘he (is) a Federal Chief.’’ In the 
non-rhotacist dialects, such as Onondaga and 
Seneca, this term becomes hoyaa’neh, the noun 
stem being -yaaneh; [to this stem, which means 
fundamentally ‘‘agent of law, welfare, etc.,’’ 
Hewitt gave this rather elaborate interpreta- 
tion]: “having the capacity or competence of 
producing or effecting what is good, useful, and 
promotive of welfare.’ Since the League of the 
Iroquois aimed through its institutions at 
achieving the well-being of all persons subject to 
its jurisdiction, this term became the fitting 
designation of League officials, as well as of its 
distinctive laws and principles, and of the 
League itself. 

When this expressive term is applied to a 
woman officer of the League, there is suffixed to 
it the attributive -koo’wah (Mohawk), and 
-goo’ nah (Onondaga). This suffix means ‘‘great”’ 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Cytidocrinus, new name for Cyrtocrinus Kirk.) 


KIRK: CYTIDOCRINUS, NEW NAME 85 


or ‘‘grand.’”’ Hence the full title koyaanehr- 
koo’wah (M.), and goyaanehgoo’nah (Oa.) ac- 
cordingly means ‘‘she is a great’’ or ‘“‘grand 
Federal Chief” [or simply the ‘“‘Matron” or 
‘‘Clan mother’ of modern reservation par- 
lance]. Good usage restricts this form of the 
title, though not quite exclusively, to the wo- 
man Federal Chief, whose position was above 
that of her male representative in the council 
because, as custodian of the chiefship title in 
her maternal family, she had the power to ap- 
point and recall him should his conduct become 
unworthy of his office. 

The symbolic council fire—In every place of 
public assembly there is, or at least there is as- 
sumed to be, a hearth or fire-altar, which was 
placed at some distance from either end of the 
song-bench, which ordinarily occupies the cen- 
tral floor or space as in Iroquois longhouses to- 
day, or simply one fire was conceived as resting 
in the center of the meeting place, as formerly 
in the Six Nations Council House at Ohsweken. 
The benches of the chiefs were ranged about 
this fire, and issues of debate among the tribes 
were thought of as being “handed” or ‘“‘thrown”’ 
or merely ‘‘going’’ across the fire, according to 
the temper of the debate. [The ‘‘old council’ at 
Ohsweken, i.e., before 1924, was ranged in this 
manner: The Mohawks and Senecas, being the 
parent group, sat east of the fire, the former to 
the north, while the Oneidas and Cayugas sat 
across the fire on the west, with the Oneidas to 
the north; and the Onondaga chiefs as firekeep- 
ers sat north of the fire. In later times, His 
Majesty’s agent sat above them on a dais, and 
he was provided with an interpreter and clerk, 
whose importance grew with the passing of the 
years. | 


EDWIN 


Kirx, Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. 


In this JouRNAL (1948, p. 263) I proposed 
the new genus Cyrtocrinus for a Mississip- 
pian crinoid formerly referred to Stegano- 
crinus. I find that this generic name has 
been preoccupied by Jaekel (1891, p. 602) 
for a Mesozoic crinoid. I am therefore pro- 
posing the name Cytidocrinus to replace 
Cyrtocrinus Kirk non Jaekel. The genotype 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. 
Geological Survey. Received January 8, 1944. 


is Actinocrinus sculptus Hall, which will 
therefore read Cytidocrinus sculptus (Hall). 


LITERATURE CITED 


JAEKEL, OTro. Ueber Holopocriniden mit be- 
sonderer Beriicksichtugung der Stramberger 
Formen. Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. 
43 (3). 1891. 

Kirk, Epwin. A revision of the genus Stega- 
nocrinus.. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 
33 (9): 259-265. Sept. 15, 1943. 


86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 3 


ZOOLOGY.—WNotes on the trematode subfamily Loimoinae (Monogenea), with a 


description of a new genus. 


Haroutp W. Manter, University of Nebraska. 


(Communicated by Waupo L. ScumirTt.) 


The subfamily Loimoinae was named by 
Price (1936) for a peculiar monogenetic 
trematode, Loimos salpinggoides MacCal- 
lum, 1917, from the gills of a dusky shark, 
Carcharias obscurus (Lesueur), at Woods 
Hole, Mass. Price (1938) redescribed this 
trematode, correcting several errors made 
by MacCallum. Manter (1938) described 
Tricotyle scoliodoni from a shark, Scoliodon 
terrae-novae (Richardson), from Beaufort, 
N. C. He noted some similarities between 
Tricotyle and Loimos. The redescription of 
Loimos by Price increased these similarities. 

Among specimens of trematodes collected 
by the late Dr. C. B. Wilson and sent to 
me for identification was a monogenetic 
species collected from the gills of the ham- 
merhead shark, Sphyrna zygaena (Lin- 
naeus), at Montego Bay, Jamaica, in 1910. 
This trematode proved to be related to 
Loimos and Tricotyle and led to a compara- 
tive study of type and paratype specimens 
of all three species. This study revealed the 
need for additions to the descriptions of 
both Loimos and Tricotyle and indicated the 
reduction of Tricotyle to synonymy with 
Loimos and the erection of a new, closely 
related genus. The author is indebted to the 
National Museum (more particularly to 
Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt and Dr. Paul 
Bartsch) for loan of original material, and 
to Dr. Emmett W. Price, of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, for several suggestions. 

The following additions can be made to 
the description of Loimos salpinggoides: 
(1) A vagina is present, extending forward 
from the ootype slightly to the left of mid- 
line, parallel or almost parallel with the 
uterus and cirrus, and opening on the ven- 
tral surface to the left of midline a short 
distance posterior to the male pore (Fig. 5). 
It is less glandular, thinner walled, and 
much less conspicuous than in T'ricotyle. 
(2) The number of testes seems to be 8 or 9; 
these are rounded, tandem, and pressed 


1 Studies from the Zoological Laboratory, Uni- 
versity of Nebraska, No. 217. Received Decem- 
ber 4, 1943. 


very close together but separated by mem- 
branes. (3) An anterior portion of the 
pharynx with circular muscles is distinctly 
demarked from the larger posterior portion 
with the characteristic thick muscular 
bands. Some indication of this anterior 
sphincter is seen in MacCallum’s and 
Price’s figures. (4) On the dorsal surface of 
the body near the posterior end and dorsal 
to the haptor are two pairs of transverse 
(or diagonally transverse) cuticular folds or 


‘ridges with sharp edges (Fig. 6). High mag- 


nification reveals that the edges of these 
folds (Fig. 7) are provided with very small 
sharp papillae or spines (like a file). The 
folds are fairly conspicuous, appearing (in 
the strongly pressed specimens) as diagonal 
lines. They extend inward from the sides of 
the body but do not quite reach the midline. 
These sharp-edged ridges are the same 
structures as the two dorsal, shallow cup- 
shaped structures described for Tricotyle. 
Since the L. salpinggoides specimens were 
killed under excessive pressure, the ridges 
are probably normally somewhat elevated 
as described for Tricotyle. | 

In view of the above conditions, it seems 
probable that Loimos and Tricotyle repre- 
sent a single genus. Tricotyle Manter, 1938, 
should be considered a synonym of Loimos 
MacCallum, 1917. A revised diagnosis of 
the genus will be given below. Loimos sal- 
pinggoides MacCallum, 1917, and Loimes 


‘scoliodont (Manter, 1938), n. comb., can be 


distinguished in that L. salpinggoides pos- 
sesses two pairs of suckers (rather than one 
pair) in the anterior haptor; is smaller in 
size; and has a much less conspicuous (thin- 
walled, less glandular) vagina, relatively 
longer cirrus, and more numerous, more 
rounded testes. The actual, normal condi- 
tion of the ovary in L. salpinggoides is still 
not clear. The organ seems to be rather 
compact, but its cells are well scattered, 
its outline rather uncertain, so that it may 
actually be essentially like the irregularly 
shaped ovary of L. scoliodoni. In L. sal- 
pinggorides the shell gland is more conspicu- 


Mar. 15, 1944 


ous than the prostate gland (cells of which 
are immediately anterior to the shell gland), 
while in L. scoliodoni the prostate gland is 
the more conspicuous. A shell gland, how- 
ever, is definitely present in L. scoliodoni 
although not indicated in the original 
description. 

The third species (from the hammerhead 
shark) is clearly related to Loimos but is 
probably sufficiently distinct to warrant a 
separate genus. The following description 
is based on about 25 specimens in rather 
poor condition. The measurements are from 
5 of the more favorable specimens. 


Loimosina wilsoni, n. gen., n. sp.? 
Figs. 1-4 


Host.—Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus). 

Location.—Gills. 

Locality — Montego Bay, Jamaica. 

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helminthological 
Coll. 36861 (type and paratypes). 

Description.—Muscular parasites of this type 
can exhibit a great range in body size and pro- 
portions depending on degree of contraction. 
The present specimens were apparently not 
pressed at all in killing. 

Size 0.875 to 2.389 mm by 0.750 to 0.772 mm, 
greatest width near midbody. Anterior haptor 
0.140 to 0.190 mm in transverse diameter. In 


the dorsal wall of this haptor are three pairs of 


muscular loculi opening ventrally or ventro- 
laterally (Fig. 2). The median pair of loculi is 
larger than the others. Posterior haptor 0.345 
to 0.517 mm in transverse diameter, bearing 
one pair of large hooks (Fig. 3) and a number 
of very minute hooks. There are very incon- 
spicuous, more or less radially arranged bands 
of transverse fibers within the haptor. Large 
hooks (two were measured), 0.046 to 0.053 mm 
long; outer root long and slender; inner root 
short and wide. 

Mouth at the base of a slight posterior ex- 
tension of the anterior haptor. Pharynx 0.172 
to 0.225 mm long by 0.120 to 0.172 mm wide, 
transversely ribbed; with very weak, incon- 
spicuous anterior sphincter (not visible in some 
specimens). Caeca unbranched, bowing out- 
ward from base of pharynx, then extending to 


* The generic name indicates similarity to 
Loimos; the specific name is in honor of the late 


Dr. C. B. Wilson. 


MANTER: THE TREMATODE SUBFAMILY LOIMOINAE 87 


near the posterior end of the body where they 
end blindly. Testis large, single, very deeply 
multilobed. These lobes seem to be connected 
at least medianly so that the testis is considered 
as single. The male pore is a median or sub- 
median, transverse slit ventral to the posterior 
portion of the pharynx. A large, ovoid, rela- 
tively wide, cirrus-sac-like organ extends dorso- 
posteriorly from the pore and encloses a lightly 
fibrous tissue (probably the tall, thin-walled 
cells described for L. scoliodoni) and, in its 
base, a small spherical, internal seminal vesicle. 
While this sac appears to be a cirrus sac, I 
interpret it to be homologous with the ‘‘ejacu- 
latory bulb” described for L. salpinggoides. 
The cirrus is rudimentary, consisting of a very 
short, very thinly chitinized tube near the 
male pore. Whether this cirrus is enclosed 
within the ejaculatory bulb or is external to 
the tip of the bulb (as in Loimos) could not be 
determined. The external seminal vesicle ex- 
tends anteriorly along one side of the ejacula- 
tory bulb, crosses to the other side dorsal to 
anterior portion of the bulb, then extends pos- 
teriorly to the base of the bulb. Prostatic gland 
external to bulb, large, bilobed, one lobe on 
each side at base of pharynx. 

Ovary immediately pretesticular, tubular, 
and branched. Mehlis’s or shell gland small, 
immediately preovarian. Vagina conspicuous, 
with thick glandular wall, extending diagonally 
to the left approximately opposite ejaculatory 
bulb; vaginal pore large, ventral, midway be- 
tween midline and left edge of body, about 
midway between base of pharynx and the 
Ovary, sometimes opposite base of pharynx. 
Vitellaria of numerous follicles filling sides of 
body from near anterior end of pharynx to near 
posterior end of body, dorsal and ventral to 
caeca, crowding the testis laterally, confluent 
posterior to testis but in this region they are 
chiefly dorsal. Transverse vitelline ducts at 
anterior edge of ovary. Uterus short; uterine 
pore inconspicuous, round or ovoid, immedi- 
ately posterior to male pore. An egg, perhaps 
not fully formed, 54u by 48u, occurred in only 
one specimen. A filament was not evident. 

Excretory bladders on each side of anterior 
half of pharynx. 

Discussion—The genus Loimosina differs 
from Loimos in its single deeply lobed testis; 
its rudimentary cirrus; its relatively larger 
ejaculatory bulb. The anterior sphincter of the 


88 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 3 


POUT SSS: 


Al 


IG 


Fig. 1.—Ventral view of Loimosina wilsont. Fig. 2—Enlarged view of anterior end of L. wilsonz, 
showing preoral loculi or suckers. Fig. 38.—Large hook from posterior haptor of L. wilsont. Fig. 4.— 
Ventral view of genital complex in region of genital pore of L. wilsoni. Fig. 5.—Dorsal view of genital 
complex of Lozmos salpinggoides, showing vagina. Fig. 6.—Dorsal view of posterior end of L. sal- 
pinggoides, showing dorsal, cuticular ridges. Fig. 7.—Enlarged view of the edge of one of the cuticular 
ridges of L. salpinggoides. 

All figures were drawn with the aid of a camera lucida. The projected scale has the value indicated 
(in millimeters). The abbreviations are as follows: c, cirrus; e, egg; esv, external seminal vesicle; gp, 
male genital pore; ov, ovary; p, uterine pore; pr, prostate gland; s, shell gland; ¢, testis; v, vagina; vp, 


vaginal pore. 


Mar. 15, 1944 


pharynx is less evident. The mouth seems to 
be within the anterior haptor rather than 
slightly posterior to it. The dorsal cuticular 
ridges of the posterior end were not seen in 
Loimosina. Most specimens, however, were not 
favorable to show these structures. If present, 
they are probably weakly developed. 

Price classified the subfamily Loimoinae in 
the family Monocotylidae. Relationships to 
other Monocotylidae are seen in the character 
of the posterior haptor, in the digestive system, 
and in the terminal male organs. The chief 
difference from other Monocotylidae is the 
form of the ovary, which is not U-shaped and 
_ does not send a loop around one caecum, but 
has an irregular form, at least usually consist- 
ing of loose cells in sinuous branching tubes. 

The following diagnoses are suggested: 

Loimoinae: Monocotylidae with ovary not 
U-shaped and not sending a loop around one 
caecum, but consisting of loose cells usually in 
sinuous tubes; anterior haptor with one to 
three pairs of loculi or preoral suckers; posterior 
haptor with one pair of large hooks and numer- 
ous small hooks; eye spots lacking; two pairs 
of dorsal, posterior, transverse, cuticular ridges 
usually present; pharynx with wide muscular 
bands and anteriorsphincter;caecasimple; male 
pore and uterine pore median, near together; 
vagina present; vaginal pore ventral, to left 
of midline; several tandem testes, or single 


SHOEMAKER: A NEW SPECIES OF AMPHIPODA 


89 


testis; ejaculatory bulb and chitinous cirrus 
present; prostatic gland present; external semi- 
nal vesicle with ascending and descending sec- 
tions, crossing cirrus or ejaculatory bulb dor- 
sally; uterus short and straight; egg typically 
with filament; parasites on gills of sharks. 

Loimos: Loimoinae with one or two pairs of 
preoral suckers; cirrus well developed; several 
tandem testes; dorsal, posterior, cuticular 
ridges well developed. Type species: Loimos 
salpinggoides MacCallum, 1917. 

Loimosina: Loimoinae with three pairs of 
preoral suckers; cirrus rudimentary; testis 
single, deeply lobed; prostatic bulb well de- 
veloped; posterior cuticular ridges inconspicu- 
ous or lacking. Type species: Loimosina wilsont. 


LITERATURE CITED 


MacCatium, G. A. Some new forms of para- 
sitic worms. Zoopathologica 1(2): 45-75. 
1917. 

Manter, Harotp W. Two new monogenetic 
trematodes from Beaufort, North Carolina. 
Livro Jubilar Prof. Travassos: 293-298, 
2 pls.- 1938. 

Price, Emmett W. North American mono- 
genetic trematodes. George Washington 
Univ. Bull. (Summaries of Doctoral The- 
ses, 1934-36): 10-13. 1936. 

North American monogenetic trema- 

todes. II. The families Monocotylidae, 

Microbothriudae, Acanthocotylidae and Udo- 

nellidae (Capsaloidea). Journ. Washing- 

ton Acad. Sci. 28: 109-198. 1938. 


ZOOLOGY .—Description of a new species of Amphipoda of the genus Anisogam- 


marus from Oregon.! CLARENCE R. 


When recently looking up specimens of 
Anisogammarus ramellus among the un- 
identified Amphipoda in the collection of 
the National Museum, I noticed examples 
of this genus from Big Creek, Lincoln 
County, Oreg., possessing characters quite 
different from those of A. ramellus. Upon 
study, these specimens proved to represent 
a new species, which I here describe and 
designate as Anisogammarus oregonensis. 
Heretofore, A. ramellus (Weckel) has been 
the only species described from the fresh 
waters of North America. Four fresh-water 
species of this genus have been described: 
A. ramellus (Weckel), known from Cali- 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
ae Smithsonian Institution. Received December 
, 1943. 


SHOEMAKER, U.S. National Museum. 


fornia and Oregon; A. annandalez (Tatter- 
sall), from China and Japan; A. kygi (Der- 
shavin), from Kamchatka; and A. jesoenszs 
Schellenberg, from Jeso, Japan. A. oregon- 
ensis appears to resemble most closely 
A. jesoensis but is distinguished at once 
from it by the possession of a much more 
elaborate dorsal armature of the metasome 
and urosome and by the absence of plumose 
setae from the third uropods. 


Anisogammarus (Eogammarus) oregonensis, 
n. sp. 


Male.—Head scarcely produced into a ros- 
trum; side lobes broadly truncate, with upper 
and lower corners evenly rounding; eye rather 
large, reniform, and black. Antenna 1 about 
two-thirds the length of the body; second joint 


90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 3 


a little shorter than the first; third joint half 
the length of the second; flagellum consisting 
of about 29 or 30 joints; accessory flagellum of 
four normal joints and one very short terminal 


one. Antenna 2 about two-thirds the length of 
antenna 1; first joint and gland cone of second 
joint very prominent; fourth joint a little 
longer than fifth; flagellum without cAlceoli, 


Fig. 1.—Anisogammarus oregonensis, new species: Male: A, anterior end of animal; B, metasome 
from the side; C, metasome, urosome, and telson from above; D, gnathopod 1; EF, palm and seventh 
joint of gnathopod 1; F, gnathopod 2; G, palm and seventh joint of gnathopod 2; H, uropod 3; J and 


J, telsons of other males. 


Mar. 15, 1944 SHOEMAKER: A NEW SPECIES OF AMPHIPODA 91 


and composed of about 15 joints. Mandible 
with four teeth on cutting edge; accessory plate 
well developed and complex; five serrulate 
spines and two setae in spine row; molar large 


and strong; palp with third joint very little 
shorter than the second. Maxilla 1, inner plate 
with 13 or 14 plumose setae and several short 
terminal setae; outer plate with 11 pectinate 


Fig. 2.—Anisogammarus oregonensis, new species: Male: A, antenna 1; B, antenna 2; C, mandible; 
D, maxilla 1; #, maxilla 2; F, maxilliped; G, lower lip; H, peraeopod 2; J, peraeopod 3; J, peraeopod 4; 
K, peraeopod 5; L, coxal gill of gnathopod 2; M, coxal gill of peraeopod 5. 


92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


and serrate spine teeth; palp with five apical 
teeth, the outer of which is very finely serru- 
late, outside surface of palp with four subapical 
setae, and one seta near the center of the out- 
side margin of the second joint. Maxilla 2, inner 
plate bearing submarginal row of about 13 
plumose setae. Maxilliped, inner plate armed 
with three stout spine teeth; outer plate armed 
on upper half of inner margin with 10 spine 
teeth and on the rounding distal margin with 
four or five curved serrulate spines; palp with 
third joint strongly curved; fourth joint bear- 
ing stout nail, at the base of which are three or 
four setules. Lower lip with inner lobes very 
indistinct and lateral corners short and obtuse. 

Gnathopod 1 a little shorter but stouter than 
2; the sixth joint not much longer than wide, 
the hind margin bearing about four groups of 
slender spines, each group containing only a 
few spines; palm oblique, concave, and armed 
with peglike teeth, which are somewhat 
crowded together at the broadly rounding de- 
fining angle; seventh joint strong, much 
curved, and bearing a slight protuberance on 
the inner curved edge. The seventh joint closes 
upon the inside surface of the sixth joint and 
rests against an inner row of peglike teeth. 
Gnathopod 2, sixth joint much longer than 
wide, the hind margin bearing four or five 
groups of stout spines, each group composed 
of both straight and curved spines; palm 
oblique, concave, and armed with a row of 
peglike teeth on the outside margin and a row 
on the inside margin. These teeth are evenly 
spaced and not crowded together at the round- 
ing palmar angle as they are in gnathopod 1. 
Seventh joint strong and curved and bearing 
a low protuberance on the inner curved margin. 
The seventh joint closes against the palmar 
angle and rests between the two rows of teeth. 

Peraeopods 1 and 2 much alike in form, but 
peraeopod 1 a little the longer. Peraeopod 3 
about equal in length to peraeopod 1; second 
joint with hind margin slightly concave and 
lower hind corner forming nearly a right angle; 
seventh joint strong, curved, and bearing two 
setae at the base of the nail. Peraeopod 4 
longer than 3 but not so long as 5; second joint 
with hind margin slightly concave, lower hind 
angle not perceptible; the succeeding joints as 
shown in Fig. 2, J. Peraeopod 5, second joint 
with hind margin evenly convex; the rest of 
the limb as shown for peraeopod 4. 


VOL. 34, NO. 3° 


Coxal plates 1—4 are about as deep as their re- 
spective segments; lower front corners broadly 
rounding, lower margins bearing spinules. Coxal 
plates 5 and 6 with lower front corner produced 
into a small lobe, lower hind margin of plates 
bearing three or four spines. Coxal plate 7 with 
lower hind margin bearing five or six spines. 
The coxal gills bear cylindrical accessory gills 
which’ are attached to the upper edge of the 
primary gill where it joins the peduncle, 
Fig. 2, L, M. Each of the first four gills (those 
of gnathopod 2 and peraeopods 1-3) bears two 
cylindrical accessory gills, and the last two 
gills (those of peraeopods 4 and 5) possess.one 
cylindrical accessory gill each. 

Metasome segments 1-3 with their lower 
hind corners slightly produced and bearing an 
apical spine; lower lateral hind margins each 
with a spine near the center; lower margin of 
segments 2 and 3 bearing a few spines and 
setae, that of segment 1 bearing only setae. 
The posterodorsal surface of each of the meta- 
some and urosome segments bears a cluster of 
spines and an occasional seta. The arrange- 
ment of these spines is shown in Fig. 1, B, C. 

Uropod 1 reaching back to about two-thirds 
the distance along the outer ramus of uropod 3, 
peduncle with two spines on upper outer margin 
and two at outer distal corner; outer ramus 
very little shorter than inner with two spines 
on the outer margin and two on the inner mar- 
gin; inner ramus with three spines on inner 
margin and none on outer margin. Uropod 2 
reaching back to about two-thirds the distance 
along the rami of uropod 1, peduncle with two 
spines On upper outer margin and with one 
outer distal spine; outer ramus noticeably 
shorter than inner, with one or two spines on 
outer margin and none on the inner; inner 
ramus with two spines on inner margin and 
none On the outer. Uropod 3, first joint of outer 
ramus not quite three times as long as the 
peduncle; second joint about one-fifth as long 
as the first; inner ramus very short and about 
the length of the second joint of the outer 
ramus. The armature of uropod 3, which con- 
sists of spines and simple setae, is shown in 
Fig. 1, H. Telson reaching back to the end of 
or a little beyond the peduncle of uropod 3, 
deeply cleft, and with the rounding lobes armed 
apically with a spine or a spine and a long seta, 
and the lateral margins usually bearing a spine 
toward the apex. As the arrangement of the 


Mar. 15, 1944 


spines on the telson is somewhat variable, I 
have figured the telson of three different males. 
Length of male from rostrum to end of uropod 
3, 10 or 10.5 mm. 

Female.—Female in general like the male, 
the characters differing only in degree. The 
antennae are shorter, the flagellum of antenna 
1 consisting of about 21 joints and that of 
antenna 2 of about 12 or 13 joints. The gnatho- 
pods are smaller and weaker, and the palm of 
gnathopod 1 is more oblique and that of 
gnathopod 2 less oblique. The peraeopods ap- 
pear to be shorter and weaker. The groups of 


SCHULTZ: A NEW CATFISH FROM COLOMBIA 93 


spines on the metasome and urosome contain 
fewer spines. Uropod 3 is shorter and is armed 
with fewer spines and setae. The gill arrange- 
ment is the same as in the male. The fully 
grown females are as long as the males. 

Type.-—A male, U.S.N.M. 79439, collected 
by R. E. Dimick, at Big Creek, south of Wald- 
port, Lincoln County, Oreg. 

Specimens of this species have been taken 
by R. E. Dimick in Lincoln County, Oreg., at 
Big Creek and Fogarty Creek, August 6, 1932, 
and January 12, 1933; and at Mercer Lake, 
Lane County, Oreg., November 20, 1932. 


ICHTHYOLOGY .—A new genus and species of pimelodid catfish from Colombia. 
Lronarp P. Scuuttz, U. 8. National Museum. 


Recently, while studying some fishes sent 
to the United States National Museum 
several years ago by Brother Nicéforo 
Maria, a small pimelodid catfish was found 
that can not be identified with any genus 
or species as yet described from South 
America. 


Imparales, n. gen. 


Genotype.—I mparales mariat, n. sp. 

This new genus of pimelodid catfish from the 
Rio Meta system at Villavicencio, Colombia 
(Orinoco drainage), is related to Imparfinis 
Kigenmann and to Pariolius Cope. 

Body elongate, the greatest depth about 9 
in the standard length; head flattened, about 
intermediate between Imparfinis microps 
Higenmann and Cetopsorhamdia Eigenmann; 
snout not produced, the jaws equal, mouth 
terminal; two maxillary barbels; four mental 
barbels, their bases practically in a straight 
line; no nasal barbels; premaxillary with a band 
of villiform teeth, the outer lateral angles 
rounded and not projecting backward; narrow 
band of villiform teeth on lower jaw; no teeth 
on vomer or palatines; the posterior pair of 
nasal openings slightly farther apart than 
tubular anterior nasal openings; eye small, 
without free margin and situated just in front 
of middle of length of head; head covered with 
rather fleshy skin, but a small fontanel shows 
in middorsal line behind orbits; width of head 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received December 
13, 1943. 


13 in its length. occipital process very short or 
lacking, the space from occiput to dorsal origin 


being fleshy; dorsal and pectoral spines en- 


tirely absent; pelvic insertions under base of 
first branched dorsal ray; the origin of dorsal 
and insertion of pelvic fins well in advance of 


_middle of standard length; adipose fin long, its 


origin an equal distance between middle of 
length of pectoral fin and midcaudal fin base; 
the adipose fin posteriorly over caudal peduncle 
has a deep notch, then continues so it is con- 
fluent with the caudal fin; anal origin only a 
trifle behind a vertical line through adipose 
origin; anal fin short, of five graduated simple 
soft rays followed by six branched rays; caudal 
fin deeply forked, the upper lobe much longer 
than the lower, both lobes rounded distally; 
anus between middle of length of pelvic fins, 
the latter short and not quite reaching halfway 
to the anal origin; the lateral line appears to 
end near midaxis of body over front of anal 
fin base. 

Among those pimelodid genera without a 
free orbital rim, lacking spines in dorsal and 
pectoral fins, and with as few as 12 anal rays, 
this new genus differs in having a forked caudal 
fin with the upper lobe greatly elongate and the 
adipose fin confluent with caudal fin. Rham- 
diopsis Haseman, Acentronichthys Eigenmann 
and Eigenmann, and Heptapterus Bleeker all 
have 18 to 28 anal rays, while the new genus 
has but 12. Chasmocranus Eigenmann has the 
premaxillary band of teeth with backwardly 
projecting angles and the caudal fin not deeply 
incised. Pariolius Cope has the caudal fin 


94 


rounded and the pelvics inserted well in ad- 
vance of the dorsal origin, instead of a deeply 
incised caudal fin and pelvics inserted under 
front of dorsal fin base as in Imparales. Im- 
parfinis Eigenmann differs from the new genus 
in having the pelvics inserted much in advance 
of the dorsal origin, the anal a little in advance 
of a vertical line through adipose origin, and 
the head greatly depressed forward with a 
nearly straight profile. In Imparales the head 
is not thin forward, and the profile of the snout 
is rounded. Cetopsorhamdia Eigenmann and 
Fisher differs from Imparales by having a 
deeply forked caudal fin with equal pointed 
lobes or the lower lobe longest, pelvics inserted 
under the posterior base of dorsal fin, adipose 
fin not confluent with the caudal fin, and the 
mouth inferior in position, the snout projecting. 
Nemuroglanis Kigenmann and Eigenmann has 
a lanceolate caudal fin and the pelvics reach to: 
center of anal fin. 


In the key to the pimelodid catfishes without 


a free orbital rim by Gosline (Stanford Ichthy. 
Bull. 2(8) : 83-84. 1941) Imparales would trace 
down to Pariolius. 

Other characters are those of the new species 
described below. 

Named J mparales in reference to the unequal 
caudal fin lobes. 


Imparales mariai, n. sp. 
Fig. 1 


Holotype—U.S.N.M. 121251, only known 
specimen, 38.5 mm in standard length and 
51.5 mm in total length, collected by Brother 
Nicéforo Maria in the Rfo Meta at Villavi- 
cencio, Colombia. 

Description (measurements recorded in hun- 
dredths of the standard length).—Length of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 3 


head from tip of snout to end of gill cover 18.4 
and to end of supraoccipital 16.9; width of 
head across base of pectorals 12.7; greatest 
depth of body 11.2; least depth of body a little 
in front of base of caudal fin 7.80; length of 
snout 6.50; diameter of eye 2.08; width of inter- 
orbital space 5.20; distance from eye to edge of 
posterior nostril 1.30; distance from anterior 
to posterior nostril 2.60; postorbital length of 
head 10.4; length of maxillary barbel 35.3; 
length of outer mental barbel 19.5 and of inner 
mental barbel 13.0; distance from base of last 
anal ray to midcaudal fin base 20.5; length of 
base of adipose fin to the notch 35.6; greatest 
height of adipose fin 2.86; length of simple ray 
of dorsal fin 12.7, of pectoral fin 10.4, and of 
pelvic fin 9.10; length of longest (branched) 
ray of anal fin 9.85, or dorsal 15.6, of pelvies 
13.2 and of pectorals 14.0; length of longest 
ray of upper caudal fin lobe 33.8, of lower 
caudal lobe 22.1; length of shortest middle 
caudal fin rays 11.4; distance from snout to 
dorsal origin 34.3; snout to anal origin 65.2; 
snout to adipose origin 62.3; snout to pelvic 
insertion 37.7; snout to pectoral insertion 17.1; 
snout to anus 44.0; anus to anal origin 22.6. 

The following counts were made: Dorsal 
rays i, 6; anal v, 7; pectoral i, 6-i, 6; pelvic 
i, 5-1, 5; branched caudal fin rays 7+6; gill 
rakers short, about 1 or 2 +5 or 6 on first arch. 

In addition to the characters described 
above and under the generic diagnosis, the 
following are recorded: Maxillary barbel 
reaches a trifle past pelvic insertion; inner 
mental barbels reach to opposite pectoral in- 
sertions and outer mental barbels well past 
base of pectorals; anterior nostrils tubular, 
separated by about eye diameter; pectorals not 
quite reaching to opposite dorsal origin; de- 


Fig. 1.—Imparales mariat, n. gen. and sp.: Holotype, U.S.N.M. 121251. 
Drawn by Mrs. A. M. Awl, U. S. National Museum. 


& u 7 " “4 si 
ee es ee oe Pere a) 


Mar. 15, 1944 


pressed dorsal not reaching quite to adipose 
origin; pelvics reaching nearly halfway to anal 
origin; dorsal fin margin truncate distally and 
that of pelvics rounded; middle rays of pectoral 
longest; anal fin margin rounded distally; gill 
membranes free from isthmus; mouth terminal, 
jaws nearly equal; head depressed with broad 
blunt snout; body compressed posteriorly. 
Color in alcohol plain light brown. 
Remarks.—This new species differs from all 
other pimelodid catfishes without free orbital 
rim, without any spines in the fins, without 


OBITUARIES 95 


backwardly projecting angles on villiform 
band of premaxillary teeth, and without teeth 
on vomer by having a deeply incised caudal 
fin with the upper lobe much the longer, the 
adipose fin notched but confluent with caudal 
fin, and pelvics inserted under the base of first 
branched ray of dorsal fin. Additional differ- 
ences are given in the generic diagnosis. 

Named mariaz in honor of Brother Nicéforo 
Maria, the collector of this interesting little 
pimelodid catfish. 


@bituaries 


LEONHARD STEJNEGER, who was born at 
Bergen, Norway, on October 30, 1851, died in 
Washington, D. C., on February 28, 1943, at 
the age of 91 and after more than 70 years of 
active scientific life. To record the highlights 
of this long and fruitful career is not a simple 
task. 

Few people realized the versatility of his 
talents. Coming of a musical family related to 


the composer Edvard Grieg and the violinist — 


Ole Bull, he was trained in his youth to be a 
concert violinist. His love of natural history 
was strong enough to force him out of a 
promising career, and even to cause him finally 
to go against the wishes of his father, who 
wanted his son to follow in his footsteps as a 
lawyer. Young Leonhard did, in fact, take a 
law degree at the University of Christiania in 
1875, but he never practiced the profession. 
His legal training, however, was of inestimable 
service to him in weighing the pros and cons 
of biologic evidence, which was to be his chief 
concern all the rest of his life. His early youth 
likewise saw the development of his skill in 
drawing and painting. For his water-color 
paintings of birds of his native Norway, made 
while he was in his early teens, he had to pre- 
pare even the paper for his sketches by coating 
ordinary writing paper with opaque Chinese 
white, a pigment that gave him a surface ca- 
pable of taking fine details in feathers and color, 
which show his extraordinary observational 
range as well as his splendid control of pencil 
and brush. It is not surprising that his pub- 
lished drawings of birds in his Asiatic bird 
papers are as fine as those of any professional 
scientific artist. His skill in accurate drafts- 


manship is nowhere better shown than in the 
maps of the fur-seal islands that he made 
during his several visits to rookeries of the 
North Pacific. They have not yet been sur- 
passed for detail and careful measurement. 
Although his first interest was in ornithology 
his work on mammals was of great importance. 
Our knowledge of the skeletal features of the 
extinct Steller’s sea-cow is due largely to his 
efforts, while the suggestions contained in his 
fur-seal report led directly to the control of 
pelagic sealing and the ultimate recovery of the 
seal herds that had been nearly exterminated 
for their valuable pelts. In 1889 he became 
curator of the division of reptiles and batra- 
chians in the United States National Museum, 
and for the balance of his life much of hts writ- 
ing dealt with herpetology. In his eighty-fifth 
year he published a biography of his hero 
Georg Wilhelm Steller, the young ship’s doctor 
and naturalist who accompanied Bering in his 
voyages to explore the North Pacific and who 
was the first white man to set foot on the coast 
of Alaska after the unlucky Bering had died of 
scurvy. This work will long remain a model for 
biographical writing, not only for the painstak- 
ing care with which the source material was 
examined over a period of years, but also for 
its charming English and facility of expression, 
very unusual in a man who did not speak the 
English language until he was 30 years old. His 
many treatises on zoogeography, especially on 
the Arctic fauna, will long be consulted. He 
preferred the Arctic to the Tropics, having been 
born within the Arctic Circle. Thus he thor- 
oughly understood the physical environment of 
northern countries from having grownup in one. 


96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Dr. Stejneger’s extraordinary powers of ap- 
plication to the problem not only of the mo- 
ment but for projects begun perhaps years be- 
fore; his great gift for synthesizing facts to 
formulate zoologic concepts that have with- 
stood every subsequent test; his retentive 
memory for books, facts, and personalities 
encountered in nearly three-quarters of a cen- 
tury of research; his patience in explaining the 
complexities of animal taxonomy to other stu- 
dents after he had with even greater patience 
untangled the facts and drawn the proper in- 
ferences from them himself—all these qualities 
are evident from his published work or have 
been mentioned in the notices that have ap- 
peared since his death. What no one could fully 
realize without having experienced it, was the 
stimulation of his always timely suggestions to 
other zoologists with whom he came in contact. 
He unfailingly found the weak link in a chain 
of scientific reasoning and was equally quick in 
pointing out new and better applications of ac- 
cepted rules. He spent hours of his time in going 
over manuscripts presented to him for criticism 
and was never known to shirk his responsibility 
in giving a full, fair summary of his well-con- 
sidered opinions. His knowledge of practically 
every European language brought him a wide 
correspondence with scientists in every corner 
of the globe. When he was over 80, he set him- 
self the task of learning Polish in order to trans- 
late for his own satisfaction some old records 
of ,Bering’s and Steller’s travels published in 
that language. 

He was happy in the land of his adoption to 
which he came in 1881. Although he looked 
forward to periodic visits to his homeland, his 
real interests were centered in America. He 
loved to entertain his friends, and with his 
wife, who similarly enjoyed company, he kept 
a stream of guests of all nationalities flowing 
constantly to his beautiful home. He had all 
the social graces, and on the night of his 
eightieth birthday he danced until 3 a.m. at his 
own birthday party. A special dispensation 
during the Hoover administration granted to 
him and a few others above retirement age a 
life tenure of their very important positions. 

His last days were greatly saddened by the 
war. He hoped constantly for news of his 
sister, not heard from since the Nazis invaded 


y 


VoL. 34, No. 3 


Norway. When the Museum was ordered to 
evacuate type specimens and other unique ma- 
terial, he, as head curator, personally super- 
vised the packing and shipping out of all the 
more valuable specimens and records pertain- 
ing to the department of biology—this when he 
was over 90, an age at which most men would 
be willing to delegate such tasks to younger 
shoulders. 
Doris M. CocHran 


GEORGE WASHINGTON LITTLEHALES, an orig- 
inal member and a past vice-president of this 
AcADEMY, died on August 12, 1943. 

Born on October 14, 1860, at Pottsville, Pa., 
Mr. Littlehales graduated from the U. 8. Naval 
Academy in 1883 and entered the service of the 
U. 8S. Hydrographic Office in 1885, where he 
served until his retirement in 1932, a period of 
47 years. His long career in this office brought 
him recognition not only in this country but 
in the international world of science. An emi- 
nent mathematician, oceanographer, and civil 
engineer, he was the author of many Hydro- 
graphic Office publications dealing with naviga- 


tion, terrestrial magnetism, oceanography, and 


related subjects. 

In addition to his association with the Wash- 
ington Academy of Sciences, he served as 
chairman of the Section of Physical Ocean- 
ography, American Geophysical Union; vice- 
president of the Section of Oceanography, 
International Union of Geodesy and Geo- 
physics; and vice-president of the American 
Geophysical Union. A member of the Philo- 
sophical Society of Washington, he served as 
president in 1905. He was also a member of 
the American Society of Naval Engineers. 

As a delegate from the United States, he ably 
represented the Hydrographic Office and the 
various scientific bodies at numerous congresses 
and councils on hydrography, oceanography, 
and terrestrial magnetism throughout the 
world from 1919 until his retirement from 
active life. 

In the passing of Mr. Littlehales, the scien- 
tific world has lost a preeminent scholar of the 
nautical sciences whose entire life was devoted 
to the advancement of knowledge in a field that 
will greatly feel his loss. ) 

G. 8S. BRYAN 


Pe ee, ee eS eae 


" 


CONTENTS 


EruHNnoLtocy.—The requickening address of the Iroquois nm ag 2 : 
council. J. N. B. Hewitt. eo by WiiuraM N. gaye i ie 


ZooLocy.—Notes on the trematode subfamily Loimoinae (Monogenea), : 
with a description of anew genus. Harotp W. ManTer........ | 


ZooLocy.—Description of a new species of Amphipoda of the genus — 
Anisogammarus from Oregon. CLARENCE R.SHOEMAKER....... 8 
IcnHTHYOLOGY.—A new genus and species of pimelodid catfish from. 
Colombia. Lronarp P. SCHULTZ. 16.0 s sees eee 3 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. 


"BOARD OF EDITORS” 


Lewis V. Jupson sf i ae ‘Hara AL Renpzn ii 9 
wATION cpsyaoae oF ‘STANDARDS: as U8. NATIONAL MUSEUM EN ta 


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"ASSOCIATE. EDITORS . 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 34 


ETHNOLOGY.—Sanitation and health in a Japanese village. 


Aprit 15, 1944 


No. 4 


JOHN F. EMBREE, 


Civil Affairs Training School, University of Chicago. 


INTRODUCTION 


The present war in Asia has caught 
America with an acute shortage of first- 
hand, reliable knowledge of many aspects 
of Japanese culture. One such aspect is that 
of sanitation and health, as the writer has 
discovered in connection with instruction in 
an Army Civil Affairs Training School. For 
this reason the available first-hand data on 
the subject, as they apply to a specific 
community in Japan, have been brought 
together in this paper. 

Suye Mura is a small country village in 
Kyushu, the inhabitants of which gain their 
livelihood largely through cultivating paddy 
field rice and to a lesser extent through 
raising silkworms.? Though a long way from 
Tokyo, it is not too far from Nagasaki and 
Kumamoto City, where there has been a 
long history of contact with the West. Its 
standards of health and sanitation, while 
considerably more backward than those of 
the town or city in Japan, probably do not 
differ basically from conditions in other 
villages. The relative shortage of doctors 
and the high consumption of patent medi- 
eines, for instance, are reflected in the 
national statistics, which show that in 
Japan there is an average of 7.65 doctors for 
every 10,000 people,’ approximately half 
the figure for the United States, and that 
for patent medicines there is an annual 
expenditure of about 130,000,000.4 


+ Received February 26, 1944, 

2 The data given here were collected in 1935 
and 1936. A description of social life in the village 
may be found in Suye Mura, a Japanese village, 
University of Chicago Press, 1939. 

5 Japan Year Book, 1939-40. 

* Far East Year Book, 1941. 


97 


CIVIC PROVISION FOR SANITATION AND 
HEALTH 


There is in the village office a sanitation 
bureau and in each hamlet a special person 
concerned with matters of sanitation, the 
eset kumichd. Frequently he is the same 
person as the hamlet headman (buraku 
nushid6ri) or the head of the hamlet agri- 
cultural association (buraku kokumzatcho). 
He may hold his office either through elec- 
tion or by a system of rotation. His chief 
functions are in connection with house- 
cleaning examinations and vaccination. 
There is also a cemetery overseer whose 
duties are to check on the condition of 
graves and see that they are deep enough to 
prevent dogs from digging in them. He 1s 
also charged with the duty of preventing 
any illegal exhumations and seeing that no 
body is buried sooner than 24 hours after 
death. This last rule is to insure against 
burying someone alive through an error in 
diagnosis of death. The village office also 
maintains on its rolls a doctor for the pur- 
pose of preconscription health examination 
for boys from the village and an annual 
smallpox vaccination at the village school. 

All these functions are only ocvasional 
duties of the persons concerned. The sanita- 
tion officers are mostly regular farmers, as 
is the cemetery inspector. The doctor lives 
and carries on his practice in a nearby 
town, coming to Suye only when his duties 
as Suye public-health doctor demand it. 

The local police assist the village officials 
in the carrying out of their public-health 
duties and of course may be called upon to 
enforce any rules which are not obeyed. 
The need for this, however, is rare. 


APR 2O "ss 


98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


STANDARDS OF CLEANLINESS AND HEALTH 


Standards of cleanliness in the village are 
different from those in, say, an American 
small town. They also vary considerably 
according to local standards from individual 
to individual. In house-cleaning, for in- 
stance, it is essential that the straw floor- 
mats (tatamz) be kept clean. On the other 
hand, the use of the same dishrag day after 
day, both as dishrag and as towel, is also 
considered quite proper. The average farmer 
takes a bath practically every day, but runny 
noses among the children pass unnoticed 
and are considered no offense. In regard to 
local variations, the upper-class groups, 
who incidentally are better able to afford 
cleanliness, are likely on the whole to ob- 
serve strictly the traditional Japanese 
standards of hygiene. In regard to drink 
exchange, while in the towns, as a rule, the 
drinking cup is rinsed off in a bowl of water 
between exchanges, no such refinement is 
observed in the village. 

The hair of young girls and even of adult 
women is often infested with lice. Most of 
the farmhouse tatami contain a peculiarly 
aggressive form of flea (nomz). 

Within the Mura there is a fairly wide 
range of knowledge and practice in regard 
to matters of sanitation and health accord- 
ing to social and occupational status. One 
or two of the more well-to-do individuals 
who have been away to college, the midwife, 
and a few others have a much better com- 
prehension of the cause and prevention of 
disease than does the average villager. 
Similarly, shopkeepers and schoolteachers, 
with their wider knowledge of the modern 
world than the person who rarely travels, 
are not so likely to follow traditional folk- 


Ways. 
PLUMBING 


There is no plumbing of any sort in the 
village, water being obtained from wells and 
streams. Night soil and manure are care- 
fully preserved to be used as fertilizer in the 
fields, and there is practically no garbage to 
be disposed of. There are, for instance, no 
meat bones in the village, because the 
people eat no meat. The carcasses of dead 
animals, such as horses, are bought up by 
certain people in the towns for the use of 
the hides and the bones. Bean-curd (tofu) 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


waste is fed to the pigs: kept by the tdfu 
makers. The pigs in turn are sold to city 
dealers. 

The bath and toilet of the village farm- 
houses are not a part of the main building 
but are usually in the form of outhouses 
somewhere in the house yard. There is 
usually a bucket set in the ground to serve 
as a urinal somewhere in the front yard 


near the structure housing toilet and bath. — 


It is used by the men much as in the Occi- 
dent, while women stand over it facing the 
yard, bending forward and hiking the 
garments to the knees in such a way that 
they may urinate without either soiling 
their garments or exposing themselves. The 
urinal is only partially protected by a door- 


less wooden covering; sometimes it stands 


quite in the open. A branch of evergreen 
may be placed across the top to serve as a 
deodorant. The outhouse toilet is enclosed 
and has a door. It is used in such a way that 
one squats over an opening rather than 
sitting, thus avoiding any spread of disease 
by means of toilet seats. There is no plumb- 
ing attached to either the bath or the toilet. 
The bath requires filling with water and 
heating by a fire built underneath it every 
afternoon. The same bath water is used, as 
a rule, by the whole family or even by 
several neighborhood families in order to 
save the work of filling several tubs and 
laying several fires. However, the general 
practice is to wash one’s self off first and 
then get into the tub for a hot soak. 

The water is supplied from wells in yards 
and ditches or from nearby fresh-water 
streams and springs. As a rule, most water 
is taken in the form of soup or tea and so 
has been sterilized through boiling. Dishes 
and trays, however, are washed in cold 
water. 


REFRIGERATION 


There is no refrigeration in the village, 
although it does exist in the small towns of 
the area. A man, such as the fishmonger or 
the ice-cake’ maker, maintains refrigeration 
from natural ice or from refrigeration ap- 
paratus. However, even in the towns, re- 
frigeration is restricted to such special 
occupations and is not a characteristic of 


5 A kind of ‘‘popsicle.” 


Ripe 15,1944 


the average household. Cases of illness re- 
sulting from eating contaminated ice cakes 
are occasionally reported in the towns. 


HOUSE-CLEANING 


Daily house-cleaning includes the rub- 
bing off of the en or wooden runway by one 
side of the house and the sweeping out of 
the front yard or the dirt road in front of 
the house. In fact, the day usually begins 
with a brisk sweeping of the dirt’ yard or 
road to be followed later by a hasty dusting 
of the interior. Dishes are washed in cold 
water, the same dishrag being used for both 
washing and wiping. Since there is no greasy 
material in the local diet, this cold-water 
washing is sufficient to keep the dishes pre- 
sentable. Trays and other eating utensils, 
which are only used from time to time for 
special banquets, are usually washed just 
before using rather than when being put 
away. On dusty days, the roadway in front 
of the house is sprinkled with water. 

In Japan it is the rule that houses must be 
cleaned two or three times a year, and in 
Suye the dates come in April and July. The 
lack of a house-cleaning period in January 
or February may be due to the cold weather. 
House-cleaning, which is woman’s work, 
consists in removing the paper sliding 
screens (sho77) and removing the tatamz 
and other movable parts of the house 
and taking them outdoors where the shéji 
are washed off and the tatamz beaten. The 
floor boards under the tatami are wiped and 
fresh bamboo branches are used to brush off 
the walls and ceilings. Movable objects and 
bric-a-brac are simply moved about while 
the surfaces on which they stand are 
cleaned, but the dust of the ages on the 
bric-a-brac itself goes undisturbed. On the 
appointed day, the village sanitary inspec- 
tor and a policeman come around to inspect 
each house to see that it has been properly 
cleaned. A house must be pretty dirty not 
to pass. Hach housewife is given some car- 
bolic-acid disinfectant at this time to be put 
by the toilet, around on the dirt floor of the 
kitchen, and in the dirt areaway by the 
entrance, areas subject to wetness; the 
carbolic acid is intended to be used as a 
protection against epidemics as well as to 
kill insects. 


EMBREE: SANITATION IN A JAPANESE VILLAGE 99 


Household bedding is laid out on the floor 
in the evening and rolled up and put away 
in a closet during the day. It is not unusual 
for a man to go to sleep with his regular 
clothing on, and school children often sleep 
in their school uniforms. 


VACCINATION 


The Japanese Government has for some 
years maintained a thorough program of 
smallpox vaccination, one that reaches out 
to include every village and hamlet of the 
nation. In Suye Mura, for instance, once a 
year, all the one-year-olds and all the ten- 
year-olds are gathered together at the school 
for this purpose. There is a check-up of 
those vaccinated a week later. The doctor 
employed by the village office performs the 
actual vaccinations. There have been no 
epidemics of smallpox in Suye Mura for 
over 30 years. 


HOSPITALS 


There is no hospital in the Mura, and as 
a rule villages are without such medical 
service. On the other hand, there is a small 
hospital in a nearby town run on a some- 
what cooperative basis. Two of its council- 
lors or trustees are people of Suye, one of 
whom happens to be the village headman. 
The rooms in this hospital, like those of 
many Japanese hospitals, are very much 
like rooms at home with tatamz floors, and 
the bed is made up directly on the floor. It 
is the custom for relatives to visit a patient 
at frequent intervals and for long periods, 
even eating with him and helping to nurse 
him. As a rule, people from Suye Mura go 
to a hospital only when seriously ill, and 
many people who would be hospital cases 
by American standards never see the inside 
of a hospital room. Also, as might be ex- 
pected, it is only the more well-to-do who 
go to the hospital, because of the expense 
involved. 

There is a small isolation building in the 
village for the purpose of taking care of any 
person who should be taken down with a 
seriously contagious disease. It has not been 
used for that purpose, however, for 20 
years. 

DOCTORS AND MIDWIVES 


There are very few doctors in these rural 


100 


areas, and there is no doctor at all in Suye 
Mura, though there are some in the towns 
and one in the neighboring village. One of 
these doctors may hold a weekly clinic in 
the Mura if he thinks it will be profitable. 
Doctors must certify to deaths for village 
office records, and such death certificates 
usually cost 25 to 50 sen. In regard to health 
matters, doctors are regarded as rather ex- 
pensive by village standards since they 
charge 1 to 2 yen per visit. Furthermore, 
some of the older rural doctors are not es- 
pecially well trained as medical practi- 
tioners. There is no dentist in the village, 
and people with serious tooth trouble must 
go to a town or city dentist. 

A typical country doctor in this area is 
Dr. K, of Fukada Mura, a couple of miles 
from Suye. His degree of training is some- 
what doubtful, but his success financially is 
beyond any doubt. His residence is an im- 
posing one, and he makes his calls in a little 
Ford roadster, one of the very few motor 
vehicles privately owned by anyone in this 
area. He has a rather superior attitude in 
regard to the local farmers and by his own 
testimony does not like living in the coun- 
try. He says that he buys 10,000 worth 
of medicine a year but only receives ¥2,000 
for it. He makes his money rather as a 
landowner. These statements can best be 
understood by realizing that by Japanese 
standards it is more important to be from 
an old landowning family than to make 
one’s money through trade. Nonetheless, 
the statement should be taken with con- 
siderable skepticism. Dr. K, like some other 
doctors, occasionally complains about the 
faith healers or kztéshi of the area, claiming 
that people go to them until the sickness 
becomes very serious before calling in the 
medical doctor. 

There are two midwives in the village, 
women who have been trained in special 
schools and who are licensed to practice 
midwifery. They attend births and look 
after the mother. 

A favorite doctor’s remedy for pains of 
various kinds from boils to female diseases 
is the use of injections or chisha. The vil- 
lagers attach considerable value to these 
injections, and it is possible that they serve 
as a psychological substitute for such folk 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


practices aS mogusa and acupuncture de- 
scribed below. 

When ill, most people simply stay at 
home and go to bed. A young wife may go 
to the home of her parents if she becomes 
sick. Only in extreme cases does one go to a 
hospital, and such extreme cases do not 
include childbirth. The family is likely to 
visit a faith healer or administer some home ~ 
remedy as a first means of regaining health. 
The doctor is called, as a rule, only as a last 
resort, often when a man is on his deathbed. 


FAITH HEALERS 


Faith healers or kitdshi are men or women 
who, by means of prayer and incantations, 
cure illnesses, drive out evil spirits, and in 
general bring a sick body back to health. 
They may effect their cures with the aid of 
either Buddhist or Shinto deities. An Inarié 
kitdshi is especially popular in Suye as well 
as one old, blind healer who maintains a 
small, run-down Tendai’ temple. The kzto- — 
shi, on the whole, do not belittle the use of 
doctors and medicines, and there are in- 
stances of their actually recommending 
that their clients go to a doctor for treat- 
ment. They have no set fees, people giving 
them gifts of rice, eggs, etc. Most kitdshi 
(and Shinto shrines) have for sale special 
charms and medicines for everything from 
horses’ health to fertility in women. 

Yakushi, a special Buddhist deity of 
medicine, is occasionally enshrined in local 
priestless hamlet temples (d6). While most 
ills are regarded as of natural origin, some > 
sickness is attributed to witchery by means 
of an inugami (dog spirit) or nekogami (cat 
spirit) instigated by the malevolence or 
envy of some unpleasant neighbor. Such 
sickness, of course, would call for the im- 
mediate attention of the kitdshi. Some 
people patronize the faith healers regularly 
as a kind of health insurance. 


MEDICINES AND PILLS 


Medicines are much used in the Mura. 


6 A popular Shinto deity of good fortune, 
patron deity of farmers and of gezsha. His mes- 
senger is the fox. 

7 A Buddhist sect formerly strong in Japan but 
today less important than such sects as Shinshu, 
Zen, and Nichiren. 


Apr. 15, 1944 


Families may spend as much as a yen a 
month for medicine, and a single household 
may have on hand as many as seven to 
eight different medicines. There are very 
few, if any, legal restrictions as to what the 
label of a medicine bottle or box may say. 
Most of them claim the contents to be 
general cure-alls, and most of the purchasers 
believe what the label says. 

The medicines are obtained from a num- 
ber of sources. A few people purchase cer- 
tain medicines from the agricultural as- 
sociation, and doctors frequently give medi- 
cines in connection with other services. 
There are also many druggists in the nearby 
towns who sell all sorts of medicines as 
well as a number of itinerant medicine 
sellers who go through the village from time 
to time. Home remedies of various sorts are 
also common. 

Sometimes people visit hotsprings as a 
means of restoring their health. There are 
some small springs at Yunoharu, not far 
from Suye, a somewhat better one at Hito- 
yoshi, the old county capital 12 miles away, 


EMBREE: SANITATION IN A JAPANESE VILLAGE 


101 


and occasionally someone from the village 
may go as far as the famous springs of 
Beppu, a day’s journey by train. 


ITINERANT MEDICINE SELLERS 


A Korean peddler of ginseng or Kanton 
no ninjin.—This man comes through the 
village from time to time selling his wares 
and gossiping with the housewives. He says 
that if you are sick ginseng will make you 
feel better, and even a little bit will cure a 
fever. He also claims ginseng to be good for 
headache, cold, female troubles, gonorrhea, 
and syphilis and a cure for sterility. This 
wonderful medicine does not come for 
nothing, and the seller charges ¥7.50 and 
up per root. However, a little goes a long 
way, a bit of it being scraped off and boiled 
into an infusion, which is then taken in- 
ternally. Ginseng, incidentally, is a Japa- 
nese Government monopoly in Korea. 

Patent-medicine sellers—There are a 
number of different patent-medicine sellers 
who pass through the village from time to 
time selling their wares. The practice is for 


Fig. 1. Benz seller being given a cup of tea by a farmer’s wife. The chart he holds shows how bent 
may be applied. 


102 


them to leave with a given housewife a 
number of pills and powders without charge, 
then to come back in six months or so, at 
which time the customer pays only for 
what she has used. 

Beni seller.—Benz is a red liquid looking 
somewhat like mercurochrome, and there 
is a particular man who comes through the 
Mura from time to time peddling it from 
house to house. According to the benz seller, 
his product is good for many ills. If you have 
a fever, put it upon the soles of your feet; if 
you have stomach trouble, put some on the 
lower chest; if you have troubles of the 
womb, place some on the belly; if you have 
gonorrhea, put some on just above the sex 
organs; if you have arm or shoulder trouble, 
put some on the arm; if you suffer from 
headache or histert,8 put some on the 
temples and the crown of the head. Beni 
stings on application and leaves a bright 
red spot for a few days after application 
and so has a good psychological effect. 
Many people in the village use it, especially 
for headache. 


COMMON TRADITIONAL TREATMENTS 


Three common traditional treatments 
used in Japan are acupuncture, moxa, and 
massage. All three go back at least to early 
Tokugawa days, and in one form or another 
they are also practiced in the rural areas of 
Korea and parts of China. Most of these 
three treatments are performed by older 
women of the village who are regarded as 
experts. 

Acupuncture—This is a treatment in- 
volving the use of a needle in a bamboo 
sheath. A case description?: 


Mrs. K, wife of the Inari kitéshi, got a sore 
neck and shoulder. People suffer from stiff necks 
and shoulders and backs, very often—whether 
from overwork or rheumatism due to damp and 
cold winters I do not know. She came for a mas- 
sage to Mrs. Sawada [an old woman of a poor 
farm family living in the same hamlet as Mrs. 
K]. The old lady is famous for it. At first she 
massaged her sitting down, then made her stretch 
out and pressed her neck stressing the sore spots. 
Then she used the needle—a metal needle blunt at 


8 See below. 

® This and the other case descriptions given 
below are from the field notebooks of Ella 
Embree. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


in sewing. 


VOL. 34, NO. 4 


the end which is put into a bamboo tube about 14 
inches long. She applied the tube to the sore spot, 
then by flipping her fingers got the needle, pro- 
truding on top at first, well into the flesh; then 
removing the case she twisted the needle. No 
blood appeared. The pain was said to be much re- 
lieved by the treatment. In her bag containing the 
massage material the old lady had a bottle of 
alcohol which she rubbed on her hands and the 
needle—she did not know why she did it but the 
old lady I—also present—said it was a disin- 
fectant. But after the alcohol wash she passed the 
needle through her hair to make it glide, as is done 


The old lady learned her trade herself, bought 
the needle at Taragi, gets a few sen for her 
services (‘‘kokoro kara’’—from the heart) from 
each patient. 


It is to be noted in this case that the func- 
tions of the acupuncture expert and the 
kitdshi do not conflict. In a case calling for 
acupuncture even the wife of the kitdshi 
visits the proper specialist. The case also 
brings out the varying degrees of knowledge 
of different persons in the village. Old Mrs. 
S, a rather unsophisticated woman, wife 
of a farmer, has learned her trade from a 
specialist in the town more or less by rote 
as one would learn a magical formula— 
hence the alcohol is used as instructed, but 
she is ignorant of its purpose as evidenced 
by her own statement and by her subse- 
quent action in running the needle she has 
sterilized in alcohol through her hair to 
make it smooth. Mrs. I, on the other hand, 
is the wife of a broker and business man and 
knows the purpose of the alcohol, though it 
is possible that even she did not see the 
inconsistency of running the sterilized 
needle through the hair. 

Moxa (mogusa).—This is a cure involv- 
ing the burning of bits of dried-up young 
leaves of the Chinese wormwood (Artemisia 
moxa) usually on the back and sometimes 
on thumbs held closely together or on the 
back of the hand. The burning of the skin is 
said to ‘‘take the pain away.”’ A case de- 
scription: 

In Nakashima I came across old Mrs. G hav- 
ing her back burnt. Her daughter-in-law was 
doing it. First she passed an iron rod through a 
pipe stem to get it stained, then, locating the 
sore spot by pressing her finger, she would make a 
small spot with the rod. After that she put a tiny 
bit of mogusa on all the marked spots and burnt 


it by applying a stick of incense (senko). Each 
spot was gone over and over again until one layer 


Apr. 15, 1944 


of skin was burnt off. The burnt moxa was scraped 
off with a finger before applying more stuff. 
Through all this the old lady never uttered a 
sound. Yet when a bit of burning stuff was 
dropped by mistake on the wrong spot, she 
shuddered. They do not do it regularly, but say 
that if done twice a month the back would not 
ache at all. 


Massage.— Massage is done both by hand 
and with special sticks. A case description: 


Mrs. I of Imamura when [I stopped there this 
afternoon was just having her last bit of massage. 
It was being done by a specialist from Menda who 
calls his massage himeri—moving of muscles to 
restore circulation, as against the common variety 
of amma (‘‘as done by untrained people in the 
country’) or massage done outside of Japan. He 
thinks his massage can cure many troubles— 
bruises, stomach diseases, skin eruption due to 
bad circulation. He knew something of anatomy 
and a few English terms he picked up somewhere 
(one of his brothers is in America now). He is also 
the representative of a medical manufacturer 
and sells just one brand of medicine and warns 
you against counterfeits. He has pills for internal 
troubles, karumin being the most popular and 
good for settling stomachs, counteracting con- 
stipation, overcoming diarrhea, preventing dizzi- 
ness and curing headaches. He also has ointments. 
As premiums and ads he distributes two flags—a 
large national flag and a triangular navy flag both 
with company’s trade mark on it. This trade mark 


is also represented in a gold-braided medal on his - 


cap—which makes him look like a railway official. 
Took up this business because he has very poor 
eyes and could not do any studying. 

He comes to the village regularly at certain 
intervals and has been coming more often now to 
give Mrs. I her treatment. She did not see me 
when I came and lay there moaning with pain, 
covering her eyes up with her arms. She was quite 
naked and had a kimono thrown over her. After 
the operation she looked all done in. But her skin 
is much better. The pills he left with her said (in 
English) ‘‘For gonorrhea, catarrh of the biadder 
and testicles.” In Japanese there was a long de- 
scription which mentioned gonococcus. To me 
she said nothing is the matter with her internally 
and the medicine is merely to clear the system 
out now that the eruptions on the skin are over 
and her blood circulates properly. She complained 
about the price of the stuff—one yen a bottle and 
the dose is thirty pills a day. 


COMMON ILLS 


There are a number of common ills that 
afflict the people of the village and that are 
for the most part accepted as a part of this 
world’s inevitable misfortunes: 

Skin diseases, rashes, etc., are very com- 
mon, especially in children. One child’s 


EMBREE: SANITATION IN A JAPANESE VILLAGE 


103 


skin disease is known as mizu b6sd. Common 
remedies are ointments and _ powders. 
Rashes are especially common in _ hot 
weather, and more faith seems to be put 
into powders and ointments than in wash- 
ing as a preventive or cure. 

Colds and chest troubles.—These occur in 
both adults and children. Children go to an 
unheated school, which is regarded as good 
self-discipline for them. Infants are fre- 
quently subjected to exposure of various 
sorts in cold weather. When an infant 
wants to relieve himself, for instance, his 
mother lifts his kimono, opens the sh6jz, 
and holds him outdoors till he is finished. 

What Dr. K calls influenza is also a com- 
mon ailment in the village and a serious 
one. 

One home remedy for a.cold is garlic in 
soup or mixed with brown sugar. ‘‘Garlic 
is good for the health” is a common saying 
just like ‘‘wheat is good for the health.” 
(The peasants do not like wheat in their rice, 
but when eating it as an economy measure 
console themselves with this phrase.) 

Cerebral hemorrhage and stroke (Néikketsu, 
noshukketsu).—This is frequent among the 
old and is often fatal. The doctor is usually 
called in to diagnose an attack, but most of 
the care is by the family and at home. One 
doctor lays its high incidence to overdrink- 
ing. He also cites liver ailments as due to the 
same cause. 

Chibu, a kind of paralysis, is also com- 
mon among the old people. (Hepburn trans- 
lates chibu as hemiplegia.). 

Venereal disease—Syphilis (baidoku) and 
gonorrhea (rinbyd) both occur in the village 
but do not seem to be especially common, 
judging by the fact that no cases were found 
by the army doctor among the conscripts in 
Suye in one year. However, these diseases 
are much talked about and form a favorite 
topic of malicious gossip. A specific case: 

One baby died of congenital syphilis after a 
period of illness. According to the father: he read 
of some medicine in a magazine and sent for it; 
the baby recovered rapidly, too rapidly, for all the 
poison was not yet out of the body; this caused an 


explosion of the veins in the head and, hence, the 
baby died. 


One remedy said to be good is a mixture 
of snakeskin and shéchi (a distilled rice 


104 


liquor). Some women say that shdchi is good 
for female genital diseases. 

Stomach troubles and intestinal diseases.— 
These are especially common in children 
who eat irregularly and frequently overeat 
of starchy foods, such as the heavy rice 
cakes made on the occasion of various holi- 
days. In fall, stomach trouble from eating 
green persimmons is common. Hkirt, a form 
of dysentery, is also common with children. 

In the event of vomiting, due to indiges- 
tion or too much liquor, cold water is ad- 
ministered and the vomit is covered with 
ashes by one of the women of the household. 

Backache, pains, stiff necks, stiff shoulders, 
and backs (rheumatism and_ arthritis).— 
These chronic ailments are especially com- 
mon among older women. The chief reme- 
dies are massage, moxa, and acupuncture. 
(See above. ) 

Women’s diseases, pains, and uterus 
troubles (fujinby6).—Diseases and pains of 
the uterus (shikya or sh’kyi) are especially 
bad and seem to be due to a lack of proper 
postnatal care. The midwife says that the 
women get up too soon after childbirth and 
do not take proper care of themselves. 
Local custom in this regard is described 
below. 

Accidents.—Burns and cuts are common. 
Burns may occur from a, child’s falling into 
the zrorz, or fire pit. Such burns may be 
treated by a doctor or by some home 
remedy such as kaki no shibu (an astringent 
made from persimmons). Patent medicines 
may also be used. The bacteriologist No- 
guchi had one hand seriously damaged by 
such a burn. 

Cuts may be treated by a doctor as, for 
instance, in the case of a boy falling from 
a tree and cutting himself. Cuts in the 
fingers and legs are especially common. One 
home remedy is salt and hot oil applied 
externally, as in the case of a young woman 
who had a cut from bamboo on her leg that 
had become swollen. 

Cancer.—Cases diagnosed as cancer are 
rare, though the Zen priest died of cancer 
of the throat. With the relatively high death 
rate and low age expectancy, it is possible 
that cancer actually is less common in 
Japan than in, say, the United States. (The 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


national statistics for Japan tend to bear 
out this statement.) 

Leprosy.—Leprosy is rare in this area. 
There were no cases in Suye itself. Leprosy 
is regarded by the people as a disgrace to 
the family. It is very difficult for relatives of 
a leper to get married. Villagers regard 
leprosy as being due to bad blood and hence 
inheritable. According to one of the doctors 
in the region, mild cases are registered with 
the police and given an injection of some 
sort of oil (chaulmoogra?). More serious 
cases are sent to an isolation hospital in 
Kuroishibaru, Kumamoto. 

Tuberculosis.—The incidence of this is 
uncertain though the national tuberculosis 
rate is high. Like leprosy, it is regarded as 
a disgrace to the family and so cases of it are 
likely to be hushed up. 

Malaria.—According to a local doctor, 
there is no malaria in Kuma County. There 
were quite definitely no cases in Suye in 
1935-36. 

Typhoid.—This occurs in epidemic form 
in Kuma, according to a local doctor. How- 
ever, there has been no incidence of it in 
Suye recently. 

Insanity.—Insanity, like leprosy, is re- 
garded as a family disgrace, and it is not 
mentioned if possible. People will simply say 
that so and so is ill or has a cold, ete. If a 
person becomes violently insane, he may be 
locked in a special room with the permission 
of the police, or he may be sent to a hospital 
at the medical college in Kumamoto. Mild 
cases are not treated in any special way. In- 
sane persons do not get married. 

Feeblemindedness.—This is usually taken 
care of at home. The feebleminded person is 
given simple chores to do around the house. 
Feebleminded persons rarely get married, 
though this is no guarantee that they will 
not have children. 

Nervous breakdown.—Something resem- 
bling nervous breakdown occurs. It is due 
to worry and anxiety and occurs especially 
among women when marital relations are 
bad, work in the home difficult, ete. A vari- 
ation of this, known as histerz, or hysteria, 
also occurs. A characteristic of a woman 
with histeri is that she develops a sort of 
nymphomania characterized by uninhibited 


Apr. 15, 1944 


ageressive sexual remarks and behavior 
toward men. 

Childbirth—Childbirth always takes place 
at home and in private. Even the midwife 
may not be present until after the child has 
been born unless it is a difficult delivery. In 
mountain hamlets, most of the women have 
their children quite alone. It is the custom 
that a woman should not cry out at child- 
birth ‘‘or people will laugh.”’ As one woman 
put it, they would say ‘“‘you were quiet 
when the nice things happened, but cry 
now.’’!0 

The old local posture for childbirth seems 
to have been sitting or squatting, holding 
on to something for support. The midwife 
today, however, recommends that mothers 
lie down. | 

It is always a midwife, not a doctor, who 
is called in at the time of a birth. She puts 
drops: of silver nitrate in the eyes of the 
baby at birth and gives the mother advice 
on caring for the new-born infant. While 
infant mortality during the first year is 
less than in former years, it is still fairly 
high. Deaths in childbirth and stillbirths 
also occur occasionally. A stillbirth is as 
likely as not to go unrecorded in the village 
office records. 

The afterbirth is buried somewhere in the 
house yard, and the father then steps over 
it. There is a belief that the father should 
do this because the child will fear the person 
who first steps over the afterbirth, and it 
would, of course, be very undesirable for a 
dog or some other animal to do this. The 
umbilical cord is usually saved and tucked 
away in the rafters—according to some, so 
that the baby will learn well; according to 
others, as a means of protecting its health. 
Ultimately it seems to be consumed by 
mice. 

The mother is usually up on the third 
day, when there is a special naming cere- 
mony for the infant. She is not supposed to 
do heavy farm work until about a month 
after the birth, when there is another special 
ceremony. However, she is up and around 


10 This taboo on crying out at childbirth is 
characteristic of a number of tribes in northeast 
Asia, such as the Chukchee, and perhaps dates 
back to a very early period of Japanese history. 


EMBREE: SANITATION IN A JAPANESE VILLAGE 


105 


the house and yard, frequently doing rather 
heavy work, thus contributing to the heavy 
strain to her system. Such practices may be 
a cause of much of the older (35 and over) 
women’s illnesses in the village. If she did 
not do her share of housework after the 
thirtieth day, she would be subject to the 
criticism of other women for being lazy and 
self-indulgent. When the 30-day period is 
over, even though she may not be well 
enough for field work, local custom and 
public opinion exert such strong sanctions 
that she must do her share of farm labor. 

It is a peculiar fact that there appears to 
be no menstruation for about a year or 
more after a birth among the village women, 
although there may be a rather long flow 
immediately following childbirth. This phe- 
nomenon appears to be characteristic es- 
pecially of the farm women and may be as- 
sociated with the fact that they are up and 
working in the fields before their system has 
regained its normal postnatal functioning. 

Abortions are rare, and there was only 
one case in Suye by a woman of a non- 
village family who was regarded by the 
people of Suye as crazy. 

Circumcision occurs frequently but is by 
no means general. The operation is per- 
formed around the age of 17 or 18. 


MISCELLANEOUS MINOR AILMENTS AND HOME 
REMEDIES 


Minor ailments of various sorts are legion, 
as are also the remedies therefor. 

Fish poisoning occurs. For toothache and 
headache, which are common, benz is fre- 
quently applied. There is a J7zd-san" stone 
regarded as good for toothache and another 
one regarded as good for earache in the 
Mura. Boils are common and may be cut 
by a doctor or treated with some special 
medicine. Sore throat occurs occasionally. 
Two cases of bad eyes were treated by 
doctors in Menda and Hitoyoshi, but the 
exact troubles were not ascertained. I once 
saw an old woman with something in her 
eye and a younger woman naked from the 
waist up (it was in July) rubbing the af- 
fected eye with a damp towel after which 


11 A popular protective and beneficent deity of 
Buddhist origin. 


106 


she squeezed some milk into it from her 
breast. 

There was one mention of neck-gland 
trouble. The patient first tried a doctor 
then tried a remedy called burz and moxa, 
and finally he went to a hotspring. There are 
some plant allergies, one case of rash being 
attributed to contact with the haze plant 
(wax tree). There was one case of a large 
head cyst (?), which was cut out three 
separate times. The last operation was per- 
formed at Taragi Hospital and cost ¥8.50. 
One man had a kind of sleeping illness. He 
would work a few days and then sink into a 
sort of coma for a period of days. He was 
said to have fallen when at work five years 
before. There was one case of a man with 
swollen testicles. There was one case of a 
woman with a violent headache and swell- 
ing of the head, neck, ears, and face. She 
also had fever. She had a pain in the heart 
as the head throbbed and ‘“‘blood rose.’’ No 
doctor was called; instead she went to see 
a kitdsht. There was one case of a woman 
(teacher of the flower arrangement class) 
who was taking special shots during meno- 
pause. They were supposed to renew men- 
struation and rejuvenate. The woman said 
these were made of horse urine (hormones?). 

Warts may be removed by surgery. There 
is a belief that a wart at the corner of the 
eye of a woman means that she will lose her 
husband early. If it is under the left eye, 
one will lose a girl child; if under the right 
eye, a boy child. 

Some home remedies include the follow- 
ing: 

Various herbal remedies are common. 
The herbs may be purchased from dealers 
in towns or from itinerants and are usually 
boiled up into some infusion which is taken 
internally. Téfu liquid is said to be good for 
the heart and is drunk by some. Fresh-water 
snails (benna) from paddies are said to be 
good for swellings and muscle strains. 
Yamagobé is a root boiled in water said to 
be good for the cure of kidney diseases. It 
induces urine and is also used to cure 
syphilis. Pumpkin taken in January is a 
preventive against paralysis and sickness 
for the coming year. Juice in which plums 
are pickled is good for the stomach. The 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 4 


white of egg mixed with mugi!? is said to 
be good for boils. Mugi relieves the fever 
and the egg takes out the pus. (One man 
makes this and gives it to friends.) 

Milk is regarded as a medicine and is 
taken (boiled) on doctor’s prescription. The 
people do not like it—‘‘It smells.”’ 


One man with a blister on his leg took a — 


needle with a heavy thread and dipped it in 
a pool of water, then rubbed it against some 
soot on a pot, stuck the needle through the 


blister, thus letting out the water and leay- | 


ing a black smudge. There is perhaps a sort 
of logic to his actions. Antiseptic is liquid— 
water is liquid and used for washing, hence 
dipping the needle in water. A flame is used 
to purify a needle, leaving soot on the 
needle, hence the application of the needle 
to the soot of the pot. 


MEDICINE AND DOCTORS VERSUS 
HEALING PRIESTS 


Faith is put in home remedies and healing 
priests partly because doctors are expensive 
and difficult to get and often are supercilious 
in their treatment of rural patients. A good 
example of an individual farmer’s appeal to 


both doctor and kitéshi is seen in the follow- © 


Ing case: 


The other day Muchan (farmer T’s small girl 
child, aged 3) got very sick. She must have eaten 
something. In the morning the mother gave her 
an enema, later they sent for a doctor. Dr. K of 
Fukada was too busy (someone saw his car here, 
but the story is he had to go somewhere else). Dr. 
F from Taragi was called and arrived at six as 
against three, as promised. He had to attend a 
soldier’s going away party. Dirty and sloppy 
when he arrived. Wore military boots and cape. 
Talked in an arrogant tone to farmers, ‘‘Who is 
coming with me to fetch medicine?” “‘Oh, you are 
—then take this’’ handing over his brief case. He 
decided the baby was all right—poured down her 
throat a bottle of castor oil then told them to 
fill the bottle with water and made her drink that 
(boiling the water he never mentioned). Everyone 
around marvelled ‘what, taking oil without 
sugar!”’ 

Prescribed two medicines—a powder and a 
mixture and left. He did take her temperature. 
Did not wash hands-before seeing the patient, but 
demanded water after. While he was there, Mr. 
M came with a pain in his rump and asked for 
an injection. The doctor picked out a likely needle 


12, A generic term for barley, wheat, oats, and 
rye. 


aes A eee apes 


eee. ee eee ee ee ee oer 


Apr. 15, 1944 


and dipped it in ether, but to open the glass cap- 
sule he used his dirty scarf. The man stretched 
out and got the injection. 

By nine Muchan’s temperature went to 104. 
Ice packs were on her head. The baby drank water 
constantly. Mrs. K (a neighbor) came and told 
the people they should go ‘‘kamisama mairi’’ 
and I think referred to Kannon sama, but Kyoko 
san (the mother) went upstairs. (Later Mrs. K 
who loves to make fun was relating the story to 
some neighbors—how they urged each other to go 
and pray and had not thought of it at first. 
“People never think of doing it until the person is 
dead’’.) 

When the child started having convulsions, 
they sent their nit-wit assistant to Yunoharu to 
call the ‘‘Yonoharu ojisan’’ who came later. He is 
deaf and toothless. He has an ofuda which he has 
used for the last 40 years. He mutters incantations 
and puts the ofuda on the patient’s chest—then 
“something leaves the body”’ and the patient is 
relieved. The man came at ten and administered 
a prayer, was to give another one three hours later, 
but the baby had more convulsions at twelve, so 
he was urged to pray. T had great faith in him, 
and each time the baby shuddered in her sleep 
he would say “Jisan what is it?” and the old man 
would say ‘“‘that is all right.”? They felt the child 
was better after the treatment. They were afraid 
because their first child had died. After the 
second fit at twelve the child quieted down and 
toward morning was better. When I came at 
seven they were having rice and beans for break- 
fast. The Yunoharu man and the old man from 
Tontokoro stayed all night. S was there until 
late. Mrs. K and Mrs. S were the only women 
who called. No one seems to know what sort of a 
sect the old man belongs to. ‘‘Donna kami sama 
desho?” they say. By next day the child was all 
right. ; 


Sickness is a constant hazard in a vil- 
lager’s life. It is something that is unpredict- 
able and dangerous in addition to the pain 
and suffering involved. There is also an 
economic loss suffered. People the world 
over, when faced with something they do 
not understand and something that can 
affect their lives seriously, turn to super- 
natural means in an effort to gain some con- 
trol over it. Hence, the appeal of T to a 
healing priest in an effort to gain some con- 
trol over the illness of his daughter. 


MEDICINE AND MAGIC 
Many of the medicines and home reme- 
dies used in the village are, by modern 


13 To visit and pray to deities. 
M4 Paper talisman. 


EMBREE: SANITATION IN A JAPANESE VILLAGE 


107 


medical standards, simply so much magic. 
However, there is a logic behind them, 
much the same logic we use in taking vita- 
min pills and other medicine on the recom- 
mendation of the doctor. We have no way 
of telling whether what we are being told to 
take is good for us but must depend upon 
the word of the doctor or druggist, just as 
the Japanese peasant depends upon the 
word of the doctor or druggist or kztdshz. 
Many of the home remedies and other cures 
are perfectly logical attempts to cure the 
sickness, the error being in the false 
premises as to the cause of the disease. If 
one believes that a sickness is due to black 
magic or witchcraft, then it is perfectly 
logical to visit a kztésht and ask for some 
countermagic to overcome the illness. If it 
is believed that a certain illness is due to 
bad blood, then a medicine said to purify 
the blood or clean out the system is a per- 
fectly logical remedy. The general idea of 
bacteria as a cause of disease is pretty well 
lacking in the villagers’ concept of disease, 
just as it was lacking in Europe in the high- 
est medical circles prior to the birth of 
bacteriology. 

The beliefs in regard to sickness and 
health can, however, be shifted from the 
traditional folkways to those of modern 
medicine as evidenced by the naive faith 


in doctors, ‘‘injections,” and in the general 


acceptance of such governmental health 
regulations as smallpox vaccination and 
house-cleaning inspections. 


ATTITUDES TOWARD ILLNESS 


The proper attitude for a Japanese to 
take regarding illness in talking with a 
stranger is to belittle it so as not to burden 
a guest with his personal worries and anxie- 
ties. However, within the family and among 
friends, grief may be shown. Among rural 
people the inhibitions are fewer in this re- 
gard, and relatives may show their anxiety 
more freely than among the more inhibited 
upper classes. 

Sometimes in an effort to console them- 


selves, people will resort to asort of fatalism, 


laying their misfortunes to decisions made 
in heaven or by the gods (kamisama). 


108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 4 
TABLE 1.—List OF DEATHS OVER ONE YEAR PERIOD (1935) 
(Population of Mura 1,663 persons) 

Sex Age Cause of Death Day of Death 
Minlere. sib ane Cold (kambo6) January 15 
Female..... 1 day Unnatural death (henshi) (actually this was a case February 5 

of infanticide) 
Males screiece UE Uremia (Nyédokusho) March 16 
Female..... 69 Cerebral hemorrhage (Ndshukketsu) March 21 
Male.. 56 Apoplexy (Notkketsu) March 31 
Female..... 23 Pulmonary tuberculosis (Hatkekkaku) April 1 
Miners a8. 67 Apoplexy (N étkketsu) April 20 
Malle $58.5 2. 60 Apoplexy (N dtkketsu) April 29 
Female..... 11 days Pneumonia (Haien) May 31 
Mialestin. on. Cerebral hemorrhage (Néshukketsu) June 4 
Male 64 Incomplete closing of mitral valve (Sdbdbenfuzenhet) July 15 
Female..... 5 days Premature birth July 17 
Maley sie! 5 Apoplexy (Ndétkketsu) August 9 
Female..... 49 days Heart convulsion (Shinzdkeiren) August 20 
Female..... 22, Pneumonia (Haien) August 26 
Wale co tee 66 Apoplexy (Ndtkketsu) August 29 
Miale. ia is 62 Appendicitis (Méchéen) September 6 
Female..... 6 Acute brain fever (Kytset ndmakuen) September 6 
Mral@necete 65 Cerebral hemorrhage (Ndshukketsu) September 15 
Female..... 2 Acute gastroenteritis (Kydsei ichékataru) September 16 
Female..... 68 Asthma (Zensoku) September 17 
Female..... 1 Pneumonia (Haien) October 10 
Female..... 70 Cerebral hemorrhage (N éshukketsu) November 10 
Male 2a. 4 mos Pneumonia (Hazen) November 13 
Female..... 54 Apoplexy (N dikketsu) December 4 
Female.....} 71 Chronic nephritis (Mansei jinzéen) December 27 
Bemalesae.. 51 Apoplexy (Ndtkketsu) December 30 


LINGUISTICS.—A new method of transliterating Russian.' 
TON, Bureau of American Ethnology. 


Systems of writing Russian in the letters 
of the Latin alphabet have been nonin- 
genious and without exception very much 
bound to earlier usage. There are several 
such systems, each one of them standard 
within a certain horizon, all of them reach- 
ing to specials and to diacriticals. Almost 
every book for learning Russian has a dif- 
ferent method of transcription. The usual 
systems go beyond the mere turning of the 
letters of the Russian alphabet into equiva- 
lents; they write the variants that charac- 
terize the pronunciation of Russian and 
that more practically remain unwritten 
with a coverage of general pronunciational 
rules. The fundamental fault with the 
average system of transliterating Russian 
is that it follows the Polish manner of 
writing, evaluating y as a vowel and thus 


1 Received February 19, 1944. 


JoHN P. HarRRInG- 


losing it as a consonant. English, French, 
Spanish, and Hungarian employ y as a 
consonant. 

The system about to be presented hinges 
upon the employment of y as a consonant, 
and with this employment all other equiva- 
lences are made to fall into line. The system 
has in it vast possibilities, not only for the 
practical transliterating of proper names, 
but for the romanization of the Russian 
language and the doing away with the 
present Greek-based alphabet, thus follow- 
ing the course already taken by Maltese 
Arabic, Rumanian, Turkish, and Kurdish. 
The new method is so simple that it can be 
set in any printing office or punched out on 
any typewriter, for it uses no special char- 
acters of diacritical marks whatsoever yet 
is adequate to the sharpest scrutiny of the 
expert phonetician. The system was long 
and thoroughly actually used in writing 


Apr. 15, 1944 


field notes in Russian and was found to be 
quicker and simpler than the use of the 
Russian alphabet for one accustomed to the 
Latin alphabetic character of western 
Europe. That in the eventual future a 
Greek-based would supplant the actually 
scientifically superior Latin-based alphabet 
of western Europe is unthinkable. It is also 
unthinkable that in the eventual future 
there would be two different and rival 
alphabets. 

The method is based on the three funda- 
mental principles: 

1. Any system to be practical must be 
based on the so-called Cyrillic alphabet in 
which the Russian language is at present 
standardly written; in other words, the 
system must be a transliteration. 

2. Any system to be practical in an ordi- 
narily equipped printing office and on an 
ordinary typewriter must be without spe- 
cials and diacriticals. 

3. Any system to be practical must be 
anchored to the conservative values of 
letters and must possess rigid conformity 
within itself. 

Carrying out of the first principle means 
that the well-known inconsistencies in Rus- 
sian orthography have to be followed in 
transliteration. Thus we have shity, to sew, 
despite the actual pronunciation shjty; 
zhity, to live, despite the actual pronuncia- 
tion zhjty. Both i and j occur after ts, 
though the pronunciation is always j. Thus 
tsirk, circus, though pronounced tsjrk. 

The new system is better than the Rus- 
sian, alias Cyrillic, system, in that it has 
fewer strokes, it is easier to read, and does 
not require the learning of, or special equip- 
ment for, an alphabet which is not Latin. 
The Russian alphabet in its printed and 
typewritten form is noted for the lack of 
ascenders and descenders, the letters having 
compact, rectangular shape, optically dis- 
advantageous according to tests of psychol- 
ogy. For instance, the Russian form of | is 
disadvantageous in not shooting above the 
body line, as it is called in the printing 
trade. The Russian letters, most of them, 
resemble monotonous blocks which demand 
scrutiny, having the form of Latin small 
capitals, whereas Latin type has ascending 


HARRINGTON: TRANSLITERATING RUSSIAN 


109 


and descending offshoots which serve as 
eye-catching signals of identification, being 
in this feature psychologically superior to 
a larger face of type. 

Native newspapers and vast literature in 
languages of South Africa, which have no 
unusual letters or marks, gave the hint that 
Russian also can be thus written and printed 
in Latin letters, it being necessary only to 
clear the ground by boldly doing away with 
the Polish value of y, a value that has long 
lurked to prevent advancement. 

It would seem that the system for Rus- 
sian here suggested cannot be opposed on 
just grounds, since it consists merely of a 
making more scientific, simple, regular, and 
legible the present Greek-based system. It 
is hoped that it can be used not only for the 
romanized appearing of Russian geographi- 
cal names, and the like, but also for the 
endemic writing of Russian. 


THE NEW SYSTEM 


Vowels 
aouellj 


The vowels are short only, but an ac- 
cented vowel can be pronounced long. There 
are no true diphthongs, all diphthongs being 
of the sort exemplified by aw ay. 


Consonants 


Dorsal: k g ¢ 

Retromedial: y 

Frontal: t dshch zhstszrln 

Labial: p bf v m 

Consonants are iotized before e or i of the 
same word, and this iotization is a blanket 
rule and is therefore not written in the sys- 
tem. Otherwise iotization is written by post- 
placed y. Etymofinal voiced consonants are 
unvoiced in pause, just as in German, not 
being voiced as they are in modern Scandi- 
navian or in English. 

For illustrating the new system one can- 
not do better than to give lines of poetry, 
since the iambic beat in the following shows 
the fall of the unwritten accent. Prosaic 
accent in the following poem is violated 
only by the word mirj, universes, which in 
prose would have the accent on the first 
syllable: 


110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 4 
Ya v etot mir prishol ~ chtob videty sontse 
I into this world came in order to see the sun 
I singy krugozor, 
And the blue horizon, 
Ya v etot mir prishol chtob videty sontse 
I into this world came in order to see the sun 
I VISE gor. 
And the heights of mountains. 
Ya v etot mir prishol chtob videty more 
I into this world came in order to see the sea 
wilius slavnjy tsvet dolin— 
And the glorious color of the valleys— 
Ya zaklyuchil mirj v yedinom vzore. 
iL embraced the universes in one glance. 
Ya vlastelin. 
I the master. 
VA ae pobedil colodnoye zabveniye 
i conquered cold oblivion 
Sozdav mechtu moyu, 
Having created fancy my, 
if kazhdjy mnig byl polen otkrjtenrya. 
And every moment was full of revelation. 
V segda poyu. 
Continually I sing. 


GEOCHEMISTRY.—The formation of colloid from halloysite in dilute acid solu- 


tions. 


Intensive soil research of the past few 
decades has’ clearly shown the presence in 
most soils of complex mineral aggregates of 
siliceous colloids. These aggregates may be 
either massive, in a filterable clear solution, 
or coatings on microscopic grains; they may 
be sol, hydrosol, gel, or solid. They form 
definite associations with the ions of a solu- 
tion as reported by Sante Mattson and 
others in numerous papers in Soil Science. 
The writer?*.4.5 has reported a number of 
studies of relations between dilute acids and 


1 Received January 11, 1944. 

2 The action of some aqueous solutions on clays of 
the montmorillonite group. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. 
Paper 197-F. 19438. 

3 Time and temperature effects in the formation of 
colloidal dispersions. Journ. Washington Acad. 
Sci. 31: 41-45. Feb. 15, 1941. 

_ 4A study of the association of magnesia with sil- 
wca in @ pure magnesium clay. Journ. Washington 
Acad. Sci. 30: 233-237. June 15, 1940. 

_ 5 A study of bleach clay solubility. Journ. Frank- 
lin Inst. 224: 339-362. Sept. 1937. 


P. G. Nurtine, U.S. Geological Survey. 


clays of the montmorillonite type. Abun- 
dant evidence was found for the formation 
of considerable quantities of stable colloidal 
hydrosols as well as of salts in dilute acid 
solutions. To obtain exact quantitative 
relations between the amount of sol formed 
and the amounts of acid, clay, and water 
present, work was continued with the sim- 
pler clay minerals kaolinite, halloysite, and 
allophane under carefully controlled condi- 
tions. The allophane available (from Hills- 
boro, Ohio) reached equilibrium in a few 
hours but contained 3.5 percent CaO and 
some iron. The kaolinite, from Bishop, 
Calif., was very pure but required five days 
at 96° C. to approach equilibrium. 

The halloysite used, from Anamosa, Iowa, 
contained no detectable Ca, Fe, or Mg. It 
was room dried and ground to pass a 150- 
mesh sieve (0.1 mm). As used it contained 
SiO, 42.45, Al.O3 36.02, H.O 21.53, or 


Sal einai 


eS ee a ee ed ee, ee ee 


Apr. 15, 1944 


Al.03:2S8i02:3.4H.2O. The alumina was 
completely soluble in a few hours in 20 per- 
cent acid. Special tests showed that 72 hours 
at 96° in 0.1 percent acid gave a close ap- 
proach to equilibrium, while at 30° six 
months would have been required® for each 
run. The relations between the amount of 
sol and the amounts of clay, acid, and water 
are, of course, very different at the two tem- 
peratures, but apparently only the con- 
stants of the reaction equation are affected. 

Preliminary runs showed that the center 
of interest is sufficient acid to dissolve the 
alumina (0.75 gram HCl per gram of hal- 
loysite) in sufficient water to dissolve the 
silica (1 liter per gram of clay), or a gram of 
clay in a liter.of 0.075 percent HCl. Prepara- 
tions were made with 4, 1, and 2 times these 
amounts of clay, acid, and water, 27 in all 
(or 19 excluding simple multiples) which 
were analyzed. i | 

After 72 hours at 96°+1°, the last 16 
hours without stirring, the clear liquor was 
decanted with an aspirator flask and the 
undissolved clay filtered, washed, ignited 
and weighed. A few ml of the decanted 
liquor was cooled for pH determinations. 
Each solution was evaporated and the resi- 
due, heated to 160° for an hour to remove 
free acid and moisture without disturbing 
OH, and then weighed. Each residue was 
then boiled 10 minutes in 150 ml of dis- 
tilled water to remove possible chlorides, 
again dried at 160° and weighed. Silica and 
alumina were then separated by a ten min- 
ute digestion in about 20 ml of hot 20 per- 
cent HCl. Repeated runs gave results dupli- 
cating within 2 percent. 

Undissolved clay residues varied between 
22.9 percent for clay: acid: water =4:1:4 to 
91.7 percent for 2:$:2. In composition, they 
differed but little from the original hal- 
loysite. The pH of the solutions varied 
chiefly with the clay:acid ratio, 2.5 for 
original clay:acid=2:1 to pH 1.5 for 
clay:acid=1:2. It varies little with the 
water present, by about 0.02 for half or 
double the amount of water; hence both the 
dissociation and hydrolysis of reaction 
products are but little affected by the 
amount of water present in this range. 

Residues from evaporation of solutions 

6 Op. cit., footnote 33 


NUTTING: FORMATION OF COLLOID FROM HALLOYSITE 


111 


varied from 0.125 to 0.709 gram per gram of 
clay, the chief factor being the ratio of acid 
to clay. In each of the nine sets of observa- 
tions in which the clay:acid ratio was con- 
stant, the amount of residue decreased by 
one-third as the water alone varied from 
3 to 2 liters. 

The hot-water extract of the solution 
residue (150 ml) always caused a loss in 
weight averaging 20 percent, both weigh- 
ings following thorough drying at 160°. This 
extract was neutral to litmus and added 
ammonia gave no precipitate except in two 
cases of high acid: clay ratio, hence was free 
from acid and aluminum chloride. Analysis 
showed it to be an alumino-silicate hydrosol 
with an alumina:silica ratio of about 1:1.5 
(molar). The solution residue not dissolved 
by 150 ml of hot water varied from 0.056 to 
0.734 gram per gram of original clay as acid 
varied from } to 4 normal (‘“‘normal”’ is 0.75 
gram HCl). With clay:acid 1:1, it decreased 
from 0.3875 with water 4 to 0.151 gram 
for water=4 liters per gram. An average 
of the 19 analyses (27 combinations) 
gave $102: Al,.03;=0.88, close to that for 
2A1,03:38102 (0.884). This ratio varies 
slightly with the ratio of acid to clay; ex- 
tremes were 1.1 for acid: clay =4 and 0.7 for 
acid:clay=1:4. The average composition 
of the washed residue at 160° is SiO, 34.8, 
Al,0O3 40.0, H2O 25.2 percent or very close 
to 2A1.03-38i02:7H2O, an allophane. Simi- 
lar runs but less extensive and less exact, 
made with kaolinite, mica, and allophane 
instead of halloysite, gave the same allo- 
phane hydrosol. 

The amount of sol (S) produced, time 72 
hours and temperature 96° being constant, 
depends upon the three independent vari- 
ables clay (C), acid (A), and water (W). 
Mere inspection of the 19 analyses yields 
only the qualitative summary given above. 
To obtain exact reaction equations between 
sol, clay, acid, and water, the 27 analyses 
were plotted in various sets of graphs. In 
each set, one factor (say clay=1 gram) 
is constant throughout, another (say water) 
is the parameter, constant in each group 
while the third is the chief variable, the 
object being to discover linear relationships, 
if any, between these variables. Three such 
relations were found: 


112 


Sol: Acid, clay, and water constant, acid varia- 


e. 
Log (S: A) linear in log C, water constant. 
Log (S:A) linear in log W, clay constant. 


These three relations may be combined in 


Log S=log A+a log C+b log W +const. 


With this as a guide the 27 analyses were 
written as 27 equations which were solved 
by least square methods to obtain values of 
the constants. Using natural logarithms the 
final relation is 


Log S=log A+0.322 log C—0.318 log W —1.421 


for grams of sol formed where pure hal- 
loysite is brought to equilibrum with dilute 
hydrochloric acid solutions at 96°. This rela- 
tion holds for acid:clay ratios below 1:4 
(by weight) up to about 4:1 above which 
free chlorides are formed. All constants de- 
pend upon temperature. The clay is in 
grams, the water in liters, and the acid in 
multiples of 0.75 gram. For C=1=W, 
S=0.24 A, or 75 S=A in molar proportions, 
if the molecular weight of the sol is 510, 
indicating that the acid is used many times 
over. Water and clay are evidently in com- 
petition for the acid. 

The chemical processes involved appear 
to be very simple. After the clay has ad- 
sorbed sufficient anions it is attacked by 
them. Free silica and chlorides go into solu- 
tion and the chlorides are hydrolyzed, 
alumina combining with the silica to form 
a sol while the free acid returns to the clay 
to form more chloride. This process con- 
tinues until the potential of the accumu- 
lated sol is balanced by that of the clay. 
This balance is at somewhat less than half 
the clay because the halloysite has some 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


structural energy while the sol has little or 
none. 
SUMMARY 

Halloysite in warm dilute acid forms a 
sol having the composition of allophane 
2Al,03-38102:7H.O after drying at 160° C., 
over an intermediate range of clay and acid 
concentrations. 

A quantitative relation between sol 
formed and the acid, clay, and water used is 
obtained from experimental data covering 
the range from just sufficient acid to dis- 
solve the alumina and water to dissolve the 
silica, to half and double these amounts. 

At equilibrium, the clay solution contains 
free acid (pH 1.5 to 2.5) but no salt other 
than the sol in this range. 

With clay and water as parameters, the 

amount of sol formed is in a fixed ratio to 
the acid present. 
- With acid and water as parameters, the 
sol varies with about the cube root of the 
clay present, indicating a reversible reac- 
tion. 

The amount of sol varies inversely with 
the water present, clay and water competing 
for the acid present. 

After oven drying at 160°, the sol (then 
gel) is soluble in hot water to the extent of 
about 0.3 gram per liter, slightiy less than 
than silica gel, 0.4 gram per liter. 

A general characteristic relation is de- 
duced between amount of colloid formed 
and the amount of acid, clay, and water 
present. In reference 3, p. 45, it was shown 
that silica, alumina, acid, fluorides, and 
other salts added to the sol solution were 
without effect on the colloid formed. Varia- 
tions with temperature and the nature of 
the acid remain to be investigated. 


ECOLOGY .—An analysis of the flora of the Bull Run Mountain region of Virginia 


using Raunkiaer’s “life-form’’ method.* 


H. A. ALLARD, Bureau of Plant 


Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. 


INTRODUCTION 


Kcologists have long been aware of the 
intimate relations between plant life and 
climate and, rightly regarding vegetation as 
an expression of the climatic complex, have 


1 Received November 6, 1943. 


attempted to devise methods to express this 
concretely and statistically in terms of plant 
life itself. Long ago Humboldt (Physiog- 
nomk der Gewdchse, 1806) attempted to 
classify vegetation on something of an 
ecological basis. Griesbach (1872) and oth- 
ers building upon these concepts recognized 


Apr. 15, 1944 


the intimate relation between the forms of 
plants and climate. Among these were Ker- 
ner (1863), Warming (1909), and Drude 
(1913). Such classifications as were recom- 
mended ignored taxonomic relationships 
since it is obvious that the ecological rela- 
tions of plant life do not depend upon 
taxonomic concepts. Finally in 1908, a 
Dane, C. Raunkiaer, published a funda- 
mental paper on life-forms and statistical 
methods. 

Raunkiaer’s method was unique in that 
it considered the plant to be a concrete, liv- 
ing expression not of one factor alone, but 
of the entire climatic complex, including 
temperature, humidity, and the water rela- 
tions of the soil. The basis of his method, 
naturally, was the final adaptation of the 
plant, and the special feature selected by 
him related to the critical or unfavorable 
season, as indicted by the degree and kind 
of protection which enabled the plants to 
survive this in a particular region. This, it is 
obvious, was concerned mainly with the 
perennating buds, formed above or below 
ground in the case of perennials. While this 
concept does not afford a perfect measure of 
climate it has appealed to many plant ecolo- 
gists as one of the best systems yet devised, 
since the plant itself has been chosen to rep- 
resent its own success and survival in a 
given region. 


LIFE-FORM SYSTEM OF RAUNKIAER 


Raunkiaer in 1908 finally carefully se- 
lected and classified 400 representative 
plants from the world’s flora, and used these 
to establish a provisional biological spec- 
trum for the world, which he considered to 
be a standard for comparison. In 1916 he 
extended his studies to include the remain- 
ing 600 species, which he had originally 
chosen to represent his normal world spec- 
trum. While there were only minor differ- 
ences in the calculations for the two groups, 
Raunkiaer’s spectrum based upon his final 
figures for 1,000 selected plants has been 
used in the present discussion. 

His method requires a classification of all 
the Spermatophyta of a regional flora into 
five main groups, some of which are sub- 
divided into smaller groups. These are listed 
as follows, with abbreviations: 


ALLARD: FLORA OF BULL RUN MOUNTAIN REGION 


113 


PHANEROPHYTES— Ph.—Branching woody 
plants, with their dormant buds wholly exposed 
to the air. These are further classified according 
to size into the following subgroups: (1) mega- 
phanerophytes—Mg.—having a stature over 
30 meters (98 feet); (2) mesophanerophytes— 
Ms.—with a stature of 8-30 meters (26 to 98 
feet); (3) microphanerophytes—M.—2-8 me- 
ters tall (6-26 feet) ; nanerophytes—N.—under 
2 meters tall (64 feet). 

CHAMAEPHYTES—Ch.—Plants with their dor- 
mant buds on the surface of the ground or just 
above it, not more than 25 cm. (10 inches). 
These are protected by snows in winter in 
colder regions, or by the plant remains in dry 
or warmer regions. 

HEMICRYPTOPHYTES—H.—Plants with their 
buds in the upper layer of the soil, near the 
surface, the aerial portions dying away in the 
unfavorable season further protecting these 
subterranean buds. 

CRYPTOPHYTES.—Plants with their dormant 
structures entirely buried more or less deeply 
below the soil surface. This class has been sub- 
divided as follows: Geophytes—G.—with bulbs 
tubers, rhizomes deep below the soil surface; 
Helophytes—H1|.—certain marsh plants grow- 
ing chiefly in saturated soil or in water, from 
which the flower-bearing shoots emerge. Their 
buds are buried at the bottom of the water or 
in the muddy soil. 

HypropHytes—Hy.—Water plants with 
their perennating structures beneath the water. 

THEROPHYTES—Th.—Annuals living only for 
the season. 


Classification of plants into these various 
groups requires a little care, for certain 
plants may seem to fall rather doubtfully 
into a given class. As a rule, however, it is 
not difficult to attain this objective, and a 
few doubtful cases change the final per- 
centages very little. Some of the Hemi- 
eryptophytes and Cryptophytes have been 
less readily distinguished for this reason. 
Plants were considered to belong to the 
former class when their dormant buds were 
not deeper than 1 inch in the soil. 


RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF WOODY AND 
HERBACEOUS PLANTS IN DIFFERENT 
REGIONS 


In temperate, humid regions the relative 
proportion of woody plants and herbs tends 
to be rather constant, as indicated by the 
following figures, which have been deter- 


114 


mined by Sinnott and Bailey (1914). Un- 
fortunately these figures apply to the Dicot- 
yledoneae alone, however. Inclusion of the 
Monocotyledoneae would decrease the pro- 
portion of woody plants and increase the 
proportion of herbs materially. 

In the northern United States (Britton 
and Brown) woody plants constitute 22 per- 
cent of the Dicotyledoneae, and herbaceous 
78 percent; northeastern United States 
(Gray), woody plants 23 percent, herba- 
ceous 77 percent (Dicotyledoneae); includ- 
ing all Angiosperms in Gray’s Manual 
(4,079 species), the figures become 14 per- 
cent woody, 85.9 percent herbaceous; Great 
Britain (Hooker), woody 11 percent, herba- 
ceous 89 percent; Russian Empire (Lede- 
bour), woody 14 percent, herbaceous 86 per- 
cent; France (Cusin and Ansberque), woody 
11 percent, herbaceous 89 percent; Norway 
(Blytt), woody 14 percent, herbaceous 86 
percent; Flora Orientalis (Boissier), woody 
17 percent, herbaceous 83 percent; Spain 
(Lazaro é Ibiza) woody 21 percent, herba- 
ceous 79 percent. All the above figures, un- 
less otherwise stated, refer to the Dicotyle- 
doneae alone. 

Within the United States Deam (includ- 
ing all Spermatophyta) lists 2,568 species 
for Indiana, 14.4 percent being woody, 85.5 
percent herbaceous. Ennis (1928) for Con- 
necticut lists 1,453 native species, of which 
15.06 percent are woody and 84.9 percent 
herbaceous. In the relatively very small 
Bull Run area (including all Spermato- 
phyta) 18.2 percent are woody, 81.8 percent 
herbaceous. 

It is well known that the percentage of 
woody plants, trees and shrubs in humid re- 
gions increases as one approaches the 
warmer tropical latitudes. These relations 
are clearly shown in the following figures 
based upon the Dicotyledoneae alone: 
Florida Keys (Small), 46 percent are woody 
plants, 54 percent herbaceous; Japan (Mat- 
sumura), 43 percent woody, 57 percent 
herbaceous; Brazil (Mueller), 74 percent 
woody, 26 percent herbaceous; Amazon 
Valley only, 88 percent woody, 12 percent 
herbaceous; Malay Peninsula (King), 83 
percent woody, 17 percent herbaceous; 
Philippines (Merrill), 68 percent woody, 32 
percent herbaceous; Dutch East Indies 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


(Koorders), 75 percent woody, 25 percent 
herbaceous. 

Comparisons of these figures especially 
for the humid, temperate regions favorable 
to forest indicate the common pattern of 
the vegetation in its ecological aspects. This 
is true whether one considers the relatively 
small Bull Run area, the State of Indiana, 
large portions of the United States (Gray, 
etc.), Great Britain, or Italy. If the floristies 
of the primeval vegetation which formerly 
existed in all these regions could be known 
it is probable that even greater uniformity 
of ecological structure would be established. 
These uniformities appear to represent 
fundamental floristic and structural rela- 
tions of the vegetation for the countries in 
question. However, if plant life, as it now 
exists, and as Raunkiaer has assumed, is a 
dependable, concrete measure of the cli- 
matic complex, such fundamental relations 
should obtain. There are probably greater 
differences existent in the species composi- - 
tion of the vegetation of the several regional 
floras mentioned than in the life-forms that 
make up ecological structure of these. 


BIOLOGICAL SPECTRUM OF THE FLORA OF 
BULL RUN MOUNTAIN 


A comparison of the biological spectrum 
of the Bull Run area with Raunkiaer’s 
normal spectrum is presented in Table 1. 
The data for the Bull Run area are based 
mainly upon the list of plants recently re- 
ported upon by Allard and Leonard (1943). 
In this paper 1,010 different plants were 
recognized, 8 other plants (not yet added in 
print) being found in 1943, bringing the 
total to 1,018 plants. 

The data of Table 1, all of which refer to 
the Bull Run area aside from Raunkiaer’s 
spectrum, are of some interest. Some 
workers have been careful to make use of 
only the native Spermatophyta in the calcu- 
lation of a biological spectrum for their 
region. A comparison of the spectra for all 
the native and introduced Spermatophyta 
and for the native Spermatophyta alone 
reveals striking agreement, however. The 
data for the native Dicotyledoneae alone 
also show only slight departure from these 
values. : 


Apr. 15, 1944 


ALLARD: FLORA OF BULL RUN MOUNTAIN REGION 


115 


‘TaBLE 1.—PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF LIFE-FORMS IN THE NORMAL SPECTRUM OF RAUNKIAER 
AND THE VEGETATION OF THE BULL RuN REGION 


Spectrum here 
Th 

aunkiaer smormals iif. )s 02). obo tls bo 1000 13 
All Spermatophyta, native and introduced. . 980 17.0 
All native Spermatophyta................ 847 15.1 
All native Dicotyledoneae................ 616 15.9 
All native Monocotyledoneae............. 224 13.4 
Allintroduced Dicotyledoneae............ 108 32.4 
All introduced Monocotyledoneae......... 25 16.0 
All native Spermatophyta in primitive 

RUNGE EATeAS hts cise ee. hd ties of. kie.acs he 446 3358! 
All native Spermatophyta in fields, pas- 

tures, or cleared or cultivated areas...... 402 28.1 

1Mg + Ms. 

abt Hy. 


Comparison with Raunkiaer’s normal 
spectrum reveals certain departures for 
some classes. Considering all native and in- 
troduced Spermatophyta, the greatest de- 
parture is shown for the Hemicryptophytes 
(H), which in the Bull Run flora have been 
determined to be 51.7 percent as compared 
with the normal spectrum of 26 percent. 
Since depth of the dormant buds serves to 
distinguish the Hemicryptophytes from the 
terrestrial Cryptophytes (G), one may ex- 
pect some degree of error to appear here in 
deciding into which class a certain plant 
should fall. If, however, a summation of the 
Hemicryptophytes (H) and Cryptophytes 
(G) is made (the number of Helophytes (Hl) 
and Hydrophytes (Hy) is too small to af- 
fect the results materially), one obtains 30 
percent for the normal spectrum and 60.8 
percent for the Bull Run spectrum. These 
striking differences indicate a climate in the 
Bull Run area highly favorable to Hemi- 
cryptophytes and Cryptophytes, plants 
that are adapted to withstand a cold, dor- 
mant season of considerable severity such 
as the higher temperate latitudes experi- 
ence. 

The biological spectrum for all intro- 
duced Dicotyledoneae of Bull Run Moun- 
tain agrees closely with that shown for all 
the Spermatophyta of the area, except in 
the proportion of Therophytes (T) repre- 
senting the annuals. This has increased from 
17 percent for the latter to 32.4 percent for 
the former. Since field conditions offer a 
more favorable habitat for this class, as 
most introduced plants cannot compete 


Occurrence (percent) 


Chy | / G | Mg |Ms|™M N | Hi | Hy 
9 | 26 4 8 118 | 15 22 

14, alk. Miele Oatlands | Godel BEG | AADC dad 8 
1:6 50°4'| 9.8 |) 846.31 5.5 | 407 | 1.6 8 
2.2) tags |! 7 BOs el lar! | hora | GA HAA Sg 
= mel G2RON AGED asp jete yl SleSao= ol} 4.871), 2.3 
— | 50.9 On| a Uacnn See |Legal dot & 
Sy je BO 8 | EL Cnt ce wa eee | Gee ges ye Sp ge 

1.3 1-529 | 12.1 |). 480441044} oSiGyl! 4.94) o9t7 8 
159F PGOUON eal se One ee Sides ded | ibe ob 


with the vegetation of forest areas, this re- 
lationship is the natural one. | 

The spectra of all native Spermatophyta 
found in wooded, primitive areas, and also 
in fields, pastures, or cleared and cultivated 
areas has also been presented. The differ- 
ences shown in some of these groups are of 
significance. It will be noted that the an- 
nuals or Therophytes (T) in the more primi- 
tive woodland areas represent only 3 per- 
cent of the plants, while in cleared and 
cultivated areas the figure has become 28.1 
percent. Hemicryptophytes (H) and Cryp- 
tophytes (G) in the more stabilized wood- 
land make up 65 percent of the flora, and 
only 57.2 percent in the cleared areas. Since 
there is a progression from annual to peren- 
nial types in the early successional stages, 
and the climate favors an abundant hemi- 
eryptophytic and cryptophytic element, an 
increase in this class of plants is a natural 
condition as woodland prevails. The herba- 
ceous element in the woodland areas is 72.1 
percent, and 89.4 percent in the cleared 
areas. This too is a correct reflection of 
actual differences in the vegetation in the 
two habitats, since the herbaceous element 
is predominant in the early stages of succes- 
sion where the forest has been entirely de- 
stroyed. The woody element of the cleared 
areas is only 10.2 percent, compared with 
27.3 percent in the more natural woodland 
areas. Immediately following abandonment 
from cultivation, the woody element may 
be almost entirely lacking, but various 
weedy trees and a variety of shrubs make 
their appearance in older fields and pastures 


116 


until a closed overstory of trees has cap- 
tured the area. The statistical differences in 
the life-forms of the two areas plainly em- 
phasize the pioneer successional nature of 
the old field assemblage in its trend toward 
woodland. If the field and pasture areas 
were selected on the basis of age from time 
of abandonment, the woody element would 
be found to increase with corresponding de- 
crease in the herbaceous element until the 
stability of climax conditions between trees 
and herbs had been attained. 


SIMILARITY IN THE SPECTRUM OF THE FLORA 
OF BULL RUN MOUNTAIN AND THAT 
OF SOME OTHER EASTERN AREAS 


Summarizing the woody elements as 
represented by Mg, Ms, M, and N, we have 
41 percent for the normal spectrum, 18.2 
percent for all Bull Run Spermatophyta, 
and 15.1 percent for all native Spermato- 
phyta of the Bull Run area. If one considers 
the average for the Dicotyledoneae as listed 
in the floras of Gray, and Britton and 
Brown, for the northern and northeastern 
United States, Small’s southeastern flora, 
Chkapman’s southern flora, Coulter for the 
Rocky Mountains, together with the floras 
of Great Britain, France, Germany, Switzer- 
land, the Russian Empire, Norway, Spain, 
Syria and the Orient, the woody element 
amounts to 17.4 percent, and the herba- 
ceous element 82.6 percent. For the Bull 
Run region the woody element becomes 
18.2 percent and the herbaceous becomes 
81.9 percent for all native and introduced 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 4 


Spermatophyta. The woody and herbaceous 
elements, of the native and introduced 
Dicotyledoneae of the Bull Run Mountain 
area amount of 24.3 percent and 75.7 per- 
cent, respectively. The latter figure for the 
herbaceous element occurring in the Bull 
Run Mountain area is much higher than 54 
percent which has been taken to represent 
the herbaceous element for the normal spec- 
trum of the world flora. This figure for the 
herbaceous element falls below that of any 
temperate region of North America, Europe, 
or Asia. It very closely approaches the 
dicotyledonous herbaceous element of floras 
found in warm areas; namely, 54 percent 
for the Florida Keys (Small), 57 percent 
for Japan (Matsumura), and 54 percent 
for the Upper Gangetic Plain (Duthie), 
where the phanerophytic or woody com- 
ponent is bigh. The high herbaceous ele- 
ment occurring in the Bull Run Mountain 
area indicates a regime of north temperate 
climate considerably removed from that of 
warm, humid latitudes. 

Taylor (1915) (1918) determined the 
growth forms for the vegetation of New 
York City and vicinity, and the total flora 
of Long Island, N. Y., on the basis of 
Raunkiaer’s concepts. Ennis (1928) did a 
similar and very excellent piece of work for 
Connecticut. This work is of particular in- 
terest when compared with the percentage 
composition of the growth forms of all 
Spermatophyta of the Bull Run area, owing 
to the close agreement in the two areas as 
shown by the data in Table 2. 


TABLE 2.—PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF LiIFE-FORMS IN THE SPERMATOPHYTA FLORA OF THE VICINITY OF NEw YorRK City; 
oF Lone Isuanp, N. Y.; CoNNECTICUT; THE BuLL Run AREA; INDIANA; AND THE NORTHERN AND 


EASTERN UNITED STATES (Gray) ® 
Total Occurrence (percent) 
Spectrum aac 
Th Ch H G Mg Ms M N  |HIl-+Hy 
Vicinity of New York City (native flora) .| 1907 13.0 5.29 | 33.29 | 20.23 .52 4.03 7.18 3.51 | 11.74 
Joong Islands 2 io 3 Sho es Geeta 719 13.94 5.89 | 33.15 | 20.1 .89 4.37 6.34 2.77 | 10.9 
Connecticut (mative).................. 1453 11.7 1.9 49.4 13.2 1.5 3.9 5.8 33,7 8.5 
TB OUNL TRG EAC oosooeasebocongoucnboe 980 17.0 1.4 51.7 9.1 1.8 6.4 5.6 4.4 De W 
Indiana: (Deam)ls 5 aster tae cl Bie ee 2420 11.2 1.4 50.9 11.6 1.5 5.08 4.5 3.1 5.7 
Gray’s Manual (N. & E. U.S.).......... 4283 15.2 1.4 52.4 10.4 9 4.1 4.6 4.9 5.6 


Total Hemicryptophytes and Cryptophytes (H, G, Hl, Hy). New York City 65.36 percent; Long Island 64.5 percent; Con- 
necticut 71.1 percent; Bull Run 62.0 percent; Indiana 68.4 percent; northern and eastern U.S. (Gray) 68.5 percent. 

Woody plants (Mg, Ms, M, N). New York City 15.24 percent; Long Island 14.37 percent; Connecticut 14.9 percent; Bull Run 
18.2 percent; Indiana 14.7 percent; northern and eastern U. S. (Gray) 14.7 percent. 

Herbaceous plants (Th, Ch, H, G, Hl, Hy). New York City 83.55 percent; Long Island 85.63 percent; Connecticut 84.7 percent; 
Bull Run 81.8 percent; Indiana 85.3 percent; northern and eastern U. S. (Gray )85.3 percent. 


Apr. 15, 1944 


The greatest discrepancies are shown for 
the Hemicryptophytes (H) and the Crypto- 
phytes (G, Hl, Hy). However, these classes 
are most readily confused, since little more 
distinguishes the plants of each than the 
depth of the dormant buds. It will be noted 
that the summations, however, give re- 
markably close total percentages. The sum- 
mations of all the Phanerophytes or woody 
plants (Mg, Ms, M, N), and the herbaceous 
plants (T, Ch, H, G, Hl, Hy) also give very 
close values. These results indicate that the 
ecological structure of the vegetation in 
these four areas is strikingly similar. 


PHYSIOGNOMY OF VEGETATION NOT 
REVEALED BY THE BIOLOGICAL 
SPECTRUM 


Raunkiaer’s biological spectrum was de- 
vised to serve as a concrete expression of 
climate in terms of living plants. This has 
required a reduction of all the climates of 
the world to an average expression in terms 
of growth forms, in order that the spectrum 
would represent a mean concrete expression 
of the plant life of temperate, cold, and 
tropical climates. Since very cold and very 
warm climates have helped to make up this 
normal spectrum, it must represent some 
intermediate condition of climatic plant 
expression so that it can be neither strictly 
tropical, temperate, nor frigid. It would be 
exceptional, then, to find a section of our 
north temperate flora, a frigid or a tropical 
flora showing exact agreement with this 
standard spectrum in all respects. 

While the Raunkiaer method of analyzing 
vegetation on the basis of its ecological life- 
forms may afford a statistical means of 
evaluating the structure of vegetation of a 
climatic zone, it does not reveal the physi- 
ognomy or visual aspect of such vegetation. 
It does not indicate whether the dominant 
vegetation of the climax forest is deciduous, 
evergreen, coniferous, or broad-leaved ever- 
green. As Ennis has shown in her discussion 
of Connecticut spectra, the Coastal Plain 
areas of the South have the physiognomy, 
visually, of a coniferous forest due to an 
overstory of these, but the region is one of 
deciduous forest in its fundamental trends. 
In other words, the coniferous aspect is due 
to other influences than climate, such as de- 


ALLARD: FLORA OF BULL RUN MOUNTAIN REGION 


117 


termines the great natural coniferous forests 
of the North, and the higher mountain lands | 
of the Appalachians. These forests at all 
levels are coniferous in their structure. In 
the Bull Run area, the deeper, richer soils 
of the slopes and valleys are given to de- 
ciduous forest naturally. The sharp, dry, 
barren ridge crests carry aspermanent thin 
mantle of several species of pines, which, in 
some areas noticeably affect the physiog- 
nomy of the area. 

There is but one broad-leaved evergreen 
species in the Bull Run area which has any 
physiognomic significance, and this is con- 
fined to the understory entirely. This shrub, 
Kalmia latifolia, completely dominates the 
understory of extensive areas of the wood- 
land slopes to such an extent that little 
else can compete with its dense vegetation. 
In reality this evergreen shrub is the only 
species normal to the flora of the Bull Run 
highlands, for Ilex opaca and Phoradendron 
flavescens are practically out of their normal 
range here. Only 10 species of woody ever- 
green plants occur in this area. 

The minor importance of this group in 
this area compared with the flora of various 
other areas is shown in Table 3. 


TABLE 3.—PERCENT OF WooDY EVERGREEN SPECIES, BROAD- 
LEAVED EVERGREEN SPECIES, AND EVERGREEN CONIFERS 
IN THE FLoRA. (Data in part from Ennis, 1928.) 


Broad- 
Evergreen Evergreen 
Species ; leaved : 
species conifers 
of evergreens 
Flora 
woody 
plants Per- Per- Per- 
cent °- | cent °- | cent 
Mloriday.e 4. 357 {111 | 31 98 | 27.4 | 13 3.6 
District of 
Columbia....| 187 20 | 10.5 | 12 6.3 8 4.2 
Connecticut...| 219 21 | 10 8 4 13 6 
Penobscot Bay. 97 16 | 16.4 4 Aba A PA || 174683 
Bull Run region| 188 10 1 3 1.5 7 Bat 


The data of Table 3 indicate the increased 
importance of the broad-leaved evergreen 
plants in Florida, and the minor importance 
of the evergreen conifers here. This relation 
is reversed for the Penobscot Bay region 
where the evergreen conifers become a 
dominant element of the flora and the 
broad-leaved evergreens reduced. Although 
the woody plants of the District of Colum- 


118 


bia and the Bull Run area are almost identi- 
eal in number, with a similar evergreen 
coniferous content, the broad-leaved ever- 
greens are much more important in the 
former area. 


ADAPTATION OF LIFE-FORMS OF PLANTS IN 
RELATION TO THE UNFAVORABLE 
~ SEASON 


While Raunkiaer’s classification takes 
into consideration the adaptation of the 
various plants to the season most unfavor- 
able to growth, this being the severe winter 
season in the colder northern latitudes, the 
relationship is not one of direct cause and 
effect. As a matter of fact in the case of most 
of the woody and herbaceous perennials the 
perennating buds are laid down near mid- 
summer in response to factors of the climate 
seasonally far removed from the actual cold 
of wintertime. Whatever these factors may 
be it is obvious that the plants have been 
ecologically preconditioned in one way or 
another to meet the oncoming severe winter 
conditions at the end of the warm growing 
season, even though this may have been 
merely an incidental and not a causal rela- 
tionship in the life of the plant. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


While the factors of humidity, tempera- 
ture, wind velocity, rainfall, and percentage 
of sunshine are seasonally extremely vari- 
able, one factor, length of day, is an astro- 
nomical event recurring with great con- 
stancy from year to year. The work of 
Garner and Allard in 1920 demonstrated 
that the life-form and life-duration of plants 
could be profoundly modified by this regu- 
lar recurring seasonal factor of climate. At 
the present time the great desideratum in 
our knowledge of climate in relation to the 
life-forms of plants is the lack of specific 
information as to how the climatic complex 
selectively or adaptively determines the 
character of the spectrum that will prevail 
in a particular zone. That there is a funda- 
mental reason why Hemicryptophytes and 
Cryptophytes are dominant in the flora of 
the cooler middle latitudes, such as in our 
humid north temperate zone, cannot be 
doubted. It cannot be denied that a given 
flora is adaptively related to a particular 
climate as Raunkiaer’s life-form studies 
have postulated. Unfortunately, there is 
little evidence at hand at the present time 
to explain the mechanism of this seeming 
adaptiveness. Raunkiaer, as the result of 


ee 7 . 
5 ii 
Oo = oO 
& So gu 
so oO x 
=.a)= = 
mo] of 
ege 

Be) 
5-= o 
£§a = 
356 * 
ane 

6 


Dec. 


May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 


Feb. Mar. Apr. 
| Mczths 

Fig. 1.—Climatic regime for the Bull Run Mountain region, typical of the Hemicryptophyte climate 
of the Eastern Atlantic States. The normal temperature, humidity, sunshine percentage, wind velocity, 
and rainfall curves are shown for each month of the year. Rainfall is for nearby Manassas, Va., interpo- 
lated for 35 years from about 20 years of records. The temperature curve is the mean of records for 
Washington, D. C., and Culpeper, Va., which is the nearest weather station recording temperatures. 
The curves for humidity, wind velocity and sunshine were taken from Washington records. The 
humidity curve is based upon the mean of the normal minimum and maximum values computed from 
records of the U. S. Weather Bureau station for 7:30 a. Mm. and midday, respectively. The figures for 
temperature also correctly represent the percentages of sunshine and relative humidity. 


Apr. 15, 1944 


his fundamental investigations of the life- 
forms of plants showed that some species 
can change their characteristic life-form to 
a greater or less degree. One of these, J'us- 
silago farfara, in Denmark is a Cryptophyte, 
but in milder or more southern latitudes be- 
comes a Hemicryptophyte. This observa- 
tion has fundamental implications in an 
interpretation of the dependence and occur- 
rence of life-forms in relation to a particular 
climate. 


CONCLUSIONS 


_ It is obvious that the Bull Run region, 
like all the eastern portions of the United 
States, is dominated by a Hemicryptophyte 
climate. Fig. 1 shows the dominant features 
of such a climatic regime with respect to 
normal temperature, relative humidity, 
rainfall and wind velocity over a long 
period. Temperature and available moisture 
are very largely responsible for the general 
character of the climax forest vegetation of 
a region. It appears from Fig. 1 that every 
factor of the climatic complex in our eastern 
forested region favors the conservation of 
moisture during the growing season so far 
as plant life is concerned. As the duration 
and percentage of sunshine and tempera- 
ture increase the relative humidity of the 
air and the rainfall increase, and the mean 
wind velocity decreases, serving as an ad- 
ditional check upon evaporation at a time 
when the temperatures are highest. It is 
thus seen that when the plants are forced 
into their maximum activity by one set of 
factors, others operate to counteract any 
unfavorable tendencies, thus constituting 
one of the most ideal climates for many 
types of mesophytic vegetation. This favor- 
able and supplementing interplay of all 
factors, then, is particularly favorable to a 
very luxuriant summer vegetation domi- 
nated by deciduous forest as the overstory, 
with a rich Hemicryptophyte flora beneath 
this forest cover capable of surviving severe 
conditions, with its enforced dormancy of 
vegetative activity. 

Whatever the significance of Raunkiaer’s 
normal world spectrum, his studies indicate 
convincingly that the life-forms of plants 
are so definitely related to a particular cli- 


ALLARD: FLORA OF BULL RUN MOUNTAIN REGION 


119 


mate that the constancy of relationship 
must be determined or conditioned by the 
operation of definite climatic laws prevailing 
under every climatic regime. It must be 
admitted, also, that his life-form classifica- 
tion, with its statistical aspects, may have 
genuine ecological meaning in the interpre- 
tation of some features of the striking rela- 
tionships of vegetation everywhere. 


LITERATURE CITED 


ALLARD, H. A., and Lronarp, E. C. The 
vegetation and floristics of Bull Run Moun- 
tain, Virginia. Castanea 8: 1-64, illus. 
1943. 

DrupvE,O. Die Okologie der Pflanzen. Bruns- 
wick, 1913. 


Ennis, Beutan. The life forms of Connecticut 
plants and their significance in relation to 
climate. Connecticut State Geol. and 
Nat. Hist. Surv. no. 48. 1928. 

GriseBacH, A. Die Vegetation der Erde nach 
threr klimatischen Anordnung. Leipzig, 
1872. 

KERNER VON Mariuaun, A. Das Pflanzen- 
leben der Donauldnder. Innsbruck, 1863. 

Puituirs, Auice. Life-forms and biological 
spectra of the flora of Bacon’s Swamp, 
Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 1(4): 
41-53. 1929. 

RAUNKIAER, C. Types biologiques pour la 
géographie botanique. 1905. 

. Linsformernes Statistik som Grundlag 

for Biologisk Plantegeographt. Bot. Tids- 

skr. 29: 42-83. 1908. (Rev. by Smith, 

W. G.: Journ. Ecol. 1: 16-32, 1913) (Rev. 

by Fuller, George D., and Bakke, AY See: 

Raunkiaer’s “Life Forms, Leaf-size Classes 

and Statistical Methods.” Plant World 

21: 25-37. 1918). 

. Ueber das biologische Normalspektrum. 

Danske Vid. Selsk. Biol. Medel. 1(4). 

1918. 

The life forms of plants and plant 
geography: 632 pp. 1934. (An excellent 
English translation of all Raunkiaer’s 
papers.) 

Sinnott, E. W.,and Baitey,I.W. The origin 
and dispersal of herbaceous angiosperms. 
Ann. Bot. 28: 566-567. 1914. 

Taytor, Norman. The growth forms of the 
flora of New York and vicinity. Ann. 
Journ. Bot. 2: 23-31. 1915, 

. A quantitative study of Raunkiaer’s 
growth-forms as illustrated by the 400 com- 
monest species of Long Island, N. Y. 
Brooklyn Bot. Gard. Mem. 1: ‘486-491. 
1918. 

WarMinG, E. Ecology Oxford, 
-1909. 


of plants. 


120 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


ENTOMOLOGY.—Concerning Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemiptera). C.J. DRAKE 
and EK. J. HAMBLETON, Iowa State College. 


This paper contains the descriptions of 
2 new genera, 15 new species, and 1 new 
variety and notes on a number of other 
species of lace bugs from Neotropical re- 
gions. The specimens were collected largely 
by the junior author. The type are in the 
Drake collection. 


Subfamily CANTACADERINAE 
Phatnoma amazonica, n. sp. 


Closely allied to P. marmorata Champion but 
readily distinguishable by the nonannulate fe- 
mora, nearly uniform brownish color, shorter 
and more ovate form, the apical portion of 
foliaceous nervure separating discoidal and 
subcostal areas without a blackened area; cos- 
tal area also one row of areolae wider; oblique, 
adventitious nervures of discoidal and subcostal 
areas much less prominent and not differently 
colored; head slender. Other characters very 
similar to P. marmorata. 

Length, 3.30 mm; width, 1.25 mm. 

Type (female), Pard, Brazil. 

In P. marmorata, the veinlets dividing the 
areolae of the foliaceous nervures delimiting the 
discoidal area are infuscate. The entire insect is 
quite marmorate in general appearance, whereas 
amazonica is almost uniform in color. 


Phatnoma marmorata Champion 


Known from Panama, Honduras, and Brazil 
and recorded from the cocoa bean. One speci- 
men from Trinidad, B. W. I., was taken on cul- 
tivated pineapple, May 25, 1934, by Dr. A. M. 
Adamson. 


Stenocader, n. gen. 


Obovate, more convex above in long- than 
short-winged form. Head very long, rather 
broad, tumid above, with two pairs of spines in 
front of eyes; bucculae long, reticulated, meet- 
ing a little before apex of head. Antennae long, 
slender, smooth; segments I and II short, to- 
gether not reaching apex of head, the former 
slightly longer and stouter; III very long, very 
slender, often longer in male than female; IV 
rather short, moderately thickened. Rostrum 
extremely long, extending considerably on base 


1 Received December 23, 1943. 


of abdomen; rostral channel distinct, the lami- 
nae raised and subparallel, the venter strongly 
impressed along median line of basal half so as 
to form a distinct groove for the reception of 
rostrum. Eyes set close to pronotum. 

Pronotum narrowed anteriorly, subtruncate 
in front, pitted, with five carinae, the outer or 
lateral pair short, the middle pair interrupted 
at base of collar, hind margin of pronotum not 
strongly produced, subtruncate or slightly con- 
vex; scutellum small, exposed. Paranota nar- 
row, only slightly reflexed, the outer margin 
serrate, somewhat toothed. Elytra divided into 
the usual areas, the discoidal and subcostal 
areas with raised transverse hervures, the cla- 
vus distinct, within meeting in a straight line; 
elytra more strongly overlapping apically in 
long- than short-winged form when in repose, 
much more convex above in short-winged 
form, the outer margin of costal area granu- 
lated or toothed; wings much longer than ab- 
domen in long-winged specimens. 

Type of genus, Piesma tingidoides Spinola 
from Chile. 

The discoidal area is very long, extending 
more than three-fourths of the total length of 
elytra. The males are distinctly slenderer than 
the females and also have a little longer anten- 
nae. Stenocader differs from Nectocader Drake 
in not having the elytra very much more widely 
and abruptly expanded at the base, and the cos- 
tal area is without a row of large marginal areo- 
lae distinctly set off within by a thickened 
nervure so as to form practically another area. 
The rostrum is longer in Nectocader, and there 
is no median furrow on base of venter for the 
rostrum in repose. In the genus Cantacader 
Amyot and Serville, the scutellum is con- 
cealed, being covered completely by the hind 
margin of pronotum. 


Stenocader tingidoides (Spinola) 


Piesma tingidoides Spinola, in Gay, Hist. Chile, 
Zool. 7: 200. 1852; Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. 
France, 1863: 575. 

Cantacader tingidoides Reed, Rev. Chil. Hist. 
Nat. 4: 179. 1902 (reprint, p. 86). 

Cantacader? germaini Signoret, Ann. Soc. Ent. 
France, 1863: 586; Reed, Rev. Chil. Hist. 
Nat. 4: 179. 1902 (reprint, p. 86). 

Nectocader tingidoides Drake, Iowa State Coll. 
Journ. Sci. 3: 42. 1928; Rev. Ent. 10: 322. 


Apr. 15, 1944 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON 


1939; Drake and Poor, Iowa State Journ. 
Sci. 10: 383. 1936. 

Nectocader germaini Drake, Iowa State Coll. 
Journ. Sci. 3: 41. 1928. : 


Many examples from’ Chile. The longer an- 
tennae of male, and the marked difference be- 
tween long- and short-winged forms, together 
with color variations account for the above 
synonymy. 


Genus Eocader Drake and Hambleton, 1934 
Moniea Bruner, 1940. 


Haplotype, Hocader vegrandis Drake and 
Hambleton. 

In this genus the paranota are uni- or tri- 
seriate, the lateral carinae sometimes being 
distinct or more or less obsolete in specimens of 
the same species. Only two species are known. 
The genus Montea Bruner is identical with 
Eocader. Long- and short-winged specimens of 
both species have been examined. 


Eocader vegrandis Drake and Hambleton 


Eocader vegrandis Drake and Hambleton, Rev. 
Ent. 4: 436, fig. 1. 1934. 

Originally described from a brachypterous 
female, Vicosa, Minas Geraes, on the fruit of 
Bombax monguba Mart. Zucc., an imported 
tree; allotype (male) and several other exam- 
ples taken on mongubeira, Jardin Botanico, 
Rio de Janeiro, A. A. Silva. The lateral carinae 
are often wanting or only faintly indicated in 
apterous individuals. 

In a macropterous specimen the lateral 
carinae are sharply raised, very distinct and 
scarcely bent inward in front. The elytra are 
long, extending considerably beyond apex of 
abdomen, and overlap at apex; the costal area 
is triseriate in widest part near base and uni- 
seriate distally. The color of the elytra is 
testaceous, with the nervures bounding dis- 
coidal and the oblique adventitious nervelets of 
subcostal and discoidal areas dark fuscous. The 
wings are nearly as long as the elytra. The 
length is 2.55 mm, the width, 1.20 mm. 


Subfamily TINGITINAE 
Monanthia berryi Drake 
Through an error and misunderstanding of 
locality label, this insect was wrongly described 


from Uruguay. The locality label should read, 
Chanchaqui, Pert, August 21, 1942, P. A. 


: NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 


- 


121 


Berry. Since the original description was pub- 
lished, 10 additional specimens have been re- 
ceived from Perti. Not recorded elsewhere. 


Teleonemia lanceolata (Walker) 


Monanthia lanceolata Walker, Cat. Hemiptera 
Brit. Mus. 6: 194. 1873. 

Teleonemia albomarginata Champion, Biol. Centr.- 
Amer. Rhynch. 2: 43. pl. 3, figs. 18, 18a. 1898. 

Teleonemia spectabilis Drake, Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist. (10) 8: 226. 1931. 

Teleonemia dispersa Drake, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 
(10) 8: 227. figs. 1, la. 1931. 

Teleonemia albomarginata Monte, Arq. Inst. Biol. 
11: 298. 1940; Rev. Bras. Biol. 3: 107. 1943. 

Teleonemia lanceolata Drake and Hambleton, 
Arq. Inst. Biol. 9: 52. 1938; Drake and Poor, 
An. Mus. Cien. Nat. 40: 299. 1942. 


As the original descriptions of Monanthia 
lanceolata Walker (1873) and Teleonemia albo- 
marginata Champion (1897) agree and the two 
names apply equally well to the same species, 
Drake and Hambleton (1938) and Drake and 
Poor (1942) correctly placed the latter name in 
synonymy. According to W. E. China, the 
Walker type of lanceolata seems to have been 
lost and can not be located in the British Mu- 
seum. The writers have carefully studied very 
long series of lanceolata (Walker) from Brazil, 
Paraguay, Argentina, Peri, Venezuela, Colom- 
bia, several Central American countries, and 
the West Indies. Specimens vary somewhat in 
size, color, lateral expansions of paranota and 
elytra, and the height of median carina. The 
original description and figure of albomarginata 
by Champion are excellent. 

The statements of Monte (1941, 1943) are 
entirely inept and based upon his opinion rather 
than a careful study of specimens and original 
descriptions. His conclusions are entirely er- 
roneous, and the name albomarginata Cham- 
pion will have to be suppressed asa synonym of 
lanceolata (Walker). 


Teleonemia quechua Monte 


Nine specimens, Satipo, April 12, 1941; 1 
specimen, Challanga; 1 specimen, Vilcanoto; 2 
examples, Coroico; and 12 specimens, Cafiete, 
Pert, Edson J. Hambleton. One specimen, Villa 
Vicenzio, Colombia, 1898, O. Burger. In this 
species there is some variation in color and 
length of antennae. The antennae are long, 
moderately stout, and rather densely clothed 
with very short recumbent hairs; proportions 


422 


1:10, I1:8, I1I1:115, IV:40. The male tends to 
be a little smaller than the female. The carinae 
are sharply raised, thick, foliaceous, the lateral 
pair being slightly concave within in front. 


Teleonemia absimilis, n. sp. 


Elongate, broad, fuscous-brown, the para- 
nota, costal and most of subcostal areas, collar, 
and raised anterior portion of median carina 
whitish testaceous. Appendages ferrugineous. 
Hind spines of head adpressed, not reaching 
anterior margins of eyes, the median and frontal 
spines short. Rostrum extending to middle of 
metasternum; rostral channel widening pos- 
teriorly, open behind at the middle the laminae 
testaceous, concave within on metasternum. 
Body beneath dark ferrugineous, the hind mar- 
gins of abdominal segments darkened. 

Pronotum moderately convex, coarsely pit- 
ted, with foliaceous carinae, each uniseriate, 
the lateral more widely separated and concave 
within in front, the median elevated in front 
so as to form a small rooflike hood, subtruncate 
in front; paranota rather narrow, uniseriate, 
strongly reflexed slightly wider in front. Elytra 
slightly widening posteriorly, very slightly con- 
stricted beyond middle, together rounded be- 
hind when in repose; costal area moderately 
wide, slightly reflexed along basal portion, the 
areolae moderately large, hyaline; subcostal 
area narrow, uniseriate, somewhat testaceous; 
discoidal area large, narrowed at base and apex, 
widest a little in front of middle, there six 
areolae deep, the inner boundary more raised; 
sutural area large, the veinlets (also of discoi- 
dal) only slightly raised, the areolae and vein- 
lets embrowned. 

Length, 5.60 mm; width, 1.80 mm. 

Type (female), Villa Vicenzio, Colombia, 
January 1, 1898, Prof. O. Burger, collector. 

This species is smooth, somewhat reddish 
brown, with very pale testaceous margins. The 
whitish testaceous color of costal area extends 
to the apex of elytra and is not interrupted be- 
hind as in lanceolata (Walker). 


Teleonemia altilis, n. sp. 


Very similar in general appearance and color 
to T. molina Drake but easily distinguished by 
its smaller size, shorter rostrum, wider costal 
area and thinner carinae. Rostrum extending a 
little beyond middle of mesosternum; rostral 
laminae brownish, thinner and not as widely 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


separated as in molina. Head with five rather 
short, yellowish-brown spines, the three fron- 
tal shorter. Carinae uniseriate, the lateral pair 
slightly concave within in front. Costal area 
whitish testaceous, uniseriate, the areolae clear, 
widest opposite apex of discoidal area, there on 
one side with two extra areolae; subcostal area 
narrow, uniseriate. Paranota, hood and median 
carina testaceous. Appendages black-ferrugine- 
ous. 

Length, 4.70 mm; width, 2.40 mm. 

Type (female), Las Juntas, Bolivia. Col- 
lected by Steinbach. Separated from 7. prolixa 
Stal and varieties by the wider costal area. 


Teleonemia inops, n. sp. 


Brownish, with some areas infuscate. Head 
with five spines, the hind pair longer, adpressed, 
the median and fore pair shorter, directed for- 
ward. Antennae ferrugineous-brown, mod- 
erately long, shortly pilose; segment III ap- 
proximately two and one-half times the length 
of IV; I and II short, the latter smaller. Ros- 
trum reaching near the base of mesosternum; 
laminae very low, widely separated on meta- 
sternum, open behind. Legs fuscous-brown, 
rather slender. Body beneath dark ferrugineous. 

Pronotum dark brown, sharply tricarinate, 
each carinae uniseriate and with veinlets divid- 
ing cells fuscous, the lateral carinae more 
widely separated, slightly convex within in 
front; median carina moderately raised in front 
so as to form a small, rooflike hood, slightly 
projecting in front; paranota narrow, reflexed, 
uniseriate, the areolae small. Elytra consid- 
erably infuscated, mostly dark brown, the cos- 
tal area (also paranota, carinae, and collar 
lighter in color) mostly testaceous; costal area 
narrow, uniseriate, slightly reflexed along basal 
portion, the areolae small and clear; subcostal 
area narrow, uniseriate; disccidal area large, 
widest near middle, there five areolae deep; su- 
tural and discoidal areas rather widely areo- 
lated, the areolae opaque, brown to fuscous, the 
veinlets not prominent. 

Length, 4.55 mm; width, 1.35 mm. 

Type (male), La Ceiba, Honduras. 

Separated from 7’. notata Champion by the 
longer antennae, less convex pronotum and 
wider costal area. It is a little larger than T. 
scrupulosa Stal and the discoidal area is gla- 
brous. | 


Apr. 15, 1944 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON 


Teleonemia sandersi, n. sp. 


Moderately large, mostly dark fuscous, the 
paranota and costal areas testaceous, some of 
the transverse veinlets infuscate, the head and 
pronotum often covered with whitish exuda- 
tion. Head black, with five stout, moderately 
long, testaceous spines, the hind pair ad- 
pressed, the median directed forward, the front 
pair curved inward. Rostrum extending to 
meso- and metasternal suture; laminae thick, 
testaceous, concave within on meso- and meta- 
sternum, more widely separated on metaster- 
num, open behind. Body beneath blackish fer- 
rugineous. Appendages dark ferrugineous, the 
last antennal segment black. Antennae mod- 


erately long, rather densely clothed with short, 


decumbent hairs; segment I thicker and a little 
longer than II; III slightly bent, slightly more 
than twice as long as IV. 

Pronotum moderately convex, pitted, 
sharply tricarinate, each carinae uniseriate, the 
lateral carinae distinctly diverging anteriorly. 
Median carina in front and collar raised so as to 
form a rooflike hood, the anterior margin 
slightly produced. Paranota narrow, strongly 
reflexed, testaceous, uniseriate, the areolae 
moderately large; subcostal area narrow, uni- 
seriate; discoidal area impressed, widest near 
middle, there five aerolae deep, the areolae 
rather large; sutural area rather widely reticu- 
lated, the areolae becoming larger posteriorly. 

Length, 4.78 mm; width, 1.25 mm. 

Type (male), Canal Zone, Panama, Febru- 
ary 10, 1935, C. H. Richardson; allotype (fe- 
male), Olhajuela, Canal Zone, February 11, 
1921, J. G. Sanders; paratype, Canal Zone, 
Panama, taken with type. 

Named in honor of Prof. J. G. Sanders, who 
kindly presented us the first example of the 
species. The sharply raised carinae, raised 
boundary of discoidal area and raised veinlets 
of elytra give this insect a striking appearance. 
The rostral laminae are higher and not so 
widely separated on metasternum as in 7’. alti- 
lis; the pronotum is also more convex and the 
veinlets of areas of elytra more raised and 
prominent. 


Teleonemia vulsa, n. sp. 


Resembling 7. leitei Drake and Hambleton 
but with longer antennae, wider costal area, 
narrower subcostal area and differently colored 


: NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 


123 


appendages. Head brown, with five blunt, 
testaceous spines, the hind pair longer and ad- 
pressed. Eyes black. Antennae moderately long, 
brownish ferrugineous, indistinctly pilose; seg- 
ment I stouter and longer than II; III long, 
slightly bent, a little more than three times as 
long as IV; IV longer than the first two con- 
joined, blackish. 

Pronotum moderately convex, distinctly pit- 
ted, brown; paranota narrow, distinct, slightly 
wider in front, the areolae indistinct; carinae 
sharply elevated, the areolae distinct; lateral 
carinae distinctly more widely separated in 
front, there concave within; median carina and 
collar raised in front so as to form a rather long, 
small, rooflike hood, slightly produced in front. 
Elytra widest near middle, slightly constricted 
beyond middle, brown, paler along margins; 
costal area rather narrow, uniseriate, the areo- 
lae hyaline and moderately large; subcostal area 
scarcely wider, biseriate; discoidal area large, 
narrowed at base and apex, widest a little be- 
fore middle, there five areolae deep, the areolae 
rather large; sutural area more widely reticu- 
lated, considerably infuscated. Legs dark 
brown. Rostrum not quite extending to base of 
mesosternum; laminae testaceous, parallel, 
more widely separated on metasternum, en- 
tirely open behind. 

Length, 4.90 mm; width, 1.25 mm. 

Type (male), allotype (female), and two 
paratypes, Chapada, Brazil. 


Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal 


This species is widely distributed in Mexico, 
Central America, West Indies, and South 
America. It has not been recorded from Chile. 
A number of years ago the species was intro- 
duced into the Hawaiian Islands, Fiji, and 
Australia for the purpose of controlling the 
weed Lantana. The insect has flourished in 
these countries. 

Drake and Frick (Proc. Haw. Ent. Soc. 10: 
201. 1939) treat 7. haytiensis Drake as a va- 
riety of scrupulosa. This conclusion was based 
on a study of the type of haytiensis, cotype and 
an extremely long series of specimens of 
scrupulosa from South and Central America, 
West Indies, Mexico, United States, and islands 
of the Pacific. The antennal characters seem to 
warrant the varietal name haytiensis. Certain 
specimens from Texas, which have been ten- 


124 


tatively identified as scrupulosa, need further 
study and may perhaps represent another va- 
riety or even a distinct species. Monte (Papeis 
Avulsos Dept. Zool. Sao Paulo 2: 103. 1942) 
erroneously treated haytiensis as a synonym of 
scrupulosa. His conclusions are not based on an 
examination of the type or material from the 
type locality; scrupulosa has been much con- 
fused in the literature. 


Pachycysta diaphana Champion 


One example, Surukun, Venezuela, Novem- 
ber, 1940, collected by P. Anduzee. Two other 
examples are at hand from the Amazon region 
of Brazil. The type locality is ‘‘Amazona.”’ 


Amblystira pallipes (Stal) 


A series of examples, Surukun, Venezuela, 
November, 1940, taken by P. Anduzee. Many 
specimens have been studied from Brazil and 
Colombia. Taken in numbers on Sapindaceae, 
Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1934, by Edson J. Hamble- 
ton. 

Corycera comptula Drake 


Five specimens, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Bra- 
zil, April 18, 1937, Edson J. Hambleton. The 
type locality is Chapada, Matto Grosso. 


Corycera juncta, n. sp. 


Very much like C. separata Drake and Ham- 
bleton but separated from it by the longer first 
antennal segment, testaceous paranota, rostral 
laminae not so widely separated on metaster- 
num, lateral carinae of pronotum slightly less 
raised on disc and all carinae are thicker and 
more elevated on hind triangular process. Head 
with hind pair of spines brownish, stout, blunt, 
adpressed, extending as far forward as front 
margins of eyes; median spine wanting; front 
pair short, brownish, turned inward. Rostrum 
extending on base of mesosternum. Costal area 
moderately broad, whitish testaceous, biseriate 
in widest part, the areolae clear and moderately 
large. Legs pale testaceous, the tarsi a little 
darker. Antennae long, slender, indistincty 
hairy; segment I very stout, moderately long, 
black-fuscous; II short, slender, testaceous; III 
very long, testaceous; IV slightly thickened, 
mostly blackish, pale at base. 

Length, 2.60 mm; width, 1.05 mm. 

Type (female), Sao Paulo, Brazil, May 22, 
1935, E. J. Hambleton. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


Amblystira scita, n. sp. 


Similar in appearance to A. socia Drake but 
easily separated from it by the slightly more 
raised lateral carinae and the somewhat 
rounded and not sharply raised apex of dis- 
coidal area. Pronotum black, somewhat shiny, 
pitted, the lateral carinae slightly divaricating 
anteriorly. Elytra blackish, the widest or bi- 
seriate portion of costal area testaceous, the 
areolae of sutural area somewhat whitish. An- 
tennae testaceous, most of terminal segment 
black. Other characters very similar to A. so- 
cud. 

Type (female), and paratype, Mercedes, 
Costa Rica, August 5, 1928. 

In A. socia, the apical angle of the discoidal 


‘area is sharply raised, acutely angulate, and the 


hind margin straight; the subcostal area is also 
wider. Otherwise, except for the lateral carinae, 
the two species are very similar in appearance. 


Atheas placentis Drake and Poor 


Five specimens, Sao Paulo, February 2, 1935, 
collected by E. J. Hambleton. Reported by 
Monte as occurring on Celtis brasiliensis Gardn. 


Atheas laetantis, n. sp. 


Head black, without spines. Bucculae tes- 
taceous, closed in front. Rostrum brownish, 
black at apex, extending on mesosternum. 
Body beneath black. Antennae moderately 
long, slender; segment I black, slightly stouter 
and nearly three times as long as II; II short, 
blackish; III testaceous, slenderest, slightly 
more than three times as long as IV, indis- 
tinctly hairy; IV rather long, almost wholly 
black, slightly thickened, with longer, pale 
hairs. Antenniferous tubercles rather long, 
conelike, nearly straight, becoming testaceous 
apically. Eyes black. Legs slender, testaceous, 
the tarsi darkened. 

Pronotum moderately convex, pitted, brown- 
ish black, sharply tricarinate, each carinae with 
a row of tiny areolae, the lateral pair parallel; 
collar distinct, dark brown, testaceous in front. 
Paranota rather narrow, wider in front, uni- 
seriate opposite humeral angles, biseriate in 
front, the outer margin nearly straight, the 
areolae hyaline and moderately large. Elytra 
with all discoidal and subcostal areas and basal 
portion of sutural areas fuscous-black, the rest 
pale testaceous, the areolae hyaline; costal area 


Apr. 15, 1944 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON 
rather broad, mostly biseriate, triseriate in wid- 
est part, the areolae large, arranged in some- 
what irregular rows; subcostal area narrow, 
mostly biseriate; discoidal area reaching a little 
beyond middle of elytra, narrowed at base and 
apex; sutural area mostly widely reticulated. 

Length, 2.55 mm; width, 1.10 mm. 

Type (male), allotype (female), and 32 para- 
types, Vicosa, Minas Geraes, Brazil, April 29, 
1934, on Machaerium angustifolium Vog. and 
Machaerium sp., by Edson J. Hambleton. 

This species may be separated from A. jflav- 
pes Champion by the more rounded outer mar- 
gins of elytra, the wider costal area, and the 
shorter first and testaceous third antennal seg- 
ments. 


Tigava lonchocarpa, n. sp. 


Allied to 7. cassiae Drake and Hambleton 
but distinguished by the thinner and less ele- 
vated carinae and the narrower paranota and 
elytra. Head brownish, the spines testaceous; 
hind pair of spines long, adpressed, extending 
beyond front margin of eyes; median spine 
stout, blunt, directed forward, the anterior pair 
atrophied. Antennae long, indistinctly pilose; 
segment I long, stout, constricted before apex, 
slightly more than three times the length of II, 
blackish fuscous; II short, concolorous with I; 
III testaceous, two and a half times as long as 
IV; IV slightly thickened, clothed with pale 
hairs, black, the basal portion testaceous. Ros- 
trum extending to middle of mesosternum, 
brownish, dark at apex; laminae testaceous, 
constricted on mesosternum, very broad and 
cordate on metasternum, closed behind. Legs 
slender, yellowish brown. Body beneath black. 

- Pronotum grayish brown, moderately con- 
vex, finely pitted, tricarinate, all carinae indis- 
tinctly areolate; paranota rather narrow, uni- 
seriate behind, biseriate in front, testaceous, 
the areolae rather small and clear; calli im- 
pressed, black; collar raised, narrow, testa- 
ceous, areolate; triangular process areolate, 
lighter in color. Elytra brownish, becoming 
fuscous within, the marginal area testaceous 
with clear areolae; costal area moderately wide, 
biseriate, the outer row a little smaller, sub- 
costal area narrower, biseriate; discoidal area 
narrowed at base and apex, widest near middle, 
there four or five areolae deep; sutural area be- 
coming more widely reticulated posteriorly. 

Length, 3.85 mm; width, 1.05 mm. 


: NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 


125 


Type (female) and allotype (male) and three 
paratypes, Vigosa, Minas Geraes, Brazil, May 
6, 19384, taken on Lonchocarpus sp. by E. J. 
Hambleton. 

T. sesorts Drake and Hambleton is a smaller 
species with shorter basal segment of antennae. 


Campylotingis snipesi, n. sp. 


Elongate, slender, brownish, the costal area 
testaceous, with some of the transverse veinlets 
fuscous. Head brown, with five moderately long 
spines, the median arising from a slightly 
raised area, porrect and dark fuscous, the hind 
pair adpressed. Rostrum extending between 
fore legs, the channel strongly constricted on 
mesosternum, rather wide and closed behind. 
Body beneath black. Legs long, slender, tes- 
taceous. Antennae long, slender; segment I 
long, stout, constricted before apex, about four 
times as long as II; II stout, slenderer, testa- 
ceous; III very long, slenderest, testaceous, four 
times the length of IV; IV black, moderately 
long, scarcely thickened, clothed with whitish 
hairs. 

Pronotum moderately convex, closely pitted, 
tricarinate, the lateral carinae subparallel, dis- 
tinct but not prominent, the median a little 
more raised; calli impressed, brownish, collar 
raised, areolate; paranota indistinct opposite 
humeral angles, in front expanded so as to form 
a distinct carinalike ridge. Elytra narrow, 
widely constricted beyond middle, the sutural 
area infuscate, costal area narrow, yellowish 
brown, the areolae elongate; subcostal wider, 
mostly biseriate, triseriate in widest part; dis- 
coidal area rather narrow, narrowed at base 
and apex, widest beyond middle, there three or 
four areolae deep; sutural area becoming more 
widely reticulated distally. 

Length, 3.50 mm; width, 0.07 mm. 

Type (male), Vicosa, Minas Geraes, Brazil, 
collected by Dr. B. T. Snipes. The very narrow 
paranota opposite calli (there wider and ridge- 
like) and collar separate this species from its 
congeners. 


Leptodictya paulana, n. sp. 


Akin to L. austrina Drake and Hambleton in 
general appearance and color, but separated 
from it by the smaller areolae of elytra, nar- 
rower form and broader paranota. Head tumid, 
with extremely long, slender testaceous spines. 


126 


Antennae yellowish brown to dark fuscous, 
long, very slender, segment III two and one- 
half times as long as IV. Paranota completely 
overlapping, biseriate above, the upper fold 
broadly rounded in front and not sharply nar- 
rowed posteriorly as in austrina. Collar at mid- 
dle jointly raised in front so as to form a tecti- 
form hood, which is slightly more produced in 
front than in austrina. Rostrum extending on 
metasternum. Elytra with costal area less iri- 
descent, narrower and more closely reticulated 
than austrina. Male narrower than female. 
Other characters very similar to austrina. 

Length, 3.00 mm; width, 1.35 mm. 

Type (male), allotype (female), Taquare- 
tinga, Sao Paulo, Brazil, March, 1939, E. J. 
Hambleton. Paratypes, two specimens taken 
with type and one specimen, Campinas, Sao 
Paulo, June, 1937, Edson J. Hambleton. 


Leptobyrsa steini Stal 


This species has been very much confounded 
in the literature by Monte (Papeis Avulsos 
Dept. Zool. Sao Paulo 1: 203-208. 1941). The 
writers’ determinations of steini have always 
been based on one of Stal’s cotypes kindly sent 
to us by the Stockholm Museum more than a 
decade ago. This confusion has been constant 
since Monte first attempted to identify species 
in the genus. The same statement applies 
equally to L. baccharidis Drake and Hamble- 
ton. Specimens of Leptobyrsa before us deter- 
mined at various times by Monte as his L. ni- 
gricornis are typical examples of L. steini. 

Perhaps some of Monte’s confusion may be 
due to the errors in his illustrations of stetni and 
baccharidis published in the above mentioned 
volume. His remarks and criticisms seem to be 
based to some extent on the illustrations rather 
than a careful study of his specimens. To illus- 
trate, the hood of steini in his illustration is dis- 
tinctly larger than in Stal’s cotype and numer- 
ous other specimens of this species at hand from 
Brazil. The hood in steini is much smaller and 
does not cover the entire head (except eyes) or 
extend beyond its apex. The length and number 
of spines on the margins of the paranota and 
elytra in his illustrations agree with our mate- 
rial. 

It is impossible to know what Monte has de- 
termined as L. baccharidis. In the type, type 
series, and other specimens we do not have a 
single specimen of baccharidis that agrees with 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


Monte’s figure. The hood is not so large, the 
frontal spines are not so long or nearly so long 
as the first antennal segment, and the lateral 
carinae are not composed of two very elongate 
cells. In our series of specimens of steini, bac- 
charidis, and other members of Leptobyrsa Stal, 
the individuals of a long series of a species ex- 
hibit about the same amount of variation as in 
a number of other species of lace bugs. Itis dif-_ 


Fig. 1.—Pleseobyrsa atratarsis, n. sp. 


ficult to understand Monte’s statement ‘‘Por- 
quano tendo coligido para mais de 300 exem- 
plares do que Drake diz ser steini, todos eles, 
sem excecéo de um so, apresentam o mesmo 
rectio que se ve no desenho.”’ It will be neces- 
sary to examine specimens of what Monte has 
called L. baccharidis, L. steint, and L. nigritarsis 
before these errors can be rectified. 

According to the cotype of steini Stal and © 
type of baccharidis Drake and Hambleton, the 
hood of the former is distinctly smaller, and 
does not entirely cover the head in either form. 
The margins of the paranota and elytra are 
clothed with long hairs in baccharidis and with 


Apr. 15, 1944 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON 
shorter spines in stezni. The tumid elevations of 
elytra are also a little higher in baccharidis. 


Pleseobyrsa atratarsis, n. sp. Fig. 1 


Very similar to P. plicata (Champion) but 
differs from it in having black-fuscous tarsi, 
smaller hood. The lateral carinae are distinct, 
but present only on the disk. Head with five 
long, slender, pale, testaceous spines, the hind 
pair adpressed, extending as far forward as 
base of front pair of spines. Subcostal and dis- 
coidal areas subequal in width, each with five 
rows of areolae in widest part, the discoidal 
area considerably elevated. Paranota mostly 
finely serrate, with a few spines on the anterior 
margins. Head moderately convex above, 
brownish; front pair of spines straight, not 
quite reaching apex of first antennal segment 
median a little shorter, all three frontal spines 
directed forward and sjightly upward. Other 
color and other characters very similar to pli- 
cata. 

Length, 3.60 mm; width, 2.70 mm. 

Type (female), Pocas de Caldas, Minas Ge- 
raes, Brazil, Col. O. W. Guilherme, July 1, 1939. 


Gargaphia munda Stal 


The determinations of munda Stal of the 
writers are based upon a cotype kindly sent us a 
number of years ago by the Stockholm Mu- 
seum. Many other specimens are also at hand 
from the states of Minas Geraes, Sao Paulo, 
and Rio de Janeiro, collected by Edson J. 
Hambleton. Several years ago, Monte kindly 
sent the senior author specimens under the 
names of G. munda Stal and G. trichoptera Stal 
of what he later described as brunfelsiae. This 
probably accounts for Monte’s erroneous state- 
ment relative to munda in Arq. Inst. Biol. 2: 
295. 1940. Later Monte changed his determina- 
tion and then distributed what he had wrongly 
identified as munda and trichoptera under the 
label brunfelsiae. The latter is a valid name for 
a good species. 


Gargaphia lanei Monte 
Gargaphia lanei Monte, Arq. Zool. Estado Sao 
Paulo 1: 376. 1940. 
Gargaphia limata Drake and Poor, Rey. Ent. 2: 
_ 228. 1940. 
Gargaphia limitata Monte, Arq. Zool. Estado Sao 
Paulo 2: 18. 1940. 


According to the dates indicated in the origi- 
nal description, Janet Monte appeared on June 


: NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 


127 


27, 1940, and lumata Drake and Poor on June 
28, 1940. If these journals were mailed as indi- 
cated, Janet Monte has date priority of one day 
and is the valid name of the species. A study of 
type material shows that the two names apply 
to the same species and the name limata Drake 
and Poor must be suppressed. 


Gargaphia implicata Drake and Hambleton 


Gargaphia concursa implicata Drake and Hamble- 
ton, Rev. Ent. 1: 535. 1940. 


After studying a large number of specimens, 
the authors believe that the narrower, bi- or tri- 
seriate, subangulate paranota opposite humeri 
and the almost uniformly rounded (not: dis- 
tinctly arched) median carina represent specific 
differences. The hood is also larger and much 
more inflated than in concursa Drake. The sub- 
costal area is either bi- or triseriate. The type is 
a female and allotype, male. There are 21 para- 
types. Other specimens are also before us from 
Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina. 


Gargaphia nigrinervis impedita, n. var. 


Separated from typical G. nigrinervis Stal by 
the distinctly narrower, subrounded angles of 
paranota opposite humeri. Paranota triseriate 
in widest part, the areolae large, hyaline. Me- 
dian carina foliaceous, uniseriate, not dis- 
tinctly arched, slightly more elevated behind. 
Color and other characters very much like 
nigrinervis. 

Length, 4.20 mm; width, 2.25 mm. 

Type (male), Rio Frio, Colombia, April 2, 
1926. 

In G. nigrinervis Stal the paranota opposite 
humeral angles are wider and produced into 
acute points, there four or five areolae deep. In 
G. deceptiva (Drake) the paranota angles are 
very similar to G. nigrinervis Stal but the me- 
dian carina is very strongly elevated, strongly 
arched behind hood, and very much higher 
than in impedita or nigrinervis. 


Dyspharsa, n. gen. 


Head very short, with five spines. Antennae 
very slender, long, indistinctly pilose; segment 
I short and a little stouter and longer than II; 
III very long, slenderest; IV slightly thicker 
than III. Rostral channel widening posteriorly, 
the rostrum moderately long. Bucculae closed 
in front, areolate. Orifice present. Eyes placed 
close to pronotum. Pronotum strongly convex, 


128 


pitted, unicarinate. Hood rooflike, covering 
base of head. Paranota narrow, linear. Legs 
slender. Elytra distinctly lacy, expanded near 
the base, divided into usual areas; discoidal 
area short, not reaching middle of elytra. 

Type of genus, Leptopharsa myersi Drake. 

This genus resembles in general appearance 
very closely Acysta Champion but it has a dis- 
tinct hood. The pronotum is sharply convex 
and highest at center of disk, unicarinate. The 
discoidal area is short. These characters will 
also separate it from Leptopharsa Stal. In the 
latter, the pronotum is more or less trans- 
versely convex. 


Leptopharsa perbona Drake 


Leptopharsa perbona Drake, Amer. Mus. Nov., 
No. 398: 2. 1930. 

Leptopharsa spectabilis Monte, Arq. Inst. Biol. 11: 
290, fig. 7. 1940. 

As it is impossible to separate perbona Drake 
and spectabilis Monte, the latter name should 
be placed in synonymy. The species is not very 
closely related to G. munda Stal, either in ap- 
pearance or structure. . 


Leptopharsa distinconis Drake 
Leptopharsa distinconis Drake, Iowa State Coll. 
Journ. Sci. 3: 54. 1928. 
Leptopharsa iridis Drake, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 
398: 2. 1930. 

Numerous specimens of this insect were col- 
lected at Pirassununga, Sao Paulo, March 30, 
1936, and Belém, Pard, October 9, 1938. The 
variations in these series and other examples 
make it impossible to distinguish distinconis and 
wridis and the latter name is here placed in 
synonymy. 


Leptopharsa satipona, n. sp. 

Small, whitish testaceous, the head black, 
the pronotum darkened. Head with five long, 
slender, testaceous spines, the hind pair curved 
downward. Antennae very long, slender, 
smooth; segment I very long, black, slightly 
more than three times as long as II; segment II 
short, black-fuscous; III testaceous, very long, 
slightly more than twice as long as IV; IV very 
long, slightly thickened, blackish, with short, 
pale hairs. Legs testaceous, slender. Rostrum 
extending slightly beyond mesosternum. Body 
beneath black. 

Pronotum moderately, transversely convex, 
pitted, tricarinate; collar raised, the marginal 
row of areolae whitish testaceous; paranota 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


rather narrow, reflexed, oblique, projecting up- 
ward, whitish testaceous, biseriate, the outer 
margin nearly straight, the areolae hyaline; 
lateral carinae very low; median carina more 
elevated, not areolate; posterior triangular pro- 
jection reticulate, pale testaceous. Elytra con- 
stricted beyond middle, some of the veinlets 
fuscous; costal area moderately wide, mostly 
biseriate, triseriate in widest part, the areolae 
rather small; subcostal area very narrow, bi- 
seriate, the areolae tiny; discoidal area short, 
narrower in front than behind, widest a little 
beyond middle, there five areolae deep; sutural 
area with distal areolae larger and some of the 
veinlets brownish. 

Length, 2.70 mm; width, 1.00 mm. 

Type (male), Satipo, Peri, August 9, 1941, 
P. Paprzycki. 

This is one of the very smallest members of 
the genus. The broad costal area and very long 
antennae separate it from the other smaller 
species of the genus. 


Stephanitis parana, n. sp. 


Moderately large, strongly widening pos- 
teriorly, the nervures brownish testaceous, the — 
areolae hyaline and somewhat iridescent. Head, 
save eyes, concealed by the hood, brownish. 
Antennae very long, slender, shortly pilose, 
testaceous, the last segment dark fuscous; seg- 
mént I moderately stout, long, broadly con- 
stricted before apex; II short, one-fourth the 
length of I; III long, slenderest; IV extremely 
long, scarcely thicker and three-fourths the 
length of III. Rostrum long, yellowish, black 
at tip, practically as long as channel. Legs very 
long, slender, testaceous. Orifice distinct. 

Pronotum slightly convex, pitted, black, the 
triangular portion areolate and testaceous: la- 
teral carinae present on disk, testaceous, 
rounded above, with three or four hyaline 
areolae; median carina very high, practically 
as high as hood, with top margin rounded, 
mostly biseriate, with areolae large and hyaline, 
the marginal nervure and some of transverse 
veinlets fuscous. Hood moderately large, in- 
flated, extending a little before apex of head, 
slightly compressed laterally, the areolae hyal- 
ine. Paranota very wide, reflexed obliquely up- 
ward, the outer margin rounded, the areolae 
moderately large and hyaline. Elytra divaricat- 
ing posteriorly, their apices widely separated 
when at rest the costal margin broadly 


Apr. 15, 1944 


rounded; costal area very wide with large 
areolae, five deep in widest part; subcostal 
area biseriate adjacent to discoidal; discoidal 
area short, extending about one-fourth of its 
length beyond apex of triangular process of 
pronotum, obovate in shape, three areolae deep 
in widest part, areolae of sutural area subequal 
in size to those of costa. 

Length, 3.60 mm; width, 2.00 mm. 

Type (male), allotype (female), and two 
paratypes, Pard, Brazil, October 9, 1938, taken 
by E. J. Hambleton and H. F. G. Sauer. 

This species is not easily confused with other 
members of the genus. The lateral margins of 
elytra are not clothed with hairs, the antennae 
indistinctly pilose, the discoidal area less 
raised or inflated, and the general color of 
nervures darker than in other Brazilian species. 


Corythucha globigera Breddin 


Corythucha globigera Breddin, Soc. Ent. 16: 81. 
1901. 


HULL: SOME GENERA OF SYRPHID FLIES 


129 


Type (male), Santa Inez, Ecuador, R. 
Haensch, Breddin collection, which was kindly 
sent us by the late Dr. Walter Horn, of the 
Berlin Museum. Numerous specimens, Lima, 
Pert, April 25, 1936. 

Hood large, strongly inflated behind, 
abruptly constricted near the middle and ~ 
sharply narrowed anteriorly. Elytra with 
moderately large, tumid elevation, the costal 
area triseriate. Two spots on each paranotum, 
one or two spots on tumid elevation, a trans- 
verse band near base and another near apex of 
elytra, dark fuscous; apical band of elytra 
sometimes more or less obsolete. Hood some- 
what infuscated. Median carina about one- 
third as high as hood, slightly arched in front, 
mostly uniseriate, usually with two or three 
areolae divided at highest part; lateral carinae 
distinct. Margins of paranota, elytra, and some 
of veinlets of hood, elytra, and median carina 
beset with short spines. 


ENTOMOLOGY.—Some genera of flies of the family Syrphidae.' Frank M. 


Huu, University of Mississippi. 


Recent studies of syrphid flies have dis- 
closed several forms that do not appear to 
belong properly in any present genera. 
These are based upon undescribed species. 
In addition, I now find that the fly Mero- 
macrus vittata Hull described several years 
ago should be assigned to a new genus for 
reasons given below. 


Lycopale, n. gen. 


Medium-sized flies of the subfamily Erista- 
linae with bright-yellow, flattened tomentum 
upon the thorax, bare eyes, and open marginal 
cell. Antennae short, the third joint oval, with 
dorsal arista. Front tomentose. Face with 
abundant pubescence and some pile, obscuring 
the ground color. Thorax black, pollinose, with 
thick, rather long, and dense tufts of yellow 
tomentum along the suture and edge of hu- 
merus. Scutellum simple. Abdomen oval, 
rather convex, the color metallic black, the pile 
rather appressed and short. Wings with helo- 
philine venation and a prominent dip in the 
third vein. Anterior margin brown; marginal 
cell widely open. Legs simple, the hind femora 


1 Received September 15, 1948, 


(Communicated by ALAN STONE.) 


a little thickened and having a patch of spinules 
at its base. 

Genotype: Meromacrus vittata Hull. 

This genus is related either to Meromacrus 
Rondani through its tomentose pile or to 
Helophilus Meigen through its open marginal 
cell and vittate thorax. The latter relationship 
seems more probable. The genus differs con- 
siderably in its facies from Helophilus; the ab- 
domen is much more convex than in our north- 
ern broad and flattened species of that genus, 
and has besides the same peculiar pile which 
characterizes Meromacrus. 


Kryptopyga, n. gen. 


Eyes of male very widely separated, the up- 
per half of occiput extraordinarily tumid and 
swollen but not rounded posteriorly. The 
rounded, swollen, anterior part ends in a rim 
that marks the edge of a deep, concave cup. 
Face practically vertical, a little vertical below. 
Antennae unusual, very elongate and slender. 
The first joint is long; the second joint is so 
short as to be almost overlooked; the third is 
very long, at least three times as long as the 
first and densely long, erect pilose on one side; 
the dorsal arista is practically eliminated, a 


130 


minute spurlike remnant being all that re- 
mains. Thorax not unusual. Scutellum broad 
and narrow without spur, spine, or indentation. 
Abdomen elongate, a little attenuated basally. 
The third and fourth segments are greatly di- 
lated into a subquadrate club; the fourth seg- 
-~ ment takes the form of a vertical, downward 
directed, expanded hypopygium; this pseudo- 
hypopygium is hidden between the overlapping 
sides of the third segment; the true hypopyg- 
ium can be barely seen from a ventral aspect. 
Legs small and weak, the hind femora spindle- 
like and microdontine. Venation typically mi- 
crodontine. 

Genotype: Kryptopyga pendulosa n. sp. 

This genus is closely related to the odd Afri- 
can Ptilobactrum Bezzi. It is distinguished from 
it chiefly by the subpetiolate abdomen and the 
elongated pseudohypopygium. 


Kryptopyga pendulosa, n. sp. 


Male.—Length 12 mm excluding antennae; 
antennae 5.3 mm. 

Head: the occiput and vertex exceedingly 
bloated and tumid; the eyes broadly separated, 
the posterior margin of occiput sharp and 
shelving instead of rounded. Face bulbous on 
the lower portion, in ground color light brown 
becoming brownish yellow ventrally and along 
the sides, leaving the middle broadly darker 
brown. Pile of face pale, shining brassy and ap- 
pressed. The vertex and upper part of front are 
dark shining brown with short pale pile; the 
area immediately above the antennae and on 
its sides is shining chestnut-brown and bare. 
Antennae extremely long and pendulous. The 
first joint is slightly curved, flattened upon the 
inner surface, barely over one-fourth as long as 
the third joint; the second joint is minute and 
buttonlike and about one-eighteenth as long as 
the third joint; third joint slender, enlarged 
just before the blunt apex, 4 mm long, and 
upon the outer half thickly clothed with long, 
erect, delicate, dark-brown pile. The arista is a 
mere spur, located a short distance from the 
base of third joint. Eyes bare. 

Thorax: dark, dull brownish black, with faint 
trace of the darker brown, pair of slender, 
widely separated, medial vittae that are con- 
fluent a short distance before the scutellum. 
Outside of this pair of vittae on each side there 


is a wide, longitudinal stripe of appressed, 


golden pile, reaching almost to the scutellum 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


and crossing a slender transverse band of simi- 
lar pile running along the transverse suture, 
which, however, extends only a short distance 
inward medial to the longitudinal stripe. Pos- 
terior margin of humeri banded with similar 
pile. Scutellar margin almost evenly rounded 
but actually very bluntly protuberant in the 
middle; its color yellowish brown. | 

Abdomen: elongate, club-shaped, scarcely 
narrowed basally, the third segment slightly 
wider than the basal half of the abdomen. First 
segment elongate, pale brown, subtranslucent, 
strongly transverse striate, darker brown upon 
its anterior corners and concolorous posteriorly 
with the basal half of the rather long second 
segment. Second segment darker brown pos- 
teriorly. Third segment barely longer than the 
first two segments, dark brownish black, pro- 
duced downward into an enormous, thickened 
club, the fourth segment actually vertical and 
thrust downward, simulating a false hypopyg- 
ium. The false hypopygium is actually con- 
cealed by the third segment which is so curved 
around that only a small opening is visible ven- 
trally by turning the fly upside down. The third 
segment of the venter is produced into a curious 
shield-shaped overlapping flap, which serves 
still further to close off the genitalia. 

Legs: dark reddish brown, blackish upon the 
basal half of the hind femora, extensively upon 
the middle femora. Anterior femora more red- 
dish brown. Anterior tibiae basally and almost 
the whole posterior tibiae reddish brown; else- 
where these and the middle tibiae are blackish; 
there is silvery pollen upon the tibiae in several 
places. Hind femora moderately thickened, 
spindly upon the basal half. 

Wings: strongly tinged with brown, with 
heavy stigmal cross vein, well developed vena 
spuria and a strong brown patch, diffuse-edged, 
occupying part of the apex of the wing. 

Holotype—One male. Soekaboemi, Java, 
May 1926, purchased from E. Le Moult, 
1933-189. In the British Museum of Natural 
History. 

Remarks.—This fly is related to the African 
Ptilobactrum Bezzi, in which, however, the an- 
tennae are not solong nor is the abdomen elon- — 
gate nor does it terminate in such a peculiar 
fourth segment. In the females of Ptilobactrum | 
the antennae are without the plushlike pile. 
Kryptopyga differs from Paramixogaster Bru- 
netti in the presence of the long pile upon the 


Apr. 15, 1944 


antennae of the male. The antennae of that 
genus are bare in the male and lack the curious 
development of the abdomen, although the ab- 
domen is pedunculate. There are several Aus- 
tralian species with elongate but nonhairy an- 
tennae and with normal abdomen. 


Genus Spheginobaccha de Meijere 
DEXIOSYRPHUS, n. subgen. 


Elongate flies of medium size or larger. The 
head is subglobular, the occiput tumid, swollen, 
and rounded. Eyes narrowly separated, ap- 
proximated about halfway between ocelli and 
antennae in the male. Antennae short, the third 
joint oval with dorsal arista. Face retreating 
with a barely suggested tubercle. Occiput 
deeply incised at a point on either side near the 
top. Thorax almost bare, the pile microsetate. 
Transverse suture produced as a complete deep 
crease across the whole of the mesonotum. Ab- 
domen elongate, subcylindrical, and slightly at- 
tenuated. The legs have the hind femora 
slender, their base tapered and spindle-formed, 
their apex without trace of spines. Wings heav- 
ily villose. Marginal cell widely open; apical 
cross vein spurred below. There is no upward 
spur from the last section of the fourth longi- 
tudinal vein below the end of vena spuria. 

Type of subgenus: Spheginobaccha (Dezxio- 
syrphus) funeralis, n. sp. 

This subgenus is related to Spheginobaccha 
de Meijere. It differs in the presence of the deep 
crease across the mesonotum and the virtual 
absence of the upward spur from the fourth 
vein. 


Spheginobaccha (Dexiosyrphus) funeralis, 
Nn. sp. 

Male.—Length 14 mm; wing 10 mm. 

Head: subglobular, the occiput tumid and 
strongly developed posteriorly adding to the 
globular shape of the head. There is a strong, 
submarginal crease in the occiput a short dis- 
tance down on each side of the eye margins 
which from above appears as a V-shaped fissure 
on the back of the occiput. Occiput and vertex 
and face and front black in color, the occiput 
grayish white pollinose. Ocelli set well forward 
close to the point of approximation of the eyes; 
the eyes fail to meet by a distance equal tothe 
width of the posterior ocelli. There is a low fa- 
cial tubercle near the middle of the face and the 
cheeks are almost absent. Antennae short, the 


HULL: SOME GENERA OF SYRPHID FLIES 


131 


third joint large, oval, about one-half again as 
long as wide, the arista short, slender except at 
the extreme base; first antennal joint dark 
brown, second and third light brownish orange. 
Pile of face, front, and vertex black, of the pos- 
terior occiput above and below whitish in color. 

Thorax: dark black, dully shining with on 
each side a rugose stripe which at the level of 
the posterior humeri broadly diverges and is 
hence continued as two stripes almost to the 
end of the thorax. Pile of thorax very short, al- 
most microscopic. Scutellum and pleura black, 
the former with a few rugae, the posterior mar- 
gin of the mesopleura and the whole ventral 
part of the pteropleura with thick silvery pollen. 

Abdomen: very long, somewhat slender, nar- 
rower than the thorax, slightly club-shaped on 
the third and fourth segments, subcylindrical in 
shape; the first, whole of the second, and base of 
the third segment with numerous very fine 
transverse linear grooves or furrows. On the 
sides of the second segment just before the 
middle, submarginal in position, is a pair of 
small, oval, diagonal, silvery pollinose spots, 
pointed at each end. Abdomen black and 
chiefly shining; the sides of the long second and 
third segment, which are together practically as 
long as the remainder of the abdomen, are quite 
parallel; sides of second segment emarginate; 
on the sides of the third and fourth segment. 
widely separated in the middle is a pair of 
slender diagonal pilose and_pollinose-mar- 
gined hair-bands. 

Legs: almost wholly light reddish brown, the 
base of the hind femora, the basal third or half 
of all of the tibiae pale yellow, the hind femora 
slightly thickened, the pile everywhere very 
fine and exceedingly sharp-bristly and flat-ap- 
pressed. 

Wings: pale brown. There is no spur from the 
third longitudinal vein, no stigmal cross vein, 
the vena spuria is well developed, the wings are 
uniformly villose, the terminal sections of the 
subapical and postical cross veins are almost 
straight and slightly wavy in the latter. 

Holotype-—One male. South Africa, R. E. 
Turner 1933-69; East Cape Province, Katberg, 
4,000 feet, XII, 1932. In the British Museum. 


Spheginobaccha dexioides, n. sp. 


Distinguished from S. macropoda Bigot by 
the replacement of the yellowish, translucent, 
subtriangular spots of the abdomen with slen- 


132 


der, diagonal, gray-pollinose bands, most con- 
spicuous upon the fourth segment. 

Male.—Length 14 mm; wing 10 mm. 

Head: occiput tumid, silvery gray pollinose, 
the crease very conspicuous. Vertex shining 
brown, somewhat convex, becoming light 
chestnut-brown on a wedge behind the ocelli. 
Eyes approximate, failing to touch by a dis- 
tance equal that between the posterior ocelli. 
The front is shining brown. Face dark brown, 
shining. There is a narrow, transverse band of 
yellow pubescence across the face at the epis- 
toma and up narrowly along the eye margins. 
Antennae short, wholly reddish brown, the 
third joint about twice as long as wide, dully 
pointed. Eyes bare. . 

Thorax: black, feebly shining; microscopi- 
cally pilose, mixed black hairs among brownish 
yellow hairs. There is a rugose area on each 
light-brown humerus, and on each medial edge 
of the humerus there is a similar area that im- 
mediately divides to-form slender stripes run- 
ning the greater part of the thorax. Scutellum 
broad, very convex, dark brown. The pleura are 
black with a narrow, vertical, silvery stripe. 
There is a tuft of long, golden-yellow hair on 
the anterior margin of the propleura. Squamae 
rather short, pale in color. 

Abdomen: rather elongate, basally petiolate, 
the first and second segments and the basal 
third of the third segment with almost parallel 
sides. Actually the first segment is a little wider 
than the second and the club-shaped fourth 


ZOOLOGY .—Zoeal larvae of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus Rathbun.' 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 4 


segment and terminal part of the third segment 
are three times as wide as the second segment. 
Abdomen subcylindrical, the fourth seg- 
ment considerably longer than the third 
segment, the third segment barely shorter than 
the second segment. Abdomen shining black, 
chiefly dark brownish black on the fourth seg- 
ment, with a diagonal, grayish-silvery pollinose 
stripe on the sides of the second segment before 
the middle, widely interrupted. There is a simi- 
lar diagonal stripe in the opposite direction on 
the third segment and on the fourth segment a 
diagonal, subbasal, silvery-gray stripe prac- 
tically continuous across the middle. Pile of ab- 
domen flat, bristly, black except on the light 
pollinose area where it is pale yellowish. Sides 
of third and fourth segments strongly curved 
over. 

Legs: chiefly dark brown, the base of all the 
femora, the basal third of all the tibiae yellow- 
ish. The apical half of the anterior femora be- 
yond the strong basal bulge and bend are light 
reddish brown. Hind femora slightly thickened 
basally. 

Wings: nearly hyaline, clear brownish along 
the anterior marginal edge to the end of the 
costa. Third longitudinal vein straight without 
spur into the first posterior cell. There is a spur 
from the fourth longitudinal vein into the first 
posterior cell near the end of the vena spuria. 

Holotype-—One male. Port St. John, Pondo- 
land, November 1923, South Africa, R. E. 
Turner, 1924-6. In the British Museum. 


MILDRED 


SaNnpoz, Virginia Fisheries Laboratory, and SeweLit H. Hopxrns, Texas A. 


and M. College. 


In 1942 eggs of the blue crab were hatched 
in the laboratory under favorable and un- 
favorable environmental conditions. Con- 
trolled experiments showed that under 
favorable conditions blue-crab eggs hatch 
into normal first crab zoeae. Eggs heavily 
infected with fungi or bacteria and those 
kept under unfavorable salinity and tem- 
perature conditions either failed to hatch 
or hatched into prezoeae that usually died 
soon. The optimum salinity range for hatch- 


1 Received January 19, 1944. 


(Communicated by Watpo L. ScHMITT.) 


ing was found to be about 23 to 30 parts 
per thousand. Eggs failed to hatch outside 
the temperature range of 19°-29° C. 
Churchill (1942) concludes that there is a 
prezoeal stage in the blue crab. Our data 
clearly show that occurrence of prezoeae 
after hatching is not a normal one, but a 
result of development under unfavor- — 
able environmental conditions. Williamson 
(1910), working on Portunis puber, also of 
the family Portunidae, states that the 
larvae were obtained in the first zoeal 
stage. 


Apr. 15, 1944 


In studies on development the first three 
zoeal stages were reared in the laboratory. 
The first and second zoeae were found to 
correspond with the descriptions and draw- 
ings of these larvae by Hopkins (1943) and 
in most respects with the characteristics 
presented by Churchill (1942). The third 
zoeae, however, showed marked differences 
from the third zoeae described by Churchill 
(1942). The three significant morphological 
differences are: (1) There are eight swim- 
ming setae on the exopodites of the first and 
second maxillipeds; (2) the exopodite of 
each antenna is still short as in the second 
zoea, not prominent as in Churchill’s third 
stage; and (3) there are no strong dorsal 
spines on the fifth abdominal segment. 
Churchill states that (1) the exopodite of 
the first maxilliped has six setae and the 
second maxilliped has seven; (2) each an- 
tenna bears a prominent exopodite; and (3) 
there appears for the first time a pair of 
large strong spines on the dorsal side of the 
fifth segment. He figures a prominent chro- 
matophore in the basipodite of the first 
maxilliped of the third stage, but his fourth 
and fifth stages lack a corresponding 
chromatophore. This phenomenon, if true, 
is most unexpected, since carcinologists ap- 
pear to agree on the constancy of pigment 


PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


133 


characters for purposes of larval identifica- 
tion (Williamson, 1910, and Behre, 1941). 

Churchill’s description of the third stage 
is based on zoeae collected in plankton tows 
and not on larvae reared under observation. 
It represents a zoeal stage of another crab. 
Also, his fourth and fifth stages do not seem 
to be larvae of the blue crab. 

As pointed out by Hopkins (1942), the 
fact that other portunid crabs are known 
to occur in the lower part of the Chesapeake 
Bay and in the ocean just outside of the 
bay makes it seem dangerous to draw too 
definite conclusions as to the identity of the 
zoeal stages on a basis of plankton tows 
alone. 


REFERENCES 


BEHRE, Evuinor. The recognition of crusta- 
cean larvae by their pigment patterns. Anat. 
Rec. 81 (4): 1160. 1941. 

CHURCHILL, E. P. The zoeal stages of the blue 
crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Chesa- 
peake Biol. Lab. Publ. 49. Apr. 1942. 

Hopkins, 8. H. The external morphology of the 
first and second zoeal stages of the blue crab, 
Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Trans. Amer. 
Micr. Soc. 62 (1). Jan., 1943. 

WiuutamMson, H. C. Report on the larval and 
later stages of Portunis puber L., P. decu- 
rator Leach, P. holsatus Fabr. Fish. Scot. 
Sci. Invest. No. 1 (1909): 1-20. 1910. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


The Anthropological Society of Washington 
at its annual meeting held on January 18, 
1944, elected the following officers: President, 
T. Date STEwaRrT; Vice President, REGINA 
FLANNERY; Secretary, Witu1am N. FENTon; 
Treasurer, WALDO R. WEpDEL; Members of the 
Board of Managers, W. M. Coss, Wm. H. Git- 
BERT, H. W. Kriecer, ALFRED ME&TRAUX, 
JULIAN H. STEWARD. 


A report of the membership and activities 
u the Society since the last annual meeting fol- 
Ows: 


Life members, 1; active members, 53; associ- 
ate members, 13; total, 67. This represents an 
increase of 13 over last year. 


The members elected during the year were: 
Dr. Gorpon T. Bowes, Mrs. Marion Hate 
Britten, Dr. Epwin G. Burrows, Miss 
ELIZABETH PEARSON CLARK, JoHN HADLEY 
Cox, Dr. James A. Forp, Puinip Epwarp 
Fowuer, Mme. Napya Grorces-Picot, Dr. 


KATHERINE LuomMata, Dr. A. Mérravux, Dr. 
Maurice A. Moox, Miss RutH E. PArpEE, 
Ropert L. Ranps, Dr. Demitri B. SHIMKIN, 
Dr. Gorpon R. WILLEY, active members; Mrs. 
Marsorig LisMer Bripces, Capt. WENDELL 
P. Roop, U.S.N.R., Dr. Arir I. Tannovus, Lt. 
Col. GEoRGE WILLIAMS, associate members. 

Two members, Dr. AursS HroriécKa, life 
member, and Dr. SopHiz NORDHOFF-JUNG, as- 
sociate member, were lost by death. The So- 
ciety voted to record its deep sense of loss at the 
death of these members and to extend its sin- 
cere condolences to their relatives. 

The Treasurer’s report is as follows: 


Funds invested in Perpetual Building 


Association (withinterest to date) $1,762.92 
21 shares Washington Sanitary Im- 

provement Co. No. 505 (par value 

STO per share Oe ey Mes eS 210.00 


2 shares Washington Sanitary Hous- 
ing Co., No. 222 (par value $100 
DCTESHOre) ate ed che onecisueie. oii 200.00 


134 
U. 8S. Saving Bond, Series G., No. 
DOG GGGE SY ii feie thee o caneienee © 500 .00 
Casha bam in.) Soni. os. nace ne 399.52 
$3 ,072 .44 
Bills outstanding: 
To American Anthropological As- 
sociation (subscriptions to 
American Anthropologist for 18 
members at $5 each).......... 90.00 
ToiCosmos: Club Mes. «se aes 23 .40 
$2 ,959 .04 
Total as of January 18, 1944.... 2,836.50 
NIMeCreaSe ieee! Ale ye Rea $122.54 
Division of annual surplus: 
Previous 1944 T otal 
Publicationfund.. $102.22 40.84 1438.06 
Speakers’ fund.... 102.23 40.85 148.08 
Investment fund. . 102.24 40.85 1438.09 


The Society acted as host to the American 
Anthropological Association at the annual 
business meeting of the latter on December 7, 
1943, at the Cosmos Club. 

All regular meetings were held at the U. 8. 
National Museum. Continuing the practice 
adopted in 1942, the mailing list has been kept 
current so as to include all anthropologists in 
Washington; 160 notices were sent out for reg- 
ular meetings. 

The Society has been the gainer by the influx 
of scientific workers to Washington. No diffi- 
culty has been encountered in enlisting inter- 
esting speakers, and offerings have reflected a 
policy of keeping our science abreast of world 
problems at home and abroad. Areas repre- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


sented were Latin America (2 papers), Oceania 
(1), India (1), and North America (2); and 
problems ranged from the Japanese in America 
to castein far-off India; from Shoshonean chil- 
dren to music in Polynesia. We have en- 
deavored to keep anthropology alive for those 


- whose careers are momentarily diverted. Two 


of the papers presented have been published. 

The papers presented before the regular 
meetings of the Society were as follows: 

January 19, 1943, 711th meeting, Dr. RaLpu 
Brats, Acculturation in Mexico. 

February 16, 1943, 712th meeting, Dr. Davip 
G. MAnDELBAUM, Some aspects of social organi- — 
zation in India. 

March 16, 1943, 713th meeting, Dr. JoHn F. 
EmMBREE, The Japanese in America. (Published 
in this JOURNAL 33 (8): 238-242. Aug. 1943, 
under the title The relocation of persons of Japa- 
nese ancestry in the United States: Some causes 
and effects.) 

April 20, 1948, 714th meeting, Dr. DEMITRI 
18}, SHIMKIN, Personalities and social interac- 
tions among Wind River Shoshone children. 

October 19, 1948, 715th meeting, Dr. 
Witi1AM DuNcAN SrrRonG, Cross sections of 
New World prehistory—A brief report on the 
work of the Institute of Andean Research Pro- 
gram, 1941-1942. (Published in full in Smith- 
sonian Mise. Coll. 104 (2): 46 pp., 33 pls. 
19438.) 

November 16, 1948, 716th meeting, Dr. 
Epwin G. Burrows, Music in Polynesian cul- 
ture. 

The regular December meeting was omitted 
in favor of meeting with the American Anthro- 
pological Association at its annual business 
meeting. ; 
WiuuraM N. Fenton, Secretary. 


@bituartes 


CHARLES FREDERICK Marvin, long-time 
chief of the U. 8S. Weather Bureau, passed 
away on June 5, 1943, in Washington, D. C., 
at the age of 84, after 50 years of government 
service followed by almost 10 years in retire- 
ment with well-earned time for his personal 
pursuits. Death followed a brief illness subse- 
quent to a minor operation. Dr. Marvin was 
born in Ohio, in the city now called Zanesville, 
on October 7, 1858, son of Charles F. and 
Sarah A. (Speck) Marvin. His education was 
acquired almost entirely in Columbus, Ohio, 
first in the public schools of the city and finally 
in the Ohio State University, where he received 
his degree in mechanical engineering in 1882 
and later the honorary doctor of science (1932). 
During the four years just preceding his gradu- 


ation, he served as instructor in the mechanical 
and physical laboratories of the university. 

Dr. Marvin enjoyed an unusually well- 
ordered and consummate life. He entered the 
employ of the Federal Government soon after 
his graduation when he was appointed a junior 
professor in the Signal Service of the Army in 
1884. When the meteorological work of that 
organization was transferred to the Weather 
Bureau in 1891, Dr. Marvin went with it. His 
early work with the Bureau as professor of 
meteorology was related primarily to design — 
and maintenance of meteorological instru- 
ments, an interest that he retained through- 
out his active career. For several years preceding 
his selection to head the Weather Bureau, he 
was the head of its instrument division. In 


Apr. 15, 1944 


1913, on recommendation of the National 
Academy of Sciences, he was appointed chief. 
With 21 years to his credit in the highest posi- 
tion in the Bureau, he retired in 1934 to pass 
several happy years with his family in private 
life, free from the problems of public adminis- 
tration and the complexities of meteorological 
questions. 

Dr. Marvin’s span of service encompassed a 
most interesting and important period in the 
evolution of meteorological science and the 
Weather Bureau. He entered the work in an 
hour of opportunity, during one of the recurring 
phases in meteorology when the public interest 
in vital weather information creates the de- 
mand that something be done about it. Apropos 
is a reference from the account by Prof. T. C. 
Mendenhall, published by Dr. W. J. Hum- 
phreys in his Biographical memoir of Cleveland 
Abbe. In referring to the importance of a theo- 
retical investigation of the general principles of 
meteorology with a view to improvements in 
weather forecasting it is stated that: ‘“‘The 
vitalization of the service through these im- 
portant changes resulted, happily, in the acqui- 
sition of such young men as Marvin, Fassig, 
MeAdie, Morrill, McRae, Russell and a number 
of others, some of whom are still in the service 
(1919) and from several of whom have come in 
later years contributions to the science of 
meteorology of very great value.” 

During his early years in meteorology, Dr. 
Marvin contributed greatly to improvements 
in design of meteorological instruments and in- 
crease in exactness of measurements. He pio- 
neered in instruments to measure upper air 
conditions by means of kites, as witness the 
Marvin meteorograph and the Marvin treatise 
on kite design. These constituted an early ap- 
proach to the research in aeronautical meteor- 
ology that has become a primary responsibility 
of the Weather Bureau since modern aviation 
came into its own toward the close of Dr. 
Marvin’s career. He worked on many other in- 
struments—the Robinson cup anemometer for 
wind velocity, the barometer and barograph 
for recording atmospheric pressure, and in- 
struments for measuring evaporation, rainfall, 
snowfall, sunshine, cloudiness, air temperature, 
and humidity. His humidity equations and 
tables based thereon are still in common use to 
determine moisture content of the air. His 


OBITUARIES 


135 


work included design of a seismograph long 
used in the Weather Bureau. 

Dr. Marvin’s scientific interest and his posi- 
tion in the Bureau led him into many other 
activities and relationships. Among the scien- 
tific organizations in which he took an active 
part at one time or another and held leading 
office were the National Advisory Committee 
for Aeronautics, the Washington Academy of 
Sciences, the Philosophical Society of Wash- 
ington (president 1903), and the American 
Meteorological Society (president 1926). He 
was also a member of the Cosmos Club. He 
represented the United States in important in- 
ternational scientific meetings. In 1928 he was 
knighted by the King of Norway in recognition 
of aid given by the Weather Bureau in Amund- 
sen’s Arctic explorations, and in 1934 he was 
a delegate to the League of Nations, Genoa. He 
was actively interested in calendar reform and 
devoted much time and study to the logical 
presentation of his views. 

Surviving are a son, Charles F. Marvin, Jr., 
two daughters, Mrs. Claude Livingston and 
Mrs. Park Norwood, and a host of friends 
acquired during his many kindly and consider- 
ate-associations in the more than half century 
of his eventful life. 

F. W. ReIcHELDERFER 


After a brief illness Epwarp Hau Bowiz 
passed away on July 29, 1943, at his home in 
Berkeley, Calif., following more than 50 years 


of service dedicated to his chosen science 


of metereology. He was born at Annapolis 
Junction (near Bowie), Md., on March 29, 
1874, and attended St. John’s College, Annapo- 
lis, Md., later receiving the degree of master of 
science from that institution. In December, 
1891, he entered the Weather Bureau shortly 
after it had been transferred from the Signal 
Corps of the Army to the Department of Agri- 
culture. He served at Memphis, Tenn., Mont- 
gomery, Ala., Dubuque, Iowa, Galveston, Tex. 
St. Louis, Mo., Washington, D. C., and San 
Francisco, Calif. While at St. Louis his ability 


‘in forecasting first attracted attention, and as 


a result he was assigned to the Washington, 
D. C., office, where he served as forecaster from 
1909 to 1924. He was then selected to adminis- 
ter the important forecast district comprising 
the Pacific States. 


136 


His service at Washington included the 
period of World War I, during which he was 
commissioned a major in the Signal Corps, 
U.S.R., serving overseas with that organization 
in developing and inaugurating a meteorologi- 
cal service for the A.E.F. In this work he took 
an active part in furnishing advices for avia- 
tion, shipping, submarine patrols, gas and 
flame service, and general operations, including 
the making of extended forecasts. 

His interest in meteorology and especially in 
weather forecasting induced him to accomplish 
a prodigious amount of reading in these fields. 
Few have studied the daily weather charts with 
greater assiduity and understanding. As a re- 
sult he made many contributions to forecasting 
knowledge, to be found chiefly in the Monthly 
Weather Review and other publications of the 
Weather Bureau. Among these were “Methods 
for Predicting the Movements of Cyclones, 
etc.,” “Types of Storms in the United States, 
etc.,” “Types of Anticyclones of the United 
States, etc.,” and “‘The Formation and Move- 
ment of West Indian Hurricanes.” In addition 
he was a member of the board of editors of a 
book entitled Weather forecasting in the United 
States, a pioneer publication of its kind. His 
contributions to the technique of making ex- 
tended forecasts from synoptic Northern Hem- 
isphere charts attracted favorable comment. 

In 1936 he visited most of the organized 
weather services of the Far East for the pur- 
pose of increasing the number of weather ob- 
servations available for the benefit of ocean 
navigation. Following this survey he was desig- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 4 


nated as representative to the Southwest Pacific 
Meteorological Commission held at Wellington, 
New Zealand. A voyage on board the French ~ 
Merchant Marine Training Ship, the Jacques — 
Cartier, at the request of the French Govern- 
ment, made it possible for him to suggest im- 
provements looking to increased availability of 
radio weather reports from ships at sea in the 
North Atlantic. 

For some years, especially during the early 
period of its development, he took an active 
part in the deliberations of the Meteorological 
Section of the American Geophysical Union 
and served as president of the section of me- 
teorology and later as a member of the Special 
Committee on Meteorology and Hydrology. At 
the time of his death he was president of the 
American Meteorological Society. He was also 
a member of the Washington Academy of Sci-— 
ences, the Philosophical Society of Washington, 
and the Royal Meteorological Society (Lon- 
don). 

Major Bowie put his whole heart into any 


project he undertook and pursued it with en- — 


ergy and vigor to its conclusion. Progressive 
and quick to make decisions, his alert mind and 
broad vision, bulwarked by an unusual back- 
ground of meteorological experience, caused his 
advice and counsel to be much sought. The 
impress of his influence will be felt for many 
years to come. He was admired and respected 
by all with whom he came in contact. He is 
survived by his widow and three married 
daughters. 
R. H. WeicHTMan 


ee: 


- Zoovoay. —Zoeal eS of fhe ia ( 
_Minprep cake and Suweut ] Ne 


"May 15, 1944 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 34 


LINGUISTICS.—Origin of clock-dial V and of zero.! 


Bureau of American Ethnology. 


In the writing of the entire world there 
are to be found only six types or systems of 
figures. Since this fact has never before been 
brought out, and since the two types of 
writing figures employed by us are deriva- 
tive, it will be well first of all to list these 
types. ' 

1. Bar.—Enregistering each unit as a 
mark, by the placing of something, or by 
some other signaling of a tally, is the indica- 
tion of figures most natural to human beings 
and is well exemplified by the figure system 
of the Maya, an American Indian popula- 
tion, called the “simple system” to distin- 
guish it from the combinatory system used 
by the same people. In the Maya system a 
unit is written as a dot rather than as a bar, 
while the bar is reserved for the writing of 5. 
For those figures in the writing of which 
both dot and bar occur, the dot or dots are 
placed above a horizontal bar or bars but 
to the left of a vertical bar or bars, it being 
immaterial whether the bar be placed hori- 
zontal or vertical. The bar system is so 
simple and self-explanatory that it appears 
mixed into other systems, as, for instance, 
into the Chinese, the Roman, and the 
Arabic systems, as we shall mention below 
at the close of this listing; it is conspicuously 


adapted to the writing of 1, 2, and 3 and 


sometimes of the superquintal derivatives 
of these, but becomes cumbersome with the 
writing of 4. 

2. Ideographic.—This system is well ex- 
emplified by the number symbols of Chinese 
starting with 4, each of the symbols being 
in origin a picture of a numeral. The Chinese 
number system is decimal, and for 10 there 
is written a cross, reminding one of the 

1 Received December 18, 1943. 


May 15, 1944 


No. 5 


JOHN P. HARRINGTON, 


cross or X by which 10 is expressed in some 
other systems. Also in ancient Egyptian are 
to be found ideographic figures. It is very 
likely that both in Chinese and Egyptian, 
as in ancient India, certain numerals were 
identified with certain nouns. For instance, 
in Egyptian the sickle has in some way be- 
come identified with the numeral for 9 and 
conventionalized as the ideograph for 9. 

3. Alphabetic.—A language having an 
alphabet has the letters of this alphabet, 
whether phonetic or syllabic, for practical 
purpose in a certain order, known as alpha- 
betic order. As one learns to say an alphabet 
it becomes natural to assign to each letter a 
number, and although these numbers would, 
strictly considered, be ordinal, it is practical 
to make them cardinal. The common 
method of writing figures in Greek, for 
example, was by writing letters. Alpha stood 
for 1, beta for 2, etc. Many other alphabets 
had, or have, the same system in practice. 
Ancient Hebrew used letters of its alphabet 
as figures, and as such they appear in the 
numbering of the Psalms. Hebrew had this 
lettering system as early as the second 
century B. C. and probably much earlier. 
This attribution is doubtless as old as the 
alphabet itself; compare the parallelism of 
the days of the week being spoken of from 
the very start also as first day, second day, 
and so forth. 

4. Alphabetic-decade—In the Karosthi 
figure system of ancient India, a, the first 
letter of the alphabet, stood for 10, not for 
1. This is apparently the only evaluate of 
this sort known to have occurred in the 
alphabetic world. This strange evaluation 
of a shows that 10 is felt to be a main or 
round number. That 10 is felt to be the 


137 


sun 1 


138 


A-number-one grouping is evidenced by 
several other decimal-system languages, 
being indicated, for instance, by the dd, 20, 
of the Attic system, the XX, 20, of the 
Roman system, and in fact by the choice of 
X for 10 in this latter system versus the 
standing of X in the Attic system for Greek 
xfilioi, 1,000. 

5. Initcal.—In the writing of numerals we 
find that it has been largely the practice in 
the earlier world to base a system of figures 
on abbreviated initials—just as indeed the 
alphabet itself consisted in origin of pictures, 
each picture symbolizing an initial sound, 
a conventionalized drawing of a house, 
baitu in primitive Semitic, standing for }, 
and so forth. We find this numeral-initial- 
equals-figure system in swing in the Attic 
figures of ancient Greece and the Roman 
figures of Latin, which are still in use as our 
Roman numerals. The Arabic world exhibits 
both Arabic alphabet figures and the India- 
derived figures that we call Arabic, in 
northern Africa the European forms of 
these figures being in use. 

6. Hiymal.—Persian (now more properly 
called Iranian) grammars tell of the ‘‘Siyaq”’ 
figures in use by some merchants in the 


bazaars in Iran for keeping accounts. A. B. ° 


Antar tells me that this writing is also very 
occasionally employed in . Mesopotamia, 
now called Iraq. Siyaaq, with its second 
vowel long, is merely the Arabic noun mean- 
ing system. The country name with vowel 
length indicated is liraan, but Iraaq. The 
siyaaq figures are the same as the Arabic 
alphabetic ones, alif equaling 1, etc., except 
that for 10 a corrupted contour of the 
written-out Arabic word for 10 is employed, 
instead of the Arabic letter ye, or its cor- 
ruption, which is the ordinary Arabic alpha- 
betic writing for 10. 

Mixed systems.—Type 1 usually over- 
rides types 2 and 5 in the denotation of the 
figures 1 to 3, inclusive, and sometimes in 
derivatives of these immediately above 5. 
Standard Chinese writes 1 to 3 by hori- 
zontal bars, merchants in China sometimes 
using vertical bars; Roman has vertical; 
Arabic has vertical for 1, yet 2 and 3 are 
corruptions of horizontal. 

English inherits two systems of figures. 
These are the so-called Arabic, really merely 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 5 


transmitted by the Arabs to the western 
world from India, and the so-called Roman. 
The Arabic system has general application, 
the Roman, special and limited, functioning 
in the pagination of prefaces, on the clock 
or watch dial, or where inheritance or dis- 
tinction renders its use desirable. 


ORIGIN OF CLOCK-DIAL V 


V wis for pi, initial letter of Greek pénte, 
5.—Just as the Estruscan and Latin alpha- 
bets are nothing but forms of the Greek, so 
the Roman figure system is merely a form 
of the Attic, the way of writing numerals 
that appears on all Athenian inscriptions. 
My discovery, which so far as I know has 
never been pointed out by anyone else, is 
that the V of the clock dial, meaning 5, 
which figure also occurs with apex. up in 
Etruscan, is in origin an inverted Greek 
letter pi, standing for the Greek numeral 
pénte, 5. 


ORIGIN OF ZERO 


Zero arose through conforming, not through 
invention.—The second discovery an- 
nounced in this paper is not to be under- 
stood without first surveying the linguistic 
stocks and the linguistic numeral status of 
India: 

There are six stocks in India: 1, Dravid- 
ian; 2, Kolarian; 3, Burushaskian; 4, 
Aryan; 5, Tibetosinan; 6, Andamanian. 
Stocks 5 and 6 are too largely extraneous to 
warrant consideration here. Stocks 1 and 2 
are upon study probably genetically related. 
Aryan, though it has been introduced into 
India from the northwest, is included be- 
cause Sanskrit Aryan figures are a transmis- 
sion link between Dravidian and Arab. 
Aryan is properly with long initial a, and is 
also and more largely called Indo-European 
or Indo-Germanic. Burushaskian is at pres- 
ent at least a small stock on the Tibetan 
border of northwestern India but has to be 
included for completeness. It will be noticed 
that stocks 1 and 2 carry cardinal classifiers 
as retrobases. This cardinal classifier in 
Dravidian has a u-sound, in Kolarian an 
i-sound. In, for instance, Tamil muu-v-ar, 
the 3, the u is seen to have turned into v. 
All the stocks of India happen to have deci- 
mal system, derived, of course, from the 


May 15, 1944 


human hands together having 10 fingers, 
and so does the Semitic stock, from the 
north Mesopotamian writing of which, 
through the Karosthi and Brahmi alphabets 
of ancient India, the writing of all the stocks 
of modern India (barring, of course, Arabic 
and Latin alphabet writing) is descended. 
The Encylopedia Britannica, 14th edi- 
tion, quotes F. Cajori in his history of 
mathematics as stating that zero, and the 
accompanying principle of position in the 
writing of figures, were what gave superior- 
ity to the Indic system. One finds in litera- 
ture on the history of mathematics a wide- 
spread exultation over the invention of zero. 
A study merely of the modern Tamil 
Dravidian writing of figures is enough to 


MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 


139 


convince one that zero was never invented 
at all, but was the figure for 10. Twenty is in 
Tamil naturally enough written as 2-10, 
30 as 3-10, etc. But 10 is never written as 
1-10, since the 1 would here be considered as 
superfluous. When the writing of 10 became 
conformed by dint of simple analogy to re- 
semble that of 20 and other zero-terminal 
decade numbers, by placing the symbol for 
1 before the symbol for 10, the so-called 
invention of zero was attained. It was not 
an invention but a conformity, an accident. 


RESUME 


V on the clock dial is discovered to be an 
inverted Greek letter pi, zero the result of a 
conformatory squeezing. 


Tue Unit NUMERALS 


Tamil Mundari oul kite Burushaski 
(Dravidian (Kolarian i% a St k (Burushaskian 

Stock) Stock) zyemStock) Stock) 
onYd¥u, 1 mid’, 1 éeka, 1 hik, 1 
irandu, 2 baria, 2 dvd, 2 aalto, 2 
muun’d¥u, 3 apia, 3 tri, 3 iiski, 3 
naanygu, 4 upunia, 4 catur, 4 waalti, 4 
aindu, 5 monréa, 5 panvea, 5 tsindi, 5 
aarvu, 6 turtia, 6 sds, 6 mishiindi, 6 
eju, 7 eea, 7 sapta, 7 tale, 7 
ettu, 8 frilia, 8 astda, 8 aaltambi, 8 
onybadu, 9 aaréa, 9 nava, 9 hunti, 9 

THE NUMERALS 10, 11, 20, AND 21 

pattu, 10 gelea, 10 désa, 10 toorimi, 10 
padiny-onYd¥u, 11 gel miad’, 11 éekaa-dasa, 11 turma hik, 11 
iru-badu, 20 hisi, also mid’ hisi, 20 vimSati, 20 aalter, 20 


irubatt-ond¥u, 21 mid’ hisi miad’, 21 


BOTANY.—Genera of the plant viruses. 
Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. 


STEVENSON.) 


The number of virus entities known to 
infect plants is well over 200. In comparison 
with the thousands of bacteria and fungi, 
this number is very small, and some workers 


1 Received January 18, 1944. 

2 The author wishes to acknowledge the helpful 
advice given by John A. Stevenson, Sidney F. 
Blake, Charles Drechsler, and others and the as- 
sistance given by Charles Drechsler and Edith K. 
Cash in the choice and orthography of technical 
names. 


éeka-vimSati,21 aalter hik, 21 


H. H. McKinney,? Bureau of Plant 
(Communicated by JouN A. 


have accordingly taken the view that there 
is no pressing need for a formal nomencla- 
ture and classification of the viruses at this 
time. Some take the view that classification 
should await the results of the chemists, 
whereas others think unnecessary confusion 
will prevail, even with so small a number as 
200 entities, if such a policy is pursued. It is 
reasoned that a system can be evolved that 
will meet the requirements of the patholo- 


140 


gists even after the chemists may have 
devised a satisfactory system. 

A full account of the events leading up to 
James Johnson’s system for designating the 
plant viruses would require a discussion of 
many contributions in greater detail than 
seems necessary in the present paper. In- 
vestigators had been gathering evidence 
indicating that plants are attacked by many 
different viruses, but the most important 
stimulus probably came from the investi- 
gations of the so-called degeneration dis- 
eases of the potato, conducted by Schultz 
and Folsom in the United States and by 
Quanjer and others abroad. Schultz and 
Folsom’s paper (1923) was greeted with 
much skepticism, but when subsequent 
studies failed to alter their conclusion that 
many distinct viruses may attack a given 
plant species it became evident that more 
than cursory attention should be given to 
the problem of virus nomenclature and 
classification. 

James Johnson (1927) was the first to 
emphasize that definite steps should be 
taken to keep the plant viruses in order. 
In his scheme the major groups were 
erected on the basis of the hosts in which 
the viruses were discovered, and within 
each of these groups designation was by 
number. 

Quanjer (1931) gave a critical but con- 
structive analysis of some of the problems 
involved in classification, and although he 
concluded ‘‘that our present knowledge is 
insufficient for classification of plant vi- 
ruses,” he did divide the viruses of the 
potato into six categories based on the re- 
actions they induce in selected varieties of 
potato. These reactions included mosaic 
and five types of necrosis. 

Johnson and Hoggan (1935) proposed a 
classification based on the means of virus 
transmission and on the simple properties 
of the viruses. Later Johnson prepared his 
extensive lists of virus numbers in mimeo- 
graphed form. One of these lists (Jllustra- 
tions of proposed system of nomenclature of 
plant viruses) was prepared by Johnson 
(1935) as chairman of the International 
Committee on Descriptions and Nomen- 
clature of Plant Viruses, for use by that 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 5 


committee in its deliberations at the Sixth 
International Botanical Congress in Am- 
sterdam, 1935. This congress adopted John- 
son’s proposal in principle, and the Inter- 
national Committee was empowered to 
continue its considerations and establish an 
acceptable system of virus nomenclature. 

Following this, Kenneth M. Smith in 
1937 virtually adopted Johnson’s proposal 
with the exception that he used the Latin 
generic names rather than the common 
names of the host plants, and he altered 
some of Johnson’s numerical designations. 
In both proposals preference was given to 
the host in which the virus was first dis- 
covered, the several viruses assigned to a 
given host were differentiated by Arabic 
numerals, and strains were designated by 
letters of the alphabet. Smith made no 
attempt to classify within the host groups, 
but he did compile much valuable informa- 
tion on a large number of viruses and insect 
vectors. 

With these concrete proposals came a 
general interest in the problem. The slight 
differences in the approaches by Johnson 
and by Smith raised several important 
questions in the minds of virologists, and 
at the meetings held in Indianapolis (De- 
cember, 1937), the Council of the American 
Phytopathological Society appointed a 
committee to arrange for a discussion of the 
classification and nomenclature of the plant 
viruses at the Richmond meeting of the 
Society in December, 1938. At this meeting 
these problems were discussed from many 
angles, and the Society expressed its ap- 
preciation to the International Committee 
on Plant Viruses for the work it had done 
and recommended that said committee con- 
tinue its efforts to establish an acceptable 
system of virus nomenclature (Phytopath. 
29: 388). The discussions at Richmond made 
it clear that opinion was divided with 
regard to the procedure to be followed in 
the naming and classifying of the viruses. 
It was clear that several investigators 
wished to explore the possibilities of tech- 
nical names and of making more use of 
plant reactions in virus classification. It 
was evident also that most investigators 
wished to publish without restraint. 


May 15, 1944 


A system advanced by Holmes (1939) 
is particularly noteworthy in that it repre- 
sents the first comprehensive attempt to 
make use of induced plant reactions and 
other virus characteristics in the framing 
of Latin binomials and trinomials. Holmes 
erected a kingdom, one division, two classes, 
and 11 monogeneric families. One of these 
families in Class I embraces the bacterio- 
phages, whereas the 10 families in Class II 
embrace the virusesinfecting seed plants. No 
orders are provided in the scheme, and none 
of the genera is described. Most of thespecies 
are described, but someareset up onthe basis 
of varietal descriptions. Five of these varietal 
descriptions serve as types for genera. 

At the meetings of the Society held in 
Columbus (December, 1939), the council’s 
recommendation, “that the temporary com- 
mittee on virus nomenclature be made a 
standing committee,’ was confirmed and 
a committee was appointed. Later, how- 
ever, this committee was designated as a 
special committee. During 1940 the efforts 


‘of the committee were directed largely 


towards the orientation of the views of its 
members. Owing to the international situa- 
tion it became apparent that there would 
be delay and uncertainty with respect to 
the efforts of the International Virus Com- 
mittee, and several American workers pub- 
lished proposals. 

Valleau (1940) classified a limited number 
of viruses infecting Nicotiana tabacum L. 
He set up a genus Musivuwm based on 
Holmes’s Marmor tabaci var. vulgare as the 
type species, and he designated this type 
Muswum tabaci. In addition, he set up 
three other genera to avoid some of the 
heterogeneity that is evident in Holmes’s 
genus Marmor and redefined the genus 
Annulus. However, he did not assign his 
genera to families, nor did he take a posi- 
tion with respect to the higher groups pro- 
posed by Holmes (1939). Valleau took the 
view that trinomials should not be applied 
to mutant strains, that there should be a 
“catch all’? genus for viruses about which 
little is known, and that most of the viruses 
in the genus Marmor should be placed in it. 
He suggested that Marmor might be re- 
tained as the ‘‘catch all’’ genus. 


MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 


141 


Soon after Valleau’s paper appeared, 
Fawcett (1940) proposed an ingenious plan. 
In his own words, “It is virtually a simpli- 
fied Smith’s system without the confusion 
of numbers and Holmes’ system without 
the generic difficulties.”’ Fawcett took the 
position that ‘‘we are not ready for genera 
in the ordinary concept.’’ He proposed that 
the stem ‘‘vir”’ be added to. the Latin geni- 
tive of the generic term of the host in which 
the virus was first discovered and recog- 
nized, dropping any final consonants that 
occur in this genitive. These names serve 
as virus genera and are identified as such 
by the suffix. Fawcett took the position 
that “‘these derived ‘genera pro tem’ should 
not be considered in the ordinary taxonomic 
sense.” The specific and varietal Latin 
epithets are formed in accord with the 
established rules of botanical procedure. 
By this system the peach-rosette virus be- 
comes Prunivir rosettae (Holmes) Fawcett. 

Thornberry (1941) proposed that all 
viruses, bacteriophages, and the Rickettsia 
be placed in one order (Biovirales) in ad- 
junct to the bacteria (class Schizomycetes, 
phylum Thallophyta of the Plant King- 
dom). He proposed that all viruses infecting 
the seed plants be assigned to a single genus 
Phytovirus in a family Phytoviraceae. Other 
families and genera were proposed for the 
viruses infecting zoological species, for the 
Rickettsia and for the bacteriophages. 
Specific epithets in Latin would be formed 
in accordance with the established botanical 
procedure. 

Although the Special Committee on 
Nomenclature and Classification of Plant 
Viruses was not given a specific assignment 
by the Society, it did proceed to study the 
problem with the idea of making certain 
recommendations. From the beginning the 
members seemed to be in full accord on the 
desirability of a formal system, and after 
studying the several proposals already on 
record a majority of the committee came 
to favor a Latin system of nomenclature 
(Bennett, et al., 1943). It was believed that 
a numerical system would lead to consider- 
able difficulty on account of the chances for 
duplicating numbers, because slight typo- 
graphical errors are more troublesome in 


142 


numbers than in names, and numbers would 


be more difficult to manage than names 
when it becomes necessary to clear up the 
many problems of synonymy that always 
arise in any field. 

It was fully recognized that naming and 
grouping by hosts is‘’a simple and almost 
fool-proof procedure and that Fawcett’s 
(1940) proposal represents a very satis- 
factory and commendable way of applying 
Latin binomials and grouping viruses by 
host affinities. However, after a free dis- 
cussion of the difficulties inherent in other 
methods of naming and grouping, a ma- 
jority of the committee took the view that 
an understanding of virus relationships may 
evolve more freely if such characteristics 
as host reactions and modes of transmission 
serve as the criteria for the genera. 

As the committee proceeded in its efforts 
to draft a proposal, it became evident that 
there are many details on which it is diffi- 
cult to obtain agreement at this stage and 
that many of these details can be decided 
only after individual workers have had an 
opportunity to record their views. 


GENERAL PROCEDURE 


In virus classification the species, genera, 
families, and higher categories may not be 
regarded in exactly the same way as they 
are in the classification of higher plants and 
animals, but there seems to be no apparent 
reason why they can not serve the same 
purpose. The lower categories (species, 
genus, and family) were conceived by the 
early philosophers, and they have been and 
still are used in many departments of 
knowledge for classifying not only objects 
but also ideas and languages in various in- 
formal ways. The genus has long been re- 
garded as a class more extensive than the 
species, and the family more extensive than 
the genus. It seems very clear that these 
terms denote relative levels in classification 
and that they may be employed in any 
branch of knowledge. Linnaeus and others 
(see Maton, 1805) made use of part or all 
of these categories in the classifications of 
minerals and also the human ailments. The 
Latin binomial system was also applied in 
these fields. Even today we have such 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 5 


terms as herpes zoster, herpes circinatus, 
herpes labiales, and molluscum contagiosum 
to denote certain viruses in man. With the 
discovery of bacteria, fungi, and Protozoa 
as etiological agents in disease, it is natural 
that classification should shift to these ~ 
agents. However, there can be little doubt 
that Linnaeus’s approach to the problem 
of disease nomenclature and classification 
could have served adequately had these 
etiological agents not been discovered. 

In classifying the bacteria it has not been 
practicable to make use of morphological 
characteristics throughout; in fact many 
genera and species are determined by the 
reactions they induce on suitable substrates. 
In the fungi the differentiation of strains 
frequently depends on reactions induced in 
nutrient media or in suitable host plants, 
and some genera and many species have 
been erected on the grounds of preference 
for some host organ or for some host species. 

Bawden (1939) and others have em- 


_phasized the high degree of variability of 


the induced host reactions, and they have 
taken the view that these reactions are of 
little value for purposes of virus classifica- 
tion. This high degree of variability is a 
real problem, but this fact does not neces- 
sarily mean that nothing can be done 
toward reducing variability to a point 
where host reactions can serve as adequate 
criteria. The use of host reactions and/or 
modes of transmission as criteria for virus 
genera or other categories seems to be a 
very natural step, because host reactions 
have long served for the common names, 
and something is known about means of 
transmission in all plant viruses. Other 
virus characteristics have value also, but 
it appears that such criteria as host range, 
thermal-death-point, longevity in dry tissue 
and in vitro, reactions to ordinary chemicals, 
serological reactions, and interference or 
antagonism between viruses may be of 
greatest value in the differentiation of 
species and, in some cases, strains. With the 
advance of knowledge concerning the histo- 
logical, cytological, and physiological host 
reactions induced by viruses, these criteria 
should assume roles of increasing impor- 
tance. 


May 15, 1944 


Johnson and Hoggan (1935) stressed the 
classification value of the several modes of 
transmission and the insect vectors, and 
they gave these criteria first consideration 
in their scheme. It is probably too early to 
generalize on the true value of these cri- 
teria, but it does appear that they should 
be given a thorough trial because certain 
correlations are suggested. Transmission by 
inoculation with expressed juice and/or by 
aphids is rather general among the viruses 


inducing mosaics, ringspots, and/or ne- 


crosis of parenchyma in annual hosts. 
Whereas, among the woody perennials, 
similar viruses can be transmitted experi- 
mentally for the most part, only through 
tissue unions or prolonged contact of tis- 
sues. It appears that transmission by the 
hoppers (leafhoppers and planthoppers) ob- 
tains in viruses that for the most part are 
not transmitted by other families of insects 
(Storey, 1939). Several compilers have indi- 
cated that certain viruses are transmitted 
by both hoppers and aphids, but all claims 
that have been noted have been checked by 
the present author in the original papers, 
and in each instance the claim lacks positive 
support. 

In the scheme here proposed the ten 
families of Holmes are consolidated into 
two, Marmoraceae and Rugaceae. All 
mosaic-inducing viruses and most of those 
inducing necrosis in parenchyma tissue fall 
in the Marmoraceae and all viruses charac- 
terized by their marked tendency to induce 
malformations but not mosaic mottling, all 
those inducing the yellows type of chlorosis, 
and nearly all those known to induce 
phloem necrosis fall in the Rugaceae. The 
genus Ruga is taken as the type for the 
second family in preference to the genus 
Chlorogenus, because induced malforma- 
tions seem to be commoner than chlorosis 
among the viruses that do not fall in 
Marmoraceae. The two families here pro- 
posed essentially provide the two major 
groups proposed by Bennett (1939). 

With very few exceptions the viruses 
transmitted by expressed juice fall in the 
Marmoraceae, and with the exception of 
certain grass-infecting viruses that induce 
mosaic and/or chlorotic streaking, the 


MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 


143 


hopper-transmitted viruses fall in the 
Rugaceae. Not all viruses transmitted by 
white flies are placed in the Rugaceae. The 
chlorotic reactions induced by the cassava- 
mosaic virus are typical mosaics according 
to the writer’s observations in West Africa 
(McKinney, 1929). Furthermore, several 
mosaic-inducing viruses not transmitted by 
white flies also tend to induce leaf mal- 
formations. At this stage, it seems advisable 
to place all viruses that induce mosaic 
mottling in the Marmoraceae. 

In the Marmoraceae the means of virus 
transmission serve as the generic criteria, 
whereas in the Rugaceae certain host re- 
actions and also the means of transmission 
serve to differentiate the genera. This pro- 
cedure is followed at the generic level be- 
cause it appears that the use of such cri- 
teria as thermal-death-point, interference, 
resistance to aging, and serological reactions 
would cause difficulties at the species and 
strain levels. Eighteen genera are described 
from the information in Holmes’s descrip- 
tions of the species and the varieties and 
from information gathered from other 
sources. Owing to the large volume of 
literature, however, many original papers 
are not cited, but reference is made to 
papers and compilations having extensive 
literature lists. 

Insect vectors with chewing mouth parts 
are disregarded in the scheme of classifica- 
tion. Vectors with sucking, lapping, or rasp- 
ing mouth parts, with a few exceptions 
noted later, are segregated on the basis of 
insect families. This method of segregation 
does increase the number of virus genera, 
but it appears to be one of the surest ways 
to obtain an objective evaluation of the 
criteria. 

In the genus Fractilinea transmission by 
the two families of hoppers (leafhoppers and 
planthoppers) is combined, and in the 
genus Savoia transmission by the two 
families of true bugs is combined. This is 
done for convenience. When it is considered 
that members of very closely related insect 
families are subject to taxonomic rearrange- 
ment, it is impracticable at this stage to 
place a true value on some of these families 
as criteria for erecting separate virus genera. 


144 


It is suspected, however, that some of these 
insect families may serve as criteria for new 
virus genera later. On the other hand, it is 
quite possible that some of the genera may 
be combined later—Ruga and Savoia, for 
example—as certain aphids and true bugs 
are known definitely to transmit the virus 
of potato spindle-tuber and also the virus 
of potato unmottled curly-dwarf in the 
genus Acrogenus. 

Transmission by inoculation with ex- 
pressed juice is rare among the viruses 
transmitted by hoppers. With the curly- 
top virus of beet and the yellow-dwarf virus 
of potato, juice transmission is difficult and 
dependent on special hosts. In the classifi- 
cation of these viruses emphasis is placed 
on the vectors. 

Viruses within a given host-reaction 
group that are transmitted by aphids 
and/or by expressed juice are placed to- 
gether, and those viruses with which known 
transmission is limited to tissue union 
(grafting, budding, dodder unions) or to 
prolonged contact of tissues without union, 
are segregated in each host-reaction group 
in which they occur. Viruses that have been 
transmitted only by tissue union or by pro- 
longed contact of tissues may be trans- 
ferred to appropriate genera, or new genera 
may be established as the vectors are dis- 
covered or as transmission by expressed 
juice is effected. The 6 genera erected for 
these viruses fulfill the purposes of a single 
temporary group that was suggested by 
Valleau (1940). Since it is likely that a large 
number of viruses would be assigned to a 
single such group, it seems more practicable 
to arrange for their classification in the 
several host-reaction categories, as is done 
in the proposed scheme, because it is en- 
tirely possible that transmission by inocu- 
lation with expressed juice may not be 
effected. Furthermore, the vectors may not 
be discovered for some of these viruses for 
many years. 

The superstructure of the scheme seems 
to be of relatively little importance at this 
time. However, the higher categories are 
arranged to permit the inclusion of the 
bacteriophages and the viruses infecting 
zoological species, as was planned in the 
scheme devised by Holmes (1939). In 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 34, NO. 5 


Holmes’s scheme there are no orders, and 
Vira is given the rank of kingdom. Thorn- 
berry (1941) proposed that an order Bio- 
virales be set up in the class Schizomycetes 
to embrace the viruses and the bacterio- 
phages. It appears that there is some justi- 
fication for assigning the viruses to the 
Plant Kingdom, but it seems unnecessary 
and unwise to contemplate redefining the 
Thallophytes, Fungi, and Schizomycetes to — 
accommodate the proposed order Bio- 
virales. In the present scheme the viruses 
are regarded as exceedingly low forms of 
life. The study of virus mutants (Holmes, 
1936; McKinney, 1937 and 1941) indicates 
that fixed strains behave essentially as 
simple genic systems, and, although mu- 
tation has not been demonstrated in all 
viruses, it appears clear that the phenome- 
non occurs in several that are known to be 
high-molecular-weight nucleoproteins (Jen- 
sen, 1933; McKinney, 1935; Price, 1934). 
Furthermore, the slight differences inter se 
manifested by some of the wheat-mosaic 
viruses (McKinney, 1937a), the sugarcane 
viruses (Summers, 1934), the curly-top vi- 
ruses (Giddings, 1938), and by several other 
viruses strongly suggest common ancestries 
within certain limited groups. 

Since the lowest forms of life are usually 
included with the plants, it is proposed that 
the viruses be accorded the rank of dzviszon 
in the Plant Kingdom, and that this divi- 
sion be designated Viriphyta. It is further 
proposed that the procedure in virus no- 
menclature be governed by the Inter- 
national Rules of Botanical Nomenclature 
(Briquet, 1935) in so far as seems prac- 
ticable. Subfamilial and tribal designations 
are purposely omitted in the present 
scheme. 

Although certain viruses manifest natural 
affinities, it is believed that the plant 
viruses, like the fungi and other lower 
forms, do not represent a natural group 
throughout. Because of the very small 
number of characters available at any given 
group level, some of the generic descriptions 
are very similar with respect to the host 
reactions. This weakness should gradually 
disappear with the advance of knowledge 
concerning the direct characters of the © 
viruses and the induced host reactions. Of 


May 15, 1944 


the latter, it appears that the cytological 
and microchemical reactions should become 
of increasing objective importance as the 
studies of Bennett (1940), Esau (1935), 
Hutchins (1933), Kassinis and Sheffield 
(1941), McWhorter (1941), Rawlins and 
Thomas (1941), Simonds and _ Bodine 
(1943), and many others are extended to 
additional viruses and hosts. Because of 
the nature of viruses, the accumulation of 
many coordinating and contrasting cri- 
teria at the generic level will require time. 


DEFINITIONS 


The term virus is used just as the terms 
bacterium, fungus, or organism are used to 
indicate infectious entities. 

The term strain refers to any virus of 
intraspecific rank, regardless of its rank in 
the species. 

A species is regarded as a group of 
strains, actually or potentially. 


DETAILED METHODS OF PROCEDURE 
AND SUGGESTIONS 


The International Rules of Botanical 
Nomenclature (Briquet, 1935) serve as the 
basis of procedure in the present paper, 
except that descriptions are not in Latin and 
Articles 41,42, and 44 are not rigidly applied. 

Descriptions of varieties without de- 
scriptions of the species or of the genera 
(Holmes, 1939 and 1941) are without prece- 
dent and create difficulties. Also, a system 
comprised of families, all of which are mono- 
generic, is without precedent. Technically 
all these genera and all the binomials that 
are based only on varietal descriptions may 
be regarded as nomina nuda. However, it 
appears that the best interests of virus 
nomenclature will not be served by a rigid 
application of Articles 41, 42, and 44 at this 
time. 

Kight of Holmes’s (1939 and 1941) gener- 
ic names are retained and supported by de- 
scriptions based on. information obtained 
from. original sources and from Holmes’s 
handbooks. Four of these genera, Marmor, 
Lethum, Chlorogenus, and Acrogenus, were 
founded. on viruses that Holmes designated 
by trinomials. Although Holmes used the 
varietal epithets vulgaris and typicus, the 
procedure he followed in setting up his de- 


MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 


145 


scriptions is not in conformity with the con- 
cept of typzcus in relation to the specific de- 
scriptions (Ley, 1943; Croizat, 1943), and 
it is concluded that these four genera were 
founded on varieties and not on species. The 
writer’s descriptions of these four genera are 
for the present regarded as emendations, 
and authorities are so indicated. 

Valleau’s (1940) description of Musivum 
tabaci is regarded as the first valid publica- 
tion of the specific epithet tabaci, which as 
Marmor tabaci becomes a new combination 
and the type species of the genus Marmor 
in the present proposal. The descriptions of 
the type species Lethum australiense, Frac- 
tilinea mardis, Chlorogenus callistephi, and 
Acrogenus solani in this proposal are re- 
garded as first valid publications. In these 
four species, authority for the specific epi- 
thet and authority for the description of the 
epithet is divided, as provided in Article 48 
of the International Rules, i.e., name of the 
author who supplied the description being 
appended to the citation with the connect- 
ing word ex. 

The following suggestions are offered: 

" 1. The type-species concept can be .ap- 
plied only in a limited way to the plant 
viruses. As there are but few of these causal 
agents that can be maintained indefinitely 
without great expense, the burden rests on 
suitable descriptions and photographic rec- 
ords. In this proposal, no genus has been 
retyped. Even though some of the type spe- 
cies are little known, it appears that the 
best interests of virus nomenclature will be 
served if these nomenclatural types are pre- 
served in accordance with Article 18. 

2. The technical descriptions for pur- . 
poses of classification should be confined to 
those characteristics that seem essential to 
proper classification. Other sources should 
be relied upon for the complete information 
on most of the viruses. 

3. In the binomial system, the specific 
and the generic descriptions are more im- 
portant than the descriptions of any of the 
higher categories, and even though a genus 
may be monotypic its characterizing fea- 
tures can and should be clearly set forth 
apart from the descriptions of the species, 
and the family. Each species should be des- 
ignated as a binomial and be described. 


146 


4. In those genera in which transmission 
by tissue union is the criterion, the species 
should be transferred to other genera as 
transmission by expressed juice is effected 
or as insect vectors are discovered. To avoid 
needless changes in nomenclature it is sug- 
gested that these generic names be retained 
even if the type species are transferred. 

5. A given virus may induce a wide range 
of reactions in its several suscepts, there- 
fore, it is necessary to select the host or hosts 
that best characterize it. 

6. The host reactions employed in the 
scheme are induced by viruses that are es- 
tablished in nature, and which may be re- 
garded essentially as wild types. The 
scheme is adequate for many mutants iso- 
lated in the laboratory, but with some of 
these that induce indefinite reactions, the 
generic allocations will be determined on the 
basis of other suitable criteria that indicate 
relationship to a wild type. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 5 


7. Since so many viruses induce general 
dwarfing of the plant, this characteristic 
should be emphasized in classification only 
when the virus induces few other diagnostic 
reactions. . 

8. The phenomenon of compatibility and 
incompatibility (interference, antagonism, 
cross protection) between viruses may be 
expressed in varying degrees, depending on 
the viruses that are being tested, on the 
host, and on the environment (McKinney, - 
1941a). It seems unwise to assume that the 
phenomenon should serve as a single means 
for “proving” or “‘disproving” natural re- 
lationship between little-known viruses, but 
like any other character, when properly 
used, it may serve as a criterion for differ- 
entiating virus groups. Throughout botany 
and zoology there is ample evidence that the 
concept of relationship evolves from a 
knowledge of many characters at each of 
the levels in a particular scheme. 


GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 


Kingdom PHYTA 
Division VIRIPHYTA 


Syn.: Kingdom Vira Holmes (1939). 

Causal agents of infectious diseases, ultra- 
microscopic in size, propagating only in as- 
sociation with living cells; in some cases capable 
of mutation and originating fixed strains that 
behave as simple genic systems and exceedingly 
low forms of life. 


Class PHYTOPHAGI 


6 
Syn.: Division Phytophagi Holmes (1939). 
Viruses pathogenic in plants. 


Order SPERMATOPHYTOPHAGALES 


Syn.: Class Spermatophytophagi Holmes 
(1939). 
Viruses pathogenic in the seed plants. 


Family 1. MarmMoracEAE Holmes emend. 


Annulaceae Holmes (1939); Lethaceae 
Holmes (1939); Rugaceae Holmes (1939) p.p.; 
Nanaceae Holmes (1939) p.p. 

Viruses inducing disturbances of the plastid 
pigments causing mosaic mottling, veinband- 
ing, discrete chlorotic spotting or streaking in 
the foliage; local necrotic spotting and/or 


systemic necrosis. Bud proliferation and mal- 
formations of the foliage are attendant re- 
actions in some instances, but these reactions 
do not typify the family. All mosaic-inducing 
viruses fall into this family. Transmission of 
many species by expressed juice and/or by 
aphids, a few species by leafhoppers, planthop- 
pers, or other insects, and many species by tis- 
sue union. Type genus, Marmor Holmes (1939) 
emend. 


KEY TO THE GENERA 


A. Transmission by expressed juice. 
1. Insect vectors aphids or unknown......... 
blotter cae hals *s toiee Bate eke eae Genus 1. Marmor 
2. Insect vectors thrips...... Genus 2. Lethum 


B. Transmission limited to insect vectors and/or 
to tissue union.’ 

1. Transmission by aphids. ..Genus 3. Poecztle 

2. Transmission by leafhoppers or planthoppers 

waeg oops ga tatin: pala: tke Genus 4. Fractilinea 

3. Transmission by white flies.............. 

«Gok SHENAE ROR ane iat ee Genus 5. Ochrosticta 

4. Transmission by tissue union, insect vectors 

unknown.......... Genus 6. Flavimacula 


3 Throughout the keys, transmission .by tissue 
union includes grafting, budding and dodder 
unions, and prolonged contact of cut tissues with- 
out organic union. 


May 15, 1944 


Genus 1. Marmor Holmes emend. 


Marmor Holmes (1939), p.p.; Annulus 
Holmes (1939); Musivum Valleau (1940); 
Murialba Valleau (1940); Foliopellis Valleau 
(1940); Tractus Valleau (1940). 

Viruses inducing disturbances of the plastid 
pigments and/or necrosis, especially in the 
parenchyma tissues, causing chlorotic mosaic 
mottling or spotting, oak-leaf patterns, ring 
spotting, local necrotic lesions, and sometimes 
systemic necrosis; malformations and/or bud 
proliferations sometimes accompanying the 
chlorotic reactions; sometimes disturbances in 
the glucoside pigments, especially in certain 
graminaceous hosts, causing purple and red 
colorations. Transmission by expressed juice in 
all members; insect vectors aphids (Aphididae) 
or unknown. Type species, Marmor tabaci. 

Marmor embraces most of the species in- 
ducing the typical mosaics and the ringspots, 
nearly all the species that can be studied out- 
side the plant, and all species known to be 
nucleoproteins. Most of the suscepts are 
herbaceous annuals. 


Marmor tabaci (Holmes ex Valleau), 
comb. nov. 


Tobacco virus 1 Johnson (1927); Nicotiana 
virus 1 Smith (1937); Marmor tabaci var. 
vulgare Holmes (1939); Musivum tabaci (Holmes 
ex Valleau) Valleau (1940). 

Common name.—Tobacco-mosaic virus. 

Host reactions—In Nicotiana tabacum L. 
var. Samsun (Turkish) and most other com- 
mercial varieties of tobacco, N. sylvestris 
Spegaz. and Comes, Lycopersicon esculentum 
Mill. var. Bonny Best, and other commercial 
varieties of tomato, virus increase is very great 
and induces conspicuous light-green mosaic 
mottling at all the usual culture temperatures; 
in the tobaccos the reactions manifest acute 
and chronic types (McKinney and Clayton, 
1943), especially under field culture when acute 
burning occurs in var. Maryland Medium 
Broadleaf and certain other varieties; virus 
content of leaves with acute chlorosis higher 
than in leaves with chronic mosaic. In N. 
glutunosa L. and N. rustica L., induces local 
necrotic lesions, systemic necrosis or mosaic 
mottling when cultured at 24°, 31°, or 37°C., 
respectively. In Plantago major L. secondary 
symptoms are feeble or null. In certain col- 


MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 


147 


lections of N. tabacum from Colombia (deriva- 
tives from Ambalema tobacco and T.I. 448 
tobacco, McKinney, 1943), and in N. glauca R. 
Grah., virus increase is very low, inducing only 
occasional chlorotic spots or no visible reac- 
tions. Cucumis sativus L. is immune. This 
species has a very wide host range. 

Transmission.—Readily by inoculation with 
expressed juice in the suscepts listed, by the 
following aphids (Aphididae): Macrosiphum get 
Koch, Myzus pseudosolani Theob., and M. ctr- 
cumflecus (Buckt.), after feeding on infected 
Lycopersicon esculentum; by tissue union (graft- 
ing and dodder). 

Mutation.—All field collections of the species 
(wild types) are very similar but not identical 
in all hosts; all collections that have been 
studied have given rise to aberrant types. 
Interference or antagonism (protection) has 
occurred in all tests thus far in which wild types 
were in combination with their known mutants, 
and the wild types have always dominated and 
supplanted the mutants in the new tissues. 
Combinations of these mutants, also combina- 
tions of Marmor tabaci and certain other virus 
species, have shown that interference is de- 
finitely a quantitative phenomenon that is in- 
fluenced by the viruses in combination, by the 
host and by the external environment (Mc- 
Kinney, 1941a). 

Physical and chemical properties —The type 
virus and the strongly invasive strains tested 
thus far are inactivated at 88° to 938° C. in 10 
minutes in plant juices; activity not lost com- 
pletely after storage for many years in dry tis- 
sue or plant extract at room temperature; 
dilution end-point in fresh plant extract from 
mosaic tobacco 1,000,000 x or beyond; ultimate 
particle (micelle or molecule) rod shaped with 
a minimal diameter of particles about 11.5my; 
paracrystals at py 4.5, length 3.2 to 4.2n, 
width 0.4 to 0.5u; high molecular-weight nu- 
cleoproteins; possessing antigenetic properties 
that distinguish it from other virus species, 
and that serve to distinguish between some but 
not all its strains. 

Distribution—World wide with tobacco 
culture. 

Type virus.—James Johnson, University of 
Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; Rockefeller Insti- 
tute for Medical Research, Department of 
Animal and Plant Pathology, Princeton, N. J.; 


148 


H. H. McKinney, U. S. Bureau of Plant In- 
dustry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, 
Beltsville, Md. 


Genus 2. Lethum Holmes emend. 


Viruses inducing disturbances causing bronz- 
ing, chlorotic and necrotic spotting, and ring- 
spotting in foliage; in some hosts typical mosaic 
mottling; severe necrosis and death in certain 
hosts; distortion and curling of leaves some- 
times as attendant reactions. Transmission by 
expressed juice; all species transmitted by 
thrips (Thripidae). Type species, Lethum 
australtense. 


Lethum australiense Holmes? 


Tomato virus 1 Johnson (1935); Lycopersi- 
con virus 3 Smith (1937); Lethum australiense 
var. typicum Holmes (19389). 

Common name.—Tomato spotted-wilt virus. 

Host reactions.—In Lycopersicon esculentum 
Mill. var. Bonny Best and other commercial 
varieties of tomato, induces a bronze coloration 
necrosis, and sometimes mottling; bronzing in- 
volving entire surface of leaflet or occurring as 
rings, which become necrotic; necrosis first 
involving the upper epidermal cells, then the 
spongy parenchyma; systemic necrosis some- 
times killing plants when infected as seedlings; 
pale red, yellow, or white blotching on ripe 
fruit, sometimes involving most of surface. In 
Nicotiana tabacum L. var Samsun (Turkish), 
and var. White Burley, induces local necrotic 
lesions or plaques on the inoculated -(wiped) 
leaves; necrosis sometimes systemic and fatal 
to the plant or to all leaves except those in the 
growing tip; sometimes systemic mottling. In 
Petunia sp. (garden varieties) local reddish- 
brown lesions with pale centers; rarely systemic. 

In Nicotiana glutinosa L. local necrotic lesions 
that become larger than those induced by 
Marmor tabaci; systemic necrosis and death of 
plant in some cases. In Datura stramonium L. 
concentric-ring spotting, necrotic oak-leaf pat- 
terns; typical mosaic mottling, especially dur- 
ing summer season. In Pisum sativum L. 
(garden varieties) systemic necrotic streaks in 
stem and veins of leaflets; sometimes local 
necrotic spots on wiped leaflets; necrosis in- 
volving parenchyma tissue and phloem; some- 
times a mottled pattern on leaves infected 


4 For citation of authority see p. 145, col. 2, par. 1. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 5 


when young. In Ananas sativus L. induces the 
yellow-spot disease (Hawaii); in Nicotiana 
tabacum the ‘‘vira-cabeca”’ (Brazil); in N. taba- 
cum and Lycopersicon esculentum the “krom- 
neck”’ disease (So. Africa); in N. tabacum the 
“corcova”’ disease (Argentina), and in L. escu- 
lentum the tip-blight disease (Oregon and W. 
Virginia)—the causal agents, if not identical 
with Lethuwm australiense, appear to be strains. 
Collections of this virus or its strains that have 
been observed in tobacco by the author, in- 
duced reactions that were strikingly similar to 
those induced by the tobacco ringspot virus. 
L. australiense has a very wide host range. 

Transmission.—By inoculation with ex- 
pressed juice wiped on leaves dusted with fine 
carborundum dust, grain 600 or equal; by the 
following thrips (Thripidae): Thrips tabaci 
Lind., Frankliniella paucispinosa Moult., F. 
moultont Hood, F. lycopersict Andr., and F. 
occidentalis Perg. 

Physical and chemical properties.—Inacti- 
vated at temperatures near 42° C. in 10 minutes 
in plant juices; in a few hours at room tempera- 
tures in plant juices or in drying itssue. Dilu- 
tion end-point between 10,000 and 100,000 x. 
Passes Gradocol membrane with pore diameter 
of 450 mu. 

Distribution.— Australasia, United States, 
Great Britain, probably Hawaii, South Africa, 
and South America. 


Genus 3. Poecile, gen. nov. 


Marmor Holmes (1939) p.p. 

Viruses inducing disturbances of the plastid 
pigments causing mosaics, marginal yellowing, 
of yellow patching in foliage; in some cases bud 
proliferation and leaf malformations are at- 
tendant reactions. Transmission by expressed 
juice not typical, null or exceedingly difficult; 
all species transmitted by aphids (Aphididae). 
Name from Latin meaning variegation (fem.). 
Type species, Poecile rubt. 


Poecile rubi (Holmes), comb. nov. 


Raspberry virus 2 Johnson (1935); Rubus 
virus 1 Smith (1937); Marmor rubi Holmes 
(1939). 

Common name.—Raspberry-mosaic virus. 


Genus 4. Fractilinea, gen. nov. 


Marmor Holmes (1939) p.p. 
Viruses inducing disturbances of the plastid 


May 15, 1944 


pigments causing pale green to yellow or almost 
white opaque or translucent streaks (con- 
tinuous or broken), spotting or speckling; bud 
proliferation (rosetting) and marked general 
dwarfing in some cases. Transmission by ex- 
pressed juice not typical, null or exceedingly 
difficult; all species transmitted by leafhoppers 
or planthoppers (Cicadellidae or Fulgoridae). 
Name from two Latin words signifying inter- 
rupted and line (fem.), referring to the broken 
chlorotic lines and streaks induced in the 
leaves. Type species, Marmor maidis. 


Fractilinea maidis (Holmes),*° comb. nov. 

Corn virus 2 Johnson (1935); Zea virus 2 
Smith (1937); Marmor maidis var. typicum 
Holmes (1939). 

Common name.—Maize (corn)-streak virus. 

Host reactions.—In Zea mays L. and Sac- 
charum officinarum L. var. Uba. induces light- 
green spots, broken and continuous chlorotic 
streaks. On the latter host the reactions are 
milder and the virus does not persist in the 
new foliage. 

Transmission.—By the following leafhoppers 
(Cicadellidae): Cicadulina (Balclutha) mbila 
(Naudé), C. storeyz China, and C. zeae China; 
not by inoculation with expressed juice. Cicadu- 
lina mbila is heterozygous for the virus-trans- 
mission character, and this character is sex 
linked. No morphological characters have been 
found that distinguish the race that transmits 
from the one that cannot transmit virus. Pre- 
sumably the difference is in the permeability of 
the intestinal wall. 

Mutation—Not demonstrated. Marmor 
maidis var. sacchari Holmes (1939) and M. 
maidis var. mite Holmes (1939) are similar to 
Fractilinea maidis, but it is largely a matter of 
opinion as to their rank. They may represent 
strains of F. maidis or they may be closely 
related species. 

Physical properties.—Virus passes a Cham- 
berland L; filter but is retained by the Seitz 
K. K. filter disk when the pq is near 6. 

Distribution —Africa. 


Genus 5. Ochrosticta, gen. nov. 

Ruga Holmes (1939) p.p. 

Viruses inducing mosaic mottling. Leaf de- 
formations and bud proliferations sometimes 
attendant reactions, but these do not charac- 

5 See footnote 4. 


MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 


149 


terize the genus. Transmission by. expressed 
juice null; all species transmitted by white 
flies (Aleyrodidae). Name from two Greek 
words meaning yellow and dapple (fem.), re- 
ferring to the chlorotic mottling reaction. Type 
species, Ochrosticta bemisiae. 


Ochrosticta bemisiae (Holmes), 
comb. nov. 
Manihot virus 1 Smith (1937); Ruga bemisiae 
Holmes (1939). 
Common name.—Cassava-mosaic virus. 


Genus 6. Flavimacula, gen. nov. 


Marmor Holmes (1939) p.p.; Nanus Holmes 
(1939) p.p. 

Viruses inducing disturbances of the plastid 
pigments causing chlorotic and/or necrotic 
spotting and sometimes mosaics with attendant 
rosetting of leaves; a few species inducing dis- 
turbances of the glucoside pigments, but no 
striking bud proliferation; malformations such 
as leaf curling, etc., sometimes are attendant 
reactions. Experimental transmission limited 
to tissue union; insect vectors not known. 
Name from two Latin words meaning yellow 
and spot or smear (fem.), referring to the 
chlorotic spotting or mottling reaction. Type 
species, Flavimacula persicae. 


Flavimacula persicae (Holmes), 
comb. nov. 

Peach virus 6 Johnson (1935); Prunus virus 
5 Smith (19387); Marmor persicae Holmes 
(1939). | 

Common name.—Peach-mosaic virus. 

Many members of this genus have rosaceous 
hosts, relatively few typical mosaic patterns 
are induced and little is known concerning 
properties other than host reactions and the 
mode of transmission. 


Family 2. RucacEkaE Holmes emend. 

Nanaceae Holmes (1939) p.p.; Coriaceae 
Holmes (1939); Savoiaceae Holmes (19389); 
Marmoraceae Holmes (1939) p.p.; Chloro- 
genaceae Holmes (1939); Acrogenaceae Holmes 
(1939) and Gallaceae Holmes (1939). 

Viruses inducing cellular disturbances caus- 
ing various malformations such as bud pro- 
liferation (rosetting or brooming), thickening of 
tissues, enation, leaf curl, galls, cortical lesions 
(cankers), vascular proliferation and/or dwarf- 
ing. Phloem necrosis induced by some members 


150 


(necrosis sometimes extending well into the 
parenchyma). Many members not inducing 
striking attendant disturbances of the plastid 
or glucoside pigments; pigment disturbances 
when evident usually involving entire leaves 
or diffuse patches causing the yellows type of 
chlorosis, and not mosaic; some species tending 
to induce intensification of green coloration. 
Transmission frequently limited to tissue union 
and/or to insect vectors; few species trans- 
mitted by inoculation with expressed juice. 
Type genus, Ruga Holmes (1939) emend. 


KEY TO THE GENERA 


A. Viruses inducing bud proliferation causing 
brooming or rosetting; sometimes dwarfing 
reactions. 

1. Viruses inducing pigment disturbances in 
foliage 

a. Transmission by leafhoppers........... 

Hat OR SE Genus 1. Chlorogenus 

b. Transmission by tissue union, insect vec- 

tors not known.Genus 2. Chlorophthora 

2. Induced pigment reactions null, inconspicu- 

ous or inconstant. 

a. Transmission by aphids................ 

See Genus 3. Blastogenus 

b. Transmission by tissue union, insect vec- 

tors not known....Genus 4. Polycladus 

B. Viruses inducing chiefly malformations of 

foliage as curling, crumpling, rolling, per- 
foration, laceration, enations, galls, dwarf- 
ing; maldevelopment and/or malformation 
of fruit; general dwarfing of plant usually 
an attendant reaction. Virus-induced pro- 
liferation null or inconstant; general 
chlorosis and/or accentuation of glucoside 
pigments induced by a few members, but 
not a characteristic of the group. 

. Transmission by aphids...Genus 5. Corium 

. Transmission by true bugs. Genus 6. Savoia 

. Transmission by leafhoppers or planthoppers 

Ma) Pree came tenogs Stee vege Gee Genus 7. Galla 

. Transmission by white flies.. Genus 8. Ruga 

. Transmission by tissue union, insect vectors 

NOt KHOWM. ecleae Genus 9. Carpophthora 

C. Viruses characterized by their reactions in 
and near cortex of the trunk and branches; 
reactions in other parts null or of low 
diagnostic value. 

1. Transmission by tissue union, insect vectors 
not known........ Genus 10. Rimocoriius 

D. Viruses inducing general dwarfing of host or 
its parts; green coloration of foliage fre- 
quently intensified; other reactions null 
or of low diagnostic value. 

1. Transmission by expressed juice, vectors 
aphids and/or true bugs or not known 
LEE EE cheba Ma oth AIRE c Genus 11. Acrogenus 

2. Transmission by tissue union, insect vectors 
not known........... Genus 12. Minuor 


SSIES 


re SS 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 5 


Genus 1. Chlorogenus Holmes emend. 


Chlorogenus Holmes (1939) p.p. 

Viruses inducing bud proliferation causing 
brooming or rosetting of shoots or leaves; 
malformation and dwarfing of leaves; pigment 
disturbances causing general yellowing or dif- 
fuse yellowish patching of foliage; disturbances 
of glucoside pigments sometimes causing red- 
dening and purpling of foliage. No typical 
mosaic mottling. Transmission by expressed 
juice null or too difficult for purposes of classifi- 
cation; all species transmitted by leafhoppers 
(Cicadellidae). Type species, Chlorogenus cal- 
listephi. 


Chlorogenus callistephi Holmes® 


Callistephus virus 1 Smith (1937); Chloro- 
genus callistephi var. vulgaris Holmes (1989). 

Common name.—Aster-yellows virus. 

Host reactions —In Callistephus chinensis 
Nees. stimulates lateral bud and side-shoot 
development; shoots slender, wiry and upright, 
tending to have long internodes; shortening of 
main-stem internodes; leaves narrow, deformed 
and upright; induces general chlorosis, es- 
pecially in young tissues (leaves, petioles, stem, 
and branches); sectorial chlorosis occurring in 
some leaves, but never mosaic mottling; floral 
straps becoming virescent, and their trichomes 
frequently developing into leaflike structures; 
mild necrosis usually appearing just below apex 
of the stem, flowers usually sterile. The stimu- 
lation of buds with the development of side 
shoots is somewhat more constant than the 
chlorotic reaction among the many susceptible 
host species. 

Transmission.—By the leafhopper (Cicadel- 
lidae) Macrosteles divisus (Uhl.); by grafting; 
not by inoculation with expressed juice. 

Physical properties.—Inactivated in the in- 
sect vector in 12 days at 31° C. 

Distribution.— United States; Canada, Ber- 
muda, Hungary, and Japan. 


Genus 2. Chlorophthora, gen. nov. 


Chlorogenus Holmes (1939) p.p.; Nanus 


Holmes (1939) p.p. 

Viruses inducing bud proliferation causing 
brooming of twigs or rosetting of leaves, 
chlorosis or bronzing, malformation and dwarf- 
ing of foliage, malformation and sometimes in- 


6 See footnote 4. 


May 15, 1944 


tensification of color in fruit. Experimental 
transmission limited to tissue union; insect 
vectors not known. Name from two Greek 
words meaning green and destruction (fem.) re- 
ferring to the destruction of chlorophyll in- 
duced in the foliage. Type species, Chloroph- 
thora solani. 


Chlorophthora solani (Holmes), 
comb. nov. 
~ Potato virus 11 Johnson (1935); Solanum 
virus 15 Smith (1937); Chlorogenus solani 
Holmes (1939). 
Common name.—Potato 
virus. 


witches’-broom 


Genus 3. Blastogenus, gen. nov. 
Nanus Holmes (1939), p.p. 
Viruses inducing bud proliferation causing 


brooming or rosetting of twigs or leaves with- 


out striking chlorosis. Transmission by ex- 
pressed juice null or too difficult for purposes 
of classification; all species transmitted by 
aphids (Aphididae). Name from two Greek 
words signifying bud and producing (masc.), 
referring to the large number of buds activated. 
Type species, Blastogenus fragariae. 


Blastogenus fragariae (Holmes), 
comb. nov. 

Strawberry virus 2 Johnson (1935); Fragaria 
virus 3 Smith (1937); Nanus fragariae Holmes 
(1939). 

Common name.—Strawberry witches-broom 
virus. 

Genus 4. Polycladus, gen. nov. 

Chlorogenus Holmes (1939) p.p.; Galla 
Holmes (1939) p.p.; Nanus Holmes (1939) p.p. 

Viruses inducing bud proliferations causing 
brooming or rosetting of twigs, leaves or 
floral parts; no striking chlorosis; malforma- 
tions and/or dwarfing of leaves. Experimental 
transmission limited to tissue union; insect 
vectors not known. Name from two Greek 
words signifying many shoots or branches 
(masc.), referring to the excessive number of 
shoots induced. Type species, Polycladus robi- 
niae Holmes (1939). 


Polycladus robiniae (Holmes), 
comb. nov. 
Robinia virus 1 Smith (1937); Chlorogenus 
robiniae Holmes (1939). 
Common name.—Locust witches’-broom virus. 


MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 


151 


Genus 5. Corium Holmes (1939) 


Corium Holmes (1939); Nanus Holmes p.p. 
(1939). 

Viruses inducing foliar malformations as 
rolling, puckering, wrinkling, dwarfing etc.; 
some species inducing mild general chlorosis in 
the leaves; no consistently striking bud pro- 
liferation. Transmission by expressed juice null 
or too difficult for purposes of classification; all 
species transmitted by aphids (Aphididae). 
Type species, Coriwm solani. 


Corium solani Holmes (1939) 


Potato virus 1 Johnson (1935), Solanum 
virus 14 Smith (1937). 
Common name.—Potato leaf-roll virus. 


Genus 6. Savoia Holmes (1939) 


Viruses inducing foliar malformations as 
wrinkling, twisting, curling, dwarfing, etc.; 
phloem necrosis in roots and premature death 
of host in some-cases; chlorosis when evident 
is diffuse, not typical mosaic. Transmission by 
expressed juice in some cases, but with diffi- 
culty; all species transmitted by true bugs 
(Tingitidae or Miridae). Type species, Savoia 
betae. 

Savoia betae Holmes (1939) 


Sugar-beet virus 3 Johnson (1935); Beta 
virus 3 Smith (1937). 
Common name.—Beet leaf-curl virus. 


Genus 7. Galla Holmes (1939) 


Marmor Holmes (1939), p.p.; Chlorogenus 
Holmes (1939), p.p.; Galla Holmes (1939), p.p. 

Viruses inducing malformations of foliage as 
curling, rolling, cupping, crumpling, galls; de- 
generation or necrosis of the phloem sometimes 
extending well into the parenchyma tissues; 
chlorosis (not mosaic mottling) and/or bud 
proliferation in some hosts but chlorosis and 
proliferation do not characterize the genus. 
Transmission by expressed juice null or too 
difficult for purposes of classification; all species 
transmitted by planthoppers (Fulgoridae) or 
by leafhoppers (Cicadellidae). Type species 
Galla fijiensis. 


Galla fijiensis Holmes (1939) 


Sugar-cane virus 2 Johnson (1935); Sac- 
charum virus 2 Smith (1937). 
Common name.—Sugarcane Fiji-disease virus. 


152 


Genus 8. Ruga Holmes (1939) 


Ruga Holmes (1939), p.p. 

Viruses inducing foliar malformations as roll- 
ing, puckering, wrinkling, dwarfing, etc.; 
thickening of veins; mild chlorosis (not mosaic 
mottling) in some cases but this reaction is too 
inconstant for purposes of classification. Trans- 
mission by expressed juice null or too difficult 
for use in classification; all species transmitted 
by white flies (Aleyrodidae). Type species 
Ruga tabact. 


Ruga tabaci Holmes (1939) 


Tobacco virus 16 Johnson (1935); Nicotiana 
virus 10 Smith (1937). 
Common name.—Tobacco leaf-curl virus. 


Genus 9. Carpophthora, gen. nov. 


Marmor Holmes (1939) p.p. 

Viruses inducing foliar malformations as 
twisting, enations, warts, rolling, folding, 
puckering, tattering, perforation; early drop of 
leaves and fruit in some hosts; maldevelopment 
and malformations in fruit in some cases with- 
out reactions in foliage; some members in- 
ducing yellowing and reddening or purpling 
of foliage, bark cankers, phloem necrosis, twig 
die-back and sometimes death of tree; bud 
proliferation null or not a striking characteris- 
tic, and not typifying the genus. Experimental 
transmission limited to tissue union; insect 
vectors not known. Name from two Greek 
words signifying fruit and ruin or destruction 
(fem.). Type species, Carpophthora lacerans. 


Carpophthora lacerans (Holmes), 
comb. nov. 


Marmor lacerans Holmes (1939). 

Common name.—Peach X or yellow-red- 
disease virus (Hildebrand et al. 1942). 

If this virus, sweet-cherry buckskin-disease 
virus (Rawlins and Thomas, 1941), and peach- 
leaf-casting-yellows virus (Thomas, Rawlins, 
and Parker, 1940) are identical, consideration 
should be given to the common name “‘buck- 
skin disease,’’ which antedates the other names. 
(See the literature lists in Hildebrand et al., 
1942.) 


Genus 10. Rimocortius Milbrath and 
Zeller (1942) 


Viruses inducing reactions chiefly in the 
cortical region of woody stems and branches 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 5 


causing swelling, scaling, cracking, checking, 
splitting, cankering, and/or gumming; splitting 
and crosscracking of the midribs of leaves, caus- 
ing leaf curling in some instances. Chlorosis 
absent or not striking, sometimes vein clearing 
or stippling, but not typical mosaic mottling. 
Experimental transmission limited to tissue 
union or possibly to prolonged contact of tissue 
without organic union; insect vectors not 
known. Type species, Rimocortius kwanzani. 


Rimocortius kwanzani Milbrath and 
Zeller (1942) 

Common name.—Flowering-cherry 
bark virus. 

Host reactions —In Prunus serrulata Lindl. 
var. Kwanzan, induces longitudinal and trans- 
verse splitting, and deep brown coloration of 
the bark; shortening of stem internodes and 
clustering of leaves; downward arching or eurl- 
ing of leaves, with frequent longitudinal and 
transverse cracking of the underside of the 
midribs; general dwarfing of the tree and re- 
duced number of lateral branches. No definite 
chlorotic reactions in foliage. Wild P. avium L. 
(Mazzard) is a symptomless carrier of the virus. 
Other varieties of P. serrulata apparently are 
immune. 

Transmission —By budding and grafting; . 
organic union need not be sufficient for bud 
development (possibly a prolonged contact of 
tissues without organic union is sufficient to 
effect transmission). No insect vectors have 
been found. 

Distribution.—Oregon. 


rough- 


Genus 11. Acrogenus Holmes emend. 


Viruses inducing a general dwarfing of plants 
and/or foliage; chlorosis; rolling and wrinkling 
of foliage null or slight, intensification of green 
coloration of foliage a common reaction. Trans- 
mission by expressed juice in all species; insect 
vectors aphids (Aphididae) and/or true bugs — 
or not known. Type species, Acrogenus solant. 


Acrogenus solani Holmes’ 


Potato virus 8 Johnson (1935); Solanum 
virus 12 Smith (1937); Acrogenus solani var. 
vulgaris Holmes (1939). 

Common name.—Potato spindle-tuber virus. 

Host reactions —In Solanum tuberosum L., 
induces delayed emergence; stiff, spindly, erect 


7 See footnote 4. 


May 15, 1944 


stems; small, erect, dark-green leaves with 
slender brittle petioles; twisted terminal leaves; 
elongated, cylindrical, tapered tubers with ir- 
regular contour, smooth tender skin and promi- 
nent eyes, flesh of tubers brittle at harvest, but 
softer than normal after storage. : 

Transmission.—By inoculation with ex- 
pressed juice, by aphids (Aphididae), Myzus 
persicae (Sulz.) and Macrosiphum get Koch; 
tarnished plant bug (Miridae), Lygus pratensis 
L., also by certain chewing insects, grass- 
hoppers (Locustidae), Melanoplus spp.; flea 
beetles (Chrysomelidae), Epitrix cucumeris 
Harris and Sysiena taeniata (Say); leaf beetles 
(Chrysomelidae), Disonycha triangularis (Say), 
and Colorado potato-beetle larvae (Chryso- 
melidae) Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say. 

Geographic distribution —United States and 
Canada. 


Genus 12. Minuor Zeller and Braun 
(1943) 

Nanus Holmes p.p. 

Viruses inducing general dwarfing or stunting 
of the plant as a whole or its parts; some species 
inducing intensification of green coloration of 
the foliage. Malformation and chlorosis absent 
or of littke diagnostic value. Experimental 
transmission limited to tissue union; insect 
vectors not known. Type species: Minuor 
ruborum. 


Minuor ruborum Zeller and Braun 
(1943) 


Common name.—Raspberry decline-disease 
virus. 

Host reactions —In Rubus idaeus L. var. 
Cuthbert, when infection occurs late in the 
season, virus retards growth of new shoots and 
intensifies their reddish color the following 
spring. In the field the leaves on these canes 
show no symptoms until growth slows down in 
the autumn, when they roll downward and be- 
come fluted along the veins; leaves toward the 
cane tips show very slight chlorosis between 
the veins and a slight bronzing along the mar- 
gins and crests between the veins; the cane 
internodes toward the tip are shortened. In 
greenhouse culture the downward rolling of the 
leaves is evident throughout the growing season. 
In the field, infected canes are small and 
weakened as evidenced by winter killing or 
failure of lateral buds; the feeder rootlets be- 


MCKINNEY: GENERA OF THE PLANT VIRUSES 


153 


come reduced and the whole plant deteriorates 
progressively until death, which occurs at a 
maximum of about 3 years after infection. The 
berries are globose and the druplets separate 
readily, rendering the fruit worthless. Infection 
spreads from a diseased-plant center causing 
spotted areas that may be over 200 feet in 
diameter. Other varieties of R. idaeus and other 
species of Rubus have shown reactions resem- 
bling those induced by the decline-disease virus 
in the Cuthbert variety. All attempts to isolate 
and culture a parasite have failed. 

Transmission.—By grafting; insect vectors 
not known. 

Distribution.— Willamette Valley, Oreg.; pos- 
sibly British Columbia. 


LITERATURE CITED 


BawpeENn, F. C. Plant viruses and virus dis- 
eases: 272 pp., 37 figs. Leiden, 1939. 
BENNETT, C. W. The nomenclature of plant 

viruses. Phytopath. 29: 422-430. 1939. 

. The relation of viruses to plant tissues. 
Bot. Rev. 6: 427-473. 1940. 

——eetal. Report of the committee on nomen- 
clature and classification of plant viruses. 
Phytopath. 33: 424. 1948. 

BrIQuET, JoHN. International rules of botana- 
cal nomenclature. Jena, 1935. 

CroizaT, Lron. The trinomial typicus?—l. 
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 70: 310. 1948. 
Esau, KatTuerine. Initial localization and 
subsequent spread of curly-top symptoms in 
the sugar beet. Hilgardia 9: 397-436. 1935. 

Fawcett, Howarp S. Suggestions on plant 
virus nomenclature as exemplified by names 
for citrus viruses. Science 92: 559-561. 
1940. 

Gippines, N. J. Studies of selected strains of 

curly-top virus. Journ. Agr. Res. 56: 883— 

894. 1938. 

HILDEBRAND, E. M., Berxnuey, G. H., and 
Cation, D. Handbook of virus diseases of 
stone fruits in North America: 76 pp. 
Michigan Agr. Exp. Stat. 1942. 

Hoimes, Francis O. Comparison of derwa- 
tives from distinctive strains of tobacco- 
mosaic virus. Phytopath. 26: 896-904. 
1936. 

. Handbook of phytopathogenic viruses: 

221 pp. Minneapolis, 1939. 

. Handbook of phytopathogenic viruses. 
(Second printing with minor revisions.) 
Minneapolis, 1941. 

Hurcuins, L. M. Identification and control of 
the phony disease of the peach. Georgia 
State Ent. Bull. 78. 1933. 

JENSEN, JAMES H. Isolation of yellow-mosaic, 
viruses from plants infected with tobacco 
mosaic. Phytopath. 23: 964-974. 1933. 


; 


154 


JOHNSON, JAMES. The classification of plant 
viruses. Univ. Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Stat. 
Res. Bull. 76: 16 pp., illus. 1927. 

and Hoaean, Isme A. A descriptive 

key for plant viruses. Phytopath. 25: 328- 

343. 1935. 

. Illustration of proposed system of nomen- 
clature for plant viruses. Mimeographed. 
Not dated, but presented at the Sixth 
International Bot. Congr. Amsterdam, 
1935. 

Kassanis, B., and SHEFFIELD, F. M.L. Vari- 
ations in the cytoplasmic inclusions induced 
by three strains of tobacco mosaic virus. 
Ann. Applied Biol. 28: 360-367. 1941. 

Ley, ARLINE. A taxonomic revision of the 
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McKinney, H. H. Mosaic diseases in the 
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. Evidence of virus mutation in the com- 

mon mosaic of tobacco. Journ. Agr. Res. 

51: 951-981. 1935. 

. Virus mutation and the gene concept. 

Journ. Hered. 28: 51-57. 1937 

. Mosaic diseases of wheat and related 

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. Virus antagonism tests and their lumita- 

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. Studies on genotypes of tobacco resistant 

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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 34, No. 5 


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Price, W. C. Isolation and study of some 
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Tuomas, H. Earu, Rawuins, T. E., and 
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161. 1948. 


Stain Technology 16: 143- 


ZOOLOGY .—WNotes on a small collection of reptiles and amphibians from Tabasco, 


México... Hopart M. SmItu. 

Walter A. Weber, of the U. 8. National 
Museum, naturalist to the Fifth National 
Geographic Society—Smithsonian Institu- 
tion Expedition to southern México, under 
the leadership of Matthew W. Stirling, col- 
lected a small series of reptiles and amphib- 
lans near the base camp at La Venta, 


1 Received January 11, 1944. 


(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.) 


Tabasco. The material, now a part of the 
collections of the U. 8. National Museum, 
was obtained in March and April, 1948. It 
was made available to me for study through 
the courtesy of Dr. Alexander Wetmore. It 
contains 12 specimens of nine species, five 
of which have not previously been recorded 
from the state of Tabasco, while one has 
not been collected for more than 50 years 


May 15, 1944 


and is among the great rarities of the 
Mexican herpetofauna. 

La Venta is a heavily forested island 
about 4 miles across by 14 miles wide lo- 
cated in the coastal swamps near the 
mouth of the Tonalé River, in the angle 
formed by the junction of that stream with 
the Rio Blasillo. This point is about 15 
miles inland to the southeast of the town 
of Tonala on the Gulf coast. 


Eleutherodactylus rhodopis (Cope) 


A single specimen (U.S.N.M. 117556) was 
obtained on April 7. It is half grown and 
measures 25.3 mm from snout to vent. The 
markings and pattern of ridges are typical of 
the Atlantic coast specimens of the species. 

This species has not previously been re- 
corded from the state of Tabasco, although its 
existence there has been indicated by records 
from adjacent areas. 


Agalychnis callidryas (Cope) 


Two specimens (U.S.N.M. 117557-117558) 
were collected on March 24. They are imma- 
ture, measuring 24 mm from snout to vent. 
The diagonal lateral cream lines are clearly 
evident in each. One is bright purple above, 
while the other has a strong gray suffusion 
nearly obliterating the purple color. 

There are no records of this species in the 
literature for the state of Tabasco. 


Anolis bourgaei Bocourt 


A single specimen (U.S.N.M. 117348) is re- 
ferred to this species, following the nomen- 
clature proposed by Schmidt (Publ. Field Mus. 
Nat. Hist., Zool. Ser., 22: 491. 1941). It is a 
subadult male, with lateral light stripes. 

The species has not previously been recorded 
from Tabasco. 


Laemanctus deborrei Boulenger 


One of the most valuable items secured is a 
specimen (U.S.N.M. 117349), collected on 
April 12, that proves to be the second known 
from México (the type is from “‘Tabasco’’) and 
perhaps the only one of the species in any 
American museum. It is a fine adult female 
carrying five eggs that average 26 by 15 mm 
in size. The snout-vent length is 120 mm, the 


SMITH: REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS FROM TABASCO 


155 


tail 458 mm, the snout-occiput length (meas- 
ured along the flat dorsal surface of the head) 
41 mm. 

The scales on the snout are not, or scarcely, 
larger than those in the occipital region; no 
prominently projecting scales on posterior edge 
of occiput; dorsal head scales strongly rugose, 
lateral head scales weakly rugose; about six 
canthals, the anterior in contact with first 
supralabial; one prenasal between first canthal 
and nasal; latter in contact with canthal series 
above and with supralabials (second and third) 
below; numerous loreal scales, a maximum of 
four in a vertical row from loreals to supra- 
labials; five or six small suboculars, three or 
four in contact with supralabials; lores sloping 
inward slightly, as viewed from above; 11-12 
supralabials; 11-11 infralabials; mental half as 
wide as rostral; gular scales weakly polycari- 
nate, 21 in a row from mental to gular fold. 
Scales around middle of body 48; nape scales 
(sides and back) smooth; middorsal scales 
rather strongly keeled, especially just back of 
nape; paravertebral scales feebly polycarinate, 
becoming smooth in dorsolateral region; lateral 
scales feebly uni-, bi-, or tricarinate; belly 
scales rather strongly unicarinate. Dorsal 
scales on forelimb bi- or tricarinate, those on 
hindlimb (except foot) unicarinate; ventral 
limb scales unicarinate. Tail scales unicarinate, 
feebly above, strongly below. One of the most 
curious features in the scutellation of the spe- 
cies is the absence of keels on the subdigital 
lamellae—a character common to practically 
all iguanids. In their stead is a very curious, 
swollen, yellow or dark-brown knob in the 
middle of each lamella at its distal (free) edge. 
I know of no similar feature in other genera of 
iguanids, although it may occur in the related 
Corythophanes. 

The coloration in life may well be much 
different from that seen in preserved specimens. 
Where the scales have been lost, the color is of 
various shades of purple; nine rather poorly 
defined, subrectangular, dark yellow spots 
about four scale rows wide form a vertebral 
series on the body, continuing dimly on the 
tail; the rest of the dorsal surfaces are of a dark 
wine color, the ventral surface a curious, strik- 
ing, bright yellowish purple. The head is yel- 
lowish brown above and on the sides has 
scattered, purplish, greenish and yellowish 


156 


areas blending into one another. The posterior 
edges of the occipital shelf are black. 


Ameiva undulata stuarti Smith 


A single specimen (U.S.N.M. 117350) is 
apparently typical of this subspecies. The 
median gulars are in a single row, the largest 
larger than any mesoptychial or preanal; the 
preanals are in two rows; the femoral pores 
are 21-21, and the subdigital lamellae of the 
fourth toe are 30-32. 

Apparently there is no previous record of 
the occurrence of this widely distributed spe- 
cies in Tabasco. 


Ninia sebae sebae (Duméril and Bibron) 


Three specimens (U.S.N.M. 117352-117354) 
were collected April 3 to 7. Respectively these 
have 1388(%), 183( 9), 1384(@) ventrals; 53, 
44, 50 caudals; 6-6, 7-7, 7-7 infralabials; and 
1-1, 2-2, 2-2 postoculars. The supralabials are 
7-7 in all, temporals 1-2-3. The number of 
caudals in all three is less than is typical of 
s. sebae, with a total range of caudals from 51 
to 71 in males and 40 to 60 in females; most 
males have over 54, most females over 45. In 
this character the specimens approach s. mor- 
leyi, in which the males usually have less than 
54 (range 44 to 54), the females usually less 
than 45 (38 to 46). The three can not be re- 
ferred to s. morleyi, however, for the known 
minimum ventral count for that race is 143 in 
females, 137 in males. It is not unreasonable 
to assume that the Tabasco specimens repre- 
sent an intergrading population that still re- 
tains greater affinities to s. sebae. 


Pliocercus elapoides elapoides Cope 


A single specimen (U.S.N.M. 117351) of this 
subspecies, collected on April 17, is of con- 
siderable interest, since it represents an area 
from which the species is otherwise unknown. 
It is a female measuring 234 mm in total length, 
the tail 89 mm. The ventrals number 130, the 
caudals 97; supralabials 8-8; infralabials 9-9; 
preoculars and postoculars 2-2; temporals 1-1. 
The outer rings of each triad of black rings are 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 5 


much broader than the yellow rings; 12 pri- 
mary black rings are on the body, 10 on the 
tail; and five of the anterior six black rings are 
incomplete ventrally. 

The broad, secondary black rings, 9-9 infra- 
labials, and 130 ventrals are characters that ~ 
conclusively allocate this specimen with the 
typical race, although all other known speci- 
mens from Tabasco are clearly referable to 
e. laticollaris. The incomplete black rings, how- 
ever, demonstrate an approach toward e. lati- 
collaris. The Tabasco localities for the latter 
race (Macuspana, Teapa, Tenosique) are in the 
central and western part of the state and, 
moreover, are in or very near the foothills of 
the Atlantic escarpment. Intergradation ‘be- 
tween these two races is indicated for the area 
between La Venta, in extreme western Tabasco 
near the coast, and Teapa, located near the 
foothills of central southern Tabasco. Fairly 
typical e. elapoides may occur much farther 
eastward, however, near the coast. 

As implied above, this specimen affords the 
first record of the occurrence of e. elapoide 
in Tabasco. 


Coniophanes fissidens fissidens (Giinther) 


A male (U.S.N.M. 117555), collected on 
April 2, has 21-17 scale rows, 117 ventrals, in- 
complete tail, and 8-8 supralabials. The median 
border of the dorsolateral light stripes is in- 
distinct in front of the anus, and the light 
stripes are visible on the neck. A dark spot 
near the end of each ventral is somewhat larger 
than other, scattered, black flecks. Though 
showing an approach toward f. proterops, es- 
pecially in ventral markings, the specimen is 
clearly most like f. fissidens. It is noteworthy 
that La Venta specimens of this species show 
southern (eastern) affinities, while those of 
Pliocercus show northern (western) affinities. 


Bothrops atrox (Linnaeus) 


A single specimen (U.S.N.M. 117355) was 
collected on April 7. It is a half-grown female 
with 210 ventrals, 61 caudals, and 25-27-21 
scale rows. : 


May 15, 1944 


CUSHMAN: NOTES ON FORAMINIFERA 


157 


ZOOLOGY.—Additional notes on Foraminifera in the collection of Ehrenberg. 


J. A. CUSHMAN, Sharon, Mass. 


In the summer of 1927 a visit was made 
to study the Foraminifera in the Ehrenberg 
collection in Berlin to determine if possible 
the characters and relationships of the 
numerous genera erected by Ehrenberg be- 
tween 1838 and 1872. Notes on some of 
these have already been published in this 
JOURNAL 17: 487-491, 1927. As noted previ- 
ously, there are many excellent original 
drawings that were never published which, 
. with the specimens themselves, serve to give 
the characters needed to determine the 
systematic position of these genera. Notes 
are here given on a number of these genera 
and their probable relationships. 


Asterodiscus Ehrenberg, 1838 (Abh. Akad. 
Wiss. Berlin, 1838: 130). The genoholotype is 
A. forskdlii Ehrenberg but is not figured. The 
type is from Santo Domingo and is the common 
species of that region. It should be placed as a 
synonym of Planorbulina d’Orbigny, 1826, and 
the species a synonym of P. mediterranensis 
d’Orbigny. 

Omphalophacus Ehrenberg, 1838 (Abh. Akad. 
Wiss. Berlin, 1838: 132). The first species is 
O. hemprichit Ehrenberg (Il. c., p. 1382). There 
are two lots of specimens in the Ehrenberg col- 
lection labeled ‘“‘Tor’” and “‘Erraia,”’ respec- 
tively, but nothing more as to locality. They 
represent an unequally bilateral species of 
Amphistegina. The later species, O.? tenellus 
Ehrenberg (Mikrogeologie, 1854: pl. 32, pt. 2, 
fig. 34), was not found in the collection and is 
very difficult to determine from the figure. Its 
relationship was questioned by Ehrenberg him- 
self. Therefore the genus Omphalophacus may. 
be placed as a synonym of Amphistegina d’Or- 
bigny, 1826. 

Geoponus Ehrenberg, 1839 (Abh. Akad. 
Wiss. Berlin, 1839: 132). The genoholotype is 
G. stella-borealis Ehrenberg (l. c., p. 132, pl. 1, 
figs. a-g). The type specimens are from living 
material from off Cuxhaven. In the Ehrenberg 
collection are excellent original figures in color 
showing pseudopodia. The large figures are in 
good detail with 8 to 10 retral processes to the 


1 Received February 5, 1944. 


chamber and 12 chambers to a coil. The retral 
processes are in pairs. This is definitely a syno- 
nym of Elphidium Montfort, 1808. 

Entrochus Ehrenberg, 1841 (Abh. Akad. 
Wiss. Berlin, 1841: 408). The genoholotype is 
E. septatus Ehrenberg (I. c., p. 426). The type 
specimen was examined. It is from Recent ma- 
terial off Veracruz and is evidently a small 
Cassidulina and should be placed as a syno- 
nym under that genus. 

Megathyra Ehrenberg, 1841 (Abh. Akad. 
Wiss. Berlin, 1841: 409). Ehrenberg named two 
species, M. dilatata and M. planularia. The 
type specimens of these were examined. Both 
are from Recent material off Veracruz. The 
first species is very difficult to make out as to 
its full characters, but the second is very defi- 
nite and indicates that the genus should be 
placed as a synonym of Planularia Defrance, 
1824. 

Porospira Ehrenberg, 1844 (Ber. preuss. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1844: 75). Two species 
were named by Ehrenberg in 1844, P. princeps 
and P. comes. Both are from Oran and were 
later figured (Mikrogeologie, 1854: pl. 21, figs. 
92, 93). In the book of drawings in the Ehren- 
berg collection the second species was later 
labeled ‘‘Rotalia Reuss, 1861” after the genus. 
A study of the type specimens shows them to be 
somewhat trochoid and probably representing 
a single species. They should be placed as 
synonyms under Anomalina d’Orbigny, 1826. 

Spirobotrys Ehrenberg, 1844 (Ber. preuss. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1844: 247). The genoholo- 
type is S. aegaea Ehrenberg (l.c., p. 248), from 
the Aegean Sea. The type is very evidently, 
as was later marked in ink on the original draw- 
ing, ‘‘Planorbulina mediterranea.’ There are 
two excellent unpublished figures in the Ehren- 
berg collection and the genus is definitely a 
synonym of Planorbulina d’Orbigny, 1826. 

Rhynchospira Ehrenberg, 1845 (Ber. preuss. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1845: 358). The genoholo- 
type is R. indica Ehrenberg (l.c., p. 376). The 
locality given is ‘‘Pulo Pinang.’’ The type speci- 
men definitely shows that it is a synonym of 
Globigerina d’Orbigny, 1826. 

Clidostomum Ehrenberg, 1845 (Ber. preuss. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1845: 358). The genoholo- 


158 


type is C’. polystigma Ehrenberg (l.c., p. 368). 
The type specimen was examined. It is from 
Loandra, South Africa. The internal siphon is 
well shown and the genus should be placed as a 
synonym of Bolivina d’Orbigny, 1839. 

Grammobotrys Ehrenberg, 1845 (Ber. preuss. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1845: 368). The genoholo- 
type is G. africana Ehrenberg from Loandra, 
South Africa. The types were examined and the 
genus should be placed as a synonym of Vir- 
gulina d’Orbigny, 1826. 

Spiropleurites Ehrenberg, 1854 (Ber. preuss. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1854: 248). Of the two spe- 
cies named, only S. nebulosus Ehrenberg was 
figured (Mikrogeologie, 1854: pl. 35, pt. B, iv, 
fig. 7). The specimen from the Atlantic may 
possibly be a young form of Globorotalia 
menardit (d’Orbigny) although Sherborn’s In- 
dex refers it to ‘‘Pulvinulina repanda,”’ which is 
an Hponides. Its position must therefore remain 
doubtful. 

Pleurites Ehrenberg, 1854. There are several 
species figured under this genus in 1854, the 
first of which is P. cretae Ehrenberg (Mikro- 
geologie, 1854: pl. 27, fig. 32). It is from the 
Cretaceous of Meudon, near Paris. Ehrenberg 
had written later under the original figure 
“Globigerina cretacea,’ but it is not this. A 
study of the type specimen shows it to have a 
smooth surface with the aperture and triserial 
arrangement of the chambers of Bulimina. It 
should therefore be placed as a synonym of 
Bultmina d’Orbigny, 1826. 

Synspira Ehrenberg, 1854. The genoholo- 
type, S. triquetra Ehrenberg, was figured 
(Mikrogeologie, 1854: pl. 29, fig. 47) from the 
Island of Moén. The single specimen at first 
appearance seems to be allied to Nubecularia, 
but it is apparently perforate and perhaps allied 
to Spirillina. From this single specimen the 
genus must remain doubtful. 

Ceratospirulina Ehrenberg, 1858 (Monatsb. 
preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 11). The 
genoholotype is C. sprattit Ehrenberg (l.c., p. 
19). The type specimen is from 500 fathoms, in 
the Mediterranean between Malta and Crete. 
The species was originally called mediterranea 
in Ehrenberg’s notes but later was crossed out 
and sprattit added above. On the original notes 
it was called Ceratoloculina. The later record 
as Ceratospyris sprattit (Abh. Akad. Wiss. Ber- 
lin, 1872 (1873): pl. 11, fig. 7) is the same. The 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 5 


early portion is definitely 5-chambered, and the 
generic names should be placed as synonyms of 
Articulina d’Orbigny, 1826. 

Encorycum Ehrenberg, 1858 (Monatsb. 
preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 11, 19). The 
genoholotype is H. nodosaria Ehrenberg (l.c. 
p. 19) afterward figured by Ehrenberg (Abh. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1872 (1873): pl. 11, fig. 
13). The specimen is well figured but evidently 
incomplete. Each chamber has a short internal 
neck, and the test as examined is clear, thin, 
and smooth. On the sheet of original drawings 
there are numerous notes later referring it to 
various genera, Nodosaria, Frondicularia, and 
Glandulina. From the evidence of the specimen 
it may questionably be referred to Ellipsonodo- 
saria A. Silvestri, 1900, as a synonym. 

Selenostomum Ehrenberg, 1858 (Monatsb. 
preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 12). Two spe- 
cies were named by Ehrenberg, S. aegaewm and 
S. fimbriatum. Both are Recent forms from the 
Aegean Sea. A study of the type specimens 
showed that the genus is a synonym of Cassi- 
dulina d’Orbigny, 1826. 

Dexiopora Ehrenberg, 1858 (Monatsb. preuss. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 309). The specimen 
figured as D. triarchaea Ehrenberg (l.c., pp. 
309, 337, pl. 1, fig. 10) is marked ‘“‘untersilur- 
ischer Griinsand, Petersburg.’’ Parker and 
Jones noted that it might be a Globigerina, but 
from an examination of the specimen it seems 
more like a concretionary form and so far as 
could be made out is without structure and the 
name should be allowed to lapse. 

Spiroceritum Ehrenberg, 1858 (Monatsb. 
preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 310). The 
genoholotype is S. priscum Ehrenberg (l.c., pp. 
310, 337, pl. 1, fig. 14). An examination of the 
type specimen shows it to be a globular mass of 
glauconite with no definite structure, and the 
name should be allowed to lapse. 

_ Aspidodexia Ehrenberg, 1872 (Monatsb. 
preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1872: 280). The 
genoholotype, A. lineolata Ehrenberg, was fig- 
ured (Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1872 (1873): pl. 
3, fig. 4) from Recent Atlantic material. The 
original specimen was not found in the Ehren- 
berg collection, but the original figure was seen 
and the name had later been changed to Aspido- 
spira. The latter is a synonym of Anomalina 
d’Orbigny, 1826. Aspidodexia is probably a 
synonym of Globigerina d’Orbigny, 1826. 


May 15, 1944 


MAMMALOGY.—The type locality of Tadarida mexicana Saussure.} 
Benson, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California. 


BENSON: TYPE LOCALITY OF TADARIDA MEXICANA 


159 


SETH B. 
(Com- 


municated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.) 


In checking a list of type localities of 
Mexican mammals I encountered an ap- 
parent error in designating the type locality 
of the Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida 
mexicana). Shamel (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 
78(art. 19): 5. 1931) gave the type locality 
as Ameca, Jalisco, Mexico, and stated: 
“The describer selects no specimen as type, 
but gives as the habitat the plateau of 
Mexico. Specimens are mentioned from 
Ameca, Jalisco, and from Cofre de Perote, 
- Vera Cruz. In the United States National 
Museum collection are three specimens 
from San Pedro, Jalisco, which is in the 
immediate vicinity of Ameca, and 23 others 
from various places in Jalisco. I have there- 
fore chosen Ameca, Jalisco, as the type 
locality. A specimen labeled, ‘Mexico’ 
(Saussure) and marked type of Mollossus 
mexicanus was examined in the Berlin Mu- 
seum in 1904 by Mr. Miller who thinks it 
is probably a cotype.”’ 

This is not the first recorded designation 
of Ameca, Jalisco, as the type locality of 
this bat. The first known to me is by Miller 
(U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 79: 70. 1912), who 
gave no comment as to the reason. This 
ascription has been commonly followed in 
the literature. Also, there is an even earlier 
designation of the type locality. Elliot 
(Field Columbian Mus. Publ., zool. ser., 4: 
629. 1904) gave the type locality as ‘‘Cofre 
de Perote, state of Vera Cruz, Mexico, 
13,000 feet elevation,” but gave no explana- 
tion. 

Saussure’s original description (Rev. et 
Mag. Zool., ser. 2, 12: 283-285. July, 1860) 
contains the follewing statement (p. 285) 
concerning distribution: ‘‘Habite le pla- 
teau du Mexique et les hautes montagnes. 
J’en ai tué un individu sur le Coffre de 
Perote, 4 13,000 pieds d’altitude; d’autres 
individus ont été pris 4 Ameca, au pied du 

1 Received January 31, 1944. 


-Popocatepetl, 4 un altitude de 8,500 pieds.”’ 


There is no mention of Jalisco in this 
statement, and the only way to infer that 
Ameca, Jalisco, is the locality intended is 
to assume that the phrases “au pied du 
Popocatepetl, 4 un altitude de 8,500 pieds”’ 
refer to a third locality. Actually, the punc- 
tuation indicates that only two localities 
are intended and that the phrases referred 
to merely describe the location of Ameca 
more exactly. Ameca really means Ameca- 
meca, a town situated on the western base 
of Popocatepetl at the approximate eleva- 
tion given by Saussure. Perhaps an error in 
transcription is involved, easy to make with 
a word like Amecameca, or perhaps Saus- 
sure used the abbreviated form that is 
sometimes used by the present inhabitants 
of Amecameca and that appears on some 
maps. A further indication that Amecameca 
is the locality in question is furnished in 
Saussure’s description of Molossus aztecus 
(op. cit.) where he gave its distribution 
(p. 286) as follows: ‘‘Habite le plateau du 
Mexique. Tué 4&4 Amecameca, au pied du 
Popocatepetl.”’ 

The localities recorded by Saussure are 
therefore Cofre de Perote, 13,000 feet, state 
of Veracruz, and Amecameca, 8,500 feet, 
state of Mexico. Because Saussure definitely 
stated that he collected a specimen on the 
Cofre de Perote himself, giving this locality 
first, and because Elliot first definitely fixed 
it as the type locality, Cofre de Perote, 
13,000 feet, state of Veracruz, Mexico, 
should be considered the type locality of 
Tadarida mexicana. If it can be definitely 
established in the future that the specimen 
whose measurements are given by Saussure 
came from ‘“‘Ameca,” then Amecameca, 
state of Mexico, might be considered as the 
type locality, but there is no valid reason 
for ascribing the type locality to the state 
of Jalisco. 


160 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 5 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 
1204TH MEETING 


The 1204th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, October 10, 1942, 
President BROMBACHER presiding. 

The President announced that the Joseph 
Henry lecture could not be given, as the lec- 
turer had received orders from the Navy De- 
partment calling him out of town. He acknowl- 
edged the Society’s indebtedness to Mr. Curts- 
LER for volunteering to speak on very short 
notice. 

Program: V. L. CHRISsLER, National Bureau 
of Standards: Field measurements of air-raid 
warning devices.—Total war has created the 
necessity of warning the civilian population of 
impending air attacks. As acoustic signaling 
has proved to be an effective method of warn- 
ing, the Office of Civilian Defense asked the 
National Bureau of Standards to make a study 
of various devices available for this purpose. 
Most of the measurements have been made in 
a large open space with the device mounted 20 
feet above ground. Frequency analyses of the 
signals were made at a distance of 100 feet from 
each device and the intensity levels measured 
at distances of 100, 700, 1,400, and 2,800 feet. 
Varying atmospheric conditions, such as wind, 
temperature, and humidity, had considerable 
effect upon the attenuation of sound with dis- 
tance; in fact, for the devices tested, the effect 
of atmospheric conditions is more important 
than the distribution of energy in the different 
frequency components. (Author’s abstract.) 

This illustrated paper was discussed by 
Messrs. W. G. BrompacHuser, A. G. McNisu, 
W..J. Humpureys, PP: S. Roiimr, A. M: 
O’Bryan, C. E. Bennett, H. L. Curtis, F. 
J. Barus, and P. A. Smrru. 


1205tH MEETING 


The 1205th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, October 24, 1942, 
President BROMBACHER presiding. 

Program: ALBERT May, Catholic University 
of America: The latent image in the photo- 
graphic plate-—The present theories of the 
latent photographic image were discussed, in- 
cluding the work of Gurney and Mott and the 
attempts to explain the solarization region. 


This was followed by a description of original 
research. 

Experiments in hypersensitization of X-ray 
emulsions with mercury vapor showed that no 
appreciable increase of speed of these emulsions 
was obtained for X-ray exposures, nor for films 
hypersensitized after exposure to visible light. 
The results were shown to be consistent with 
existing theories. 

Blackening curves of exposures extended into 
the solarization region showed broader first 
maximum peaks for visible light than for X-ray 
exposures. Calculated curves based on a simple 
model give a satisfactory agreement with the 
X-ray curve, and an average of about 60 X-ray 
quanta is found necessary to produce solariza- 
tion in a photographic grain. (A.uthor’s abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by Messrs. W. J. 
HumpuHreys, W. G. BrompBacuer, L. B. 


_TucKERMAN, and F. L. Mouter. 


1206TH MEETING 


The 1206th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, November 7, 
1942, President BRoMBACHER presiding. 

Program: FREDERICK SeEItTz, University of 
Pennsylvania: The photoelasticity of crystals.— 
Experimental investigations of the mechanism 
of plastic flow in crystals show that blocks of 
the material become displaced relative to one 
another along definite crystallographic planes. 
This mechanism is commonly known as slip. 
The linear dimensions of the blocks that play 
a role in the process of slip are of the order of 1 
micron. Straightforward estimates of the shear- 
ing stresses that would be required to produce 
a slip in an ideal crystal lead to values of the 
order of magnitude of 10!! dynes per cm?, 
whereas the values actually observed in well 
annealed single crystals of pure metals and salts 
are of the order of 107 dynes per cm’. As a result 
of this fact it is necessary to assume that crystal 
imperfections play a very important role in de- 
termining the actual mechanism of flow. The 
present viewpoint of the nature of the lattice 
imperfections that have bearing on the prob- 
lem was discussed. It was pointed out that a 
particular type of imperfection known as a dis- 
locatton would explain both the actual mecha- 
nism of slip and the observed values of the 


May 15, 1944 


shearing stress. There is evidence to show that 
a few dislocations are always present in well- 
annealed crystals; however, it is necessary to 
assume that many more are generated during 
plastic flow. The change in number of these 
alters the properties of the material in many 
respects. There is also evidence to show that 
fissures and cracks which play an important 
role in reducing the rupture strength of crystals 
aid in the generation of dislocations. (AUTHOR’S 
abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by Messrs. W. G. 
BrRoMBACHER, L. B. Tuckerman, K. F. 
HeERZFELD, A. BLAKE, and W. J. HUMPHREYS. 

In an informal communication Mr. L. B. 
TUCKERMAN presented an illustration showing 
that it is not necessary for the derivative of a 
function to be zero at the maximum or mini- 
mum values. It was discussed by Messrs. A. 
Buake and W. J. HUMPHREYs. 


| 1207TH MEETING 

The 1207th meeting was a joint meeting with 
the Washington Academy of Sciences. It is re- 
ported in this JoUKNAL 33: 32. 1943. 


1208tH MEETING 

The 1208th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, November 21, 
1942, President BROMBACHER presiding. 

Program: D. R. Ineuts, Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity: The moments of atomic nuclei.—Like 
the earth, the atomic nucleus has in many cases 
an angular momentum and a magnetic moment. 
The electric quadrupole moment of several 
nuclei indicates an elongation of form somewhat 
analogous to the flattening of the earth. The 
magnetic moments are measured by means of 
the hyperfine structure of atomic spectra aris- 
ing from different orientations of the nucleus in 
the magnetic field of the atomic electrons, and 
more accurately by inducing transitions of 
orientation at resonance of a radio frequency 
and a frequency of Larmor precession. The 
observed magnetic moments of odd proton 
nuclei with a given angular momentum tend to 
be divided into two groups as though to cor- 
respond to the two orientations of the odd pro- 
ton spin relative to its orbital angular momen- 
tum. This must depend on a tendency of spin 
to pair off as far as possible. This and the dis- 
tribution of quadrupole moments in the periodic 
table may in part be a consequence of a partial 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


161 


grouping of protons and neutrons into alpha 
particles in the nuclei. (A uthor’s abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by Messrs. W. G. 
BRoMBACHER, P. A. Smitu, F. L. Mouuer, and 
F. C. BRICKWEDDE. 


1209TH MEETING 


The 1209th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, December 5, 1942, 
President BROMBACHER presiding. The minutes 
of the 71st annual meeting were read and ap- 
proved. 

The Treasurer’s report was read by the 
Treasurer, Mr. W. RamBerc. The income from 
dues and investments during the past year was 
$1,215.16, and the expenditures were $1,014.55, 
leaving a surplus of $200.61. The average 
expenditure per member was $3.50. During the 
year the sum of $2,000 from the Trust account 
was invested in U. 8. Saving Bonds. 

The report of the Auditing Committee, A. 
Buake, R. P. TEELE, and EK. H. VEsSTINE, was 
presented by the chairman, Mr. Brake. It 
was discussed by Messrs. W. J. HUMPHREYS 
and H. F. Stimson. It was moved, seconded, 
and carried that the reports of the Auditing 
Committee and Treasurer be accepted as read. 

The joint report of the Secretaries was pre- 
sented by the Recording Secretary, Mr. F. L. 
Mouter. There were 15 regular meetings dur- 
ing the year, with an average attendance of 55. 
At these meetings 16 papers were presented. 
The membership losses were 12, and there were 
16 new members, giving 319 active members on 
December 1, 1942. There were 36 on the absent 
list. It was moved, seconded, and carried that 
the report be accepted as read. 

The report of the Committee on Elections, 
F: Wenner, A. K. Lupy, and J. 8. BuRLEW, 
was presented by the Chairman, Mr. WENNER. 
He reported that those elected had received a 
majority of the votes with respect to the other 
candidates for the same office. It was discussed 
by Messrs. A. Buake and W. J. HUMPHREYS. 
It was moved, seconded, and carried that the 
report be accepted, and the President declared 
the following officers duly elected: 

President: R. J. SEEGER 

Vice Presidents: H. F. Stimson, F. L. MoHLER 
Recording Secretary: ARCHIE BLAKE 
Treasurer: WALTER RAMBERG 


Members-at-large of the General Committee: 
K. L. SHerman, W. A. WILDHACK. 


162 


The President opened the meeting for discus- 
sion of Society policies and recommendations 
to the General Committee. He remarked on the 
difficulty of securing papers and requested that 
members submit papers. 

The Secretary read a rough draft of the 
minutes, and it was approved as read. 

A paper on Stellar explosions was presented 
by Mr. Grorcse Gamow, of George Washington 
University. It was discussed by Messrs. A. J. 
SHNEIDER, A. Buake, and W. A. WILDHACK. 

The President requested Past Presidents 
BRICKWEDDE and McComs to escort President 
SEEGER to the platform. 

President SEEGER introduced the newly 
elected officers to the Society and thanked the 
retiring officers for their services. 


1210TH MEETING 


The 1210th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, December 19, 
1942, President SFEGER presiding. 

The twelfth Joseph Henry lecture, The 
scientific significance of ferromagnetism, was de- 
livered by Dr. Francis Birrer. It was pub- 
lished in this JOURNAL 33: 235-238. 1943. 


1211TH MEETING 


The 1211th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, January 16, 1943, 
President SEEGER presiding. 

The retiring President’s address, Altitude by 
measurement of air pressure, was delivered by 
Dr. WiLi1AM GroRGE BromMBACHER. (This 
paper will appear in this JouRNAL.) 

The address was followed by some remarks 
concerning recent data on the same subject by 
Prof. Puturp Kissam, of Princeton University. 


1212TH MEETING 


The 1212th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, January 30, 1943, 
President SEEGER presiding. 

An invited paper, Spectra of simple molecules, 
was presented by Mr. G. H. Diexg, of Johns 
Hopkins University. It was discussed by 
Messrs. F. G. BRIcKWEDDE and A. BLAKE. 

An informal communication on a graphical 
solution of certain problems in rate of work was 
made by Mr. W. Epwarps Demine. It was 
discussed by Mr. A. BLAKE. 

The President announced the resignation of 
Mr. K. L. SHerman from the Committee on 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 5 


Communications and the appointment of Mr. 
A. G. McNisu to fill the vacancy. 


1213TH MEETING 


The 1213th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, February 13, 
1943, President SEEGER presiding. 

Program: EL1zaABETH Rona, Trinity College: 
Radioactivity of the ocean.—It has been shown! 
that the ocean sediments, especially those lying 
below very deep water and far from the conti- 
nent, have radium content 4 to 10 times greater 
than that of rocks, even of granite. In order to 
learn whether the origin of this high radium 
content can be explained by a chemical or bio- 
logical precipitation from sea water, samples 
from different locations and different depths 
were investigated by H. Pettersson and the 
author,? and C. S. Piggott and Wm. D. Urry 
and the author.? In both sets of samples the 
amount of radium was found to be very low, in 
disagreement with the results found by former 
scientists, but in good agreement with R. D. 
Evans and collaborators. The uranium content 
in the waters around the west coast of Sweden 
and in the northern Atlantic was found higher, 
as is necessary to uphold the equilibrium for 
radium found in the same samples, whereas in 
the sea bottom sediments the relation radium to 
uranium was just the opposite. 

No possible explanation can be offered yet, 
until further investigations have been made. 
(Author’s abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by Mr. K. F. Hrrz- 
FELD. 

An informal communication on a queer but 
friendly function was presented by Mr. A. 
BuakE. It was discussed by Messrs. A. G. 
McNisu and L. B. TucKkEerRMAN. 


1214TH MEETING 


The 1214th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club. Auditorium, Saturday, February 27, 
1943, President SEEGER presiding. 

Program: Dr. Ricuarp C. Toitman, National 
Defense Research Committee: Physical science 
and philosophy.—This paper presented certain 
philosophical reflections as to the nature of 


1Precor, C. S., and Urry, Wm. D. Amer. 


Journ. Sci. 239:91. 1941. 
2 Géteborg’s Kungl. Vet. Vitt.-Samhallas 6(12). 
1939 


3 Not yet published. 
4 Amer. Journ. Sci. 36; 241. 1938. 


May 15, 1944 


science, with illustrations drawn particularly 
from physics. The relative scopes of science 
and philosophy were first defined. In accord- 
ance with the limited scope of science, it was 
pointed out that the methods and results of 
science may all be characterized as objective 
and abstract. The objective and abstract char- 
acters of science were then discussed. 

The test of objectivity was taken as that of 
~ common agreement and acceptance. Difficulties 
in applying this test were mentioned and two 
factors that help to control these difficulties 
were noted. Justification was presented for the 
circumstance that philosophy must make use 
of methods and results that are not objective. 
It was emphasized that the limitation of science 
to methods and results that are objective does 
not limit the fields of human interest to which 
scientific studies may be profitably applied. 

The abstract character of science was taken, 
in the first place, as arising from the necessity 
of abstracting out that which is objective from 
the general consideration that men give to 
their experience. This led to a discussion of the 
relation between the subjective origins and ob- 
jective outcome of scientific work. 

The abstract character of science was taken, 
in the second place, as arising from the circum- 
stance that each particular science abstracts 
a particular kind of phenomena for considera- 
tion. This led to a discussion of the Comte 
principle for the organization of the sciences 
into a hierarchy in accordance with the dif- 
ferent levels of abstraction which they employ. 
With the help of this principle, the relations 
between different sciences were discussed. This 
discussion was illustrated by the relations of 
physics and chemistry—statistical mechanics 
and thermodynamics—kinematics, dynamics, 
and electrodynamics—physics and biology— 
and physics and psychology. The view was 
expressed that phenomena at one level of ab- 
straction can not be completely treated at a 
deeper level of abstraction. (Author’s abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by Messrs. T. 
Dantzic, P. 8. Rotier, A. G. McNisu, H. E. 
McComs, W. P. Wuitst, H. C. Dickinson, 
K. F. HERZFELD, and R. J. SEEGER. 


1215TH MEETING 


The 1215th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, March 13, 1948, 
President SEEGER presiding. 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


163 


Program: FREDERICK D. Rossini, National 
Bureau of Standards: Modern thermochemistry. 
—There was described the work of the Na- 
tional Bureau of Standards in thermochemis- 
try, including a description of the method and 
apparatus, presentation of some of the ex- 
perimental results, and application of the 
data in calculating chemical equilibria among 
hydrocarbons. The following topics were 
covered: The substitution method for compar- 
ing electrical energy with chemical energy, ap- 
paratus for reactions in a flame at constant 
pressure, apparatus for reactions in a bomb at 
constant volume, determination of the purity 
and amount of reaction, heats of formation and 
of isomerization of the paraffin and olefin 
hydrocarbons, and free energies of formation 
and equilibria of isomerization of the paraffin 
hydrocarbons. Some practical applications were 
briefly mentioned. (Author’s abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by Mressrs. H. L. 
Curtis, L. B. TuckerRMAN, A. Buakg, H. C. 
DickKINson, and W. J. HUMPHREYS. 

L. B. TuckerRMAN, National Bureau of 
Standards: Early use of meteoric iron in weapons 
(informal communication).—A paper in Pog- 
gendorff Annalen 26: 350-352, 1832, Accouni of 
an aerolith which fell some time ago in the Orvent, 
reported by the Chief Librarian of the Leipzig 
Royal Library, Prof. Dr. WILKEN was cited. 

The Persian manuscript from which the 
following accounts are taken is to be found in 
the Leipzig Royal Library (Ms. Orient in 8vo 
No. 97). It was written in the sixth year of the 
reign of the Indian Padischah Mohammed- 
schah (1723 A.D.). It has no title but contains 
the history of the Indian kings up to the time 
of the Padischah Mohammed Ewrengzeb, that 
is, up to the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
tury. 

It is preceded by an introduction in the 
manner of an encyclopedia in which many 
facts of physics, in particular meteorological 
appearances such as hail, rain, and snow, are 
discussed. In the discussion of storms the 
following accounts are given: 

“Tt was reported by the Sheik Erreis, that a 
piece of iron weighing 150 men! fell one day in 
the neighborhood of Dschordschan, and the 
inhabitants of the region heard a remarkable 


5 The weight of the men is very differently re- 
ported, so much so that the values range between 
40 pounds and 2 pounds. 


164 


noise. The parts of the piece of iron were ar- 
ranged in the manner of grains of millet.® 
The piece of iron was brought to the Mayor of 
Georgia, whereupon the Sultan Mohammed of 
Gasnevide (reigned from 999 to 1030 A.D.) 
requested a part of it, which was brought to 
him. The Sultan commanded that a sword 
should be made of it, which however was not 
found possible.”’ 

“It is reported that in the sixteenth year of 
the reign of Padischah Dschehangir (1621 
A.D.) a very loud noise from the East was 
heard one morning in the neighborhood of 
Dschalinder (a northern district of India) and 
at the same time a bright light like lightning 
was seen to fall down and vanish. Mohammed 
Said, the Mayor of this region, ordered that 
the place where it fell should be dug up. A 
piece of hot iron was found, which was brought 
under seal to the court and the Padischah 
Dschehangir ordered Master Smith David to 
make him a sword and dagger from it. The 
smith, however, stated that this iron would 
not hold together under the hammer, but could 
only be forged if it was mixed with another 
iron. Accordingly, such a mixture was made. 
Three parts of the lightning iron and one part 
of another iron were mixed together. From the 
mixture two swords, a dagger, and a knife were 
made, which, in cutting and wounding, were 
equal to the finest swords. Their design was 
excellent, although they bore no resemblance 
to the design of our swords.” (Author’s ab- 
stract.) 


1216TH MEETING 


The 1216th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, March 27, 1943, 
Vice-President STIMSON presiding. 

Program: Paut R. Hy, National Bureau of 
Standards (retired): The genealogical tree of 
modern science.—Published in this JouRNAL 
33: 8327-334. 1943. 


6 T am not sure whether the word “‘gawirs’’ ap- 
pearing in the Persian text is rightly translated 
by millet. The Sultan Von Aude in his book on the 
‘Seven Seas” makes the following statement con- 
cerning this word (which was lacking in previous 
Persian dictionaries): ‘‘Gawirs is used to mean 
mullet, but according to others it means grain, God 
knows.”’ In the latest edition of Richardson’s 
Persian dictionary the word is explained as mean- 
ing a kind of vetch. In any case the comparison 
with ‘‘gawirs” appears to be used to represent the 
kernellike appearance of the meteor stone. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 5 


This paper was discussed by Messrs. SHNEI- 
DER, F. L. Mouzurer, A. G. McNisu, and 
KNAPP. 

An informal communication on the invention 
of the magnetic compass in Europe was made 
by Mr. P. R. Heyu. 


1217TH MEETING 


The 1217th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, April 10, 1943, 
President Seeger presiding. 


Program: Rev. Paut A. McNauty, S8.J., 
Georgetown University: The universe in which 
we dwell—The purpose of this lecture was to 
give a popular survey of the growth of man’s 
knowledge in the field of astronomy, using as a 
unifying element the notion of distance. 

Starting with a universe—Egocentric, since 
man was concerned, then, for the most part 
with himself and his immediate surroundings— 
whose limits were, probably, thought to be only 
a few hundreds of miles distant, the steps of 
man’s progress in this field of knowledge may 
well be described under the captions or epochs 
—Geocentric, Heliocentric, Astracentric, Neb- 
ulacentric. During these epochs the size of 
the known universe grew—from the time when 
the boundaries of the universe were thought to 
be only a few thousands of miles away, until the 
present, when we know that the most distant 
objects in the skies—so far revealed by our 
largest telescopes—are hundreds of millions of 
light years distant. 

Since the present year marks the four- 
hundredth anniversary of the death of Coper- 
nicus, special emphasis was given to the size 
and shape of the known universe of 1543 and 
the consequent revolution of thought occa- 
sioned by the introduction of the heliocentric 
theory. 

A summary of the most recent scientific 
speculations on the nature of the “red shift” 
found in the spectra of the most distant ob- 
jects in the sky was introduced to bring out the 
element of uncertainty in our present knowl- 
edge of the size of the known universe. (Au- 
thor’s abstract.) 


This paper was discussed by Messrs. A. 
BuakeE, K. F. Herzretp, A. G. McNisu, and 
C. L. GARNER. 


May 15, 1944 


1218TH MEETING 

The 1218th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, April 24, 1943, 
President SHEGER presiding. 

Program: G. Rupert Gause, War Depart- 
ment: Statistical control of quality 1n manu- 
facturing and inspection.—Variations in the 
quality of any material produced by mass pro- 
duction processes are of two types: natural 
variations inherent in the production process 
itself, and extraneous variations not inherent 
in the process itself, but for which assignable 
causes exist. Statistical quality control dis- 
tinguishes between these two types of varia- 
tions, and indicates when and where extraneous 
variations occur so that their cause can be 
eliminated. The control chart is a device for 
making this distinction in a routine fashion. 
It is a graphic record of inspection results, with 
limit lines to indicate when corrective action 
should be taken on the production process. 

Consumer acceptance inspections exert a 
strong influence on the quality level which a 
manufacturer maintains, and they must be 
sound if proper levels are to be enforced. Since 
no one sampling procedure will accept every 
lot of satisfactory quality and reject every lot 
of unsatisfactory quality, inspection results 
obtained on successive lots must be summarized 
to obtain a precise measure of overall quality. 
If this quality is unsatisfactory, very strict 
acceptance procedures must be used; if con- 
sistently satisfactory, the amount of inspection 
can be reduced and major attention focused on 
unsatisfactory sources. (Author’s abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by Messrs. TuTTLE, 
M. GoupBerG, F. B. StnsBpEE, BELLISON, PAUL 
Norton, Caruton, T. C. Lyons, and Horace 
NorRTON. 

1219TH MEETING 

The 1219th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, May 8, 1943, 
President SEEGER presiding. 

Program: RicHarpD Courant, New York 
University: Stability and instability as demon- 
strated by soap films.—Mathematical and physi- 
cal methods often supplement each other in a 
manner whereby each throws light on the 
other’s problems. This fact is well illustrated in 
the problem of Plateau, the problem of pass- 
ing a surface of minimal area through a given 
closed space curve. 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


165 


Interesting results on this problem, derived 
at length by the methods of the calculus of 
variations, may be illustrated by means of soap 
films made by dipping wires in the prescribed 
forms into a solution of soap and glycerine. 
The soap film assumes the shape of minimal 
potential energy, which is the same as the shape 
of minimal area, and accordingly solves the 
problem of Plateau. 

The wires may be distorted or otherwise 
moved in such a way as to cause the soap film 
to pass from a configuration which is stable for 
one shape of wire to a topologically different 
configuration stable for another shape. (Secre- 
tary’s abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by Mr. A. G. Mc- 
NIsH. 

The meeting was adjourned early (9:35 
P.M.) for the social hour to enable the members 
to experiment with the soap solution and wire 
apparatus, which the speaker had brought to 
demonstrate the manner in which soap films 
solve the problem of Plateau. 


1220TH MEETING 


The 1220th meeting was held in the Cosmos 
Club Auditorium, Saturday, May 22, 1943, 
President SEEGER presiding. 

Program: J. J. Horrietp, National Bureau 
of Standards: The Raman effect in chemical 
compounds.—If a molecule has a permanent 
dipole moment, it will absorb infrared light. 
and the frequencies of vibration of the mole- 
cule are the frequencies of the absorbed light. 

Raman spectra, on the other hand, are ob- 
served in the light scattered by molecules. 
This process of scattering is very inefficient so 
that weak lines are generally obtained. In this 
process of scattering the electric vector of the 
incident light induces a dipole moment in the 
molecule, and the frequency differences between 
the incident light and the Raman scattered 
light are the frequencies characteristic of the 
molecule. A strong spectrum of a few lines 
(Hg) and a fast spectrograph are necessary for 
easily observing these Raman spectra. 

Since Raman spectra are characteristic of the 
observed molecules, their ions, or valence 
groups, one can use them as tools for identify- 
ing compounds, for quantitative analysis, for 
detecting the presence of various types of ions, 
for identifying various types of bonds or link- 


166 


ages, for the isotope effect, and in connection 
with the theory of molecular structure. 

A unique use of Raman spectra is in the 
study of materials in aqueous solution in a low 
frequency range corresponding to one in the 
infrared in which water is too opaque for use. 
(A uthor’s abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by Messrs F. G. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 5 


BRICKWEDDE, F. L. Mounier, A. BLAKE, and 
MaAnov. 

Mr. L. B. TuckrerMan presented three in- 
formal communications, on Dr. Raman, on 
dishonesty in advertising, and on Professor 
Persy’s formula. 


ARCHIE BuaKke, Recording Secretary. 


@bituaries 


NATHAN SANFORD OSBORNE, principal physi- 
cist at the National Bureau of Standards, died 
at his home in Washington, D. C., on Septem- 
ber 18, 1948, after a long illness. Born at 
Southampton, N. Y., on February 10, 1875, he 
attended the public schools in Southampton 
and the Michigan College of Mines, where he 
received the degree of mining engineer and 
membership in Tau Beta Pi in 1899. The next 
few years were spent partly in the practice of 
mining engineering and partly as instructor 
in mathematics and physics at the Michigan 
College of Mines. His real bent, however, was 
for precise physical measurements, and his op- 
portunity came when he joined the staff of the 
National Bureau of Standards in 1903. He 
served, until his death, as a member of the staff 
of the Bureau for a total of 38 years, continu- 
ously except for a period from 1910 to 1912, 
during which he was an instructor at the Michi- 
gan College of Mines. 

He was married in 1910 to Lura M. Krebs, 
and is survived by her, by a daughter, Mrs. 
Douglas Robertson, and a son, Robert. 

His first major scientific investigation was 
of the density and thermal expansion of ethyl 
alcohol and its mixtures with water. The tables 
based on the data obtained are still the stand- 
ard of the United States Treasury and other 
departments of the Federal Government and 
are widely used in industry. 

He returned to the Bureau in 1912 to partici- 
pate in and later to take the leading part in the 
determination of the physical constants of in- 
terest to the refrigerating industry. After a 
series of determinations of the specific heat and 
heat of fusion of ice, the work on properties of 
ammonia was begun. This investigation cov- 
ered the entire range of temperature and pres- 
sure likely to be useful in refrigeration and 
included determination of the properties of 
saturated liquid and saturated and super- 


heated vapor. The work was extensive enough 
to provide a basis for complete tables of the 
thermodynamic properties of ammonia, pub- 
lished in 1923. These tables were accepted both 
here and abroad as authoritative and are still 
considered so by the engineering profession. 

The work on ammonia served as a model for 
later investigations, and its completion doubt- 
less was influential in leading the steam power 
industries to initiate a similar program on the 
properties of water and steam. The ammonia 
program had, however, consisted of a series of 
separate investigations which were brought 
together and correlated after completion. Os- 
borne was not satisfied with this rather un- 
systematic procedure, and before beginning the 
researches on water and steam he worked out 
a much more systematic method of dealing 
with the problem, published under the title 
Calorimetry of a fluid. In this paper he outlined 
and described a procedure for determining the 
principal thermodynamic properties of a liquid 
and its vapor, using a suitably designed calo- 
rimeter for a series of correlated measurements. 
This method was the basis for the later work on 
properties of steam. He also planned an exten- 
sion of the method to include some of the prop- 
erties of the superheated vapor, but this part of 
the method has not yet been used. 

Although educated as an engineer, Dr. Os- 
borne attained eminence in the engineering 
world, not through the practice of his profession 
but by contributing for its use some of the fun- 
damental physical data which are the founda- 
tion of engineering. His work has received wide 
recognition, as in the International Steam Ta- 
bles, a large part of which is based on his work. 
He was a delegate to the three International 
Conferences on the Properties of Steam, held in 
England, Germany, and the United States in 
1929, 1930, and 1934, respectively, and con- 
tributed much to their success. He was hon- 


May 15, 1944 


ored with the degree of doctor of science by 
Stevens Institute of Technology and the de- 
gree of doctor of engineering by the Michigan 
College of Mines. He was a member of the 
Philosophical Society of Washington and of 
the Washington Academy of Sciences. 

It is fortunate that Dr. Osborne’s work was 
done at a time when the equipment for meas- 
urements of temperature and pressure, and 
other factors required, had been perfected to 
such an extent that in combination with his 
own developments in calorimetry the accuracy 
attainable and actually attained was ample for 
engineering purposes, and adequate for pres- 
ent-day scientific requirements. It seems possi- 
ble that the results of his work will be consid- 
ered as definitive, and there is at present no 
prospect that the work will need to be re- 
peated for many years to come. 

In the design and construction of the appara- 
tus required for his work, Dr. Osborne was 
reluctant to follow conventional practice until 
he had convinced himself that it was better 
than any new and original methods that he 
could devise. He became a skilled instrument 
maker and himself constructed some of the 
more delicate and difficult parts of his appara- 
tus and produced some examples that could 
bear comparison with the product of the most 
skilled mechanics. He was always ready to give 
the benefit of his ideas and experience to any- 
one who asked for it, and in this way he made 
many valuable contributions to the work of 
others. 


E. F. MuEewuer. 


EpWaRD BENNETT MaTHEWs, emeritus pro- 
fessor of mineralogy and petrography at Johns 
Hopkins University, died on February 4, 1944. 

Dr. Mathews was born in Portland, Maine, 
on August 16, 1869. He received the bachelor’s 
degree at Colby College in 1891 and was 
awarded the honorary doctor of science degree 
in 1928 as one of its most distinguished alumni. 
He received his training in mineralogy and 
petrography at Johns Hopkins University un- 
der Dr. George Huntington Williams. He was 
awarded the degree of doctor of philosophy in 
1894 and was then appointed instructor in 
mineralogy and petrography upon the untimely 
death of his eminent teacher. From 1891 to 
1894 he was a field assistant on the United 


OBITUARIES 


167 


States Geological Survey. In 1904 Dr. Math- 
ews was promoted to the professorship in 
mineralogy and petrography and in 1917, upon 
the death of William Bullock Clark, succeeded 
him as chairman of the Department of Geol- 
ogy, which position he held until his retirement 
from active university duties at the age of 70 
in 1939. 

Soon after the Maryland Geological Survey 
was established in 1896, Dr. Mathews became 
assistant state geologist and in 1917 succeeded 
William Bullock Clark as state geologist, a 
position he held until compelled to retire on 
account of ill health in 1943. He was an impor- 
tant contributor to most of the volumes pub- 
lished by that Survey from his Bibliography and 
cartography of Maryland in volume 1, published 
in 1897, to the Gazetteer of Maryland, published 
as volume 14 in 1941. His contributions covered 
such fields as the petrography and structure of 
the piedmont, the building and ornamental 
stones, the limestones, the coals, the clays, the 
surface and ground waters, the mineral indus- 
tries, and the physical features. Interest in his- 
tory, bibliography, and cartography is reflected 
in such works as the Bibliography and cartogra- 
phy of Maryland, the Catalog of published 
bibliographies in geology, The counties of Mary- 
land and their origin, Maps and map makers of 
Maryland, the report on the Resurvey of the 
Mason and Dixon Line, the report on the Lo- 
cation of the boundary line along the Potomac 
River between Maryland and Virginia. It was 
these same interests that impelled him through- 
out the years of his teaching to accumulate 
analyses of igneous rocks from all over the 
world, which culminated in the last years of his 
career as a Geological Society of America proj- 
ect under which he completed a search of 
geologic literature to assemble all extant igne- 
ous-rock analyses and arrange them geo- 
graphically by latitude and longitude. 

Dr. Mathews also served his adopted State 
in many other capacities, the range of which 
likewise testifies to the diversity of his knowl- 
edge and interests. He was director of the 
Maryland Weather Service from 1917 to 1933, 
executive officer of the State Board of Forestry 
from 1917 to 1925, member of the Maryland 
Development Commission, and member of the 
Water Resources Commission from its estab- 
lishment in 1933 until it was merged in 1941 
with the Maryland Geological Survey into the 


168 


Department of Geology, Mines, and Water 
Resources of which he became director. 

Outside of Maryland, he served as chairman 
of the Division of Geology and Geography of 
the National Research Council from 1922 to 
1925, as chairman of the Advisory Council of 
the United States Board of Surveys and Maps, 
as vice president and treasurer of the Sixteenth 
International Geological Congress, and as 
treasurer, member of the finance committee, 
and councillor of the Geological Society of 
America from 1917 until his death. 

The diversity of his interests made him a 
great traveler and student of the classical geo- 
logic areas of Europe and other parts of the 
world, experiences that greatly enriched his 
knowledge of geologic history, places, and per- 
sons. This store of knowledge and experience 
he was ever ready to share with friends, col- 
leagues, and students, who found him an un- 
ending and never-failing source of information. 

The impelling motives that led Dr. Mathews 
into this wide range of activities were an innate 
intellectual curiosity and an unselfish desire to 
be of service and usefulness to others, and never 
an urge to display unusual wisdom or to bring 
himself into the limelight. He adroitly avoided 
public and formal exhibition of the versatility 
and range of his knowledge and experience but 
was always ready and willing to share them 
unobtrusively and informally in friendly con- 
versation. 

JosEPH T. SINGEWALD, JR. 


Epwarp Oscar ULRicH, geologist and pale- 
ontologist, died on February 22, 1944, at the 
age of 87. He was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on 
February 1, 1857, of parents who had come to 
the United States from Alsace in 1840. His 
father had been a soldier in the French Army, 
serving at one time as the commandant of a 
fortress in Algeria. His early education was 
received in the public schools of Cincinnati and 
of Covington, Ky. He later attended German 
Wallace and Baldwin Colleges, at Berea, Ohio, 
receiving the A.M. degree in 1886 and the 
Ph.D. degree in 1892. In deference to his 
father’s wishes, he attended Pulte and Ohio 
Medical Colleges from 1876 to 1878, but did 
not complete the work for a medical degree. 

Dr. Ulrich’s early career was rather varied. 
He worked at his father’s trade of carpenter 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 5 


and as a rodman for the waterworks depart- 
ment of Cincinnati, receiving his first impetus 
toward geology in connection with excavations 
for a city reservoir. In 1877 he became curator 
for the Cincinnati Society of Natural History. 
From 1880 to 1883 he was superintendent of 
the Little Caribou Silver Mines in Boulder 
County, Colo. For some years he worked inter- 
mittently as draughtsman, lithographer, and 
carpenter to provide a livelihood while he car- 
ried out his paleontologic investigations. From 
1885 to 1889 and from 1891 to 1897 he was 
paleontologist for the Geological Surveys of 
Illinois, Minnesota, and Ohio; in 1890 and 1891 
he was assistant geologist for the Kentucky 
Geological Survey. He joined the U. 8S. Geo- 
logical Survey in 1897, remaining with it until 
his retirement in 1932. In 1914 he became an 
Associate of the U. S. National Museum and 
continued to hold that place until his death. 
He had been a member of the Washington 
Academy of Sciences since 1903. 

Dr. Ulrich was an original fellow of the 
Geological Society of America, and had served 
as president of the Paleontological Society and 
the Geological Society of Washington. He was 
a member of the National Academy of Sciences 
and a corresponding member of the Geological 
Society of London and the Geological Society of 
Stockholm. He received in 1930 the Mary Clark 
Thompson medal of the National Academy and 
in 1932 the Penrose medal of the Geological | 
Society of America. 

He pioneered in many paleontologic fields. 
He was one of the first students of the stony 
Bryozoa, and his work there is fundamental. 
He was one of the earlier students of the 
conodonts, and his work on Paleozoic ostracods 
led to a classification that has been widely 
adopted. He participated in the preparation of 
numerous areal and stratigraphic reports and 
at times took a hand in purely economic papers, 
such as those dealing with copper deposits in 
Missouri and lead, zinc, and fluorspar deposits 
in Kentucky. He proposed radical changes in 
parts of the generally accepted stratigraphic 
classification, particularly in a major work 
entitled Revision of the Paleozoic systems. 

Dr. Ulrich married Albertine Zuest in Cin- 
cinnati in 1886 and in 1933 in London Lydia 
Sennhauser, who survives him. There were no 
children. JoHN B. REESIDE, JR. 


- Toowsy. iL Giganal ee on. ‘Foraminifera in 
Ehrenberg. | J. A. CusiMs 


- Mammatoey. sothe) ty type . on ‘Tadarida 


‘Sera B, BENSON... 


nhia Journal is Indexed in the nternatio 1 Indi 


Vou, 34 JUNE 15, 1944 No. 6 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 34 


MEDICINE.—Aspects of epidemiology of tuberculosis.' 


George Washington University. 


Despite the difficulty the American Pub- 
lic Health Association had a short time ago 
in settling upon a definition of an epidemiol- 
ogist, I believe it is not impossible to say 
what epidemiology is. Epidemiology is the 
ecology of disease. It is the life history and 
environmental relationships of disease. It 
places less emphasis on how disease acts on 
the individual and more on its mass mani- 
festations; little on symptoms, much on 
how it spreads and is influenced by all 
possible variant factors. 

The study of tuberculosis is tremendously 
complex, and the results that have been 
obtained are confusing. This is not because 
the organism causing the disease is diffi- 
cult to obtain and’ study. True Mycobac- 
terium tuberculosis grows slowly, but we 
have long had satisfactory culture mediums 
and suitable experimental animals are readi- 
ly available. There is, however, no disease 
concerning which there are more disputed 
concepts and theories. Shortly after the 
tubercle bacillus invades the body success- 
fully the tissues take on a new and specific 
capacity to react. If into the skin of such a 
person a tiny bit of the soluble protein of 
the tubercle bacillus is injected, there is a 
decisive response. The area becomes in- 
flamed, slightly raised, unusually firm, and 
somewhat painful. It is, in fact, a typical 
area of response in inflammation. This re- 
action reaches its height on the second and 
third day and thereafter slowly fades away. 
This is a positive tuberculin test. By con- 
trast, a person who has not been success- 
fully invaded by the tubercle bacillus will 


1 Address of the Retiring President of the 
Washington Academy of Sciences delivered at 
the 324th meeting of the Academy on February 
17, 1944. Received March 15, 1944. 


Jung 15, 1944 


No. 6 


LELAND W. Parr, The 


give no reaction to a similar injection or in- 
deed to one many times stronger in its 
tuberculin content. 

The condition of the individual that 
causes him to react to the injection of 
tuberculin is the “tuberculin type of hyper- 
sensitivity.’’ It would seem simple to de- 
termine whether it is better to be tuberculin 
positive or tuberculin negative, but it is 
not. Is this tuberculin type of hypersensi- 
tivity the same thing as immunity? It is not 
easy to decide, and any answer given will be 
disputed. Woodruff and Kelly (1942) ob- 
served: “‘Before tuberculosis can be con- 
trolled successfully fundamental concepts 
concerning reactions of the host to the in- 
fectious agent must be clarified. Perhaps 
the most important of these concepts is the 
relation between the hypersensitive or al- 
lergic response and immunity.” Shall we 
immunize our children against tuberculo- 
sis? We immunize them against diphtheria; 
why not against tuberculosis? In 1940, 
60,428 persons died of tuberculosis in the 
United States and only 1,457 of diphtheria. 
It may be objected that tuberculosis is not 
a childhood disease. It is not, and it is much 
less so now than it was in 1900, but in 1940 
a total of 2,787 children under 15 years of 
age died of tuberculosis, almost twice the 
total number dying of diphtheria. 

When we have clinical tuberculosis 
where do we get it? Is it from within—the 
lighting up of an old arrested focus—or is it 
from without by contact, often repeated, 
with open cases of tuberculosis? We now 
favor the latter view, exogenous infection, 
but it has not been many years since the 
former view, endogenous infection, was our 
gospel. Years ago we used to speak of the 
childhood type of tuberculosis. Now we call 


169 


JUN AT 9 


170 


it ‘first infection phase.” In this form of 
infection the tubercle bacillus localizes in 
the outer parenchyma of the lower- or mid- 
lung field, and there is developed an area 
which, when it later becomes encapsulated, 
calcified, or perhaps even ossified, is known 
as a Ghon tubercle. Before this happens, 
however, the little colony of tubercle bacilli, 
often too small to be seen with the naked 
eye, establishes connection with function- 
ally adjacent lymph nodes and there sets 
up a focus of tuberculous infection that in 
time usually becomes calcified and, if large 
enough, visible in X-ray plates. The tubercle 
and its involved lymph node form the Com- 
plex of Ranke. As a usual thing an indi- 
vidual harboring this pathology suffers, 
particularly if he is not a very young or a 
weakly person, few if any clinical symptoms. 
Some years ago it was believed that almost 
every child had such a “‘primary infection.”’ 
Now it is known that most children escape 
any form of tuberculous infection and that 
“first infection phase” tuberculosis comes 
in both adults and children. Is it the same 
usually benign disease in adults that it used 
to be in children, or is it much more serious? 
We have a debatable proposition. 


Years ago we used to speak also of the 


“adult” form of tuberculosis. Now we call it 
“reinfection phase”’ tuberculosis. This is tu- 
berculosis developing in an individual who 
has had “‘first infection phase” tuberculosis 
and is thereby a different host from the indi- 
vidual never contacted successfully by the 
tubercle bacillus. In this form of disease the 
lesion usually appears in the upper third of 
the lung and does not involve the function- 
ally connected lymph nodes. When such 
lesions heal they show less of calcification 
and more of resorption and fibrosis. Spread 
of this type of disease, which frequently oc- 
curs, is by caseation, liquefaction, and exca- 
vation. This ‘‘adult”’ type of disease can, of 
course, occur in a child provided it is an in- 
dividual who has had “‘first infection phase”’ 
tuberculosis. It was formerly thought that 
such disease arose chiefly from one’s own 
reservoir of tubercle bacilli held over from 
an arrested ‘‘first infection phase’’ attack. 
The fact that overwork, worry, under- 
nourishment, and other untoward socio- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 6 


economic factors predispose to tuberculosis 
fitted in very well with the idea that each 
man carried about his own potential tuber- 
culosis and might light it up as an adult by 
lowering his personal resistance. 

The following quotation from the Ameri- 
can Review of Tuberculosis (1920) is not 
the point of view held today: 


In adults the problem of preventing infection 
requires very little attention. The great majority — 
of adults have already been infected before reach- 
ing adult life. What adults have to fear most is 
not further infection from without, but an exten- 
sion of the infection which they already have, 
leading to the development of a group of symp- 
toms which we are pleased to call the disease 
tuberculosis. All adults should of course avoid 
prolonged and intimate contact with the grossly 
careless tuberculous person; but there is little to 
be feared through ordinary contact. It has been 
said that the careful consumptive is not a danger 
to anyone. This might be modified to read the 
consumptive is a grave menace to infants, less 
dangerous to children, and no danger at all to 
adults if reasonable care be exercised. 

Let me emphasize again. We should not be 
afraid of the tubercle bacillus. For ourselves, as 
adults, as a rule we need fear no attack except 
from those that are now in our bodies. For the 
children, since we cannot permanently protect 
them from invasion, let us wisely choose the time 
when the bacilli are first to be met. If this be done, 
the tubercle bacilli may be transformed from a 
menacing enemy into a protecting friend. This is 
what should be taught to every adult, as com- 
prising the knowledge in accordance with which 
he should live and act as an individual. 


Today we favor the view that tubercu- 
losis may be contracted from continued 
contact with open cases and that its inci- 
dence may be reduced by eliminating 
sources of infection from milk or meat; by 
minimizing contact with open cases through 
early and accurate diagnosis and isolation; 
and by proper care of those having tubercu- 
losis including full attention to proper nu- 
trition and conditions of living. What a 
change of point of view within a generation! 
Some areas are even working on the hypoth- 
esis'that all tuberculosis can be prevented. 
Certainly one can not develop tuberculosis 
without first becoming tuberculin positive. 
Hence, in certain parts of the country where 
conditions are favorable an effort is being 
made to place tuberculosis on the county 
accreditation basis. In 1940 the death rate 


JUNE 15, 1944 


for tuberculosis in the continental United 
States was 45.9 per 100,000, one of the 
finest rates anywhere in the world. It is a 
reasonable estimate that in that year about 
50 percent of our total population were 
tuberculin positive. Minnesota has estab- 
lished county accreditation for tuberculosis. 
This “new idea in human tuberculosis con- 
trol” provides that a county shall be ac- 
credited in which there is an average annual 
death rate of 10 or less per 100,000 and a 
tuberculosis infection rate, as evidenced by 
a positive tuberculin test, of less than 15 
percent among high-school seniors. At least 
seven of Minnesota’s 97 counties have al- 
ready qualified for this honor. 


Infiltration resulting in a 
positive X-ray diagnosis 


Sensitization. 


Entrance of 


bacilli into 
bodye 


In the sieeeee nayetge of 
cases no clinical symptoms 
appear and indeed in man 
such it is impossible to 


Failure of find any visible X-ray 
bacilli to evidence of tuberculous 
establish infection;i.e.,the 
themselves sensitizing lesion is 
in the obscure e 
bodye 


D1aGcraM I|.—The result of the invasion 
of the body by tubercle bacilli. 


Casual reference to tuberculous infection 
as something quite time extensive has prob- 
ably been confusing to the reader. Reference 
to Diagram I should assist in the under- 
standing of the early stages in the host- 
parasite Sana of the tubercle bacillus 
and man. 

Some diseases are short lived and de- 
cisive. The patient is sick two or three days 
and then is about his work. Such a disease 
is a mild attack of influenza. In typhoid 
fever, on the other hand, the patient may 
be ill six weeks or more, and there is a 
further period of convalescence to add to 
the six weeks’ loss of time from work. In 
tuberculosis there may be a very gradual 


PARR: EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS 


171 


onset involving two or three years before 
the patient has any symptoms at all. Prob- 
ably every person in the United States has 
swallowed or inhaled at least one living 
tubercle bacillus even in this day of al- 
legedly fine progress in the elimination of 
tuberculosis. In half, or more than half of 
us, the microbe did not successfully invade 
the body. (Some of the points involved in 
the host-parasite relationship bearing on 
this point are fascinating to contemplate 
but difficult to set in order, and they are 
graphically suggested in Diagram II.) 

Shortly (two to seven weeks) after the 
tubercle bacillus has invaded the body the 
tissues become sensitized and the host is 
altered profoundly, just how profoundly we 
do not yet know. The elicitation of a posi- 
tive tuberculin test from such a person is 
only one aspect of the matter. The sensi- 
tized individual possesses a new reaction 
pattern, which he will keep as long as viable 
tubercle bacilli remain in his body. 

Fortunately, the great majority of sensi- 
tized individuals do not progress further 
toward clinical tuberculosis. Such indi- 
viduals are harmless to others in their en- 
vironment, for the tubercle bacilli causing 
the sensitization are locked within their 
bodies. Indeed, as Long has so well pointed 
out, the tuberculous individual does not 
enter into the epidemiological picture until 
his pathology is well advanced. Large le- 
sions caseate, liquefy, and erode into bronchi 
where bacilli are spread farther within the 
lung of the hapless patient or expectorated 
to the outside world. Interestingly enough, 
the number of tubercle bacilli becomes very 
great in an area of just this type, whereas 
they might have been rather few in the same 
area’ a month earlier. 

Only a few of those who become sciberere 
lin positive for the first time will progress to 
the point where roentgenological evidence 
can be obtained that they are ill, and of 
these by no means all will advance farther 
to the point where clinical symptoms can 
be noted. Furthermore, if taken at the stage 
of minimal tuberculosis, the disease is easy 
to arrest. Even if arrested the individual 
will still, for a long time, likely for life, 
harbor some of the tubercle bacilli that 


172 


multiplied within his body. It may seem 
odd that one can be in good health and play 
host to pathogenic organisms. Such a 
healthy arrested case should not be a source 
of danger to others, but it is important to 
point out that every extensive survey of 
adults reveals some of these individuals who 
are not satisfactorily arrested cases and 
who continue to work or even attempt to 
enlist in the Army or Navy while really 
suffering from moderately advanced or even 
far advanced tuberculosis. Ironically, many 
of them are not even aware of the serious- 
ness of their condition. The tubercle bacillus 
is not a vicious pathogen despite the fact 
that it causes the most important single 
disease from which man has ever suffered. 
It is therefore all the more important that 
the facts about tuberculosis be known, so 
that medical practice and science can con- 
tinue adequately in the effort to solve the 
tuberculosis problem. 

What is the present status of tuberculosis 
as a medical problem? 

First of all, it is worthy of note that there 


has been a very marked decrease in this . 


country in the number of deaths from 
tuberculosis. In 1900 the rate was 194.4 per 
100,000; in 1940 it was 45.9; in 1942 it was 
43.1. There was only 1 death in 1940 where 


Resistant 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


quiiobies Stee Correlation of Avenue of 


VoL. 34, No. 6 


there were 4.2 deaths in 1900. Not only has 
the number of deaths decreased but the 
distribution of those deaths has changed 
both within the total mortality picture and 
within the mosaic of tuberculosis itself. 
Table 1 will make some of these changes 
clear. 

It will be noted that in 1900 tuberculosis 
accounted for 11.3 percent of all deaths. By 
1940 this figure had fallen 2.6 times, to 4.2 
percent. Another significant point net shown 
in the table is that the disease is becoming 
pulmonary in type. In 1940, of the 60,428 
deaths from tuberculosis, 55,576 deaths 
were pulmonary tuberculosis. Just over 8 
percent were tuberculosis of the central 
nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, the 
bony structures, the skin, the lymphatics, 
the genitourinary system, generalized tuber- 
culosis, and infection of other organs. Forty 
years ago this figure would have been much 
higher. Other changes we may note are a 
great decrease in the proportion of deaths 
from tuberculosis in infancy, childhood, 
and adolescence, and even in early married 
life. There has been a relative increase in 
tuberculosis deaths in the middle and later 
years of life, and there is no longer for whites 
a peak in the curve representing deaths from 
tuberculosis. It is rather a plateau extending 


Invasiveness 


Aggressive weapons of the 
microbe 


Virulence 


Approach with Tropism 


| Frequenoy of Attack 


Magnitude of Assault 


Rapidity of Progress of Actio 


THE PARASITE 


Sus ceptible 


Diagram II.—Some of the factors entering into the host-parasite relationship which have 
much to do in determining the outcome of an infection. 


JUNE 15, 1944 


over three or four of the most important 
decades of life. 

Tuberculosis mortality is much higher 
among males than among females. In the 
States Relations Division of the United 
States Public Health Service there is now a 
Tuberculosis Control Section headed by. 
Dr. H. E. Hilleboe. Tuberculosis mortality 
in the United States, 1939-1941, was re- 
viewed by three Public Health Service 
workers in Public Health Reports for Oc- 
tober 1, 1943. They point out that for these 
three years, 1939-1941, the male death rate 
(53.6) was 41 percent higher than the female 
rate (38.1). This excess in mortality among 
males is higher for tuberculosis than that 
from deaths from all causes. For these three 
years tuberculosis was seventh in numerical 
importance among the leading causes of 
death. There are very large racial differences 
in tuberculosis mortality, the rate for Ne- 
groes in 1940 (123.5) was nearly three and 
one-half times that for whites (36.6). The 
rate for Indians, Chinese, and other races 
was about double that for Negroes. Among 
non-whites tuberculosis was third in numeri- 
cal importance as a leading cause of death. 
Another point, hotly disputed in the epi- 
demiology of tuberculosis, is whether the 
Negro tuberculosis experience is the result 


PARR: EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS 


173 


of the less favorable socio-economic condi- 
tions under which they live or is due to in- 
herent biological racial differences between 
whites and Negroes. 

Tuberculosis is still among the three lead- 
ing causes of death for a relatively large 
portion of the life span (15—49 years of age). 
It holds first place at ages 15 to 34, second 
at 35 to 39, and third at 40 to 49. For males 
tuberculosis is among the first three leading 
causes of death at ages 15 to 54, and for 
females at ages 10 to 44. For whites only, 
it is among the first three leading causes of 
death at ages 15 to 49 for both sexes, ages 
20 to 54 for males, and 15 to 44 for females. 

Table 1 reveals the fact that though we 
have made worthwhile progress in the fight 
against tuberculosis this progress compares 
unfavorably with advances made in the 
control of such diseases as typhoid and 
diphtheria, and indeed for the whole group 
listed together in the table, viz., typhoid, 
malaria, measles, scarlet fever, whooping 
cough, and diphtheria. In 1900 tuberculosis 
caused only 1.7 times as many deaths as 
this arbitrarily selected group. In 1940 this 
figure became 7.1 by virtue of the more 
perfect control of the selected group of dis- 
eases. Significant, too, is the more marked 
diminution in the deaths that occur in chil- 


TABLE 1.—CHANGE IN DEatTH RaTEs (PER 100,000) From 1900 To 1940 ror TUBERCULOSIS AND SOME OTHER DISEASES 


Ratio 
Disease 1900 / 1900 1905 1910 

1940 
PANINDE OLAS ia ats eis ahs 0 1.59} 1,719.1 | 1,588.9 | 1,468.0 
Tuberculosis.......... 4.2 194.4 179.9 153.8 
ercentiop Gly. - sas. 2.6 6S} Lies 10.4 
4 Ro) a0) (0 bt A ee Biles Slee 22.4 225 
Malaria.............. 5.6 6.2 2d iL sik 
Measles’ !:si2...4..2- 26.6 118} 583 7.4 12.4 
Scarlet fever.......... 19.2 9.6 6.8 11.4 
Whooping cough...... bas 122 8.9 11.6 
TONGA ESTIA ere. ccs.sisveie, = ye 36 .6 40.3 7433-19) Po aA 
MOAI re sp elels ewes LL7.6 112.9 (ies 80.1 
Diarrhea in babies (—2)| 15.2 115.9 98.4 98.4 


1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 

1,317.6 | 1,298.9 | 1,168.1 | 1,132.1 | 1,094.5 | 1,076.4 
140.1 113.1 84.8 yaa 55.1 45.9 
10.6 8.7 7.2 6.2 5.0 4.2 
11.8 7.6 Fake 4.7 2.7 1.0 
1.6 3.4 2.0 2.9 3.5 staal 
5.2 8.8 2.3 3.2 ean 0.5 
3.6 4.6 2.7 1.9 2.1 0.5 
8.2 12.5 6.7 4.8 aoa 2.2 
15.2 15.3 7.8 4.9 Pail i 
45.6 52.2 29.3 22.4 18.2 6.4 
55.7 43.4 30.8 19.4 10.4 7.6 


Data from the Bureau of the Census, based on the expanding Registration Area. Since 1933 this area includes all continental 


United States. 


The rate for tuberculosis was 4.2 times as high in 1900 as it was in 1940. This is for all ages. The change has not been the’same 


for all age groups: 


Wmd ert veanrcc. erase cs 6 12.6 25-34 years....... ond 65-74 years....... Belk 
l— 4 years........ eas 8.2 35-44 years....... 4.2 75-84 years....... 3.4 
SHL4 Wears: jsf e. + ale 6.5 45-54 years....... 3.2 85 years and up... 3.2 

15-24 years.......... 5.3 55-64 years....... 2.9 


174 


dren under two years of age from diarrhea 
and enteritis. That improvement in the 
tuberculosis picture has occurred is, of 
course, true. Our chances of dying of tuber- 
culosis are now computed at quite a more 
favorable level. It is also of interest to note 
that the percentage of persons tuberculin 
positive has been falling. For instance, one 
of the earliest reports on the results of 
tuberculin testing of a student group was 
based on a study conducted at the Univer- 
sity of Minnesota in 1928. Thirty-one per- 
cent of 2,000 students were found to be 
tuberculin positive. In1941—1942 only 17 per- 
cent of 5,481 students were positive. Thus 
in 13 years there was a reduction of 45 per- 
cent in the number of tuberculin reactors. 
Similar information gathered from school 
surveys all over the country is much more 
significant than may on first thought occur 
to one. We are fast becoming a nation of un- 
sensitized individuals with respect to tuber- 
culosis. There has long been a considerable 
school that has maintained that sensitiza- 
tion in the sense of tubercularization with- 
out progression is protection. What, they 
ask, will be the outcome as more and more 
tuberculin negative children become adults 
and first meet the tubercle bacillus under 
war-time and reconstruction conditions? It 
is possible that the medical-school tubercu- 
losis problem may cast light upon this 
matter, but before that point can be pre- 
sented it is logical to consider the effect of 
war on tuberculosis morbidity and mor- 
tality. 

What was the effect on the tuberculosis 
rate of World War I? Dr. Long describes 
the situation in Europe by observing: “‘After 
years of continuous drop, the rate began 
rising in 1915 and by 1918 had reached a 
figure in all countries about 25 percent 
higher than at the beginning of the war.” 
Wolff has described the privations of the 
period as ‘‘an involuntary mass experiment 
... Of more epidemiological importance 
than endless theorizing on the pathology of 
tuberculosis.”’? These statements may be 
amplified in the words of an August, 1941, 
article in the Statistical Bulletin of the 
Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., in part as 
follows: 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 6 


The experience of the World War of 1914-1918 
affords an indication of what is likely to occur. 
None of the belligerent countries escaped an in- 
crease in tuberculosis then, and practically all of 
the neutral countries of Europe suffered either an 
increase in tuberculosis or a slowing up of the pre- 
war rate of decline. The most reliable data for the 
period relate to the trends among women and 
children in England and Germany. Among Eng-. 
lish women the mortality from pulmonary tuber- 
culosis rose steadily during the war to a peak in 
1918, when it was over 25 percent higher than in 
1913. Among German women the pulmonary 
tuberculosis death rate rose slowly at first, but 
after 1916 the increase was very rapid, so that by 
1918 the rate was nearly 75 percent above that of 
1913. Indeed, in Germany the death rate from 
tuberculosis among women did not return to the 
prewar level until 1921; and this improvement was - 
not maintained for a few years following. The rate 
of increase among German females was greatest 
at ages under 20 years. Among children the rate 
in 1919 was even higher than during the war. 

Far worse was the situation among the other 
belligerent countries of the Continent, but only 
fragmentary statistical data are available to show 
the frightful increases in some of these areas. The 
statistics of tuberculosis mortality in France dur- 
ing the war are defective because of the absence 
of facts for the invaded regions, where the situa- 
tion was at its worst. The data for the uninvaded 
portion show a sharp increase, particularly in 
1917 and 1918. In the latter year the recorded 
rate was about 20 percent higher than in 1914. 
The accuracy of these statistics is doubtful, and 
the actual increase was probably larger. To some 
extent the same observation probably holds for_. 
Italy, but in that country even the recorded 
deaths from tuberculosis in 1918 were over 40 
percent in excess of the 1914 rate. 

A few examples will show the extremely bad 
conditions in Belgium and in eastern and south- 
eastern Europe. In Brussels the death rate from 
tuberculosis doubled during the war, from 177 per 
100,000 in 1914 to 390 in 1918. In Vienna the rate 
in the period 1915-1918 was 20 percent higher 
than in 1911-1914, and in the early postwar years 
it increased to 50 percent above the prewar rate. 
In Budapest the number of deaths’ from the dis- 
ease in 1917 was nearly double that of 1913, and 
it was but little less in 1918. In Warsaw the rate 
in 1917 was 840 per 100,000, as compared with 306 
in 1913; in Cracow during the same period the 
rate increased from 487 to 908 per 100,000. In 
Belgrade the tuberculosis death rate in 1918 
reached the almost incredible figure of 1,400 per 
100,000. 

Typical of the trend of tuberculosis in the 
neutral countries of Europe during the World 
War are the experiences of the Netherlands and 
Switzerland. In the former, the death rate from 
the disease rose steadily, until in 1918 it was 
nearly 50 percent above the 1914 figure. In 


JUNE 15, 1944 


Switzerland, where the trend was sharply down- 
ward before the war, the rate continued to fall at 
first, but rose in the latter part of the war to a 
peak of 207 per 100,000 in 1917, or 6 percent above 
the rate in 1914. 

In our own country the mortality from tubercu- 
losis showed little change during the World War 
_ period as a whole, but even here there was a 
slight increase in the death rate during the period 
of our active participation in the war. Thus the 
death rate in the original Registration States de- 
clined from 148.6 per 100,000 in 1914 to 143.8 
in 1916, but then rose to 147.1 in 1917 and further 
to 151.0 in 1918.” 


These increases come about through 
breakdown in resistance to disease on the 
part of the host, to increase in opportunities 
for infection, and to a decrease in or, indeed, 
collapse of facilities available for proper 
recognition, isolation and treatment of dis- 
ease. Specifically some of the factors for 
tuberculosis are: 


1. The entrance of women into heavy and 
fatiguing industry. 

2. The return of the older age groups to 
active employment. 

3. The return to work of persons of either 
sex or any age physically unfit to work. 

4. Long hours of work often emotionally 
compensated for by long hours of strenuous or 
injudicious relaxation—“‘burning the candle at 
both ends.” 

5. Relocation in areas of intense war indus- 
try activity resulting in congested living condi- 
tions without adequate sanitary facilities. 

6. Relocation in areas of intense war industry 
activity where tuberculosis rates may be high 
by persons coming from areas where tubercu- 
losis rates are low. 

7. Congestion in concentration camps, war 
prisoners’ camps, evacuation depots or camps, 
and air-raid shelters. 

8. Use of hospital beds formerly allocated to 
the tuberculous for more urgent war needs or 
actual destruction of hospital facilities by the 
bombings or bombardments of “‘total’’ warfare. 

9. Loss of trained personnel’to the war need 
—physicians, nurses, attendants, laboratory 
workers, and social workers—all needed to care 
for an increasing load of tuberculosis patients. 

10. Food shortages, both qualitative and 
quantitative. 

11. Impossibility for perfect rest conditions 


PARR: EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS 


175 


so necessary for the tuberculous and the pre- 
tuberculous. 

12. Worry and anxiety over the fate of one’s 
relatives or even of one’s country. 


One of these points deserves particular 
emphasis as far as this country is concerned. 
As pointed out in an editorial in the New 
England Journal of Medicine for January 
27, 1944, “it is estimated that 25,000 had 
been diagnosed (at induction) to have a dis- 
ease that neither they nor their friends 
would have suspected under prewar condi- 
tions. And how are these patients, many of 
whom need sanatorium treatment, going to 
be accommodated by the currently re- 
stricted personnel of the sanatoriums?” 
Early in 1942 the number of beds for tuber- 
culosis patients in this country totaled 
97,726, or 1.62 per annual death, which is 
at best well below the minimum standard 
set at 2 beds per annual death and far below 
the more ideal standard of 3. In 1942 only 
seven states and the District of Columbia 
had met the minimum standard. It is quite 
possible that under present conditions of 
personnel shortage the paper figure of 97,726 
beds available for tuberculosis patients 
must be considerably discounted. Where 
fighting is actually going on the condition is, 
of course,-much worse. 

Just what has happened thus far in the 
present war? Hilleboe states that by the 
last half of 1942 in the United States the 
Bureau of the Census, by a sampling 
process, had sensed an increase in tubercu- 
losis in the “critical areas,’ although the 
total figure for 1942 represents an all-time 
low rate of 48.1 per 100,000. In England 
he notes a 13 percent increase in deaths 
from all forms of tuberculosis in 1941 as 
against 1938. This represents more than 
3,000 additional deaths each year from a 
preventable disease. Recently in the British 
Medical Journal (January 8, 1944) it is 
stated that in Belgium the registered cases 
of tuberculosis increased from 69,079 in 
December, 1941, to 109,511 in February, 
1943, an increase in rate from the high figure 
of 830 per 100,000 to the startling figure of 
1,330 per 100,000. If there are 10 clinical 
cases of tuberculosis for every annual death 


176 


we have in the United States less than 
600,000 cases at the present time or only six 
times as many as now exist in little Belgium, 
which has perhaps only one-twentieth of our 
population. Many of our people are in, or 
shortly will be in, these unfortunate Euro- 
pean countries. It would seem a safe 
prophecy to venture that the tuberculosis 
rate in this country may be slightly in- 
creased for a short period, but it should 
within a very few years again resume its 
downward trend. 
In view of the very low rate now obtain- 
ing (43.1 in 1942) it would be reasonable to 
expect a greater setback relatively than we 
experienced at the end of World War I. 
The magnitude of this setback may not be 
so much one of significantly increased rate 
as of slowness to get under way again on 
the downward trend. For a disease as widely 
seeded in our population as tuberculosis 
and for a population more completely in- 
volved in abnormal war activity than was 
the case in World War I, it would not be 
surprising if this were to be so and the very 
favorable rates now attained would seem to 
be advanced posts we may have to abandon 
for some time. One factor in this slightly 
pessimistic prediction is our closeness to and 
commerce with the rest of the world in 
many parts of which tuberculosis is ram- 
pant. 

At one time the hope was expressed that 
we might be able to eradicate tuberculosis 
by a given date—say 1960. It should be 
understood that any such statement was 
merely a slogan, a cry behind which to rally 
the forces fighting the great white plague. 
As Frost ably pointed out in one of his last 
papers, entitled ‘““How Much Control of 
Tuberculosis?” it “is not necessary that 
transmission be immediately and com- 
pletely prevented. It is necessary only that 
the rate of transmission be held permanently 
below the level at which a given number of 
infection spreading (i.e., open) cases succeed 
in establishing an equivalent number to 
carry on the succession. If, in successive 
periods of time, the number of infectious 
hosts is continuously reduced, the end re- 
sult of this diminishing ratio, if continued 
long enough, must be the extermination of 
the tubercle bacillus.”’ I am not aware that 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 6 


Frost ever set any date for this millennium. 
As a very humble student of epidemiology 
Iam sure I can not. I doubt though if under 
present war conditions we have any reason 
to anticipate any lowering of the death rate 
for the entire country from 43.1 to even 10 
per 100,000 for several decades. Many mil- 
lions of Americans are already tuberculin 
positive; thousands of unrecognized ad- 
vanced cases of tuberculosis exist today; 
Europe and indeed most of the rest of the 
world is heavily tubercularized. It is too 
much to expect tuberculosis death rates to 
continue to drop as rapidly as they have in 
the past. To reduce 194.4 by 10 percent is 
not so difficult as to reduce 43.1 by 10 per- 
cent. 

One other point that Frost makes de- 
serves our attention. He states: “It is highly 
probable that the cyclic changes in preva- 
lence which are observed in some diseases 
are brought about chiefly by evolutionary 
changes in the characteristics of the specific 
microorganisms, the causes of which are to 
be found in uncontrolled natural forces.’ 
Frost mentions scarlet fever and diphtheria, 
as two of the diseases that within the past 
100 years have greatly changed, although 
in the case of diphtheria the change re- 
versed itself and diphtheria is again a prob- 
lem of some significance in parts of the 
world. Smallpox, since the Spanish Ameri- 
can War, has been relatively mild when it 
has occurred in this country and in 1942 
caused but two deaths. It could be possible 
that cyclic changes may be taking place in 
the nature of the tubercle bacillus making it 


less invasive, but whether this is so, how 


long it will continue, or whether it will re- 
verse are propositions very difficult of proof. 
Again, case-finding among medical students 
and physicians yields results with suggestive 
implications for this point. 

Case-finding means looking for cases of a 
given disease. It is done to discover unrecog- 
nized cases that should be brought under 
treatment for their own good and isolated 
or educated so that the public health may 
be protected by removing active sources of 
infection. Although useful for several dis- 
eases such as malaria and hookworm, even 
syphilis, case-finding is particularly adapted 
to tuberculosis. It is possible through tuber- 


June 15, 1944 


culin testing to discover those belonging to 
the tuberculin positive group of persons who 
can have tuberculosis and, by X-ray exami- 
nation, to detect which of these have physi- 
cal signs almost certain before long to pro- 
duce clinical symptoms. Such individuals 
may be satisfactorily arrested with a mini- 
mum of treatment and loss of time whereas 
if the minimal case is not discovered in its 
incipiency a moderately advanced or even 
a far advanced case may result which is dif- 
ficult or impossible to arrest. The great ad- 
vantage to the careful examination of the 
would-be soldier or sailor is that tubercu- 
losis is discovered, as never before, in the 
stage in which it is possible to do something 
about the matter. From the first approxi- 
mately 400,000 men appearing for the 
Canadian Army, 1 percent were rejected 
for tuberculosis. Of 3,530 of these rejectees, 
there were 1,970 minimal tuberculosis, 1,298 
moderately advanced cases, and 262 far 
advanced cases. This ratio of the differ- 
ent clinical types (and the same is true for 
all other large scale screenings) is the exact 
reverse of what occurs when we let nature 
take its course. In the past, minimal cases 
have been a minority in the treatment pro- 
gram with moderately advanced and far 
advanced cases constituting the great 
majority of cases coming to the attention of 
the physician and the care of his sanatorium. 
It is to be hoped that although we are at 
war care will be taken that the young men 
and women found to have tuberculosis will 
be adequately cared for. 

Tuberculin testing is time consuming and 
costly and, I regret to say, is sometimes 
omitted from the case-finding set up. Cel- 
luloid films, 14 by 17 inches, are also very 
expensive, and several substitutes have 
been worked out making it possible to 
examine the lungs of all members of a group 
(a good case-finding team can do 500 per- 
sons a day) at a reasonable cost. While this 
expedient works and is therefore justified, 
from the epidemiological point of view it is 
distinctly faulty because the tuberculin test 
gives information we must have for the 
proper understanding of the disease, and 
the large plate provides a permanent record 
unequaled by most of the less costly substi- 
tutes. At George Washington University 


PARR: EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS 


rer 


Medical School, through the interest and 
cooperation of the dean, a proper and com- 
plete case-finding program has been in 
progress almost five years. The organization 
and operation of this program are graphical- 
ly indicated in Diagram ITI. 

It will be seen from Diagram III that five 
different agencies must be integrated in the 
program. These are the tuberculin-testing 
group, the X-ray group, the chest physician 
group, the laboratory group, and the sana- 
torlum group. Coordination is best effected 
by that agency having most student con- 
tact, which in our institution is the tubercu- 
lin-testing agency represented by the writer. 
When there is sufficient interest in the pro- 
gram on the part of the coordinator the 


cooperation of the other agencies is easily 


obtained and cheerfully given. In addition 
to the value of such a program to the health 
of the student body the tuberculosis case- 
finding program is an admirable laboratory 
experiment in preventive medicine. 

When it was realized that exposure to 
open cases of tuberculosis had to be con- 
sidered as an important factor in the 
etiology of the disease it was only natural 
that thought turned to medical personnel— 
physicians, nurses, hospital attendants, and 
students of medicine and nursing—as per- 
sons having an industrial hazard with re- 
spect to tuberculosis. Three examples will 
illustrate the validity of this assumption. 
Diehl and Myers reported in 1940 that at 
Minnesota it had been possible to check 
effectively on the careers of 1,673 of 1,894 
medical students graduating from 1919 to 
1936. Among these there were 107 cases 
of tuberculosis, 5 occurring before college, 
and 47 after college. It was found that 46 
deaths had occurred among the 1,673, of 
which 11 had been from tuberculosis. 

Again it is well known that inmates of our 
mental hospitals form a group among whom 
tuberculosis is especially important. A re- 
cent study of such individuals in New York 
revealed that on the average tuberculosis 
deaths in such groups in this state were rela- 
tively 12 times more numerous than for the 
state as a whole. In certain such institutions 
in this country where careful case-finding 
programs have been carried out on the at- 
tendants rates of infection and actual evi- 


178 


dence of disease, much higher than occurs 
for other individuals in the same area have 
been found. 

Thirdly, the early experience at the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania revealed the sig- 
nificance in that institution of tuberculosis 
for medical students. Less than 10 years ago 
among 514 Pennsylvania students 5.8 per- 
cent of significant tuberculosis was found. 
Happily, results in most other schools are 
much better, and in fairness to Pennsyl- 
vania it should be pointed out that subse- 
quent studies there have revealed a very 
much lower rate. Nevertheless, there seemed 
to be much logic to the statement made in 
1930 by Stiedl of Trudeau when he said: 
‘“Tuberculosis might be called an industrial 
hazard for the medical profession. It is the 
most important chronic disabling disease 
for the medical student, the young physi- 
cian and the nurse.”’ 


All new students 


Intradermal 
Tuberculin Test, 
using P.P.De 

(a) 0.00002 mg 
(b) 0.005 mg 


‘No 
lung 
pathology 


Full 14 x 17 in? > 


antero-posterior 
viow,celluloid 
plate ,with expert 
interpretation. 


Suggestive 
Findings 


in sanitorium 


tained, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Major focus of attention. 
retest each semestoere 
sent to X-ray at once and each 
term thereafter for at least two years, 


advice by Speciale 


Significant 
# indings 


at home or better 


until satisfacto 
arrest is at- 


VOL. 34, NO. 6 


In 1939 a case-finding program at George 
Washington University School of Medicine 
was instituted. For many years prior to this, 
as I shall show presently, we had been 
making tuberculin surveys of all students, 
but a complete case-finding program had 
not, prior to 1939, been in existence in our 
institution. It is greatly to the credit of my 
former colleague, Dr. John H. Hanks, now 
in the Philippines, and Dr. David James, 
then president of the Junior Class, that they 
furnished much of the initial enthusiasm 
needed to get the program under way. The 
interest from: the first of Dean Walter A. 
Bloedorn and the whole-hearted coopera- 
tion of the roentgenological and chest 
physician group insured the success of the 
project. We have already indicated in a dia- 
gram how tuberculosis case-finding works. 
It remains merely to give some of the re- 
sults and to make a few observations. 


Minor focus of attention as long as 
healthy. 
course and at graduation* 


X-ray half way through 


Tuberculin 
Positives 


If found “not significant” follow 

closely with 

X-rays ,otc eas 
ordered o 


Full and 
careful study, 
diagnosis and 


ized Chest 
Physician, 


laboratory aid 
in making diag- 
nosis ,-sputum 
search,blood 
counts ,sedimen= 
tation tests. 


* In practice every 
student is tuberculin 
tested ,wwhether + or =, 
each semester the first 
three semesters but 
thereafter only if 
negative or weakly 
positive. 


Diacram JII.—Tuberculosis case-finding program at the School of Medicine, 
George Washington University. 


June 15, 1944 


The percentage of tuberculin positive re- 
actors among fourteen consecutive classes 
totaling 1,007 students at George Washing- 
ton University School of Medicine is shown 
in Table 2. With so many tuberculin nega- 
tive students in school, a situation true in 
most other schools also, it was only natural 


TABLE 2.—TUBERCULIN TESTS on 14 ConsEcUTIVE MEDICAL 
CLASSES AT THE GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY 


Percent 

Class Status Number panties 
1936 Sophomore 62 82.2 
1936 Freshman 71 98.5 
1937 Freshman 69 78.2 
1938 Freshman 74 54.0 
1939 Freshman 65 55.3 
1940 Freshman 64 60.9 
1941 Freshman 69 69.5 
“1942”* Freshman 71 42.2 
“1943” Freshman 74 44.6 
“1944” Freshman 65 46.1 
“1945” Freshman 78 34.6 
Peo OAG:? Freshman 77 40.2 
“1947”" Freshman 83 53.0 
“1948” Freshman 85 43.5 


* This school has been on the accelerated plan since before 
Pearl Harbor; the entering classes no longer require 4 years for 
graduation. 


TABLE 3.—TRACING MEDICAL STUDENTS, ORIGINALLY 
TUBERCULIN NEGATIVE 


Total 
Peano Of Nume Number | Of these, 
students | of these who number 
Class tuberculin| who eats graduat- Per- 
agicines left pleted ing tu- | cent 
as Fresh- | school all 4 ber culin 
en years negative 
Graduating 35 5 30 22 US 
Nov. 1943 
Graduating 42 6 36 21 58 
Feb. 1943 
Graduating 40 3 37 23 62 
1942 
Graduating 21 5 16 7 44 
1941 3 
Graduating 24 6 18 13 72 
1940 
Graduating 30 6 24 11 46 
1939 
Totals 192 31 161 97 60 


Of the 64 students, originally tuberculin negative, who be- 
came tuberculin positive, fowr developed clinical tuberculosis— 
one man losing two years, one losing one year, and two no time 
loss. All four at present are in fine physical condition. 


PARR: EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS 


179 


to expect that many of them would become 
tuberculin positive. A good many of these 
tuberculin negative students did become 
tuberculin positive but not nearly so many 
of them as one might expect. Washington 
is in an area of high tuberculosis mortality 
(1940 figures, entire U.S.A., 45.9 per 100,000 
population, District of Columbia, 64.4; 
Maryland 79.1; Virginia, 58.1), and our 
students certainly come into contact with 
tubercle bacilli. We were particularly im- 
pressed by the large number of those who 
were originally tuberculin negative and who 
remained negative through a complete 
medical education in Washington, D. C. 
Data on this point are presented in Table 3. 

We were further impressed by the fact 
that a considerable number of medical 
students who gave weakly positive tubercu- 
lin tests later became negative. Students 
were not followed prior to 1939 through all 
semesters; hence the figures on this point do 
not include all our approximately 1,000 
students. Of those followed (666), however, 
134 have reacted only to the strong dose of 
Purified Protein Derivative. This represents 
a low grade of sensitivity due perhaps to 
an almost negligible original sensitizing le- 
sion or to a lesion almost completely steri- 
lized or possibly, in an occasional case, to a 
nonspecific reaction. Nine classes are in- 
cluded in this aspect of the study, four of 
which are still in school, on whom obviously 
the data are not yet complete. In the five 
classes concerned that have graduated 56 
showed weakly positive reactions as Fresh- 
men. Of these, 18 showed stronger reactions 
as they progressed through school, indicat- 
ing some sort of sensitizing or immunizing 
process at work. Six became entirely nega- 
tive and one became weaker in tuberculin 
reactivity, 22 remained the same, and a few 
of the original Freshmen did not graduate. 
Among the 666 students of these nine classes 
319 were positive to some strength of tuber- 
culin as Freshmen (47.9 percent). Of these, 
134 (42.0 percent) were weak reactors. 
Among the 323 students of the last four 
classes there were 139 reacting to tuberculin 
(43.0 per cent), of whom 78 were only weak- 
ly positive (56.1 percent). Among the 343 
students in this series who have graduated 
there were 180 tuberculin reactors (52.4 


180 


percent), but of these only 56 were weak 
reactors (31.1 percent). 

Several points may be made regarding 
these data. An environment containing 
tubercle bacilli does not prevent a certain 
number of weakly positive tuberculin re- 
actors from becoming negative. These in- 
dividuals may be thought of as resistant 
strains of the human race. Our newer stu- 
dents are showing not only a lower total 
tubercularization rate but also a tubercu- 
larization of less intensity. Tubercle bacilli 
in the environment are doing less to medical 
students than formerly. This is susceptible 
to three interpretations. The tubercle bacilli 
in the environment are becoming fewer; 
they are losing invasiveness and virulence; 
or, thirdly, the resistance of the young 
white American to tuberculosis is increas- 
ing. The first point is obvious but can hardly 
be the whole explanation. I believe we miss 
the full significance of the data if we do not 
also allocate some importance to each of the 
other two explanations. 

Weight is added to this suggestion when 
we consider that the total number of tuber- 
culin negative students in the school, all 
presumably susceptible to successful in- 
vasion by the tubercle bacillus, is increasing. 
This number is the census made up each 
semester after the tests are done. In Novem- 
ber, 1941, there were 147 -tuberculin- 
negative students in the school. In June, 
1942, this number was 157. In November, 
1943, it was 166 among 313 students, or a 
student body only 46.9 percent tuberculin 
positive. There has been a slight increase in 
the total number of students in the school, 
but this has-been balanced off by the fact 
that our last two classes, though the initial 
tuberculin positive rate was low, had higher 
percentages than the average of the pre- 
ceding four classes (48.3 as against 41.3 per- 
cent). Furthermore, since this program was 
started in 1939, only nine students have 
been found with minimal tuberculosis, al- 
though three others were detected shortly 
following graduation. At the present time, 
with 313 students in attendance, not one 
has minimal tuberculosis. This fine record 


surpasses that revealed in almost any mass | 


survey of adults. Among 28,098 U. 8. Gov- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 6 


ernment employees fecently surveyed, 1.1 — 
percent had recognizable tuberculosis (60.7 
percent minimal; 35.3 percent moderately 
advanced; 4.0 percent far advanced). 

It has been our purpose in presenting 
these observations to emphasize that al- 
though remarkable progress has been made 
in combating tuberculosis that progress has 
not equaled advance achieved in controlling 
other well-known diseases. We must believe 
that tuberculosis is still a major problem. 
Its eradication may be set back by the war 
but not irrevocably. Tuberculosis morbidity 
and mortality can be reduced to a satis- 
factorily low level, but I do not expect to 
see in my lifetime the absolute elimination 
of the disease. Our evidence suggests that 
the tuberculosis problem is not at present 
unduly significant for medical students and 
that there is some ground for considering 
either that the young white adult has more 
resistance to the tubercle bacillus than his 
father possessed or that the Mycobacterrwm 
tuberculosis is losing some of its virulence. 
Possibly a little of both is true. 


REFERENCES 


ALTSHULER, S. S., and Battey, L. J. Control 
of tuberculosis in an institution for the men- 
tally ill. Amer. Rev. Tubere. 44: 335- 
345. 1941. 

BUREAU OF THE CrENsus. Vital statistics rates 
in the United States, 1900-1940. 16th 
Census of the United States, 1940. 1943. 

Dieut, H.S., and Myrsrs, J. A. Tuberculosis 
prevention, immunization and periodic 
health examinations among medical stu- 
dents. Journ. Assoc. Amer. Med. Colleges 
15: 104-114. 1940. 

DosBiE, W. J. The prevention of tuberculosis: 
What we should teach today. Amer. Rev. 
Tubere. 4: 23-31. 1920. 

Frost, W. H. How much control of tubercu- — 
losis? Amer. Journ. Public Health 27: 
759-766. 1937. 

Hittesor, H. E. Opportunities in the newer 
methods of tuberculosis case finding. Public 
Health Reports 58: 1094-1101. 1943. 

Lone, E. R. From pathology to epidemrology 
in tuberculosis. Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc. 
104: 18838-1888. 1935. 

. Constitution and related factors in re- 
sistance to tuberculosis. Arch. Path. 32: 
122-162, 286-310. 1941. 

Parr, L. W. Factors in resistance to tubercu- 
losis as revealed by a case finding program. 
Southern Med. Journ. 36: 806-312. 1943. 


JUNE 15, 1944 


Sorer, W. B., and Amperson, J. B. Pul- 
monary tuberculosis in young adults, par- 
ticularly among medical students and nurses. 
Amer. Rev. Tuberc. 39: 9-32. 1939. 

Wourr, G. Tuberculosis mortality as an index 
of hygienic control. Amer. Rev. Tuberc. 
34: 734-748. 1936. 

Wooprurr, C. E., and Keuiy, R. G. The 


ETHNOLOGY.—Algonkian ethnohistory of the Carolina Sound.’ 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


181 


correlation between anatomical changes and 
the allergic state in tuberculous guinea pigs. 
Journ. Immunology 45: 79-85. 1942. 

YERUSHALMY, J., HiuuEBor, H. E., and 
PaumMeR, C. E. Tuberculosis mortality in 
the United States, 1939-41. Health Public 
Reports 58: 1457-1482. 1943. 


Maurice A. 


Mook, American University. (Communicated by Wruuiam N. Fenton.) 


SOURCES 


During the period of first white contacts 
the Indian tribes inhabiting the area of the 


present State of North Carolina were 


of three linguistic stocks—the Iroquoian, 
Siouan, and Algonkian. The first two groups 
have been made the objects of investigation 
by both historians and anthropologists, but 
the Algonkian have been neglected and are 
still commonly called, as for example by 
Kroeber, the “‘little known” inhabitants of 
the Carolina Sound. Even the names and 
identities of some of the tribes are still in 
doubt—a situation due partly to the lack of 
primary historical sources relating to the 
groups in question and partly to students’ 
failure to exploit thoroughly such sources as 
are readily available. The sources are few 
enough, and they are not particularly re- 
warding ethnologically. It seems time, how- 
ever, to attempt an ethnohistorical picture 
of the area such as we already have for the 
neighboring native areas of the state (1).? 

The Algonkian-speaking tribes of eastern 
North Carolina represent the southernmost 
extension of the groups of this linguistic 
relation which inhabited the Eastern States. 
All the tribes of New England were Algon- 
kian in speech, those of the eastern portions 
of the Middle Atlantic states were of the 
same linguistic family, and the inhabitants 
of the tidewater area from the Potomac to 
the Neuse River were similarly affiliated 
(2). The classification is entirely linguistic, 
rather than racial or cultural, and is the only 
one available in the light of present informa- 
tion. The English were not so interested in 


1 Received February 28, 1944. 
2 Numbers in parentheses refer to the “‘Notes” 
at the end of the paper. 


native peoples as were the French or even 
the Spanish, and the historic ethnology of 
areas of English colonization is proportion- 
ately inferior. However, scattered native 
words in the relations of the Roanoke ad- 


‘venturers, modern place names of Indian 


derivation in the area, and the short Pam- 
lico vocabulary given by Lawson in his 
History (3) are sufficient to justify the clas- 
sification of the eastern native Carolinians 
as indisputably Algonkian. 

The delimitation of the area of aboriginal 
Algonkian occupancy in Carolina is com- 
plicated by the fact that it was not coter- 
minous with natural geographical lines of 
division, as was the case in Virginia. The 
Algonkian tribes of the Powhatan Con- 
federacy in Virginia inhabited the tidewater 
area, with the fall line of the tidal rivers 
marking the western limit of Algonkian 
tribal distribution. In Carolina, however, 
tribes of Iroquoian and of Siouan speech 
also occupied the coastal plain. These latter 
groups were the western and southern 
neighbors of the Algonkian, with the latter 
inhabiting the region east of a line drawn 
from Bogue Inlet due north to the inter- 
section of Meherrin River and the Virginia-— 
Carolina line. Algonkian peoples thus oc- 
cupied the greater portion of the area now 
contained in the 17 easternmost counties 
of the State, including most of the offshore 
islands. Algonkian occupancy covered some 
6,000 square miles, approximately one- 
sixth of the land area of the modern State. 
The limits of distribution are tentative, 
however, for the western Algonkian bound- 
ary is merely suggested by contemporary 
accounts. 

Our knowledge of the Carolina Algonkian 
of the late sixteenth century is derived 


182 


entirely from the documents of Raleigh’s 
Roanoke enterprise. Historical research has 
added little of ethnological significance to 
the relations published by Hakluyt in 1590. 
It is now possible, however, to interpret 
these with less ethnohistorical naiveté than 
was characteristic of the days of Hawks, 
Hale, and Tarbox (4). Also for the problem 
of reconstructing tribal geography at the 
time of contact students now have access to 
facsimiles.of John White’s original maps of 
the Carolina coast (5). Until the publication 
of these facsimiles it was generally assumed 
that the engravings published by De Bry 
were faithful reproductions of the John 
White drawings. The De Bry engravings 
however, are now shown to be embellish- 
ments of White’s original maps and other 
ethnological pictures (6). It has been said 
that ‘‘De Bry’s engravings were copied, 
plagiarized, redrawn and re-interpreted for 
generations after his time’’ and that ‘“‘De 
Bry is the man who immortalized the 
pictures (and maps) of the Roanoke 
colony” (7). This is historically correct, but 
it is also true that De Bry himself ‘‘copied, 
redrew, and re-interpreted”’ and that his 
pictures “‘immortalized”’ elaborations of the 
John White originals, rather than the origi- 
nals themselves. Students of history and 
ethnology will prefer the originals in ac- 
curate facsimile (8). These are particularly 
valuable, for they are the first pictorial 
record of Algonkian environment and cul- 
ture in the New World. Other than by the 
use of archeological methods it is impossible 
to come nearer to the aboriginal situation of 
precontact times in this area than by study 
of White’s drawings and the written records 
of 1585-1590. 

The written materials of the Roanoke 
colony are exceedingly uneven as sources 
of aboriginal history. Hariot’s Report (9) is 
usually considered the classic in this respect, 
but it is disappointing as a document for 
ethnological and historical reconstruction. 
Unfortunately, Hariot’s ‘Chronicle, ac- 
cording to the course of times,”’ which in his 
Briefe Report he stated he had written and 
was holding for a ‘‘convenient’”’ time for 
publication, apparently never was printed, 
or, if it was, it is now among the missing 
documents of the history of Roanoke settle- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 6 
ment. From the point of view of historical 
anthropology this is a particular misfortune, 
for Hariot tells us that the Chronicle was a 
“large discourse... of the naturall in- 
habitants” (10). | 

Whereas Hariot’s Report is quite silent 
on matters of tribal identity, location, his- 
tory, and intertribal relationships, its sec- 
tion on ‘‘the nature and maners of the 
people” is historical in the sense that it 
describes aspects of the native culture at 
the time of contact. It is a gross exaggera- 
tion, however, to speak of it as ‘‘a statistical 
survey on a large scale” (11). Both his- 
torically and ethnologically it is less inform- 
ing than Barlow’s The first voyage made to 
the coasts of America (12). The value of the 
Barlow relation, on the other hand, is some- 
what reduced by the fact that the first 
voyage was one merely of preliminary ex- 
ploration, by an expedition too small in 
size and too short in duration to make more 
than superficial surveys of a small portion 
of the coast. Relationships with the natives 
were friendly, and Barlow was successful in 
obtaining considerable information during 
the few weeks he was in the Algonkian area. 
His tract was a report to Raleigh that pre- 
sented a more hopeful picture of colonizing 
prospects than the resources of the region 
deserved, but there is little to indicate that 
his descriptions of native life are charac- 
terized by mistakes other than those that 
were the natural result of misunderstanding 
due to hasty and untrained observation. 

White’s relations of the fourth and fifth 
voyages made to Roanoke in 1587 and 1590 
(13) are journals of the voyages, rather than 
accounts of experiences in the Carolina 
area. As such they are of little value as 
sources for the study of native history. 
Their almost complete lack of ethnological 
consciousness is sufficient, in fact, to suggest 
that John White the governor and the 
author of the relations may have been a dif- 
ferent person than John White the artist of 
Lane’s colony and the author of the map 
of 1585 (14). The map, with its long list of 
native locations, and the drawings of Indian 
scenes and subjects reveal an awareness of 
the native inhabitants that seems entirely 
foreign to the relations of the last two 
voyages. 


JUNE 15, 1944 MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 183 


ROANOKE Dasamonquepeuc 


= pee PB 
Moratocs S (R ANOAK) 
Pa 
|X 


3 hey AON 


<x 
®Tramaskecoc 


, eAquascogoc 


ox a) 
rm 


2 = 
4 AZ 
vy ananaioc, 
Cc 
fo) 
i 5 Secotan 


SN@uSIOk 


Uvs \ 9 | 
EARLY: ALGONKIAN 
TRIBES -AND -TOWNS 


LATER - HISTORIC - TRIBES ' 
SHOWN - IN- PARENTHESES 


184 


The prime documentary sources for the 
ethnogeography and ethnohistory of the 
Roanoke experiment are White’s map (15) 
and Ralph Lane’s Account of the particulari- 
ties of the imployments of the English men left 
in Virginia by Sir Richard Greenevill (16). 
In spite of the development of unfriendly re- 
lations between the natives and colonists 
under Lane’s governorship, Lane’s account 
shows him to have been an individual of 
ethnological discernment. His narrative is 
the only Roanoke relation of more than 
perfunctory value for the student interested 
in the location, distribution, and relation- 
ships of the Carolina Algonkians and their 
neighbors in 1585. De Bry seems to have 
sensed its importance in this respect as 
early as 1590, for although this publisher 
chose Hariot’s Report in preference to 
Lane’s Account for the first volume of his 
Voyages (17), his map is based upon White’s 
with additions of some of the locations men- 
tioned in Lane’s account (18). Both maps 
are therefore useful for the study of the 
tribal geography and the native history of 
the period. New maps of Carolina did not 
appear until the latter part of the next 
century (19), by which time the Algonkian 
tribes were so reduced in both population 
and culture as to be deemed unworthy of 
recognition by contemporary cartographers. 
Lawson was the only writer of the period of 
permanent settlement who took generous 
cognizance of the existence of the native 
tribes of Carolina; his map, however, shows 
but three names of Indian derivation in the 
Algonkian area, and these were used as 
place names rather than as designations of 
tribal locations (20). 

References to locations in the Roanoke 
relations show that the explorations made 
by Lane and his colonists apparently took 
them to most of the importané tribal towns 
inhabited by the Algonkian groups of the 
Sound area at the time. Their discoveries 
were confined largely to the shores and 


islands of Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds, » 


and to the coastal area bordering the bays 
and rivers adjacent to the larger bodies of 
water. A trip was made to the Chesapeake 
tribe situated at the southern end of Chesa- 
peake Bay, and two voyages were made 
into the interior in explorations of the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 6 


Chowan and Roanoke Rivers. One explora- 
tion was made southwestward from Roa- 
noke, probably as far as the Neuse River, 
but contemporary knowledge of the region 
south of the lower Pamlico River seems un- 
certain and ill-defined. In a concluding pas- 
sage of Hariot’s Report it is stated that 
‘fal which I have before spoken of have bene 
discovered and experimented not farre_ 
from the Sea coast, where was our abode 
and most of our traveling; yet sometimes — 
. . we made our journeys further into the 
maine and Countrey”’ (21). Hariot else- 
where referred to discoveries 80, 120, and 
150 miles from Roanoke (22). Lane was 
still more specific with respect to the dis- 
tances and directions involved in the ex- 
ploratory expeditions under his direction. 
In the ethnogeographically most explicit 
passage of the relations he described the 
explorations of the colonists as follows: 


Our discoverie... of the Countrey... hath 
beene extended from the Iland of Roanoak, the 
same having bene the place of our settlement or 
inhabitation, into the South, into the North, into 
the Northwest, and into the West. 

The uttermost place to the Southward of any 
discovery was Secotan, being by estimation 
fourescore miles distant from Roanoak. The pas- 
sage from thence was through a broad sound 
within the mayne, the same being witheut kenning 
of lande, and yet full of flats and shoals. We had 
but one boate, which could not carry above 
fifteenemen ... Winter being at hand we thought 
good wholly to leave the discovery of those parts 
untill our stronger supply. 

To the Northward our furthest discovery was 
to the Chesepians’ [Chesapeake], distant from 
Roanoke about 130 miles. The passage to it 
(Currituck Sound] was very shallow and most — 
dangerous... The territorie and soyle of the 
Chespians, being distant fifteene miles from the 
Sshoare... is not to be excelled by any other 
whatsoever. There be sundry Kings, whom they 
call Weroances, and Countreys of great fertility 
adjoyning to the same, as the Mandoages, Tripa- 
nicks, and Opossians, which all came to visite the 
Colonie of the English, which I had for a time ap- 
pointed to be resident there. 

To the Northwest the farthest place of our dis- 
covery was to Chawanook, distant from Roanoak 
about 130 miles. Our passage thither lyeth 
through a broad sound [Albemarle], but all fresh 
water, and the chanell full of shoales. The Townes 
about the waters side situated by the way are 
these following: Passaguenoke The woman’s 
Towne, Chepanoc, Weapomeiok, Muscamunge, 
& Metackwem, all these being under the jurisdic- 
tion of the king of Weapomiok, called Okisco. 

From Muscamunge we enter into the River and 


JUNE 15,1944 MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


jurisdiction of Chawanook. There the River be- 
ginneth to straighten untill it come to Chawa- 
nook, and then groweth to be as narrow as the 
Thames betwene Westminster and Lambeth. 
Betwene Muscamunge and Chawanook upon the 
left hand as wee passe thither is a goodly high 
land, and there is a Towne which we called The 
blinde Towne, but the Savages called it Ohanoak, 
[which] hath a very goodly corne field belonging 
unto it. It is subject to Chawanook. 

Chawanook it selfe is the greatest Province & 
Seigniorie lying upon that River, and the very 
Towne it selfe is able to put 700 fighting men into 
the fielde, besides the force of the Province it 
selfe... 

Very neere [to the mouth of Chowan River]... 
directly from the West runneth a most notable 
River, and in all those parts most famous, called 
the River of Moratoc [Roanoke]. This River 
openeth into the broad Sound of Weapomeiok 
[Albemarle]... Moratocitselfe .. .is a principall 
Towne upon that River... The Mangoaks... 


is another kinde of Savages dwelling more to the- 


westward of said River (23). 


_Lane proceeds to describe his exploration 
of the Roanoke River to a point that took 
the party more than 160 miles from Roa- 
noke Island. The exploration led them into 
the territory of the Mangoak, or Mandoag 
(24), the Carolina Algonkian term for their 
western Jroquoian neighbors (25). The fore- 
going passage is of special interest in its 
references to the locations and towns of the 
Weapemeoc, Secotan, and Moratoc tribes. 
These positions can be determined with 
greater exactness by reference to the data 
of contemporary cartography. For col- 
lateral textual evidence, however, it is 
necessary to consider passages from two 
other relations. 

The voiage made by Sir Richard Greenvile 
for Sir Walter Ralegh, to Virginia, in the 
yeere 1585 (26) is in the form of a brief 
journal of the daily experiences of the Eng- 
lish during the two months that Grenville 
was in the colony. Its references to native 
locations are as follows: 

The 26 [of June] we came to anker at Wocokon 
... The 3 [of July] we sent word of our arriving 
at Wococon to Wingina at Roanoak... The 6 
M. John Arundel was sent to the maine, and 
Manteo with him, and Captaine Aubry and Cap- 
taine Boniten the same day were sent to Croatan 
... Lhe 8 Captaine Aubry and Captaine Boniten 
returned... To Wocokon. The 11 day the 
Generall [Grenville, with Lane, Hariot, Amadas, 
- John White]... and divers other Gentlemen... 
passed over the water from Wocokon to the maine 


185 


land ...in which voyage we first discovered the 

townes of Pomejok, Aquascogoc, and Secotan, and 

also the great lake called by the Savages Paquipe, 

with divers others places... The 12 we came to 

the Towne of Pomeiok. The 13 we passed by water 

to Aquascogok. The 15 we came to Secotan, and 

were well entertained there of the Savages. 

The 16 we returned thence, and one of our 

boates with the Admirall was sent to Aquascogok, 

to demaund a silver cup which one of the Savages 

had stollen from us, and not receiving it according 
to his promise, we burnt and spoyled their corne 
and Towne, all the people being fled (27). The 18 
we returned from the discovery of Secotan, and 
the same day came aboord our Fleete ryding at 
Wococon. The 21 our Fleete ankering at Wococon, 

we wayed an anker for Hatoraske. The 27 our 
Fleete ankered at Hatorask, and there we rested. 

The 29 Grangino, brother to King Wingina, came 
aboord the Admirall, and Manteo with him. The 
2 [of August] the Admiral was sent to Weapo- 
meiok. The 5.M. John Arundell was sent for 
England. The 25 our Generall wayed anker and 
set saile for England (28). 


The above locations occur on the maps of 
White and De Bry and can be transferred 
to modern maps with the aid of such sup- 
porting geographical information as can be 
found in the narratives of the colony. A pas- 
sage from Barlow completes the roster of 
native place names as they occur on the 
early charts. Barlow’s information is a 
supplement to that of the other relations, 
for it mentions two tribes, the Pomouik and 
Neusiok, that are not referred to by Hariot, 
Lane, or White. His facts, however, are from 
native informants rather than based upon 
his own discovery or exploration. His refer- 
ences are as follows: 


My selfe with seven more went twentie mile 
into the River that runneth toward the Citie of 
Skicoak, which River they call Occam (29), and 
the evening following wee came to an Island, 
which they call Roanoak, distant from the har- 
bour [inlet] by which we entred seven leagues. 
At the North end thereof was a village of nine 
houses, built of Cedar, and fortified round about 
with sharpe trees to keep out their enemies, and 
the entrance into it made like a turne pike very 
artificially (80). When wee came towardes it, 
standing neere unto the waters side, the wife of 
Granganimo, the kings brother, came running out 
to meete us very cheerefully and friendly. Her 
husband was not then in the village... 

Beyond this Island there is the maine lande, 
and over against this Island falleth into this 
spacious water, the great river called Occam (31) 
by the inhabitants, on which standeth a toune 
called Pomeiock. And sixe dayes journey from the 
same is situate their greatest citie, called Skicoak, 


186 


which this people affirme to be very great; but 
the Savages were never at it, only they speake of 
it by the report of their fathers and other men, 
whom they have heard affirme it to bee one houres 
journey about. 

Into this river falleth another great river, 
called Cipo, in which there is found great store of 
Muskles in which there are pearles. Likewise there 
descendeth into this Occam another river, called 
Nomopana [Chowan River], on the one. side 
whereof standeth a great towne called Chawa- 
nook, and the Lord of that towne and countrey... 
is not subject to the kind of Wingandacoa (32), 
but is afree Lord... 

Towards the Southwest foure dayes journey is 
situate a towne called Sequotan, which is the 
Southermost towne of Wingandacoa, neere unto 
which [is]... an out Island, unhabited, called 
Wocokon... Adjoyning to this countrey afore- 
said called Secotan beginneth a countrey called 
Pomouik, belonging to another king whom they 
call Piamacum, and this king is in league with the 
next king adjoyning towards the setting of the 
Sunne, and the countrey Newsiok, situate upon a 
goodly river called Neus. These kings have 
mortall warre with Wingina, king of Wingandacoa 
but about two yeeres past there was a peace made 
betweene the King Piemacum and the Lord of 
Secotan, as these men which we have brought with 
us to England have given us to understand (33). 
But there remaineth a mortall malice in the 
Secotanes for many injuries and slaughters done 
upon them by this Piemacum... 

Beyond this Island called Roanoak are maine 
Islands ... with many townes and villages along 
the side of the continent, some bounding upon the 
Islands, and some stretching up further into the 
land (34). 


Barlow’s narrative is one of the most 
valuable minor histories of English coloni- 
zation in the New World. Although its 
geography is largely based upon the reports 
of his native informants, supplemented by 
such explorations as could have been made 
in a few weeks by a small party in two 
barks, it is none the less valuable on that 
account. It offers the most direct and de- 
tailed information concerning the political 
organization and intertribal relationships of 
the coastal Algonkian groups that is avail- 
able for this region. It is the first record of 
white contact with the natives of the Sound 
area, and it is, therefore, impossible to come 
nearer to the local precontact aboriginal 
culture by historical methods of investiga- 
tion than by a study of its descriptions of 
the native way of life (35). Barlow’s relation, 
though shorter than Hariot’s Report, is more 
genuinely ethnological and is more valuable 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 6 


for its general cultural description than for — 
its allusions to tribal geography. It is char- 
acterized by numerous naivetés and con- 
tains some items of misinformation (36), 
but when it is remembered that the first 
voyage was made to a strange environment 
and that Barlow was at first without com- 
mand of the Algonkian language, the in- 
formation embodied in his account seems 
all the more remarkable. Lane’s and 
Hariot’s works are longer and for some 
aspects of ethnology more explicit; both of 
these writers, however, were in the Algon- 
kian area approximately a year, and they 
had in Manteo a native informant who had 
been in England five to six months and must 
have acquired in that time a working knowl- 
edge of the English language. 


LATE SIXTEENTH CENTURY TOWNS 
AND TRIBES 


Apart from the above-quoted passages 
from Carolina’s first historians, the data of 
the narratives respecting tribal names, loca- 
tions, and relations are scattered and frag- 
mentary. When collected, collated, and in- 
terpreted in the light of independently es- 
tablished historical and ethnological facts, 
it is possible to suggest the following with 
respect to the location of tribal territories, 
the towns within them, and the relationship 
of the tribes to each other in the area of 
Algonkian occupancy: 

The Weapomeiok, or Weapemeoc (37), in- 
habited the area north of Albemarle Sound, 
including the four northeastern present 
counties and perhaps also the southern part 
of Chowan County. White’s map specifies 
four native towns in this area as ‘‘Weape- 
meoc(an)’’?; while De Bry’s map and suc- 
ceeding ones designate the entire area north 
of Albemarle Sound and east of Chowan 
River as belonging to the same group. 
Their northern neighbors were the Chesa- 
peake, a tribe on the south bank of the 
James River, which then inhabited the two 
southeasternmost counties of present Vir- 
ginia; their western neighbors were the 
Chowanoc, who occupied both banks of the 
river which took their name. The Weape- 
meoe ‘‘king,” or chief, in 1585 was Okisco, 
whose relations with the chieftains of neigh- 
boring groups reveal the native political 


JUNE 15, 1944 


status of his own tribe. He was independent 
of Menatonan, chief of the Chowanoc, but 
was dominated to some extent by the latter, 
by whom he was induced to acknowledge 
subjection to the English. Lane states that 
Menatonon ‘‘commaunded Okisko, King of 
Weopomick, to yeelde himselfe servant and 
hommager to the great Weroanza (38) of 
England, and after her to Sir Walter Ra- 
leigh; to perfourme which commandement 
received from Menatonon the sayde Okisko 
... sent foure and twentie of his principal- 
lest men to Roanoak... to signifie that 
they were ready to perfourme the same, and 
so had sent there his men to let mee knowe 
that from that time forwarde hee and his 
successours were to acknowledge her Majes- 
tie their onely Soveraigne”’ (39). 

Although subservient to the Chowanoe 
chief, Okisko conducted himself inde- 
pendently of Pemisapan, chief of the Seco- 
tan, in the latter’s conspiracy against the 
colonists. Pemisapan, as chief of the natives 
of Roanoke Island and the adjacent main- 
land (40), had hoped for Okisko as an ally in 
his plans for an attack upon the English. 
“Okisko, king of Weopomeiok [was to]... 
be mooved, and with great quantitie of 
copper intertained, to the number of 7 or 
8 hundred bowes, to enterprise the matter”’ 
of attack. Pemisapan dispatched mes- 
sengers to Okisko, who were “‘with great 
imprest of copper in hand’’ and who made 
“large promises... of greater spoile.”’ 
Okisko, however, sent word to Pemisapan 
that neither he nor ‘‘any of his especiall fol- 
lowers’’ would be “‘of the partie... and 
therefore did immediately retire himselfe 
with his force into the maine.”’ But ‘‘Weopo- 
melok . . . was devided into two parts, [and] 

.. the rest of the province accepted” 
Pemisapan’s proposition and ‘‘received the 
imprest’ (41). —~ 

The Weapemeoc are thus revealed as a 
tribe separate from and independent of their 
neighbors to the west and to the south, 
although Okisko’s authority as a chief 
seems to have been somewhat weaker than 
that of his neighboring chieftains in their 
jurisdictions. The reference to the possibil- 
ity of drawing upon 700 or 800 warriors 
from Weapemeoc territory suggests a total 
tribal population of at least 2,500 (42). 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


187 


Lane’s figure of the number of warriors 
north of Albemarle Sound may be unduly 
exaggerated, as most contemporary esti- 
mates are (43); on the other hand, Mooney’s 
calculation of a total population of 800 for 
the ‘‘Weapemeoc of 1585” would seem to be 
unreasonably conservative (44). Perhaps 
500 warriors, with a total population of 
1,500 to 1,750, would be a reasonable esti- 
mate. 

Some of Okisko’s ‘“‘principallest men’ 
were the chiefs of towns within the territory 
of what the English called his “kingdom.” 
There are records of four towns within 
Weapemeoc tribal limits—Pasquenoc, Che- 
panoc, Weapemeoc, and Mascoming. Here, 
as usual, the chief tribal town was of the 
same name as the tribe. Lane’s enumeration 
of them in the order above given may in- 
dicate that this was their relative location 
from east to west, for he mentioned them 
in this order in a context in which he de- 
scribed crossing Albemarle Sound in order — 
to enter the Chowan River. His reference to 
them as ‘about the waters side” suggests 
that they were on the shore of the Sound, 
probably at or near the mouths of the north- 
ern rivers. The Eastern Algonkian were 
notable rivermen, and their villages were 
located, if possible, on the necks of land 
formed by converging streams (45). With 
these considerations in mind, and with the 
aid of White’s and De Bry’s maps, it is 
possible to suggest locations of the Weape- 
meoc settlements more specifically as fol- 
lows: 

On the De Bry map and its copies Pas- 
quenoc, or the ‘“‘Woman’s Town,” is placed 
on the second point of land west of Curri- 
tuck Sound; this would be modern Camden 
Point, in southern Camden County, be- 
tween the North and Pasquotank Rivers. 
It is entirely possible, as Mooney suggested, 
that Pasquotank as the name of the river 
and the modern county is a corruption 
of the name of this early native village (46). 
Lawson located a ‘‘Paspatank’’ Indian 
town, with ten warriors, in this vicinity in 
1709 (47). Mooney’s location of Pasquenoc 
‘on the north shore of Albemarle sound 
perhaps in Camden county” (48) would 
place the town at Camden Point. Hawks 
claimed to “have no difficulty in fixing the 


188 


locality of Passaquenoke,” but his location 
of it “‘in the southwest corner of the present 
county of Pasquotank”’ (49) places it too 
far to the west. It is impossible to use 
White’s map for a specific location in this 
instance, for the map shows but one river 
flowing into Albemarle Sound from the 
north, and it is impossible to decide which 
river is intended. However, White’s ‘‘Mase- 
quetuc” is undoubtedly synonymous with 
the Pasquenoc of other sources. Gerard’s 
derivation of the latter term from pasakwen- 
ok, meaning ‘‘close together people,” is an 
attempted etymology with a meaning ap- 
propriate enough for any native town or 
village. Speck’s analysis of pa-skwen-ok as 
‘“woman’s town or village’ is more in accord 
with Lane’s information; on the same basis 
White’s term ma-skwe-tuk would mean 
‘“woman’s river’? (50). There can be no 
doubt that the settlement and river re- 
ferred to were on the eastern edge of Albe- 
marle Sound; White’s and De Bry’s maps 
so designated the village, and Lane clearly 
indicated an eastern location in a passage 
describing his return from exploring the 
Roanoke River: ‘‘I thought it good for us to 
make our returne homeward |i.e., toward 
Roanoke Island], and that it were necessary 
for us to get [to] the other side of the 
Sound of Weopemeiok in time, where wee 
might be relieved upon the weares [weirs] 
of Chypanum and the womens Towne” 
(51). 

Lane’s enumeration of Weapemeoc towns 
lists Chepanoc, or Chypanum, between 
Pasquenoc and Weapemeoc, and it was 
probably likewise geographically situated 
between them, east of the latter and west 
of the former. It is missing from White’s 
original map, but on De Bry’s chart 
‘“‘Chapanun”’ (52) is placed on a river ap- 
proximately midway between Pasquenoc 
(Camden Point) and the Chowan River. 
Transferred to a modern map this would be 
Perquimans River. Hawks places ‘‘Chepa- 
nock ... in the lower part of Perquimons 
county, near the sound”’ (53), but De Bry’s 
map has the town up the river a distance, 
perhaps near present Hertford; Smith’s 
map, which was but a copy of De Bry’s, 
shows Chepanu in the vicinity of modern 
Chapanoke, in Perquimans County, and 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 6 


there is no doubt that the present town’s 
name was derived from the Indian term. 
However, Chepanoc may have been located 
on Harvey or Stevenson Point, on either 
side of the mouth of Perquimans River, for 
there is no reference in any of the relations 
to the explorers ascending rivers other than 
the Chowan, Roanoke, Pamlico, and per- 
haps the Neuse. Lane placed it ‘‘about the 
waters side’ of Albemarle Sound and else- 
where stated that ‘‘upon Easter day [1586| 
in the morning, the winde comming very - 
calme, we entred the sound [at the mouth of 
Roanoke River], and by foure of the clocke 
we were at Chipanum... The next morn- 
ing wee arrived at our home, Roanoak”’ 
(54). This definitely locates the town some 
distance east of the Chowan and Roanoke 
Rivers, with a site ‘fon Albemarle sound, in 
Perquimans county”’ (55) perhaps as near as 
can be come to the matter. 

It is clear that Weapemeoc was the name 
of a town as well as of the tribe, but it is 
impossible to locate the town exactly, as the 
district, rather than the settlement, is the 
only location by that name that occurs on 
the maps of White and De Bry. White’s 
four Weapemeoc towns occur on his map 
north of the western part of the Sound, in 
the area of present southeastern Chowan 
and western Perquimans Counties. Lane’s 
list of towns north of the Sound implies that 
Weapemeoc was west of Chepancc, which 
we have already located on Perquimans 
River. The tribal town and chief’s residence 
may have been on the Yeopim River near 
its mouth, and it is altogether possible that 
Yeopim as the name of the river is a con- 
traction of Weapem-eoc (56). It is impos- 
sible to support Mooney’s statement that 
the town ‘‘seems to have been in Pasquo- 
tank county,” and Tarbox’s allusion to it 
as “in what is now Perquimans or Pasquo- 
tak County” is a mere guess, made without 
reference to contemporary cartography and 
based upon a misunderstanding of Lane’s 
narrative in which his note is offered as. 
explanation (57). 

White’s map shows Mascomenge as a 
Weapemeoc town, and De Bry’s map locates 
Mascoming in what would now be southern 
Chowan County, near or at modern Eden- 
ton. Smith’s map copies the name from De 


JUNE 15, 1944 


Bry but places the town inland from the 
sound (58). Lane’s statement that ‘from 
Muscamunge we enter into the (Chowan) 
River and jurisdiction of Chawanook”’ (59) 
indicates the town was in southern Chowan 
County, near the mouth of the river and on 
the north shore of the sound. This was the 
interpretation of Mooney, who placed the 
village ‘‘on the northern shore of Albemarle 
sound, in Chowan county’; Hawks was 
again incorrect in locating ‘‘this town... 
on the lower waters of the [Chowan] river 
on their eastern side... [some distance] 
above the sound proper’ (60). 

Lane included Metackwem (Metocaum) 
among his Weapemeoc towns, and White 
listed both Warowtani (Maraton) and 
Cautaking (Catoking) as belonging to the 
Weapemeoc. It seems possible, however, 
that all three of these were Chowanoc vil- 
lages. The evidence is entirely that of loca- 
tion and geographical distribution, but ow- 
ing to the crudity of early maps and the in- 
definiteness of early textual references it is 
impossible to draw tribal boundary lines 
with exactness. These three towns were in 
the region that marked the division between 
the territory of the Chowanoc and the 
Weapemeoc, and they may have belonged, 
therefore, to either of the two groups. 

The most detailed information concern- 
ing the Chowanoc tribe comes from Lane, 
and his most explicit reference to the 
“Chawanook ... Province and Seigniorie”’ 
and the towns within it is the one already 
quoted. He located the town of Chawanook 


“about 130 miles... distant from Roa-~ 


noak,”’ where ‘‘the River beginneth to 
straighten untill it... groweth to be as 
narrow as the Thames betwene West- 
minster and Lambeth” (61). The Chowan 
River begins to straighten and is narrow in 
the area that separates modern Hertford 
and Gates Counties, and it is this upper 
course of the stream that seems to have been 
the center of Chowanoc territory in 1585. 
White’s map shows Chowanooce on the 
west bank of the river, just below a small 
tributary that may have been meant 
for Wiccacon Creek in eastern Hertford 
County. This map carries White’s symbol 
for a native town or village, whereas De 
Bry’s and subsequent maps show Chawa- 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


189 


nook as a district rather than as a town site. 
On these maps the territory of the tribe is 
indicated as still farther up-river, in and 
around the neck of land formed by the con- 
vergence of the Meherrin and Nottoway 
Rivers to form the Chowan. This location 
makes the Chowanoc the northernmost 
Algonkian tribe of the Carolina area and 
indicates that they were the immediate 
southern neighbors of the linguistically re- 
lated tribes inhabiting the south bank of the 
James River in Virginia (62). 

The northern position of the Chowanoc 
is confirmed by the narratives of the James- 
town colony. Both Smith and Strachey 
mention the ‘‘Chawonokes,”’ or ‘‘Chawo- 
nocks,’’ as among the ‘‘many several] na- 
tions of sundry languages that environ 
Powhatans Territories’ to the south (63). 
Smith was told that the ‘““Chawwonocke’”’ 
lived ‘‘one daies journey” from the Nanse- 
mond tribe on the Nansemond River (64). 
In January, 1609, Michael Sicklemore, a 
member of the Jamestown colony, was sent 
from Warraskoyak (Burwell’s Bay, James 
River, northern Isle of Wight County, Va.) 
to ‘““Chowanoke”’ with Warraskoyak Indian 
guides to look for Raleigh’s lost colonists 
and for silk grass. He returned with “‘little 
hope and less certainetie’’ of the fate of the 
lost Englishmen, reporting the river to be 
‘not great, the people few, the country 
mostly over growne with pynes, where 
there did grow here and there straglingly 
Pemminaw, [which] we call silke grasse. But 
by the river the ground was good and ex- 
ceeding furtill’’ (65). Thirteen years later, 
in February, 1622, John Pory went to ‘“‘the 
South River Chawonock, some sixtie miles 
over land”’ from Jamestown, and reported 
finding ‘‘a very fruitfull and pleasant 
Country, yielding two harvests in a yeare, 
and... much of the Silke grasse.’’ He was 
‘kindly used by the people”’ there, although 
we are told nothing of their number or con- 
dition at that time (66). They were prob- 
ably reduced in number, for by the middle 
of the century they were a mere remnant 
of the strong and numerous group described 
in 1585. They were referred to in 1650 as 
friends of the Powhatan tribes of Virginia 
and as the enemies of the Iroquoian- — 
speaking Tuscarora, Meherrin, and Not- 


190 


taway tribes then inhabiting the Roanoke 
River region and the area west of the 
Chowan (67). 

The Chowanoc were described as the 
leading tribe north of Albemarle Sound at 
the time of the Roanoke settiement. Lane 
referred to them as a “‘more yaliant people 
and in greater number”’ than other tribes of 
the region (68) and reported that Chawa- 
nook, the chief town of the tribe, was ‘‘able 
to put 700 fighting men into the fielde, be- 
sides the force of the Province itselfe’’ (69). 
He also had heard of and believed that a 
‘“‘senerall assembly’? had been called by 
Menatanon, the Chowanoc chief, consisting 
‘fof all his Weroances and allies to the num- 
ber of three thousand bowes.’”’ Among 
Chowanoc allies in this instance were the 
Mangoak, who were reported as ‘‘able of 
themselves to bring as many more to the 
enterprise’ of the tribal conspiracy against 
the English (70). These figures are clearly 
exaggerated, for they were given Lane by 
Pemisapan, who was attempting to impress 
the English with the great strength of the 
natives in case of trouble with the colonists. 
There was no town in this part of native 
America with as many as 700 warriors, or a 
total population of 2,000 to 2,500. It is well 
to remember Hariot’s sober observation 
that ‘‘their Townes are but small, and neere 
the Sea coast but fewe, some contayning 
but tenne or twelve houses, some 20; the 
greatest that we have seen hath bene but of 
30 houses” (71). 

Hariot’s Report has several other passages 
that may apply to the Chowanoc. We can 
not be sure that Hariot was among the 
colonists who explored the Chowan River, 
for he says that ‘‘some of our company .. . 
have wandered in some places where I have 
not bene’”’ (72), but that he was on one of 
the expeditions of western exploration— 
either that of the Chowan or of the Roanoke 
River—is certain, for he stated that ‘‘some- 
times we made our journeys further into the 
maine,’ and he described the physical fea- 
tures of the inland area as one could only 
from personal observation. He observed that 
the interior was ‘‘more inhabited with peo- 
ple, and of greater pollicie [governments] 
and larger dominions, with greater townes 
and houses” (73). Discussing the number of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 6 


villages to be found within a tribal terri- 
tory, he said that ‘in some places of the 
Countrey one onely towne belongeth to the 
government of a Wiroans or chiefe Lord, in 
other some two or three, in some sixe, eight, 
and more. The greatest Wiroans that yet 
wee had dealing with had but eighteene 
townes in his government, and able to make 
not above seven or eight hundreth fighting 
men at the most” (74). It is probable that 
Hariot here referred to the Chowanoc tribe, 
for Lane called it ‘‘the greatest Province” 
and was particularly impressed with the 
power of its chief and the size and strategic 
situation of its towns. With respect to tribal 
population Hariot is almost certainly more 
correct than Lane, and if we allow the whole 
tribe, rather than one of its towns, a war- 
rior population of 700 to 800, its total popu- 
lation may have been approximately 2,500. 
Mooney’s figure of 1,500 for the period of 
first contact is an estimate that errs on the 
side of conservatism (75). 

If the Chowanoc tribe had 18 towns at 
the time of the Roanoke colony, we know 
the names of less than half of them. This is 
not a surprising circumstance when it is 
realized that there is record of only one 
visit of the English to the area of the upper 
Chowan River. It seems reasonable to sup- 
pose that the town of Chawanook, from 
which both the river and the tribe took its 
name, was located in the approximate geo- 
graphical center of the territory of the tribe, 
and, as we have seen, both Lane’s descrip- 
tion and White’s map locate the town on 
the upper river. This would place the tribal 
capital, i.e., the chief’s residence, at a site in 
either eastern Hertford County or southern 
Gates County. The sense of the relations is 
unanimously to the effect that the nucleus 
of Chowanoc territory and the center of 
tribal strength were in this region. On this 
basis Mooney located the tribe, perhaps too 
far northwestward, ‘‘on Chowan river, 
about the junction of Meherrin and Notta- 
way rivers” (76). and Tarbox stated that 
“the country of Chawanook appears to 
have been about the upper waters of Cho- 
wan River’ (77). Hawks located the tribe 
somewhat farther to the south; in one refer- 
ence he placed the ‘‘jurisdiction of Chawa- 
nook... on the upper waters of the Cho- 


JUNE 15, 1944 MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


wan” and placed the town ‘‘on the eastern 
side of Chowan [River] . . . below the point 
~ at which Bennet’s Creek enters the Chowan. 
It was in the northern part of Chowan coun- 
ty” (78). Elsewhere, however, he found it 
“hard to resist the conviction that the name 
of the town is retained in the county we 
now call Chowan; and if so, the locality of 
Chawanook was in that district of country.” 
His first proposition is correct, but his con- 
clusion is wrong, for native names in mod- 
ern nomenclature are unreliable indices of 
aboriginal location unless supported by col- 
lateral information. Hawks’s further as- 
sumption that ‘‘the ancient native town 
may have been but the predecessor of our 
Edenton, or at any rate not far from its site”’ 
(79), is contrary to the testimony of the 
contemporary documents he printed. 
There were probably Chowanoc towns on 
the lower course of the river, however. We 
have seen that the territory of the Weape- 
meoc tribe included the four northeastern 
modern counties of North Carolina, and 
perhaps also the southeastern part of Cho- 
wan County. Mooney omitted Chowan 
County from his statement of Weapemeoc 
distribution (80), and Speck gives the tribe’s 
location as ‘‘north of Albemarle sound, west 
to Edenton” (81). The Weapemeoc town of 
Mascoming, near present Edenton, seems 
to have been near the western boundary of 
Weapemeoc territory. This location of the 
boundary leaves the eastern bank of the 
lower Chowan River and the greater por- 
tion of present Chowan County the posses- 
sion of the Chowanoc tribe in 1585. Speck 
states that the Chowanoc lived on the east- 
ern bank of the river, west and to the north 
of Edenton, and his map of tribal locations 
shows the tribe on both banks of the lower 
river, extending northward to the region 
east of the confluence of Meherrin and Not- 
toway Rivers (82). Contemporary sources 
indicate Chowanoc distribution to have in- 
cluded the territory adjacent to both banks 
of the river, to and including that portion of 
land in present northern Hertford County 
bounded by Meherrin River to the south 
and west, Nottoway River to the east, and 
the Virginia—North Carolina line to the 
north. This distribution is suggested not 
only by the northern extension of Chowanoc 


191 


territory already discussed, but also by 
Lane’s statement that “from Muscamunge 
li.e., Edenton] we enter into the River and 
[into the] jurisdiction of Chawanook”’ (83). 
Barlow also understood the Chowan River 
(which he called the ‘‘Nomopana’’) to be 
the jurisdiction of the Chowanoc tribe. His 
account gives the impression that there 
were two divisions of this tribe—a southern 
one on the lower river, and a northern divi- 
sion ‘‘beyond,” 1.e., farther up the river: 
‘“There descendeth into this Occam [Albe- 
marle Sound] another river, called Nomo- 
pana, on the one side whereof standeth a 
great towne called Chawanook, and the 
Lord of that towne and countrey is called 
Pooneno. This Pooneno is not subject to the 
king of Wingandacoa [Roanoke Island and 
the mainland west of it and south of Albe- 
marle Sound], but is a free Lord. Beyond 
this country is there another king, whom 
they call Menatonon, and these... kings 
are in league with each other’’ (84). Bar- 
low’s information was not first-hand, for his 
expedition did not explore the river, and he 
was mistaken in understanding Pooneno to 
have been the resident chief at Chawanook. 
Menatonon was then the tribal chief, but 
Pooneno may have been the chief of one of 
the lower towns near the mouth of the river. 
That there were several towns belonging to 
this tribe is made clear by both contempo- 
rary narratives and maps. They can be lo- 
cated with some degree of accuracy as fol- 

lows: 

Chawanook, the principal town of the 
tribe, was located on the river in the area 
where present Hertford, Gates, and Cho- 
wan Counties meet. 

Ohanoak seems to have been the second 
most important Chowanoc settlement. The 
only specific reference to it is made by Lane, 
who says that ‘““Betwene Muscamunge and 
Chawanook upon the left hand as we pass 
thither isa... Towne which we called The 
blind Towne, but the Savages called it 
Ohanoak .. . It is subject to Chawanook”’ 
(85). This clearly locates Ohanoak on the 
western bank of the lower river, in eastern 
Bertie County, probably below the present 
town of Colerain. The native town does not 
occur on White’s map, but on De Bry’s and 
Smith’s it is shown on the west bank of the 


192 


upper river in a position between present 
Winton and Wiccacon Creek. Smith merely 
copied from De Bry, and the latter’s loca- 
tion is apparently based upon a too north- 
ern location of Chawanook. Mooney based 
his location of Ohanoak on De Bry’s map 
rather than Lane’s account, and placed it 
‘fon the west side of Chowan river, not far 
below Nottoway river, probably in. Hert- 
ford county” (86). Hawks’s location “in 
Bertie [County], on its eastern side, some- 
where on the waters of the Chowan’ is 
more accurate, and his suggestion that 
Roanoke River was named after this town, 
rather than after the island, is quite possi- 
ble: ‘‘We call it Roanoke, an easy corrup- 
tion from Ohanoak’’ (87). It would be in- 
teresting to know why the English called 
Ohanoak the ‘‘blind town,” but there is no 
suggestion of the reason in contemporary 
narratives. 

The village of Metackwem (Lane) or 
Metocaum (Smith) is placed on the De Bry 
and Smith maps on the west bank of the 
Chowan River at its mouth, on or near pres- 
ent Salmon Creek. It does not occur on 
White’s map. Mooney lists it as ‘‘probably”’ 
a Chowanoc town (88), which it would seem 
to be from the standpoint of location; Lane, 
however, refers to it as if it were ‘‘under the 
jurisdiction of the king of Weopomieiok”’ 
and seems to place it on Albemarle Sound 
east of Chowan River (89). Following De 
Bry and Smith, rather than Lane, both 
Mooney and Hawks located it in southeast- 
ern Bertie County, the latter specifying a 
“few miles north of Walnut Point’’ (90). 

The only evidence for the Chowanoc vil- 
lage of Tandaquomuc is De Bry’s map. The 
term occurs neither in the narratives nor on 
White’s map. Smith failed to copy it from 
De Bry. The Dutch map of 1621 (91) has it 
‘““Tantaquomuck.”’ If De Bry’s location is 
correct the village was on Batchelor Bay, at 
the west end of Albemarle Sound, between 
the mouths of Chowan and Roanoke Rivers 
(92). In this position it would be the south- 
ernmost Chowanoce village and on the east- 
ern edge of the territory of the Moratoc. 

The village of Waraton, or Maraton, may 
have belonged to the Weapemeoc rather 
than Chowanoc tribe. White’s map desig- 
nates it as of the Weapemeoc group. Lane 


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VOL. 34, No. 6 


does not mention it by name, but on De 
Bry’s and Smith’s maps it is placed on 
the east bank of the lower Chowan River, — 
De Bry giving it a somewhat more southern 
location than Smith. Smith’s location cor- 
responds to that of the modern village of 
Mavaton in south central Chowan County, 
a town that evidently took its name from 
the Indian word. If a Chowanoc village, 
it was the only one whose name has been 
preserved located east of the lower course 
of the river. It is, in fact, the only known 
Chowanoc village of 1585 located in present 
Chowan County. | 

The two other Chowanoc villages whose 


names have been recorded for us existed in ~ 


the northern portion of the territory of the 
tribe. Catoking occurs on the De Bry and 
Smith maps at the head of Chowan estuary, 
apparently on the right bank of modern 
Bennetts Creek at its mouth. This would 
place it in southern Gates County, and if 
our location of the town of Chawanook is 
correct Catoking must have been situated 
across the Chowan River from the tribal 
capital. Mooney’s location ‘‘about Gates- 
ville’ (93) places the town too far to the 
northwest according to ali early maps. 
White’s map, in fact, classifies Cautaking as 
a Weapemeoc town and places it on the 
north shore of western Albemarle Sound in 
southern Chowan County. The name is not 
mentioned in contempotary narratives. 
Another town in Chowanoc territory that 
does not occur on White’s map and is not 
mentioned in the relations but which is 
found on De Bry’s map and on Smith’s, is 
Ramushonoq. These maps place the settle- 
ment between the Meherrin and Nottoway . 
Rivers, in northern Hertford County. Speck 
notes that 1 and r were interchangeable in 
eastern Algonkian dialects and translates 
lamushowok as ‘‘small place or little town 
[Littleton]’’ (94). Its small size may account 
for its lack of mention in the earliest sources. 
It was the most northern Algonkian town 
located within the limits of present North 
Carolina for which there is any record in the 
historical sources of the Roanoke colony. 
After the Indian troubles of 1675-1676 the 
Chowanoc ceded this northern tribal land 
to the Lords Proprietors, but it was soon 
preempted by the Iroquoian Meherrin and 


JUNE 15, 1944 


Nottoway, who pressed down from more 
northern locations. Their new residence 
here was used as a pretext for the boundary- 
line dispute, which was not settled for over 
50 years thereafter (95). 

The foregoing seven Chowanoc settle- 
ments are less than half of the ‘‘eighteene 
townes in his government’’ that Hariot 
ascribed to ‘‘the greatest Wiroans that wee 
had dealing with.’’ The Chowanoc tribe 
was, however, the largest Algonkian tribe of 
the coastal Carolina area, and it is, there- 
fore, altogether probable that Hariot al- 
luded to the Chowanoc in his reference to 
the anonymous “‘greatest Wiroans.’’ The 
only larger tribe at this time in the entire 
region of Virginia-Carolina (96) was the 
Tuscarora, but these natives were neither 
Algonkian nor a tribe with which the Roa- 
_noke colonists had any contacts. They were 
not. described ethnologically until Lawson 
published his famous New voyage of a thou- 
sand miles thro’ several nations of Indians in 
1709. 

A final item of tribal history is of interest 
in connection with the Chowanoc. The Al- 
gonkianist William Jones, himself an Al- 
gonkian Indian (Fox) trained in linguistics, 
derived the tribal name from shawuni, 
“south”; shawunogi, ‘‘they of the south,” 
or ‘“‘southerners.’”’ The same student de- 
rived the word ‘‘Shawnee,” the name of a 
Southeastern Algonkian tribe at one time 
resident in South Carolina, from the same 
source (97). This linguistic relation does not 
necessarily indicate a close historic connec- 
tion between the two groups, although 
Speck has reminded students “‘that the 
Chowan may have been a branch of the 
wide-spread Shawnee.”’ This relationship is 
unattested by the sparse historical records 
for the ethnological Southeast, although 
Speck argues that “‘it is possible on the basis 
of name and location’’ (98). 

A third tribe within the area of Algonkian 
occupation, near its western boundary, was 
the Moratoc. From the evidence of location 
and the fact that Moratoc is an Algonkian- 
sounding word, I classify this group as Al- 
gonkian-speaking. This is inadequate evi- 
dence upon which to base linguistic classi- 
fication, but it is practically all there is 
available. The only word preserved is the 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


193 


name of the town and tribe. The Roanoke 
River was called the Moratoc until the 
eighteenth century (99), and it was upon 
the banks of the lower Roanoke that this 
tribe lived in 1585-1586. Speck, who shares 
the opinion that Moratoc is an Algonkian 
word, analyzes it as ‘‘nice [or] good river”’ 
and cites an Algonkian analogy in the 
Malecite word wolastaguk, ‘‘beautiful, [or] 


nice river.’’ Lane says that ‘“The Savages of 


Moratoc themselves doe report strange 
things of the head of that River, and that 
from Moratoc it selfe, which is a principall 
Towne upon that River, it is thirtie dayes as 
some of them say, and some say fourtie 
dayes voyage to the head thereof’’ (100). 
Lane’s statement reveals that the colonists 
had had contacts with the Moratoc and 
that the tribe was located on the lower 
river. Mooney, who relied upon Smith’s sec- 
ond-hand account, rather than upon Lane’s 
original narratives, located the Moratoc 
“160 miles up Roanoke river, perhaps near 
the south Virginia line’? (101). This is 
clearly an error in conflict with Lane’s 
information. Mooney’s reference to them as 
‘fan important tribe which refused to hold 
intercourse with the English”’ is also incor- 
rect, for Lane refers to them as a group 
‘‘with whom before wee were entred into a 
league, and they had ever dealt kindly with 
us” (102). The English colonists understood 
only the Algonkian language and the fact 
that they had been able to receive ‘‘reports”’ 
from and enter into a “‘league’”’ with the 
Moratoc is the best evidence available that 
this tribe was Algonkian in speech. 

The initial friendly relations between the 
Moratoc and English did not long continue. 
By the time Lane and his party were ready 
to explore Roanoke River the Moratoc had 
been persuaded by Pemisapan that the Eng- 
lish were advancing westward as enemies of 
the native tribes. As the English proceeded 
up the river they found that the Moratoc 
had “abandoned their Townes along the 
River, and retired themselves with their 
Crenepos (103) and their Corne within the 
maine, insomuch as having passed three 
days voyage up the River wee could not 
meete a man, nor finde a graine of Corne in 
any [of] their Townes... Wee were then 
160 miles from home’”’ (104). The experi- 


194 


ence of being unable to trade with the 
natives was disappointing, for the supplies 
of the colonists at Roanoke were much de- 
pleted by the spring of 1586. Lane laments 
that ‘‘wee had no intention to bee hurtful to 
any of them, otherwise then for our copper 
to have had corne of them.’’ The English 
continued their exploration of the river for 
two more days until their supplies were 
exhausted and they were forced to return 
to Roanoke. Their unsuccessful expedition 
had taken them into the territory of the 
hostile Mangoak, who were ‘‘another kinde 
of savages, dwelling more to the westward 
of the said River.”’ The fact that Lane re- 
fers to the Mangoak, who were the Iroquoi- 
an-speaking Nottoway, and not to the 
Moratoe as “another kind” of natives is 
also presumptive evidence that the Moratoc 
were Algonkian. 

Lane’s reference indicates that the Mora- 
toc occupied a considerable stretch of land 
on the lower course of the Roanoke and that 
there were at least several towns of the 
tribe located on the banks of the river. De 
Bry’s map shows but one town and locates 
it on the second northern bend of the river 
west of Batchelor Bay. This site would be 
west of Woodward, in southern Bertie 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 6 


County. Moratoc tribal territory in 1585 
probably included southern Bertie and 
northern Martin Counties and may have 
extended farther northwestward into the 
present counties of Halifax and North- 
ampton. The latter area was more likely the 
territory of the Mangoak, however, who are 
described as the western neighbors of the 
Chowanoc (105). Moratoc land may also 
have extended eastward into present Wash- 
ington County. On White’s map the town of 
Moratuce is on the south bank of Roanoke 
River, near its mouth, and just east of a 
tributary that may have been meant for 
present Welch Creek. If Moratoc holdings 
extended east to Albemarle Sound it is pos- 
sible that the villages of Tandoquomue and 
Metocaum also belonged to this tribe, 
rather than to the Chowanoc. In spite of our 
inability to establish the exact boundaries 
of the tribe, it is here suggested that we 
have in the Moratoc an important Algon- 
kian tribe of the Sound area. It is one whose 
identity and affiliation have never been rec- 
ognized, probably because of Mooney’s 
early mistake in placing it in the area of 
Southeastern Iroquoian distribution (105a). 


(To be concluded.) 


NOTES 


(1) E.g., J. Moonry, The Stouan tribes of the 
East, Washington, 1894; J. N. B. Hewitt, 
“Tuscarora,” Handbook of American Indians 2: 
842-853, Washington, 1910; J. R. Swanton, 
“Early History of the Eastern Siouan Tribes,’’ 
Essays in anthropology in honor of Alfred Louis 
Kroeber: 371-381, Berkeley, 1936; F. G. Sprcx, 
“The Catawba Nation and Its Neighbors,’’ North 
Carolina Hist. Rev. 16(4): 404-417, 1939. C. W. 
MIuuiINne’s otherwise adequate Red Carolinians 
(Chapel Hill, 1940) omits discussion of the Algon- 
kian tribes—another example of their neglect in 
the history of historical scholarship. 

(2) T. Micueuson, ‘‘Preliminary Report on the 
Linguistic Classification of Algonquian Tribes,” 
28th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.: 221-290, 
Washington, 1912. 

(3) Lawson’s History of North Carolina, 1714, 
edited by F. L. Harriss: 242, 2438, Richmond, 
1937. All references in this paper will be to this 
edition of Lawson’s History. 

(4) F. L. Hawks, History of North Carolina 1 
(1584-1591), Fayetteville, 1857; E. E. Hate, 
“Original Documents . . . Illustrating the History 
of Sir Walter Raleigh’s First American Colony,”’ 
Trans. and Coll. Amer. Antiquarian Soc. 4: 
3-33, 317-344, Boston, 1860; I. N. Tarsox, Sir 


Walter Raleigh and his colony in America, Prince 
Society, Boston, 1884. Hawks and Tarbox re- 
printed Hakluyt’s Voyages relating to the Roa- 
noke colony. 

(5) The definitive edition of Hakluyt is that of 
the Hakluyt Society: The principal navigations, 
voyages, traffiques and discoveries of the English 
Nation, 12 vols., Glasgow, 1903-1905. The 
Roanoke relations are in vol. 8, pp. 297—422. This 
edition first included a facsimile of White’s origi- 
nal map of the Roanoke region (vol. 8, opp. p. 
320). The map is also accurately reproduced in 
H. 8. Burrages, ed., Karly English and French 
voyages, 1534-1608, opp. p. 248, New York, 1906. 

(6) For De Bry’s care-free handling of histori- 
cal materials, see CHEsTER M. Cats, ‘De Bry 
and the Index Expurgatorius,’’ Papers Bibliogr. 
Soc. Amer. 11(3—4): 136-140, 1917. 

7) R. G. A(pams), “A Brief Account of 
Ralegh’s Roanoke Colony of 1585,” William L. 
Clements Libr. Bull. 22: 14, 16, Ann Arbor, 1935. 

(8) White’s drawings of Indian subjects afford — 
the student a number of ethnographic details not 
to be found in the written relations of the Roanoke 
colony. Bushnell published photographic repro- 
ductions of White’s original drawings (‘John 
White—The First English Artist to Visit America, 


June 15, 1944 


1585,” Virginia Mag. Hist. and Biogr. 35(4), 1928, 
419-430, 9 pls., 1927; 36(1): 17-26, 5 pls., 1928; 
36(2): 124-134, 5 pls., 1928). Bushnell reproduced 
the entire series of native subjects from White’s 
originals in the British Museum, but he did ‘not 
reproduce the maps. 

(9) The most recent reprint of Hariot’s A 
briefe and true report is a facsimile reproduction of 
the 1588 quarto, with an introductory biblio- 
graphical essay by RanpoteH G. Apams (Ann 
Arbor Facsimile Series, No. 1, 1931). Throughout 
this paper references to the Roanoke relations, 
including Hariot’s Report, will be to the Every- 
man’s Library edition of Hakluyt’s Voyages 
(London and New York, vol. 6, 1926). This edi- 
tion is textually accurate and is the most easily 
available; moreover, it is unencumbered with 
inaccurate and misleading interpretive notes such 
as accompany the reprints by Hawks and by 
Tarbox (see Note 4). 

(10) Hariot’s Briefe report: 186, 196. 

(11) L. 8. Livineston, “Introductory Note’ 
to Hariot’s Report, p. v, New York, 1903 (Dodd, 
Mead & Co.’s Facsimile Reprints of Rare Books, 
Historical Series, No. 1). 

(12) Hakluyt 6: 121-132; also in Burrage, op. 
cit.: 225-241. 

(13) Hakluyt 6: 196-227; also Burrage, op. 
cit. : 281-323. 

(14) P. L. Phillips suggested a number of other 
reasons for distinguishing the governor and the 
artist as separate individuals (‘‘Virginia Cartog- 
raphy,” Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 14(1039): 1-18, 
1896). More recently the tendency has been to 
regard the governor and the artist as the same 
person (R. G. Apams, ‘An Effort to Identify 
John White,’”? Amer. Hist. Rev. 41(1): 87-91, 
1935; W. P. Cummineas, “‘The Identity of John 
White Governor of Roanoke and John White the 
Artist,’’ North Carolina Hist. Rev. 15(3): 197— 
203, 1938). 

(15) White’s map of Virginia (see Note 5) is not 
to be confused with the map of Virginia and 
Florida also ascribed to him. (Principal naviga- 
tions, vol. 8: opp. p. 400, Glasgow; also repro- 
duced in E. G. R. Taytor, ed., The original 
writings and correspondence of the two Richard 
Hakluyts 2: opp. p. 414, London, 1935). The Vir- 
ginia-Florida map occurs among White’s original 
drawings and maps in the Grenville Library of the 
British Museum. It may have been drawn by him, 
but the Florida portion is a copy of Le Moyne’s 
map and could not have been based upon White’s 
personal experiences of exploration so far as can 
be judged from the few known facts of his life. 
The Carolina portion of the second map is a 
smaller-scale copy of White’s map of Virginia, 
except that it omits several of the native place 
names of the larger chart. 

(16) Hakluyt 6: 141-162; Burrage, op. cit.: 
245-271. 

(17) De Bry’s choice of Hariot’s Report was 
recommended by Hakluyt, who was also instru- 
mental in arranging for De Bry’s use of White’s 
pictures and maps. For Hakluyt as mediator 
between White and De Bry, see G. B. Parks, 
Richard Hakluyt and the English voyages, New 
York, 1928. For the place of Hariot and White in 
the work and historical record of the Roanoke 
settlement, see HENRY STEVENS, Thomas Hariot, 
the mathematician, the philosopher, and the scholar. 
London, 1900. This biography is inadequate by 
standards of historical scholarship, but it is the 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


195 


only one available. See also Dictionary of National 
Biography 24: 487-439, 1890. 

(18) The De Bry-White map, ‘“‘Americae Pars, 
Nunc Virginia Dicta,’”’ has been frequently repro- 
duced, most recently by Adams and by Hum- 
phreys. A. L. Humpureys, Old decorative maps 
and charts: pl. 27, London, 1926; R. G. A(pams), 
A brief account of Ralegh’s Roanoke colony: opp. 
p. 18, Ann. Arbor, 1935. With undue modesty 
De Bry represented White as ‘‘authore,”’ himself 
as merely ‘“‘sculptore.’’? The White map v7a De Bry 
became a ‘“‘mother map” of Carolina and was 
copied by atlas compilers and professional map- 
makers for a century. For its influence on maps 
of coastal North America compare Humphrey’s 
pls. 42 and 56 with pl. 27, and the latter with 
pls. 20A, 20B, and 21 in C. O. Pautuuin, Aflas of 
the historical geography of the United States, Wash- 
ington, 1932. Cf. also pls. 26 and 30 in E. D. Firs 
and A. FREEMAN, A book of old maps, Cambridge, 
1926. 

(19) W. L. Forp has discussed late seven- 
teenth-century maps of Carolina in “‘Early Maps 
of Carolina,’”’ Geogr. Rev. 16: 264-273, 1926. 

(20) Lawson’s map was published as a frontis- 
piece of the 1903 (Charlotte) and the 1937 (Rich- 
mond) reprints of his History. The 1937 edition is 
superior textually, but the map of the 1903 edition 
is on a larger scale. Both are poorly reproduced. 

(21) Hariot, p. 193. 

(22) Ibed.: 171, 186. 

(23) Langs, ‘‘Imployments,” in Hakluyt 6: 141- 
142, 145, 146. Throughout this paper the original 
spelling has been retained in all quotations from 
the sources, but punctuation and paragraphing 
have been modernized in the interest of preserving 
the originally intended meaning. All comments in 
brackets are interpolations by the present writer. 

(24) Totd.: 142, 147,155, 158. 

(25) See articles ‘‘Nadowa” and ‘‘Nottoway”’ 
in Handbook of American Indians (hereafter re- 
ferred to as HAJ), Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30, 
2: 8-9, 87, 1910. The eponym was an opprobrious 
epithet meaning “rattlesnake.’’ Carolina maps 
from 1590 (De Bry-White) to c. 1660 locate 
Mangoak territory west of the area of Algonkian 
occupation. This location is based upon Lane’s 
account, as Mangoak is absent from White’s map. 

(26) Hakluyt 6: 1382-139. This Voyage is some- 
times ascribed to Lane but may have been written 
by Grenville (Tarbox, p. 130n). 

(27) This episode marks the beginning of the 
hostility between the natives and the English 
which culminated in the ‘‘Conspiracy of Pemisa- 
pan.”’ Until the sack of Aquascogoc the natives 
had been friendly. Thereafter Algonkian hostility 
was a factor in the failure of the Roanoke settle- 
ment (see Lane, ‘‘The Conspiracie of Pemisapan, 
the Discovery of the Same, and at the Last,... 
our Request to Depart with Sir Francis Drake 
for England,” Hakluyt 6: 152-162). 

(28) Ibid.: 1387-139. 

(29) Occam was the native word for the body 
of water including the northern portion of Pamlico 
Sound and Albemarle’ Sound. Barlow was mis- 
taken in thinking of it as a “‘river.”’ 

(30) White’s drawing of Pomeiock shows a 
similarly stockaded village. White’s original has 
been reproduced by Bushnell and by Binyon. 
(BUSHNELL, “John White the First English Artist 
to Visit America, 1585,” Virginia Mag. Hist. and 
Biogr. 35(4): pl. 7, opp. p. 428; and ‘“‘Virginia— 
from Early Records,’’? Amer. Anthrop. 9: opp. p. 


196 


32, 1907; L. W. Binyon, ‘‘The Drawings of John 
ne ae Walpole Soc. Publ. 13: pl. 27, New York, 
1925. 

(31) In this context Occam refers to Albemarle 
Sound. 

(32) ‘““Wingandacoa”’ was understoed by Bar- 
low to refer to Roanoke Island and the adjacent 
mainland. Gerard has pointed out that as a loca- 
tive the term is an “impossible corruption, due 
to mishearing’”’ a native word supposed to have 
been Wingatakw, meaning ‘‘good_ clothes.” 
(GeRARD, HAI 2: 957-958.) Raleigh detected 
Barlow’s error, although one wonders how he 
did so, for in his History of the world he wrote: 
‘“‘When some of my people asked the name of 
the country, one of the savages answered Wingan- 
da-coa, which is as much as to say ‘You wear 
good clothes’ or ‘gay clothes.’”’ (Cited by GERARD, 
HAT 2: 957, and by Hawks, History of North 
Carolina 1: 78-79, 1859.) 

(33) Amadas and Barlow returned to England 
in September, 1584, taking with them Manteo 
and Wanchese, ‘‘Two of the Savages, being lustie 
men.” These natives remained in England until 
April of the next year, when they were brought 
back to Carolina by Grenville and Lane. Manteo 
remained a faithful friend of the English colonists, 
while Wanchese turned against them and became 
a principal factor in the ‘‘conspirary of Pemisa- 
pan.”’ Barlow’s reference to these men as being 
in England would seem to date his relation as hav- 
ing been written late in 1584 or early in 1585. 

(34) Bartow, ‘The First Voyage,” in Hakluyt 
6: 127-131. 

(35) The only other approach toward aborigi- 
nal history would be by archeology, but there has 
been no scientific archeological excavation in 
coastal Carolina to date. 

(36) E.g., ‘‘Wingandacoa’’; see above, Note 32. 

(37) In modernizing the native terms as spelled 
by the early writers in most instances I have 
followed the Bureau of American Ethnology 
“Synonymy” (HAI 2: 1021-1178). Speck feels 
that the Carolinian term weopim is cognate with 
Nanticoke winquipim, ‘sweet fat” or ‘‘bear”’ 
(“The Nanticoke and Conoy Indians,’’ Papers 
Hist. Soc. Delaware, new ser., 1: 51, Wilmington, 
1927). Weopim-ok would thus indicate ‘‘bear 
place’’—an appropriate term for this part of Caro- 
lina. (SpEcK, personal information; zdem, ‘‘Chap- 
ters oh the ethnology of the Powhatan tribes of 
Virginia,’ Indian Notes and Monog. 1(5): 280, 
1928: J. Lawson, History of Carolina: 119-121, 
1937 reprint. ) 

(38) The Algonkian tribes from Maryland to 
Carolina used the word wiroans (Hariot), wiroance 
(White), weroance (Lane), werowance (Smith), to 
designate a chief, head-man, or ‘‘king.’’ Lane’s 
weroanza thus refers to ‘‘queen.’”’ Strachey used 
“weroancqua”’ for a native ‘‘woman queene’”’ or 
female chief. (Historie of Travaile into Virginia 
Britannia (c. 1616): 56, 196, London, 1849). The 
word derives from wiro, ‘‘to be rich’’; a chief was 
“a rich man” or “one who exists in affluence’ 
(GERARD, Amer. Anthrop. 9: 112, 1907; Sprck, 
Op. Cites 2dr 

(39) Hakluyt 6: 154. 

(40) Pemisapan was the same chief whom 
Barlow had heard of as ‘‘Wingina, ... king [of]... 
the country Wingandacoa” (Hakluyt: 124). But 
“‘Pemisapan ... had changed his name of Win- 
gina upon the death of his brother Granganimo”’ 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 6 


(Lane, in Hakluyt: 146). We are not informed as 
to the exact nature of the local custom involved 
in this instance of name-changing; for Algonkian 
names and naming customs in Virginia, see 
Strachey, op. cit.: 48, 111. 

(41) Lane, in Hakluyt 6: 155, 157. Lane’s rela- 
tion of Okisko’s part in the conspiracy hardly 
justifies Thomas’s remark that ‘‘Lane accused him 
of being the leader in the plot formed by his 
tribe ....and other Indians to massacre the 
colonists”? (HAT 2: 115). : 

(42) Smith suggested a warrior to total popula- 
tion ratio of 3 to 10 for 5,000 aborigines within 
60 miles of Jamestown (Map and description of 
Virginia, 1612, in E. Arspemr, ed., Travels and 
works of Captain John Smith: 65, 360, 1884). 
Swanton has used a ratio of 1 to 34 for the tribes 
of the Southeast (Indian tribes of the Lower ‘Mis- 
sissippt Valley: 39-45, 1911; Early history of the 
Creek Indians and their Newghbors: 421—456, 1922. 
The latter is an extensive study of the ‘‘Popula- 
tion of the Southeastern Tribes’’ but excludes the 
Carolina Algonkian). 

(43) A. L. Krorser has made the most com- 
petent and comprehensive examination of native 
American population to date (Cultural and natural 
areas of native North America (ch. 11): 131-181, 
1939); that “‘the vast majority of figures by con- 
temporaries are too large’ (p. 180) is one of his 
concluding “‘methodological principles.” 

(44) “The Aboriginal Population of America 
North of Mexico,” Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 80 
(7): 6, 1928. 

(45) Smith’s map of Virginia strikingly shows 
this, and archeology has proved Smith’s map to 
be remarkably accurate in its location of native 
town sites. (D. I. BusHNELL, JrR., ‘Indian Sites 
below the Falls of the Rappahannock,’* Smith- 
sonian Misc. Coll. 96(4): 1-65, 1937; M. A. 
Mook, “The Anthropological Position of the In- 
dian Tribes of Tidewater Virginia,’’ William and 
Mary Coll. Quart. Hist. Mag. 23 (1): 27-40, 1943; 
and, ‘The Ethnological Significance of Tindall’s 
Map of Virginia, 1608,” zbid., 23 (4): 371-408, 
1943. 

(46) Mooney, article ‘‘Weapemeoc,” HAI 2: 
926. 

(47) History of Carolina, 1937 reprint, p. 259. 

(48) HAT 2: 207. 

(49) History of North Carolina 1: 112. 

(50) Speck, personal information; GERARD, 
cited by Mooney, HAT 2: 207. 

(51) Hakluyt 6: 147. The early sources (ex- 
cept Barlow) refer to Albemarle Sound as the 
“Sound of Weopemeiok.” ‘‘Weares’”’ refer to 
wicker structures within which the natives 
trapped fish; White’s drawing of ‘The Manner 
of their fishing’? shows the method of their con- 
struction (Bushnell, 1927, pl. 6, opp. p. 427; 
Binyon, pl. 26. Cf. these reproductions of White’s 
original with De Bry’s pl. 13 for an illustration 
of the liberties De Bry took in “reproducing” 
White’s drawings). 

(52) Apparently a misprint for Chepanun or 
Chepanum; Smith’s map had Chepanu, the Dutch. 


*map of 1621 has Chapanun. Until the so-called 


Horne map of 1666, maps of the Roanoke region 
were largely copies of De Bry-White. (See Note 
18.) 
(53) History of North Carolina 1: 113. 
(54) Hakluyt 6: 150. 

(55) HAT 1: 244. 


JUNE 15, 1944 Mook: 


(56) Mooney equated the Weapemeoc with the 
Yeopim, both in name and in identity. The latter 
is regarded as a later ‘‘band or sub-tribe”’ of the 
former (HAI 2: 927, 1176; The Siouan tribes of 
the East: 7, 1894). 

(57) Moonry, HAI 2: 926; Tarsox, Sir Walter 
Raleigh and his colony in America: 140n, 1884. 

(58) Smith’s Works, Arbor ed., opp. p. 342; in 
Smith’s paraphrase of Lane’s account the name 
is spelled Muscamunge (op. cit.: 312). 

(59) Hakluyt 6: 142. 

(60) Moonry, HAI 1: 810; Hawks 1: 113; 
Hawks based his judgment on Smith’s map of 
1624, which was by no means a contemporary 
document and was a copy from De Bry’s map, 
which, in turn, was a free copy from White’s. 
“Nothing is more persistent than a geographical 
error, unless it be an historical error.” 

(61) Hakluyt 6: 142. 

(62) For the locations of James River tribes in 
1607 see M. A. Mook, “Virginia ethnology from 
an early relation,” William and Mary Coll. Quart. 
Hist. Mag. 23(2): 101-129, 1943. 

(63) Smiru, Map and description of Virginia, 
1612, in Arber, p. 55; Stracuey, Historie, c. 1616, 
p. Al. Strachey’ S passage Is a practically verbatim 
repetition of that of Smith. 

(64) Smiru, True relation, 1608, Arber, p. 32. 

(65) The proceedings and accidents of Whe Eng- 
lish conony in Virginia, 1612, in Arber edition of 
Smith’s Works, pp. 132, 158, 474, 

(66) SmrrxH, Generall historie, 1624, Arber, p. 590. 

(67) Epwarp BLAND (and others), “The Dis- 
covery of New Brittaine, Begun August 27, 1650” 
(London, 1651), in A. 8. Salley, ed., Narratives of 
early Carolina: 8-19; 1911. 

(68) Hakluyt 6: 157. 

(69) Ibid.: 142. Mooney is mistaken in ascrib- 
ing 700 warriors to the Chowanoc town of 
Ohanoak, rather than to the tribal capital of 
“Chawanook” (HAT 1: 292). Lane’s meaning is 
perfectly clear in his narrative as printed by 
Hakluyt; Mooney’s error is based upon Smith’s 
garbled version of Lane in his Generall historie (Ar- 
bor, p. 312). 

(70) Ibid.: 146. 
sha “Briefe and True Report,” Hakluyt 6: 


wes Ibid. : 184. 

(73) Ibid.: 194. The Oxford English Dictionary 
gives the sixteenth-century meaning of ‘‘policy”’ 
as “organized state, [or] commonwealth.”’ 

(74) Ibid.: 186-187. 

(75) Moonny, The aboriginal population of 
America north of ‘Mexico: 6, 1928. 

(76) HAT 1: 292. 

(77) Sir Walter Raleigh and his colony in Amer- 
aca: 146n. 

(78) History of North Carolina 1: 112-113. 

(79) Ibid.: 74. 

(80) HAT 2: 926. 

(81) “The Ethnic Position of the Southeastern 
Algonkian,’’ Amer. Anthrop. 26(2): 187, 1924. 

(82) Ibid. : 188-189. 


ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


197 


Hakluyt 6: 142, 

Ibid. : 129. 

(85) Ibid.: 142. 

FEAT Zt 11, 

History of North Carolina 1: 113. 
HAT 1: 292, 851. 

Hakluyt 6: 142. 

Mooney, HAI 1: 951; Hawks 1: 113. 

(91) Documents relative to the colonial history of 
the State of New York, edited by E. B. O’Cat- 
LAGHAN, vol. 1, frontispiece. 

(92) HAT 2: 685. 

(93) HAT 1: 219. 

(94) Speck, The Nanticoke and Conoy Indians: 
56, 57, 1927; Moonny, HAT 1: 292; 2: 354. 

(95) See R. D. W. Connor, History of North 
Carolina 1: 50—51, for the so-called Chowanoc 
“war” with the colonists; 1: 70—71, for Meherrin 
occupation of former Chowanoc territory. 

(96) See Moonny, Aboriginal population: 6, 
1928, for comparative tribal population statistics 
for native Virginia and the Carolinas in 1600. 
Mooney’s figures have been rearranged and rein- 
terpreted by the writer in ‘“‘The aboriginal popu- 
lation of Tidewater Virginia,’ scheduled for 
publication in Amer, Anthrop., April, 1944. 

(97) HAT 1: 292; 2: 530-538. 

(98) American Anthropologist 26(2): p. 187, 
n. 4, 1924. 

(99) Roanoke River is designated Moratoc on 
the maps of Smith (Arber, opp. p. 342), Horne 
(1666), Ogilby (1671), and Lawson (1709). The 
last three are reproduced in O. M. McPuHERsSoN, 
Indians of North Carolina (Senate Doc. 677): 89, 
91, facing p. 100, 1915. 

(100) Speck, personal information; Hakluyt 6: 
145. The “‘strange things’’ reported from the head 
of the river were an inland sea and a ‘‘ Mineral 
Countrey,” wherein the natives are said to have 
mined ‘‘Wassador, which is copper.”’ ([bzd.: 145— 
151. Hariot also reported copper and silver as 
products utilized by the natives of the inland 
country; Briefe report, Hakluyt, p. 171.) 

(101) HAI 1: 942, based upon Smith’s Generall 
historie (Arber, p. 312). 

(102) Hakluyt 6: 146. 

(103) Crenepo meant ‘‘woman,”’ according to 
the vocabularies of Smith and Strachey (Smith’s 
Works, Arber, pp. 44, 381; Stracusry, Historve, 
p. 185). Gerard derived the word from kerenepeu, 
“she carries water,” i.e., ‘“water-carrier.’’ (Amer. 
Anthrop. 6(2): 324, 1904; 7(2): 235-237, 1905.) 

(104) Hakluyt 6: 146. 

(105) “Overland from Chawanook to the 
Mangoaks is but one dayes journey from Sunne 
rising to Sunne setting, whereas by water [i.e., 
down Chowan River and up the Roanoke] it is 
ae dayes with the soonest”? (Lane, pp. 149, 


9 


51). 

(105a) I have discussed Moratoc tribal iden- 
tity and location in ‘A Newly Discovered 
Algonkian Tribe of Carolina,’”?’ Amer. Anthrop., 
new Ser., 45(4): 635-637, 1943. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


THE ACADEMY 


46TH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ACADEMY 


The 46th annual meeting of the Academy, 
held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club, 
on January 20, 1944, after the 323d meeting of 
the Academy, was called to order at 9:40 p.m. 
by the President, Dr. Lzetanp W. Parr, with 
37 persons in attendance. 

The minutes of the 45th annual meeting 
were approved as published in the JOURNAL 33: 
110-116. 1943. 

The reports of several officers and of the 
Committees of Auditors and Tellers were read 
and accepted. These reports are recorded at the 
end of the minutes. . 

After the acceptance of the report of the 
Committee of Tellers, the President declared 
the following duly elected to the given offices: 


CLEMENT L. GaRNnmER, President 

F. G. BricKWEDDB, Secretary 

Howarp S. Raprueys, Treasurer 

Wiuuiam A. Dayton, Board of Managers to Janu- 
ary 1945 to fill an unexpired term 

Henry G. Avers, Board of Managers to January 
1947 

Francis M. Druranporr, Board of Managers to 
January 1947 


The Secretary presented for the Afhliated 
Societies their nominations for Vice-Presidents 
of the Academy as follows: 


Philosophical Society of Washington—Haro Lp F. 
STIMSON 

Anthropological Society of Washington—T. Daur 
STEWART 

Biological Society of Washington—Harry B. 
HUMPHREY 

Chemical Society of Washington—Epgar R. 
SMITH 

Entomological Society of Washington—AvustTINn 
H. CuarKk 

National Geographic Society ALEXANDER WET- 
MORE 

Geological Society of Washington—HERBERT 
INSLEY 

Medical Society of the District of Columbia— 
FRED O. Cor 

Columbia Historical Society—GiLBERtT H. Gros- 
VENOR 

Botanical Society of Washington—L. Epwin 
Yocum 


Archaeological Society of Washington—Not func- 
tioning for the duration of the National Emer- 
gency 

Washington Section of the Society of American 
Foresters—WIti1am A. DayToNn 

Washington Society of Engineers—FRANK B. 
ScHEETZ 

Washington Section of the American Institute of 
Electrical Engineers—FRancis B. SILSBEE 

Washington Section of the American Society of 
Mechanical Engineers—WaALTER RAMBERG 

Helminthological Society of Washington—EHm- 
METT W. PRICE 

Washington Branch of the Society of American 
Bacteriologists—Ra.pu P. TiTtsLER 

Washington Post of the Society of American 
Military Engineers—WILLIAM N. CorsE 

Washington Section of the Institute of Radio En- 
gineers—HERBERT GROVE DORSEY 

Washington Section of the American Society of 
Civil Engineers—OweEn B. FRENCH 


The Secretary was instructed by the members 
present to cast a unanimous ballot for these 
nominees. 

The President, Dr. Parr, announced the re- 
cipients of the Academy’s Awards for Scien- 
tific Achievement for 1943 as follows: 

For the Biological Sciences, to Jason R. 
SWALLEN, Office of the Coordinator of Inter- 
American Affairs, in recognition of his out- 
standing contributions to agrostology. 

For the Engineering Sciences, to Luoyp V. 
BERKNER, Commander, U.S.N.R., in recogni- 
tion of his distinguished service in research on 
the ionosphere and wave propagation. 

For the Physical Sciences, to LAWRENCE A. 
Woop, National Bureau of Standards, in rec- 
ognition of his distinguished service in the in- 
vestigation of rubber and other high polymers. 

The Retiring President announced the ap- 
pointment authorized by the Board of Man- 
agers of a ““Committee to Study the Place and 
Function of an Academy of Sciences in Wash- 
ington,’’ consisting of Austin H. Cuark, chair- 
man, JoHN E. Grar, Harry B. HumMpuHrRey, 
RAYMOND J. SEEGER, Pau. A. SmitTu, and two 
additional members to be appointed upon rec- 
ommendation of Chairman Clark by the incom- 
ing President, Capt. CLement L. GARNER. Dr. © 
Parr pointed out that it is intended that this 
Committee will consider the Academy in rela- 


198 


JUNE 15, 1944 PROCEEDINGS 
tion to the changed conditions that will prob- 
ably exist after the war. 

The Retiring President, Dr. Parr, appointed 
Past Presidents TucKERMAN and CHAMBLISS 
to escort the incoming President, Capt. CLEM- 
ENT L. Garner, to the Chair. Aftera short 
address, Captain GARNER adjourned the meet- 
ing. 


Report of the Secretary 


During the Academy year there were-a total 
of 49 persons (45 resident and 4 nonresident) 
elected to membership. Of these 49 persons 
elected, 35 resident and 4 nonresident have 
qualified for membership, 2 accepted resident 
membership but have not qualified by payment 
of dues, and 2 persons declined membership. 
Six just recently elected have not yet been 
notified of their election. The new members 
were distributed among the various sciences as 
follows: 4 each in biochemistry, mathematics, 
and physical chemistry; 2 each in physics, cy- 
tology, anthropology, geochemistry, entomol- 
ogy, and paleontology; and 1 each in biology, 
physiology, chemistry, civil engineering, geol- 
ogy, zoology, dendrology, botany, hydraulics, 
forest ecology, geophysics, hydrology, astron- 
omy, chemical economics, and ichthyology. 

Because of their retirement from the active 
practice of their profession, 8 members (5 resi- 
dent and 3 nonresident) were placed on the 
retired list to enjoy all the privileges of active 
membership without further payment of dues. 
Resignations were accepted from 4 members in 
good standing (1 resident and 3 nonresident). 
One resident and two nonresident members 
were dropped for nonpayment of dues. 

The deaths of 19 members (10 resident and 
9 nonresident) were reported, as follows: 


WILLIAM CroziER, Washington, D. C., November 
10, 1942. 
Frank D. Apams, Montreal, Canada, December 
9, 1942. : 
LEONHARD STEJNEGER, 
February 28, 1943. 
Mary JANE RatuBun, Washington, D. C., April 
4, 1943. 

Witi1am A. Horrman, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 
April 4, 1943. 

Witi1am A. Sercuett, Berkeley, Calif., April 5, 
1948. 


ALLEN C. CuarxK, Washington, D. C., May 16, 
1943. 


Washington, D. C., 


: THE ACADEMY 


Lely 


RicHARD F. Jackson, Washington, D. C., June 1, 
1943. 

CuaRLEs F. Marvin, Washington, D. C., June 5, 
1943. 

Epwarp H. Bowls, San Francisco, Calif., June 
29, 19438. 

GreorGE W. LitTLEHALES, Washington, D. C., 
August 14, 1943 

Lron W. Hartman, Reno, Nev., August 27, 1943. 

ALES HrpuiéKxa, Washington, D. C., September 
5, 1943. 

CHARLES E. REesserR, Washington, D. C., Septem- 
ber 18, 1943. 

Natuan 8S. OspornzE, Washington, D. C., Sep- 
tember 18, 1943. 

EuMerR D. Bau, Pasadena, Calif., October 5, 
1943. 

FraNK Leverett, Ann Arbor, Mich., Novem- 
ber 15, 1943. 

Epwarp W. Parker, Philadelphia, Pa., January 
3, 1944. : 

GEORGE Ot!s Sm1tH, Skowhegan, Maine, January 
10, 1944. 


Of these LrEonarp STEJNEGER, Mary JANE 
RATHBUN, CHARLES F, Marvin, and GEORGE 
W. LitTLEHALES were original members. 
LEONHARD STEJNEGER was also an honorary 
member. 

On January 20, 1944, the status of the mem- 
bership was as follows: 


Regular Retired Honorary Patron Total 

Resident.... 429 35 2 0 466 
Nonresident. 135 25 16 i err 
OWLS so ac 564 60 18 1 643 


The net changes in membership during the 
past year are as follows: 


Regular Retired Honorary Patron Total 
Resident.... +19 —2 —1 0 +16 
Nonresident. — 5 +2 (0) (0) — 3 
Motaleeereie cere +14 0 —1 0 +13 


During the Academy year 1943 the Board of 
Managers held 6 meetings, with an average 
attendance of 17 persons. 

During the year the following important 
matters were before the Board for considera- 
tion: 

(1) The Washington Academy of Sciences 
became afhliated with the American Associa- 
ation for the Advancement of Science in 1942, 
and in 1943 the Academy received from the 
American Association for the Advancement of 
Science the Academy’s first A.A.A.S. grant for 
research, this grant amounting to $150. The 
amount was determined by taking the actual 


200 


number of members of the Academy who were 
in good standing in the Association at the close 
of the Association’s fiscal year ended Septem- 
ber 30, 1942, allowing 50 cents each for such 
paid-up members. The main purpose of the 
A.A.A.S grants to Affiliated Academies has 
been to aid young and promising scientists who 
have worthwhile research projects but lack the 
funds to continue work on them. The funds 
may be used for the purchase of necessary 
equipment or supplies, or for compensation to 
an assistant, but are not to be used for publica- 
tion. Research grants may be accumulated for 
a period of 3 years. Upon recommendation of a 
special committee consisting of Frank H. H. 
RoBeERTs, JR., Chairman, R. J. SeEcer, and 
R. P. Tirrsuer, the Academy decided to allow 
the first A.A.A.S. grant to be accumulated with 
the grant for 1944. We have already been in- 
formed that the grant for 1944 is $207.50, mak- 
ing a total of $357.50 available now to the 
Academy. This may be awarded during the 
present year or allowed to accumulate with the 
grant for 1945. 

(2) On September 16 the District of Colum- 
bia Dental Society, a component of the Ameri- 
can Dental Society, requested affiliation with 
the Academy. A special committee consisting 
of F. B. Scuertz, Chairman, CHARLOTTE 
Exuiott, and R. P. TIrTrsLeR, was appointed 
to study the qualifications of the District of 
Columbia Dental Society for affiliation with 
the Academy and to report its findings to the 
Board of Managers. The application of this 
Society is still pending. 

(3) The Board of Managers approved a re- 
quest of the Board of Editors of the JouRNAL 
that 50 free reprints of obituaries published in 
the JoURNAL be furnished to the writers. 

(4) The Standing Rules of the Board of 
Managers were amended to permit payment of 
dues for fractional parts of a year. 

(5) The bylaws were amended by vote of the 
Academy to permit Academy members to buy 
life membership by payment of a sum that 
will provide an annuity certain of $5 a year for 
a period of years equal to 70 minus the age of 
the member at the time life membership is 
bought. 

(6) In December the Academy was re- 
quested to vote upon an amendment to the 
bylaws that would extend life membership to 
all members of the Academy upon retirement 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 6 


from the gainful practice of their profession be- 
cause of age or disability. The Committee of 
Tellers will report this evening upon the results 
of this ballot. 

Noteworthy, also, were the efforts this year 
of officers of the Academy with budgetary al- 
lotments to reduce expenditures of their offices 
consistent with efficient operation. The econ- 
omies of operation. effected during 1943 may 
not be possible of attainment in future years. 

During the Academy year, seven meetings of 
the Academy were held as follows, beginning 
with the 317th and ending with the 323d: 

On February 18, 1948, Harvey L. Curtis 
presented an address as retiring president en- 
titled A scientific recreation—The accuracy and 
extent of measurement. : 

On March 18, 19438, the 1942 Academ 
Awards for Scientific Achievement were pre- 
sented to Roprrt 8. CAMPBELL, of the U. S. 
Forest Service, for work in the biological 
sciences; to WALTER RAMBERG, of the National 
Bureau of Standards, for work in the engineer- 
ing sciences; and to Mitron Harris, of the 
National Bureau of Standards, for work in the 
physical sciences. 

On April 22, 1943, Linus Pautuine, of the 
California Institute of Technology, addressed 
a joint meeting of the Chemical Society of 
Washington and the Academy on Chemical 
studies of the structures of antibodies. 

On October 21, 1948, StmpHEN P. Mizwa, 
secretary and executive director of the Kos- 
ciusko Foundation, addressed the Academy on 
Nicholas Copernicus. 

On November 18, 1943, Howarp Wi.Lcox 
HaGGarp, director of the Laboratory of Ap- 
plied Physiology, Yale University, addressed 
the Academy on Andreas Vesalius. 

On December 16, 1948, FrRrp Corry 
BisHopp, of the U. 8. Bureau of Entomology 
and Plant Quarantine, addressed the Academy 
on Insects and the war. 

On January 20, 1944, Witt1am Duncan 
STRONG, professor of anthropology of Columbia 
University and director of the Ethnogeographic 
Board, addressed the Academy on Recent an- 
thropological research in Latin America. 

The meeting on April 22 was held in the 
Auditorum of the U. 8. National Museum; the 
other six meetings were held in the Assembly 
Hall of the Cosmos Club. 

. F. G. BRIcKWEDDE, Secretary. 


JuNE 15, 1944 


Report of the Treasurer 


CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS 


RECEIPTS 


momlieces: LOBOS ee eye 
irom dues 1940... 00. 2 ee 
ron aues, 1940) gies. areas 
Mromenues, 1942... ce. od ica em eye ok 
ramndues F043... ki Ue ee es 
mom aiwes 1944... 0. ec ee 
From life membership........... 
From subscriptions 1942........ 
From subscriptions 1948........ 
From subscriptions 1944........ 
From subscriptions 1945.... 
From sales of JOURNAL.......... 
From sales of directory, 32d Edi- 
CAG iD oo St Sd Re 


NOTA » Alles 26a eee eee 
From payments for reprints 1942. 
From payments for reprints 1943. 
From interest on investments. . 
From credit memo (Am. Sec. & Tr. 

ODS Se ee 
From refund to meetings commit- 

[hBE 5 o/b) SaaS eee 


(Gilt) SS Ste eae ORO nO eee 
OEE CCIDUS': «1. c.< sys as oie. cues 
Cash balance, Jan. 1, 1943....... 


tobe accounted’ for..: 4... . 


DISBURSEMENTS: 


For Secretary’s Office 1942...... 
For Secretary’s Office 1948...... 
For Treasurer’s Office........... 
For Custodian & Subs. Mgr. 1942. 
For Custodian & Subs. Mer. 1943. 
For JouRNAL printing 1942...... 
For JOURNAL printing 19438...... 
For JouRNAL reprints 1942...... 
For JOURNAL reprints 1943...... 
For JouRNAL illustrations 1942... 
For JournaAt illustrations 1943... 
For JOURNAL Office 1942........ 
For Journau Office 1943........ 
For Meetings Committee 1942... 
For Meetings Committee 1943... 
ORME CHOY nil! Mi ccape Le ee? 
For debit memos, refunds, etc.... 
orimoenries G Bond. ..,.5 5...» 


PROCEEDINGS: 


THE ACADEMY 


RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE 


Balance as per cash book, 12-31-43. . 
Bank Balance, Am. Sec. 
& Tr. Co., as per state- 
ment 12-31-43....... 
Receipts not deposited. . 


$3 ,085 .09 


Checks outstanding, not cashed: 
INOE 1700)? $21.50 


18.88 
56.45 


$3 , 


INVESTMENTS 


409 Shares stock of Washington San- 
itary Improvement Co., par 
value $10 per share, cost. . 


Shares stock Potomac Elec. 


Power Co., 6% Pref., cost... 2, 


4 Certificates Corporate Stock of 
City of New York, 1 for.$500, 
3 for $100, cost. 

Bond of Chicago ie erlleanre Co. 4, 
#1027; interest at 5%, due 
1927, par value $1,000, less 
S75 0) CFE nIC eine eleceels a  aat le 

2 Real-estate notes of Yetta Kor- 

man et al., dated Oct. 5, 1938, 
renewed 1941, for 3 years (#7 
of 37 for $500 and #8 of 37 for 


— 


S500) MC OSG sin vais ites Bienes taicec ts 1 


2 Certificates (1 for $4,000 and 1 
for $1,000) First Federal Sav- 
ings & Loan Assn. Nos. 914 & 


WWG Sans, Meek Phase de yee 5, 


2 Certificates (1 for $4,500 and 1 
for $500) Northwestern Fed- 
eral Savings & Loan Assn. 


Nos lSs0rand 44 aes. Ne 


5 U. 8S. Government Series G 
Bonds at $1,000 each, Nos. 
M332990G, M332991G, 
M332992G, M332993G, 
VIS OVANG RE 0), eae se Cee 

Deposited in Savings Account, 
American Sec. & Trust Co... 


$23, 


Cash Book balance Dec. 


NOLS SATA P De ees ote ahh. SN 3, 


" $25, 404.08 
26,962.79 
$1,558.71 


$4, 


201 


028. 


090 


247 


800 


750. 


000 


000 


000 


5,000. 

46. 
934. 
028. 


$3,028.64 


64 


.00 


.50 


.00 


00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


64 


$26,962.79 


202 


The relatively large increase in the assets of 
the Academy is more apparent than real. It is 
impossible at the close of the fiscal year to 
know exactly what bills are outstanding. We 
can not even furnish an exact statement as to 
the relationship between expenditures and al- 
lotments, since, for example, we do not yet 
know exactly what the charges-to-authors in- 
crement of the JouRNAL allotment will be. The 
statement concerning the status of the various 
allotments will be submitted later as a supple- 
mental report. It is known, however, that, at 
the time this report is written, $508.40 has been 
paid out since January 1, 1944, on obligations 
incurred in 1943 and chargeable to 1943 ex- 
penditures. Presumably there will be approxi- 
mately $50 more that will have to be paid out 
under these conditions, which leaves the net in- 
crease in assets something of the order of 
$1,000. This results to a great extent from the 
following: 

(1) During the past year we have written off 
no losses on investments as we have had to do 
in some recent years. 

(2) Officers and committees have apparently 
stayed well within their budget allotments. 

(3) A considerable amount was realized from 
the collection of back dues. 

(4) One life membership was received during 
the year. i 

(5) In spite of the fact that 1943 would 
normally have been a ‘‘Red Book” year, the 
Red Book was not issued; and although prepa- 
ration of it was begun, the expenditures in con- 
nection with the work done so far are relatively 
small. 

(6) As has been shown earlier in this report, 
a considerable amount of money was received 
on back interest. This should have been col- 
lected previously, but owing to a misunder- 
standing the interim certificates were not 
exchanged for coupon certificates until during 
the year 1943 and then all interest for 1940 to 
1948, inclusive, on the $800 investment with 
the City of New York was received in a lump. 

The previous report showed an increase of 
$703.99 with outstanding bills estimated at 
$300. Actually, as shown earlier in this report, 
the outstanding bills finally amounted to 
$502.56. 

However, taking all these factors into ac- 
count, this report still shows a reasonably 
healthy increase in the total assets of the 
Academy and is a welcome change from the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 6 


condition which existed three or four years ago 
when we were showing a slight deficit year after 
year. Your Treasurer feels that, if the officers 
and committees of the Academy are willing to 
continue being as frugal as possible in connec- 
tion with Academy expenditures, we may be 
able to carry on even in these troubled times 
and continue to make some slow but steady 
gain in Academy assets. If, as is planned, the 
Red Book is issued in 1944, the cost of the pub- 
lication of the Directory will, of course, tend to 
offset some of the gain shown for this year. 
Howarp S. RappLEYeE, Treasurer. 


Report of the Auditing Committee 


The accounts of the Treasurer of the WasuH- 
INGTON ACADEMY OF ScIENCES for the year. 
1943 were examined by your auditing com-: 
mittee on January 17, 1944. Each item of dis- 
bursement was found to be duly authorized and 
supported by a canceled check or a debit 
memorandum except for the outstanding 
checks listed in the report. The accompany- 
ing report of the Treasurer is in agreement 
with his records. The securities listed in the 
report were inspected on January 17, 1944, and 
were found to be as listed and with all coupons 
attached that are not yet due. 

The accounts of the Treasurer were fourd to 
be in excellent shape as indicated by careful, 
systematic, and orderly arrangement of all 
items. This greatly simplified the work of the 
committee and deserves the commendation of 
the Society.* 

C. H. Swick, Chairman. 
G. F. GRAVATT. 


[One member of the auditing committee, Prof. 
Frank M. Weida, was unable to assist in the audit 
because of pressure of work following his recent 
illness. ] 


Report of the Archivist 


There is very little to report this year. It 
might be mentioned that the material is stored 
in a convenient place in my office at the U. 8. 
Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md., pro- 
tected from moisture and dirt as much as can 
be done in an ordinary building. Although not 
yet catalogued the material is accessible and 
has been made use of in connection with the 
work of various committees of the Academy. 

NatTHaNn R. Situ, Archivist. 


* The Treasurer has been without clerical help 
on his accounts since April, 1943. 


June 15, 1944 PROCEEDINGS 


Report of the Board of Editors 


Volume 33 of the JourRNAL was slightly 
larger than Volume 32 of the previous year. The 
12 issues contained 388 pages distributed 
among the sciences as follow: 


No. Per- No. Per- 
. of Pages, | cent- of Pages cent- 
Sciences papers,} 1943 ages, |papers,}] 1942 ages, 
1943 1943 1942 1942 
Biological 56 293.8 75.4 43 211.8 56.3 
Physical i 47 .6 12.4 12 106 .2 28.2 
General 2 17.8 4.6 2, 14.9 4.0 
Proceedings | — 25.4 6.6 — 39.1 10.4 
Obituaries — — — — —_— —_— 
Index 1 3.4 0 — 4.0 ial 
65 388.00} 100.00} 57 376.0 | 100.0 


This volume includes the addresses of the 
retiring presidents of the Academy and of the 
Geological Society. It includes one of the ad- 
dresses given by the’ three recipients of the 
Academy awards; the twelfth Joseph Henry 
lecture and an address delivered before one of 
the regular meetings of the Academy. Of the 
65 papers presented 39, or 60 percent, were 
presented by members of the Academy. This 
represents no advance in the number of papers 
presented by members as compared with the 
two preceding years. The volume contains 51 
line cuts and 12 halftones. 

Volume 33 is larger by 12 pages than Vol- 
ume 32 published in 1942. This small increase 
is a step in the right direction. The editors and 
others have long deplored the steady decline in 
number of pages published by the JouRNAL 
since 1915. This year, 1943, it was not possible 
to do much more than arrest the decline of the 
past years. This unfortunate circumstance did 
not result so much from a lack of funds as it 
did to war conditions which prohibited the 
JOURNAL from using more paper this year than 
during the previous year. 

A glance at the figures showing number of 
articles and number of pages printed during the 
year shows a great disproportion of biological 
papers. This was true last year also, but the 
1943 JouRNAL shows a still more important de- 
cline in the number of papers and pages pub- 
lished under the heading of Physical Sciences. 
Only one paper in chemistry was published and 
this appeared under the heading of Geochemis- 
try. Two papers only fall in the category of 


: THE ACADEMY 


203 


Physics. Of the Biological Sciences the largest 
number of papers appears under the heading of 
Botany (16); the next in abundance are those 
classified as Zoology (13). Probably no relief of 
this situation will occur while the war is still 
on, making it impossible for some time to bal- 
ance the JOURNAL better between the Physical 
and Biological Sciences. 

The reduced budget on which the JourRNAL 
has operated for two years proved adequate 
through use of the rigid economies instituted in 
1942. It will be recalled that the Board of Edi- 
tors in 1942 eliminated all free reprints and 
reduced amount of illustration allowed to an 
author to one full page of line cut or its equiva- 
lent in cost. It was also left to the discretion of 
the editors whether they make charges for ex- 
ceptional amounts of foreign matter, tabular 
material or unusual type. The editors were also 
given authority to charge for unreasonable 
amounts of galley changes. During 1943 these 
economies were diligently applied and resulted 
in a comfortable balance. 

In the middle of the year a modification was 
made in the rule that no free reprints are issued 
to authors. The change was made in the case 
of authors of obituaries. It was realized that 
some hardship and ill will were created by the 
practice of charging authors for reprints of 
obituaries, particularly in instances where the 
editorial Board had actually solicited the obitu- 
ary. This situation was corrected by allowing 
50 reprints free to an author of a signed obitu- 
ary. 

The Board of Managers appropriated to the 
Editors for printing, illustrating, and mailing 
the JoURNAL and other items $2,800; for cleri- 
cal assistance $240; for postage and incidentals 
$60—a total of $3,100. Of this sum the total 
amount of $240 was expended for clerical as- 
sistance; and postage and incidentals (binding 
2 back volumes of the JouRNAL) required 
$29.56. Printing and mailing the JouRNAL cost 
$2,540.56, while illustrations cost $258.35. Re- 
prints cost $387.16* making a total paid out by 
the Academy of $3,186.07.* 

The economies discussed above resulted in 
charges to authors of the following items: 


* These figures do not include reprints for De- 
cember. Inasmuch as the December reprint bill 
includes no obituaries, this item will be exactly 
balanced by charges to authors and will not affect 
the final total saving. 


204 


Excess illustration (above 1 page line cut or its equiva- 


Excess alteratiOnsy, se ices seco cone ceuc ene see 

Excess typesetting..... seared MA Se Molle UNE BE A Ue 32.43 

Rie prin taey i) pays ae a eG SO echo ee. alge al 367 .95* 
527 .54 


Deducting the $527.54 paid by authors from 
the grand total paid out leaves $2,658.53 net 
cost to the Academy. A balance of $30.44 re- 
mained in the item postage and incidentals and 
$141.47 in printing and mailing, making a total 
favorable balance of $171.91. 


Printing : Postage 
and aca and Balance 
Bae assistance .. 
mailing incidentals 
1943 Budget.... $2800 $240 $60.00 
Paid out to Dec. 
THO ae tape sia $2658 .53 $240 $29 .56 
141.47 — 30.44 $171.91 


The Board of Editors here expresses its deep 
appreciation for the cooperation of Mr. Pau 
H. Oruser, whose editorial guidance makes 
possible the general excellence of form and 
composition of the JouRNAL. The senior editor 
also thanks his colleagues on the Board for 
their cheerful assistance and high quality of 
their work. Special thanks are due Jason R. 
SWALLEN who managed the JouRNAL between 
February and June. 

G. ARTHUR COOPER. 
Lewis V. JUDSON. 


[The third member of the Board, Jason R. 
SWALLEN, was in Brazil during the latter part of 
1943.] 


Report of the Custodian and Subscription 
Manager of Publications 


Subscriptions.—No special campaign was in- 
augurated, owing to the unsettled conditions, 
for obtaining additional nonmember subscrip- 
tions. Our present subscriptions are approxi- 
mately as follows: 


Nonmember subscriptions in United States............ 100 
Nonmember subscriptions in foreign countries.......... 25 
Nonmember subscriptions in enemy-controlled areas 
Gnaictive) a 5 eke Mee Seeded Al cre Ac AS Un Ne Are 35 
Subscriptions, Geological Society of Washington........ 12 


Stocks of publications.—Thanks to the splen- 


did system adopted by my predecessor, WIL- 
LIAM W. DreH1, the first man to hold this office, 
the initial responsibilities and organizational 


* Does not include $19.21 paid by Academy for 
reprints of obituaries. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 6 


work confronting the Custodian of Publications 
were reduced. 

In 1939 the Board of Managers instructed 
the Custodian to set aside a specific number of 
volumes to be sold only as complete sets. At 
that time it was ordered that eight complete 
sets from Volume 1 to the current volume; six 
additional sets from Volume 11 to the current 
volume; and eleven additional sets from Vol- 
ume 16 to the current volume should constitute 
the reserve sets. Since 1939 two complete sets 
from Volume 1 to the current number were 
sold. Nevertheless, many of our members have 
kept the Academy in mind when disposing of 
their own volumes and those of deceased mem- 
bers. As a result of these donations practically 
two additional sets from Volume 1 onward have 
been filled. 

In view of the possible demand from foreign 
countries after the war, I have made it a policy 
to maintain as many complete sets as our stocks 
of early numbers will permit. 


Inventory of stocks as of December 31, 1943.— 


Reserve Sets of the JOURNAL: 


Bound Volumes 1—29 and unbound Volumes 30-33.. 1set 
Unbound Volumes 1-33 (Vol. 2, no. 20 missing).... 7 sets 
Unbound Volumes 11-33............. A ae 85 6 sets 
Unbound Volumes 16-83................/....+: 11 sets 
Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences: 
Volumes 1=13) inclusive. - sn e6 + 4.0 cee ace 50 sets 


A miscellaneous series of volumes and sepa- 
rate numbers of the JoURNAL OF THE WASHING- 
TON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES are maintained for 
sale as back numbers. A detailed inventory of 
this series is attached. Odd numbers of the Pro- 
ceedings of the JouRNAL together with Direc- 
tories and reprints of special articles are also 
available. 

All these volumes, including the reserve sets, 
except a few after Volume 22, are stored with- 
out cost in the Smithsonian Institution and the 
U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Those few 
volumes after Volume 22 are stored by the 
George Banta Publishing Co. at Menasha, Wis. 

Sales and expenditures.—During the past 
year approximately 150 back numbers of the 
JouRNAL have been sold, proceeds amounting 
to $72.20. An allotment of $50 was assigned to 
this office for 1943, of which $16.03 was spent 
for stamps and clerical assistance, leaving an 
unexpended balance of $33.97. 

FRANK M. Setzer, Custodian and Sub- 
scription Manager of Publications. 


JUNE 15, 1944 


Report of the Committee of Tellers 


A total of 253 envelopes were delivered to the 
Committee by the Secretary. Of these, four 
bore no signature and two were communica- 
tions to the Secretary. In the remaining 247 
envelopes there were 236 ballots on an amend- 
ment to the bylaws and 240 ballots for officers 
and managers of the Academy. 

The count of ballots on the amendment to 
‘ Article I, Section 2, of the bylaws extending life 
membership to members of the Academy who 
have not been active members for 10 years 
upon retirement from the gainful practice of 
their profession because of age or disability 
with the option to obtain notices of meetings 


OBITUARIES 


205 


and the JouRNAL at a reduced rate showed: 229 
ballots for the amendment and 7 against. 

The count of ballots for officers of the Acad- 
emy showed the following elected: 


President, CLEMENT L. GARNER 

Secretary, F. G. BRICKWEDDE 

Treasurer, Howarp 8S. RAPPLEYE 

Board of Managers to January, 1945, to com- 
plete an unexpired term, WitLiAm A. DayYTON. 

Board of Managers to January, 1947, Henry G. 
Avers and Francis M. DEFANDORF. 


W. G. BRomBacHER, Chairman. 
W. D. Urry. 
GEORGE R. Walt. 


Submitted by F. G. BRICKWEDDE, Secretary. 


@bituaries 


Leon WILSON HarTMAN was born in Downs- 
ville, N. Y., on June 18, 1876, and died in Los 
Angeles, Calif., on August 27, 1948. During his 
adult life he was primarily interested in teach- 
ing physics. However, he always found time to 
carry on some research and on several occasions 
spent a few months or even a year in research 
amore: 

Dr. Hartman received his bachelor’s degree 
from Cornell University in 1898 and his mas- 
ter’s degree a year later. He continued his 
graduate work at Cornell for two years, then 
taught at Kansas State College for a year. He 
received the Frazier fellowship of the Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania in 1902. This university 
conferred on him the degree of doctor of phi- 
losophy in 1903. Receiving then the Tyndale 
fellowship, he spent a year at postdoctorship 
study at Gottingen. 

Returning from Germany he started his long 
career as a teacher of physics; first at Cornell, 
then at the University of Utah, and finally for 
30 years as head of the physics department of 
the University of Nevada, of which university 
he was president during the last five years of 
his life. 

When Dr. Hartman was at Gottingen he be- 
came interested in research on the Nernst 
_ glower, then one of the most efficient devices 
for converting electrical energy into light. This 
occupied his attention for a number of years. 
Later he became interested in researches in- 
volving electrical measurements. At the Na- 
tional Bureau of Standards he collaborated in a 


method of measuring inductance by using a 
pulsating current. 

Dr. Hartman’s devotion to teaching culmi- 
nated in his election to the presidency of the 
University of Nevada. During the five years of 
his incumbency he worked unceasingly for its 
advancement. While on his first vacation for 
several years, he was stricken with a fatal 
cerebral hemorrhage. 

Dr. Hartman was a member of many sci- 
entific and professional societies, among them 
the Washington Academy of Sciences. He is 
survived by his widow, Dr. Edith Kast Hart- 
man, and by four children. 

H. L. Curtis. 


ELMER DaRwWIN Batu, whose active career 
was terminated in February, 1938, by a cere- 
bral hemorrhage, died on October 5, 1943, in 
Pasadena, Calif., at the age of 73. Dr. Ball was 
born in Athens, Vt., in 1870, but his family 
soon after removed to Iowa, which thus be- 
came essentially his home state. To Mildred R. 
Norvell, who survives him, he was married in 
1899. Dr. Carlton R. Ball, of Washington, 
D. C., is a brother. 

Iowa gave him his public-school and college 
education as well as his early teaching experi- 
ence. He earned the B.S. and M.S. degrees at 
Iowa State College in 1895 and 1898, and in 
these early years he taught in the public 
schools of Iowa and in Albion Seminary, where 
he was assistant principal for one year. In his 
alma mater he first served in a scientific teach- 


206 


ing capacity as assistant in zoology and en- 
tomology, and beginning in 1897 he served four 
years in a similar capacity at Colorado Agricul- 
tural College. 

A professorship in the Utah Agricultural Col- 
lege next claimed him, and during his term of 
service there he earned the Ph.D. degree, 
granted by Ohio State in 1907, under Prof. 
Herbert Osborn. From this contact resulted his 
outstanding life work on leafhoppers and re- 
lated families of insects. The same year that 
he received his doctorate, Dr. Ball was elevated 
to the deanship of the Utah Agricultural Col- 
lege and to directorship of the Agricultural 
Experiment Station. The writer’s 35-year 
friendship with him dates from this period. 

Dr. Ball held membership in a number of the 
usual professional organizations, including en- 
tomological societies and the Ecological Soci- 
ety of America, in addition to membership in 
the Washington Academy of Sciences and the 
science academies of five states. 

In 1916 Dr. Ball accepted the position of 
state entomologist of Wisconsin, only to return 
two years later to Iowa State College as head 
of the Department of Zoology and Entomol- 
ogy, a position that includes the duties of state 
entomologist of Iowa. From this position he 
was granted leave for two years to serve as 
Assistant Secretary of Agriculture under Secre- 
taries Meredith and Wallace. Giving up his 
position in Iowa, he served from 1921 to 1925 
as director of scientific work in the U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, where he worked for 
better salaries for the department’s scientific 
workers. 

Dr. Ball served with the Florida State Plant 
Board, in charge of important celery insect in- 
vestigations, from 1925 to 1928. The publica- 
tion on the celery leaf tier by Ball and his 
coworkers is outstanding in its recognition of 
the ecological side of the problem and relates 
the damage done by the insect very specifically 
to seasonal conditions basically dependent on 
weather. 

In October, 1928, he accepted the deanship 
of the College of Agriculture, becoming at the 
same time director of the Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, of the University of Arizona. He 
transferred in 1931 to teaching and research as 
professor of zoology and as experiment station 
entomologist, the position occupied when ill- 
ness overcame him. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 6 


Dr. Ball was an indefatigable investigator, 
not only in his official positions, but in his pri- 
vate time as well. Officially, he pioneered in 
codling-moth control, did genetics work in 
poultry breeding, and was definitely a pioneer 
in the recognition of transmission of plant dis- 
eases, now known to be virus diseases, by in- 
sects—a natural corollary of his familiarity 
with leafhoppers and related sap-sucking in- 
sects, to which he so assiduously devoted his. 
every possible hour and vacation. He first 
recognized the first- and third-discovered in- 
stances of insect-transmitted plant diseases— 
curly top of sugar beets, and tipburn of potato. 
The Ball collection of leafhoppers and related 
families is now a part of the National Museum 
collections. | 

Dr. Ball with students was enthusiastic and 
helpful; with coworkers a cheerful and loyal 
friend. 

CHARLES T. VORHIES. 


FRANK LEVERETT, a member of this Acap- 
EMY for 30 years, known for years as one of the 
leading glacial geologists in the United States, 
died at Ann Arbor, Mich., on November 15, 
1943. He was born on March 10, 1859, at 
Denmark, Towa, the son of Ebenezer and 
Rowena (Houston) Leverett. From 1880 to 
1883 he was an instructor in natural science at 
Denmark Academy, Iowa, and on completing 
studies at Iowa State College he received the 
B.S. degree in 1886. At times (1909-1929) dur- 
ing his residence at Ann Arbor, Leverett de- 
livered lectures on glacial geology at the 
University of Michigan, and in 1930 this insti- 
tution conferred on him the honorary degree 
of doctor of science. 

In 1886-1890 he served on the U. 8S. Geo- 
logical Survey as field assistant under the direc- 
tion of Dr. Thomas C. Chamberlin, geologist 
in charge of the Glacial Division. Thus began 
Leverett’s official study of the glacial and as- 
sociated deposits in the United States. In 1890 
he became an assistant geologist with the U. 8S. 
Geological Survey; he was geologist from 1901 
to 1928 and senior geologist from July 1, 1928, 
to March 1929, when he was retired at the age - 
of 70 years. Dr. Chamberlin continued more or 
less actively in charge of the glacial studies for 
the Federal Survey, both while he was presi- 
dent at the University of Wisconsin beginning 
in 1887 and also after he became head professor 


JUNE 15, 1944 


of geology at the University of Chicago in 1892, 
until the year 1904, when he severed his con- 
nections with the U. S. Geological Survey. 
During all this time the two men were closely 
associated by correspondence and conferences, 
during extensive field studies of the glacial and 
associated deposits. This association continued 
much the same through the later years until 
Chamberlin’s death on November 15, 1928. 

The extent of the area covered by Leverett’s 
field studies and mapping was very notable 
indeed, and from these studies there came a 
large number of scientific papers. Several of his 
more comprehensive publications were issued 
by the U. S. Geological Survey. In Monograph 
38, The Illinois glacial lobe (published in 1899), 
are described the great Illinoian drift sheet and 
its relation and later glacial deposits. In this 
work was included the classification of all the 
glacial and interglacial deposits of the Upper 
Mississippi Valley, as developed very largely 
by Chamberlin and Leverett. This, with later 
modifications, is still the standard classification 
of North American glacial geology. 

From Illinois Leverett’s field work was ex- 
tended eastward over Indiana, southern Michi- 
gan, the western part of New York, and the 
northwest part of Pennsylvania. The results of 
this study were published in Monograph 41, 
Glacial formations and drainage features of the 
Erie and Ohio Basin. In this were also shown the 
relations of the remarkable abandoned beaches 
bordering the Great Lakes. These were formed 
when the outlets of the several basins were 
blocked by oscillating fronts of the great glacial 
lobes and were deformed by northeasterly 
differential uplifts as melting removed the 
weight of the vast accumulations of ice. Frank 
B. Taylor was for many years associated With 
Mr. Leverett in the mapping and study of the 
abandoned beaches, and when the field studies 
were extended northward over the lower and 
upper peninsulas of Michigan they became 
joint authors of Monograph 53, Pleistocene of 
Indiana and Michigan and history of the Great 
Lakes, published in 1915. 

When the mapping was continued north and 
west through northern Michigan and Wiscon- 
sin and into northeastern Minnesota, a shorter 
work by Leverett, Moraines and shore lines of 
the Lake Superior Basin (Professional Paper 
154) was published by the Survey in 1929. 
Following this Leverett’s mapping proceeded 


OBITUARIES 


207 


throughout Minnesota and into adjacent parts 
of Iowa and the Dakotas. In this survey Lever- 
ett revised the earlier mapping by Warren 
Upham and delineated on a large map the suc- 
cession of alternating moraines and glacial out- 
wash plains and the abandoned beaches of 
Glacial Lake Agassiz. From this work came his 
Professional Paper 161, Quaternary geology of 
Minnesota, issued by the Federal Survey in 
1932. To the preparation of this report con- 
tributions were made by F. W. Sardeson, who 
also assisted in the field mapping. Later Lever- 
ett studied the relations along the southern 
border of the glacial drift through much of the 
distance between northeastern Kansas and the 
Atlantic coastline in New Jersey. 

Most of the studies were made by Mr. 
Leverett while on the staff of the U. S. Geologi- 
cal Survey; work on his manuscripts was 
mostly done at his home, which was for years 
in Ann Arbor, Mich. At intervals he was re- 
leased from his regular work to make other 
investigations, some of these for state geologi- 
cal surveys. In 1908 he went to Europe to make 
comparative studies on the several drift sheets 
there and he set up a tentative correlation be- 
tween the glacial deposits of Europe and the 
United States in a paper Comparison of North 
American and European Glacial Deposits, pub- 
lished in Zeitschrift fir Gletscherkunde 4: 
1910. | 

In 1887 Mr. Leverett married Frances E. 
Gibson, who died in 1892. In 1895 Dorothy C. 
Park became his wife and now survives him. 

WILLIAM C. ALDEN. 


To coordinate the various branches of sci- 
ence, to integrate science as a whole with other 
lines of human activity, and to quicken an ap- 
preciation of science on the part of the general 
public—these were the impelling interests in 
the life of James McKrrn Catteni! (May 
25, 1860—January 20, 1944), a member of this 
Academy. As a young and brilliant psycholo- 
gist he foresaw more clearly than any of 
his contemporaries that science, in order to 
progress, must break away from the cloistered 
tradition and compartmentalization of the 
academic laboratories; that in order to be of 
real benefit to the people it must be attuned 


1 For details of Dr. Cattell’s life and activities 


see Science 99, No. 2565, Feb. 25, 1944, and Who’s 
Who in America. 


J 


208 


with human affairs in general; and that in 
order to gain the necessary support for further 
development it must gain the confidence of the 
public at large. 

Only in his later years did these objectives 
become clear to his colleagues. In his earlier 
years progress was difficult and slow. Every 
opportunity that appeared was seized and ex- 
ploited. At first his endeavors were more or less 
disconnected and haphazard. Quite naturally 
his interest for some time was centered largely 
on psychology, though this never obscured his 
broader vision; later his expanding interests 
covered all lines of science. 

The media through which he worked were 
the numerous publications that he edited, sev- 
eral of which he himself had founded, and the 
American Association for the Advancement of 
Science in which he was a dominant force for 50 
years, and which owes its present organization 
and prestige largely, if not mainly, to his efforts. 
His influence in stimulating and organizing the 
scientific spirit of America was much greater 
than appears on the surface. As editor of vari- 
ous scientific journals he was interested in 
bringing out facts and in stimulating discus- 
sion. He solicited contributions from those 
whom he thought had something worth while 
to say, and many significant papers were pub- 
lished in his journals which, except for his 
stimulation, would never have appeared. Scru- 
pulously fair and honest in his dealings with 
contributors, he interpreted his duties as editor 
with unusual liberality, and not infrequently 
there appeared in his journals papers expressing 
ideas with which he did not agree. 

During the first world war the improvement 
and extensive use of the airplane and the radio, 
and other implements and devices, quickened 
public interest in science. Dr. Cattell was one 
of a small group who felt that science had now 
outgrown its orthodox academic confines and 
had secured the serious attention of an impor- 
tant sector of the lay public. It had therefore 
become desirable that the general public be 
kept informed through the press of progress in 
the various branches of science. Upon the es- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY. OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 6 


tablishment of Science Service in 1921, Dr. 
Cattell was chosen one of the members of the 
Board of Trustees, and served continuously 
upon it until his death, most of the time as a 
member of the Executive Committee, and for — 
nine years as President. 

Coineidentally with the establishment of Sci- 
ence Service the New York Times and the 
Cleveland Press each detailed one of their ablest 
writers as science editor. Their example was 
soon followed by other newspapers and the 
large press associations. Although these inde- 
pendent science editors were direct competitors 
of Science Service, Dr. Cattel] showed no favor- 
itism, but assisted and encouraged all serious 
attempts to report science accurately. When 
the National Association of Science Writers was 
organized in April, 1934, the science editors 
showed their appreciation of his efforts in their 
behalf by electing him an honorary member. 

Personally Dr. Cattell was a man of distinc- 
tive and forceful personality, courageous, with 
strong convictions, intense in an argument— 
indeed on occasion almost viclent. Motivated 
by the highest principles, and always honest, if 
he thought, on reflection, that he had done an 
injustice he sought out his adversary and 
apologized to him. But basically his was an 
unusually gentle and kindly nature. He never 
felt that he really knew anyone unless he knew 
his whole family, especially the children. And 
although many of his colleagues stood very 
much in awe of him, small children took to him 
at once. He was always very human. In his 
rare periods of relaxation, for instance when 
attending parties given by the science writers, 
he joined enthusiastically in the merrymaking, 
becoming a boy again. 

Dr. Cattell will long be remembered for his 
personal contributions to the study of psychol- 
ogy and to the improvement of education; but 
his outstanding contribution was the part he 
played in the awakening of a feeling of social 
responsibility on the part of our scientific 
people, and of an awareness of the importance 
of science on the part of the general public. 

Austin H. Ciark, 


VoL. 34 Juuy 15, 1944 No. 7 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 34 


JuLy 15, 1944 


No. 7 


BOTAN Y.—An account of sixteenth-century agriculture on the Mexican Plateau.! 
Howarp 8. Resp, University of California. 


The successful development of agricul- 
ture and allied arts among the peoples of 
the central plateau of Mexico was quickly 
recognized by the Spaniards who carried 
the conquering arms and banners of Charles 
V into that new world. In spite of the con- 
quest and the overthrow of pre-Cortesian 
kingdoms, the cultural elements of the 
ancient tribes continue to influence the 
practical lives of most modern Mexicans. 
The food plants of the native races have an 
unfailing interest for any enquiring mind. 
Moreover, the character of the _ post- 
Conquest colonization was determined in 
large measure by the cultural background 
of the native races, no less than by climatic 
and geographic conditions of the country. 

The memoir of Tezcuco,? by Juan Bautista 
Pomar, written in 1582 has been reprinted 
recently and relates some matters of prime 
importance concerning the agriculture of 
that kingdom. The author was a mestizo, 
a native of Tezcuco, son of a Spaniard, and 
grandson of Nezahualpitzintli, king of 
Tezcuco. His mother was the daughter of 
the said king and of an Indian slave. 

The account that I shall give here will be 
concerned mainly with the cultivation and 
utilization of food plants drawn from the 
reprint of Pomar’s treatise. His statements 
concerning the introduction of cultigens 
from other districts have proved to be high- 
ly significant. 

Pomar wrote intelligently of the agri- 
cultural and economic systems of the 
people of Mexico in his day. He was another 
historian and panegyrist of Tezcuco, in- 

1 Received March 18, 1944. 


2 Pomar, J. Relaciones de Tezcoco, 1582. 
eee Salvador Chavez Hayhoe, Mexico, 


ferior certainly to Ixtlilxochitl, but older 
and more temperate. He was always in ac- 
cord with what was Tezcucan, did not in- 
vent things of which he was ignorant, and 
wrote without exaggeration. He added cer- 
tain details unnoted by Ixtlilxochitl, and 
untangled the twisted statements of other 
historians who described the kingdom and 
its people. He chose to leave the discussion 
of medicinal plants to Hernandez, who came 
to Mexico in 1570. 

If the assumption be correct that the 
Tezcucan population was composed of 
peoples of diverse origins who entered and 
settled in its borders, and where civilization 
was fostered by wise rulers, it is evident 
that any authentic record of its arts and 
industries is of major importance. 

Tezcuco, the capital city, when at the 
apex of its development, had a population 
of 300,000 people who necessarily depended 
for their subsistence upon the labors of a 
larger number of rural subjects. 

The kingdom of Tezcuco was situated 
east of the lake of the same name. The land 
sloped upward from the lake to the foot of 
the high mountains to the eastward and was 
traversed by numerous short rivers from 
which water was diverted by canals and 
ditches. Pomar described their water re- 
sources as follows: 


Large and voluminous rivers do not occurin this 
city or near it, because the arroyos of water which 
run to it are hardly able to reach the lake in the 
dry season. Morover, there was a necessity to 
unite and reduce into one many springs from their 
true sources, leading them from their courses and 
natural channels into conduits and canals which 
Nezahualcoyotzin and Nezahualpitzintl made, 
not solely for drinking water, but also for ir- 
rigating their orchards, gardens, and other prop- 
erty, and houses of pleasure. Now they also serve 


209 


210 


to irrigate plantings of maize and wheat and on 
them the Spaniards have built mills for grinding 
and cloth making. 


The water systems were not kept in re- 
pair after the subjugation of the country by 
the Spaniards because of the disruption of 
the kingdom. 

Pomar’s descriptions of agricultural plants 
are valuable additions to those given in a 
piece of picture writing made in 1530 by 
another Tezcucan scribe under the direction 
of a Spanish teacher which depicted plants 
supposedly typical of Cempoallan and other 
cities tributary to the kingdom of Aculhua- 
can.?4 The lists of agricultural plants differ 
somewhat, since Tezcuco lay at a higher 
altitude than Cempoallan. 

The list of important, indigenous fruit 
crops shows that horticulture had reached 
an advanced stage of development among 
the Tezcucans. Pomar wrote: 


The cultivated lands give good crops of fine 
cherries, of excellent flavor, taste, and a reason- 
able livelihood. There are apple trees which give 
a fruit, yellow with a red blush, equal in size and 
flavor to that of Castille which we call San Juan. 
Some of these are better than others according to 
the culture which they give to the trees or to the 
quality of the soil in which they grow. The Indians 
dry apples and cherries and keep them for luxuries 
in winter. Apples of Castille, pears, and quinces 
may easily be grafted upon these apple trees. They 
have also blackberries. The avocados and white 
zapotes which they call “‘Sleepy Heads” are culti- 
vated in this city in sheltered and warm locations, 
yet they are very small and inferior because they 
belong in the hot country. 


He commented also upon _ oranges, 
peaches, pomegranates, and other European 
fruits cultivated in Tezcuco at the time he 
wrote. 

The frequency with which the cactus 
Opuntia tuna Mill. was mentioned by Pomar 
and other early writers indicates that then, 
as now, it was an important food plant. The 
fruits were eaten either fresh or cooked. The 
sap pressed from the fleshy joints was ad- 
ministered to persons suffering from illnesses 


3 REED, H.S. Jz2tlilxochitl II and Cempoallan: 
A preliminary study of a Mexican picture-chronicle. 
Hispanic Amer. Hist. Rev. 18: 66-75. 1938. 

4 GOMEZ DE Orozco, FEpERICO. El codice de 
San Antonio Techialoyan. VI. ‘‘Codice de Cem- 
poalla.”’ Anal. Mus. Nac. Arqueol., Hist., y 
Etnogr. (4)8: 311-332. 1933. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 7 


due to the heat. Practically every part of 
the plant had some particular use. He stated 
specifically that the plant was cultivated 
and described several of the principal varie- 
ties. 

The agave was cultivated in pre-Colum- 
bian times, yielding many products of neces- 
sity and convenience. The saccharine sap 
was fermented to produce pulque or was 
evaporated to make a syrup which was an 
equivalent for sugar in their dietary. The 
leaves were a source of fiber, and of a tough 
paper. The people used the hot sap from 
agave leaves as a vulnary, an application 
not mentioned by other writers on pre- 
Columbian botany. Pomar said: “One of 
their principal plants is a kind of maguey 
which they call Cozxamalometl with which 
they heal all sorts of wounds. They roast 
the fleshy leaves in hot embers and wash 
the wound with the hot sap from them and 
allay the convulsion (spasmo) by placing 
the leaf on the wound. So marvellous are its 
effects that they make cures which the 
medicos regard as miraculous.” 

Wine was made by fermenting these saps 
in wide-mouthed earthen jars which were 
kept loosely covered until the fermenta- 
tion was finished. Wines from various sorts 
of agaves had their particular qualities, 
the inferior sorts being used only for cook- 
ing. 

Maize, the all-important crop which fur- 
nished the principal supply of their carbo- 


‘hydrate food, was briefly mentioned by 


Pomar although omitted entirely by the 
unknown writer of the chronicle of Cempoal- 
lan.2 Pomar gave no description of their 
methods of cultivation, to our great regret. 
Possibly he thought they were so well 
known as to require no mention in his com- 
munication to the king of Spain. Concerning 


other grains he wrote as follows: “The 


native grains, seeds, and culinary vegetables 
which have served, and still serve, the 
natives are first maize, then beans of dif- 
ferent sorts and colors which, cooked with 
pepper, are the sustenance of the ordinary 
people, then the chia or sage (Salvia sp.) 
which is a small seed somewhat larger than 
the mustard, . . . of which the natives make 
a drink after roasting, grinding, and boiling 
it with water.” 


JULY 15, 1944 REED: 16TH-CENTURY AGRICULTURE ON MEXICAN PLATEAU 


Huauhtli is the name of an important 
species of Chenopodium that was used as 
food by the ancient as well as the modern 
Mexicans. In his Relaciones de Tezcoco 
Pomar wrote: ‘‘Huauhtli is a seed like rape 
and of the same color, except it is a little 
flattened like lentils. After it is ground and 
kneaded they make firm loaves in maize 
leaves (husks?) which are cooked in ollas, 
or they make them into tortillas which are 
cooked on a comal.... They have mich- 
huauhtli which is a smaller white seed of 
which they make loaves of bread like those 
of huauhtli and a beverage of the roasted 
and ground seeds dissolved in syrup.”’ Em- 
mart® interpreted michhuauhtli as ‘‘fish 
grain.” The Aztecs made a poultice from its 
seeds for the treatment of siriasis, an in- 
flammation of infants. 

Pomar’s mention of the uses of this plant 
was undoubtedly the first in any European 
language. Herndndez® later described a 
medicinal plant of Mexico and gave it a 
name which suggests similarity but not 
identity with huauhtli. Thus: ‘We find in 
this New Spain many kinds of Atriplex 
agrestis which are universally called Hoautli 
or Hoahoautli and get great care in their 
gardens and orchards, such are Tlapal 
hoaquilit! or Tlapalhoauhtli.”’ His descrip- 
tion of the thick fibrous roots, red stem, and 
reddish flowers, however, suggests A maran- 
thus rather than Chenopodium. 

Huauhth was a cultivated plant, possibly 
not a native of Mexico, but modified by 
centuries of cultivation and selection. Its 
exact identity is not well established. From 
Mrs. Zelia Nuttall Safford obtained nfate- 
rial which he described as a new species, 
Chenopodium nuttalliae,’ stating that it has 
been cultivated from time immemorial by 
the Mexicans and that it is now unknown in 
the wild state. He said that the name 
Uauhth, or Huauhtli, was applied by ‘the 
Aztecs not only to the seeds, but to the 
plants as well; but when the plants were 
cooked for greens they were called Huau- 


5 HMMART, Emity W. The Badianus manu- 
script. Baltimore, 1940. 

6 HERNANDEZ, FRANcIScO. Rerum medicarum, 
igsber VII, 11, p:.269." Roma, 1651. 

7SaFForpD, W. E. Chenopodium nuttalliae, a 
food plant of the Aztecs. JouRN. WASHINGTON 
Acapb. Sct. 8: 521-527. 1918. 


211 


quilitl. Other botanists’ have attempted to 
identify this plant as C. quinoa, which has 
been cultivated as a food plant by certain 
South American Indians since prehistoric 
times.?® 

I have had the opportunity of examining 
specimens lent by the Gray Herbarium of ~ 
Harvard University which were collected 
by Dugés at Guanajuato. They are Cheno- 
podium album, yet were said to be culti- 
vated plants. The leaves are oval and some- 
what decurrent; petioles as long as the 
laminae; seed-bearing heads quite compact. 
The label, apparently written by Dugés, 
contains the following important informa- 
tion: ‘‘Quelite cultivé. Sous le nom de 
Cuauzontle ou Cuauxoncle on mange les 
extremites fleuries, frites et envelopées 
d’oeuf. C’est un bien pauvre legume.” 

Another sheet of plants labeled ‘‘Quelite 


sauvage” which was also designated C. 


album by Dugés, contained smaller speci- 
mens whose slender stems bore loose heads, 
resembling plants often grown on barren 
soils. 

The systematic relationships of C. nut- 
talliae are somewhat indefinite. In response 
to my inquiry, Dr. I. M. Johnston!® wrote 
that the species seems to be very distinct 
from other undoubtedly native Mexican 
species of the genus, and concluded that it 
may well be a cultivated plant. There is 
every reason for distinguishing the plant 
called huauhtli from .C. album, which is of 
European origin and would not therefore 
have a well-recognized Aztec name. Speci- 
mens of C. nuttalliae lent by the U. 8. Na- 
tional Herbarium have no resemblance to 
other well-known North American species. 

Dr. C. O. Sauer, of the University of 
California, has reported" that he saw a 
plant called huauhtli in Sinaloa. It therefore 
seems possible that the name may be ap- 
plied to other edible species of Chenopodium 
in diverse parts of modern Mexico. 


Systematik der 
Fedde Repert. 


8 AmLLEN, P. Beitrag zur 
Chenopodium-Arten Amerikas. 
Sp. Nov. 26: 124. 1929. 

9Paropi, L. Relaciones de la agricultura pre- 
hispanica. Anal. Acad. Nac. Agron. Vet. Buenos 
Aires. 1: 115-167. 1935. 

10 Jounston, I. M. Personal communication, 
1943. 

11 Saupr, C. O. Personal communication, 
1943 


212 


There is evidence, therefore, that the 
plant which the Tezcucans called huauhtli 
had been brought into cultivation in pre- 
Colombian times and that the name may 
have been conferred also on C. album when 
it spread into Mexico from the Old World. 

Although the Spaniards had introduced 
European pot-herbs, the natives preferred 
plants they had domesticated, some of 
which had been brought to Tezcuco from 
other localities. 

Gourd fruits were cooked and eaten, and 
their seeds were added to many sorts of 
stews, to which they were said to impart an 
agreeable quality on account of their oil 
content. Pomar said that their gourds had 
the form and color of melons of Castille, 
though their rind was firmer. The chayote 
which bore fruits throughout the year was 
highly prized because of its flavor and keep- 
ing qualities. He wrote further of other 
vegetables: 

Tomatoes (and milfomatl) serve as spice with 
the peppers from which they make sauces and ap- 
petizers. These are different from any Spanish 
fruit. They will not, be discussed further because 
they are well-known and they grow and yield in 
Spain... They have wild amaranth, watercress, 
tender onions, and purslane which they salt at the 
proper season. Peppers of many sorts and colors 


are eaten in all their food, fresh and dried, without 
which no food is acceptable to them. 


The culture of European cereals on the 
estates of the Spaniards received the follow- 
ing comment from Pomar: 


Wheat and barley yield wonderfully on the 
farms and estates of the Spaniards, but very few 
Indians have space for them or for their proper 
sowing, being ordinarily occupied in the service of 
the Spaniards. They have harvested in Tezcuco 
and its surroundings as much as ten thousand 
fanegas of wheat, but very little barley, except 
what suffices for home use, because those who 
plant and harvest it do not sell it as they do wheat. 
Neither do they produce silk, although it would be 
possible for there are mulberry trees for feeding 
the worms. Formerly it was produced by D. 
Antonio Tlalhuitolzin, cacique and governor of 
the city, who was the son of Nezahualpitzintli. 


He wrote briefly about tobacco, but did 
not state that it was cultivated in Tezcuco. 
The species which they knew was undoubt- 
edly Nicotiana rustica. The name by which 
they knew it was Picietl—the little fragrant 
tobacco—and it will appear from the follow- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 7 


ing paragraph that tobacco was regarded 
as a medicinal plant by the majority of the 
Tezcucans: 

The herb which they call picietl, which is said 
to be the same as that called henbane in Spain, is 
useful for sleep and for deadening the flesh and 
making the hard-worked body insensitive to 
fatigue. They take the ground dried leaves, wrap 
them around a little lime, and put a quantity 
such as would fill a hazelnut into the mouth be- 
tween the lips and the gums when they go to sleep 
or to work. However, few of the Indians who are 
educated with Spaniards use it, neither the urban 
and polite gentry, only rustics and laborers. They 
also employ this herb for smoking in little reed 
tubes wrapped with liquidambar. They light the 
tips of the packed tubes and draw at the other 
end with the result, it is said, that they dry out 
the head and purge the rheum of the mouth. This 
is already admitted by the Spaniards who suffer 
these infirmities and use it as their remedy with 
benefit. They use it also for quotidian, tertian, 
and quartan fevers taking it as a suppository 
which purges them. Likewise the toasted leaves 
placed on the abdomen, when there is pain, cures 
them. 


Omitting several other plants which 
Pomar mentioned as remedies, we may 
pause to read his lines about a plant known. 
as Ololiuhqui, since Hernandez! also com- 
mented upon it. The name meant ‘Plant 
of the Serpents’”’ and was synonymous with 
coaxihuitl. | 

“Ololiuhqui which is also brought from 
the hot country has a seed. When ground 
and made into a dough, it reduces swellings 
and drives away the pain. When ground and 
steeped in water and drank, it drives away 
weariness of the body because it causes 
sweating.”’? Hernandez said that the plant 
had, cordate leaves and white flowers. His 
description and figure suggest that it might 
be a species of Convolvulus, but he said it 
had a rather long, rounded seed like cori- 
ander, hence the reference to serpents. 
Ramirez and Alcocer™ identified the plant 
as Ipomoea sidaefolia Chois., and Safford 
noted (unpublished memorandum) that it 
grew in the Department of Monte Christo, 
Campeche, Yucatan. 

His reference to another vegetable prod- 
uct is a bit difficult to interpret: 

122 HERNANDEZ, FRANCISCO. Rerum medicarum 
Liber V,.14, p. 145. Roma, 1651. 

13 RaMIREZ, J.. y ALcocER, G. V. Sinonimia 


vulgar y cientifica de las plantas Mexicanas. 
Mexico, 1902. 


JuLy 15, 1944 


There is a little grana, not within the city but 
in the highlands like those between the city and 
the mountain and range of Tlaloc, which is some- 
what more temperate and yet here the Indians 
give little to the city. Indeed, it may be that they 
have no time to attend to it because of their ordi- 
nary occupation which demands personal services 
to such an extent that they could not have time 
to harvest wheat and barley and to produce silk 
and grana. 


Grana may mean the seed of a plant, but 
it can also mean scarlet grain, or cochineal, 
which the ancient Mexicans used so ex- 
tensively for dyeing. According to Ximenez, 
the care and rearing of the coccids from 
which the dye was obtained was a recog- 
nized industry. 

There is a sapient remark about the use 
of simples which must be mentioned before 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


213 


these notes are terminated. Those who have 
often perused the long dissertations about 
the real and fancied medicinal worth of 
many plants written by natives and Euro- 
peans in the sixteenth century will enjoy 
this soft sarcasm from Pomar’s pen: ‘‘They 
have many roots for purging all sorts of 
humors and very good in the opinion of 
those who use them, except that they don’t 
know how to apply them and they cure more 
or less by chance.”’ 

A study of his account of the botanical 
and agricultural topics relating to Texcucan 
civilization impresses one with his accurate, 
first-hand information on the subject, which 
should guide those who would search for 
plants worthy of wider utilization in our 
time. 


ETHNOLOGY.—Algonkian ethnohistory of the Carolina Sound. Maurice A. 


Mook, American University. 


(Continued from page 194.) 


In some respects the best-known Caro- 
lina Algonkian group, at least the one with 
which the Roanoke colonists had the most 
numerous contacts, was the so-called Seco- 
tan. This tribe’s domain extended from Al- 
bemarle Sound to lower Pamlico River and 
from Roanoke Island to the west-central 
region of present Beaufort County. Western 
Beaufort County and the river region above 
the present city of Washington, as will be 
seen, seem to have belonged to another 
tribe (the Poumouik). The northeastern 
section of the peninsula between the Pam- 
lico and Neuse Rivers was also a part of 
Secotan territory. Secotan distribution thus 
included the present counties of Washing- 
ton, Tyrrell, Dare, and Hyde, the greater 
part of Beaufort, and the northern part of 
Pamlico. The native inhabitants of the off- 
shore islands were geographically, and 
perhaps also culturally and_ politically, 
closer to the Secotan than to any other 
Algonkian group. 

Because of proximity to Roanoke the 
English colonists had closer contacts with 
the Secotan Indians than with any other 
tribe of the Carolina coast. Barlow’s 
Wingandacoa is usually identified with 


Secotan (106), and most of the Indians 
whom he mentioned by name—Wingina, 
the chief, Granganimo, his brother, Wan- 
chese and Manteo, the natives whom he 
took to England with him—were inhabi- 
tants of this area. Other persons and places 
referred to in his narrative are known by 
the relation of Secotan informants. Hariot 
stared that most of his ethnological infor- 
mation pertained particularly to the coastal 
area in the vicinity of Roanoke, and White’s 
pictures of Indian scenes and subjects dealt 
largely with the towns of the Secotan tribe. 
He claimed that there were minor differ- 
ences in native customs between towns in 
this territory, but such differences are to be 
expected among towns spread over an area 
as large as the one above indicated. 

There is no information on the size of this 
group in 1586 (107), but that it was not the 
largest and strongest tribe of the region may 
be deduced from the facts of aboriginal his- 
tory that are recorded in the narratives. 
For example, when Pemisapan (Wingina) 
planned his conspiracy against the English 
he called upon the northern tribes (Weape- 
meoc, Chowanoc, and Moratoc) for help 
and seems to have been but indifferently 
supported by the mass of his own people. 
Lane stated that the Chowanoc were the 


214 


strongest tribe of the area, and Hariot 
reported that native towns on the Secotan 
coast were small and not numerous. When 
Barlow visited Roanoke Island the native 
town on it had but nine houses, and White’s 
drawings of the towns of Pomeiock and 
Secotan show them to have been small set- 
tlements (108). Yet the territory of the 
Secotan was greater in area than that of any 
other Algonkian group of the Carolina sea- 
board. 

Eight Secotan villages are known by 
name, the locations of some of which can be 
determined more accurately than is possible 
for most of the settlements previously con- 
sidered. There were two villages in northern 
Secotan territory south of Albemarle Sound, 
two in the eastern area on Pamlico Sound, 
and four in the southern section west of 
Mattamuskeet Lake. It is possible to locate 
the first four of these more accurately than 
the others, in spite of the fact that there are 
several accounts of the colonists’ southern 
exploration, because White’s (and De Bry’s) 
map is geographically more accurate for the 
northern than for the southern area. The 
reason for our better knowledge of the na- 
tive geography of the northern area is that 
the English ‘new Fort in Virginia’ was 
established at the northern end of Roanoke 
Island (109) and that in their explorations 
by water the colonists usually sailed north- 
ward into Albemarle, rather than south- 
westward into Pamlico Sound. The Croa- 
toan Indians lived south of Roanoke Island, 
and at least one historian has suggested that | 
their consistent friendliness toward the 
English was due to their more distant south- 
ern location, in an area farther removed 
from and less molested by the English and 
therefore less threatened by the prospect of 
dispossession (110). 

Grenville’s relation of the Second Voyage 
(111), as well as Lane’s Account of the par- 
tcularitres of the imployments of the English 
men left in Virginia, gives an account of the 
colonists’ first exploration to the mainland- 
after arriving in America. The towns visited 
were Pomeiok, Acquascogoc, and Secotan, 
and this was the order of their location from 
east to west. The voyage was made from the 
island of Wococon (Ocracoke); the ships 
sailed westward to the mainland (Hyde and 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 7 


Beaufort Counties), entered the Pamlico 
River, and then returned to Wococon. The 
towns can be located as follows: | 

White’s map locates Pomeyoc between 
Lake Paquippe (Mattamuskeet) and Pam- 
lico Sound, and the text accompanying 
White’s drawing of ‘‘A Chiefe Herowans 
wife of Pomeoc’”’ (112) states that ‘about 
20 miles from the Iland [Roanoke], neere 
the lake of Paquippe, ther is another towne 
called Pomeioock hard by the sea.’’ White’s 
map shows the town on the bank of the lake 
rather than on the shore of the Sound, but 
that it was located on the Sound is indi- 
cated by Barlow’s reference to ‘‘the great 
River called Occam (Pamlico Sound)... 
on which standeth a towne called Pomei- 
ock” (113). De Bry’s map places Pomeiock 
between Lake Paquuyp and the Sound, and 
Smith’s map is again but a copy of De Bry’s 
in this location. The site of the town on a 
modern map could be either Gibbs Point or 
the northern shore of Wyesocking Bay, 
probably the former. Both Mooney and 
Hawks placed it at the mouth of Gibbs 
Creek, at or near the present town of Engel- 
hard in eastern Hyde County (114). The 
town was drawn by White and is repre- 
sented as a small, circular, palisaded village 
of 18 houses (115). The Secotan town of 
Pomeioc is not to be confused with the 
tribe of Pomouik, which was also Algonkian 
and which bordered Secotan territory to the 
west and southwest. 

On White’s map Aquascogoc is shown 
west of Mattamuskeet Lake on a body of 
water that is apparently meant to represent 
modern Pungo River. De Bry’s map shows 
a similar location. The Indian town was 
probably situated at or near modern Bel- 
haven, in eastern Beaufort County. Mooney 
believed it to have been on the east bank of 
the river and gave it a location in the vicin- 
ity of the present towns of Scranton and 
Makelyville, in western Hyde County 
(116). Hawks decided that Aquascogoc was 
near the mouth of the Neuse River, ‘‘possi- 
bly somewhere about Broad Creek, perhaps 
not so low down,”’ but he was led into error 
by confusing the tribe of Pomouik with the 
town of Pomeioc (117). Before the English 


‘had been in Carolina three weeks they. 


burned the town and destroyed the corn 


Juty 15, 1944 


fields of Aquascogoc because one of its in- 
habitants had stolen a silver cup (118). 
_ Thus began that enmity in the natives that 
led them to refuse to trade with the English, 
thereby depriving the colonists of food and 
contributing toward their decision to aban- 
don the colony when Drake appeared with 
his ships in the spring of the next year. 
Weapemeoc, Chowanoc, and Moratoc 
were not only tribal names but also the 
names of towns within their territories, and 
the same was true of Secotan. These towns 
were the residences of the tribal chiefs and 
therefore the political centers of the tribes. 
Secotan differed from the three northern 
tribes, however, in not having its principal 
town in the geographical center of tribal 
territory. According to White’s map and 
Barlow’s and Lane’s accounts, the town of 
Secotan was in the southern part of the ter- 
ritory of this tribe. Lane placed it at ‘‘the 
uttermost place to the Southward of any 
discovery” and estimated that it was “‘four- 
score miles distant from Roanok.’’ Barlow 
wrote that ‘Towards the Southwest foure 
dayes journey [from Roanoke] is situate a 
towne called Sequotan, which is the South- 
ernmost towne of Wingandacoa, neere unto 
which... [is] an out Island, unhabited, 
called Wocokon’”’ (119). The eastern shore 
of the peninsula between the Pamlico and 
Neuse Rivers is approximately 80 miles 
from Roanoke Island and is also near the 
island of Ocracoke or Wococon (120). 
White’s map is improperly oriented south 
of the Pungo—Pamlico River region, but 
when corrected for the confusion in direc- 
tions his towns of Secotan and Secotaoce 
seem to be on the south bank of Pamlico 
River. The former is placed about halfway 
up the estuary, probably east of present 
Bonnerton in Beaufort County, while 
Secotaoc is put east of Secotan in the region 
of Hobuchen and Mesic in northeastern 
Pamlico County. Secotan’s site was on the 
south bank of the Pamlico, apparently be- 
tween Durham and South Creeks, while 
Secotaoc may have been on the north shore 
of Bay River. De Bry, however, placed 
Secota on the north bank of a river appar- 
ently meant for the Pamlico, and put Sec- 
tuoc on the south bank. Mooney, who used 
De Bry’s map rather than White’s, accord- 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


215 


ingly located Secotan ‘‘on the north bank of 
Pamlico river, in the present Beaufort 
county” (121). Hawks relied on the narra- 
tives rather than the maps in attempting to 
locate Secotan, and not realizing that there 
were two towns involved, could not decide 
whether to place Secotan ‘“‘somewhere near 
... Bay river” or ‘‘at the mouth of South 
Creek on Pamlico river, a half mile above 
Indian Island’’ (122). As a matter of fact, 
Hawks’s alternative locations for the town 
of the narratives approximately correctly 
locate the two towns of the early maps. It 
is an interesting fact that whereas Secotan 
is one of the most frequently mentioned 
Indian villages in the Roanoke narratives, 
it is also one of the most difficult to locate 
specifically. This is due, of course, to the 
geographically indefinite references of the 
relations, plus the failure of White’s map in 
this respect for the southern Secotan settle- 
ments. 

In addition to Secota and Sectuoc, De 
Bry’s map shows a town named Cotan on a 
stream flowing into Pamlico River from the 
north. The name does not appear on White’s 
map, nor is it mentioned in the relations. 
Mooney identified it as ‘‘an Algonkian vil- 
lage in 1585 about Ransomville, Beaufort 
county”’ (123). Mooney based his location 
upon Smith’s map; from De Bry’s it would 
seem more likely that Cotan was situated at 
or near the historic town of Bath. 

The relations mention but two towns in 
the northern part of Secotan territory, but 
White’s map shows three and De Bry’s 
map shows four. These were Roanoak on 
the island by that name, Dasamonquepeuc 
on the western shore of Croatan Sound, and 
west of Dasamonquepeuc and south of 
Albemarle Sound the two towns of Tramas- 
quecoc and Mecopen. Mecopen is absent 
from White’s map, but on De Bry’s it is 
placed on the east bank of a stream flowing 
into the sound a short distance east of the 
mouth of Roanoke River. Mooney accord- 
ingly located the village south of the sound, 
near the Roanoke (124). The stream shown 
on the map, however, is clearly not a tribu- 
tary of the Roanoke. It may have been 
meant for Scuppernong River, in which case 
the native town would have been in either 
eastern Washington or western Tyrrell 


216 


County. It is shown on the map as some- 
what inland from the sound, which may ac- 
count for Lane’s failure to mention it in his 
accounts of the trips made in exploration of 
the Chowan and Roanoke Rivers. It was 
apparently a small village; at any rate, 
Barlow had not heard of it in 1584. 

White’s map shows the town of Tramas- 
kecooc at the head of a stream that, to 
judge from its size and location, was meant 
to represent Alligator River. Smith’s map 
has Tamasqueack and De Bry’s has 
Tramasquecoock on the west bank of the 
river. All maps show the town on the upper 
course of the stream. Gerard etymologized 
the name of the town as “‘people of the 
white-cedar swamps’’ (125)—a name eco- 
logically appropriate for inhabitants of this 
region. 

The native village of Roanoke, situated 
on the northern shore of Roanoke Island, 
was the first one visited by Englishmen in 
the New World and is the only one that is 
specifically described in the relations of the 
colony. Barlow described it as a small vil- 
lage of nine houses fortified with a palisade 
of sharp posts (126). It was the residence of 
Granganimo, a brother of the chief of the 
Secotan tribe, while Wingina, the chief, 
seems to have lived at both Roanoak and 
Dasamonquepeuc. The latter was a village 
on the mainland across the sound from Roa- 
noke. White spoke of Roanoke as ‘‘the Is- 
land directly over against Dasamongwe- 
peuk,” and Lane referred to “‘Dasamonque- 
peio in the maine, within two leagues over 
against” the English settlement on the 
island (127). That Wingina lived at either 
Roanoak or Dasamonquepeuc is indicated 
by Lane’s statements that ‘‘the King... 
sow|ed] his ground, not onely in the Iland, 
but also at Dasamonquepeio” and that 
‘“‘Pemisapan [Wingina] went of purpose to 
Dasamonquepeio... to see his grounds 
there broken up and sowed for a second 
crop”’ (128). 

Shortly after the colonists built their set- 
tlement on the island, the native village and 
the entire island seem to have been aban- 
doned by the Indian inhabitants. This was 
done probably after the death of Granga- 
nimo and hisfather, Ensenore, both of whom 
were friendly to the English. Wingina then 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, NO. 7 


became full chief, in fact as well as in name. 
At that time he changed his name to 
Pemisapan and thereafter adopted the 
policy of opposing the English at every 
turn. He gathered about him certain con- 
federates, such as Osacan, Tanaquiny, 
Wanchese, and Andacon, and chose the 
town of Dasamonquepeuce as the operating 
base for his plan of destroying the English 
settlement. There was no native town on 
the island when Governor White established 
his group there in 1587, or when he returned 
to the place in 1590. By 1587 the island was 
only visited by natives who came over from 
the mainland to hunt and fish. In that year 
George Howe, one of White’s assistants, 
was slain by “divers Savages which were 
come over to Roanoak, either of purpose to 
espie our company and what number we 
were, or else to hunt Deere, whereof 
[there] were many in the Island’”’ (129). 

Both White’s and De Bry’s maps carry 
the symbol of a native settlement at the 
northern tip of the island of Roanoke, and 
Barlow stated that the village stood ‘‘neere 
unto the waters side’ (130). None of the 
relations mention more than the single 
village, although superficial archeological 
reconnaissance conducted 50 years ago un- 
covered evidence of four sites of aboriginal 
occupancy (131). The excavation at that 
time was neither systematic nor adequate, 
and the investigator failed to describe both 
the number and the characteristics of the 
artifacts discovered. The island of Roanoke 
and the entire eastern area of the Carolinas 
await scientific study by trained archeolo- 
gists. The early work at Roanoke revealed 
the possibilities of archeological studies in 
this region, and it is to be hoped that scien- 
tific excavation may someday be accom- 
plished, for only by careful investigation of 
the native sites of occupation, such as those 
revealed by the contemporary narratives 
and early maps, can the complete history of 
native cultural development in this area be 
discovered. 

In some instances tentative suggestions 
as to prehistoric migrations and cultural 
relations can be extracted from the meaning 
of native words, and the word Roanoak it- 
self has been analyzed from this point of 
view. The modern spelling of this word is an 


JuLy 15, 1944 


adaptation of the native term Roanoak, or 
Roanoac, as it is invariably spelled in the 
early narratives. Gerard claimed that in 
the Eastern Algonkian languages the word 
signified ‘‘northern people’ or ‘‘northern- 
ers,’ and suggested that the name of this 
people may have derived from their location 
on the northern end of the island they in- 
habited, but more probably that it was in 
reference to a current tradition that they 
had originally migrated from an ancestral 
home in the north (132). That the Algon- 
kian tribes of Virginia and Carolina came 
from an earlier home in the general area of 
the Great Lakes is the consensus of students 
of prehistoric migrations in eastern native 
North America (133). 

Whereas the island of Roanoke is known 
to have had a native village on it at the time 
of the arrival of the English, it is difficult to 
determine which of the other islands were 
inhabited and which were not. White’s map 
designates most of the larger sandbank is- 
lands by native names, but this in itself is 
no indication of aboriginal residence. The 
only island location on his map that shows 
the symbol of an Indian village is the north- 
ern end of Roanoke. De Bry’s map shows a 
village here and also three towns on the is- 
land of Croatoan (134). Ocracoke Island 
(Wococon) was uninhabited, as was also 
the land near the inlet Barlow entered in 
~ 1584 (135). White found both Roanoke and 
“‘Hatorask”’ uninhabited in 1587. Inasmuch 
-as there are a number of references in the 
relations to the mainland people crossing 
Pamlico Sound on hunting and fishing ex- 
cursions, it is possible that the island vil- 
lages were temporary settlements season- 
ally occupied for these purposes. On the 
other hand, White stated that Manteo 
“had his mother and many of his kindred 
dwelling” on Croatoan Island and referred 
to it as “‘the place where Manteo was borne 
and the Salvages [are]... our friends” 
(136). The proximity of the larger islands 
to Secotan suggests that the Indians who 
frequented them were members of that 
tribe. However, Manteo and his people were 
sufficiently independent of the Secotan of 
the mainland to refuse to join Pemisapan’s 
conspiracy against the colonists in 1586. It 
is impossible to decide whether the inhabi- 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


217 


tants of Roanoke and Croatoan Islands 
were separate local groups, with their own 
tribal organization, or whether they were 
divisions of the Secotan tribe of the main- 
land. If parts of a single larger tribal terri- 
tory, the distance separating the inhabi- 
tants of Roanoke Island, Cape Hatteras, 
and the lower Pamlico River may be as- 
sumed to have resulted in some local politi- 
cal autonomy and perhaps also in a degree 
of general cultural differentiation. However, 
the information embodied in contemporary 
accounts is too sparse to prove or disprove 
this theory of regional specialization. 
Before we consider other original Al- 
gonkian groups of this area the relationship 
of the modern so-called ‘‘Croatan Indians’”’ 
to the Croatoan of the sixteenth century 
deserves a word of mention. Among the 
present ‘‘Croatan”’ of Robeson and adjacent 
counties in North and South Carolina (137) 
there has been a persistent tradition of In- 
dian ancestry. It has also been argued, nota- 
bly by McMillan and by Weeks, that they 
are descendants of Governor White’s ‘‘lost 
colonists,’’ who are supposed to have taken 
refuge with the Croatoan Indians in the 
area of Cape Hatteras (138). In 1709 Law- 
son reported that some of the Hatteras In- 
dians, as the Croatoan were known by that 
time, had gray eyes and that they then had 
a tradition of white ancestry and “‘value[d] 


themselves extremely for their affinity with 


the English.”’ It was Lawson’s opinion that 
White’s settlement had miscarried, either 
through the want of supplies from the Eng- 
lish or through the treachery of some of the 
natives, and that ‘‘in process of time they 
conformed themselves to the manners of 
their Indian relations” (139). 

Lawson’s theory is as reasonable as any 
proposed since his time, but it is an un- 
proved hypothesis and must remain so in 
the nature of the case. If the Croatoan—Hat- 
teras had absorbed their ancestral white 
blood as completely as Lawson suggested by 
the early eighteenth century, the theory of 
the Croatoan ancestry of the modern Croa- 
tan must be held to with temerity. The 
connection between the Hatteras and the 
ancestors of the modern Croatan is still un- 
substantiated, and therefore the hypothesis 
of Croatan descent from either the lost 


218 


colony or the early Croatan must be re- 
garded as quite baseless. In a recent recon- 
sideration of the anthropological aspects of 
the problem, Swanton has concluded that 
‘it is not improbable that a few families or 
small groups of Algonquian . . . connection 
may have cast their lot with’? the modern 
Croatan, but that ‘‘contributions from such 
sources must have been relatively insignifi- 
cant’”’ (140). Without denying the present 
“‘Croatans”’ their possible Indian ancestry, 
we may conclude that that ancestry was al- 
most certainly not Algonkian. From the 
point of view of their probable history they 
are legally Indians, but not ethnically Al- 
gonkian. 

South of the Secotan of 1585 were the 
Pomouik and Neusiok tribes. The only ref- 
erence to the existence of these people dur- 
ing the earliest historic period isin a para- 
graph of Barlow’s First Voyage. I quote the 
passage inasmuch as it is the only informa- 
tion available in contemporary accounts: 

Adjoyning to this countrey aforesaid called 
Secotan beginneth a countrey called Pomouik, 
belonging to another king whom they call Piema- 
cum, and this king is in league with the next king 
adjoyning towards the setting of the Sunne, and 
the country Neusiok, situate upon a goodly river 
called Neus. These kings have mortall warre with 
Wingina, king of Wingandacoa. But about two 
yeers past there was a peace made betweene the 


King Piemacum and the Lord of Secotan, as 
these men which we have brought with us to 


England have given us to understand. But there’ 


remaineth a mortall malice in the Secotanes, for 
many injuries and slaughters done upon them by 
that Piemacum. They invited divers men and 
thirtie women to the best of his countrey to their 
towne to a feast, and when they were altogether 
merry and praying before their Idol... the 
captaine or Lord of the town came suddenly upon 
them and slewe them every one, reserving the 
women and children. And these two have often- 
times since perswaded us to surprize Piemacum 
his towne, having promised and assured us that 
there will be found in it great store of commodi- 
ties .. . Their persuasion be to the ende they may 
be revenged of their enemies (141). 


The passage is of interest for a number of 
particulars: it establishes the fact that 
Manteo and Wanchese, ‘‘these men which 
we have brought with us to England,’’ were 
Secotan tribesmen. Manteo’s home village 
was on the island of Croatoan, which is thus 
indicated as a part of the Secotan tribe. 
Barlow also stated that the Neusiok tribe 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 7 


lived on the Neuse River and that the 
Pomouik ‘‘adjoined” the territory of the 
Secotan, presumably between the latter 
and the Neusiok. This suggests western 
Beaufort and northern Craven Counties as 
the location of the Pomouik. Their western 
neighbors—the ‘‘next king adjoyning to- 
wards the setting of the Sunne’’—are not 
mentioned by name, but tribal distribution 
in this area suggests they may have been 
the Woccon, a tribe of Siouan speech (142). 


-Piamacum’s town is not named, but in the 


location of Pananaioc on De Bry’s map we 
may have this tribal capital. On both De 
Bry’s map and Smith’s it is placed on the 
south bank of the Pamlico River toward the 
western end of the estuary. Mooney, who 
considered Pananaioc the principal tribal 
village of the Pomouik, located the tribe 
‘fon Pamlico river, west of the Secotan, in 
what is now Beaufort county” (148). How- 
ever, Barlow’s location of the Pomouik and 
Neusiok implies that these tribes ‘‘adjoined 
Secotan to the south, rather than to the 
west, and it was the ‘‘next adjoining”’ tribe, 
the group neighboring the Pomouik and 
Neusiok, which was ‘‘towards the setting of 
the Sunne.”’ Hawks suggested that Po- 
mouik territory was ‘‘the tract lying be- 
tween the head of Bay river and Newbern”’ 
(144), and Speck thinks the Pomouik were 
‘‘nossibly identical with [the later] Pam- 
lico”’ and locates the latter between the 
Pamlico River and Neuse River estuary 
(145). Pomouik tribal territory may be put 
down as including the western part of pres- 
ent Beaufort County, extending southward 
into the western and southern portions of 
the peninsula formed by the Pamlico and 
Neuse Rivers. The northeastern part of this 
peninsula was the southern part of Secotan 
territory. 

The southern neighbors of the Pomouik 
were the Neusiok and the Coree, both of 
which tribes inhabited the area south of the 
lower Neuse River. White’s map shows two 
native villages near the river—Newasiwac, 
on the south bank of the lower estuary, and 
Marasanico, located at the western end of 
Bogue Sound, perhaps at the mouth of pres- 
ent Whiteoak River. Correspondingly lo- 
cated towns on De Bry’s map are Neuusiooc 
and Cwareuuoc. Mooney at one time re- 


Juuy 15, 1944 


garded both of these towns as belonging to 
the Neusiok, but later he considered 
Cwareuuoc to have been a Coree settlement 
(146). Unless the latter assumption is per- 
mitted the first mention of the Coree tribe 
was by Governor Archdale in 1707. He de- 
scribed them as ‘‘a bloody and barbarous 
People,” most of whom had been ‘‘cut off by 
a neighboring Nation’? sometime previous 
to 1696 (147). Lawson named two Coree 
towns in 1709, with 25 fighting men, or a 
total population of less than 100 (148). A 
Coree town was located 10 miles from New 
Bern at the time of the founding of that 
settlement in 1710. Von Graffenried de- 
scribed it as ‘‘very well situated’’ on the 
Neuse River, but he did not state whether 
. it was below or above his own community. 
He stated that there were ‘‘two chiefs in the 
village ... the first an enemy of the Eng- 
lish and the other... a friend’’ (149). He 
referred to this village as ‘‘Core Town”’ and 
in another communication mentioned Co- 
ram and Corutra as Indian villages on the 
Neuse River above New Bern (150). Their 
names suggest that they were Coree vil- 
lages (151), and, if so, the tribe’s location 
at this period is established as northern 
Craven County. Its location was somewhat 
farther northwest but had not changed 
much from that in 1585. 

The Coree fought against the colonists in 
the Indian wars of 1711-1715 (152), and 
Coree stragglers were reported roaming the 
Neuse River frontier after peace was signed 
in 1715. In September of that year the 
Governor’s Council was informed that ‘‘the 
Core Indians [had] made a Revolt and Dan- 
gerously wounded one of his Majtes Sub- 
jects.”’ A small garrison was ordered estab- 
lished on the river “‘to Range upon ye 
Frontiers” in an attempt to effect the ‘‘En- 
tire Destruction of ye Said nation of Indians 
as if there had never been a peace made 
with them” (153). The known history of the 
tribe ends with this threat of extinction. 
What survivors remained may have joined 
the Tuscarora in their migration northward 
to the Iroquois, by whom they were 
adopted into the League of the Five Na- 
tions (154). 

The postcontact history of the Neusiok is 
similar to that of the Coree. By the later 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


219 


colonial period their Algonkian tribal name 
had been Anglicized to Neus or Neuse, and 
they were located somewhat westward of 
their situation in 1585. Maps of the early 
period located them on the south bank of 
the Neuse River near its mouth, but by 
1710 they inhabited the eastern part of the 
area between the Trent and Neuse Rivers. 
In 1709 Lawson stated that they lived in 
two towns, Chattooka and Rouconk. Von 
Graffenried wrote that Chatooka was ‘“‘the 
old name of the town of Newbern,”’ and 
Rouconk is believed to have been located 
nearby on the Neuse River in present Cra- 
ven County (155). Lawson gave the two 
towns but 15 warriors—approximately half 
a hundred people—in 1709, but Von Graf- 
fenried claimed ‘‘about a score of families’ 
inhabited Chatooka alone. When Von 
Graffenried bought the site of New Bern 
from the Indians the natives are said to 
have removed to ‘‘another place... upon 
the same river not far from”’ New Bern. The 
Neuse joined the Tuscorora in the war of 
1711-1712, in which the smaller tribes suf- 
fered more heavily than did the Tuscarora 
themselves. In September, 1712, Pollock 
wrote that colonial troops had “‘killed 40 or 
50 Cores, Bare River, River Neuse and 
Matamusket Indian men, and took near 
upon 200 of their women and children, yet 
in all the time... . not above 30 Tuskarora 
Indians were killed that we can hear of, the 
others being small nations not able of them- 
selves to hurt us” (156). At the end of the 
war Neuse survivors probably lost their 
tribal identity by incorporation with the 
Tuscarora. Subsequent to 1715 the history 
of the Neuse, Coree, and Pamlico Indians 
is the history of their stronger native ally in 
the previous war against the colony. Those 
that were not exterminated by war, disease, 
and dispossession of their tribal lands found 
more friendly dwelling places among Iro- 
quoian hosts in New York and Ontario. 
Unlike the Tuscarora and Tutelo, however, 
the smaller North Carolinian tribes did not 
survive the numerical decline and general 
cultural disintegration incident to their 
forced northward migration (157). 

The Pomouik of 1585 and the Pamlico of 
the later colonial period lived in the same 
territory, and from the coincidental situa- 


220 


tion of the two it has been inferred that the 
latter were descendants of the former. This 
assumption was held by Mooney and has 
been accepted by Speck (158). Archdale 
wrote that the ‘‘Pemlicoe” had been re- 
duced in number by a “great Mortality,” 
perhaps smallpox, previous to 1696 (159). 
Lawson reported that the adult fighting 
men of the ‘‘Pampticough’’ numbered but 
15—a total population of about 50—in 
1709; he said they lived in one town on an 
island of the river, which may have been 
Indian Island at the mouth of the Pamlico, 
in eastern Beaufort County (160). The tribe 
fought in the Tuscarora War and suffered 
the fate of the smaller tribes of eastern 
Carolina in that struggle—tribal disor- 
ganization, resulting in ultimate disappear- 
ance. The only definite statement in the 
sources concerning Pomouik—Pamlico popu- 
lation is Lawson’s figure of 15 warriors in 
1709. Mooney’s figure of 1,000 for the 
Pomouik of 1585 (161) is an estimate based 
upon the persistence of the tribe for more 
than 100 years and upon population esti- 
mates, which are little more than conjec- 


tural approximations, for neighboring 
tribes. Mooney’s estimate is probably too 
high. 


The linguistic position of two of the three 
tribes just discussed has been made the sub- 
ject of a great deal of speculation. Lawson’s 
vocabulary of 37 Pamlico words has been 
deemed sufficient to classify the Pomouik— 
Pamlico as Algonkian. To the nonlinguist, 
however, one of the most striking charac- 
teristics of Lawson’s Pamlico vocabulary is 
its lack of correspondence with the words 
with which it can be compared in the Vir- 
ginia Algonkian vocabularies given by 
Smith and Strachey (162). There is also 
Barlow’s statement that the Pomouik and 
Neusiok had ‘‘mortall warre’’ with the chief 
of the Secotan (163), a condition that would 
more likely, but not necessarily, obtain 
between groups of different linguistic stocks 
than between two tribal groups of the same 
stock. If the Pomouik were Algonkian and 
were at war with the Secotan in the precon- 
tact period, it is the only instance of one 
Carolina Algonkian group fighting another 
of which there is any record in the early 
narratives (164). Until better evidence to 


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VOL. 34, No. 7 


the contrary is presented, however, the 
Pomouik may be classified as Algonkian. 

The Neusiok and Coree inhabited an area 
in which Algonkian, Siouan, and Iroquoian 
languages met, and students are thereby 
deprived of geographical location as an in- 
dication of possible linguistic affiliation. In 
1894 Mooney classified the Neusiok as 
probably Algonkian, on the basis of their 
‘falliance with the Pamlico,’’ but in 1910 he 
characterized them as ‘‘an unclassified 
tribe, perhaps of Iroquoian stock.’”’ Speck 
classifies them as Algonkian, stating that 
‘“‘Mooney .. . subsequently followed Swan- 
ton in accepting an Algonkian conviction.” 
In a recent essay, however, Swanton refers 
to the Neusiok and Coree as ‘‘two small 
tribes on the lower course of Neuse river, | 
[which] ... were perhaps of Iroquoian lin- 
eage,’ and on his map of the linguistic 
stocks of the Southeast both tribes are 
shown in the Iroquoian area of the Tusca- 
rora (165). The name Neusiok is Algonkian, 
with the characteristic terminal suffix -ok 
for ‘‘people,’’ but it is possible that this was 
an Iroquoian-speaking tribe known only by 
the name given them by their Algonkian 
neighbors to the near-north. 

There has been similar disagreement 
among students with respect to the linguis- 
tic affiliation of the Coree. In an early essay 
Mooney stated that “‘the Coree, on the 
coast lands south of the Neuse, may have 
been a tribe of the same stock”’ as the Tus- 
carora, and on his tribal map of the region 
he put them in the coastal Iroquoian area. 
In a later statement, however, he consid- 
ered them as ‘‘possibly Algonquian” (166). 
Speck excludes the Coree from his ‘‘Caro- 
lina group” of Southeastern Algonkian, 
having elsewhere pointed out that ‘‘-re ter- 
minations in proper names and place names 
[are]... suggestive of Siouan affinity” 
(167). On the basis of this item of evidence 
the Coree might be regarded as presump- 
tively Siouan; Speck does not suggest that 
they were, however. Swanton has presented 
‘“‘one fragment of evidence”’ bearing on the 
linguistic affinity of the Coree. He quotes 
Lawson who said that “I once met with a 
young Indian woman that had _ been 
brought from beyond the mountains |1.e., 
from the west] .. . She spoke the same lan- 


JuLy 15, 1944 


guage as the Coramine [Coree] that dwell 
near Cape Lookout, allowing for some few 
words which were different, yet no other- 
wise than that they might understand one 
another very well.”’ Swanton doubts that a 
theory of the linguistic relationship of the 
tribe should be built upon Lawson’s inci- 
dental statement but points out that tribes 
of Iroquoian speech were the western 
neighbors of the Coree, while those of 
Siouan language were their neighbors to 
the south, and adds that Lawson’s reference 
““seems to exclude the Siouan connection 
and point to Iroquoian relationship’”’ (168). 

From the point of view of the distribution 
of linguistic families in this region the 
Pomouik, Neusiok, and Coree all inhabited 
in interstitial area between tribes that were 
definitely Algonkian, Siouan, and Iroquo- 
ian. Evidence is too inadequate to permit of 
the classification of the tribes without a 
large margin of uncertainty. As a tentative 
formulation, however, it is perhaps not too 
much to suggest that the Pomouik were 
probably Algonkian, that the Neusiok were 
possibly Algonkian, while the Coree were 
almost certainly affiliated with a non-Al- 
gonkian stock. The evidence is nonhistorical 
however, and the safer position is to con- 
sider the tribes themselves as of doubtful 
linguistic position. 


THE POSTCONTACT PERIOD 


Because of the virtual lack of records 
from the time of the Roanoke colony until 
the second half of the seventeenth century, 
we know nothing of the history of the Wea- 
pemeoc Indians for over 70 years. During 
this period the Weapemeoc were reduced in 
numbers, had been dispossessed of their 
originally held tribal lands, and had become 
separated into bands or divisions. Curri- 
tuck, Pasquotank, and Perquimans Coun- 
ties, each set up as a precinct of Albemarle 
County in 1670, are usually said to have 
been named for Indian tribes inhabiting the 
vicinity of these political divisions (169), 
but the only record of native groups by 
these names is Lawson’s reference to a 
“‘Paspatank” Indian town of 30 or 40 in- 
habitants, which he named after the river 
on which the town was located in 1709 
(170). Mooney referred to the Yeopim, 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


221 


Perquiman, Pasquotank, and Poteskeet as 
‘“‘bands or sub-tribes’”’ of the Weapemeoc of 
1585 (171), but his only authority cited is 
Lawson, who enumerated 10 ‘“‘Paspatank’’ 
and 30 ‘“‘Potaskeit’’ adult male Indians and 
6 “Jaupin (Yeopim) people” in 1709. The 
Jaupin are not located, but Lawson referred 
to the Paspatank and Potaskeit as inhabit- 
ing towns on Paspatank (Pasquotank) and 
North Rivers, respectively. Lawson’s names 
for these Indian groups were, with the pos- 
sible exception of Potaskeit, place names al- 
ready in use by the colonists. 

Only two of the four Weapemeoc bands 
above mentioned seem to have been com- 
monly known by the names given them by 
Mooney. These are the Yeopim, who in- 
habited the Yeopim River region and in 
general the western part of former Weape- 
meoc territory, and the Poteskeet who lived 
in the eastern half. In March, 1715, the 
Council of Carolina was petitioned by the 
‘“‘Porteskyte Indians”? who complained that 
the white inhabitants of ‘“‘Corratuck Bank”’ 
were hindering them from hunting on 
“those their usual grounds.” The natives 
reported that white settlers had threatened 
to destroy the guns of the Indians, without 
which they could not hunt, and that ‘‘with- 
out the liberty of hunting’ they could not 
subsist. The Council ordered that thence- 
forth the Poteskeet should be permitted to 
hunt on any of the banks without the 
hindrance of the English (172). The refer- 
ence is of interest in locating the Poteskeet 
in Currituck County and in indicating their 
possession of firearms by 1715. There is also 
mention of trade with these Indians and of 
their sale of tribal lands previous to that 
date (173). Governor Burrington included 
the ‘“‘Pottaskites” as one of the six Indian 
“nations” inhabiting Carolina in 1731 and 
stated that they numbered then less than 
20 families. Twenty years earlier the Rev. 
James Adams had reported ‘‘about 70 or 80 
Indians ... in the Precinct and Parish of 
Carahtuck ... many of which understand 
English tolerably well’ (174). 

Information concerning the Yeopim goes 
back to 1662, when in the oldest recorded 
land grant in North Carolina, the Yeopim 
chief, Kilcocanen or Kistotanen, “with the 
consent of my people” sold to George Du- 


222 


rant a “‘parcell of land lying and being on 
Roneoke Sound and on a River called by 
the name of Perquimans... which land at 
present bears the name of Wecocomicke.” 
This tract has been identified as Durant’s 
Neck, in southern Perquimans County 
(175), between the Perquimans and Little 
Rivers. The deed identifies the area as be- 
longing to the Yeopim, rather than ‘‘Per- 
quiman,” Indians at that period. Previous 
to 1714, 10,240 acres of land had been re- 
served for the ‘‘Yawpin’’ Indians, whose 
“King and great men” within nine years 
petitioned the Governor’s Council to ap- 
prove the sale of 640 acres ‘‘of the great 
Tract laid out to them by the Govern- 
ment.’’ By this time George Durant was the 
name of a Yeopim Indian, John Durant 
was the tribal ‘‘king,’’ and the other three 
tribal ‘‘great men’”’ who appeared before the 
Council also had English names. John Du- 
rant was still chief in 1740, when he pe- 
titioned the Council ‘‘in behalf of himself 
and the Yeopim Nation’”’ to be permitted 
‘““to sell and exchange their lands as may 
best [suit] their conveniency’”’ (176). With 
this request, which was granted, the Yeo- 
pim tribe disappears from the recorded his- 
tory of the colony. 

The third group of native people inhabit- 
ing the area north of Albemarle Sound in 
the later colonial period was the Chowanoc, 
who retained their name of the previous 
century. Though diminished in numbers 
and reduced in territory they still occupied 
settlements on the river to which they had 
given their name. They were said to have 
gotten along peacefully with the whites un- 
til 1675, when they ‘“‘struck swiftly and ef- 
fectively in the usual Indian fashion,”’ 
having been incited, it was claimed by the 
Carolina authorities, by the ‘rebellious 
Indians of Virginia who [had] fled to them.” 
Thereupon the settlers of the Albemarle re- 
gion made ‘‘open war’’ upon them by which 
with the loss of ‘‘many men’’ on both sides 
they were said to have been ‘‘wholly sub- 
dued.’”’ They then ‘‘had land for their habi- 
tation assigned them” (177) which was a 
reservation on Bennetts Creek in northern 
Chowan County, other tribal lands at the 
same time having been “resigned into the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 7 


immediate possession of the Lords Pro- 
prietors as of their province of Carolina” 
(178). Either the precise limits of the reser- 
vation were never clearly surveyed or the 
land-hunger of the settlers resulted in 
trespass across the boundaries theoretically 
agreed upon, for in 1694 the Chowanoe 
complained to the General Court of Albe- 
marle that they were being ‘‘much injured 
by the English seating soe near them,” and 
in 1714 ‘‘Jno Hoyter on behalfe of himselfe 
and the rest of ye Chawan Indyons”’ peti- 
tioned the Governor’s Council for the land 
‘fon the Eastern side of Bennets Creek in- 
cluding Meherins Neck,” which they said 
was theirs by previous agreement with co- 
lonial authorities. Hoyter legitimately ar- 
gued that the Chowanoc deserved their 
land without molestation from the settlers, 
inasmuch as the Chowanoe had been upon 
eight expeditions against ‘‘the Indian En- 
emy’’—1.e., the Tuscarora and their allies— 
and that during their absences they had suf- 
ferred considerable losses in stock and erops 
(179). Again in 1720 “John Hoyter, Chief 
man of the Chowan Indians’’ found it nec- 
essary to protest to the Governor’s Council 
that white people were continually intrud- 
ing upon Indian land (180). 

After the Tuscarora War the history of 
the Chowanoc is that of further reduction in 
population, the sale of additional land, and 
their gradual accommodation to the folk- 
ways of the whites. From the largest group 
in Algonkian Carolina in 1585 they had 
been reduced, according to Lawson, to 15 
men—perhaps 50 people—living in one set- 
tlement on Bennetts Creek in 1709 (181). 
At a Council meeting in January, 1735, that 
body approved of the sale of ten plots of 
their land, totaling 2,025 acres, the reason 
given being that ‘‘the Chowan... [were| 
possessed of a large parcel of lands lying in 
Chowan precinct”’ and that being “‘but few 
in number’’ they were unable ‘‘to cultivate 
the same or make any benefit thereby.” 
The Indians still retained certain ‘‘Lands on 
Bennets Creek’’ (182). There are also rec- 
ords of the sale of unspecified amounts of 
land in December, 1735, and in March, 
1743; and in 1744, 640 more acres were dis- 
posed of by the “‘chief men of Chowan.” 


Juty 15, 1944 


The tribesmen were soon complaining that 
the purchasers were appropriating more 
land than they had bargained and paid for 
(183). All the individuals of the tribe in- 
volved in these transactions had English 
names, viz. Thomas Hoyter (Hoyton, Hoy- 
ston), John Hoyter, Charles Bennet, James 
Bennet, John Robins, John Reading, 
Charles Beazley, Jeremiah Pushing, and 
Neuse Will. These names also occur as 
those of white settlers of the Albemarle 
communities. The acculturational process 
had started years earlier, however. In 1712 
the Rev. Giles Rainsford wrote that 
“Thomas Hoyle, King of the Chowan Indi- 
ans... [was] very inclinable to embrace 
Christianity”’ and that he had expressed the 
desire that his son be educated in an Eng- 
lish school (184). Rainsford located the trib- 
al remnant in the “‘upper end of Chowan’’ 
precinct and stated that he had lived ‘5 
months in Chowan Indian town and made 
myself Master of their language.’’ It is a 
pity that, knowing the Chowan as he must 
have, Rainsford did not tell us more about 
them, for by his day they were on the verge 
of extinction as a group. Forty years later 
Bishop Spangenburg, of the Moravian 
Church, wrote that ‘‘the tribe of Chowans 
is reduced to a few families [and] their land 
has been taken away from them’’ (185). 
In 1754 the commander of the Chowan 
County militia reported to Governor Dobbs 
that ‘‘there is but one Indian Nation in 
Chowan County, which are called the 
Chowan Indians, but their strength is 
nothing and their condition very deplorable 
by the artifice and cunning of some of their 
neighbors. I am informed they consist of 
two men and five women and _ children, 
which two white men would at any time 
overcome”’ (186). This miserable remnant 
of the former tribe must have disappeared 
within the next few years, for no more is 
heard of the Chowanoc in the subsequent 
records of the colony. | 

The records of the Roanoke colony show, 
as we have seen, that the region between 
Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds was origi- 
nally the home of the Secotan Indians. The 
descendants of these tribes went un- 
mentioned in the historical records of the 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


223 


seventeenth century, except for one report. 
In September, 1653; Francis Yeardley of 
Linnhaven, Va., sent a small party of a few 
relatives and neighbors to ‘‘Rhoanoke’”’ 
Island and the adjacent mainland. For 
£200 Yeardley claimed to have “‘purchased 
and paid for three great rivers’’ of land from 
‘‘the great commander of those parts... 
his war-captains, and a great commander of 
another province and some other Indians 
... Actual possession was solemnly given 
them [Yeardley’s representatives] by the 
great commander and all the great men of 
the rest of the provinces, in delivering them 
a turf of the earth with an arrow shot into 
it.’” With the completion of the transaction 
the natives are said to have ‘‘totally left 
the lands and rivers to us, retiring to a new 
habitation,’’ which is, unfortunately, not 
specified. The “‘lands on the rivers’? men- 
tioned could not have been on Roanoke 
Island and must, therefore, refer to the 
mainland west of Pamlico Sound. ‘Sundry 
other kings of the provinces’’ were visited, 
including chiefs of villages in the tribal ter- 
ritory of the ‘‘Tuskarorawes”’ as well as the 
Secotan. The English were told of “‘a great 
nation called the Newxes [Neuses],... a 
great nation called the Cacores [Shakoril, 
... and another great nation by these, 
called the Haynokes [Eno].’’ Subsequent to 
the trip of the Virginians into Carolina the 
‘“‘Rhoanoke emperor”’ paid Yeardley several 
visits at his home at Linnhaven, leaving 
‘this only son, having but one”’ to be taught 
“to speak out of the book and to make a 
writing.’’ At his departure the chief ‘‘ex- 
pressed himself desirous to serve that God 
the Englishmen served, and that his child 
might be so brought up’’ (187). 

Nothing more is heard of the Roanoke 
chief or his son, and the Roanoke Indians, 
as well as other Secotan descendants, faded 
from history for over 50 years. By the end 
of that period the native inhabitants south 
of Albemarle Sound had experienced the 
same sort of divisive process that had 
separated the Weapemeoc into bands or 
divisions. Writing of the first decade of the 
eighteenth century, Lawson mentioned two 
groups in this area—the Machapungo and 
the Hatteras, the former numbering 30 


224 


adult men in the Town of Maramiskeet and 
the latter having 16 men in a town near 
Cape Hatteras. Lawson added one item of 
Machapunga tribal history in stating that 
they and the Coranine (Coree) ‘‘had been a 
long time at war together, (having but) 
lately concluded a peace’ (188). 

In the eighteenth-century records of the 
colony the Machapunga were usually known 
as the Mattamuskeet, the latter name 
being derived from that of the principal 
village. The fact that they impressed their 
name upon the lake in Hyde County and 
that Pungo River and Creek in eastern 
Beaufort County were also named after 
them gives an indication of their tribal loca- 
tion. There is an indication, also, in the 
meaning of their name, although decision 
as to the latter is a somewhat doubtful 
process, depending upon interpretation of 
the phonetic elements involved in the 
original tribal eponym. Heckewelder de- 
rived the name from matchi-pungo, meaning 
‘“‘bad dust’’; Mooney, however, suggested 
massa-pungo, *‘ ‘great or much dust,’ in al- 
lusion to the sandy soil of the district” 
(189). Speck calls attention to the fact that 
the element pung may signify either sand 
or dust or ‘“‘pond,” and suggests that ‘‘great 
pond or lake [people]”’ is a more appropri- 
ate etymology (190). 

During the Tuscarora War the Matta- 
muskeet went on record a number of times 
for their activities in that struggle. Von 
Graffenried mentioned the ‘‘Marmusckits 
from the rivers Bory, Wetock, Pamtego, 
Neus, [and] Trent’’ and the ‘‘Cor [Coree] 
Indians” as Tuscarora allies who fought 
against the settlers. Pollock classified the 
‘‘Matamusket,’ among the smaller enemy 
tribes who, without the aid of the stronger 
Tuscarora, were at first considered ‘‘not able 
of themselves to hurt us’’ (191). Pollock 
later wrote of ‘‘some Matamuskite Indians 
disturbing the people at Matchepungo”’ and 
claimed that the same group had “killed 
and carried away about 20 persons at 
Roanoke Island and at Croatan.”’ They also 
attacked the settlers at Alligator River, 
killing or capturing some 16 or 20 of the in- 
habitants (192). There are several references 
to their manner of fighting. Von Graffenried 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 7 


wrote that they made their attacks by 
‘“‘small platoons,’’ which plundered and 
killed the whites at their isolated planta- 
tions. Pollock commented a number of 
times upon their taking advantage of ‘‘dis- 
mal swamps to fly into” and stated that in 
the woods and “‘pocosuns’”’ the Indians were 
superior to the whites. In “‘lakes, quagmires, 
and caneswamps. . . itis almost impossible 
for white men to follow” the Indians, who 
have ‘‘boats and canoes, being expert 
watermen, wherein they can transport 
themselves where they please’”’ (193). 

By the summer of 1713, after two years 
of warfare, a peace was concluded with 
Tom Blunt (or Blount), chief of the north- 
ern Tuscarora towns. The Mattamuskeet 
and Coree were not a party to these negotia- 
tions, Pollock stating at the time that ‘if 
Blount keeps the peace we shall have only 
the Mattemuskeet and Core Indians to 
mind, who of late have done us great mis- 
chief... The army are now out against the 
Mattemuskeet Indians, in which expedition 
if they succeed it will go near to finish the 
war’ (194). Within a few months it was re- 
ported that there was ‘‘no enemy to go 
against, but a few Mattamuskeets” and 
that only “stragglers [were] left of the 
Cores or Cotechnees and Matamuskeets”’ 
(195). By 1715 peace was concluded with 
the totally defeated Indians and a reserva- 
tion was established for the survivors at 
Mattamuskeet Lake. The Governor was 
instructed to appoint an overseer ‘‘to live 
with ye Said Indyans . . . at Mattamuskeet 
... the better to Inspect into their behavior 
and to remit accounts thereof”’ (196). This 
marks the establishment of North Caro- 
lina’s first Indian reservation with a resident 
commissioner paid for and responsible to 
the governing authorities. 

There is no indication of the number of 
natives who took advantage of the reserva- 
tion, for some of the survivors seem to have 
joined the Tuscarora and Siouan tribes in 
their trek toward the north. During the last 
two years of the war Pollock’s letters re- 
ferred to the coastal Indians as “‘few’’ in 
number, wasted, ‘‘stragglers,’? and a rem- 
nant. However, for a group accorded but 30 
warriors in 1709 the Mattamuskeet seem 


Juny 15, 1944 


to have offered their share of trouble during 
the four years of the war. In 1731 Governor 
Burrington reported that the ‘Mare- 
muskeets”’ lived on their reservation ‘‘secure 
from the attacks of Forreign Indians’’ and 
that they had been “‘of late years .. . much 
diminished’? and numbered less than 20 
families (197). Returns for about 1760 gave 
“about 8 or 10 Maramuskeet”’ Indians on 
the mainland with about ‘‘as many on the 
Islands or Banks”’ (198). In 1761, and-again 
in 1763, the Rev. Alexander Stewart re- 
ferred to ‘“‘the remains of the Altamuskeet, 
Hatteras and Roanoke Indians [which] live 
mostly along the coast [of Hyde County], 
mixed with the white inhabitants.’ They 
attended Stewart’s services, ‘‘behaved with 
decency, seemed desirous of instruction, 
and offered themselves and their children 
...for baptism.’’ This missionary baptized 
7 Indians in 1761 and 21 in 1763, all of 
whom he described as being ‘‘fond of hear- 
ing the Word of the true God, . . . of being 
admitted into the church,” and as having as 
much “‘notion of any religion”’ as the whites 
of the neighborhood (199). 

Nothing is heard of the Mattamuskeet or 
of any other Carolina Algonkian group in 
the nineteenth century. All records of the 
previous century denote the numerical 
paucity of the coastal tribes and suggest 
that the surviving people were interested in 
learning and conforming to ways of the 
settlers. The final few remaining descend- 
ants must have become merged with the 
negroes and whites of the frontier com- 
munity. Aboriginal culture was largely lost 
as the result of the impact of culture of Old 
World derivation. The extent to which this 
is true is shown by Professor Speck’s search 
for ethnic and cultural survivals in the area 
formerly inhabited by one group of the 
Algonkian aborigines. ‘‘Persistent inquiry” 
by this investigator uncovered ‘‘a few 
families of mixed blood,’’ whom he regarded 
as ‘“‘descendants of the local Indian tribes”’ 
living on the coast of Dare and Hyde Coun- 
ties and on the adjacent islands in 1916. 
Their descent was traced from ‘Indians 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


225 


who came originally from Pungo river,” 
and they are put down as ‘‘evidently rem- 
nants of the Machapunga tribe.”’ In appear- 
ance they are described as varying greatly 
‘from individuals with pronounced Indian 
characteristics, through people with notice- 
able white or Negro features, the latter sort 
predominating in the younger generations.” 
No more than the merest fragments of a 
former Indian way of life were discovered 
among these mixed bloods. ‘‘Not one of 
these people knew a single word of the 
Indian language and not one knew of any 
definite Indian customs or traditions, not 
even the name of their tribe’’ (200). 

Speck’s survey shows that neither ethnol- 
ogy nor native history can be rescued from 
the memories of living descendants. Arche- 
ological excavation and the study of 
documentary sources remain the only 
methods by which ethnic history can be in- 
vestigated in this important area of ab- 
original America. The present study has 
shown that, contrary to the usual impres- 
sion, the various Algonkian groups of the 
coastal area are not all to be considered as 
contemporary inhabitants of the region of 
their occupancy. Historic perspective re- 
veals that the native tribes of this region 
must be differentiated into those of the 
period of the earliest explorations and those 
of the period of later colonization. The 
Algonkian of the former period (1584 to 
1590) were the Weapemeoc, Chowanoc, 
Moratoc, Secotan, Pomouik, and Neusiok. 
Those of the later period (c. 1650 to ec. 
1800) were the Yeopim, Poteskeet, Chowan, 
Machapunga (Mattamuskeet), Pamlico, 
and Neuse. At the time of discovery the 
native tribes were large and the indig- 
enous cultures were living realities. By the 
end of a century and a half of white contact 
tribes were disorganized, the native popula- 
tion had all but vanished, and the original 
local cultural properties had disappeared. 
The ethnohistorical process in the Algon- 
kian area of Carolina was one marked by 
disturbance, defeat, decline, disorganiza- 
tion, and final extinction. 


226 


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VOL. 34, No. 7 


NOTES 


(106) HAT 2: 495, 1173. 

(107) Mooney’s figure of 1,200 persons for the 
“Wingandacoa of 1585” is an estimate deduced 
from the size of remnant bands of the Secotan 
(Machapunga, Hatteras, etc.) in the later colonial 
period, i.e., c. 1700 (Aboriginal Population North 
of Mexico: 6, 1928). The Roanoke records give no 
information whatsoever on Secotan population in 
1585. 

(108) Lans, p. 142; Hartort, p. 186; Bartow, 
p. 127. For White’s drawings see BUSHNELL, 1927, 
pipe 8, opp. pp. 428, 429, or Binyon, 1925, pls. 
24 


(109) White’s Fifth voyage, Hakluyt, p. 221. 

(110) Epwarp CHANNING, History of the United 
States 1: 130, 1905. On the other hand, Croatoan 
was frequently visited by the colonists when 
watching for the arrival of their expected supplies 
from England. 

(111) The voiage made by Sir Richard Greenvile, 
for Sir Walter Ralegh, to Virginia, in the yeere 1585, 
Hakluyt 6: 132-1389. I ascribe authorship to 
Grenville, rather than to Lane, inasmuch as the 
narrative deals with events up to and including 
Grenville’s return to England; however, both 
“our Generall Sir Richard Greenevil”’ and ‘‘our 
Lieutenant Master Ralph Lane’’ are referred to 
in the third person, as if neither were the author. 
The account is in the form of a daily journal and 
must, therefore, have been written by a member 
of the expedition. 

(112) Misprint for Werowan’s; in De Bry this 
picture is entitled ‘‘A chieff Ladye of Pomeioc’’ 
(De Bry, pl. 8; for original see BUSHNELL, 1927, 
pl. 4, opp. p. 425, or BINYON, p. 28-b). 

(113) Hakluyt 6: 129. 

(114) Moonny, HAI 2: 276; Hawks, History 
of North Carolina 1: 85, 237, 238. Tarbox is en- 
tirely incorrect in saying that ‘‘Pomeiok... 
seems to have been the chief town of the Indians 
called the Newsioks, [and] was on or near the 
Neuse River... [near] the spot where now stands 
the town of Newbern”’ (op. cit.: 140n.) 

(115) BusHNELL, 1927, pl. 7, opp. p. 428 (also 
in Amer. Anthrop. 9(1): opp. p. 32, 1907); 
Binyon, pl. 27-a. 

(UNG) SEAT 207.1. 

(117) History of North Carolina 1: 101. Here 
Hawks made the mistake that he warned his 
readers against in another connection: ‘‘The dis- 
trict of Pomouik must therefore not be con- 
founded with the town of Pomeiock’’ (p. 85). 
Tarbox repeated Hawks’s error in placing Aquas- 
cogoc ‘‘on the Neuse River, some little way up 
from its mouth” (Sir Walter Ralegh’s colony: 
140n). Tarbox gave Hawks credit for doing ‘‘as 
much perhaps as any one to find and fix the 
places covered by the Indian names” of the 
Roanoke relations, and throughout his own book 
repeated Hawks’s erroneous locations. 

(118) GRENVILLE, in Hakluyt 6: 137-138. 

(119) Hakluyt 6: 129 (Barlow), 141 (Lane). 

(120) White’s and De Bry’s maps, and all sub- 
sequent maps based upon the latter, show that 
Wococon was the native name for modern Ocra- 
coke Island. 

(121) HAT 2: 295. 

(122) History of North Carolina 1: 74, 101. 

(123) HAT 1: 352. 

(124) HAT 1: 829. 

(125) HAT 2: 801. 


(126) Hakluyt 6: 127. 

(127) Ibid.: 155 (Lane), 221 (White). 

(128) Ibid.: 155, 156. 

(129) Ibid.: 201 (White’s Fourth voyage); 221— 
222 (White’s Fifth voyage). 

(130) Ibid. : 127. 

(131) Tautcorr Wiuuiams, “The Surroundings 
and Site of Raleigh’s Colony,” Ann. Rep. Amer. 
Hist. Assoc. for 1895: 54-60, 1896. 

(1382) W. R. GERARD, “Virginia Indian Con- 
tributions to English,”’ Amer. Anthrop. 9(1): 106, 
1907; also HAJ 2: 392. Gerard claimed that 
“Roanoke” as a name for the shell beads used by 
the natives as ornaments and as a medium of ex- 
change was a misnomer, due to the colonists’ mis- 
hearing of the original word, which Smith gave 
as rawrenock (Works, Arber, p. 46), and Strachey 
gave as rarenaw (Historie, p. 185). This word, 
with the root rar meaning to “rub, abrade, 
smooth, or polish,”’ according to Gerard’s ‘etymol- 
ogy, meant “smoothed shells” (HAJ 2: 398). 
However, Lawson gave “ronoak’”’ as the Pamlico 
word for ‘‘peak” in his short vocabulary of the 
tribe. (History, 1937 ed., p. 243). It is possible 
that by 1709 the Pamlico had accepted an English 
corruption of the original Algonkian word. 

(1383) D. I. BusHNnE LL, JR., “Tribal Migrations 
East of the Mississippi,’’? Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 
89(12): 2-3, maps 1-4, 1934; Kas BirKxer- 
Smitu, ‘“‘A Geographical Study of the Early His- 
tory of the Algonkian Indians,’’ Internat. Archiv 
fiir Ethnogr. 24, 1918; idem, Polk Wanderings 
and Cultural Drifts in Northern North America,” 
Journ. Soc. Américanistes de Paris 22: 1-32, 1930. 

(134) Croatoan is now usually identified as the 
land between Ocracoke Island and Cape Hatteras. 
Some have given it a more southern location, on 
the northern part of present Portsmouth Island 
(e.g., Mooney, HAT 1: 365). 

(135) Hakluyt 6: 122-124, 130. 

(186) Lb¢d.: 202, 223. 

(137) For the number and present social status 
of this group see O. M. McPuerson, Report on 
the condition and tribal rights of the Indians of 
Robeson and adjoining counties of North Carolina 
(Senate Doc. 677): 7-40, 120-1382, 223-252, 1915; 
and R. M. Harpmr, “A Statistical Study of the 
Croatans,’’ Rural Sociology 2(4): 444-456, 1937. 

(188) Hamitton McMiuan, Sir Walter Ra- 
leigh’s lost colony, privately printed, Raleigh, 
1907; idem, ‘‘The Croatans,’”’? North Carolina 
Booklet 10: 115-121, 1911; StmpHen B. WaExKs, 
“The Lost Colony of Roanoke: Its Fate and Sur- 
vival,’”’ Papers Amer. Hist. Assoc. 5 (pt. 4): 107— 
146, 1891; zdem, ‘‘Raleigh’s Settlements on 
Roanoke Island, An Historical Survival,” Mag. 
Amer. Hist. 25: 127-139, 1891. McPherson and 
D. L. Rights have reviewed the arguments for 
and against the Croatoan affiliation but are per- 
sonally noncommital (McPherson, op. cit.: Rights, 
“The Lost Colony Legend,’ Bull. Arch. Soc. 
North Carolina 1(2): 3-7, 1934). 

(139) History of Carolina, 1937 reprint, p. 62. 

(140) J. R. Swanton, “Probable Identity of 
the ‘Croatan’ Indians,”’ U.S. Department of the 
Interior, Office of Indian Affairs (typescript), p. 5, 
1933. Swanton concludes that probably ‘“‘certain 
Siouan tribes” of the Southeast mainly contrib- 
uted to the Indian ancestry of the modern Croa- 
tan. “If the name of any tribe is to be used in 
connection with this body of... people, that of 


JuLy 15, 1944 


the Cheraw would, in my opinion, be most ap- 
propriate.”’ 

(141) Hakluyt 6: 130-131. 

(142) Moonry, The Siouan tribes of the East: 
65 and map opp. p. 5; 7dem, HAI 2: 967-968; 
Lawson, History (1937 ed.), frontispiece map. 

Ges) AT 2: 277. 

(144) History of North Carolina 1: 74. 

(145) Amer. Anthrop. 26(2): 188, 189 (map), 
1924. 

(146) HAT 1: 222 (Cawruuoc); 2: 60 (Neusiok); 
Aboriginal population of America North of Mexico: 
6, 1928 (Neuse and Coree=Nusiok and Caw- 
ruuock). 

(147) A new description of ... Carolina (Lon- 
don, 1707),in A. 8S. Sauuey, ed., Narratives of Early 
Carolina: 286, 1911. Archdale refers to them as 
the ‘‘Coranine . . . Nation of Indians.” 

(148) History, 1937 ed., p. 255. Lawson calls 
them ‘‘Connamox’”’ Indians, with Coranine and 
Raruta as the names of their towns. 

(149) V. H. Topp, ed., Christoph von Graffen- 
ried’s account of the founding of New Bern: 376— 
377, 1920. 

(150) Von Graffenried to Governor Hyde, 
Colonial records of North Carolina 1: 990. 

(151) Hewitt listed Coram and Corutra as set- 
tlements of the Tuscarora (HAI 2: 852). They 
were located on the border of Tuscarora and 
Coree territory, and it is difficult to determine to 
which tribe they should be accorded. 

(152) Colonial records of North Carolina 1: 827, 
868, 875, 934, 955, 990-992; 2: 24, 29, 39, 45, 62, 
168 indicate Coree participation in the Tuscarora 
War. For this conflict as an aspect of the history 
of the colony see R. D. W. Connor, History of 
Carolina: 1 (ch. 7), 1919, and ARcHIBALD HEN- 
DERSON, North Carolina: The Old North State and 
the New 1 (ch. 4), 1941. For its ethnological 
aspects see J. N. B. Hewirt, “Tuscarora,” HAI 
2: 842-853, and C. W. Miuuine, Red Carolinians: 
ch. 8, 1940. 

(153) Colonial records of North Carolina 2: 200, 
244 


(154) Mooney stated that “in 1715 the rem- 
nants of the Coree and Machapunga were as- 
signed a tract on Mattamuskeet lake... where 
-they lived in one village, probably until they be- 
came extinct” (HAJ 1: 349). There is but one 
reference in the colonial records which suggests 
that the Coree were included in the Mattamuskeet 
reservation (Colonial records of North Carolina 2: 
168). They more probably joined the Tuscarora 
remnant in its northward migration. (For the 
Tuscarora in North Carolina their migration 
northward, and their adoption by the Iroquois, 
see .. N. B. Hewitt, ‘Tuscarora,’ HAI 2: 842— 
853. 

(155) History, 1937 ed., p. 255 and map 
(frontispiece); VON GRAFFENRIED, in Colonial rec- 
ords of North Carolina 1: 910, 933, 978; Moongy, 
Poe 27: 2: 60,°397; -V. Hs -Lopp, .op. cit. : 
234, 373-374. 

(156) Colonial records of North Carolina 1: 875; 
also pp. 843, 933-934, 955 for Neuse participa- 
tion in the war. 

(157) Approximately 400 Tuscarora today live 
on a reservation near Niagara Falls, N. Y., and 
Speck has found the tradition of Tutelo tribal 
identity preserved among half a hundred Tutelo 
mixed descendants who live among the Iroquoian 
Cayuga at Six Nations Reserve near Brantford, 


MOOK: ALGONKIAN ETHNOHISTORY OF CAROLINA SOUND 


227 


Ontario. (See map of Iroquoian reservations and 
settlements in 1940, W. N. Fenton, ‘Problems 
Arising from the Historic Northeastern Position 
of the Iroquois,’”’ in Essays in Historical Anthro- 
pology of North America, Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 
100: 214-215, 1940. Also F. G. Sprcx, The 
T utelo spirit adoption ceremony : v—xvii, 1-3, Penn- 
sylvania Historical Commission, 1942.) There is 
no similar trace of Neuse, Pamlico, or Coree 
descendants among modern mixed peoples. 

(158) Moonry, HAI 2: 277 (Pomouic); Speck, 
Amer. Anthrop.26 (2): 188, 1924. 

(159) A new description ...of Carolina (Lon- 
don, 1707), in A. S. Sauuey, ed., Narratives of 
Early Carolina: 286. 

(160) History of Carolina, 1937 reprint, p. 255. 

(161) Aboriginal population of America north 
of Mexico: 6, 1928. 

(162) Compare, for example, the words for the 
numerals from 1 to 10 given by these three au- 
thors (Lawson, History of Carolina, 1937 reprint, 
pp. 240-248; Smith’s Works, Arber edition, pp. 
44-46; Strachey, Historie: 183-196). 

(163) Hakluyt 6: 130. 

(164) The entrance of the English, of course, 
disturbed the native situation, and wars within 
linguistic stocks occurred; for example, one sec- 
tion of the Tuscarora tribe fought against the 
colonists while another fought with them in the 
wars of 1711-1715. 

(165) Moonny, The Siouan tribes of the East: 
7, 1894; idem, HAI 2: p. 60, 1910; Sprcx, 
Amer. Anthrop. 26(2):187n, 188, 189 (map), 1924; 
Swanton, ‘‘The Probable Identity of the ‘Croa- 
tan’ Indians,’”’ U. 8. Department of the Interior, 
Bureau of Indian Affairs: p. 2, 1933; idem, ‘‘The 
Southeastern Indians of History,’’ Conference on 
Southern Prehistory: map no. 1, opp. p. 98, 1932. 

(166) The Stouan tribes of the East: 8, frontis- 
piece map; HAT 1: 349. 

(167) ‘The Ethnic Position of the Southeast- 
ern Algonkian,’’ Amer. Anthrop. 26 (2): 187-188, 
1924; “The Possible Siouan Identity of the Words 
Recorded from Francisco of Chicora,’ Journ. 
WASHINGTON Acap. Scr. 14(18): 303, 1924. 
Siouan tribes in the Southeastern area with the 
characteristic termination Dr. Speck alludes to 
were Shoccocree (Shakori), Sugaree, Wateree, 
Congaree (and Coree?). There were also the Sa- 
poni, Occaneechi, Keyauwee, Pedee, Santee, and 
Sewee. The terminations -2, -e, or -ee practically 
never occur in Eastern Algonkian proper names. 

(168) J. R. Swanton, “Unclassified Languages 
of the Southeast,’”’ Internat. Journ. Amer. Lin- 
guistics 1: 3, 1917. 

(169) E.g., J. H. WHEELER, Historical Sketches 
of North Carolina 2: 132, 339, 341, 1851; C. C. 
CRITTENDEN and D. Lacy, eds., The Historical 
Records of North Carolina: The County Records 2: 
42, 1938 (Currituck County); 3: 114, 142, 1939 
(Pasquotank and Perquimans Counties). 

(170) History, 1937 reprint, p. 255. 

(171) Stouan tribes of the East: 7, 1894; HAT 2: 
207, 234, 293, 297, 1910. Speck considers the 
Yeopim the same as the Weapemeoc and the 
Pasquotank, Perquiman, and Poteskeet as ‘‘prob- 
ably” divisions of the latter (Amer. Anthrop. 26 
(2): 187-188, 1924). 

(172) Council Journal, 1715, Colonial records of 
North Carolina 2: 172. 

(173) Colonial of North Carolina 2: 22, 734 
(1708, ‘‘Portes Leites’’ Indians), 141 (1714, “‘ye 


228 


Poteskeyt Towne’’), 204-205 (1175, ‘‘Porteskill’”’ 
Indians). 

(174) fotd: 32153312734. 

(175) Ibid. 1: 19; H. T. Lerier, North Caro- 
lina history told by contemporaries: 14-15, 1934; 
R. D. W. Connor, History of North Carolina 1: 
27, 1919. 

(176) ee records of North Carolina 2: 140, 
483; 4: 446 

(177) Pollock letter to the Virginia Council, 
June 17, 1707, Colonial records of North Carolina 
1: 657-658. 

(178) Moongry, HAJ 1: 292; R. D. W. Connor, 
History of North Carolina 1: 50-51. 

(179) Colonial records of North Carolina 2: 140— 
141; also 1: 857-860, for the Chowanoc participa- 
tion in the war of 1711-1712 on the side of the 
colonists. Mooney is incorrect in placing them in 
eave War against the whites (HAT 1: 
292 

is 180) Colonial records of North Carolina 2: 379- 
380 


(181) History of Carolina, 1937 reprint, p. 255. 

(182) Colonial records of North Carolina le 33- 
35. The average purchase price was c. $1.85 an 
acre (with the £ at par); in addition 100 acres 
were sold for 60 barrels of tar. 

(183) Ibid. 4: 74-75, 630-632; 2: 379-380. 

(184) Letter of G. Rainsford to the Society for 
the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 
Colonial records of North Carolina 1: 857-860. 

(185) Spangenburg Diary, entry dated Eden- 
ton, September 138, 1752, Colontal records of 
North Carolina 5: 1. There is a more complete 
version of the Spangenburg diary in A. L. FRIEs, 
ed., Records of the Moravians in North Carolina 1: 
36 ff., 1922. 

(186) James Craven to Governor Dobbs, Eden- 
ton, December 7, 1754, Colonial records of North 
Carolina 22: 329; also p. 312. 

(187) Francis Yardley to John Farrar, Linné- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 7 


Haven, Va., May 8, 1654, in A. S. Sunni ed.’ 
Narratives of early Carolina: 25-29. The Shakori 
and Eno were interior tribes, living just west of 
the Tuscarora. For identification of Cacores as 
Shakori and Haynokes as Eno, see J. Mooney, 
The Siouan Tribes of the East: 62-64, and HAI 1: 
426; 2: 521. 

(188) History Cs 255, 212. 

(189) HAI 1:781 

(190) Personal 
1942. 

(191) Von GRAFFENRIED, Colonial records of 
North Carolina 1: 9833-934; Thomas Pollock to the 
Lords Proprietors, September 20, 1712, «bed. : 875. 

(192) Colonial records of N orth Carolina 2: 29, 
31, 39, 45. 

(193) Ibid. 1: 875; 2: 28, 38, 39, 45. 

(194) Pollock, May 25 and June 25, 1713. 
Colonial records of North Carolina 2: 45, 52-53. 

(195) Pollock, September 1, 1713, zbzd.: 61-62. 
Pollock was mistaken in identifying the Coree 
with the ‘‘Cotechnees.’’ Cotechney was a large 
Tuscarora town, the home of Hancock, one of the 
principal Tuscarora chiefs and the colonists’ chief 
Indian enemy during the first years of the war. 
The town was the scene of the execution of Law- 
son in 1711 and was located in eastern present 
Greene county, near the mouth of Contentnea 
see (J. N. B. Hewirt, HAI 1: 352; 2: 846, 
852. 

(196) Council Journal, 
North Carolina 2: 168, 316. 

(197) Ibid. 3: 153. 

(198) Ibid. 5: 321; 6: 616. 

(199) Rev. Alexander Stewart to the Society 
for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
oe Colonial records of North Carolina 6: 563, 
95 

(200) ‘‘Remnants of the Machapunga Indians 
of North Carolina,” Amer. Anthrop. 18(2):271- 
272, 1916. 


Communication, December, 


Colonial records of 


ENTOMOLOGY.—The Meaxican species of leafhoppers of the genus Texananus 


(Homoptera: Cicadellidae).' 


Dwicut M. DreLone, Ohio State University. 


(Communicated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK. ) 


A paper dealing with the Mexican species 
of Texananus including the new species then 
at hand was published together with the 
Mexican species of Phlepsius in 1939. Since 
that time the writer has had the opportu- 
nity of collecting additional material in 
several states of Mexico in company with 
C. C. Plummer, J. 8. Caldwell, and E. E. 
Good. As a result 27 species of the genus 
have now been taken in Mexico, 6 of which 


are described as new at this time and 19 of 


which are known only from Mexico. In 
comparison, 20 species are known to occur 
only in the United States and 8 species are 
found in both countries. In addition to the 
6 new species described, 3 male allotypes 


1 Received January 4, 1944. 


are described, one species placed in syn- 
onomy and many new records cited of 
geographical and altitudinal distributions- 
All types are in the author’s private col. 
lection. , 
Genus Texananus Ball 
Texananus cuspidatus DeLong 


Texananus cuspidatus DeLong, Anal. Esc. Nac. 
Cien. Biol. 1: 382. 1939. 


In addition to the records of material col- 
lected in Chiapas at elevations of about 2,500 
feet near Finca Vergel, specimens are at hand 
from Fortin, Veracruz (3,200 feet) and Tama- 
zunchale, San Luis Potosf (350 feet). This spe- 
cies apparently is associated rather definitely 
with the low altitude tropical vegetation of the 
monsoon forest association. 


JuLy 15, 1944 


Texananus ovatus (Van Duzee) 


Phlepsius ovatus Van Duzee, Trans. Amer. Ent. 
Soc. 17: 79. 1892. 


Several species resemble ovatus in general 
appearance and at the time Dr. Ball reported 
ovatus for Mexico (1918) they had not been 
separated by male genital structures. Although 
collecting has been carried on in many areas, 
none of the members of this group can be iden- 
tified as ovatus. It is the writer’s opinion, there- 
fore, that the reference to ovatus is to a closely 
related species and that ovatus does not occur in 
Mexico. 

Texananus barbus, n. sp. 


In form and general appearance resembling 
ovatus but with distinct male genitalia. Length 
5 mm. 

Vertex bluntly angled, a little more than half 
as long at middle as basal width between eyes. 

Color: Vertex pale, mottled with brown, ex- 
cept for a circular band just posterior to apical 
portion and a pale spot at base next each eye. 
Scutellum with a dark spot each side of middle 
at base, a dark spot about middle of outer mar- 
gin, each side, a white spot just behind each 
marginal dark spot and a white spot at apex. 
Elytra pale, with the three pale lobate spots 
along commissure separated by black spots at 
ends of the claval veins. Darker spots along 
costal margin and on discal and anteapical cells. 
Face rather heavily mottled with brown. 

Genitalia: Male valve triangular, strongly 
produced, apex bluntly angled. Plates short and 
broad, outer margins strongly convexlyrounded 
to blunt apices which are divergent. Pygofers 
longer than plates. Styleslong, narrowed some- 
what at base and produced as rather broad 
processes to bluntly angled tips. Aedeagus with 
a ventral portion that is narrowed and produced 
to a sharp-pointed apex, just before which it is 
armed with a pair of conspicuous barbs. The 
dorsal portion is sickle-shaped, with the sickle 
blade not narrowed or pointed at apex. 

Holotype male collected at Zacapu, Michoa- 
c4n (6,500 foot elevation), October 4, 1941, by 
Caldwell, Plummer, Good, and the author. 


Texananus serrellus, n. sp. 


Resembling ovatus in form and general ap- 
pearance but with distinct genital structures. 
Length 5.5-6 mm. 


DELONG: THE MEXICAN SPECIES OF TEXANANUS 


229 


Vertex bluntly angled, more than one-half as 
long at middle as basal width between the eyes. 

Color: Vertex pale with heavy brown mark- 
ings each side of pale apex and an area of dark 
markings each side of middle between the eyes. 
These markings form a pale line between the 
ocelli, a median pale longitudinal stripe on ba- 
sal half, and the basal margin pale. Pronotum 
pale, with a few dark markings on anterior 
margin. Scutellum pale with a round black spot 
each side of middle on anterior portion and a 
transverse black line at middle. Elytra rather 
evenly marked with brown pigment except the 
elytral margin along scutellum and anterior 
clavus, which is white, margined with darker 
pigment. The central lobate spot on clavus and 
a smaller lobate spot on apex of clavus. Face 
rather heavily marked along margins with dark 
brown pigment and with two brown spots just 
above clypeus. 

Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with 
posterior margin broadly angularly excavated, a 
small notch at the apex of the shallow excava- 
tion. The median two-thirds is brown-mar- 
gined. Male valve rather long. Apex rounded. 
Plates short, broadly convexly rounded, to near 
apex where they are concavely rounded to form 
blunt tips. Pygofer decidedly longer than plates 
with saw-tooth spines on the caudal ventral 
side. 

Styleslong, narrowed slightly at middle, then 
slightly broadened to form blunt rounded tips. 
Aedeagus with a ventral portion that is broad 
in lateral view with a slightly broadened apex 
consisting of a sharp pointed toe which extends 
dorsally and a slightly produced and pointed 
heel on the ventral apical margin. The dorsal 
portion is somewhat sickle-shaped, with a long 
rather narrow handle, a dorsal spur at the base 
of the broad blade which is irregularly but 
strongly narrowed to a blunt apex. 

Holotype male collected at Mexcala, Guer- 
rero, Mexico (1,700 foot elevation), October 22, 
1941. Allotype female, paratype males, and 
paratype females from Iguala, Guerrero, Mex- 
ico (2,500 feet), October 25, 1941. Paratype 
males collected at Zacapu, Michoacan (6,500 
feet), October 4, 1941; Zitacuara, Michoacdn 
(7,500 feet), September 29, 1941; Carapan, 
Michoacdén (7,500 feet), October 2, 1941; 
Jiutepec, Morelos (4,000 feet), September 6, 
1939, and Acapulco (sea level), September 10, 


230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 7 


SERRELLUS eis 


SERRELLUS 


UNCINATUS 


CURTUS 


CONUS) HANDLIRSCHI CUSPIDATUS 


Fig. 1.—Ventral and lateral views of male genital structures of species of Texananus as labeled. 


/ 


JuLy 15, 1944 DELONG: THE MEXICAN SPECIES OF TEXANANUS 23 | 


V 
HOSANUS 


Jia! 


x HORRIDUS 


HORRIDUS 
HOSANUS 


PAR RAI UNCUS 


Fig. 2.—Ventral and lateral views of genital structures of species of Texananus as labeled. 


232 


1939, all collected by C. C. Plummer, J. S. 
Caldwell, E. E. Good, and the author. 


Texananus bilicium, n. sp. 


Resembling ovatus in form and general ap- 
pearance but with distinct male genitalia. 
Length 6 mm. 

Vertex almost transverse, scarcely angled, al- 
most twice as wide between eyes at middle as 
median length. | ! 

Color: Vertex pale with a median reddish 
longitudinal line, a small area of dark pigment 
each side of pale apex. A conspicuous pale band 
between ocelli, a large area of dark pigment 
each side of middle on basal half. Basal margin 
white. Pronotum dull grayish brown with a pair 
of black spots just behind each eye on anterior 
margin and a large comma spot on anterior 
margin just posterior to median portion of ver- 
tex each side of middle. Scutellum with a round 
black spot either side of middle on anterior 
portion and a small spot in each basal angle. 
Elytra rather evenly marked with dark brown 
pigment except the white anterior margin along 
scutellum and the basal one-third of clavus 
along commissure, and two white lobate spots 
on middle and apical third of clavus. Face 
rather evenly marked with dark brown pig- 
ment. 

Genitalia: Male valve short, triangular, apex 
blunt. Plates elongate convexly rounded to 
blunt apices. Styles long, gradually narrowed 
from base to sharp pointed apices, which are 
curved inwardly. Aedeagus with ventral por- 
tion rather short, about as long as plate, curved 
dorsally and broadened at apex which is trun- 
cate with a projecting point or tooth on dorsal 
margin. The dorsal portion is composed of two 
concave attached U-shaped structures. The 
basal U is smaller and narrow; the apical U is 
broad, larger, and with a slender sharp pointed 
apex which extends dorsally. The pygofer 
greatly exceeds the plates in length. 

Holotype male collected at Zacapu, Michoa- 
cin, Mexico (6,500 foot elevation),October 4, 
1941; paratype male from Zitacuara, Michoa- 
cin (7,500 feet), September 29, 1941, collected 
by E. E. Good, J. 8. Caldwell, C. C. Plummer, 
and the author. 


Texananus uncinatus, n. sp. 


Resembling ovatus in form and general ap- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


voL. 34, No. 7 


pearance but with distinct genitalia. Length 
6-6.5 mm. 

Vertex broad, bluntly angled, more than one- 
half as long at middle as basal width between 
the eyes. 

Color: Vertex pale with faint brown mark- 
ings at the apex and a small brown area each 
side of middle on basal half. Pronotum with 
two black spots behind each eye on anterior 
margin and a curved comma mark on anterior 
margin each side of middle. Scutellum pale 
with a round black spot each side of middle on 
anterior portion. Elytra marked with brownish 
pigment lines except a pale margin bordering 
the scutellum and the lobate spots along com- 
missure of clavus. Face marked with brownish 
pigment. 

Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with 
the lateral margins rounding to posterior mar- 
gin, which is truncate with a rather broad, deep 
U-shaped notch on median third. Male valve 
strongly produced, apex blunt. Plates rather 
short, convexly rounded to form blunt apices. 
Styles elongate, extending almost to apex of 
plates, constricted near middle then broadened 
to form blunt, rounded apices, which are 
pointed on inner apical margins. Aedeagus with 
a ventral portion which is rather broad at base 
in lateral view and is gradually tapered to a 
narrow pointed apex extending to the apex of 
pygofer. The dorsal portion of the aedeagus 
is sickle shaped with a short blade. The handle 
portion is produced beyond the base of the 
blade and is truncate. The blade is broad at the 
base and rapidly narrowed at about half its 
length to form a sharp pointed apex which ex- 
tends dorsally and caudally. 

Holotype male, allotype female, and para- 
type female collected at Carapan, Michoacan 
(7,500 foot elevation), October 2, 1941. Female 
paratypes collected at Uruapan, Michoacan 
(500 feet), October 1941, and Zacapu, Michoa- . 
cin (7,200 feet), October 4, 1941. All specimens 
were collected from herbaceous plants by C. C. 
Plummer, J. 8. Caldwell, E. E. Good, and the 
author. 


Texananus vermiculatus DeLong 
Texananus vermiculatus DeLong, Ohio Journ. 
Sci. 38: 42. 1938. 


This species is closely related to and has been 
confused with superbus. Records are at hand 


Juty 15, 1944 


for the states of Sonora and Jalisco and at ele- 
vations of 5,000 feet or less. It occurs on grasses 
in the semidesert. 


Texananus superbus (Van Duzee) 


Phlepsius superbus Van Duzee, Trans. Amer. 
Ent. Soc. 18: 81. 1892. 


Three Mexican states along the Gulf coast 
that are low and have a tropical habitat seem 
to furnish the ideal conditions for superbus. It 
has been taken in Nuevo Leén near the Texas 
border, at El Mante in Tamaulipas, and at 
Valles in San Luis Potosi. Collecting has not 
revealed it as occurring in the higher mountain 
altitudes or on the high plateaus. 


Texananus curtus DeLong 


Texananus curtus DeLong, Anal. Esc. Nace. 
Cien. Biol. 1: 384. 1939. 


This species was originally described by the 
author from a single male specimen from Guer- 
rero. Additional specimens have been collected 
in the same state at Iguala (2,500 feet). It has 
also been taken at Tehuantepec, Oaxaca (300 
feet), Ixmiguilpan (5,700 feet) and Zimapan 
(7,800 feet), Hidalgo, and at an elevation of 
9,000 feet a few miles west of Mexico City. 
When this range of elevations is considered, the 
semidesert habitat seems to be the more impor- 
tant factor determining distribution. 

The female has the last ventral segment with 
posterior margin broadly, roundedly excavated 
between the produced lateral angles. The entire 
margin is broadly embrowned. 

Allotype female collected at Mexico City, 
D.F., Mexico (18 km. west), September 1, 
1939, by the author. 


Texananus uncus, n. sp. 

Resembling curtus in general form and ap- 
pearance but smaller, more narrowed, vertex 
more strongly produced and with different male 
genitalia. Length male 5.5 mm. 

Vertex bluntly angled, about twice as wide 
between eyes at base as median length. 

Color: Vertex pale, mottled with dark brown, 
a dark brown spot each side on base near eye. 
Pronotum mottled with brown, a ‘“‘comma”’ 
spot on anterior margin just posterior to each 
spot on vertex. Scutellum with a spot on base 
each side on inner margins of basal angles and 
a pair of round black spots on disk. Elytra pale 
with dark brown veins and pigment lines, and 


DELONG: THE MEXICAN SPECIES OF TEXANANUS 


233 


with three pairs of dark brown spots along 
commissure of clavus. Face heavily marked 
with dark brown. 

Genitalia: Male plates short, broadly 
rounded to form blunt apices. Style short, 
rather broad, apex curved outwardly and 
rather sharply pointed. Aedeagus with three 
ventral processes. The lateral ventral processes 
curve upward and extend just beyond the 
plates. The central process is shorter, curves 
upward and is tapered to a sharp pointed apex. 

As compared with the male structures of 
curtus it differs especially by having a more 
produced pygofer, a shorter broader style with- 
out a definite finger process at apex and the 
lateral ventral aedeagus processes are shorter 
and broader throughout their length, in lateral 
view. 

Holotype male collected just west of Mexico 
City, D.F., Mexico, at 9,000 feet elevation, 
September 1, 1939, by the author. 


Texananus plummeri DeLong 


Texananus plummert DeLong, Anal. Esc. Nace. 
Cien. Biol. 1: 885. 1939. 

Texananus cassus DeLong, Anal. Esc. Nace. 
Cien. Biol. 1: 385. 1939. 


The two species plummert and cassus were 
described by the author from opposite sexes 
and appeared to be two distinct species. Since 
a series of both sexes have been collected it is 
the desire of the writer to retain the male as the 
holotype of the species and place cassus in 
synonymy, citing the female already described 
as the allotype. 

This species has already been reported for 
the state of Chiapas. Additional records are 
Iguala, Guerrero (2,500 feet); Buena Vista, 
Guerrero (3,400 feet); Acapulco, Guerrero (sea 
level); Zamora, Michoacaén (5,100 feet); and 
Jiutepec, Morelos (4,900 feet). 


Texananus paralus DeLong 


Texananus paralus DeLong, Anal. Ese. Nae. 
Cien. Biol. 1: 385. 1939. 


This has been collected in abundance in sey- 
eral localities and is one of the commonest spe- 
cies of the genus in Mexico. It is now known to 
occur in Chiapas, Guerrero, Michoacan, and 
Morelos, ranging in elevation from sea level to 
5,000 feet. Although abundant this species has 
not been found by intensive collecting on the 


234 


eastern slope of the Sierra Madre and is appar- 
ently a western-slope species. 


Texananus conus DeLong 


Texananus conus DeLong, Anal. Esc. Nae. 
Cien. Biol. 1: 386. 1939. 


This species is apparently restricted in its 
distribution to the southeastern states of Mex- 
ico. At present it is known only from the state 
of Chiapas, and collecting in Oaxaca and Vera- 
cruz have failed to reveal it in these areas. 


Texananus eugeneus (Ball) 


Phlepsius eugeneus Ball, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 
11: 386. 1918. 


Collecting has not revealed many specimens 
of this species, and those obtained were in a 
rather limited area. In the state of Guerrero it 
has been taken at several localities ranging in 
elevation from 1,000 to 6,000 feet. In Morelos 
it has been taken at 5,000 feet elevation and at 
a similar elevation in the state of Jalisco. This 
species is another that would appear to have 
only a western distribution in Mexico. 


Texananus excultus (Uhl) 


Phlepsius excultus Uhl, Bull. U. 8. Geol. and 
Geogr. Surv. 3: 467. 1877. 


This is a common species and widely dis- 
tributed in Mexico. Itis already known to occur 
in Nuevo Leén, Quintana Roo, Tamaulipas, 
San Luis Potosf, Michoacan, Jalisco, Sinaloa, 
Coahuila, Veracruz, and Guerrero. It is more 
abundant in the low tropical areas but has been 
collected at elevations of 6,000 feet. 


Texananus dorothyi DeLong 


Texananus dorothyt DeLong, Anal. Esc. Nac. 
Cien. Biol. 1: 387. 1939. 


At the time this species was described a sin- 
gle specimen from Pueblo, Mexico, was at 
hand. More recent collecting has revealed it 
is Aa common species in certain of the tropical 
areas and in the semidesert. It has been col- 
lected north of Monterrey in Nuevo Leén; at 
Valles, San Luis Potosi; at Jiutepec, Morelos; 
Tehuantepec, Oaxaca; Zamora, Michoacan; 
and Iguala, Guerrero. Its distribution ranges 
in elevation from the low sea-level areas to ele- 
vations of 6,000 feet. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 7 


Texananus parrai (DeLong) 


Phlepsius parrat DeLong, Anal. Esc. Nac. Cien. 
Biol. 1: 382. 1939. 


This species was described from a single fe- 
male specimen from Jetla, Guerrero. All addi- 
tional material collected is from Guerrero and 
at elevations of 2,500 feet or less. This would 
indicate that it is a tropical species and lives in 
the semidesert. 

The male resembles the female in form, color, 
and size. Male plates long, with sides tapering to 
pointed apices. Pygofer long and narrowed near 
base, greatly exceeding plates. A heavy fringe 


‘of long coarse dark spines borders the ventral 


margin of the apical half and the dorsal margin 
of the apical third. Style with a deep concave 
excavation on outer margin of apical third 
forming a slender fingerlike process on inner 
margin which curves outwardly. Aedeagus 
composed of a single looped process. The basal 
portion is broad with a pointed process project- 
ing into the concavity. The apical portion is 
longer, slender, the apex curved dorsally then 
anteriorly. 

Allotype male collected at Iguala (2,500 feet) 
Guerrero, Mexico, October 25, 1941, by Good 
and DeLong. 


Texananus horridus, n. sp. 


Resembling parrai in form and appearance 
but with a shorter vertex and different male and 
female genitalia. Length 5-5.5 mm. 

Vertex short, blunt, scarcely angled, more 
than one-half as long at middle as basal width 
between the eyes. 

Color similar to parrai. The apical area pale 
with a darker spot each side of apex within the 
pale area. The central and basal portion heavily 
mottled with brown and a dark brown spot 
each side at base near eye. Pronotum and scu- 
tellum heavily mottled with brown. Elytra pale 
with brown veins and rather uniform brownish 
pigment lines. The three paler lobate spots on 
clavus along commissure can be recognized but 
are not as conspicuous as in the ovatus group. 
Face heavily marked with dark brown to 
black. 

Genitalia: Female segment with prominent, 
produced lateral angles, between which the 
posterior margin is concavely excavated either 
side of a pair of rather broad bluntly produced 
median teeth which are separated by a median 


JuLy 15, 1944 


V-shaped notch. The lateral angles are dis- 
tinctly longer than the median teeth. Male 
plates long, triangular, about as long as pygo- 
fer, convexly rounded to form bluntly pointed 
tips. Style rather broad at base, abruptly 
notched on outer margin at four-fifths its 
-length so as to form a rather thick outwardly 
curved finger-like tip on the inner margin. 
Aedeagus narrowly U-shaped. The anterior 
portion of the U is broad, directed dorsally 
and bluntly pointed at apex. The posterior 
portion is tapered to form a longer, slender, 
dorsally directed portion and the apex is not 
sharp pointed. Pygofer with a row of heavy, 
thickly set spines which curve inwardly on the 
dorsal and ventral margins just anterior to 
apex. 

Holotype male, allotype female, and male 
and female paratypes collected at Acapulco, 
Guerrero, Mexico (sea level), September 10, 
1939, by C. C. Plummer and the author. Male 
and female paratypes from Iguala, Guerrero, 
Mexico (2,500 feet), September 11, 1939, col- 
lected by Plummer and the author, and Octo- 
ber 25, 1941, collected by E. E. Good and the 
author. Paratypes were collected at Tehuante- 
pec, Oaxaca, Mexico (75 feet), October 138, 
1941, by Caldwell, Plummer, Good, and the 
author. 

This species can be separated from parrai by 
the shorter lateral angles of the female segment 
and the shorter pygofers, the broader, shorter 
apical tips of the style, and the differently 
shaped basal portion of the aedeagus in the 
male. 


Texananus incurvatus (Osborn and Lathrop) 


Phlepsius incurvatus Osborn and Lathrop, Ann. 
Ent. Soc. Amer. 16: 346. 1923. 


This species occurs in the southwestern 
United States, and specimens have been exam- 
ined from the states of Sonora and Jalisco, 
Mexico. It has not been taken on the eastern 
slope. 


Texananus hosanus (Ball) 


Phlepsius hosanus Ball, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 
11: 386. 1918. 


The species has previously been reported for 
the states of Veracruz, Mexico, Morelos, Guer- 
rero, and Colima. It has proved to be a rather 


DELONG: THE MEXICAN SPECIES OF TEXANANUS 


235 


common species and has been taken at several 
additional localities in the states mentioned 
and at Jacala, Hidalgo (5,000 feet), Zitacu- 
caro (6,750 feet), Zamora (5,140 feet), Tuxpan 
(4,000 feet), Carapan (6,000 feet), and Urua- 
pan (5,300 feet) in the state of Michoacén and 
at Mexico City (7,500 feet) and Rio Frio 
(10,300 feet), D.F. This series of collections 
shows a range of elevation from 2,500 to 10,300 
feet and a range of conditions from semidesert 
to the luxuriant herbaceous growth of the pine- 
fir forest. The male has not hitherto been de- 
scribed. 

Male plates short, broad, convexly rounded 
to, a rounded inner apical margin. Styles broad, 
elongate, blunt at apex. Aedeagus in lateral 
view appearing broad where it joins the con- 
nective, then bent upward and narrowed to a 
caudally directed, sharp-pointed apex. The dor- 
sal portion is narrowed at base, at the apex of 
which is formed a sicklelike blade which is wide 
at the base with a produced tooth on the inner 
basal margin. The apical half is narrow. The 
open portion of the sickle is dorsal. 


Allotype male -from Zamora, Michoacan, 
Mexico, October 2, 1941, collected by Plummer, 
Good, Caldwell, and the author. 


Texananus areolatus (Baker) 


Phlepsius areolatus Baker, Can. Ent. 30: 30. 
1898. 


This species occurs in prairie habitats in the 
southern Mississippi Valley and Texas. It un- 
doubtedly occurs at several places along the 
northern Mexican border, but the only record 
for Mexico is from Monterrey, Nuevo Leén. 
The white areolar spots on the elytra will easily 
distinguish it from closely related species. 


Texananus spatulatus (Van Duzee) 


Phlepsius spatulatus Van Duzee, Trans. Amer. 
Ent. Soc. 19: 78. 1892. 


This is one of the commonest species of the 
genus in both the southwestern United States 
and Mexico. Specimens are at hand from the 
states of Baja California, Nuevo Leén, Coa- 
huila, Jalisco, Sonora, Tamaulipas, Morelos, 
Oaxaca, and Guerrero. It occurs in the low 
desert areas and upon the semideserts to eleva- 
tions of 5,000 feet. 


236 


Texananus biacus DeLong, Anal. Esc. Nac. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. o4, NO. 7 
This species was described from a single fe- 


male specimen from Hermosillo, Sonora. Addi- 


Texananus biacus DeLong 
tional female specimens have been collected at 


Cien. Biol. 1: 389. 1939. - 
Soak jaca Ga EN 
San . Hier K : 7 e . AG, . 
~ 7 6 (PX XN “_ 
a } ¢ Se oe pana ‘es Ne ; 
/ Mh 77 ( ! / j ‘\ 4 
XN t \ y ? 
x i] \ 5 { t 1 we 
s ! \ Wi 


=1- 


PLUMMERI 


Ul . oe Ub N 
( re ! i eae i ; 
( 4 


MEXICANUS 


PARALUS 


HEBRAEUS 


FIEBRAEUS 


—= = DARUNLUS 


Fig. 3.—Ventral and lateral views of genital structures of species of T’exananus as labeled. 


JuLy 15, 1944 DELONG: THE MEXICAN SPECIES OF TEXANANUS 237 


Mexcala, Guerrero, at an elevation of 1,700 feet Records of previous citations are for Ori- 
No male specimens have been taken. zaba, Veracruz, and Chilpancingo and Aca- 
pulco, Guerrero. Other states are represented 
by material collected at Zamora (5,100 feet) 
Phlepsius mexicanus Ball, Ann. Ent. Soc. Zacapu (6,500 feet), Michoacdn, and Valles, 

Amer. 11: 385. 1918. San Luis Potosi (300 feet). The range in eleva- 


Texananus mexicanus (Ball) 


SPATULATUS 


VERMICULATUS 


i SUPERBUS 


VERMICULATUS 


SUPERBUS 


DOROTHY] 


INCURVATUS 


: DOR 
EXCULTUS EXCULTUS OTHYI 


Fig. 4.—Ventral and lateral views of genital structures of species of Texananus as labeled. 


238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 7 


tion for this species would therefore be from sea This species is known by the female holotype 
level to about 6,500 feet, according to present specimen alone, which was collected at Amula, 
records. Guerrero, Mexico. 
Texananus elongatus (Ball) Texananus handlirshi (Ball) 
Phlepsius elongatus Ball, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. Phlepsius handlirshi Ball, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 
11: 382.1918. 11: 383.1918. 


GUSPIDATUS 


PLUMMERI 


OVATUS 


HT Preys INGURVATUS 
HOSANU 
CURTUS 
“HOSANUS 
PARALUS 
BIAGUS 
DOROTHY! 
SERRELLUS \ : a 
PARRAI 
EUGENEUS 
UNCINATUS 
Sei, ag 
SPAT ULATUS 
ELONGATUS 
HEBRAEUS 
MEXIGANUS 
a ress ia \ pe 
AREOLATUS EXC UiEh US HANDLIRSGHI 


Fig. 5.—Ventral view of last ventral segment of female abdomen of 
species of Texananus as labeled, 


Juny 15, 1944 


In form and appearance this species closely 
resembles majestus. It is known to occur in 
Mexico, D.F., and in several localities in Guer- 
rero. 

Male plates long, broad at base, gradually 
tapered to bluntly pointed apices. Style broad 
at base, rapidly, concavely narrowed before 
middle on outer margin to form a produced, 
narrow apical half on inner margin, which is 
pointed at apex. Aedeagus with a ventral and 
dorsal process. The ventral portion is long, 
slender, curved dorsally, the apical fourth bent 
ventrally, and very narrow. The dorsal portion 
with a pair of dorsal, basal lobes from which a 


OBITUARIES 


239 


long slender tapering process extends ventrally 
then curves caudally and extends caudodor- 
sally. It is not as long as ventral portion. Pygo- 
fer narrowed, with an apical lobe. 


Texananus hebraeus (Ball) 


Phlepsius hebraeus Ball, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 
11: 383. 1918. 


This large well-marked species is known from 
only two states by collections made to date. It 
occurs in Guerrero and in Chiapas at Finca 
Vergel, in the Rio Huixtla Valley. Most of the 
material was taken at elevations of 2,100 to 
3,200 feet. 


Obituaries 


EpwarRpD WHEELER Parker, statistician, 
conservative, gentleman, was known to the 
mineral industry, and particularly to the coal 
industry, for his staunch defense of private en- 
terprise, his scrupulous honesty, and his exacti- 
tude in figures and statements, whether public 
or private. Born in Maryland in 1860, he lived 
a Southern Gentleman, knowing and practicing 
courtesy and hospitality. His death occurred 
on January 3, 1944. 

At least a part of his early years, after leav- 
ing Baltimore City College, were spent in 
Texas in newspaper work. He began his Gov- 
ernment service on the Census of Mining for 
1890 and in 1891 joined the United States 
Geological Survey as statistician. From 1907 
to 1915 he was in charge of the Mineral Re- 
sources Branch of the Survey, and in these 
years he contributed largely to the develop- 
ment of the complete and authoritative annual 
statistical and descriptive reports of mineral 
production. It is a tribute to his integrity and 
an evidence of the confidence he inspired that 
these statistical records were accumulated from 
every producer of every mineral on a purely 
voluntary basis, with no compulsion or threat 
of penalty. As the administrator of the Mineral 
Resources Branch of the Survey, he developed 
statistical procedure and systematic records 
covering production of all minerals from asbes- 
tos to zircon. He specialized on the coal and 
coke industries and secured the cooperation of 
the geologists of the Survey as authors of re- 
ports on other minerals. His methods and ap- 


proach to the work of collecting mineral statis- 
tics still obtain in the fields that remain in the 
Survey. 

In 1915 Mr. Parker resigned from the Geo- 
logical Survey to become director of the An- 
thracite Bureau of Information, at first with 
headquarters in Wilkes-Barre and later in 
Philadelphia. He was the common denominator 
in a small but powerful group where for years 
there had been no cooperation and much di- 
verse action. When his active participation 
ended in 1937 the anthracite industry, though 
less powerful, was by comparison with the pre- 
vious decade a compact, harmonious group. 
Parker, by his genial, persuasive personality, 
his clear thinking, and his steady purpose, was 
largely responsible for this change. 

During his years with the Survey Parker 
wrote many reports and contributed papers to 
the magazines and various societies. He was the 
authority on what the coal industry was doing. 
In later years he was the quiet man behind the 
scenes at all anthracite industry wage negotia- 
tions, supplying the data and information to 
his group. Early in his career, in 1900, he was 
for a short period editor of Engineering and 
Mining Journal. He was a member of a number 
of societies: the Washington Academy of Sci- 
ences, Geological Society of Washington, 
Washington Society of Engineers, Coal Min- 
ing Institute of America, and the Academy of 
Political Science. He was proud indeed to be- 
come a member, in 1940, of the Legion of 
Honor of the American Institute of Mining 


240 


Engineers, after 50 years of continuous service 
in that organization. When in New York he 
would most likely be found at the Engineers’ 
Club, in Washington at the Cosmos Club, al- 
ways among friends. A consistent golfer, he 
played at Chevy Chase, Merion Cricket, and 
Westmoreland at Wilkes-Barre. 

His appointment by President Theodore 
Roosevelt, in 1902, to the Anthracite Coal 
Commission was, to Parker, the greatest honor 
he received in his long and useful career. 

C. KE. LESHER. 


ARTHUR KEITH, principal geologist in the 
U. 8. Geological Survey for many years and a 
member of this Academy, died on February 7, 
1944. He was a geologist of considerable fame, 
having been elected president of the Geological 
Society of America and to membership in the 
National Academy of Sciences, the highest 
tribute that can be bestowed on a geologist. 

He was descended from a long line of New 
England stock, his ancestry on his father’s side 
dating back to Rev. James Keith, who settled 
in Bridgewater, Mass., in 1662, and on his 
mother’s side to Mary Elizabeth Richardson, 
who settled in Charlestown, Mass., in 1630. 
Keith was born in St. Louis, Mo., September 
30, 1864, but his family moved to Quincy, 
Mass., when he was an infant. He attended 
Harvard College and received an A.M. degree 
in geology in 1886. As a student he actively 
engaged in college athletics and was an accom- 
plished wrestler and pulled an oar on the 
Harvard crew. This early athletic training gave 
him an erect carriage and manly bearing which 
persisted throughout his later life. In 1916 he 
married Elizabeth Marye Smith, of Athens, 
Ohio, whom he survived. 

Keith was appointed assistant geologist in 
the U. 8S. Geological Survey in the summer of 
1887 and was assigned to field duty in the most 
rugged part of the Appalachians, the Great 
Smoky Mountains and the Black Mountains 
culminating in Mount Mitchell. His early work 
was of a pioneer nature. He traveled the moun- 
tain trails by horseback, enduring the hardships 
of the mountaineers, in whose cabins he spent 
the nights, often bunking with one of the 
family. The results of this early field work are 
embodied in several folios of the Geologic Atlas 
of the United States. By 1907 he had published 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 34, No. 7 


14 folios, each covering an area of about 1,000 
square miles. Because the topographic maps of | 
that area were inaccurate in detail, Keith had 
to devote much time to running traverses, do- 
ing triangulation, and resketching the topog- 
raphy, so that he became adept in topographic 
map making. His geologic field notes consist 
chiefly of abbreviated descriptive notations on 
his field maps, so minute that they are clearly 
readable only with a magnifying lens. 

The region in which he worked is one of ex- 
tremely complicated structure, and it is sur- 
prising that he solved so many structural 
problems, considering the ruggedness and un- 
settled condition of the region and the large 
area that he covered in so short a time. His 
greatest handicap in geologic work was his 
preference to working out his problems by him- 
self, for he seldom discussed them with other 
geologists working in adjacent areas. 

Between 1907 and 1921, when he was in 
charge of Areal Geology Surveys of the U. S. 
Geological Survey, he did little field work. After 
1921 he devoted most of his time to the study 
of earthquakes and geology in New England 
and eastern Canada and wrote several brief pa- 
pers on these subjects. He published a geologic 
map of Maine in 1932. Later he was granted 
funds by the Geological Society of America to 
continue his studies of the geology of south- 
eastern Quebec, but unfortunately he was not 
able to complete his report on this region. 

Keith also published numerous geological 
papers on Appalachian problems, the most out- 
standing of which were The outlines of Appa- 
lachian structure, 1923, and The _ structural 
symmetry of North America, 1927. In the former 
paper, he propounded the theory that the force 
that compressed, folded, and faulted the rocks 
of the Appalachians, causing great earth blocks 
to be overthrust 50 or more miles, was produced 
by the intrusion of late Paleozoic granite mag- 
mas from a deep-seated source. This hypothe- - 
sis has not generally been accepted. Keith’s 
greatest contribution to geology undoubtedly 
is the recording of geologic facts and the inter- 
pretation of the geology of the many thousand 
square miles of the Southern Appalachian 
Mountains presented in folios of the Geologic 
Atlas. 

GrorGE W. STOSE. 


Borany.—An account of es agriculture on the 
Plateau. Howarp 8. Rexrp.. 


Need 


cluded.) “Maurice AL Mook... 


Enromotocy.—The Mexican species of | Jeafhoppers of t ‘ 
Texananus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae). _Dwiext M. 


ont ssdiatnibideaiiteniieesi. 
a AE he. a ~~ Mita 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 34 


CHEMISTRY.—Polymer chemistry 


Avueust 15, 1944 


No. 8 


silicates, borates, and phosphates. 


STERLING B. HENDRICKS, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul- 


tural Engineering. 


Many inorganic compounds can be con- 
sidered as polymers—as a matter of fact, 
better understood ones than the more 
widely known organic examples. Promi- 
nent among these are the silicates, knowl- 
edge of which was developed from three dis- 
tinct directions which converged on a single 
goal. These approaches were through the 


- classifications and factual information of 


classical mineralogy, through the chemical 
study of phase equilibria, and through the 
analysis of crystalline structures by a gener- 
ation of X-ray workers. The basic prin- 
ciples finally derived are here summarized 
as a branch of polymer chemistry without 
the detail of the close view (A).? 

One can not take a comprehensive view 
of silicates without being aware of phos- 
phates and borates as a contrasting back- 
ground. Knowledge about phosphates and 
borates, however, is less developed than for 
silicates, and this will cause some gaps in the 
treatment. The general view has brought 
unknown parts to light, and the way in 
which explanations have developed for them 
is a reward of the work. 

Relationships of compounds in systems 
containing only a few components are 
shown by the familiar phase diagrams, 
which are the summary of experience 
guided by the phase rule. It is reasonable to 
ask, ““Why do particular compounds ap- 
pear?’’—a question outside the usual ther- 
modynamics. The answer, which can not 

1 Presidential address delivered before the 
Chemical Society of Washington, January 13, 
1944. Received January 31, 1944. 


2 References are to the Appendix at the end of 
this paper. 


yet be fully given, depends in part upon a 
knowledge of the patterns after which the 
compounds are built. In the case of sili- 
cates, borates, phosphates, vanadates, etc., 
this is essentially an inquiry about ways in 
which the elementary groups polymerize to 
form more extended structures. 

The structural element of silicates and 
phosphates is a tetrahedral grouping of 
four oxygen ions around a central positive 
ion as shown in Fig. 2. These groups are 
joined in polymers by sharing of oxygen 
ions between two and only two groups as 
illustrated by the pyrosilicates and meta- 
silicates (Fig. 2). Closed group, chain, sheet, 
and spacework patterns are built up by 
repetition of this sharing in a variety of 
ways, as will be shown. Borates can also 
have the tetrahedral grouping of four oxy- 
gen ions around a central boron ion, but 
the common structural element is a tri- 
angular borate ion, (BO3)—*. 

In any polymer of the type to be dis- 
cussed the extent of polymerization can be 
indexed by the degree to which oxygen ions 
are shared between tetrahedral SiO, groups. 
Thus in the pyrosilicate group each silicon 
ion is surrounded by 4.0 oxygen ions but 
can be assigned only 3.5 oxygen ions since 
one is shared. The type of sharing is often, 
but not necessarily, indicated by the 
formula. 

Phase relationships between silica and a 
second component with which it can not 
form copolymers are epitomized in Fig. 1. 
From the viewpoint of polymerization 
nothing essentially new is added by further 
components. While the effects of an ion 


241 


242 


such as Al* that can partially replace Sit 
in a group will be neglected, they too can 
be explained. 

Increase in the silica content of a system 
necessarily results in formation of com- 
pounds of increasing degrees of polymeriza- 
tion. With low contents of silica the groups 
are small as in the ortho-, pyro-, and meta- 
silicates. Metasilicates and compounds 
richer in silica can be infinite polymers with 
varieties of forms that will be described. 
Each polymer is structurally distinct and 
for this reason generally does not form solid 
solutions with its neighbors (B). 

A particular compound can often exist 

in more than one form. In the ortho-, pyro-, 
and group metasilicates these forms are 
merely alternative ways of arranging the 
groups with respect to the other atoms 
present. For this reason the transforma- 
tions are sometimes rapid ones that can be 
located only by cooling curves. Since meta- 
silicates and higher polymers can form 
closed groups of varying complexities as 
well as infinite chains, crystal transitions 
might involve changes in polymerization. 
Such changes are chemical reactions and 
are often very slow. It is for this reason that 
the quenching technique has generally been 
used in the study of silicate systems (B). 
_ Chain, sheet, and space polymers other 
than the limiting SiO. are subject to con- 
siderable breakage upon heating. This is 
due to their extended forms and as a result 
lower temperatures are often required for 
their formation than are necessary for 
orthosilicates or silica. Formation of two 
liquids as will later be discussed is also a 
result of changing polymerization. 

Systematic classification of silicate miner- 
als is chiefly determined by types of silicate 
polymers. Examples of the known types are 
indicated in Fig. 1. Occurrence of two types 
of polymers within the same crystal is very 
rare. It is here illustrated by vesuvianite, 
which contains both orthosilicate and pyro- 
silicate groups. 

We now turn to-consider the detailed 
structures of the polymers. The SiO, 
group, as previously mentioned, is the basic 
structural element of all silicate polymers. 
Its form is shown in several conventional 
manners in Fig. 2. In this figure the spheres 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 8 


represent ionic centers, the smaller being 
silicon while the larger is oxygen. Oxygen 
ions considered as spheres really have about 
3.5 times greater diameters than do the 
silicon ions. They are shown approximately 
to scale in the second tetrahedral group in 
Fig. 2 and it is perhaps best to picture the 
(Si03)3_° group in this way. 

Pyrosilicate groups have been observed in 
the two indicated forms that differ by rela- 


tive rotations of the constituent Si0, 


groups. Presence of one or the other form 
depends upon the surroundings in the solid 
since the energy difference between them 
is probably small. 

Three types of metasilicate groups are 
shown in Fig. 2. The two (SiO3)4-® groups 
differ in the way in which the silica tetra- 
hedra are placed. While the first of these 
has not yet been observed as an inde- 
pendent group, it is the polymerizing ele- 
ment in the sheet polymers of the silicates 
apophyllite and gillespite. The second type | 
with alternating inversion of the SiO, 
tetrahedra has not been observed for sili- 
cates but is present in aluminum meta- 


TEMPERATURE 


FORMULA MINERAL 


RoSi 0g: RO TiSiQ,-CeO SPHENE 
= 4 Mg SiQy FORSTERITE 
VESUVIANITE 
a E 
oO 3.5 CaMgSi,07 AKERMANITE 
ZUNYITE 
3 CaSiO, — WOLLASTONITE 
3 CaMgSi0, DIOPSIDE 
= > 
<x 275 CaMgsigfOH> 
x= TREMOLITE 
- i 
WW 25 Mg3Si40\g.0H > 
Ww TALC 
x 
7) 25 
ow ‘ : 
©] 233 RSi07 | BeCOHNaSi,07 
a. EPIDIDYMITE 
| 225 RSigQq  KaSigQg 
2 $i05 ie 


Fig. 1.—A hypothetical diagram Shoaie the 
types of compounds appearing in a system, 
RO-SiO;2. Typical minerals corresponding to. vari- 
ous stages of silicate polymerization are listed, 


Ava. 15, 1944 


phosphate, Al(POs3)s. The (Si03)s~!? meta- 
silicate group, which one might refer to as 
the hexametasilicate group, is present in the 
minerals beryl and cordierite. Six mem- 
bered groups that are elements of sheet and 
space polymers have two other configura- 
tions, one of which is shown in Fig. 2. 

Metasilicate compositions can _ also 
be given by infinite linear polymers, or 
(SiO3)n7-2% chains, which are analogous to 
the polyisoprene chains of rubber. Solids 
containing this group have the expected 
property of forming fibrous massés or 
masses with lathlike cleavages. Separation 
of these groups from melts which contain a 
mixture of less extended forms is a slow 
process of polymerization in which the 
catalyst, equivalent to a peroxide for a 
diene, is the crystal growing from a nu- 
cleus. 

More elaborate silicate polymers are il- 
lustrated by Fig. 3. The upper chain of SiO, 
groups is the chain metasilicate (SiO3)n2, 
which can be doubled as above the dotted 
line on the left to form (Sis011)n~*®™ chains 
of the type that are present in the amphi- 
boles. The (S8isO11)n-®% chain or double 
chain, however, could equally well be con- 
sidered as a polymer in which the pattern 
element is the 6-silicon ring (SiQ3),~? 
group. Repetition of this group or of the 
metasilicate chain, as above the line on the 
right, would lead first to an (Sis03)n74% in- 


ow ho CD) oho 96 
ey Sa) 
Saal poe GAG 


THORTVEITITE HEMIMORPHITE 
no) 
bee 

CSi0sd (sid f ) 
pot, 


BaTiCSi 023 AIC PO2)z 


HENDRICKS: CHEMISTRY OF SILICATES, BORATES, PHOSPHATES 


243 


finite polymer in which one-third of the 
silicon ions share four oxygen ions with 
their neighbors and the remaining three 
oxygen ions. While a polymer of this com- 
position is known, it has an entirely dif- 
ferent configuration as will be shown in the 
later discussion of BaeSizO. 

The limit of repetition of a polymerizing 
pattern of the type shown in Fig. 3 would 
be a sheet polymer with the composition 
(Sis010)n74N. This polymer is observed in 
some of the micas and clay minerals and it 
imparts the platy character to these sub- 
stances. If two such sheets are superim- 
posed into a double sheet then the resulting 
polymer will be one in which all oxygen ions 
are shared between silicon ions and the 
composition will be SiOz. While none of the 
known forms of silica has this configuration, 
it is thought to occur as plates in one of the 
minerals related to kaolinite (4). 

An alternative arrangement of the 6- 
silicon ring (SiO3)s—” group or of the meta- 
silicate chain can be considered as the 
structural element in the tridymite form 
of silica. Repetition of the polymerizing 
element leads to complete space filling and 
we thus see the prototype for cross linking 
in organic polymers. Space filling is accom- 
plished in other ways in the two other 
crystalline modifications of silica which will 
not be discussed here. 

The known (Si30s)n7*% polymer which 


-0.9!2 


BERYL BezAl(Si 02 6 
-0_y72N 


ENSTATITE MgSi03 


Fig. 2.—Configurations of some silicate groups. The tetrahedral (SiO.)~4 group is shown in the 
several different ways that will be followed in the various figures. 


244 


might have been formed with (S103), as a 
structural element really is built up in a 
different way as shown in Fig. 4 (4). The 
pattern element might be looked upon 
either as an (Si03)4-® group or a new con- 
figuration of the (SiO3)n~2% infinite chain. 
Continuation of this type of pattern leads 
to a sheetlike structure of the composition 
SiO2. Such a form of silica, however, has not 
been observed. 

A continuation of the (Si303)n-*% poly- 
mer in which the infinite (SisOs3)y~4% mul- 
tiple chain can be considered as the pattern 
element is present in the mineral epididy- 
mite. This polymer is formed by sharing of 
the oxygen ions on the upper edge of one 
(Sis03)n*% chain with those on a lower 
edge of another chain as shown in Fig. 4, a. 
The final composition is (Sis07)n72%. 


wee eee ee eee 


INCREASING POLYMERIZATION——>» 


a SON! cei aN ee 
CSLODPN (SIZ DYN CSIZO.GKY CSI, 0550 
PYROXENES  §$AMPHIBOLES MICAS ANAUXITE 


Fig. 3.—Polymerization pattern with a ring of six 
silica tetrahedra as the pattern element. 


| 


(Si,07),7N Epipipymite CBeOH)NaSi,0, 
LIMIT OF (Si,0g),N CONTINUATION= (sid, J9 


a 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


voL. 34, No. 8 


One of the distinctive properties of sili- 
cate systems is the general absence of solid 
solutions between compounds having dif- 
ferent polymerization indices. Eskola, how- 
ever, in his study of the system BaO-SiOz 
(6), found an exception to this rule in the 
formation of a complete series of solid 
solutions between BaeSis0s3 and BaSisOip. 
These solid solutions apparently result from 
the union of (Siz30s)n~4N chains through the 
addition of SiOz as shown in Fig. 4, b (C). 
In a sense this is copolymerization of 
(Sis0s)n4N chains and SiO, leading to a 
sheet polymer having the composition 
(Si,Oi0)n~*N ~which can alternatively be 
reached after the pattern of Fig. 3 and in 
several other ways by (P20s5)n°® and (V20s5)n°. 

The mineral gillespite, BaFe 8isO19, which 
might be expected to have a structural re- 
semblance to Ba2Si,O1, contains an en- 
tirely different type of polymer (7). It is 
formed by repetition of an (SiO3)4~® ele- 
ment, but one having a different configura- 
tion from that present in Fig. 4. The element 
and the structural pattern of the (Sis010)n74% 
polymer is similar to that of apophyllite. 

In the end it seems that silicate polymers 
have a preference for four and six SiO, 
membered rings as polymer elements. Since 
this is general, it would appear in part to 
be determined by factors other than the 
surroundings in a specific solid and might 
be due to the considerable concentration of 
the pattern elements in the melt. It is not 
much better than a guess to point out that 
the more condensed polysilicates are formed 


SOLID SOLUTIONS 


Ba,S1209"Ba 514019 
b 


_ Fig. 4.—(a) The polymerization pattern of (Si;07)x-?N in which (Sis0g)n~74% chains can be con- 
sidered as the pattern element; (b) A diagram illustrating the probable way in which SiO; is added to 
the (Si;03) n-4% chains of Ba2Si30¢ to give the sheet polymer (Si,Q10) n~*N of BasSigOr0. 


Ave. 15, 1944 


through the intermediary of preformed 
metasilicate rings or ring fragments. The 
polymer pattern in a particular case is 
surely dependent upon the entire structure 
of the crystal, a factor that will not be con- 
sidered here. 

Let us now contrast the polymerization 
patterns of borates and silicates. Borate 
patterns are necessarily modified by the 
planar structure of the (BO3)-* ion which 
is illustrated in Fig. 5. The B-O distance, 
1.35A, is about 0.30A smaller than fhe 
Si-O distance and this changes the manner 
in which oxygen ions of neighboring groups 
pack sufficiently to modify extended pat- 
terns. This effect is well illustrated by the 
(BO.)n—% chain which is contrasted with 
the corresponding (SiO3)n-2N chain in 
Fig. 5 

Ortho-, pyro-, and tri-metaborate groups, 
shown in Fig. 5, are closely similar to the 
corresponding silicate groups. The hexa- 
metaborate ion (BO2)s~* would be expected 
to have the configuration of the polymer 
element of the hypothetical (B.Q11)n~* 
chain of Fig. 5. This should be contrasted 
with the corresponding (Si03).—” groups of 
Fig. 2. The (BOz2),-* ion shown in Fig. 5 
might at first sight appear closely similar 
to a possible (Si03)4-® metasilicate group, 
but it is particularly affected by repulsion 
of oxygen ions across the center of the 


group. 


HENDRICKS: CHEMISTRY OF SILICATES, BORATES, PHOSPHATES 


245 


Polyborate polymers more condensed 
than the metaborate might be expected to 
make use of some of these ring metaborate 
groups as pattern elements. Thus the 
(BO2)6* metaborate group could be con- 
densed rather strictly after the pattern of 
the (SiO3).~ group as shown in Fig. 3, giv- 
ing rise to (B407)n~2N and (B;0;)n—% chains, 
and, in the limit, to (B203)n° sheets. The 
first of these might be expected to appear 
in borax, the so-called sodium tetraborate 
decahydrate, and the last could be a modi- 
fication of boric oxide. Intermediate mem- 
bers could be represented among the poly- 
borates that are present in the Alkali 
Oxide-B,O3 systems. 

The tetraborate group (BOs2).* group 
illustrated in Fig. 5 could not be a simple 
pattern element as any linoleum designer 
could readily see. Thus whatever might be 
the nature of polyborates, they cannot 
make any great use of a four (BO3) mem- 
bered element of pattern in contrast to 
polysilicates in which the four membered 
element is commonly used. 

While the structure of none of the poly- 
borates is known, their properties can 
serve as a guide for further discussion. 
Many of the anhydrous ones form relatively 
quickly from melts, lack distinctive cleav- 
ages, and readily dissolve in water. These 
are definitely properties of limited groups 
rather than of sheet and chain polymers. 


e 


4 
(B0,y> (BoOeF 
BefOHXBO» 

(BO, 
Nageo, ° CHAIN (B,0,)y"N 

(SiO 3}GN : 

ae CBe0j9) 

g (SiOz) 5 

K5 (Bid 


GROUP (B,0,0;N ieee 


Fig. 5.—Possible pattern elements of some ortho-, pyro-, meta-, and poly-borates. 
These are to be compared with the silicate groups in Fig. 2. 


246 


What might be the structures of such poly- 
borate groups, and why are they not ex- 
hibited by polysilicates? 

The (BgO11)n~*% polymer which is repre- 
sented by compounds such as Cd,BsgO11 and 
which, of all the polyborates, approaches 
most closely to the metaborate composition 
might be considered first. It could be an 
infinite chain as shown in Fig. 5. However, 
it could be more simply formed from two 
(BO:)3-% groups as also shown in this 
figure. Sharing of the other two oxygen 
ions of one (BO:)3-% group by (BO:2)373 
groups would give a (ByOo1)-* group or 
more simply the tetraborate, (B07). It is 
seen that a structural element of these con- 
densed groups is the tri-metaborate group, 
(BO2)3%. Addition of a third tri-meta- 
borate group to the (BeOu)n*% group 
shown in Fig. 5 to form a 6-B membered 
ring would give a group having the com- 
position (ByO;;)~* or (B30;)~!. Other possi- 
bilities are shown in Table 1. The matter 
is not pressed further since it is easy to fall 
into artificiality and thus obscure the es- 
sentially correct features. 

Most naturally occurring borates formed 
from aqueous solutions and are often hy- 
drates (8). Their behavior is illustrated by 
the sodium salts borax, tincalconite and 
kernite, the first and last of which are the 
most important ores of boron. Borax and 
tincaleonite are readily soluble in water. 
The monoclinic unit of structure of borax 
has been measured and shown to contain 16 
boron atoms (9). If condensed groups are 
present in borax, they must contain 4 boron 
ions and for this reason are acid meta- 
borates instead of polyborates as the 
formulas might suggest. The group in borax 
is thus (BsO.(OH)2)-2. Most of the early 
attempts to prepare kernite rather gave 
the pentahydrate, tincalconite (8a). Easy 
formation of tincalconite apparently is due 
to its containing a simple acid metaborate 
group having either four or six boron atoms. 
Kernite, on the other hand, is quite insolu- 
ble in water and has the perfect lathlike 
cleavage required by a linear polymer. 
However, it is doubtful that it is a poly- 
borate chain polymer of the composition 
(B.07)n—2N but rather is an acid metaborate 
chain (B.0.6(OH)2)n~2N. (D) 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 8 


The tendency for condensed borates in 
aqueous systems to be limited to the meta- 
borate stage of polymerization is shown by 
the system H,O-B,O3 in which metaboric 
acid is the most condensed polymer (10). 
Metaboric acid, as shown by Morey, 
Kracek, and Merwin, of the Geophysical 
Laboratory, exists in three forms the 
properties of which suggest that they con- 
tain group rather than chain polymers. One 
of these modifications holds an interesting 
key for us. 

Boron trioxide is of particular interest in 
that it was one of the most difficult inor- 
ganic compounds to crystallize. Crystalliza- 
tion was first independently accomplished 
about seven years ago by McCulloch(//) 
and by Morey, Kracek, and Merwin (10). 
At first consideration it would appear that 
B.O3 would have to be a sheet type polymer 
since there is no very apparent way to 
obtain cross linking in space with (BO3) 
as the simplest element. 

Morey, Kracek, and Merwin showed that 
B.O3 crystallizes only in the presence of the 
most stable form of metaboric acid. This 
form is cubic and the unit of structure con- 
tains 24, HBO, (10). From these few facts 
alone it is possible to obtain the essential 
details of the HBO,-I structure and some 
suggestions about the polymerization pat- 
tern of B.O3. The metaborate groups in 
HBO.-I must contain 3, 4, or 6 boron atoms 
and must be associated through hydrogen 
bonding. A structure of the required type is 
shown in Fig. 6,a. (HBOs2)3° groups are — 
present, and these have their planes per- 
pendicular to three fold axes. Three 
(HBO2)3° groups are joined by hydrogen 
bonding around three fold axes. The three 
hydrogen bonds can be replaced by boron 
ions on the three fold axes. The resulting 
B.O3 can be considered as made up of tri- 
metaborate groups copolymerized in space 
through (BO3)— groups (£). 

Finally it should be recalled that boron 
sometimes is surrounded at the corners of 
tetrahedron by four oxygen ions in a man- 
ner similar to silicon. This is shown by the 
pentaborate ion (BO2);> illustrated in 
Fig. 5. It is best exhibited by BPO, and the 
silicate mineral danburite, CaB,Si,0s. The 
former has a structure similar to the high 


Ava. 15, 1944 


temperature cristobalite modification of 
SiO. and the latter is also a space type 
polymer. 

We now turn briefly to consider the 
polymer chemistry of sulphates and phos- 
phates. The first holds little of interest 
since it is restricted to the neutral meta- 
stage, which, however, is represented both 
by group and linear polymers of SO3. Phos- 
phates might be expected to parallel sili- 
cates closely in their ways of condensation. 
They fail in this respect for several reasons, 
chief among which is the different require- 
ment of the electrostatic valence principle 
due to the increased charge of phosphorus 
and the increased tendency to form co- 
valent bonds (Ff). For these reasons poly- 
phosphates are not expected to form from 
aqueous systems at low temperatures with- 
out some source of energy, silica can crys- 
tallize as quartz in the presence of water 
with which P.O; reacts violently. 

Phosphorus pentoxide is equivalent to 
(Siz06)n 2X, which was found to polymerize 
in sheets according to three different pat- 
terns. If (P20;5)y° and (V20;)n® are con- 
sidered they are found to represent group, 
sheet, and space polymers. (12) These are 
illustrated in Fig. 6,b. A main structural 
principle in these polymers is the necessity 
for the unshared oxygen ion to approach a 


3 RELATED To HBOS | BPO,- Sid, <) 


B30 
8(HBO.)31N UNIT 
24B + 8Banpd 48,0 


a. 


HENDRICKS: CHEMISTRY OF SILICATES, BORATES, PHOSPHATES 


CaCB,Sin0) > * 


247 


P or V ion to satisfy the electrostatic va- 
lence principle. This requirement operates 
to destroy possible highly symmetrical 
polymer patterns similar to these discussed 
for polysilicates. 

Very little structural information is avail- 
able on polyphosphates, and this is equally 
true for equilibrium data. In fact, the only 
binary system on which reasonably com- 
plete data are available is the system 
CaO-P.0; on which Mr. Hill and Mr. 
Reynolds of the Fertilizer Division and Dr. 
Faust formerly of that Division have been 
working (13). Some of the compounds ob- 
served are shown in Table 3. The polyphos- 
phates CasP.Oi7 and CaPsOu might be ex- 
pected to have structures similar to the 
hypothetical (BeOu)n-*N chain polymer 
and the (Si,0u)n—®% chain polymer of the 
amphiboles. The very little information 
available on the crystals, chiefly absence of 
lathlike cleavages, however, indicates a 
group polymerization. 

Polyphosphate group polymers could, as 
a matter of fact, follow analogous patterns 
to some of the polyborate group polymers 
previously discussed. Thus (P,.Q:7)~* could 
be formed by sharing of one oxygen ion be- 
tween two (PO3)3~* trimetaphosphate groups 
equivalent to the (B.O.11)~* group polymer 
of Fig. 5, and the (P.0O11)n-2N group poly- 


Fig. 6.—(a) A’schematic illustration of the possible structural relationship of crystalline B.O; and 
cubic metaboric acid. The tetrahedral grouping of oxygen ions around boron as observed in a few com- 
pounds is also shown; (b) The polymerization patterns of the orthorhomic and cubic modifications of 
P20;. Distances in A units from the plane of the projection are indicated on the drawing. 


248 


mer could be formed from four (PQO3)3-3 
groups. However, these group polymers can 
also be obtained in another manner which 
was not possible for polyborates. This 
would make use of the (PO ),* element, 
(P,O17)—* combining two of these elements 
and (P40) nN three of them. 

Phosphates exhibit one property to an 
apparently greater extent than do silicates, 
namely the formation of compounds inter- 
mediate between the pyro- and meta-degree 
of polymerization. These must be open or 
branch chains, and the best example is af- 
forded by the silicate zunyite which Pauling 
found to contain $i;0;,- groups. The cen- 
tral SiO, group shares each of its oxygen 
ions with neighboring groups. An analogous 
compound is probably present in the CaO- 
P.O; system, the formula being (P;Oj.)-’. 
The greatly decreased charge relative to 
(Si;Oig)—!? apparently operates to stabilize 
the polymer in the crystal. Similarly the 
group (P30;.)—> polymer is present in the 
Na,O-—P.O; system (14). 

These groups intermediate between pyro- 
and metaphosphates, the di- and tri- PO, 
group polymers, have immense biological 
importance for it is through their formation 
in conjugation with the purine bases that 
energy is stored or released in small steps in 
carbohydrate utilization (75). Thus while 
polysilicates will form from dilute aqueous 
systems, polyphosphates will liberate of the 
order of 20,000 calories of energy upon 
hydrolysis for each PO, ion formed. 

Finally it is worth while to consider 
liquid immiscibility in silicate and borate 
systems (/6) from the view point of poly- 
merization. Four essentially distinct types 
of systems occur. Liquid immiscibility has 
been observed only for SiO. or B2O3 rich 
mixtures with Mg, Ca, Sr, Fe, Zn, Ni, or Co 
oxides. The two liquids appear with increas- 
ing silica content near the composition re- 
quired for sheet polymers (SigO5)y-?N. In 
the B,O;-RO systems they appear where 
group borates have attained about the com- 
plexity of (B305)y—N. Liquid immiscibility 
is not observed in three distinct types of 
systems, namely: (1) When the components 
copolymerize, e.g., SiO.-B,O3, SiO.—Al.03; 
(2) where a compound of very high melting 
point can remove small groups from the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 8 


melt, e.g., ZrO.-Si02, SnO.-B.03; (3) where 
the liquidus temperature is sufficiently re- 
duced to permit crystallization of sheet and 
other complex polymers, e.g., K,O-—SiOz, 
Li,O—B.Os. 

Liquid immiscibility then in silicate sys- 
tems appears to result from mutual insolu- 
bility of space and sheet polymers arising 
from their greatly different configurations 
(G). The space polymer, high cristobalite, 
however, crystallizes best. from the liquid 
of lower silica content possibly due to a 
continuous supply of small groups to the 
nucleated points. Viscosity is correlated 
with the type of polymerization but prob- 
ably is not determinative for crystallization 
as is so often implied; it is a symptom, not a 
disease. 

The form of B.QO; in the limit of BxO;,-RO 
melts is probably not similar to the erystal- 
line B,O; related to HBO,(1), but rather is a 
more random spatial array. Two liquids 
appear upon increasing B,O; contents of the 
systems when groups become sufficiently 
complicated to have serious entropy factors 
operating against their elaboration com- 
pared with their copolymerization. In other 
words it is easier for groups to combine with 
each other than to build up gradually in 
more and more complicated ways. 

It would have been difficult to follow in 


TABLE 1.—PossIBLE ELEMENTS IN POLYMERIZATION 
PaTTERNS OF POLYBORATES 


Boron 
Composi- Boron- atoms Multiplicity 
tion oxygen in chain and group 
sharing : element 
(B10) nN | 2-2 1 1X3; 1X4; 1X6; 2X3 
B:06; BiOs; BeOr2; BsOs0 
(BOn) xT 4-2 6 2X3;3X4;4X6 
2-1.5 B.Ou; BuO22; BisOss 
CEO || 6;4 | 4X3; (1X2)+(2X3) 
2-1.5 BruOn BsOu 
(BeOw) yo ED 3X3 
4-1.5 6;3 B,O1s 
(B:Ou)y | 2-2 6 (1X4) +(4 X3) 
6-1.5 BicOze 
(BioO1s) week ; 2-2 
8-1.5 
(B20;) n° 2-1.5 


Ava. 15, 1944 


HENDRICKS: CHEMISTRY OF SILICATES, BORATES, PHOSPHATES 


249 


TABLE 2.—POLYMERIZATION IN SOME POLYBORATE MINERALS 


Compound Mineral 


Na:0:2B:20;:10H:2O Borax 


Na:0°2B:20;:5H:O Tincalconite 


Na20:2B:0;-4H:O Kernite 


(NH,):0 id 5B.0;5H:O Larderellite 


such a short time the details of the many 
patterns, the fine points of the various 
arguments, and the unelaborated implica- 
tions. Interest and incentive of those who 
played prominent parts in the development 
of this subject when it was hot have passed 
to other fields or have been subdued by 
pragmatism. Since the many unanswered 
questions have no immediate hope of atten- 
tion it seemed best to attempt some synthe- 
sis of answers. The final truth of the mat- 
ter, however, is that the unrequited labor of 
many workers will be required to clarify 
the chemistry of phosphates and borates. 


TABLE 3.—POLYMERIZATION OF PHOSPHATES AND SULPHATES 


~ Known com- : 
Possible 


pounds in Group Oxygen Com- 
Ca0-P.0, | Polymer composition | sharing | pound 
system type 
Cas(POs) 2*CaO (PO,)-3 
Casz(PO,)2 Group (PO,)-3 4.0 CaSO, 
Caz (P207) (P20 1) 4 3.50 CaS:07 
Ca(POs)2 (PO;), * 3.0 (SOs), 
(| (POs) x 3.0 (SOs) 
Caz(P60i7) Chain (P.Oir)_ AN 2.833 
Ca(P.0On) (P.Ouwyw 2N 2.75 
P20; Space (P20s) n® 2.50 
SUMMARY 


Patterns after which silicate groups com- 
bine to form polymerized polysilicates are 
illustrated. Influences of polymerization 
patterns on phase equilibria are discussed. 
Structural features of polyborates, phos- 
phates, and sulphates are contrasted with 
those of silicates. 

An explanation is advanced for the for- 
mation of solid solutions between Ba2Si,Oio 
and BarSi,0y. Probable types of group 
structures in some hydrous polyborates are 
indicated and a possible structural relation- 
ship of HBO.-I and crystalline B,O; is 


Acid metaborate Probable value 


structural element of N 
(B.Os(OH):) y-% Group 1 
(B.0<(OH)2) yn" Group 1or1.5 


(B.Oc(OH)2) y—™ Chain 


(B.O;(OH):)y-“% Group 


pointed out. An explanation is given for the 
observed liquid immiscibility in silicate and 
borate systems. 


APPENDIX 


A. References 


Discussions and references to the original 
literature for the many structures upon which 
this work is based will be found in: 

(1) W. L. Braae, Atomic structure of miner- 
als, Ithaca, 1937. 

(2) Zeit. Krist. “Strukturbericht, ” Leipzig, 
1931 et seq. 

Pertinent phase equilibrium diagrams are 
summarized by: 

(3) F. P. Haw and H. INSLEY, Compilation 
of phase rule diagrams of interest to the ceramist 
and silicate technologist, Journ. Amer. Ceramic 
Soc. 16: 459, 1933; 21: 113, 1938. 

Other references and the subjects concerned, 
not the titles of the papers, are: 

(4) Possible structure of anauxite, S. B. 
HeEnpRricks, Journ. Geol. 50: 276, 1942. 

(5) Crystal structure of epididymite, T. ITo, | 
Zeit. Krist. 88: 142, 1934. 

(6) Phase equilibrium data for the system 
BaO-SiOz, P. Eskouta, Amer. Journ. Sci. (5)4: 
331, 1922. 

(7) Crystal structure of gillespite, A. Passt, 
Amer. Min. 28: 372, 1943. 

(8) Discussions of the mineralogy of borates 
by W. T. Scuauuer: (a) U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. 
Pap. 158-I, 1929; (6) Amer. Min. 27: 467, 1942. 

(9) Space group determinations for hydrates 
of sodium tetraborate: (a) W. Minper, Zeit. 
Krist. (A) 92, 301, 1935; (6) J. Garripo, Anal. 
Espafi. Fis. y Quim. 30: 91, 1932; Zeit. Krist. 
82: 468, 1932. 

(10) Phase equilibrium data for the system 
H.0-B.03, F. C. Kracex, G. W. Morey, and 
H. E. Merwin, Amer. Journ. Sci. (5)35-A: 
143, 1938. 

(1 1) Crystallization of B.Os3, (10) above and 
L. McCuutocu, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soe. 59: 
2650, 1937. 

(12) Crystal structure of the various modi- 
fications of P.O;, H. C. J. pz Drcxrer and 

H. MacGituavry, Rec. Trav. Chim. 60: 
153, 1941; 60: 413, 1941. 
(1 3) Phase equilibrium data for the system 


250 


CaO-P.0;, W. L. Hitt, G. T. Faust, D. S. 
ReEyYNOoLDs, Amer. Journ. Sci. (in press). 

(14) Phase equilibrium data for the system 
Na,.O-P.0;, E. P. ParTripce, V. Hicks, and 
G. W. Smiru, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 63: 
454, 1941. 

(15) References to biological formation of 
di- and tri- phosphates, K. Lonmann, Ann. Rev. 
Biochem. 27: 125, 1938. 

(16) Liquid immiscibility in silicate and 
borate melts: (a) J. W. Grete, Amer. Journ. 
Sci. (5)13: 1, 183, 1927; (6) W. GuERTLER, Zeit. 
Anorg. Chem. 40: 225, 1904. 


(B). Solid Solutions: Rapidity of Polymorphic 
Transitions 


Formation of solid solutions between com- 
pounds having the same degree of group poly- 
merization is common among silicates and is an 
important factor in mineralogy. Mg.SiO, and 
Fe.SiO., for instance, form a complete series of 
solid solutions (the forsterite-fayalite series) 
and MgsiO3; forms limited solid solutions with 
FeSi03, but the metasilicate and orthosilicates 
are mutually insoluble (N. L. Bowen and J. F. 
ScHalRER, Amer. Journ. Sci. (5)29: 151, 1935.) 
Solid solutions of this type are thought to be 
limited by the relative sizes of the varying ions 
(Mg*? and Fet?) and by possible appearance 
of new phases due to the changing temperature 
of the liquidus. 

Solid solutions reported to occur about 
CaSi03 in the system CaO-SiO2 and between 
alkali silicates having different degrees of poly- 
merization have not been found upon further 
work. 

Excellent examples of the varying rates of 
polymorphic transitions dependent upon the 
degree of polymerization are afforded by the 
system NaPO;3-Na,P.07 (E. P. PArtTripGE, 
V. Hicks, and G. W. SmirH, Journ. Amer. 
Chem. Soc. 63: 454, 1941. Four rapid transi- 
tions were observed between five crystalline 
forms of the simple group pyrophosphate. 
Transitions between the three forms of the 
metaphosphate, which probably vary in their 
polymer patterns, were all sufficiently slow to 
allow ready quenching. 

Transitions taking place without change in 
polymerization might be slow since the re- 
straints of the solid need not readily permit re- 
arrangement of groups in the absence of a 
liquid phase. 


(C). Structural Considerations for Solid Solutions 
between BarSiz3Os and BazSisO10 


The mineral sanbornite has been described 
by A. F. Rogers (Amer. Min. 17: 161, 1932). 
It is possibly triclinic and closely approximates 

Ba2SiuOio0 in composition. The one perfect 
cleavage gives it micaceous characteristics. 
Eskola (6) gave the following properties for 
BazSiz30g and BazSi4Oio prepared from melts: 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 8 


BazSisO sN pa =1.597 BazSisO1N pa =1.620 


B=1.612 B =1.625 
y =1.621 y =1.645 
Density =3.73 Density =3 .93 


The almost perfect cleavage is parallel to the 
plane a8. Two other poorly developed pina- 
coidal cleavages are present in BaeSi;03 crys- 
tals. Pabst (7) noted that the X-ray powder 
diffraction pattern of natural sanbornite is un- 
related to that of gillespite, BaFeSisOi0, which 
is somewhat similar to apophyllite in its poly- 
merization pattern (7). 

The molecular volume of BazSi,O1 is only 
about 9 percent greater than that of Ba2Si;Os 
which would correspond to an average increase 
of 2 percent in lattice dimensions. This is a very 
small change and shows that SiO2 added to 
Ba2Siz0s goes into an essentially vacant posi- 
tion. Calculated and observed molecular re- 
fractivities are in agreement as required; 


Molecular Refractivity 


Compound 
Observed Calculated 
BazSisOs 44.1 43 .2 
BazSiO10 50.9 51.5 


Observed values were obtained from the aver- 
age refractive index and calculated values by 
use of the following ionic refractivities Ba++ 
=5.30, O-- =3.85, and Sit*=0.60. 

The suggested structure is in harmony with 
the above observations. It can most readily be 
checked by determining the lattice periodicities 
in the cleavage plane, one of which should be 
that required by an (Siz;0s) n7*% chain pattern 


‘element. 


(D). Structural Information on Hydrates of 
Sodium Tetraborate 


Borax.—Na B.07:10H20, monoclinic holo- 
hedral space group C2,° ~C2/e (9). 
Unit of structure, contains 4[Na2B,07: 10H,0] 


a=11.82A 
b=10.61A 


c=12.30A 
8B =106°35’ 


Perfect cleavage parallel to (100), poor paral- 
lel to (110), and (010). Quickly dissolves to 
limit of solubility. Loses approximately 1H.O 
between 150° and 500°C. 

These observations require the presence of 
[B.0.(OH).]—? groups with the minimum sym- 
metry of C;—1. 

Tincalconite—NazB,07: 5H.0, 
dral space group C3;2?—R3 (9). 

Unit of structure, contains 3[Na2B.07:5H20] 


a=9.56 a =71°42’ 


rhombohe- 


No pronounced cleavage. Quickly dissolves 
to limit of solubility. 

Loses 16 percent of total water above 200° 
8a). 


These observations require the presence of 
(B,0g(OH)2)~2 or (BsO09(OH)s)—= groups. Since 


Ave. 15, 1944 


the compound can apparently form by dehy- 
dration of borax without the appearance of a 
liquid phase the (BsOs,(OH)2)-*? group is prob- 
ably present. 

Kernite-—Na2B.07:4H20, monoclinic holo- 
hedral. 

Space group C,,4—P2/c (9) 

Unit of structure contains 4[Na.B.07-4H.O] 


a=15.65 c=7.01A 
b= 9.07 B =108°52’ 


Perfect cleavages parallel to (100) and (001) 
and other less developed cleavages parallel to 
the b axis (8a). Very slowly attacked by water. 
Loses approximately 1H2O above 200°C. (8a). 

These observations require the presence of 
chain polymers parallel to the b axis. The 
polymers are probably metaborates having the 
composition (Bs0O,(OH)2) n-?%. The b periodic- 
ity (9.07A) is 5 percent greater than the c¢ 
periodicity of the orthorhombic Ca(BOz)s, 
8.56A, which is the distance required in that 
compound for 4 elements of the metaborate 
chain. (W. H. ZacHRiasen, G. E. ZInGuER, 
Zeit. Krist. 83: 354, 1932.) 


(F). Structural Information on HBO,.-I and 


203 


Metaboric acid, HBO.-I, was observed by 
Kracek, Morey, and Merwin (10) (KMM) to 
crystallize as rhombic dodecahedra with np 
=1.619 and density =2.486. Zachariasen (10) 
found that the cubic unit of structure has 
a =8.88A and contains 24, HBO». B2O3 crystals 
have been formed only in the presence of 
(HBO2)t and KMM noted marked parallelism 
between edges and possibly faces of the two 
growing together. “Crushing either induces a 
minute lamellar twinning, or possibly reveals a 
twinning caused by an inversion” (10). 

X-ray powder diffraction patterns of crystal- 
line B,O; can be indexed on a hexagonal lattice 
having a=4.33A and c=8.392A (Mr. H. F. 
McMurdie, personal communication). If the 
density is 2.53 (measured value 2.460 (10) ) 
this unit contains 3, B.O3. Refractive indices 
are w (or 6 and y) =1.648 and e(or a) =1.615, 
the mean refractive index being 1.634 which is 
somewhat greater than that of HBO,(I). 


(F). Valence Factors Involved in Polymerization 
of Silicates, Borates, and Phosphates 


A thorough discussion of electronic configura- 
tions in these groups is given by Linus Pauling 
in the Nature of the chemical bond, Ithaca, 
1939. Specific references are: Borates, pp. 196- 
197, 219; Sulphates, silicates, phosphates, pp. 
221-231, 375. 

An adequate summary, stated by Pauling is: 
“Although the metasilicates, disilicates, and 
other silicates in which tetrahedron corners are 
shared are very stable, the corresponding com- 
pounds of phosphorus and sulfur are unstable. 
The explanation of this is the following: an 


HENDRICKS: CHEMISTRY OF SILICATES, BORATES, 


PHOSPHATES 251 


oxygen ion shared by two silicon tetrahedra 
satisfies the electrostatic valence rule, whereas 
there is an infraction by 1/2 for the common 
corner of two phosphorus tetrahedra and by 
1 for two sulfur tetrahedra. In consequence the 
pyrophosphates and metaphosphates are un- 
stable—they do not occur at all as minerals and 
in solution they hydrolyze easily to orthophos- 
phates—and the pyrosulfates are exceedingly 
unstable. It is for the same reason that silicon 
dioxide is stable but phosphorus pentoxide and 
sulfur trioxide combine with water with great 
avidity.” 

Oxygen ions shared by borate groups satisfy 
the electrostatic valence principle, and for this 
reason polyborates might be expected to have 
as great stability as polysilicates in aqueous 
systems. Contribution of double bond con- 
figurations to the borate structure, however, 
operate against equal sharing of all oxygen 
atoms as required for some of the elements of 
polyborates. Since half of the oxygen ions are 
unshared in metaborates these compounds 
would be expected to have the hydrolytic 
stability of polysilicates. 


(G). Information on Liquid Immiscibility in 
Binary Silicate and Borate Systems 


Liquid immiscibility in silicate systems has 
been studied by J. W. Greia (16a), and his 
publications should be consulted for additional 
information. Compositions at the lower limit 
of immiscibility and the temperature above 
which two liquids appear in a number of sys- 
tems are indicated in the following table: 


Mole 
per cent 
System Temper- | ‘gio, at Reference 
ature lower 
limit 
MnO-Si0: 1640°C 0.66 Waite, Howat, Hay, and 
Roy, Journ. Roy. Tech. 
Coll. Glasgow 3: 239, 
1933-36. 
CaO-SiO2 1698 0.71 Grete, loc. cit. (10) 
MgO-Si0: 1695 0.60 Ibid. 
SrO-SiO2 1693 0.80 Ibid. 
FeO-Si0; 1695 0.61 BowEN and SCHAIRER, 
Amer. Journ. Sci. (5) 24: 
177, 1932. 
ZnO-SiO: 1695 0.66 Buntine, Bur. Stand. 
Journ. Res. 4: 131, 1930. 
Ca0O-B:20; 960 0.72 Caruson, Bur. Stand. 
Journ. Res. 9: 825, 1932. 
Mole per cent of SiO; 
required for 
RSi20; 0.667 
R;3Su0u 0.578 
Mole per cent of B:Os 
required for 
CazB10017 0.724 
CaBcO1e 0.750 


ETHNOLOGY.—“Tapirage,”’ a biological discovery of South American Indians.! 
ALFRED Mrrravux, Bureau of American Ethnology. 


A striking feature of the Indian cultures 
of South America is the extensive use of 
feathers both for body ornaments and for 
decorations on weapons and other artifacts. 
Nowhere have feathers been worked more 
lavishly or with greater skill than there. 
Among the first treasures wrested from Bra- 
zil were the brilliant feather cloaks worn by 
Tupinamba chiefs. Today the National 
Museum of Copenhagen exhibits these 
masterpieces of the ars plumaria, as it has 
been called, among its most prized jewels. 

The birds of the Tropics provided the 
most splendid materials for these fragile 
fabrics. The various representatives of the 
parrot family, with their bright wings and 
many with long tails, were in special de- 
mand, and large numbers of them were 
kept in every Indian village or encamp- 
ment, both as pets and as reserve supply of 
feathers for new headdresses or arm bands. 
Despite the variety of feathers already at 
their disposal many Indian tribes found 
means of improving on nature. 

Two chroniclers of the sixteenth century, 
Soares de Souza (1) and Magalhdes de Gan- 
davo (2), reported that the ancient Tupi- 
namba Indians of the Brazilian coast knew 
how to change the color of the feathers on 
living birds. They took young common 
parrots, plucked their feathers, and smeared 
the bald spots with frog blood to which 
“certain other substances were added.” The 
new feathers grew in yellow. The Portuguese 
immediately assumed that the Indians 
altered the plumage of common birds in or- 
der to cheat the White traders who might 
mistake them for specimens of some rare 
species. 

That this technique was known to South 
American Indians long before Columbus 
may be surmised from its wide distribution 
throughout the continent. The Indian proc- 
ess was so familiar to the French colonists of 
the Guiana that they had a noun, tapirage, 
to designate the operation and a verb, 
tapirer, to express the action of changing 
the color of a bird’s plumage. In Brazil, 
parrots that have been subjected to the 
process are called “contrafeitos.”’ 


1 Received April 20, 1944. 


Father Juan Rivero (8) has a good de- 
scription of tapirage as it was practiced 
among the Achagua Indians of the Upper 
Meta River. ‘‘The Indians,” he writes, 
“know how to make their parrots grow 
feathers of various colors, in order to in- 
crease their value, either for trade purposes 
or for their own use in their feasts. They ob- 
tain this result in the following way: They 
catch a live toad which they prick repeat- 
edly with a thorn until the blood oozes. 
Then they place the animal in a pot and 
sprinkle its wounds with ground red pepper. 
The toad, enraged by the treatment, slowly 
exudes its active humors mingled with the 
poison and the blood. To this they add a 
certain red powder called ‘chica’ (Biza orel- 
lana), and by blending these ingredients 
they make a pigment. They pluck the 
feathers of a parrot and smear it with this 
ointment which they insert with a stick 
into the holes left in the bird’s skin. The 
parrot suffers and for several days remains 
sad as a sick chicken. Sometime later, the | 
parrot’s feathers grow again so splendid and 
so beautiful that everyone admires the 
beauty and elegance of the new plumage. 
Red spots stand out with remarkable vari- 
ety on a yellow background among green 
feathers.’”’ The Guayupe and Sae were also 
experienced in the art of changing the color 
of the feathers by rubbing the birds with a 
“‘naste and poison.’ 

Humboldt (4) makes only a bare refer- 
ence to the process but gives us the name 
of the frog used in preparing the ointment. 
The latter is the Rana tinctoria or a closely 


related species. The naturalist Wallace has 


an interesting statement on this subject. 
“The Indians,” he says, “pluck the birds 
which they wish to paint, and in the fresh 
wound inoculate the milky secretion from 
the skin of a small frog or toad. When the 
feathers grow again they are of brilliant 
yellow or orange color, without any mix- | 
ture of blue or green, as in the natural state 
of the bird; and on the new plumage being 
again plucked out, it is said always to come 
of the same color, without any fresh opera- 
tion. The feathers are renewed but slowly, 
and it requires a great number of them to 
make a coronet.”’ 


252 


Ava. 15, 1944 


Tapirage is still practiced by the Indians 
of the Rio Negro and Uaupes areas. Koch- 
Griinberg (6) noticed that the Indians of 
the Aiary River region ‘‘pull from the tame 
red macaws the green feathers at the base 
of the wings and smear the wounds with the 
fat of the pirarara fish or of a certain toad. 
The new feathers become beautifully or- 
ange-yellow and retain this color, even if 
several times changed, as they are pulled 
out from time to time, for purpose of dance 
decorations.” 

The French naturalist La Condamine (7) 
mentions the process of tapirage and states 
that it was practiced by the Indians of the 
Oyapock River. This scientist expresses 
some doubts as to the virtues of the frog 
blood and believes that the change in the 
color of the feathers is the result of the use 
of some acrid substance or of some natural 
accident which may occur every time a liv- 
ing bird is plucked without the addition of 
any particular substance. In French Guiana 
tapirage was a specialty of the Carib tribes, 
of the Galibi, in particular, through whom 
the colonists learn about it. 

South of the Amazon, tapirage occurs 
sporadically. It is reported for the eight- 
eenth-century Mojo. “They pluck the tail 
and wing feathers of the blue parrots and in 
the wounds put the exudations of a toad 
and they stop them with wax to keep the 
liquid inside. Thus they cause the new 
feathers to grow reddish, a color that they 
never lose’ (8). In the collections of the 
Goteborg Museum in Sweden there is a 
headdress of the Huanyam, an Indian tribe 
of the same region, which contains “‘tapiré” 
feathers. 

The Mundurucu (9) of the Tapajoz 
River smeared the plucked parrots with 
frog blood, the Bororo (10) of the Matto 
Grosso with the “sap of a certain tree.’’ The 
process was so common among the Paressi 
Indians that it is mentioned in the eight- 
eenth century by Pires de Campos (11) in 
his short account of this tribe. 

The southernmost limit of tapirage is the 
Gran Chaco, where it has been described in 
great detail by Father José Sanchez Labra- 
dor (12). ‘“The color which most appeals to 
the Mbayd men and women is yellow. But 
_ there are not sufficient birds in the country 
with feathers to satisfy their needs. Despite 
their simple minds, they have discovered 


METRAUX: TAPIRAGE, A DISCOVERY OF SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS 


253 


the art of turning yellow the natural color 
of the plumes. They pluck them at certain 
times to get the colors which suit their taste. 
They pluck on a living parrot all the green 
feathers which they want to grow yellow, 
removing the large feathers, the down and 
the small barbs found under the feathers. 
On the bare surface they apply a pigment 
extracted from the roots of the logoguigo 
plant or of the nzbadenzgo tree (rucu, Bizra 
orellana). Both produce a saffron color. 
They rub these pigments with their fingers 
against the skin as if they wanted the blood 
to ooze. Only then do they put an end to the 
bird’s martyrdom. When the new feathers 
grow, they look to see whether they are 
yellow or green. Generally they are of the 
former color, but if they see green ones 
among the yellow ones, they remove them 
and repeat the operation on the same spot. 
We never observed that they applied this 
procedure to any birds but parrots or that 
they used other pigments than the ones 
mentioned. Once the feathers have been 
plucked, the new ones are always yellow 
and never green.” 

Tapirage was also known to the Mocovi, 
who were closely related to the Mbay4 (13). 
Very likely both tribes learned the process 
from the Arawakan Guana, who had mi- 
grated from the Amazonian Basin. 

Today tapirage is still widely practiced 
by the mestizos of the States of Sao Paulo 
and Para. They subject to the operation not 
only parrots but also birds of other species. 

The German anthropologist Karl von den 
Steinen (14) supposes that tapirage was ac- 
cidentally discovered by some Indian who 
rubbed a parrot with a medicinal substance 
after having plucked its feathers. The 
ornithologist Marshall (15) expresses some 
doubts as to the effects of the ointment on 
the change of colors, and he supposes that 
the transformation is the result of a special 
diet to which the plucked bird is subjected. 
He mentions the fact that goldfinches that 
have been fed oily seeds, such as colza or 
hemp, turn dark, and that canaries fed on 
Cayenne pepper become orange. 

The Indians were aware of the effects of 
certain foods on birds’ plumage and also 
seem to have used this method. Im Thurn 
(16) writes that the Macushi pulled out the 
feathers of birds, and smeared the wounds 
with rucu but that they also made the bird 


254 


drink “water in which more foroah (rucu) 
has been steeped, after which it is left for 
some months at the end of which time new 
yellow feathers have grown in the place of 
the abstracted ones.’ For the same purpose 
the Puinave give their parrots grease of the 
cajaro fish, a fish common in the Guaviare 
River (17). The plumage of a parrot put on 
such a diet first gets yellow spots and finally 
turns entirely yellow. 

Father Constant Tastevin, a French 
missionary in the Upper Amazon region, 
sent me the following communication: ‘‘The 
Caboclos—the civilized Indians of the Soli- 
moes—the Cocama, Cambeua, and others, 
feed their parrots the grease of the pirarara, 
a big fish called after the ara because of the 
red and yellow scales of its tail. Its grease 
has a lively yellow color and birds which eat 
it get a spotted red and yellow plumage 
which is considered very beautiful. The 
Caboclos change the color of their pet birds 
only to improve their appearance, not to 
increase their commercial value. People do 
not eat pirarara fish for several reasons— 
first, because it feeds on corpses, and, sec- 
ondly, because it causes an unbearable itch- 
ing to those who are afflicted with the skin 
disease called titinga or purupuru. This un- 
pleasant disease is also ascribed to the con- 
sumption of this fish.”’ 

Koch-Griinberg found the same inter- 
pretation for the origin of the skin disease 
purupuru among the Indians of the Aiary 
region, and it is probable that these na- 
tives have also observed the effects of a diet 
of pirarara grease on the birds. 

Do these facts indicate that in the change 
of color the diet alone is important or is it 
possible that the diet and the smearing of 
the plucked spots are equally effective, in- 
dependently of each other? 

The distinguished ornithologist Dr. Alex- 
ander Wetmore, of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, kindly informed me that our data on 
tapirage are essentially correct and that the 
methods used by the Indians to change the 
color of the plumes were all equally efficient. 
In the case of frogs, it was not the blood, 
but the acrid secretion of the glands that 
provoked the change in color. When rucu 
is rubbed in the wounds left by the plucked 
feathers, the tissues absorb certain pig- 
ments that modify the color of the feathers. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


voL. 34, No. 8 


The influence of certain foods on the birds’ - 
plumage is well known; not only do canaries 
turn orange after eating red pepper, but in 
the zoos flamingos and scarlet ibises are fed 
crushed shrimps so as to keep their pink or 
red color, which they might otherwise lose. 
The color change occurs whenever the tis- 
sues absorb the pigment, irrespective of the. 
method of application (19). 


REFERENCES 


(1) Soares DE Souza, GaBRIEL. Tratado de- 
scriptivo do Brazil em 1587. Rev. Inst. 
Hist. e Geogr. Brazileiro 14: 320. 1851. 

(2) MAGALHAES DE GaNpDAvVOo, PERO. I. Tra- 
tado da terra do Brasil. II. Historia da 
Provincia Santa Cruz, p. 113. Rio de 
Janeiro, 1924. 

(3) Rivero, Juan. Historia de las misiones de 
los llanos de Casanare y los rios Orinoco y 
Meta, p. 9. Bogota, 1883. 

(4) HumBpoutpt, ALEXANDER VON, and Bon- 
PLANDT, A. Reise in die Aequinoctial- 
Gegenden des neuen Continents in den 
Jahren 1799-1804, 5: 32. Stuttgart, 
1862. 

(5) WALLACE, ALFRED RussEL. A narrative of 
travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, with 
an account of the native tribes, p. 202. 
London, 1892. 

(6) Kocu-GruNBERG, THEODOR. 
unter den Indianern 1: 84. 
1910. 

(7) CoNDAMINE, M. bE ua. Relation abrégée 
d’un voyage fait dans l’intérieur de l Amér- 
ique méridionale, p. 173. Maestrich, 
1788. 

(8) Eper, Franc. Xav. Descriptio provinciae 
Moxitarum in regno Peruano, p. 152. 
Budae, 1791. 

(9) Martius, Cart FRIEDRICH PHIL. VON. 
Beitrdge zur Ethnographie und Sprachen- 
kunde Amerikas zumal Brasiliens. 1. Zur 
Ethnographie, p. 389. Leipzig, 1867. 

(10) SreinEN, KaRL VON DEN. Unter den Natur- 
volkern ZLentral-Brasiliens, p. 491. Berlin, 
1895. 

(11) Pires pE Campos, ANTONIO. Breve noticia 
que da o capitdo. Rev. Inst. Hist. e 
Geogr. Brazileiro 25: 444. 1862. 

(12) SANcHEz Lasprapor, Jost. El Paraguay 
catélico 2: 258, 292. Buenos Aires, 1910. 

(13) BauckE, Ftorian. Hin Jesuit in Paraguay, 
ed. A. Kobler, S. J. Regensburg, 1870. 

(14) STEINEN, vide supra, p. 491. 

(15) MarscHaut, W. Der Bau der Vogel, p. 232. 
Leipzig, 1895. 

(16) Roru, WaLTER. An introductory study of 
the arts, crafts and customs of the Guiana 
Indians. 38th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. 
Ethnology, p. 126: Washington, 1915. 
See also Im THurRN, EvERARD. Among 
fe ee of Guiana, p. 305. London, 


Zwet Jahre 
Berlin, 1909- 


1883. 

(17) Crevaux, J. Voyages dans l Amérique du 
Sud, p. 532. Paris, 1883. 

(18) Kocu-GrunBeEra, vide supra, vol. 1, p. 84. 

(19) Mérraux, AutFrep. La décoloration arti- 
ficielle des plumes sur les oiseaux vivants. 
Journ. Soc. Amér. Paris, n. s., 20: 181- 
192. 1928. ah 


LINGUISTICS.—The origin of our State names. 


of American Ethnology. 


The correspondence of the Bureau of 

American Ethnology has indicated for many 
years past that there is a widespread popu- 
lar interest in the names of the States and 
Territories that compose the United States 
of America and that there has been con- 
stant demand for the probing into the origin 
and provenience of these names. During a 
period of years I have been collecting or 
assemblying truly vast materials on the 
subject of State and Territory names, and 
I early discovered that such collecting had 
never been done before by a person with a 
linguistic background and with government 
facilities. The names were found to dip 
deeply into both ethnology and history and 
many of them to be American Indian in 
origin. 
- Since the publication of all this material 
would be too bulky and expensive at the 
present time, the publishing of a prelimi- 
nary, curtailed version is alone practical. 
The unraveling of a few of the names has 
been on the verge of the impossible, but 
every case nevertheless was attended with 
some success. Only in the instance of the 
name Oregon are further investigations 
still planned and in progress; the word is 
patently the same as the word hurricane, 
field work among French speakers in 
Canada having convinced me of this. 

The two names Carolina and Dakota ap- 
pear as State names only as oppositionally 
modified into pairs by the preplacing of 
North and South. New Hampshire, New 
Jersey, New Mexico, and New York have 
the preplacement of New, the first two by 
dint of contrast with British place names, 
the last two because of basin on Dutch and 
Spanish predecessor names. West Virginia 
alone has the setting of West. Rhode Island 
has the setting after it of Island, Virgin 
Islands of Islands. The two names Arkansas 
and Kansas are of one and the same origin, 
though derived through different channels. 
The District of Columbia is not termed a 
State. Only Alaska and Hawaii are still 


1 Received February 15, 1944. 


JOHN P. Harrineton, Bureau 


Territories. The Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, 
and the Virgin Islands are designated as 
Possessions. 


ALABAMA. In origin the Muskhogean tribe 
name Alibamu. For a tribe name becoming 
used as a State name compare Arkansas, 
Dakota, Kansas, etc. 

AuAsKA. In origin the Aleutian name of the 
Alaska Peninsula. 

ARIZONA. Papago Indian language for spring- 
let. 

ARKANSAS. In origin the name of a tribe or 
division, another form of the name Kansas. 

CaLiIFornia. The early Spanish novel Amadis 
de Gaula consisted of four ‘books’ written 
originally in Portuguese, probably by an author 
named Lobeira. These were translated into 
Spanish by Montalvo, who later independently 
wrote a fifth book entitled Las Sergas de 
Esplandian, first printed about 1511. The whole 
novel enjoyed unusually wide reading. In the 
fifth book is the first occurrence of the word 
California, as the name of an imaginary island, 
the queen for which was Calafia, and which 
island was infested with griffins. The entire 
setting of the section is the region of Con- 
stantinople, which was a city nearly as famous 
as Rome during the Middle Ages and with 
which city the caliphate was connected in 
every mind. Montalvo was undoubtedly think- 
ing of the caliphate when he wrote California, 
and like a handwriting flourish at the end of the 
word his mention of the griffins led him to imi- 
tate Greek érnis, bird, or Latin ornaare, to 
adorn, wedged in as a third syllable, since to 
call the island Calafia would have made the 
name of the island and its queen identical. 
Montalvo claimed that he got the entire story 
from a Greek. Or Montalvo may actually have 
seen the famous old French Song of Roland, 
dating from about the year 1000, which has as 
its line 2924 ‘‘Califerne”’ used of the caliphate 
—even with the -r- of Montalvo’s ‘‘California.”’ 
Modern Spanish orthography happens to have 
also Esplandian, without any accent on the 
vowel of the last syllable, thus coinciding in 
this word with the orthography of 400 years 
ago. 


255 


256 


CaNAL ZONE. Latin canaalis, canal, may be 
a remnant of an old submerged bunch of words 
having the stem of Sanskrit khan-, to dig; or it 
may be connected with Latin canna, reed— 
Spanish cafia, cafién surely come from Latin 
canna. The second word of the name is in origin 
Greek zéonee, a woman’s girdle. 

Cotorapo. The river. that empties into the 
Gulf of California very early became known in 
a variety of languages as the red river because 
of the chocolate color of its water. It has not 
generally been known that even in Latin 
colooraatus occurs meaning red, whence Span- 
ish colorado, the ordinary and only vernacular 
‘word for red. Colorado was first applied as a 
description to the Little Colorado River, hap- 
pening to agree with a description of the 
Colorado and of the Little Colorado which had 
since immemorial times been in vogue in 
several adjacent and near-lying American 
Indian languages. 

Connecticut. In origin native Algonquian 
for long river, referring, of course, to the Con- 
necticut River. 

DELAWARE. Named for Thomas West, Lord 
De La Warr (1577-1618), a British soldier and 
colonial governor of Virginia, De La Warr being 
an English barony dating from the 13th cen- 
tury. As a landname, La Warre appears as the 
name of an estate in Gloucestershire, England. 
Gloucestershire is the country of the upper part 


of the mouth of the Severn River. The original- 


Baron De La Warr, however, was from Sussex. 

District oF CotumsiA. The first word is 
from Latin districtus, masc., second declension, 
past-perfect participle of Latin distringere. The 
last word is from the artificial Latinized form, 
Columbus, of Colombo, surname of the Genoese 
who discovered America for the Spanish King- 
dom. There is no proof whatever that Italian 
Colombo is connected with Latin columba, 
pigeon, Latin columbus, male pigeon. Latin 
forms country names in -ia, just as Greek does 
in -fa. One can actually find in old Spanish 
books the transitional spelling Colomb, which 
shows how Colombo was changed into modern 
Spanish Colén. The form Colombia is neither 
frying pan nor fire, but consists of taking 
Italian Colombo and changing its -o into -ia, 
while the straight artificial Latin form would 
be Columbia. 

FioripA. Ponce de Leén on Easter Sunday, 
1512, caught sight of Florida, and named it 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 8 


from the day, just as children were accustomed 
to being named. Easter is called in the Spanish 
calendar of the saints la pascua florida, the 
springtime (literally flowery) passover. English 
misaccents the word, throwing the second syl- 
lable accent to the first syllable. 

Grorcia. Named from King George I of 
England. The name is, of course, in honor of 
St. George, whose name is in origin the Greek 
word for farmer, literally earth-worker. Today, 
for instance, Russian uses a word for farmer 
meaning earth-worker. 

Hawai. Long have I labored in vain teyang 
to get the analysis or original etymology of the 
name Hawaii, pronounced in the Hawaiian 
Polynesian language hawdy’i. Professor Judd, 
of the University of Hawaii, writes me that all 
we can say is that this is the ancient Hawaiian 
name of the island on which Honolulu is 
‘situated. 

Ipano. It was William Otogary Be first in- 
formed me of the true origin of this name. 
Idaho was the name of the Salmon River In- 
dians and one of the words best known to the 
early Whites. Adepts in the Shoshoni language 
state that this name means riverite, if there is 
such a word in English, or river-dweller, re- 
ferring to the Salmon River. 

Inurnotis. This is a French formation from 
the native Algonquian word for man, warrior, 
with addition of the French -ois as in Iroq-ois. 

INDIANA. Indiana was an early Indian refuge, 
much as Indian Territory was later an Indian 
refuge. Indiana is the Latin country name 
formation from Latin Indiaanus, better Indicus, 
a Hindoo. It was Columbus’s own party that 
started applying the name India to the West 
Indies, thinking that the East Indies had been 
discovered. The name India is a Latin country 
formation in -ia derived from Latin Indus, the 
name of the great river of western India. This 
river is called in Sanskrit Sindhus, which is also 
applied to the region about the River Indus, 
and also the stream in general and even to the 
ocean. The word is imagined to be connected 
with the theme sidh-, and the river name there- 
fore to mean something like goaler. In Greek, 
transmitted through Persian, and therefore 
with conversion of the s- into h- or nothing, 
the river name is Indés. Spanish indio, an 
Indian, is a-corruption of indigo, and this for 
Latin Indicus. Greek has three forms for a 
Hindoo or Indian: 1, Indikés; 2, Indés; 3, 


Ave. 15, 1944 


Indéoos; also a feminine Indfs, a Hindoo 
woman. The Greek country name is India, but 
a corresponding form does not occur in Sanskrit. 

Iowa. In origin a Siouan tribe name, ap- 
parently meaning putter to sleep. 

Kansas. The final -s is to be accounted for as 
French spelling of Kansa, Siouan tribe name. 
Arkansas is another version of this name. 

Kentucky. Wyandotte Iroquoian for at the 

prairie. 
_ Lovistana. Derivative of Louis, the earliest 
recorded spelling of which is Chlodowech. 
The Gothic of this name would have been 
*Hludaweiks, versal to *hludaweik, neuter, 
famous fight. There is evidence that the u of 
this name is short, hluda- and not hluuda-. 

Marneg. The names Arcadie and Maine were 
both started by the very early French and ap- 
plied to portions of what is now the State of 
Maine. Maine was a prominent province of 
older France, guessed to be the same as the 
second member of the Gallic tribe name from 
the time of Caesar which occupied the vicinity: 
Ceno-manni. Maine coast fishermen and others 
speak of the mainland as the main, but to con- 
nect this is a later popular etymology. 

Maryann. Named for Queen Henrietta 
Maria, wife of King Charles I of England, who 
was daughter of King Henry IV of France. 
Mary is the Greek corruption of Hebrew 
Miryaam, and land is an old Germanic word for 
which Welsh and Polish cognates have been 
pointed out. 


Massacuusetts. Native Algonquian for 
flint hill. 

Micuicgan. Native Algonquian for large 
clearing. 


Minnesota. From the name of a river. One 
can not do better than quote from Stephen 
R. Riggs’s Dakota-English Dictionary (Contr. 
North Amer. Ethnol. 7: 316. 1890): ‘“‘Mi’-ni- 
so-ta, n. the Minnesota or Saint Peters River. It 
means whitish water and is the name also of 
the lake called by the white people Clear 
Lake.” The Dakota Sioux name of what is now 
called officially the Minnesota River first ap- 
pears in Jonathan Carver’s Travels through the 
anterior parts of North America (London, 1778) 
in the form ‘“Menesoter,” and the accom- 
panying map has ‘“‘Minesoter.”’ It was Gen. 
H. H. Sibley who, in 1848, first launched the 
spelling Minnesota, which in 1849 became 
officialized in the designation of Minnesota 


HARRINGTON: THE ORIGIN OF OUR STATE NAMES 


257 


Territory, while at the same time the Sioux 
name for Riviére de Saint Pierre, St. Peters 
River, was restored to Minnesota River. 

Mississippi. Native Algonquian for big 
river, a mere description. 

Missouri. Neighboring Algonquian for big 
canoe haver, a name applied to a Siouan tribe. 

Montana. The common Latin adjective for 
mountainous is montaanus, from Latin mons, 
masc., mountain. Judging from other State 
names, one would naturally take Montana tobe - 
feminine singular, but it can also be taken as 
neuter plural, for instance like English errata. 


Nesraska. According to what Francis La 
Flesche told me, this name occurs in almost the 
same form in Omaha Siouan and in closely re- 
lated languages and means flat water. Accord- 
ing to La Flesche, this was the Omaha term 
concomitant to the French Riviére Platte; both 
were descriptive in origin. 

Nevapa. This State is named from the 
famous Sierra Nevada, Spanish for snowy 
range, which used to be in view of the Spanish 
ships very early sailing along the upper Cali- 
fornia coast. Spanish nevado literally means 
besnowed, but is used as the adjective for 
snowy. It is connected with Spanish nieve, 
fem., snow. 

New Hampsuire. In the second member of 
this name we have a short-cut with whole 
middle syllable left out for Anglo-Saxon 
Haamtuunsciir, fem., literally the county of 
Haamtuun, which literally translated means 
village-ville. We fortunately have absolute 
proof in Old English that the syllable -tuun- 
simply got left out. 

New Jersey. Jersey, with corrupt j- for ch-, 
is what the popular pronunciation of centuries 
has turned Caesaarea into. The Island of 
Jersey was a federal post, and termed in Latin 
(Insula) Caesareea. A more widely known 
Caesareea (Green loanword form Kaiséreia), 
literally federal-one, was a city in Palestine. 
The name is in origin the feminine of one of 
the adjectives derived from the name Caesar, 
which is related to Latin caesaries, fifth declen- 
sion, hairiness. 

New Mexico. The second member is for 
Meshi’ko, Aztec place name. The vague north- 
ernmost province of Mexico was early termed 
Nuevo México in Spanish, and when the region 
was annexed to the United States, part of it 


258 


became the Territory, later the State, of New 
Mexico. 

New York. After Professor Geary, excellent 
knower and speaker of Irish, has researched for 
years on the derivation of the word York, he 
still favors its meaning yew grove. I also have 
followed him, weighing all sources of informa- 
tion. York is actually recorded in Latinized 
form before the Anglo-Saxon invasion as 
Eboraacum. The form in ancient British, alias 
ancient Welsh, formerly spoken throughout 
England, must have been Eboraakon. 

NortH Carouina. Carolina is the feminine, 
referring to country, in this instance to a 
colony, first bestowed in honor of Charles IX 
of France, subsequently of Charles I and 
Charles II of England. The artificial Latinized 
form of the name Charles is Carolus; for the 
explanation of the insertion of a middle vowel 
in which one need only point to Dutch Karel, 
Charles, which also has an easing vowel. Karl 
is an old Germanic name, the Gothic form of 
the name would have been *Karls. A form 
identical with the name also appears as one of 
the several words meaning man in Old Ice- 
landic. That karl means man also in the sense 
of a male as opposed to the sense of female, is 
brought out in Old Icelandic, in which we have 
karla-foolk, males. In modern Icelandic slang 
karl means old-man. The personal name Karl 
is presumed to have had the same origin as the 
noun of general meaning. 

NortH Daxota. The second member is a 
Siouan tribe name occurring in dialects with 1- 
instead of d-, and said to mean originally 
friend; with this meaning compare the original 
meaning of Texas. 

Ouro. Native Iroquoian meaning pretty, ap- 
plied to the Alleghany Reservation, the Al- 


legheny River, and to what is viewed as the - 


down country extension of the Allegheny 
River: the Ohio River. 

OxtAHoMa. A name started by the Rev. 
Wright, translating red person into Choctaw. 
The red man did not call himself red man in 
purely aboriginal times anywhere that I know. 

OreGon. The name Oregon can be followed 
back to Rogers, who in 1765 wrote Ourigan. 
There is evidence, both as regards the life of 
Rogers and of his friend Carver and as regards 
_the spelling used by Rogers, that the name is 
French Canadian in provenience, and field 
work in Canada and on the Pacific coast has 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 8 


convinced me of this. The word means in. 
French Canadian squall or storm and is the 
same in ultimate origin as the English word 
hurricane. | 

PENNSYLVANIA. William Penn in his own 
handwriting makes several references to the 
naming of Pennsylvania. Although not a 
Welshman, and born in the English-speaking 
border of Wales, Penn wanted the colony 
called New Wales, but King Charles II of 
England, who had the granting of the charter 
and the naming of the colony in his power, de- 
vised, or had suggested to him, the name 
Sylvania, which is English woodland trans- 
lated into Latin, and the King then prefixed 
the name Penn to this in honor of the King’s 
old acquaintance, William Penn’s father, 
Admiral William Penn. Sylva, or silva, is the 
Latin for forest, and Greek hylee, wood, earlier 
stilee, must be in some way connected with this, 
but records are inadequate for proving just 
how. 

Puerto Rico. This is Spanish for rich har- 
bor. Spanish puerto is from Latin portus, 
masce., fourth declension, harbor, this being the 
same word as Norwegian fjord and English 
ford. Rico is Spanish for an earlier ricco; 
Italian still has ricco. This adjective is taken 
over from Germanic, where we find Gothic 
reiks being the adjective of Gothic reiks, chief, 
and evidently meaning chieftainly, regal, 
powerful, rich. Spanish still uses rico meaning 
fortunate, for example in the sentence: You 
are very fortunate in still have a father. 

RuopeE Isuanp. Although the very early Ver- 
ranzano Relation compares Rhode Island in ° 
size with the Isle of Rhodes in the Mediter- 
ranean, the actual use of the name Rhode 
Island starts with the Dutch explorer Block, 
who calls Rhode Island in Dutch Roodt 
Hylandt, meaning red island, called from its 
red appearance; the writer remembers striking- 
ly the red appearance of the neighboring 
Martha’s Vineyard island when viewed from a 
boat. 

SoutH Carouina. The second member has 
been treated above. 

Sour Daxota. The second member has 
been treated above. 

TrennesseE. A Cherokee village name, ex- 
tended to become a river name and a region 
name, and finally a State name. 

Texas. Caddo téysha, in earlier pronuncia- 


Ava. 15, 1944 STEVENSON & WELLMAN: PLANT DISEASES OF EL SALVADOR 


tion téysha (just as Icelandic steinr, stone, is in 
the earlier Gothic stains), is used as a saluta- 
tion meaning friend, and was widely known 
and used as a Caddo word and as a designation 
for Caddo and friendly Indians; compare the 
meaning of Dakota, which # said to have meant 
friend and was used as a regular tribe name. 

Uran. Named from Spanish Yuta, Ute 
Indian, and the Spanish from Athopascan 
Indian meaning higher. 

VeRMonT. Intended to be French for the 
Green Mountains, the correct standard French 
for which would be: les Montagnes Vertes. 

VircGiIn IsLanps. In origin a religious name. 
Latin virgoo, a virgin, has been ingeniously 
connected by Brugmann with Greek parthendés 
virgin, but perhaps an easier etymology is to 
connect it with Latin virga, sprout. 

Virernia. A colony name in artificial Latin 
in honor of Queen Elizabeth of England, who 
was fond of being known as the Virgin Queen. 

WASHINGTON. Study of early spellings makes 
it absolutely certain that the name is Wassing- 
ton, that the sh is a corruption, and that 


BOTANY.—A preliminary account of the plant diseases of El Salvador. 


259 


the Anglo-Saxon would have been Wassinga 
Tuun, the villa or stockade of the Wassings. 
There are two, and were formerly probably 
three, places in England by this name. Wassing 
is patently a patronymic derived from Wassa, 
an old weak-declension personal name not ex- 
tant in Anglo-Saxon writings. The genitive of 
this would have been, of course, Wassan, but - 
in Anglo-Saxon weak declension nouns were 
already taking -ing with loss of the -n-. Such an 
English adjective as Platonic, Plutonic, taken 
from Greek, retains the -n-, but Anglo-Saxon 
already formed Wass-ing from Wassa, with 
loss of the weak -n-. The meaning of the per- 
sonal name Wassa is not known. 

West Vireinia. The second member has 
been treated above. 

WISCONSIN. In origin the native Algonquian 
name meaning grassy. 

Wyromina. Native Delaware Algonquian for 
large prairie-place, corroborated by the Iro- 
quoian equivalent being extant. Not an ancient 
name, but a descriptive one, given by Indians 
to the site of the present Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 


JOHN A. 


STEVENSON, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, 
and FREDERICK L. WELLMAN,’ Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations. 


In the development of a national agri- 
cultural research program for the Republic 
of El Salvador it was deemed needful to 
make a study of the diseases affecting the 
economic plants of the country. Mycolo- 
gists and plant-disease students have visited 
the Republic, but no one has hitherto made 
detailed collections of disease material. A 
knowledge of the naturally occurring plant 
diseases of a country is considered one of 
the essentials of an agricultural research 
program, and it has been one of the junior 
author’s problems to obtain this informa- 
- tion in El Salvador. The collections here 
reported were all made in 1943 during the 
months of May, June, July, and the first 
half of August. The six months’ wet season 
had just begun when this work was started. 


1 Received February 5, 1944. 
2 The work of the junior author is in coopera- 


tion with the Centro Nacional de Agronomfa of 
El Salvador. 


El Salvador has an area of 13,176 square 
miles, somewhat less for example than that 
of Switzerland. It has a number of vol- 
canoes, with one or more that are still quite 
active, and elevations where crops are 
grown vary from sea level on the coastal 
plain bordering the Pacific Ocean to around 
9,000 feet. Its climate is affected by the 
cordillera that marks its boundaries with 
Guatemala and Honduras, and on its higher 
tablelands and mountain slopes where culti- 
vation of crops is most intensive, it is almost 
temperate in character. In the lowlands 
along the Pacific and in the lower river 
valleys, such as that of the Rfo Lempa, the 
temperatures are typical of the deep tropics. 
It 1s a thickly populated country with a 
backbone of stable agriculture; large hold- 
ings maintained by wealthy landowners, a 
few moderate-sized farms handled by those 
of lesser means, and, most numerous, small 
plots that are worked on a subsistence basis 


260 


by the shifting type of cultivation indig- 
enous to the country. Certain crops have 
been grown in El Salvador since prehistoric 
times (e.g., maize, beans, squash), and 
others have been introduced within more 
recent times (e.g., sugarcane, coffee), while 
such plants as abac4 and fiber roselle have 
- been grown in the country but a few years. 

Published accounts of the plant diseases 
of El Salvador have been comparatively 
few. Dr. David J. Guzm4n (5) published in 
1919 a work entitled Fitopatologia, estudio 
de las enfermedades que afectan a las plantas 
agricolas de El Salvador. It contains a 
general discussion of plant diseases and in- 
sect pests and their control, but very few 
concrete references to plant diseases occur- 
ring in El Salvador. Furthermore, a number 
of the diseases he recorded for the country 
are not present, for example, sugarcane 
smut. His reports have not been incorpo- 
rated here. 

Standley and Calderén (6) included in 
their Lista preluminar de las plantas de El 
Salvador fungi from the excellent collections 
of Standley, a number of which were eco- 
nomic forms and have been recorded here 
under the several hosts involved. Two of 
the rust fungi collected by Standley were 
named by Dr. J. C. Arthur (2) as new to 
science. : 

In more recent years studies of coffee dis- 


eases have been made at the Coffee Experi-. 


ment Station at Santa Tecla and records 
of these published in reports by S. Calderén, 
J. A. Alvarado, and F. Choussy (1, 3, 4). 

In the following account the material is 
presented on a host basis, and in alpha- 
betical order of the technical names of the 
plants involved. Disease-producing fungi 
are also listed alphabetically under the 
hosts. Localities are given and the col- 
lector’s numbers where available. The col- 
lector in all cases is the junior author unless 
otherwise specified. The specimens have 
been divided and a set deposited in the 
mycological collections of the Bureau of 
Plant Industry and a representative set’has 
been taken by the junior author for deposit 
in El Salvador. 


AGAVE spp. Sisal, henequen. 
Colletotrichum agaves Cav. This anthracnose 


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vou. 34, No. 8 


fungus produces oval leaf spots up to 1 cm in 
diameter with raised margins. On Agave ameri- 
cana L., Lake Ilopango Road, no. 300; on A. 
fourcroydes Lem., San Miguel, no. 240. 
Diplodia theobromae (Pat.) Nowell causes a 
black rot of the leaves of A. fourcroydes Lem. 
(henequen), which brings about serious losses 
of fiber often reaching 25 percent of the crop 
in a given area. The fungus, which has been 
listed under a variety of names (D. natalensis 
P. Evans, D. cacaoicola P. Henn., etc.), attacks 


a wide range of tropical and subtropical eco- 


nomic plants causing fruit rot, twig and branch 
die-back, and leaf spots and rot. Noted par- 
ticularly at San Miguel, nos. 239, 241, 243, 244, 
414; La Libertad, no. 400. An earlier specimen 
from El] Salvador on A. stsalana Perr., collector 
and exact locality unknown, is also in the 
herbarium of the Bureau of Plant Industry. 


ALLIUM spp. 

Alternaria porri (Ell.) Saw. Black mold and 
purplish lesions on leaves of Alliwm cepa L. 
(onion). La Ceiba, no. 19 and Allium porrum 
L. (leek), Cuscutlan, no. 310. 


ALTHAEA ROSEA Cav. Hollyhock. 

Virus. An undetermined virus characterized 
by yellow chlorotic leaf lesions mixed with light 
and dark green islands. La Ceiba, no. 22. 


ANDIRA JAMAICENSIS (W. Wright) Urb. 

Gloeosporium sp. Anthracnose on leaves 
Plaza, San Miguel, no. 215. 

Polystigma pusillum Syd. Forming angular 
brown leaf spots. Previously known from 
Guatemala and the Dominican Republic. 
Under the name Physalospora andirae F. L. 
Stevens, the fungus has been collected in 
Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Panama. San 
Miguel, no. 215; San Salvador, no. 309. 


BAUHINIA spp. 

Uromyces guatemalensis Vest. Rust on leaves 
of B. ungulata L. Tonacatepeque, Dept. San 
Salvador, Standley, no. 19471; Santa Ana, 
Dept. Santa Ana, Standley, no. 20357. 

Uromyces jamaicensis Vest. Rust on leaves of 
B. pauletia Pers. San Vicente, Dept. San Vi- 
cente, Standley, no. 21286. 


Bera VULGARIS L. var. cicLA L. Swiss Chard. 
Cercospora beticola Sacc. A leaf spot produc- 


Ava. 15, 1944 STEVENSON & WELLMAN: PLANT DISEASES OF EL SALVADOR 


ing fungus which is common throughout the 
range of the host. La Ceiba, no. 77; Cuscutlan, 
no. 313. 


BoEHMERIA NIVEA (L.) Gaud. Ramie. 

Virus. An undetermined virus was noted 
causing a severe stunting and mild leaf mottling 
of infected plants. Santa Tecla, no. 283. 


BRASSICA OLERACEA L. 

Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc. Black leaf 
spots on leaves of cabbage, La Ceiba Exp. Stat., 
no. 78; Volcano San Salvador, no. 350; on 
leaves of cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis 
L.), La Ceiba Exp. Stat., no. 27. 


~ BROMELIA KARATAS L. 
Perisporium bromeliae F. L. Stevens. Black 
‘sooty patches on leaves. San Miguel, no. 245. 


CAPSICUM FRUTESCENS L. Pepper. | 

Cercospora capsict Heald & Wolf. Leaf spot 
of common occurrence. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., 
no. 74; Cuscutlan, no. 316. 

Cercospora diffusa Ell. & Ev. Diffuse, brown 
fungus patches on lower leaf surfaces. Cuscut- 
lan, nos. 315, 316. 

Virus. An undetermined virus with symp- 
toms resembling those of common tobacco 
mosaic. La Ceiba, no. 75. } 


CARICA PAPAYA L. Papaya. 

Oidium caricae Noack. This typical powdery 
mildew, in common with most other tropical 
forms of the family Erysiphaceae, does not 
produce the perfect or ascus stage. Originally 


described from Brazil but occurs sparingly in — 


other papaya growing countries. La Ceiba 
Garden, no. 82. 

Pucciniopsis caricae (Speg.) Earle. This 
fungus, producing small, circular, black, rust- 
like spots on papaya leaves, occurs wherever 
the host is grown and is economically important 
in producing premature death of infected 
leaves. It is also known as Asperisporium cari- 
cae (Speg.) Maub., and a perfect stage (Myco- 
sphaerella) has been described, but not veri- 
fied. La Ceiba, no. 82; Los Chorros, no. 301. 
The latter specimen is overgrown in part by an 
apparently undescribed white mold. 

Virus. A definite virus disease characterized 
by severe malformation of older leaves and a 
stunting and mottling of young growth was 


261 


noted at the La Ceiba Experiment Station, nos. 
63, 64. The disease would appear to be similar 
if not identical with that reported for Jamaica 
and Puerto Rico. 


Cassia sp. Senna. 
Rhizoctonia sp. A damping off of seedlings 
at La Ceiba, no. 330. 


CENTROSEMA PUBESCENS Benth. 

Uromyces neurocarpt Diet. Rust on leaves, 
Ahuachap4n, Dept. de Ahuachapdn, Standley, 
no. 19845. 


CITRULLUS VULGARIS Schrad. Watermelon. 

Pseudoperonospora cubensis (Berk. & Curt.) 
Rostew. Downy mildew. A common and often 
serious disease of this and other cucurbits. Shore | 
of Lake Ilopango, no. 386; Valle San Juan, no. 
430. 


CITRUS AURANTIFOLIA (Christm.) Swingle. Lime. 

Cephaleuros virescens Kunze. The algal leaf 
spot is common but never serious. Zapotitan, 
no. 365; Tejutla, no. 441. 

Elsinoé fawcetti Bitanc. & Jenkins. The citrus 
scab fungus attacks the leaves and fruit, dis- 
figuring the latter or even causing much prema- 
ture dropping. Cuscutlan, nos. 318, 319. 

Mycosphaerella sp. (?). A leaf spot charac- 
terized by brown, circular to irregular spots 
with much darker definite borders, showing on 
both surfaces of the leaves. The fungus is im- 
mature. Cuscutlan, no. 320. 


Cocos NucIFERA L. Coconut. 

Diplodia cococarpa Sacc. Common on husks. 
Port of La Libertad, no. 399. 

Exosporium palmivorum Sacc. Leaf spots on 
dead leaves. La Ceiba no. 393. 

Leptosphaerta sp. On dead and dying leaf 
tips associated with the following. 

Pestalotia (Pestalozzia) palmarum Cke. As- 
sociated with large, irregular, gray to deep 
brown leaf spots. La Cabana, no. 227; La Ceiba 
no. 292. 


CoDIAEUM VARIEGATUM (L.) Blume. Orna- 
mental croton. 

Gloeosporium sorauerianum Allesch. Anthrac- 
nose on leaves, marked by large, irregular, 
brown, diseased areas and often with premature 
defoliation. La Ceiba, no. 130. 


262 


CoFFEA ARABICA L. Coffee. 

Capnodium coffeae Pat. The sooty mold of 
coffee following the presence of aphids, mealy- 
bugs, or other insects is common in most cof- 
fee-growing areas. It is doubtless a mixture of 
several species, but for the most part conidial 
and pycnidial stages only are present. The name 
applied here is one of convenience only. Santa 
Tecla, nos. 101, 111; Santiago de Maria, S. 
Calderon, no. 2232. 

Cercospora coffeicola Berk. & Cke. The brown 
eyespot is one of the common coffee leaf spots, 
but one which causes relatively little damage. 
Voleano San Salvador, nos. 11, 342; La Ceiba 
Exp. Station, no. 88; near Santa Ana no. 417. 
Also reported by Calderén (3) and Alvarado 
(1). 
— Colletotrichum coffeanum Noack. The an- 
thracnose fungus produces large, irregular, 
brown blotches on leaves. Santa Tecla, no. 110. 
Probably merely another strain of Glomerella 
cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. & Schrenk. 

Heterodera marioni (Cornu) Goodey. The 
root-knot nematode was found producing 
heavy infections of roots of seedlings at Santa 
Tecla, no. 278. Determination verified by 
G. Steiner. 

Micropeltis applanata Mont. Fly-speck fun- 
gus on leaves. Santa Tecla, S. Calderén, no. 
223%. 

Mycosphaerella coffeicola (Cke.). Leaf spot. 
Volcano Quetzaltepeque (San Salvador), no. 
342; Santa Ana, S. Calderén, collector. 

Omphalia flavida Maubl. & Rangel. The 
American leaf or eyespot disease, which is 
caused by this fungus, is widespread in the 
American tropics on coffee and various other 
economic woody plants and is doubtless wide- 
spread in El Salvador but is reported to date 
only from Santa Tecla from the collections of 
S. Calderén (3). In the past the fungus has been 
classified erroneously as Stilbum flavidum Cke. 
and Stilbella flavida (Cke.) Lindau. 

Rhizoctonia sp. Coffee seedlings killed by a 
“damping off”’ fungus of the genus Rhizoctonia, 
and probably a strain of R. solani Kuehn, were 
noted at Santa Ana, no. 21, and at Santa Tecla, 
nos. 105, 106. 

Nonparasitic leaf abnormalities. Several types 
of bronzing, chlorosis, and similar disturbances 
were noted on coffee leaves at Santa Tecla, due 


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VOL. 34, No. 8 


possibly to lack of shade, soil deficiencies, and 
other environmental or cultural difficulties. 
CucumIs sativus L. Cucumber. 

Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. Powdery mil- 
dew occurs commonly on this host, but in the 
conidial (Oidium) stage only. La Ceiba Exp. 
Stat., no. 29. : 

Pseudoperonospora cubensis (Berk. & Curt.) 
Rostew. Downy mildew is a common disease on 
this host and often destructive. La Ceiba Exp. 
Stat. nos. 28, 72. 

Virus. An undetermined virus disease was 
noted which was not typical of that due to 
Marmor cucumeris var. vulgare Holmes, but 
was characterized by the harsh, corrugated ap- 
pearance of the leaves with vein clearing. La 
Ceiba Exp. Stat., no. 30. 


CucurBiTa spp. Pumpkin, squash. 

Cercospora cucurbitae Ell. & Ev. Leaf spot on 
C. maxima Duchesne. Zapotitan, no. 425; Valle 
de San Juan, no. 431. 

Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. Powdery mil- 
dew in the Oidium stage is common on all types 
of Cucurbita. Shores of Lake Ilopango, no. 385; 
Volcano de San Salvador, no. 261; San Andres, 
no. 362. The fungus on the first specimen cited 
is overgrown by Cicinnobolus cesatit D By. 

Virus. An undetermined virus disease of the 
Marmor type characterized by severe mottling 
of leaves and stunting of plants of Cucurbita 
pepo L. occurred near Sacocayo, no. 146; shores 
of Lake Ilopango, no. 389; near Aguafria, no. 
427. . 


CYMBOPOGON NARDUS (L.) Rendle. Citronella 
grass. 

Virus. A leaf mottling typical of Marmor 
sacchart Holmes, which occurred on sugarcane 
in adjoining fields, was noted at Santa Tecla, 
no. 275. ; 

CYNODON DACTYLON (L.) Pers. Bermuda grass. 

Helminthosporium gigantewm Heald and 
Wolf. The fungus causes yellow or straw-col- 
ored spots with narrow brown borders on leaves. 
Previously reported from Texas. Cafetelera 
Station, Santa Tecla, no. 276. 

Puccinia cynodontis Delacr. The rust on this 
host is a widespread fungus, often injurious. 
Zacatecoluca, no. 434. 

DaTURA STRAMONIUM L. 

Alternaria crassa (Sacc.) Rands. On leaves. 

Los Planos, no. 4. 


Aue. 15, 1944 sTEVENSON & WELLMAN: PLANT DISEASES OF EL SALVADOR 


Virus. An undetermined virus causing chlo- 
rosis and stunting of infected plants was seen at 
Los Planos, no. 5. 


Daucus caRora L. Carrot. 

Alternaria carotae (Ell. & Langl.). Leaf 
blight occurred at La Ceiba, no. 33; Volcano 
San Salvador, no. 341. 


DESMODIUM spp. 

Alternaria sp. Associated with a leaf-spot- 
ting, on Desmodium sp. Santa Tecla, no. 281. 

Cercospora desmodii Ell. & Kell. Leaf spot on 
Desmodium sp. La Cabana, no. 225. 

Isariopsis caespitosa Petr. & Cif. Angular leaf 
spot on Desmodium sp. Near Herradura, no. 
390; Lagarto, no. 428. Doubtfully distinct from 
I. griseola Sace., occurring on Phaseolus and 
other legumes. 

Parodiella perisporioides (Berk. & Curt.) 
Speg. On leaves of Desmodium nicaraguense 
Benth. & Oerst. Santa Tecla, no. 280. 

Uromyces hedysari-paniculati (Schw.) Farl. 
Rust on leaves of Desmodium barclay: Benth., 
Ahuachap4n, Dept. de Ahuachap4n, Standley, 
no. 19846; Desmodium nicaraguense Benth. & 
Oerst., Santa Tecla, no. 280; Desmodium 
scorpiurus (Sw.) Desv., near San Salvador, 
Standley, nos. 19651, 22743. 

Virus. An undetermined virus marked by 
mottling of leaves of D. rensoni Painter, Santa 
Tecla, no. 282. 


EPIDENDRUM DIFFORME Jacq. 

Uredo guacae Mayor. A rust disfiguring the 
leaves of Epidendrum spp. and related orchids 
in Central America and the West Indies. The 
record of its occurrence in El Salvador is based 
on a specimen found by Plant Quarantine in- 
spectors on a plant offered for entry at San 
Francisco. 


KUPHORBIA PULCHERRIMA (Klotzsch) Graham. 
Poinsettia. 

Oidium sp. This appears to be the first report 
of a powdery mildew on this host. As is so com- 
monly the case with tropical material, the per- 
fect stage of the fungus is not present. It is pos- 
sible that Sphaerotheca euphorbiae (Cast.) Sal- 
mon is the species involved. The fungus pro- 
duces circular to irregular yellow to brown 
spots up to 1 cm in diameter, disfiguring the 
leaves and greatly lowering their ornamental 
value. La Ceiba, no. 96. 


263 


Ficus carica L. Fig. 

Physopella fict (Cast.) Arth. The common fig 
rust brings about premature leaf fall. Finca 
Santa Ana, San Miguel, no. 210 (Uredo stage 
only). 


FRAGARIA CHILOENSIS Duchesne. Strawberry. 

Mycosphaerella fragariae (Tul.) Lindau. This 
fungus, producing a typical and at times damag- 
ing leaf spot, has followed the cultivated straw- 
berry around the world. The conidial stage 
(Ramularia tulasnei Sacc.) was collected near 
the top of Volcano San Salvador, no. 351. 


FURCRAEA SD. 

Colletotrichum agaves Cav. Anthracnose on 
leaves. San Miguel, S. Calderén, collector, no. 
2549; near San Jacinto, no. 2556. 

Dothidella parryi (Farl.) Th. & Syd. On 
leaves, near San Salvador, S. Calderén, collec- 
tor. 

Trichocladium olivaceum Mass. On leaves. 
San Miguel, S. Calderén, collector, no. 2549. 


GLIRICIDIA SEPIUM H. B. K. Madre de cacao. 

Cyphella villosa Pers. ex Karst. Associated 
with a die-back condition of branches and 
twigs. Santa Tecla, no. 59a. 

Fusarium decemcellulare Brick. Associated 
with cankers on stem and branches. Collected 
by S. Calderén, Santa Tecla. 

Isariopsis sp. Causes definite, dark brown 
spots, 2-4 mm in diameter, fruiting on the 
lower surface. San Andres, no. 359. 

Phomopsis sp. Associated with a die-back of 
twigs. Does not appear to differ from Ph. 
gliricidiae Syd., nor from Ph. citri Fawe., which 
latter form Wehmeyer considers the imperfect 
stage of Diaporthe medusaea Nitsch. 

Rosellinia pepo Pat. Black root rot on rotting 
roots. Santa Tecla, collected by S. Calderén. 


Hipiscus sp. Fiber roselle. 

Oidium sp. A powdery mildew on leaves 
which showed only the imperfect stage and 
hence was not further determinable, occurred 
at La Molina, Santa Ana, no. 305. 

Vermicularia dematium Fr. Associated with 
cankered areas at base of plants. Santa Tecla, 
no. 122. Many plants at the Station have shown 
abnormal leaf fall and other abnormalities, but 
parasitic fungi do not appear to be involved 
and the trouble is more evidently the result of 
unfavorable environment. Various secondary 
fungi occur on dead and dying leaves and stalks. 


264 


INGA spp. 

Perisporium truncatum F. L. Stevens. Black 
mildew on living leaves of Inga preusit Harms, 
vicinity of San Salvador, P. C. Standley. 

Ravenelia ingae (P. Henn.) Arth. A rust on 
leaves and twigs of Inga preusii Harms, often 
causing malformations. La Ceiba, no. 368, on 
Inga sp. La Ceiba, no. 338; near San Salvador, 
P. C. Standley, no. 22461. The latter specimen 
was originally named as R. whetzelia Arth., now 
considered synonymous with R. ingae. 

Virus. A possible virus disease producing a 
mottling of leaves of [nga sp. was observed at 
the La Ceiba Exp. Stat., nos. 334, 335, 336. 


Lactuca SATIVA L. Lettuce. 
Septoria lactucae Pk. Leaf spot causing de- 
foliation. La Ceiba, nos. 15, 194. 


LYCOPERSICUM ESCULENTUM Mill. Tomato. 

Cladosporium fuluum Cke. This common and 
often destructive leaf mold occurred on both 
native and introduced types. La Ceiba Exp. 
Stat. no. 81; Herredura, no. 391; Izalco, no. 
421. 

Septoria lycopersict Speg. Leaf spot was very 
severe on certain varieties, particularly the 
small fruited native type, near Volcan de 
Izalco, no. 175. 


MANGIFERA INDICA L. Mango. 

Colletotrichum gloeosporiotdes Penz. Mango 
anthracnose 1s common wherever the tree is 
grown, causing a blackening of the fruit. Young 
leaves are distorted and large, irregular deep 
brown blotches are produced on more mature 
ones. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., on fruit and leaves, 
no. 32; near Panchamalco, no. 397. 

Phyllosticta mortont Fairman. This fungus 
causes a leaf spot characterized by numerous, 
small, angular gray spots with definite dark- 
brown margins. Previously reported from Flor- 
ida, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guatemala, and Mex- 
ico. Sonsonate, no. 187; Finca Santa Ana, San 
Miguel, no. 211. 


MANIHOT ESCULENTA Crantz. Manihot, yucea, 
cassava. 

Cercospora henningsii Allesch. This fungus 
causes brown circular to irregular spots and 
blotches on the leaves, 5 mm or more in diame- 
ter in contrast to the small (2-3 mm) definite 
spots with white centers due to C. caribaea Cif. 
Near Mercedes, Umajia, no. 411; near Izalco, 
nos. 422, 423. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 8 


Odium manthotis P. Henn. The powdery 
mildew of this host is in the Oidiwm stage only, 
producing irregular light brown blotches on the 
leaves with a white powdery layer showing be- 
neath. Also known from Central Africa, Brazil, 
and Peru. La Ceiba, no. 291. 

Phyllosticta sp. Associated with small (1-2 
mm) leaf spots, silvery white above, reddish 
brown beneath. Along shores of Lake Ilopango, 
no. 381. 

Virus. Typical mottling, stunting and mal- 
formation of the Marmor type, associated with 
aphids. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., no. 290; near 
Mercedes, Umaiia, nos. 412, 413. 


Menpicaco saTiva L.? Alfalfa. 

Bacterium alfalfae Riker, F. R. Jones & 
Davis (?). Bacterial leaf spot has been known 
heretofore only from the United States. Speci- 
mens from Santa Tecla, nos. 117, 118, 119, are 
doubtfully referred to this species. — 

Cercospora sp. (probably C. zebrina Pass.) 
Leaf spot. Santa Tecla, no. 117. 

Rhizoctonia sp. Associated with bleached 
spots on stems. Santa Tecla, no. 120. 

Uromyces striatus Schroet. The rust is com- 
mon and widespread on this host in El Salvador 
but not serious. Santa Tecla, nos. 116, 118. 


MEticocca BIJUGA L. Spanish lime. 
Virus. An undetermined virus causing severe 
mottling of leaves. La Ceiba, no. 90. 


Musa PARADISIACA L. Banana. 

Cercospora musae Zimm. The “‘sigatoka’”’ dis- 
ease of bananas, which has caused heavy losses 
in many banana-growing countries was col- 
lected at La Ceiba, no. 79, and at Tomato- 
peque, no. 438. 

Cordana musae (Zimm.) Hoehn. Cordana 
leaf spot attacking the ‘‘Cavendish”’ variety, 
Los Planos, no. 2. 


PACHYRHIZUS sp. Jicama. 

Isariopsis griseola Sacc. This species, causing 
an angular leaf spot, is usually confined to 
Phaseolus and its reference to Pachyrhizus, a 
new host genus is somewhat doubtful. However 
it does not appear to differ morphologically 
from the form on Phaseolus. La Ceiba, nos. 99, 
100, 455. 


3 All determinations of organisms on Medicago 
are by C. Lefebvre. 


Ava. 15, 1944 sTEVENSON & WELLMAN: PLANT DISEASES OF EL SALVADOR 


PANICUM spp. Panicum grasses. 

Cercospora fusimaculans Atk. A leaf-spot 
disease characterized by linear brown spots on 
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq.). San 
Andres, no. 357; Zacatecoluca, no. 433. Previ- 
ously known from Colombia, Panama Canal 
Zone, and Brazil as well as the southern United 
States. 

Uromyces leptodermus Syd. Rust on leaves of 
Pamcum purpurascens Raddi (Panicum bar- 
binode Trin.) Pard grass. Near San Salvador, 
Standley, no. 19677. 


PASPALUM spp. 

Claviceps paspali F. L. Stevens & J. G. Hall. 
This common Paspalum ergot fungus, which is 
poisonous to livestock, was collected at Mont- 
serrate, no. 485, on Paspalum sp. 


PASSIFLORA QUADRANGULARIS L. Granadilla. 
Cercospora regalis Tharp. Leaf spots. La 
Ceiba, no. 34. 


PERSEA spp. Avocado and relatives. 

Cercospora purpurea Cke. (?). The common 
leaf-spot-producing fungus of the avocado 
(Persea americana Mill.) is tentatively assigned 
to this species, pending more detailed study. It 
produces numerous, small, angular, dull brown 
spots and has been previously known from the 
state of Florida. A _ possible perfect stage 
(Mycosphaerella) has been reported by H. E. 
Stevens from that State. La Ceiba, no. 462. 

Cephaleuros virescens Kunze. The algal leaf 
spot was common and abundant on Persea 
schiedeana Nees, an avocado relative, inter- 
mingled with Sérigula complanata Fee, a leaf 
inhabiting lichen. Santa Tecla, nos. 115, 116. 


PETROSELINUM CRISPUM (Mill.) Nym. Parsley. 
Cercospora apit Fres. Leaf spot. Slopes of 
Voleano de San Salvador, no. 340. 


PHASEOLUS LUNATUS L. Lima bean. 

Elsinoé phaseolt Jenkins. Lima bean scab 
was found on the leaves and pods of a specimen 
collected by S. Calderon, San Salvador, and 
deposited at the Gray Herbarium, Cambridge, 
Mass. (Phytopathology 23: 602. 1933). 


PHASEOLUS VULGARIS L. Bean. 

Chaetoseptoria sp. See discussion of this fun- 
gus under Vigna (cowpea). La Ceiba, nos. 126a, 
126b, 128. | 

Isarvopsis griseola Sacc. Angular leaf spot is 
common on beans in all localities and does some 
damage. La Molina, nos. 306, 307; Cuscutlan, 


265 


no. 312, slopes of Volcano San Salvador, no. 
343; near Izalco, no. 419. 

Myrmaecium roridum Tode. On matured 
pods near Paraiso, no. 449. 

Periconia pycnospora Fres. On matured pods, 
near Paraiso, no. 449a. Determined by E. K. 
Cash. 

Uromyces phaseoli typica Arth. The univer- 
sally distributed bean rust contributes directly 
to crop reduction by destruction of leaves. La 
Ceiba, no. 128; near Sacocoyo, nos. 136, 137; 
La Molina, Santa .Ana, nos. 306, 307; near 
Izalco, no. 420; near Paraiso, no. 448; vicinity 
of San Salvador, collector Standley, nos. 19600, 
23303. (Reported by Standley and Calderén (6) 
as U. appendiculatus [Pers.] Fr.) 

Vermicularia polytricha Cke. On matured 
pods. Near Paraiso no. 449. 


PHOENIX sp. Palm. 

Graphiola phoenicis (Moug.) Poit. The false 
smut of Phoenix and related palms is omnipres- 
ent and always disfiguring. La Ceiba, no. 16. 


PITHECELLOBIUM DULCE (Roxb.) Benth. 
Microstroma pithecolobti Lamkey. This fun- 
gus, causing a leaf mold disease, has been 
known previously only from Puerto Rico on 
Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. La Ceiba, no. 86. 
Virus. Causing a yellow mottling of leaves. 


_ La Ceiba, no. 87. 


PRuUNUs PERSICA (L.) Batsch. Peach. 

Tranzschelia pruni-spinosae (Pers.) Diet. 
The peach leaf rust occurs co-extensively with 
its host and is often a serious defoliator. Los 
Planos near San Salvador, no. 6; slopes of Vol- 
cano San Salvador, ‘no. 344. The latter speci- 
men is parasitized by Darluca filum (Biv.) 
Cast., which possibly helps to keep the rust in 
check. 


PsipIuM GuaJAVA L. Guava, Guayaba. 

Meliola psidii Wint. Black mildew on leaves, 
common, but not serious. San Salvador, P. C. 
Standley, collector. 


PUNICA GRANATUM L. Pomegranate. 

Cercospora punicae Syd. Leaf spot, not seri- 
ous. C. lythracearum Heald & Wolf is synony- 
mous. La Ceiba, no. 492. 


RAPHANUS SATIVUS L. Radish. 

Albugo candida Pers. ex Kuntze. The white 
rust is common and widespread, but seldom 
destructive, wherever the host is grown. La 


Ceiba Exp. Stat., no. 73. 


-_ 


266 


RICINUS COMMUNIS L. Castor bean. 

Cercospora ricinella Sacc. & Berl. This com- 
mon leaf spot producing fungus characterized 
by numerous, small circular to angular, white 
centered spots causes severe defoliation at 
times. San Andres, nos. 198, 199, 200; San 
Miguel, no. 216. 


Rosa spp. Rose (cultivated varieties). 

Actinonema rosae (Lib.) Fr. This common 
and widespread disfiguring leaf spot disease 
known as “black spot’’ was collected at the La 
Ceiba rose garden, no. 23 and at Cuscutlan, no. 
314. The fungus also has a perfect stage 
(Diplocarpon rosae Wolf) not yet found in 
Salvador. 

Cercospora puderi B. H. Davis. This fungus 
causes small spots (up to 4 mm in diameter) 
with gray centers. La Ceiba rose garden, nos 
24, 25. This species has been previously known 
from the southern United States and Mexico, 
but is much less common than the ubiquitous 
C. rosicola Pass., which is characterized by 
larger spots and with sporulation on both sur- 
faces. 

Diplodia sp. Associated with dieback. La 
Ceiba Exp. Stat., nos. 66, 67. 

Stilbella cionnabarina (Mont.) Wr. Fruiting 
on dead and dying stems of Rosa odorata 
Sweet. La Ceiba rose garden, no. 69. 


RUBUS spp. 

Elsinoé veneta (Burk.) Jenkins. Anthracnose 
on stems and leaves of a blackberry (Rubus sp.) 
near the top of Volcano San Salvador, no. 347. 
The imperfect stage only (Sphaceloma) of the 
fungus was present. Determination by Anna 
K. Jenkins. 

Spirechina rubt (Diet. & Holw.) Holw. Rust 
on leaves of Rubus adenotrichos Schlecht. Vol- 
can de San Salvador, collector P. C. Standley. 


SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM L. Sugarcane. 

Leptosphaerta sacchari V. B. de Haan. The 
“ring spot” disease due to this fungus is com- 
mon on older leaves, as in all other cane grow- 
ing countries. La Cabana, nos. 221, 231. 

Virus. Mosaic (Marmor sacchari Holmes) is 
prevalent and severe throughout the country 
on susceptible varieties. 


SaLIx CHILENSIS Mol. Willow. 
Melampsora abieti-capraearum Tub. (Me- 
lampsora humboldtiana Speg.) Rust on leaves. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 8 


Ahuachapdn, Dept. de Ahuachap4n, Standley, 
20255. 


SECHIUM EDULE Sw. Chayote, huisquil. 

Rhagadolobtum cucurbitacearum (Rehm) Th. 
& Syd. Tar spot disease of the leaves, disfigur- 
ing, but seldom serious. La Ceiba, no. 70. 


SOLANUM spp. 

Cercospora diffusa Ell. & Ev. Black leaf spot 
on S. nigrum L. Shores of Lake Jlopango, no. 
384. 

Cercospora solani-torvi Frag. & Cif. Leaf spot 
on Solanum sp. (probably S. torvum Sw.), near 
Zaragoza, no. 402. 


SORGHUM HALEPENSE (L.) Pers. (Holcus hale- 
pensis L.) Johnson grass. 

Cercospora sorghi Ell. & Ev. @ansine a leaf 
spot near Herradura, no. 395. 

Gloeocercospora sorghit Bain & Edgerton. Leaf 
blotch, a disease heretofore known only from 
the southern United States. La Laguna, no. 
322. 

Helminthosporium turcicum Pass. La Laguna, 
no. 322. 

Puccinia purpurea Cke. The rust was col- 
lected by S. Calderén, no. 41a. | 


SORGHUM VULGARE (L.) Pers. (Holcus sorghum 
L.) Sorghum. 

Cercospora sorghi Ell. & Ev. Leaf spots, com- 
mon at La Ceiba, no. 132. 

Colletotrichum graminicolum (Ces.) G. W. 
Wils. Anthracnose. West of San Vicente, no. 
208; near San Jose del Sacario, no. 448. World 
wide on most species of grasses. 

Helminthosporium turcicum Pass. Leaf spot 
and blotch. La Ceiba, no. 132. 

Puccinia purpurea Cke. Very common every- 
where on this host, producing large irregular, 
deep red blotches on leaves. La Ceiba, Puerta, 
no. 375. 

Virus. Near sugarcane fields, ieee sugar- 
cane mosaic (Marmor sacchari Holmes) was 
present, and hence the same virus is probably 
involved here. Santa Tecla, no. 269. 


SORGHUM VULGARE var. SUDANENSE (Piper) 
Hitche. (Holcus sudanensis Piper). Sudan 
grass. | 

Cercospora sorghi Ell. & Ev. Leaf spot. La 

Ceiba, nos. 131, 133, and 135. 


Trcoma stans (L.) H. B. K. 
Prospodium appendiculatum (Wint.) Arth. 
Rust common on the leaves of this ornamental 


Ava. 15, 1944 sTEVENSON & WELLMAN: PLANT DISEASES OF EL SALVADOR 


tree. Ahuachapdn, Dept. de Ahuachapdn, 
Standley 19905; near San Martin, Dept. de 
San Salvador, 22590. 


TETRAGONIA EXPANSA Thunb. New Zealand 
spinach. 
Cercosporina tetragoniae Speg. Leaf spot. 
Slopes of Volcano San Salvador, no. 348. 


TRITICUM AESTIVUM L. Wheat. 

Puccinia rubigo-vera tritici (Erikss. & P. 
Henn.) Carleton. Both stages (uredial and 
telial) of this common leaf rust of wheat were 
found. Slopes of Volcano San Salvador, nos. 
247, 248, 249, and 353. 

Septoria tritict Rob. A scanty collection of 
this common wheat parasite was made on the 
slopes of Volcano San Salvador, no. 353. 


VIGNA SINENSIS (Torner) Savi. Cowpea. 

Cercospora canescens Ell. & Martin. Leaf spot 
near Sacocoyo, nos. 140, 1438. 

Chaetoseptoria sp. This fungus was associated 
with large, circular leaf spots. Tehon described 
(Mycologia 29: 444-445. 1937) the genus as 
new and established the species C. vignae on 
Vigna sinensis. The Salvador fungus has conid- 
ia up to 150u long in contrast to 18—50p re- 
ported by Tehon for those of C. vignae. The 
pycnidia are also much larger than those of the 
Illinois fungus. Near Sacocoyo, no. 140; Zapi- 
totan, no. 424. 

Erysiphe polygont DC. This powdery mil- 
dew, in the Oidium stage only, as is usual in 
tropical collections, was collected at Los 
Planos, near San Salvador, no. 3. 


VITIS VINIFERA L. Grape. 

Alternaria vitis Cav. Associated with leaf 
spots. Los Planos, near San Salvador, no. 8. 

Mycosphaerella sp., in circular light-brown 
leaf spots, with dark brown definite borders. La 
Laguna, no. 325. 

Physopella vitis (Thuem.) Arth. The grape 
rust, also known as Phakopsora vitis (Thuem.) 
Syd., occurs commonly on vinifera grapes, 
_ causing some defoliation; the fungus also is 
present in the southern United States, the 
West Indies, Guatemala, and northern South 
America. Los Planos, near San Salvador, no. 
7; Santa Ana, no. 308; San Salvador, no. 463. 


YUCCA ELEPHANTIPES Regel. Izote. 
Didymosphaerta sp. A species, distinct be- 
cause of its larger spores from D. yuccogena 


4 


267 © 


(Cke.) Sace. and D. clementsii Sacc. & D. Sace., 
causing leaf spots was found on the lower 
slopes of Volean de San Salvador, no. 267. 

Gloeosporium sp. (GI. yuccigenuwm Ell. & Ev.?) 
Anthracnose of leaves, forming large concen- 
trically zoned diseased areas. Lower slopes, 
Volcan de San Salvador, nos. 266, 267. 

Leptosphaerta obtusispora Speg. The fungus 
produces large, irregular, dull brown blotches 
on the leaves. It differs from the more common 
L. filamentosa Ell. & Ev. in its 5-septate spores 
as contrasted to the 3-septate spores of the lat- 
ter species. La Ceiba, no. 332. 

Sphaerodothis pringlei (Pk.) Th. & Syd. Tar 
spot fungus on leaves. On lower slopes, Volcan 
de San Salvador, no. 267; slopes of Volcan 
San Salvador, no. 354. 


ZEA MAYS L. Corn, maize. 

Angiopsora zeae Mains. This is one of the 
rarer rust fungi occurring on Zea, heretofore 
reported as found sparingly in Puerto Rico, the 
Dominican Republic, Guatemala, and Trini- 
dad. For a discussion of this and certain of the 
other corn rusts see article by G. B. Cummins 
(Phytopath. 31: 856-857. 1941). Zapotitan, 
nos. 360, 361 (both uredial and telial stages.) 

Cercospora sorght Ell. & Ev. A common leaf 
spot producing fungus. La Ceiba, nos. 378, 379; 
near Herradura, no. 394. Distinct from C. zeae- 
maydis Tehon and Daniels, which is described 
with conidia 5—9y wide, in contrast to 3y as de- 
scribed for the former. 

Cladosporium herbarum Lk. Associated with 
large irregular, dead areas on leaves, near San 
Kstabdén, nos. 409, 429. Other fungi present 
were Alternaria sp., Fusarium sp., Periconia 
sp., and Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. & Br.) Petch 
all possibly secondary. 

Curvularia geniculata (Tracy & Earle) Boed. 
Associated with elongated brown lesions on 
leaves. La Cabana, no. 237. 

Diplodia zeae (Schw.) Lév. Ear rot. La Ceiba, 
NOs De 

Fusarium sp. Associated with ear rot and oc- 
curring also with other molds on leaves and 
husks. La Ceiba, no. 372. 

Helminthosporium turcicum Pass. A very 
common and widespread fungus on maize in 
Salvador and one that apparently causes much 
damage by destroying leaves. Secondary fungi 
quite commonly are present also on diseased 
material. Near Sonsonate, nos. 151, 152; near 


268 


Izalco, no. 177; Zapotitan, nos. 188, 189; San 
Andrés, nos. 159, 164, 198, 194, 195; La Ca- 
bana, nos. 235, 238; La Ceiba, no. 377; near 
San José del Sacario, no. 444. 

Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. & Br.) Petch. As- 
sociated with leaf spots, and cob rot, La Union, 
no. 429. 

Physoderma zeae-maydis Shaw. This fungus 
causes the disease known as brown spot. It isan 
important and widespread disease of corn in 
tropical and subtropical countries, there being 
reports of its occurrence in China, India, Cen- 
tral Africa, Brazil, and Guatemala. Although 
described originally from India, it is doubtless 
of American origin and Tisdale (Journ. Agr. 
Res. 16: 137-154. 1919) saysof it, ‘‘It is possi- 
ble that the disease was introduced into the 
United States from Mexico or Central America 
with Huchlaena mexicanum.” Physoderma may- 
dis Miy. described from Japan does not appear 
to differ. The Salvador material is typical both 
in the disease symptoms and in the morphology 
of the fungus except that the sporangia are 
somewhat smaller (15-18 by 15-21y) than 
those described by Tisdale. Near Sonsonate, no. 
176; near Izalco, no. 177; La Ceiba, nos. 123, 
125; San Andrés, nos. 160, 161, 164, 194; Zapo- 
titan, no. 367. 

Puccinia pallescens Arth. A second species of 
rust found sparingly in the uredial stage only at 
Los Planos, near San Salvador, no. 1. 

Puccinia polysora Underw. The third species 
of corn rust prevalent in the country. Found 
in both uredial and telial stages, near Talcha- 
laya, no. 446; and near Paraiso, no. 447. 

Puccinia sorghi Schw. The most common and 
widespread of the four species of rust attacking 
Zea. Collected around the edge of the crater of 
Volcano de San Salvador, nos. 253-258. The 
rust on several of the specimens is overgrown 


ENTOMOLOGY.—A new species of Anopheles from the Solomon Islands." 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 8 


by the ubiquitous rust parasite, Darluca filum 
(Biv.) Cast. 

Ustilago maydis (DC.) Cda. (U. zeae[Beckm.] 
Unger.). The common corn smut occurs 
abundantly as in all corn growing countries. La 
Ceiba, no. 370; near Izalco, no. 436; near 
Paraiso, no. 451. 

Virus. An undetermined virus disease caus- 
ing a mottling of leaves was noted near Son- 
sonate, no. 174. 


ZINNIA ELEGANS Jacq. (Crassina eae [Jacq.] 
Kuntze). Zinnia. 

Cercospora zinniae Ell. & Martin. This leaf 
spot fungus causes serious defoliation of the 
zinnia in El Salvador. C. atricincta Heald & 
Wolf, named from Texas, does not appear dis- 
tinct. La Ceiba Exp. Stat., nos. 62, 76; Son- 
sonate, no. 180. 


LITERATURE CITED 


(1) Atvarapbo, J. A. Informe de los trabajos 
de la Estacion Experimental de Santa 
Tecla del 15 Abril al 31 de Diciembre de 
1939. El Café de El Salvador, Rev. 
Assoc. Cafet. El Salvador 10: 147-186. 
1940. 

(2) ArTuur, J. C. New species of Uredineae 
XV. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 51: 51-59. 
1924. 

(3) CaLpERON, 8. El ojo de gallo del café. 
Café de El Salvador, Rev. Assoc. Guat. 
El Salvador 3: 1-5. 1933. 

(4) Cuoussy, F. ‘Mal de heridas’’ o “Mal de 
poda’’ del Cafeto. El Café de El Salva- 
dor, Rev. Assoc. Cafet. El Salvador 10: 
312-315. 1940. 

(5) Guzman, Davin J. Fitopatologia, estudio 
de las enfermedades que afectan a las 
plantas agricolas de El Salvador: 142 pp. 
San Salvador, 1919. 

(6) STANDLEY, Pav C., and CaLpERON, 
Satvapor. Lista ‘preliminar de las 
plantas de El Salvador: 274 pp. [Fungi, 
pp. 12-17]. 1925. 


JOHN 


N. Be.kin and Ratpx J. ScHLOSSER, SUS: Corps, U. 8. Army. (Com- 


municated by ALAN STONE.) 


In the Lunga district of Guadalcanal Is- 
land, British Solomon Islands Protectorate, 
a survey of the anophelines was made. Four 
distinct forms of anophelines were encoun- 
tered, a species of Bironella (walchi?), two 
forms of A. punctulatus Doénitz, and a spe- 
cies of Anopheles, which is described here- 


1 Received June 29, 1944. 


with. In reports from this area in the past 
few months this species has been called A. p. 
punctulatus Sw. & Sw. Investigations of the 
role of A. p. punctulatus in the transmission 
of disease on this island were actually car- 
ried out with this new species and not with 
A. p. punctulatus as reported. A summary of 
these investigations is given at the end of 
the paper. The senior author was very for- 


Ava. 15, 1944 


tunate in enlisting the assistance of the 
junior author in the preparation of the il- 
lustrations. 


Anopheles (Myzomyia) lungae, n. sp. 


Adult female—A medium-sized yellowish, 
speckled anopheline with the apical third of 
the labium yellow. Length of wing 4 mm. 

Heap (Fig. 2): Conspicuous white frontal 
tuft; vertical setae white, followed by one or 
two rows of white narrow hair-like scales; white 
scales on top of vertex forming a wide spot 
narrowed in the center; the rest of vertical 
scales and the occipital scales dark. Antenna 
with a few minute white scales on torus and 
dense white scaling on the first flagellar seg- 
ment. Palpi ornamented as shown in Fig. 2; 
ornamentation very constant, the light scales 
yellowish on the last segment and white on the 
rest. Labium densely covered with yellow 
scales on apical third, yellow coloration broken 
by narrow dark ring just proximad of apex. 
Labella dull yellow. 

Tuorax (Fig. 3): White scales on anterior 
promontory rather short and scarce, central 
scales elongate, lateral broader. A few dark 
scales below. Rest of mesonotum devoid of 
scales, except for very narrow whitish scales in 
' front of wing root; vestiture consisting of 
numerous golden hairs of varying length. 
Mesonotal integument light brown with gray 
pollinose longitudinal lines; dark brown eye 
spots in front of and behind scutal angle; pre- 
scutellar space dark brown. Mesonotal bristles 
light in color. Pleura darker with a broad black- 
ish longitudinal line dorsally. Spiracular bristles 
absent, propleurals 6, lower sternopleurals 3, 
upper sternopleural 6-8, prealars 4—6, subalars 
5-6, lower mesepimerals absent. 

Wine (Fig. 1): As in figure; pale areas light 
yellow, dark spots often more conspicuous than 
shown in figure, scales rather broad. Median 
dark spot includes base of vein 2; a dark spot 
on costa between basal and median dark spots; 
subcosta and vein 1 without dark spots in this 
area; small black spots, shown in figure, be- 
tween median and preapical black spots some- 
times absent. 

Leas (Fig. 4): Front femora swollen in basal 
half, speckled; middle and hind femora and all 
tibiae with rather evenly spaced pale spots 
externally. First segment of front tarsus with 
several light spots and light apex; second, third 
and fourth segments with basal and apical light 


BELKIN & SCHLOSSER: A NEW ANOPHELES FROM SOLOMON ISLANDS 


269 


bands; fifth segment dark basally, remainder 
light. First segment of middle tarsus similar to 
corresponding segment of front tarsus; second, 
third and fourth segments with basal light 


- bands only; fifth segment all dark. First seg- 


ment of hind tarsus with numerous light spots 
and light apex, second segment with light 
apical band and usually one to three light 
spots in the center; third segment with light 
apical band and occasionally a few light scales 
in center; fourth segment with light apical 
band; fifth segment all dark. Light scales on 
legs yellowish. Dark scales on middle tarsus 
much lighter than on other tarsi. 

ABDOMEN: Devoid of scales on tergites and 
sternites; instead, a vestiture of narrow golden 
hairs similar to those found on mesonotum. 
Hairs more numerous on posterior segments. 
Cerci with rather narrow yellow scales. 

Adult male——In the main as the female. 
First flagellar segment with a tuft of long nar- 
row white scales resembling frontal tuft. Pal- 
pal ornamentation essentially as in female; 
segment with 2 yellow scales dorsally in mid- 
dle; third segment with narrow apical yel- 
low ring and a few yellow scales dorsally in 
middle; fourth and fifth segments yellow with 
narrow basal dark rings. Labium all dark ex- 
cept for a few yellow scales at apex, labella dull 
yellow. Abdomen as in female except for nu- 
merous yellow scales on eighth tergite. Side 
pieces densely covered with yellow scales; black 
scales present laterally. 

Mate GENITALIA (Figs. 5-7): Side pieces 
broad. Parabasal spines 5, spine 4 separated 
from 1-3. Claspettes (Fig. 6) with elongate 
club composed of four fused spines; apical hair 
almost twice length of club; inner accessory 
hair as long as club; two small hairs arising 
near base of apical ‘hair. Phallosome (Fig. 7) 
elongate with parallel sides; leaflets 7-8; quite 
broad, the longest about one-fourth length of 
phallosome, serrations absent (?). 

Larva.—HeE ap (Fig. 8): Inner clypeals widely 
spaced, quite heavy, but short; outer clypeals 
extremely short; posterior clypeals similar to 
outer clypeals. Frontal hairs with branching 
as shown in figure. Occipitals and orbitals 
short, bifurcate. Antenna with fairly conspicu- 
ous spines on inner surface; antennal hair mi- 
nute arising one third from base; terminal hair 
with about five branches arising from base, 
slightly longer than sabers; basal hair normal; 
subbasal short, three branched. 


270 


Tuorax (Fig. 9): Prothoraciec hair 1 with 
heavy basal tubercle, heavy shaft and radia- 
tion branching, approximately half as long as 
hair 2; hair 2 not quite so long as hair 4, with 
heavy basal tubercle, heavy shaft, and five to 
six branches on each side; hair 3 small, simple; 
hair 5 with very thick shaft, minute lateral 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


S - =e, 7 : 
— Shep ee = 
ROCCE Sgn Rea sggert eee 


BAABES 


vou. 34, No. 8 


branches except near apex where branches are 
long; hair 6 simple, longer than 5. Prothoracic 
pleural hairs 9 and 10 long and simple; hair 11 
long with three to five branches; hair 12 simple 
or bifid, about one-third length of long hairs. 
Mesothoracic pleural hairs 9 and 10 long and 
simple; hair 11 short, with two or three 


Mieccg oF 
Sa S. 


1 


: ) 9 \" a 
cabs SSDS en > AS 
SEZ Z IL Oe", EEN uN et 
a ONES a ee ee rea et Se eee ERS 


MorpHouoay or ApULT ANOPHELES LUNGAE 


Fig. 1.—Wing of female. 
Hind tarsus of female. 


Fig. 2.— Mouthparts of female. 
Fig. 5.—Male genitalia. .Fig. 6.—Claspettes. 


Fig. 4.— 
Fig. 7.—Phallosome. 


Fig. 3.— Mesonotum of female. 


Ava. 15, 1944 


branches, hair 12 minute. Hair 1 on mesothorax 
with thickened shaft. Hair 1 on metathorax 
forming a palmate hair with approximately 8 
leaflets, leaflets not pigmented. 

ABDOMEN (Fig. 9): Palmate hairs very large 
and heavily pigmented on segments IIJ—VII, 
somewhat smaller on VII; poorly developed on 
I; fairly well developed (12 or more leaflets) 
but lightly pigmented on II. Leaflets (Fig. 11) 
numbering 16 to 26 on segment III and IV, 
well-pigmented; filaments short, indentations 
not numerous. Lateral hair on segment III 
with approximately six branches on each side, 
arising well away from base; lateral hairs on 
segments IV and V usually double; lateral 
hairs on VI with five to six branches. Anterior 
tergal plates rather small; posterior tergal 
plates very small, present on segment IV—VII. 
Median plate of scoop well developed. Pecten 
(Fig. 10) with 3—4 long and 6-8 short spines, 
the serrations at their bases very fine and 
inconspicuous; the pecten hair with 4-5 
branches. Caudal hooks 6-8. Anal gills much 
longer than anal segment. 

Types.—Holotype @, allotype <7, paratypes 
202, 200% collected resting on tree trunks, 
Tassafaronga Swamp, Guadalcanal Island, 
January 28, 1944 (Belkin); paratypes 59,42 
reared from larvae collected in Wright’s Creek, 
Guadalcanal Island, November 11, 1943 (Bel- 
kin); paratypes 102, 15 collected on tree 
trunks, Burns Creek, Lunga, Guadalcanal Is- 
land, March 10, 1944 (Belkin). Holotype and 
allotype to be deposited in U. S. National 
Museum. 

Identification—This species can be sepa- 
rated easily from the forms of A. p. punctulatus 
in both the male and female by the very large 
median dark spot on the wing, the yellowish 
scales on the wings and palpi, the absence of 
white scales on most of the mesonotum and the 
presence in their place of yellow hairs. The 
larvae are easily distinguished by the very 
short outer clypeals, simple inner clypeals, the 
very characteristic prothoracic hairs 1 and 2, 
the palmate hairs, and the pecten. On pleural 
hairs this species does not quite agree with 
other members of the group Myzomyia to 
which it apparently belongs. The combination 
of characters exhibited by this species is not 
found in any previously described form. Sev- 
enty individual rearings of larvae established 
the identity of this form. 


BELKIN & SCHLOSSER: A NEW ANOPHELES FROM SOLOMON ISLANDS 


271 


Distribution.—Anopheles lungae is generally 
distributed along the northwest coast of Gua- 
dalcanal Island. It may be present also on some 
of the other Solomon Islands. 

Biology.—The larvae of this species are nor- 
mally found in the jungle in seepage areas, 
along the margins of streams, pot holes in 
stream beds, rock holes, dense jungle swamps, 
and temporary pools. The species has a de- 
cided preference for shade in its breeding places. 
During the rainy season the larvae are flushed 
out into the coconut groves on the coastal 
strip where the species then breeds. The diurnal 
adult resting places were first discovered by 
Capt. F. B. Whittington. Adults are usually 
found resting in partial shade on tree trunks 
in the jungle. Males, unfed, blooded, and 
gravid females are all found together. Other 
resting places have been found under logs, 
inside crates, boxes, oil drums, foxholes, and 
nail kegs. 

As this species becomes very abundant early 
in the rainy season on the northwest coast of 
Guadalcanal, preliminary investigations were 
conducted on its feeding habits and its relation 
to disease transmission in this area. On several 
occasions areas with a high adult density of this 
species were visited at night and biting records 
made. Males and females were observed leayv- 
ing their daytime resting places between 6:30 
and 7:00 p.m.; after 7:30 none could be found 
resting. Although the biting records were 
made among the trees where the anophilines 
were resting, less than two percent of the 
total anopheline catch was A. lungae. In rou- 
tine night catches for anophelines in the Lunga 
district of Guadalcanal the percentage of A. 
lungae of the total anophelines collected is a 
little less than two. Blooded females collected 
in the jungle near troop areas were dissected. 
Seventy percent of these showed nucleated 
red blood cells; the blood found in the remain- 
der was of mammalian origin. Precipitin tests 
are being made on a small number of blooded 
females of these species collected by Capt. F. B. 
Whittington. 

It appears from these sketchy observations 
that in the area in question A. lungae is not 
strongly androphilic and probably is not of 
primary importance in disease transmission. 
Nevertheless, during the rainy season when this 
species is flushed out by the rains and extends 
its breeding range into the coastal coconut 


212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 8 


groves it may become a problem locally. The series of individual rearings connected the 
normal blood supply is believed to be birds and larvae with the adults. 

possibly bats. With the great disturbance 
caused by an influx of humans a change in 
blood feeding habits may take place. 


Females 


1. Palpi very short, wing scales all dark........ 


sre hah vogue ahaa Raine tb, Bironella(watchi?) 
Palpi as long as labium, wing scales light and 

PROVISIONAL KEYS TO ANOPHELINES OF dark 
GUADALCANAL ISLAND 2. Mesonotum with a vestiture of golden yellow 


The following provisional keys are included hairs only, except for panite and black seales 
on anterior promontory; median dark wing 


aS it is hoped that they may be of assistance spot including subcosta, vein 1, and base of 
in other parts of the South Pacific Area. Large vein 2; apical third of proboscis with yellow 


\\ 


8& 
iN KX N ir NY 
— a 


Morpuouoey or LARVA OF ANOPHELES LUNGAE 


Fig. 8.—Head. Fig. 9.—Thorax and abdomen. Fig. 10.—Pecten. Fig. 11.—Leaflet of 
palmate hair. 


Ava. 15, 1944 


scales, interrupted by narrow dark ring 
EBay eh PEE OD. RD eae ere! A. lungae 
Mesonotum with a vestiture of white scales 
throughout; median dark wing spot not 
extending to veins land2.............-. 3 

3. Labium all dark except for a few white or yel- 
lowish scales at extreme apex. ..A. p. farautt 
Labium with a vestiture of white or creamy 
scales on apical third, interrupted by a nar- 
row ring of dark scales just before apex.... 
Sh ae ne Nate ee Ae, DUNELULALUS 


Males 


The males of the three forms of Anopheles in 
this area have the labium all dark with a few 
light scales on apex; the labella are dull yellow. 
The males of A. lungae can be distinguished on 
mesonotal vestiture and wing spotting which are 
similar to the female. The males of A. p. punctu- 
latus and A. p. farauti have not as yet been suc- 
cessfully separated. 


Larvae 


1. Inner clypeals close together. Bironella(walchi?) 
Inner clypeals widely separated............ 2 


STONE: SOME RELATIONSHIPS OF ANOPHELES LUNGAE 


273 


2. Outer clypeals extremely short, usually less 
than one quarter the length of inner clyp- 
eals; pecten with two distinct series of 
spines, spines 10-12 in number; palmate 
hair on II not pigmented......... A. lungae 

Outer clypeals at least half as long as inner 
clypeals; pecten with 14-17 subequal spines 
pias Maret eos. he )..ce akyo a. She AROSE cdtol yb 3 

3. Clypeal hairs slender, without branches; pro- 
thoracic hairs 1 and 2 with rather slender 
shafts, hair 5 with long lateral branches; 
palmate hair on II less developed than on 
III; lateral hairs on IV and V with three 
to four branches......... A. p. punctulatus 

Clypeal hairs thickened, with a few fine lateral 
branches; prothoracic hairs 1 and 2 with 
thickened shafts, hair 5 with very short 
lateral branches; palmate hair on II de- 
veloped as strongly as on III; lateral hairs 
on IV and V simple or double. .A. p. farautz 


Remarks.—The larvae of A. p. punctulatus from 
Guadacanal agree in every respect with the 
chaetotaxy represented for this form in Ross and 
Roberts’ “Mosquito Atlas,’’ Part 2, p. 12, 1943. 
Adults of A. p. punctulatus have never been col- 
lected attempting to bite humans on this island. 


ENTOMOLOGY.—Some relationships of Anopheles lungae Belkin and Schlosser 
(Diptera: Culicidae)." ALAN Stone, U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant 


Quarantine. 


The foregoing excellent description of 
Anopheles lungae is sufficient to distinguish 
it from all other described species, but it 
seems advisable to compare it with certain 
closely related species that were not availa- 
ble to its describers. This is particularly true 
since it might be confused with Anopheles 
tessellatus Theobald or A. longirostris Brug. 
These three species have the following 
characters in common which distinguish 
them from the related species, punctulatus 
Dé6nitz, annulipes Walker, farauti Laveran, 
and amictus Edwards: (1) Scales of the 
halteres entirely pale, creamy white; (2) 
scutum with scales on the anterior margin 
only; (8) outer clypeal hairs of the larva 
very short, much less than half as long as 
the inner clypeal hairs. 

The females of the two close relatives of 
lungae are distinguished from it by the fol- 
lowing characters: 

A. longtrostris: At least apical half of 
proboscis pale; proboscis about one-fifth 


Received June 29, 1944. 


longer than the palpi, strongly decurved; 
third palpal segment (antepenultimate) 
with apical half pale. 

A. tessellatus: Third palpal segment with 
apical half pale. 

The larva of lungae closely resembles that 
of tessellatus, but prothoracic hair 1 of tes- 
sellatus has a slender shaft with 2-6 
branches. The larva of longirostris, as de- 
scribed, shows no differences from lungae, 
but it is quite probable that a direct com- 
parison of the two species will reveal some. 

The distribution of these three species is 
of some interest in view of their close rela- 
tionship. A. tessellatus has a wide Oriental 
distribution from India to Hong Kong, the 
Netherlands Indies, the Philippines, with a 
few records from: the Moluccas, and one 
questionable one from western New Guinea. 
A. longirostris has been collected from sev- 
eral places in New Guinea and from Kavi- 
eng, New Ireland. A. lungae is confined to 
the Solomon Islands. The distribution of 
the three species has not yet been found to 
overlap. 


274 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 8 


ICHTHYOLOGY.—Sphyrna bigelowi, a new hammerhead shark from off the 
Atlantic coast of South America, with notes on Sphyrna mokarran from 
New South Wales.! Stewart SPRINGER, Homestead, Fla. (Communicated by 


LEONARD P. SCHULTZ.) 


During a study of sharks in the collec- 
tions of the Museum of Comparative Zool- 
ogy, Dr. Henry B. Bigelow and William C. 
Schroeder found a single specimen of a ham- 
merhead shark that they recognized as be- 
longing to an undescribed species. Subse- 
quently, when I found two specimens of 
this species in the United States National 
Museum collections, descriptive data and 
drawings of the M.C.Z. specimen were gen- 
.erously furnished by the discoverers. It 
gives me great pleasure to name this new 
hammerhead in honor of Dr. Bigelow in 
recognition of his part in the preparation of 
the important work on sharks in the forth- 
coming volume, ‘Fishes of the Western 
Atlantic.” 


Sphyrna bigelowi, n. sp. 
Holotype.—Young male, about 385 mm in to- 


tal length, collected by Dr. W. L. Schmitt on 


the coast of Uruguay, U.S.N.M. No. 87682. 


Paratypes——Young male about 395 mm,. 


from the coast of Uruguay, U.S.N.M. No. 
120751; female about 900 mm in total length, 
from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, M.C.Z. No. 463. 
Description.—Moderate size at birth (smaller 
at birth than Sphyrna tudes (Cuvier), S. 
zygaena (Linnaeus), or S. diplana Springer, 
but larger than S. tibwro (Linnaeus); body com- 
pressed, proportionately shorter bodied than 
other hammerheads; head flattened and ex- 
panded to form the hammer characteristic of 
genus; anterior margin of head divided by 
slight indentations into four lobes between the 
nostrils; deep groove (not visible from directly 
above or below) running from each nasal notch 
toward midpoint in forward margin of head for 
length of lobe adjacent to nostril; greatest 
width of head in smaller (newborn) individuals 
about 16 per cent and about 23 per cent of to- 
tal length in largest (900 mm) specimen; an- 
terior margin of head of smaller specimens 
rounded, that of large specimen less rounded; 
length of snout (distance from front of mouth 


1 Received June 22, 1944. 


to midpoint in front margin of the head) about 
10 per cent of total length in smaller individuals 
and about 7.3 per cent in largest specimen; 
greatest length of expanded portion of head of 
smaller individuals about 50 per cent of its 
greatest width and in largest one about 40 per 
cent; posterior edge of hammer of young with 
relatively long trailing flap without cartilagi- 
nous support, this structure reduced in larger 
specimen; mouth broadly rounded and well 
back in head, a transverse line through front 
of mouth passing posterior to the eyes, a line 
through corners of mouth passing posterior 
to hinder edge of hammer in largest specimen 
but not posterior to trailing edge of hammer in 
young; eye small, its diameter about 1.5 per 
cent of total length in smaller specimens and 
proportionately smaller in the largest specimen; 
eye separated from nasal notch by a distance 
little greater than diameter of eye; gill openings 
of moderate length, first three nearly equal, 
last two a little shorter; last gill opening over 
insertion of pectoral; fins large, their distal 
(trailing) margins slightly concave except in 
pelvic fins which are rounded; caudal region 
heavy and compressed, caudal pits well devel- 
oped; first dorsal fin high, roughly triangular, 
its origin behind axil of pectoral but in advance 
of free inner angle of pectoral; posterior lobe of 
first dorsal extending to a point over insertion 
of pelvics; no skin ridge along back between 
dorsal fins; second dorsal fin relatively high, 
its area about half that of anal fin; origin of 
second dorsal over middle of base of anal, and 
posterior lobe reaching a point about opposite 
posterior tip of anal but posterior tip of second 
dorsal when lifted upward not reaching a point 
much higher than apex of fin; base of anal fin 
long, with distal margin (free edge) not deeply 
incised, and apex a rounded point not greatly 
projecting; teeth in }$-¢-+¢ rows in types; all 
teeth without serrations; teeth of upper jaw 
narrowly triangular mostly directed toward 
corners of mouth and deeply notched on outer 
margins; teeth of lower jaw with narrower and 
more erect cusps, the latter only slightly point- 
ing toward corners of mouth even in young; 


Ave. 15, 1944 


base of lower symphyseal tooth and next four 
rows of lower jaw teeth with sharp shoulders in 
young; the sharp shoulders present only on 
symphyseal and first adjacent row of teeth in 
larger individual; fifteenth and sixteenth rows 
of teeth of lower jaw in the three type speci- 
mens without cusps. 

Color.—In alcohol, grayish above and lighter 
below, no prominent contrasting markings ex- 
- cept narrow yellowish border along anterior 
edge of hammer and yellowish cast to trailing 
edge of hammer in young (coloration possibly 
owing to preservation). 

Comparison with other species.—If the diag- 
nosis of the type material of bigelowz? is correct, 
striking change in the shape of the head with 
growth is shown. All hammerheads, as judged 
by the material available for study show a 
tendency toward widening and shortening of 
the head with increase in size, and old adults of 
bigelowt may have the forward margin of the 
head nearly straight. The young of S. tudes 


.£.N FISCHER, Del. 


SPRINGER: A NEW HAMMERHEAD SHARK 


275 


have longer heads with more rounded anterior 
margins, but heads of the adults are nearly 
transverse. S. bigelowi and S. tudes are similar 
in regard to their small eyes, high second dorsal 
fins, and large mouths placed well back in head. 
S. bigelowi differs from S. tudes in having 
smooth instead of serrate teeth, a deep groove 
instead of a very shallow one in front edge of 
head, in the young having a long trailing edge 
of unsupported skin posteriorly along hammer. 
S. bigelowi has the smallest eye among all the 
species of the genus. 

The combination of a deep groove along 
front margin of head and a relatively high 
second dorsal fin is not known in any other 
hammerhead shark. S. bigelowi differs from 
S. zygaena and S. diplana in having a higher 
second dorsal fin with a shorter posterior lobe 
instead of a lower fin with a longer posterior 
point. S. bigelowi has a low, long anal fin with 
its apex moderately projecting, whereas S. 
tudes, S. zygaena, and S. diplana have the anal 


_ Fie. 1.—Sphyrna bigelowi, n. sp.: A, Lower side of the head of the holotype, U.S.N.M. No. 87682, 
a male, 385 mm in total length (the dotted lines mark the area of the trailing flap of the hammer); 
B, Lower side of the head of the 900-mm female; C, Lateral view of the holotype; D, Teeth of the 
900-mm female; the lower symphyseal tooth, the first upper tooth of the right side of the jaw, and 
the upper and lower teeth of the left side of the jaw in the (1), (2), (4), (6), (11) and (15) rows are 


represented. Drawings by E. N. Fischer. 


276 


fin deeply incised distally, with the apex of the 
fin forming a distinct hook. 

Sphyrna lewini (Griffith), S. oceanica (Gar- 
man), and S. zygaena are names that have been 
used for Pacific hammerheads. Regardless of 
the validity of these names the species repre- 
sented all have small, low second dorsal fins 
with long posterior points, and thus differ from 
S. bigelowi. The Pacific species, S. blocha (Cu- 
vier), S. media Springer, S. corona Springer, 
and S. vespertina Springer, and the Atlantic 
S. tiburo may be distinguished from S. bigelowt 
by the shape of the head. 

Sphyrna mokarran (Riippell) of the Red Sea, 
Indian Ocean, and the southwest Pacific Ocean 
is rare in collections and is not adequately de- 
scribed in the literature so it seems advisable to 
make a few notes here. Measurements of a fe- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 8 


“ 


U.S.N.M. No. 40026, from Richmond River, 
New South Wales, February 7, 1889, are given 
in Table 1. Another specimen, 290 mm long, in 
poor state of preservation, U.S.N.M. No. 12622 
from Madras, is tentatively identified as S. me- 
karran. S. mokarran is similar to S. tudes and 
S. bigelowi in having—a high second dorsal fin 
with a short posterior lobe, and a relatively 
large mouth placed well back in the head. The 
anterior margin of the hammer of the embryo 
of S. mokarran is nearly straight across and the 
groove in the front edge is a fine line quite un- 
like the prominent deep groove of S. bigelowt or 
the shallow indistinct groove of S. tudes. The 
eyes of the embryo of S. mokarran are large, 
about 2.6 per cent of the total length. The anal 
fin is hooked at its apex and its origin is only 
slightly in advance of the origin of the second 
dorsal. ; 


male embryo of this species in fair condition, 


TaBLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) OF SPHYRNA BIGELOWI, N. SP. AND S. MOKARRAN (RUPPELL) 


S. bigelowt S. bigelowt S. mokarran 


Characters 
Young male, 


Young male, Embryo female, 


U.S.N.M. No. 87682 | U.S.N.M. No. 120751 | U.S.N.M. No. 40026 


otaluength. (inemm) 26.8 so csedie dv wae a se ee ee een ews 


385 — 395 415 
Weneth wpper caudal lobe. 2.0.56 cee. ces oes oe ea tees 115 118 130 
HGreatest, width Hamme. «7... sc6c0bee, seleneverwinre sve bs eh aes 122 125 102 
Greatest length hammer..............00 0c ecu eceeceee 61 64 43 
Horizontal diameter orbit. 2.2... 0.0... ccc cece nee 6 6 10 
Werticalidiameter Orbites bys 0c. eres 2) dc.c.e le ele cetesere svelte ame icles 6 6 10 
RVG IMO UG ys Sons, 3 ose pac, sosscste nova wee SUE siete dicts sla abe s 26 26 31 
Internasaludistaneeys sisccis-csce costs obec els See gins eee 89 91 73 
Hengthenasal aperture) jic-. icc Steseias a chee sels 0 8 « aia eae ole 10 11 rf 
Tip of snout to: 
Front of mouth (length snout).................... 39 40 32 
Birst, gillvopening sch o cekus shrews eee a eer 75 80 78 
BASEIDECLORAD a isid cisucishin aviaradeiane Maes a ee es 97 97 90 
PASTING NY Set ers ce Coca oe RI Ma IEG oR a aT ac a ee 172 180 200 
Oripiniarst: dorsal yaks eatin. Neto where aac ceo aereciue 124 128 126 
First dorsal fin: 
IAT CERIOLSIMAN ETM caycer ho sla he eae ie pe 64 63 70 
POSteEMlOr INArein. ..-'3-oi 6s seek eis oe ee 16 17 14 
JEG Sten i) tee CA Heel RI DOR Teal io PRLS ree OURO cay 37 37 40 
Interdorsal distance a. cr hdl koyscs age: swans holes Sseuo a eunle oh eve Oe 82 79 86 
Second dorsal fin: 
PANCETIOFMATEING jase Ae cit a Na tec stele ato 18 19 24 
OsteriorsmMargini oa. osulel os Gis Oak os EE 17 18 21 
TBNSTD oy egiabctad Ore aeeh EMER OPERATE es vo Gar Oman aera Aa 16 17 20 
Pectoral fin: 
ANCETIOT MATLIN Ns \s.ceca iets cians ototee e Wale satiate 50 52 48 
PITIO EMA OU beg in eon teytan aie area tee eae ore ake 20. 21 17 
1 BEND (5: cs CRORE Se REMC RENE ER ort e en Sr Coie ALN 1 trees 20 19 20 
Anal fin 
MTILCTION MATER sc )escis oso e coe ree iete eee, s Shade A ee, 21 20 22 
ROSLEVIOT MAT GT assoc so seve eins Gheuais eae eee 12 14 17 


oa 


Ne } 


- Cummisrry.—Polymer chemistry of s silicate 
STERLING B, He DRICKS - Sea 


viabsoany: —“Tapirage,” ‘ a biological discover "y 
Indians. ALFRED Mérraux. a se 


Pane 


Lanevisties. —The ne oni of 0 ot 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 34 


PHYSICS.—Altitude by measurement of air pressure and temperature.' 


SEPTEMBER 15, 1944 


No. 9 


W. G. 


BRoMBACHER, National Bureau of Standards. 


Measurement of differences in elevation 
of points on the earth’s surface by meas- 
uring the atmospheric pressures at the two 
points is quite old. However, all the ad- 
ditional factors entering into a determi- 
nation, such as air temperature, humidity, 
and gravity, were not completely under- 
stood until the French mathematician La- 
place published the complete formula which 
bears his name, at least in France. 

Until the invention of the aneroid barom- 
eter by Vidi in 1847 it was necessary to 
make the pressure measurements by means 
of the mercury barometer, which is incon- 
venient to transport from place to place. 
The early aneroid instruments were in gen- 
eral unreliable, and progress was slow in 
eliminating or reducing to reasonable values 
their many sources of error. However, the 
elements of the aneroid barometer remain 
unchanged, although design and workman- 
ship have improved greatly. The advent of 
the aneroid barometer made convenient the 
use of this method of measuring altitude. 

It should be stressed at the start that the 
altimeter or aneroid barometer can be used 
only to measure differences in altitude or 
elevation. Some base pressure or reference 
level is assumed either explicitly or im- 
plicitly. When the auxiliary altitude scale 
of the aneroid barometer or the scale of the 
altimeter is set to zero, it is implied that the 
subsequent altitude reading of the instru- 
ment is above or below the pressure corre- 
sponding to the zero reading. 

The terms “altimeter” and ‘aneroid’’ 


1 Address of the retiring president of the Philo- 
sophical Society of Washington, delivered at the 
1211th meeting of the Society, January 16, 1943. 
Received April 11, 1944. 


barometer are often used interchangeably. 
Both are instruments which measure abso- 
lute air pressure. When the pressure scale 
is graduated in evenly divided pressure 
units, the instrument will be called an 
aneroid barometer. It may have an auxil- 
lary altitude scale, but this will be neces- 
sarily unevenly divided. On the other hand, 
when called an altimeter the instrument 
will have an altitude scale that is graduated 
in evenly divided units in accordance with 
the pressure-altitude relation of a selected 
standard atmosphere. It also may have an 
auxiliary pressure scale and means for ad- 
justing the zero reading. There is no other 
fundamental difference in the two instru- 
ments. 

Almost by necessity a choice must be 
made between two distinct procedures in 
measuring altitude by the barometric 
method. In the first, the air pressures, 
air temperatures, and other required quan- 
tities are measured and the basic formula 
used to compute the altitude. This proced- 
ure usually is followed in cases where the 
pressure observations are recorded and is 
customarily used in the computation of 
atmospheric soundings by meteorologists 
who have developed short cuts in the com- 
putation, which will not be discussed here. 
It is relatively laborious and time consum- 
ing. 

In the other procedure, altitude is meas- 
ured with an altimeter, calibrated to the 
altitude-pressure relation of a standard at- 
mosphere. In accurate work, additional 
quantities are observed for use in applying 
the corrections for deviations in air tem- 
perature, humidity, etc., from the assumed 
standard conditions. The altimeter is used 


277 


SEP 23 4 


278 


both in aircraft during flights and in surveys 
on land. when surveys by transit are not 
feasible. 

We proceed now to a brief discussion of 
the fundamental formula. 


THEORY 


Altitude is determined by the following 
formula (see references 1, 2): 


dP e 
—=KT.| 1+0.376(— ) | 
gp Bw, 


Ys —QJm Py 
-| 1+ log — (1) 
Qs P, 


~ Fs 
i log P,—log P2 . n 


The constant K =221.152 for H in feet and 

67.4073 for H in meters. 

H =altitude above the pres- 
sure level Pi. 

P,=pressure at ground level. 

P=pressure at intermediate 
levels. 

P,=pressure at upper level; all 
in the same units of 


H= 


Eh Taog P) 


(2) 


pressure; 
p =air density; 
T,»=mean temperature in 


°K(=273+42°C) of the 
air column between pres- 
sure levels P; and Py». 
T, =the air temperature at 
equally spaced intervals 
of log P or K log (Pi/P2) 
between P, and P». 
nm =number of selected equal 
intervals between P, 
and Po. 
€=water vapor pressure in 
same units as P. 
(e/P)m =mean value for air column 
between P; and Pz. 
gs =standard value of gravity. 
gm =value of gravity at the 
midpoint of the air col- 
umn between P; and P». 


The altitude above sea level equals H +h 
where h is the elevation above sea level of 
the lower pressure level, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


The formula as given involves the fol- 
lowing assumptions: | 


(a) Air obeys the gas law, pv =mRT. 

(b) The composition of ite atmosphere is the 
same at all altitudes. 

(c) The air is in vertical camila i.e., NO 
vertical currents. 


The following values of the constants 
were used in evaluating K: 


(a) Air density at 0°C and 760 mm of mer- 
cury, 1.2930 kg/m. 


(6) Standard value of gravity, 980.665 

cm /sec?. » 

(c) Density of mercury at 0°G, 13.5951 
g/cm’. 


(d) The air is assumed dry. 


Formula (1), or its equivalent forms, is 
used in making precise determinations of 
the altitude. The necessary observations 
are: . 


(a) The air pressures at the lower and upper 
levels, measured simultaneously and on the 
same vertical line, or corrected to obtain simul- 
taneity and verticality. 

(b) The air temperature and corresponding 
air pressure at intervals from the lower to the 
upper level, also measured or corrected to ob- 
tain simultaneity. The intervals must be suf- 
ficiently close to obtain an accurate picture of 
the temperature distribution. 

(c) The humidity, and the corresponding air 
temperature and air pressure, measured at in- 
tervals from the lower to the upper level. 

(d) The values of gravity at the lower and 
upper level obtained usually by computation 
from available data. 


Since the atmosphere is not generally in 
equilibrium, the air pressure, temperature, 
and humidity vary with time and place, and 
since observations of these elements in gen- 
eral can not be made simultaneously in the 
same vertical line, consideration must be 
given to methods of correcting the observed 
data. First, observations should be made, 
when possible, when atmospheric conditions 
are reasonably stable; observations during 
line squalls, wind shifts, and thunderstorms 
should be avoided. 

Continuous measurements of the air pres- 


Sept. 15, 1944 


sure and air temperature at the lower level 
may be made in a net around the point at 
which the pressure at the upper level is 
measured, in which case the proper pressure 
and temperature at the lower level are ob- 
tained by interpolation in time and location. 
Since the above procedure is often imprac- 
ticable, the air pressure and temperature 
are usually measured continuously at one 
point only, in which case the observations 
available are used as circumstances permit, 
to bring the pressures and temperatures at 
the two levels into simultaneity and verti- 
eality. Field conditions under which ob- 
servations are made, either in surveying or 
in aircraft flights, are far from ideal, so that 
some data are often lacking; in this case the 
computer can usually fill the gap from rou- 
tine observations by the Weather Bureau 
office serving the locality. 

The required temperature observations 
offer more difficulty than those of pres- 
sures; first, because the temperature changes 
more rapidly with time, especially near the 
ground; and second, because, particularly in 
surveying, the air column is often fictitious, 
that is, the lower or reference level verti- 
cally below the point of observations at the 
upper level is underground. There is further 
the fact that local thermal gradients exist 
near the ground, particularly in broken 
country, which introduce inaccuracy into 
the determination of mean temperature. 
It may be stated here that air currents 
along the ground which arise from thermal 
gradients have a vertical component on 
mountain sides, and therefore introduce er- 
rors into the altitude determination, found 
by Rithlman (/)? to be of the order of 2 per- 
cent. 

It is obvious from the foregoing that the 
time interval between the initial observa- 
tions at the lower level and the final obser- 
vations at the upper level should be as short 
as possible. 

The observations to obtain the humidity 
term in formula (1) require only that of 
humidity in addition to those of tempera- 
ture and pressure already discussed. For- 
tunately, the humidity term is of minor 


2 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to litera- 
ture cited at end of paper. 


BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 


279 


importance, rarely exceeding 1.0 percent in 
amount, at summer temperature, and 
rapidly reducing in amount with reduc- 
duction in air temperature. In surveying, 
its measurement to sufficient accuracy offers 
no difficulty and may often be made only 
at the lower level station without loss in ac- 
curacy. 

Approximate altitude formula.—In many 
cases pressure and temperature data are 
sufficient for the accuracy required or are 
all that are available. The altitude is then 
given. by Pi 

Fake ialog-— 5 (3) 
2 
where the notation is as given for formula 
(1) and the observations needed are those 
listed under (a) and (b) above. 

Alternate form of formula.—Meteorolo- 
gists commonly use formulas (1) and (2) in 
somewhat different form, so that the com- 
putations can be made in steps up to the 
highest altitude. This is, neglecting gravity 
and humidity correction terms, which are 
the same as given in formula (1), 

n n ee 
KS Pe ioge Ba) 
1 1 Pe 
where n equals the number of intervals in 
the air column between P,; and P:, usually 
divided at points where the rate of change 
of temperature with respect to log P, or 
lapse rate, changes in value. 


T,+T; 
Son 


T, and T, are the temperatures in °K 
at the lower and upper levels of each alti- 
tude interval respectively. 

P, and P,; are the air pressures corre- 
sponding to 7, and 7’. Discussion in this 
paper will be limited to formulas (1) and (8). 

Computation of mean temperature.—To 
compute the mean temperature from ade- 
quate observations, when the altitude to be 
determined is large, say above 500 to 1,000 
feet, plot the observed temperature at pres- 
sure P against log P or K log (P:/P), which- 
ever is more convenient (2). It is evident 
from formula (2) that the mean tempera- 
ture is the area included in the curve and 


™m 


280 


the ordinate 7’ =0, divided by log P; —log Py». 
The area can be determined by a planimeter 
or by graphical integration. The computa- 
tion is made more conveniently by other 
methods. If the curve is linear, the mean 
temperature is the temperature at the mid- 
point of the log P ordinate. Otherwise, di- 
vide the curve into a number of equal 
intervals of log P. The decision as to the 
number of intervals n is a matter of judg- 
ment based upon the degree of irregularity 
of the temperature curve and a balance of 
the accuracy of the data against the ac- 
curacy of the determination. The more 
intervals, the greater the possible precision. 
For each interval of log P the mean tem- 
perature is obtained by inspection, and 
usually is the temperature at the midpoint. 
The average of the mean temperatures 7’, 
of the intervals is the mean temperature 
Tm of the air column. 

When the altitude difference is small, it is 
often sufficiently accurate to take as the 
mean temperature the air temperature 
measured at the place and time of meas- 
urement of the pressure Pz. As a further 
refinement the average of the temperatures 
measured simultaneously with P; and Pz» at 
the two points of observation can be taken 
as the mean temperature. 

Methods of computing approximately the 
mean air temperatures for large altitude dif- 
ferences have been proposed and are in use 
mainly because of difficulty, or possibly 
negligence, in obtaining the data necessary 
for an accurate computation. All these 
methods give mean temperatures which are 
more or less inaccurate when a temperature 
inversion exists in the air column between 
pressure levels P; and Pe, or in general if 
the temperature lapse rate is not constant 
between P,; and Py». 

A commonly used approximation is 


T,+T. 
Tm = (4) 
2 
where 7; and T2 are the temperatures meas- 
ured at levels P; and Pe» respectively. 
Another approximation is 


aZ aZ 
Tn =T, — — =T,+— (5) 
yy 2 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


where a is an assumed temperature lapse 

rate, commonly 2°C. per 1,000 feet, and Z, 

the altitude i in the Staion? aimaaphere to 
which the altimeter is graduated. 

It will be seen that formula (4) involves 
making only two observations of tempera- 
ture, and formula (5) one observation, 
either at level Pi or Pe, usually most con- 
veniently at Pe. 

There is also another approxinelinn 
which may be of value in aircraft because 
of relative ease in computation. This is 

Ice iy eedlg oo 8 
T= a6) 
n 

where 7’, and J, are the air temperatures 
at the lower and upper levels respectively, 
and Js, T3, etc. are temperatures at inter- 
mediate levels, equally spaced in altitude, 
as measured by an altimeter. 

Humidity correction.—The additive cor- 
rection C; for humidity is given by the rela- 
tion 


€ 
c=0.376(— ) A. (7) 
ea ae . 


and the altitude H determined by pressure, 
temperature and humidity is 


Hee: 


where (e/P) 1s the mean value of the ratio 
of the water vapor pressure to the corre- 
sponding air pressure and H, is the altitude 
determined by the pressure and tempera- 
ture data. 

The magnitude of the humidity correc- 
tion given by formula (7) for the case when 
the relative humidity is 100 percent and for 
five ground level temperatures is given in 
Fig. 1. The temperature lapse rate is as- 
sumed the same as for the U. 8. standard 
atmosphere, that is, 1.98°C. per 1,000 feet. 
Lines showing a correction of 0.5 and 1 per- 
cent of the altitude H, are also shown on the 
chart. 

It is seen that the amount of humidity 
correction rises rapidly with air tempera- 
ture and that the error tends to become 
constant in amount at high altitudes and 
low ground level temperatures. The actual 
humidity corrections are less than those 
shown in Fig. 1, since 100 percent relative 


retiring president, Philosophical Society of Washington, 1942. 


Sept. 15, 1944 


humidity at all altitudes is not common. 

Actually the vapor pressure of water in 
the atmosphere tends to remain constant 
for a considerable altitude, but the relative 
humidity increases up to the altitude at 
which condensation takes place, indicated 
by the presence of a cloud. This fact makes 
it possible to calculate with some accuracy 
from one value of the relative humidity the 
humidity corrections for moderate altitudes, 
not exceeding as a maximum the height of 
the underside of the cloud layer. 


Ground level temperature 


oec§8=—._:158c 30°C 35°C : koee 


Altitude - Thougand Feet 


Correction = feet 


Fig. 1—Humidity correction C, =0.376(e/p) mH 
for saturated air. The air temperature t=fo 
— .00198h, where fo is the air temperature at the 
ground level marked on the particular curve and 
h is the altitude. The straight lines give the 
humidity correction as a designated percentage of 
the altitude. 


Gravity correction.—The correction for de- 
viation from standard gravity, gs, 980.665 
cm/sec? is as follows: ( 

Js —GJm 
oL= He (8) 
Jm 

where g» is the mean value of gravity for 
the air column and H, is the altitude de- 
termined by pressure, temperature, and 
humidity measurements. The altitude H 
corrected for temperature, humidity, and 
gravity is Se. 


BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 


281 


The mean value of gravity equals 
K(H +2h) 
a (9) 
2 
where g7 is the gravity at sea level, obtained 
from observed or computed data published 
in the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables 
(3) or by the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic 
Survey; fA is the elevation above sea level 
of pressure level P,; (H +A) is the elevation 
above sea level of pressure level Pe, prac- 
tically H.+h; and K is a constant which 
equals 0.000094 (3) when H and h are in 
feet. 
The corrections at the Equator, at lati- 
tude 45°, and at the poles are as follows for 
the case where h is zero: — 


Gravity CorREcTION, Cy 


Altitude Equator Latitude 45° Pole 
Feet Feet %H Feet %H Feet %H 
1,000..;+ 2.7/+0.27 |+ 0.1 |+0.009 |— 2.5 | —0.25 
20,000..)/+ 74 |+0.37 |+20 +0.098 | —32 —0.16 
30,000..}+123 |+0.41 |+48 +0.145 | —36 —0.12 


Accuracy of barometric formula.—The 
question arises naturally as to the accuracy 
of the barometric formula. This question 
has been considered by a number of investi- 
gators, notably Rithlman (1), who checked 
the formula for two years in the Swiss 
Alps. In 1935 a balloon flight to 72,395 feet 
was made by Maj. A. W. Stevens and Capt. 
O. A. Anderson under the auspices of the 
National Geographic Society and the Army 
Corps. During the latter flight accurate and 
complete barometric data were obtained, 
and photographs made vertically downward 
from the balloon, from both of which the 
altitudes were determined. The balloon al- 
titudes were also measured by triangulation 
from the ground. A comparison of the data 
given by Brombacher and Houseman (4) is 
shown in Fig. 2. About 60 photogrammetric 
and 11 triangulation altitudes are shown in 
the figure against a curve of balloon altitude 
against time determined from the baromet- 
ric data. 

The agreement in the altitudes by the 
three independent methods is quite good 
and leads to confidence in the barometric 


282 


method up to at least 72,000 feet. Compar- 
ing the photogrammetric and the baromet- 
ric altitudes, the average difference is 0.36 
percent; on the average the barometric alti- 
tude is 93 feet lower. 

Standard atmospheres.—Since aneroid ba- 
rometers and altimeters are primarily pres- 
sure measuring instruments, it is essential 
to choose some altitude-pressure-tempera- 
ture relation to which they can be cali- 
brated in units of altitude. A large number 
of these relations, based on a selected condi- 
tion of the atmosphere, known as a standard 
atmosphere, have been and are being used. 
For aviation altimeters, the standard at- 
mospheres now in use are national or inter- 
national standards; for aneroid barometers 
and surveying altimeters the standard at- 
mosphere has been selected by the manu- 
facturer or the buyer and, in one case, 
Germany, it is the national standard. 

In general, aneroid barometers equipped 
with an altitude scale which are commer- 
cially available in this country and Great 
Britain are calibrated to Airy’s pressure 
altitude relation; some are calibrated to the 
obsolete United States altimeter calibration 
standard; and others bought under Govern- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


eee ernie 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


ment specifications are calibrated to the 
altitude-pressure relation for English units 
given in the Smithsonian Meteorological 
Tables. The latter instruments are, strictly 
speaking, altimeters, but are used only on 
the ground. In addition to the above eali- 
bration standards, there is also another, 
found on Paulin aneroid barometers made 
in Sweden, of which there are a number in 
this country. However, some Paulin instru- 
ments in use in this country are calibrated 
to one of the other above-mentioned rela- 
tions. The German calibration standard 
was adopted as the national standard on 
October 1, 1929. It should be stated that 
the altitude-pressure relations considered 


here do not by any means exhaust the list 


of those used; others are in use in France 
and Italy. 

It may thus be necessary to determine 
the altitude-pressure relation to which an 
aneroid barometer or altimeter has been 
calibrated, particularly if corrections for air 
temperature deviation from the value as- 
sumed in the standard are to be applied, or, 
in fact, if accurate altitudes are desired. 
This can be done quite conveniently if the 
aneroid barometer, or altimeter, has both 


72000 


70000 


68000 


--— BAROMETRIC 


66000 
64000 
62000 

leared 
58000 Used abe saa 


1000 10:30 


ALTITUGOE ABOVE SEA LEVEL PEE Ts 


Fig. 2.—A comparison of altitudes 


° PHOTOGRAPHIC 
« VERTICAL ANGLE 


11:00 11:30 12:00 
MOUNTAIN STANDARD TIME - 


12:30 1:00 


of stratosphere balloon Explorer II determined by the 


barometric formula, by vertical camera photographs, and by theodolite observations. 


Sept. 15, 1944 


an altitude and pressure scale. In this case, 
values of the altitude from the barometer 
can be checked against values at the same 
pressure in available tables. 

The situation for aviation altimeters is 
comparatively quite simple. The standard 
atmosphere adopted by the International 
Commission for Aerial Navigation (ICAN) 
in 1924 is used with some modifications, 
usually minor, by the United States, British 
Empire, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, 
and perhaps other nations. 

The formulas and constants defining 
these various standard atmospheres are 
given below, together with equivalent for- 
mulas to facilitate easy comparison. The 
standard value of gravity given for each 


atmosphere enters into the evaluation of the. 


constant term or exponent of the altitude 
formula. 

Notation.—In the formulas for the stand- 
ard atmosphere the symbols have the fol- 
lowing definitions: 

Z =altitude in the standard atmosphere; if 
measured above standard ground 
level pressure Py it is called pressure 
altitude. 

P =air pressure at altitude Z. 

P, =air pressure at ground level of standard 

atmosphere. 

g, =standard value of gravity. Q 

po =density at ground level of standard. 

Tms = mean temperature of air column be- 

tween P and P, in standard. 
T, =temperature of air at altitude Z. 

a =standard rate of decrease of tempera- 
ture with altitude Z, or the lapse 
rate. 


Smithsonian.—Altitude-pressure tables in 
English units given in the Smithsonian 
Meteorological Tables (3) are computed 
from the following formulas and constants: 


T we % Po 
Z =62583.6 — log — feet (10) 
283 P 
Misael ee 
_ Po) =29.90 inches of mercury =759.46 mm 
of mercury 


= 1012.53 millibars (mb) 
gs = 980.665 cm/sec? 
po =1.293 kg/m? at 0°C. and 760 mm of 
mercury 


BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 


283 


Note that T'n-/283=1. This term is re- 
tained in the formula in order to facilitate 
comparison with other standard atmos- 
pheres. 

If Tm:18 in °R (459.4+2°F.), the tempera- 
ture term 283 in formula (10) becomes 
509.4 °R. To obtain Z in meters, change the 
constant 62583.6 to 19075.5. Dry air has 
been assumed. 

Altitude pressure tables are also given 
based on P)»=760 mm of mercury and 
T ms = 273°K (0°C.), but no case of surveying 
altimeters calibrated to these tables is 
known. 

Airy.—The altitude-pressure relation pro- 
posed by Sir George Airy (5) in 1867 is 
unique in that a high value of the pressure 
was taken at zero altitude in order to avoid 
minus altitudes under ordinary conditions 
of use. 


Das Po 
Z =62759 —— log —— feet (TP) 
283 P 


Ts Se °K 
P) =31.00 inches of mercury. 


The constant 62759 is about 0.3 percent 
higher than that now accepted for formulas 
based on dry air; therefore altitudes indi- 
cated on instruments calibrated to it should 
be reduced by 0.3 percent, if accurate values 
are desired, as would be the case if tempera- 
ture and other corrections are applied. 

Obsolete U. 8S. Aeronautic.—This altitude- 
pressure relation, used before 1926 (2) in 
calibrating aviation altimeters, has been 
and perhaps still is used for calibrating alti- 
meters and aneroid barometers used in alti- 
tude measurement in surveying. It is defined 
below: 


Diss Po 
Z =62900 —— log — feet (12) 
| 283 iP 
Te — 23 auras 
Py) =29.90 inches of mercury. 


The relation is the same as that given in 
the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables ex- 
cept that the constant 62583.6 was in- 
creased 0.5 percent to include a correction 
for “average” humidity. At winter tempera- 
tures this correction is too high; at summer 
temperatures, too low. Therefore, if read- 
ings from instruments so calibrated are to 


284 


be corrected for all errors, it is best to start 
by deducting 0.5 percent from the indicated 
altitude. 
Paulin (Swedish).—This calibration may 
be defined as follows: 
Dina Po 
Z =62796 —— log — feet (13) 
283 P 
2 So tke 
P,)=762 mm of mercury 


It will be seen that the constant 62796 
is 0.383 percent higher than the value given 
for formula (10). The remarks made under 
formula (12) apply. 

German (surveying instruments).—This 
standard was officially adopted (6) for cali- 
brating aneroid barometers and altimeters 
for surveying on October 1, 1929, but is 
limited to 5,000 meters. This standard was 
also used to calibrate aviation altimeters 
with an altitude limit of 10,000 meters 
(32,808 feet), but has been superseded for 
this purpose by the ICAN. The definition 
follows: , 
0.005Z ie 


IP = G2 ( 2 _ (Zin meters) (14) 


or 


T ms Po 
Z =62603 —— log — feet (15) 
283 P 
*T., =283 —0.005Z °K 
P,)=762 mm of mercury 
gs =980.6 cm/sec? 


The value of the constant 62603 differs 
from the accurate value given in formula 
(10) by 0.03 percent, which is negligible for 
most purposes. 

ICAN standard. — This standard (7) 
adopted by the International Committee 
for Aerial Navigation is the basis of the 
standards now generally used for calibrat- 
ing altimeters. Most countries have made 
only minor modifications, so that for most 
practical purposes the same standard can 
be said to be used by all. It is defined here 
for reference. 


Up to 11,000 meters (36,089 feet): 


P Tr, 75-256 
Pa | a 


T, = (288 —aZ) °K 


(16) 
(16a) 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


_ VoL. 34, No. 9 


a =6.5°C/km =0.0019812 °C/foot (16b) 
P,=760 mm of mercury (16c) 
Above 11,000 meters: 
Jere 
Z =11000+14600 log —— meters (al) 
P 


T, = —56.5°C. 
Py, = 169.595 mm of mercury (at 11,000 m). 
For all altitudes: 
g =980.62 cm/sec? 


U. S. Aeronautic.—This standard atmos- 
phere (8) (9), used since 1926 in calibrating 
aviation altimeters, and also adopted as the 
standard atmosphere for all aeronautic pur- 
poses in the United States, is a slight 
modification of the ICAN. The air tem- 
perature is assumed to vary uniformly with 
altitude (6.5°C. per km) until a tempera- 
ture of —55°C. (instead of —56.5°C.) is 
reached. Above this level the temperature 
is assumed constant at —55°C. Its defini- 
tion follows: 


Up to 35,332 feet: 


shee Po 
Z =63691.8 —— log — feet (18) 
288 Ie 
or 
Hey. 5.2553 
IP JP | — | (19) 
288 
T, =288 —aZ °K (18a) 
a =0.0019812 °C/foot =6.5 °C./km (18b) 
aZ 
oe = (18c) 
288 
In —— 


P)=760 mm of mercury =29.921 inches of 
mercury 
=1013.25+ mb. 
09 = 1.2255 kg/m? 
Above 35,332 feet: 


P55 
7, —35332 =48211.1 log — feet (20) 
P 


Tm: =218 °K 
Ps; =175.898 mm of mercury 
For all altitudes: 
Je = 980.665 cm/sec? 
To compare with the SMT formula (10), 
formula (18) can be written: 
iia Po 
Z =62586.0 — log — - 
283 ie 


Qn = 


Sepr. 15, 1944 


The values of the constants for the two 
standard atmospheres, 62583.6 and 62586, 
are in practical agreement, so that altitudes 
obtained from readings on instruments cali- 
brated to either formula, after applying 
correction for deviation of actual mean 
temperature from that of the respective 
standard, will be in agreement. 

The constant K given in formula (1), 
when multiplied by 283 to obtain the for- 
mula in the same form as in formula (21), 
is also 62586.0. 

The altitude in the standard atmosphere 
defined by formulas (18) and (20), when 
P,=760 mm of mercury, is called the pres- 
sure altitude. 

British Aeronautic.—This standard at- 
mosphere (10) is also a slightly modified 
version of the ICAN. The air temperature 
is assumed to vary 1.98°C. per 1,000 feet of 
altitude, which is not exactly 6.5°C. per 
km, the ICAN value. Its definition follows. 


Up to 36,090 feet: 


P die 5.256 
ie | — | (22) 
Po 288 
or 
gee Po 
Z =63721 — log — (23) 
288 2 
T, =288 —aZ °K (22a) 
a =0.00198 °C/foot =6.496 °C./km (22b) 
aZ 
= (23a) 
288 
In — 
IR 
Py) =1013.2 mb =760 mm of mercury 
Above 36,090 feet: 
Z =36090 +47900 log — (24) 
POAC aa Ke (24a) 


P55.5 =226.3 mb =169.7 mm of mercury 
For all altitudes: 
gs = 980.62 cm/sec? 


French Aeronautic—This standard (1/1) 


was first proposed by Toussaint and adopted; 


in France in 1920. Later the ICAN adopted 
it, since when it has been known as the 
ICAN standard. It differs from the ICAN 
given above only in that the exponent .of 
equation (16) is 5.255, instead of 5.256. For 
all practical purposes the pressure-altitude 


BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 


285 


tables are identical with those of the ICAN. 

German Aeronautic.—This standard at- 
mosphere (12) differs from ICAN standard 
as given in formulas (16) and (17) in that 
the exponent used is 5.26 instead of 5.256. 
The air is assumed dry with a specific 
weight of 1.225 kg/m? at sea level. For all 
altitudes, g = 980.62 cm/sec”. 

At 35,000 feet the pressure is 178.5 mm 
of mercury; this is 0.2 mm of mercury less 
than in the ICAN standard, equivalent to 
24 feet difference at 178.7 mm of mercury. 
This altitude difference for a given pressure, 
German compared to ICAN standard, be- 
comes less at lower altitudes but will be 
constant at 24 feet at altitudes above 35,000 
feet. 

Japanese Aeronautic.—This standard at- 
mosphere (13) is basically the ICAN. 

Up to 11,000 meters: 


288 —6.5Z \ 5-758 
p=700(——— ) 
288 


Above 11,000 meters: 
Py 
Z =11000 +14600 log —— 
P 


Py, =169.74 mm of mercury 
T, =216.5°K( —56.5°C.) 
At all altitudes: 
g = 980.00 cm /sec?, in the altitude formula; 
g =980.665 cm/sec?, for other purposes. 


At a pressure of 175.898 mm of mercury, 
the U.S. altitude is 35,332 feet, the Japa- 
nese, 35,346 feet; at 169.74 mm of mercury 
the U. 8. altitude is 36,079 feet, the Japa- 
nese, 36,089 feet (11,000 m). The above 
differences are less at lower, and constant 
at about 10 feet at greater, altitudes. 

Altitude-pressure tables —Altitude-pres- 
sure data for the various altimeter calibra- 
tion standards are given in Tables 1 and 2. 
The calibration standards covered in Table 
1 are commonly used for aneroid barometers 
and surveying altimeters; in Table 2 are 
given the United States, British, and the 
ICAN calibration standards for aviation al- 
timeters. 

Comparison of standard atmospheres.—It 
will be seen that the standard atmospheres 
differ mainly (a) in the altitude-tempera- 
ture assumption, and to a minor extent 
(b) in the standard value of the acceleration 


286 


TABLE 1.—ALTITUDE-PRESSURE TABLES USED IN 
CALIBRATING ANEROID BAROMETERS 


Pressure in inches of mercury 


US. 
Altitude | airyts | 5-M-T. | aitimeter | Paulin 
Seale | Table | pefore | (Swedish)| Ge7™22 
51 1926 
Feet 10°C 10°C. 10°C 10°C T =f(2) 
—1,000 sey) 34-0211 > 3.02 ee ea 
=? 500 =: | 30/455 | 30.45 ee = 
0 | 31.000 | 29.900 | 29.90 | 30.00 | 30.00 
500 =| 99/355 25 ew fia 
1,000 | 29.883 | 28.820 | 28.83 | 28.92 | 28.91 
1,500 Ce) og oe% Bo ae a 
2,000 | 28.807 | 27.820 | 27.79 | 27.88 | 27.86 
2,500 2 a a2 ue sis 
3,000 | 27.769 | 26.775 | 26.79 | 26.88 | 26.84 
3,500 — | 26.287 as oe ee 
4,000 | 26.769 | 25.808 | 25.83 | 25.91 | 25.85 
4,500 ee 251338 = a 
5,000 | 25.804 | 24.875 | 24.90 | 24.97 | 24.90 


25 ,000 — a 11.98 = as 
30,000 = = 9.97 == == 
35,000 — = 8.30 =e = 
40 ,000 == = 6.91 = = 


of gravity, and (c) in the physical constants 
entering into the constant term of the alti- 
tude equation even when reduction is made 
to a common basis of ground level pressure 
and temperature. In most cases the values 
of altitude obtained will not differ signifi- 
cantly if the appropriate values of the tem- 
perature, gravity, and humidity corrections 
are applied. 

The values of the physical constants 
embodied in the constant term in the 
Smithsonian, U. 8. Aeronautic, and ICAN 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


standard atmospheres are equivalent and 
are believed accurate. 

It will be noted that the values of stand- 
ard gravity differ somewhat for the various 
standard atmospheres. In particular, the 
International Standard (980.665 cm/sec?) is 
used in the United States, while European 
countries use the above value adjusted to 
give the value assumed to be that at lati- 
tude 45° (980.62 cm/sec?). The value of 
gravity used affects the constant term (or 
exponent of ICAN) of the formula; the dif- 
ference is 1:22000 in the altitudes corre- 


TABLE 2.—STANDARD ALTITUDE-PRESSURE TABLES 
UsED IN CALIBRATING AVIATION ALTIMETERS 


United States British ICAN 
Pressure 
altitude | y1m of | Inches Mm of Mm of 
1,000 mer- | of mer- mb mer- mb mer- 
feet cury cury cury cury 
—1 787.9 | 31.02 |1050.4 — a es 
0 760.0 | 29.921 |1013.3 | 760.0 |1013.2 | 760.0 
1 732.9 | 28.86 977.1 | 732.9 | 977.1 — 
2 706.6 | 27.82 942.1 | 706.6 | 942.1 — 
3 681.1 |'26.81 908.1 | 681.1.| 908.1 — 
4 656.3 | 25.84 875.0 | 656.4 | 875.1 — 
5 632.3 | 24.89 843.0 | 682.3 | 348.0 | 632.3 
6 609.0 | 23.98 811.9 | 609.1 | 812.0 — 
7 586.4 | 23.09 781.8 | 586.4 | 731.8 — 

8 564.4 | 22.22 752.5 | 564.5 | 752.6 — 
9 543.2 | 21.38 724.2 | 5438.3 | 724.3 — 
10 522.6 | 20.58 696.7 | 522.6 | 696.8 | 522.6 
11 502.6 | 19.79 670.1 | 502.7 | 670.2 — 
12 483.3 | 19.03 644.3 | 483.3 | 644.4 — 
13 464.5 | 18.29 619.3 | 464.6 | 619.4 — 
14 446.4 | 17.57 595.1 | 446.4 | 595.2 — 
15 428.8 | 16.88 571.7 | 428.9 | 571.8 | 428.8 
16 411.8 | 16.21 549.0 | 411.9 549 1 — 
17 395.3 | 15.56 527.0 | 395.4 | 527.2 — 
18 379.4 | 14.94 505.8 | 379.9 | 506.0 — 
19 364.0 | 14.33 485.3 | 364.2 | 485.5 — 
20 349.1 | 13.75 465.4 | 349.2 | 465.6 | 349.1 
Pail 334.7 | 13.18 446.2 | 334.8 | 446.4 — 
22 320.8 | 12.63 427.7 | 321.0 | 427.9 — 
23 307.4 | 12.10 409.8 | 307.5 | 410.0 — 
24 294.4 | 11.59 392.5 | 294.5 | 392.7 — 
25 281.9 | 11.10 875.8 | 282.0 | 376.0 | 281.9 
26 269.8 | 10.62 359.7 | 269.9 | 359.9 — 
27 258.1 | 10.16 344.1 | 258.2 | 344.3 — 
28 246.9 9.720 | 329.2 | 247.0 | 329.3 — 
29 236.0 9.293 | 314.6 | 236.2 | 314.9 — 
30 225.6 8.880 | 300.8 | 225.7 | 300.9 ; 225.6 
35 178.7 7.036 | 238.2 | 178.8 | 238.4 | 178.7 
40 140.7 5.541 | 187.6 | 140.7 | 187.6 | 140.5 
45 110.8 4.364 | 147.7 | 110.6 | 147.5 | 110.5 
50 87.30] 3.436 | 116.4 87.00] 116.0 86.9 


SHpT. 15, 1944 


sponding to a given pressure, ordinarily 
negligible. 

In these countries also the respective 
values of standard gravity are used to define 
the inch or millimeter of mercury. Thus the 
values of pressure in the United States are 
for millimeters or inches of mercury at a 
gravity of 980.665 cm/sec”, and for the 
other countries at 980.62 cm/sec”; to con- 
vert to pressures based on 980.665 cm/sec? 
the pressures based on 980.62 cm/sec? must 
all be reduced in the ratio 1:22000, equiva- 
lent to an altitude difference of about 1.3 
feet, independent of altitude. This differ- 
ence is usually negligible. 

In comparing altimeters calibrated to the 
ICAN standard atmosphere, or modified 
ICAN, this difference in standard gravity 
must be considered in its effect both on the 


standard atmosphere and on the standard. 


of pressure. The difference in the gravity 
used in the United States and European 
standard atmosphere causes a difference in 
the indicated altitude of one part in 22,000, 
as has been said. The difference in the stand- 
ard of pressure causes a constant difference 
in indication of about 1.3 feet; when the 
pressure scales of a U. S. and a British al- 
timeter are both set to read 760 mm of 
mercury or its equivalent, the British al- 
timeter will read 1.3 feet lower. Other differ- 
ences in the standard atmospheres and the 
variation of altimeter readings at a given 
pressure make the differences in this respect 
insignificant. : 7 

The pressure in millibars given for the 
British Aeronautic standard in Table 2 is 
taken from a British publication (10); the 
conversion to millimeters of mercury is 
made based on a gravity of 980.665 cm/sec? 
in order to obtain a direct comparison with 
U.S. Aeronautic standard. 

Determining altitude with altumeters.—As 
has been stated, when pressure observa- 
tions, not altitude, are made, the altitude is 
determined by computation, using baromet- 
ric formula (1) or (8). 

When.an altimeter is used, thus securing 
readings in altitude units, the general rela- 
tion to be used in computing altitudes is 
obtained by substituting for log P,;—log Ps 
in formula (1) its value obtained from the 


BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 


287 


formula defining the standard atmosphere, 
as for example formula (10) or (18). There 
is obtained: 


lp € Ys —Jm 
ha | 140.370(—) } [a4 | (25) 
fhe Pp m Js 


where H is the altitude between any two 
pressure levels P; and P.; Z is the corre- 
sponding altitude in the standard atmos- 
phere; 7’, is the mean temperature of the 
air column; and 7'n, is the mean tempera- 
ture of the air column in the standard at- 
mosphere used to calibrate the altimeter. 

Formula (25) is of general application. If 
the humidity and gravity terms are neg- 
lected, formula (25) becomes 


Ts 
an =e 


(26) 

The use of formula (25) or (26) carries the 
implication that Z is measured with refer- 
ence to the lower pressure level P,; the al- 
timeter reading must be corrected to obtain 
this value of Z or the altimeter adjusted so 
that it reads zero at pressure P,. 

(a) Isothermal standard atmosphere.—lIt is 
evident that computation of altitude is 
simplified for standard atmospheres in 
which 7',, 1s a constant. For this reason 
most standard atmospheres used in cali- 
brating surveying altimeters are isothermal ; 
in most such atmospheres the mean tem- 
perature is 10°C. = 50°F. = 283 °K. For ease 
in computation, formula (26) can be written 


fis aay Gave 
jel a (: +) (27) 
where 
hes Frat ie 
ee 
Ais 


is defined as the temperature correction. 
Tables of the temperature correction, 7’ 
against Z, such as given in the SMT, can 
be easily computed and used; nomograms 
are available for use in calculating H when 
Z and Tms are known. 

(b) Aeronautic standard atmosphere.—lIf 
the mean temperature 7',,, of the standard 
atmosphere to which the altimeter is cali- 
brated varies, the computation of the tem- 
perature correction is more complicated. In 
the case of the aeronautic standard atmos- 


288 


pheres the temperature is assumed to fall 
linearly with pressure altitude in order to 
obtain indicated altitudes more nearly in 
agreement with average atmospheric condi- 
tions.-Consider only the aviation altimeter 
calibration standard used in this country; 
all that will be said will apply equally well 
to the ICAN standard, or its modifications. 

Formula (18c), modified to determine 
Tms between P,; and P2, becomes 


aZ 
on = (28) 
288 — aZy 
In ————____ 
288 —aZi —aZ 
aZ 
= 288 —aZ,-——— approx. (28a) 
OG 
Further, define 288—aZ/2=T»m-:, where- 
upon formula (28a) becomes 
en SL BOA BO OOD< (29) 


where Z,=pressure altitude of lower level 
Z =altitude between pressure levels 
P, and P, 
a =temperature lapse rate, 
0.0019812°C. /foot 
Tims =Standard mean temperature of air 
column P, to P» 


Standard Atmosphere 


Observed Oata 
Upper Level 


Biles 


2) 


fe 


4 


C, 


Ground Level 
by ia 


7) 


C, 


Pt Stonderd Atmosphere Base 
oy, “os 
ode 
Vath a Wine he 
ee ae ee ee a2 


For [SOTHERMAL STANDARDS. 
Ins = A CONSTANT 
= 283° FOR AIRY,SMT, PAULIN ATMOS. 
for US. oR BRITISH ALTIMETER CALIBRATION STANDARD: 
ns FOR Fas) tio nO Zinsot ti EN 
288-4 Z, 
/Je 288-AZ-a Z 
Fig. 3.—Illustrates definitions of terms used in an 
altitude determination by altimeter. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


Tz =standard mean temperature cor- 
responding to a pressure altitude 
equal to Z, easily obtained from 
available tables. 

These definitions are illustrated in Fig. 3. 

Formula (28a) or (29) is an approxima- 
tion with negligible error for values of Z, 
up to 5,000 feet. The error can be found in 
any individual case by comparing values of 
Tms computed by formulas (28) and a 

Thus for aviation altimeters, 

te IE 
f Sie eae 
Piss sce = aly 

Examples of altitude determination in sur- 
veying.—In the following discussion it is as- 
sumed that the instruments used are free 
from error. 

(A) Accurate elevations of a number of 
stations in rolling country are to be ob- 
tained. It is assumed that there is at least 
one base in the area or that two bases flank 
the area, the elevations of which are known; 
and further, that the time between observa- 
tions is reasonably short, say, of the order 
of thirty minutes. 

The observations required are as follows: 

(a) A record must be obtained of air pres- 
sure against time at the base or bases. This 
can be secured most conveniently by a 
barograph, preferably a microbarograph in 
order to secure adequate sensitivity. 

(b) An altimeter, preferably graduated to 
the altitude-pressure relation of an isother- 
mal atmosphere, is read at the base and at 
the various selected stations, and recorded, 
together with the time of observation. It is 
an advantage from the viewpoint of cor- 
recting for drift of the altimeter to repeat 
the readings in reverse order at each of the 
points. More consistent results are obtained 
if the reading is made about 5 to 10 minutes 
after arriving at the station, particularly if 
the change in elevation between two sta- 
tions is relatively great. 

(c) The air temperature at the base or 
bases and at each station should be meas- 
ured at the time of making the pressure 
observation at each station. A continuous 
record of the air temperature against time 
is a desirable means for obtaining the re- 
quired temperatures at the bases. The ex- 


(30) 


Supt. 15, 1944 


posure of the thermometers must be such 
as to avoid the direct rays of the sun. The 
thermometer should be at least 3 or 4 feet 
above the ground in an effort to measure 
the true free air temperature. The time of 
exposure at the station must be sufficient to 
eliminate the time lag of the particular 
thermometer used. 

(d) If the humidity correction is to be ap- 
plied, the humidity must in general be 
-measured simultaneously with the air pres- 
sure under (6). If the weather does not 
change, the water vapor pressure, which is 
the quantity required, may remain nearly 
constant from station to station, although 
the relative humidity will change with tem- 
perature. - 

(e) The data for making the gravity cor- 
rection, if desired, are obtained from pub- 
lished data as previously discussed. 

The data in (a) are used to secure the 
value of the base pressure P, or its equiva- 
lent the altitude in the standard atmos- 
phere, at the time of making each station 
observation. This insures simultaneity, but 
still leaves open the question of verticality 
of the observations. If observations at two 
or more bases are available, the base pres- 
sure or altitude directly below (or above) 
the station is secured by interpolation. If 
there is only one base station, the effect of 
change in barometric pressure with dis- 
tance from the base can be determined from 
a weather map, or pressure data from a 
nearby Weather Bureau station, or failing 
these, some estimate can be made from the 
barograph record at the base. 

From data (a) and (6) the altitude in the 
standard atmosphere at each station is ob- 
tained by simple computation, that is 
Z=2Z,—Z,), where Z) and Z, are the alti- 
tudes of the base and station respectively. 

The mean temperature 7’, of the air col- 
umn may be taken as the mean of the two 
air temperatures at the base and the station 
if Z is small, say under 500 feet. In some 
cases T’,, can be taken as the air temperature 
at the station with little loss in accuracy. 

With these data the altitude above the 
reference base is calculated by formula (26). 
Further refinement would include humidity 
measurements to determine the humidity 


BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 


289 


correction (formula 7 or 25) and evaluation 
of the gravity correction (formula 8 or 25). 
Then the elevation of the station above sea 
level is H-+-h, where h is the elevation of the 
base. With ordinary care an accuracy of 1 
percent or about 20 feet, whichever is 
greater, can be secured. 

(B) The second example concerns the 
case where a mountain climb is made and 
the height of the mountain to the best ac- 
curacy is desired. It differs from case (A) 
in that the climb usually requires a rela- 
tively long time, extending over one or more 
days, and in that the base or the point of 
known elevation is often far from the moun- 
tain peak. 

As in case (A), a pressure and tempera- 
ture record against time is desirably ob- 
tained at a point of known elevation or base. 

An altimeter or aneroid barometer, a 
thermometer, and perhaps a psychrometer 
should be read at various points during the 
climb and, of course, at the peak. 

The chief difficulty in the computation of 
the altitude is the adjustment of the tem- 
perature data to obtain simultaneity, since 
the readings at the various elevations dur- 
ing the climb are taken with considerable 
time interval between them; no hard and 
fast rules can be laid down, and some un- 
certainty is inevitable. 

No serious error due to failure to obtain 
simultaneity in the pressure observations 
made during the climb for use in computing 
mean temperature will be present if a pres- 
sure record is obtained at a base. However, 
the variation due to distance between the 
base and the mountain stations or vertical- 
ity of observations, often requires consider- 
ation. In the absence of line squalls and 
thunder storms, and if the distances be- 
tween climber and base are not too great, 
errors due to neglect of verticality correc- 
tions in the intermediate pressures used to 
compute the mean temperature will not in- 
troduce serious errors. However, the pres- 
sure or altitude reading at the point at 
which the altitude is to be determined 
should be corrected for the space factor, if 
possible, or the correction at least be proved 
negligible. 

Calculations of the humidity and gravity 


290 


corrections offer no difficulty since the ob- 
served or derived data are not needed to 


high accuracy and therefore the refinements ~ 


of applying corrections to obtain simul- 
taneity and verticality can be omitted. The 
chief difficulty is in making the humidity 
measurements and, in some cases, in obtain- 
ing gravity data. 

(C) Many exploration trips in unsettled 
mountainous country are made in which 
observations of an aneroid barometer or 
altimeter are the sole reliance for deter- 
mining altitude. In the extreme case there 
is no base of known elevation which can be 
visited except perhaps at the start and finish 
of the trip. Errors in altitude determination 
are likely to be quite large owing to varia- 
tions in the base pressure, which must be 
implicitly or explicitly assumed, and to a 
lesser degree owing to the lack of knowledge 
of the mean temperature. It is best in these 
cases to use an aneroid barometer which 
measures the atmospheric pressure, or an 
altimeter set to read pressure altitude, that 
is, altitude above the base pressure assumed 
in the altimeter calibration standard. 

Errors due to lack of a base pressure can 
be reduced somewhat when it is possible to 
spend a long time at the station. In this case 
the altimeter or aneroid barometer is read 
three or four times daily at the same hours 
as widely spaced as possible. The altitude is 
then the average of the altitude readings or 
the average of the pressures converted to 
altitude in the standard atmosphere, pref- 
erably isothermal. This procedure still 
leaves uncertainty since it assumes a sea 
level pressure of 760 mm of mercury, while 
the average sea level pressure at a given 
station may differ considerably from this 
value. 

In general, altitudes determined by the 
above procedure give altitudes in winter 
which are much too low; in summer also 
too low, but much less so than in winter. 
Detailed meteorological studies of a given 
region are required to determine empirical 
methods of making corrections. 

(D) A case of general interest is that 
where altitude observations are made only 
with an altimeter or aneroid barometer, but 
readings are secured occasionally at points 
of known elevation. Here the altitudes of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


subsequent points of interest are obtained — 
from readings of the instrument, corrected 
either by adjustment of the instrument to 
read the altitude of the bases as encountered 
or by computation to tie in with the points 
of known elevation. The error due to time 
from the base will usually not exceed about 


_ 50 feet per hour and that. due to distance, 


usually not more than about 50 feet per 10 
miles of distance. 

The failure to correct for mean tempera- 
ture of the air column introduces much less 
error than the above uncertainties, espe- 
cially when the elevation of the base is a 
good fraction of the elevation of the point 
of interest, since the correction is applied 
only to the observed altitude above or be- 
low the base. In general, failure to correct 
for air temperature error introduces ap- 
proximately a 1 percent error in the alti- 
tude above the base, forevery 3°C. deviation 
in actual mean temperature from the value 
in the standard atmosphere. 

Altitude of atrcraft.——When it is remem- 
bered that the aneroid altimeter indicates 
only the altitude between two pressure 
levels, it is obvious that the altitude of an 
aircraft above ground level can be deter- 
mined only in special cases. The changing 
elevation of the ground below and inability 
in general to obtain ground level pressure 
preclude obtaining precise altitude data at 
all times during flight. Other means than 
the aneroid altimeter must be used. 

However, on airways the ground level 
pressures at the nearest airport are fur- 
nished at close time intervals and knowl- 
edge of the airway topography makes it 
unnecessary in most cases to have more 
than the altimeter indication For landing, 
precise indications of altitude above the 
field can be obtained as discussed later. 

The altimeter is particularly useful in 
flying at a desired pressure level as indicated 
in terms of pressure altitude, or as is more 
general, in standard altitude above sea 
level, approximately. In the latter case the 
pressure scale of the altimeter is set to the 
pressure corresponding to the pressure alti- 
tude of a nearby airport minus the elevation 
of the airport above sea level. 

There are four cases of particular interest 
which will be discussed in some detail be- 


Sepr. 15, 1944 


* low. As before, the instrumental corrections 
will be assumed applied. 

A. Airplane flights for an altitude record 
are made within a few hours usually with 
take-off and landing from the same airport. 
Balloon flights take longer and the landing 
point is usually distant from the take-off 
point. These flights are all made under the 
regulations of the Fédération Aéronautique 
International (14). The data obtained are 
(a) pressure and air temperature at the 
ground level during the flight, (b) free air 
pressure continuously recorded in the air- 
craft, and (c) free air temperature with the 
corresponding air pressure recorded in the 
aircraft at short time intervals. 

From these data the mean temperature 
can be computed by the first method de- 
scribed in the section on ‘‘Computation of 
Mean Temperature.’”’ It may be necessary 
to correct the observed values of tempera- 
ture at the lower levels to obtain observa- 
tions synchronized with those obtained at 
the highest altitude. : 

The altitude is determined officially by a 
step method, formula 3a, or alternatively 
by the relation 

(US Po 
H =18400 —— L log —+A +h, (31) 
273 P. 

H =the altitude above sea level in 

meters. 

T., =the mean temperature in °K 
Po, P =simultaneous values of the pres- 

sure at the ground and at the 
highest altitude, respectively 

L =factor, correcting in terms of lati- 

tude for deviation from stand- 
ard gravity, here 980.62 
cm /sec?. 
A =correction term for variation of 
gravity with altitude and to ad- 
just for the assumption of a 
relative humidity of 60 percent. 
It varies with altitude. 

h=altitude above sea level of air- 
port, in meters. 


where 


B. The second case, on determining alti- 
tude just before landing, is important in 
ordinary aircraft operation. The problem is 
to obtain altitude indications sufficiently 
reliable for use in making a landing. Since 


BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 


291 


the temperature error is zero at zero alti- 
tude and indicated altitudes above the 
airport are sufficiently accurate to clear 
obstacles at most airports, correction for 
air temperature error is unnecessary. Thus 
the problem resolves itself only to that of 
properly resetting the zero of the altimeter. 

Two methods of resetting just before 
landing are used. In the method usually 
preferred on airlines, approximate altitude 
above sea level is indicated because of its 
advantages in flying over mountainous 
country. The pressure scale of the altim- 
eter is reset in flight, so that the altimeter 
will read upon landing the elevation above 
sea level of the airport. This pressure is offi- 
cially called the ‘‘altimeter setting”’ and in 
the early days of its use “the Kollsman 
Number.’ This pressure can be obtained 
at the airport by reading the pressure scale 
of an altimeter when it is set so that the 
pointers indicate its elevation above sea 
level. If only the air pressure is measured 
at the airport, the ‘‘altimeter setting”’ is de- 
termined as follows: Convert the air pres- 
sure to pressure altitude, subtract the 
elevation above sea level of the barometer 
from the pressure altitude, and finally con- 
vert the last obtained altitude to pressure 
in the standard atmosphere. The ‘‘altimeter 
setting’ can also be obtained directly from 


an aneroid instrument called an altimeter _ 


setting indicator, to be described later. 

The second method of setting the altim- 
eter in flight is such that the altimeter 
reads zero upon landing. In this case the 
pressure scale is reset simply to the ground 
level pressure received by radio from the 
airport. This is the reading of the pressure 
scale of an altimeter set to read zero alti- 
tude at the runway level of the airport. 

C. For some purposes it is desired to de- 
termine the aircraft altitude when above a 
point of known elevation. The uncertainties 
in a determination are ordinarily such that 
consideration of correction factors other 
than ground level pressure or air tempera- 
ture error is of no significance. 

If there is communication with the 
ground, the altimeter can be set to ground 
level pressure as indicated in the second 
method of section B just above; if there is 
no such contact, the pressure to which to 


292 


set the altimeter offers difficulties. It may 
be preset using a prediction based on a 
weather map obtained before flight, or by 
flying low just before the altitude is needed, 
estimating the altitude, and resetting the 
altimeter to indicate this altitude. The lat- 
ter procedure is, of course, not practical if 
there is ground fog. 

In practice, it is not always possible to 
obtain sufficient data to compute accurately 
the mean temperature; in fact, only one 
reading is often available, the free air tem- 
perature at the flight level. In the latter 
case formula (5) is used to compute the 
mean temperature. The altitude is then 
computed using formula (26). Computers 
(15) (16) are available for computing the 
altitude based on formula (26) entering 
either with the mean temperature or with 
the flight level air temperature. 

D. In the last case to be considered flight 
is to be maintained for some time at a fixed 
and constant altitude above a base. In this 
case it is preferable to use an altimeter 
rather than an aneroid barometer, and one 
calibrated to an isothermal atmosphere, if 
there is any choice. The indication of the 
altimeter to be maintained in flight corre- 
sponding to the desired altitude is to be de- 
termined. 

First, the pressure scale of the altimeter 
must be kept continuously set to the ground 
level pressure at the base. Altitudes in the 
standard atmosphere above the base are 
then indicated. 

The altimeter reading Z corrected for air 
temperature for the desired altitude A is 


Tee je mage Ee 
Z=—H= (1 a? Hi (26) 
Dm 


m 


The value of Z can be obtained from a curve 
or a table based on formula (26). 

If the mean temperature 7’,,; in the stand- 
ard atmosphere is a constant, the computa- 
tion is quite simple. For example, if 
T ms = 283°K, the readings to maintain 10,000 
feet true are given in Table 3. 

If Tms 18 not constant, the table becomes 
more complicated, since 7'n; varies with the 
ground level air pressure. For example, if 
an altimeter calibrated to the U. S. stand- 
ard atmosphere is used, it can be shown that 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


TABLE 3.—ALTIMETER READING TO Maintain 10,000 Frer 


Mean Temperature Altimeter Reading, Z 


Whe 
2Ch Feet 
20 9,659 
10 10,000 
0 10,366 
—10 10,760 
—20 11,186 


T ms 18 to a close approximation: 
CC.) al 
2 


Pits = Tmat —aZo (32) 


where 7',,2=mean temperature in °K obtained 
by entering tables of mean tem- 
perature against pressure alti- 
tude with the altitude H 
a =temperature lapse rate, 1.98°C per 
1,000 feet 
Zo =pressure altitude at ground level. 


The standard mean temperatures for a 
true altitude of 10,000 feet for various ac- 
tual mean temperatures, computed by for- 
mula (32), are given as an example in 
Table 4. 


TABLE 4.—MEan TEMPERATURES IN U.S. STANDARD 
ATMOSPHERE aT 10,000 FrErr 


Mean Mean temperatures in U.S. standard atmos- 
Tempera- phere at 10,000 feet true altitude 

ture, Tm Ground level pressure, inches of mercury 

XCF 29.00 29.50 30.00 30.50 31.00 

20 +3.9 | +4.8 | +5.7 | +6.7 | 47.6 

10 +3.5 +4.4 +5.3 +6.3 +7 .2 

0 +3.1 +4.0 +4.9 +5.9 +6.8 

—10 +2.7 +3 .6 +4.5 +5.5 +6.4 

—20 +2.3 +3 .2 +4.1 1 +6.0 


The altimeter readings to maintain 10,000 
feet, using the standard mean temperatures 
in Table 4 and formula (26) are given in 
Table 5. 


TABLE 5.—ALTIMETER READING TO MaInTaIn 10,000 Frrr 


Mean Altimeter reading, feet 
Tempera- Ground level pressure, inches of mercury 

Tn 

oC: 29.00 29.50 30.00 30.50 31.00 

20 9 ,450 9,481 9,513 9,546 9,577 

10 9,779 9,802 9,834 9,869 9,901 

0 10,113 | 10,141 | 10,179 | 10,216 | 10,249 

—10 10,483 | 10,517 | 10,551 | 10,590 | 10,624 

—20 10,890 | 10,919 | 10,954 | 11,000 | 11,028 


Supt. 1944 


Similar tables, or curves, can be prepared 
for other desired altitudes. 

If gravity or humidity corrections are to 
be applied, use formulas 7, 8, and 9 and ap- 
ply the corrections with the opposite sign to 
the readings of Z given in Table 5 or similar 
tables. 


ANEROID BAROMETERS AND ALTIMETERS 


This section will be limited to a brief de- 
scription and a discussion of the perform- 
ance of aneroid instruments. Thermometers 
will not be discussed, since data on the com- 
mon mercury type ordinarily used in sur- 
veying are readily available. See references 
(4) and (17) for data on electrical types 
suitable for aircraft use. 

Aneroid barometers and altimeters for 
convenience may be divided into groups ac- 
cording to function: 


(a) Aneroid barometers for measuring at- 
mospheric pressure. 

(b) Surveying altimeters and barometers for 
determining the elevation of terrestrial 
points. 

(c) Aviation altimeters. 

(d) Altimeter setting indicators. 

(e) Barographs for recording ambient atmos- 
pheric pressure. 

(f) Aviation barographs. 


The development of the aneroid barome- 
ter for measuring atmospheric pressure and 
for use in surveying into an instrument of 
high precision and reliability has been 
greatly retarded by the small market for 
such instruments. Competitive develop- 
ment that accelerates progress has not been 
stimulated by the available market. How- 
ever, since the aviation altimeter and the 
aneroid barometer in their essentials differ 
very little, the greater emphasis placed on 
research and development of aviation al- 
timeters has been of immediate benefit in 
improving aneroid barometers. 

The chief aims in development have been 
(a) to increase the sensitivity of indication 
and coupled with this, (6) to make the re- 
liability and accuracy commensurate with 
the sensitivity. The necessity of portability, 
since that is the chief virtue of the aneroid 
barometer in comparison with the mer- 
curial barometer, has focused attention 


BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 


293 


upon methods of protecting the mechanism 
from shocks normal to transportation. 

(a) Aneroid barometers—A variety of 
aneroid barometer mechanisms have been 
designed and constructed in recent years in 
efforts to improve over-all performance in 
the ranges required for measuring atmos- 
pheric pressure at weather stations. Among 
these may be mentioned the Paulin, Friez, 
Kollsman, and the Wallace and Tiernan. 
The dial diameter of these instruments 


Fig. 4.—Aneroid barometer, range 610 to 1,085 
millibars. Pointer makes two revolutions; scale 
1 inches in diameter. The humidity and correc- 
tion factor is obtained from the nomogram at the 
top of the cover; the conversion of pressure to 
altitude in the SMT standard atmosphere is given 
in the chart in the middle; and data on the tem- 
perature error of the barometer can be plotted on 
the graph at the bottom. 


varies from 5 to 9 inches. The pointer may 
rotate from 270° to several revolutions in 
the various designs. 

In the most open scale of these instru- 
ments, the scale length is about 7 inches for 
each inch of mercury, so that readings to 
the nearest 0.1 mb or millimeter are easily 
made. The reliability over a period of 


294 


months when in the laboratory appears to 
be about equal to the sensitivity above 
given. 

(b) Surveying altimeters and barometers.— 
Except for an extension in range, and in 
some cases calibration to a standard atmos- 
phere, usually isothermal, the instruments 
commercially available are the same as the 
aneroid barometers discussed under (a). At 
present precision instruments of this type 
appear to be produced in this country only 


See 


Fig. 5.—Surveying altimeter, —1,000 to 6,000 
feet, calibrated to SMT standard atmosphere. 
Secale, 7} inches in diameter. Note the chart for 
determining the temperature correction. 


by Wallace and Tiernan (18), although the 
precision Short and Mason and the Paulin 
instruments also available in this country 
should be mentioned. 

Fig. 4 shows an aneroid barometer for 
use in surveying in which the chart is used 
for converting the pressure to standard 
altitude and for obtaining a factor based on 
observed air temperatures and relative 
humidity for use in making a correction for 
deviation of these quantities from the 
standard values. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


A surveying altimeter is shown in Fig. 5 
together with a nomogram for computing 
the temperature correction when the needed 
air temperature data are available. The 
scale, 73 inches in diameter, covers a range 
of 7,000 feet in nearly one revolution. It can 
be read to about the nearest two feet. 

Surveying barometers are often equipped 
with an altitude scale, rotatable with refer- 
ence to the fixed dial graduated in pressure 
units. This enables altitude readings to be 
made in terms of approximate standard alti- 
tude above the pressure level of the base. 

It should be mentioned that the standard 
size aviation sensitive altimeter can be read 
to the nearest one or two feet, but owing to 
the friction in its mechanism, the reading 
can not be relied upon closer than about 10 
to 20 feet. It is, therefore, not used if more 
accurate data are required. 

However, sensitive altimeters in the 6- 
inch dial size have been built in which the 
friction is but slightly greater than that of 
the. surveying instruments above men- 
tioned. These have been used in surveying, 
although not ideally suited for the work, 
since none are available calibrated to an 
isothermal standard atmosphere. | 

(c) Aviation altimeters—A dial view is 
shown in Fig. 6 of the standard aircraft 
sensitive altimeter. The major divisions on 
the dial, 1, 2, etc., have three values: 100 
feet for the largest pointer, 1,000 feet 
for the intermediate pointer, and 10,000 
feet for the smallest pointer. The zero ad- 
justment, which has been previously dis- 
cussed but not described, is made by the 
thumb knob at the lower left of the instru- 
ment. Operation of this knob rotates the 
inset pressure dial, graduated in inches of 
mercury, to any desired value in its range; 
at the same time the pointers are also reset 
by a corresponding amount. For example, 
if the pressure setting is reset to 30.00, the 
pointers are at the same time reset from the 
reading shown, 411 feet to 484 feet. If the 
altimeter is now subjected to a pressure of 
30.00 inches of mercury, it will read 0 feet. 
As shown in the figure, the altimeter will 
read 0 feet at 29.92 inches of mercury, and 
— 73 feet at 30.00 inches of mercury. 

On the other hand, if the altimeter is reset 
to read zero, the pressure indication should 


Sept. 15, 1944 


be the ambient atmospheric pressure, or 
29.48 inches of mercury, corresponding to 
the pressure altitude of 411 feet. 

For additional details on design and op- 
eration see reference (19). 

(d) Altimeter setteng indicators.—These 
instruments, described by Colvin (20), are 
essentially altimeters, that is, with a pointer 
motion directly proportional to altitude, 
- but with a scale graduated in terms of 
“altimeter setting’? commonly 31 to 28 
inches of mercury. Their function is to in- 
dicate the altimeter setting directly, with- 
out the necessity of making the computa- 
tions necessary when pressure readings are 
made. The accuracy required is better than 
can be secured with an aircraft altimeter of 


the standard sensitive type. Colvin as a re- © 


sult of preliminary tests, shows that the 
over-all errors should not exceed about 0.01 
inch of mercury. 

(e) Barographs for measuring atmos- 
pheric pressure will not be discussed except 
to point out that seasoned microbarographs 
may be preferable to an aneroid barometer 
for measuring air pressures at a base, if an 
over-all accuracy and sensitivity of reading 
of 0.01 inch of mercury or less is required. 
Microbarographs commonly available 
(Friez or Taylor) have a pen motion of 2.5 
inches per inch of mercury. 

(f) Aviation barographs commonly used 
are of the “double traverse”’ type, that is, 
the pen makes two traverses of the chart 
for the range. This instrument is described 
by Peterson (21). 

Performance of aneroid barometers and 
aliimeters.—The factors affecting the per- 
formance of aneroid intruments are (a) 
hysteresis, (b) drift, (c) scale errors, (d) 
temperature errors, (e) zero shift, (f) vibra- 
tion and friction, and (g) shock resistance. 

In the discussion that follows, a ‘“‘rested”’ 
instruments is one which has for all practi- 
cal purposes been subjected to no pressure 
change in the previous 24 or more hours. 
An instrument is put into the ‘‘cyclic”’ state 
by seasoning or subjecting it to a number 
(not less than about 5) of cycles of pressure 
change, the range of which defines the pres- 
sures for which the cyclic state exists. 

All aneroid pressure measuring instru- 
- ments aresubject to errors due to the depar- 


BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 


295 


ture from perfect elastic behavior which is 
common to all stressed metals. These errors 
depend on the entire past history of the 
instrument in a complicated fashion but 
may be divided roughly as follows: hyster- 
esis, which depends on the direction and 
magnitude of the last significant stress 
change, but shows little or no time de- 
pendence; recoverable drift, which depends 
on the stress change and time; and zero 
shift or irrecoverable drift, which may con- 
tinue over a long period of time. In general 


ig Operating the 
thumb knob at the lower left resets the pressure 
scale and correspondingly the pointers. Dial size, 
23 inches. 


Fig. 6.—Aviation altimeter. 


the pressure sensitive element contributes 
by far the most to these elastic phenomena, 
but all stressed parts are involved to some 
extent. The friction and other imperfections 
of the mechanism may contribute to the 
hysteresis and in many designs may mask 
it by the uncertainty produced in the read- 
ings. 

Hysteresis is the difference in reading at 
a given pressure for pressures decreasing 
and increasing when the instrument is sub- 
ject to a pressure cycle. In general the 
change in reading in each half of the cycle 
tends to lag behind the pressure. Thus an 
altimeter reads higher at a given pressure 
in the altitude-decreasing (pressure-increas- 


296 


ing) than in the altitude-increasing part of 
the cycle. 

The hysteresis is in general a-maximum 
at approximately the middle of the pressure 
range of the cycle. 

The hysteresis at ambient atmospheric 
pressure, that is, at zero altitude at which 
the pressure cycle usually is started, is 
sometimes referred to as the after effect. 
The recovery or the return to the initial 
reading obtaining before the pressure cycle 
requires 24 hours or more. 

If the instrument is 1n the cyclic state in 
subsequent cycles made within an hour or 
so afterwards, the hysteresis is reduced to 
about 50 per cent in amount and the after 
effect to about 25 per cent or less. The 
hysteresis for the cyclic state is largely the 
component independent of time. The other 
component, which is a time phenomena, is 
recoverable drift, as discussed later. 

The hysteresis is affected somewhat by the 
speed of making the pressure cycle, but in 
most circumstances not significantly.. 

In the best altimeters and aneroid barom- 
eters now available the hysteresis of a 
rested instrument, when subjected to a 
pressure cycle in which the pressure altitude 
is changed approximately uniformly at a 
rate between 200 to 500 feet per minute, is 
about as follows: 


Altitude and pressure range of cycle 
0-2,000 0-10,000 0-15,000 0-35 ,000 feet 
760-700 760-500 760-400 760-200 mm Hg 


Maximum 
hysteresis: 
in feet.... 5-10 10-20 20-35 40-70 
in per cent 
pressure ; 
change.. — 0.10—.20 .15—.25 .15—.25 
Initial after 
effect, feet. 2-5 7-15 — 40-60 


In cycles of small pressure range, the un- 
certainty in reading is more likely to be of 
greater magnitude than the hysteresis. 

Drift is the slow and usually small change 
in reading with time subsequent to any and 
every pressure change. To illustrate, if an 
aneroid barometer or altimeter be suddenly 
subjected to a pressure change, the reading 
will change an amount approximating the 
pressure change within a few seconds and 
then will continue to increase slowly for 
hours in the direction of the pressure 
change. The rate of drift is greatest initially 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


and decreases quite rapidly with time. If 
the sensitivity of the instrument is suf- 
ficient the increases in reading may be de- 
tectable for a time interval after the pres- 
sure change up to 24 hours or more. 

Drift occurs in all instruments, the sensi- 
tive element of which is an elastic system, 
as for example, a spring or a diaphragm 
capsule. | 

The observed drift is the resultant of the 
effect of all pressure changes that have been 
imposed upon the instrument up to at least 
24 hours previously; the magnitude of the 
contribution is greatest for larger pressure 
changes and for pressure changes imposed 
most recently. In other words, the reading 
of the instrument depends upon the history 
of the pressure changes to which it has been 
subjected. It is therefore impractical to 
apply corrections for drift except perhaps 
for the simplest conditions of use. 

The relatively small amount of depend- 
able data available indicates that in good 
quality aneroid instruments originally in 
the rested state, the drift in one hour, ob- 
served after a sudden change in pressure 
with the initial reading obtained in about 
one minute after completing the pressure 
change, is of the order of 0.15 percent of the © 
pressure change; if the rate of pressure 
change is equivalent to about 1,000 feet per 
minute the drift reduces to about 0.10 per- 
cent. The rate of drift is most rapid ini- 
tially; about one-half of the drift occurs in 
the first 30 minutes. For examples of drift 
curves see reference (19). 

The initial after effect, after completing 
a pressure cycle made as rapidly as possible 
except for a 2-hour drift period at the lowest 
pressure, for good quality altimeters orig- 
inally in the rested state, varies from about 
0.2 to 0.38 percent of the pressure change. 
The amount is somewhat less if there is no 
drift period; for values see the section on 
hysteresis. The initial after effect in general 
is somewhat less, if the pressure cycle is 
made relatively slowly, particularly in the 
part of the cycle near the initial pressure. 
In this case some of the recovery has had 
time to take place before reaching the initial 
pressure. : 

Drift is of particular importance in deter- 
mining the altitude of aircraft in landing. 


Supr. 15, 1944 


Subsequent to the landing the drift con- 
tinues for a time interval up to 24 hours or 
more, independent of the length of time at 
altitude. This drift at the end of a pressure 
cycle is often called ‘‘recovery”’;.the amount 
by which the altimeter fails to indicate upon 
landing the reading before the flight at the 
same pressure is called the “after effect.” 
The altimeter reading upon landing is al- 
ways higher than the reading at take-off, 
making due allowance for the difference in 
the take-off and landing pressures. The re- 
covery becomes larger with time, the after 
effect, smaller. 

If the instrument is in the cyclic state for 
a given pressure range, the observed after 
effect just at the completion of the pressure 
cycle will be much reduced. In this case 
readings are being compared which are both 
unstable with time; recovery to the “‘rested”’ 
condition is taking place with time when 
the instrument is in the cyclic state. 

‘Scale error, sometimes called calibration 
error, is the error in the indication of the 
instrument, usually determined when ‘the 
instrument is at a specified temperature in 
the range 20 to 25°C. It is a measure of the 
accuracy to which the correspondence of 
dial to mechanism performance has been 
achieved. In most designs adjustments are 
provided in the mechanism to obtain this 
correspondence within close limits. The 
scale error, EH, is related to the reading R 
and true value 7 by the relation R=T+E; 
thus a plus error means that the instrument 
reads too high, a minus error, too low. 

It is often more convenient to have the 
corrections to be applied to the readings. 
In this case the correction C is defined as 
follows: T=R+C. 

In many cases the scale error is the only 
error for which it is practical to apply cor- 
rection to instrument readings. This is par- 
ticularly true of aneroid barometers and al- 
timeters. If corrections will be applied, the 
- amount of the scale error is not important, 
although it is distinctly advantageous that 
it be as small as possible. The scale errors of 
an altimeter, unless otherwise specified, are 
for the case when the pressure scale is set 
to the value at zero feet, so that the al- 
timeter should indicate pressure altitude in 
the particular standard atmosphere to 


BROMBACHER: MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDE 


297 


which it is calibrated. For other pressure 
settings the scale error at a given indication 
may be expected to differ. 

Because of drift, the scale error of preci- 
sion instruments is affected significantly by 
the average rate at which the pressure is 
changed during the course of a test. The 
practice in testing is to change the pressure 
to which instruments are subjected by 
steps; at each step the instrument and the 
standard are read. The average rate of pres- 
sure change is governed largely by the time 
at each pressure step. For altimeters the 
reading is made in from about 2 to 10 
minutes after the pressure change has been 
made without obtaining significant differ- 
ences in scale error. For barometers and 
altimeters not used in aircraft it is usually 
desirable that the reading be made as long 
a time as possible after completing a pres- 
sure change in order to obtain corrections 
under conditions most closely simulating 
service conditions; twenty minutes between 
test points seems a practical limit in routine 
testing. 

For general use, where the direction and 
rate of the pressure changes can not be defi- 
nitely specified, it is best to take as the 
scale error at a given reading, the average 
of the error for pressures decreasing and in- 
creasing obtained in a pressure cycle. When- 
ever the conditions of use can be simply 
specified as in case of readings made during 
steady continuous ascent of an airplane, the 
corrections for the errors under these con- 
ditions should. be applied. However, even 
the slightest reversal of pressure change will 
make the error uncertain to some degree. 

Altimeters used as secondary standards 
will have much less spread in their errors at 
a given reading due to drift and hysteresis 
if they are originally tested and only used 
when in the cyclic state. This state is ob- 
tained by subjecting them to about five 
pressure cycles covering their range. Since 
the altimeter gradually returns to the rested 
state, the procedure should be repeated if 
the time between the above procedure and 
use is much longer than about an hour. - 

It has not up to the present been practical 
to apply corrections to aneroid instruments 
for drift and hysteresis under the varied 
conditions of service use. In simple cases, 


298 


such as an aircraft flight up to an altitude, 
in which a pressure-time record is obtained 
on a barograph or otherwise, the instrument 
can be calibrated under the same flight 
conditions of temperature, pressure and 
time reproduced in the laboratory. This is 
known as a flight history test. 

(d) Temperature errors are the effect of 
variation in instrument temperature upon 
the scale errors. The drift and hysteresis are 
not affected by instrument temperature in 
any practical amount. In uncompensated 
instruments the effect of temperature is a 
maximum at the highest pressure of the 
range, because the deflection of the pressure 
element is then greatest. Commonly, in 
short-range instruments the temperature 
compensation is such that it is perfect at 
one pressure only, but in view of the short 
range, the compensation is sufficiently per- 
fect at other pressures. In long-range in- 
struments, as aviation altimeters, compen- 
sation for all readings over the entire range 
of pressure is desired, which is not as easily 
accomplished. The latter is often called 
“range compensation.” 

The compensation can be made practi- 
cally perfect but at considerable extra ex- 
pense because each instrument requires ad- 
justments and tests to achieve it. In prac- 


tice, tolerances for the temperature error. 


are allowed. Corrections for the error deter- 
mined by appropriate tests can be applied, 
although special precautions must be taken 
in measuring the instrument temperature 
because of its time lag in following ambient 
air temperature. 

(e) Zero shift, sometimes called secular 
error or zero drift, is a change in the whole 
scale error curve which occurs slowly with 
_ time at atmospheric pressure and tempera- 
ture, but may be accelerated by pressure 
and temperature cycles. There is no re- 
covery. It usually manifests itself as a 
pointer motion in the direction of increasing 
pressure. Its irreversibility, or failure to 


recover, distinguishes it from the drift 


previously considered It appears to be 
caused primarily by the release of trapped 
fiber stresses in pressure elements which are 
in the cold-worked condition. The pressure 
element can be stabilized in this respect by 
artificial aging or seasoning, which is ac- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 9 


complished by subjecting it or the complete 
instrument to a combination of pressure 
and temperature cycles. Particularly effec- 
tive is an exposure for a short time to a 
temperature just short of that which will 
remove the hardening effect of cold work. 

Unless accelerated, the zero shift may 
continue for several years, but at a dimin- 
ishing rate. 

A zero shift, but with an opposite direc- 
tion of pointer travel, will occur if the dia- 
phragm capsule leaks. Obviously the instru- 
ment is unusable in this case. Wear in the 
bearings of the mechanism, often as a result 
of rough handling of the instrument, may 
also cause a zero shift. 

(f) Vibration and friction are especially 
important in the sensitive aviation altime- 
ter now available. The friction is of the 
order of 100 feet, but is removed, with a 
residual uncertainty of about 10 feet by a 
vibration with an amplitude of about 0.001 
inch. Since vibration of considerable ampli- 
tude may damage the altimeter, inevitably 
so if at the natural frequency of the mech- 
anism, the vibration to which it is sub- 
jected is controlled by installing the instru- 
ment board upon which it is mounted in 
vibration-absorbing mounts. 

Other aneroid instruments are available 
which are remarkably free from friction. 
However, it is on the safe side to tap all 
aneroid instruments slightly to insure a 
friction-free reading. Instead of tapping, 
operation of a small bell buzzer attached to 
the instrument may be preferable in the 
case of instruments with much friction, in 
view of the uniformity and relatively high 


frequency of the vibration thus obtained. 


In general, installations in which the an- 
eroid instruments are subjected to severe 
vibration should be avoided, especially so if 
there results-any sensible pointer vibration. 

(g) Shocks to aneroid instruments lead 
to damage to the delicate pivots and bear- 
ings of high quality instruments. Breakage 
of the parts may occur. On this account the 
instruments require protection during ship- 
ment. In the field use of surveying aneroid 
the practice seems to be growing of requir- 
ing that shock protection be incorporated 
inside of the instrument case. The require- 
ment that surveying instruments be rugged 


Sept. 15, 1944 


appears to be essential in view of conditions 
of use in the field. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


The cooperation of Dr. D. P. Johnson, 
National Bureau of Standards; Warrant 
Officer J. H. Bakewell, U.S.A.; A. H. Mears, 
U. S. Weather Bureau; and Ralph M. 
Berry, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, in 
the preparation of certain parts of the paper 
is gratefully acknowledged. 


LITERATURE CITED 


(1) Riuitman, Ricuarp. Die barometrischen 
Héhenmessung und thre Bedeutung fiir 
die Physik der Atmosphdre. Leipzig, 
1870. 

(2) BrompacuEr, W. G. The determination 
of the altitude of aircraft. Journ. Opt. Soc. 
Amer. and Rev. Sci. Inst. 7: 719-774. 
1923. 

(3) Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, ed. 5. 
Washington, D. C., 1939. 

(4) BRomBACHER, W. Ge and HOovuUSsEMAN, 
M. R. Balloon altitude, barometric and 
photogrammetric. Nat. Geog. Soc. Con- 
tributed technical papers, stratosphere 
series No. 2: 220-233, 1936. Also, 
Journ. Aeron. Sci. 5: 355-359. 1938. 

(5) Arry, Grorce B. On the determination of 
heights from barometer readings. Proc. 
British Meteorol. Soc. 3: 406. 1867. 

(6) Esert, H. Zeitschr. fiir Instrumenten- 
kunde 49: 407-414. 1929. 

(7) International Commission for Aerial Nav- 
igation. International standard atmos- 
phere. Official Bull. No. 7: 34, Dec. 
1924; and No. 26: 92, Dec. 1938. 

(8) DizHt, WattTeR 8. Standard atmosphere 
—tables and data. Nat. Adv. Comm. 
Aeron. Tech. Rep. No. 218. 1927. 


GRIFFIN: DE LUNA EXPEDITION AND ‘“‘BUZZARD CULT”’ 


299 


(9) BRomBacHEeR, W. G. Altitude-pressure 
tables based on the United States atmos- 
phere. Nat. Adv. Comm. Aeron. Techn. 
Rep. No. 538. 1935. 
(10) Panxuurst, R. C., and Conn, J. F. C. 
British Aero Research Comm. Reports 
and Memoranda No. 1891. 1941. 

(11) L’atmosphére standard du_ section tech- 
nique. Bull. Technique, Service Tech- 
nique de l’Aéronautique No. 11. Feb. 
1923. 

(12) BGrxuE, Hetmut. Instrumentenkunde. 
Luftfahrt-Lehrbiicherei. 17, Berlin, 1940. 

(18) Tamaru, T. The standard atmosphere. 
Aeron. Inst. Tokyo Imp. Univ. 1: 321- 
346. 1925. 

(14) Fed. Aéron. Internationale. Altitude regu- 
lations. Bull. FAI No. 60: 61. Jan. 
1935. 

BRoMBACHER, W.G. Measurement of al- 
titude under new FAI rules. Journ. 
Aeron. Sci. 4: 1-7. 1936. . 

Lucky altitude temperature correction com- 
puter. Instruments 2: 469-470. 1929. 
Datton, Puitip. Formulae for altimeter 
corrections. Journ. Aeron. Sci. 4: 154— 

LEG. USB. 

PETERSON, JOHN B., and Womack, 
S. H. J. Electrical thermometers for 
aircraft. NACA Technical Report No. 
606. 1937. 

Barometer, altumeter. Instruments 16: 786. 
1943 

BroMBACHER, W.G. Measurement of al- 
titude in bland flying. Nat. Adv. Comm. 
Aero. Techn. Note No. 503. 1934. 

CoLvIn, CHARLES H. Altimeter setting 
indicator. Journ. Aeron. Sci. 10: 250- 
252. 1948. 

PETERSON, J. B., and Rounps, EK. W. 
Flight test instruments. Journ. 8.A.E. 26: 
313-317. 1930. 


(15) 
(16) 


(17) 


(18) 


(19) 


(20) 


(21) 


ANTHROPOLOGY.—The De Luna Expedition and the ‘buzzard cult’’ in the 


Southeast. 
JOHN R. SWANTON.) 


For a great many years American arche- 
ologists have been puzzled by a series of re- 
semblances between the Southeastern 
United States Middle Mississippi cultures 
and those of the Mexican area, and a con- 
siderable amount of time and speculation 
has been devoted to either explaining the 
relationship or explaining it away. (Holmes, 
1883, was one of the best early studies.) 
Prominent among these connections has 


1 Read before Society for American Archeology, 
Washington, May 13, 1944. Received May 20, 
1944. 


JAMES B. Grirrin, University of Michigan. (Communicated by 


been a series of drawings of dancing figures 
and other anthropomorphic concepts, 
placed on shell and pottery, and figures cut 
out and impressed in copper. By some stu- 
dents these were interpreted as direct Mexi- 
can influence that came into the Southeast 
as the result of a migration (Radin, 1927, 
pp. 192-202; Nuttall, 1932, pp. 137-144) 
and produced the Middle Mississippi cul- 
ture. Others considered these art styles to be 
the result of some inherent quality in the 
Indian mind which at a given cultural level 
would produce similar ‘“‘Indian art” styles 


300 


(Thruston, 1890, chap. 9). Others inter- 
preted the Mexicanlike artifacts as objects 
fabricated in the Southeast by a small group 
of Mexican exiles. No one suggested that 
the items were made in Mexico. Willoughby 
(1932, p. 45) maintained that the designs 
and craftsmanship, particularly on the cop- 
per plates, is Muskhogean and not Mexican, 
and Phillips reiterated the opinion that the 
plates did not resemble any known con- 
temporary Mexican work.? With regard to 
the general Mexican resemblances, and par- 
ticularly the shell gorgets, Phillips said, 
“To account for this tendency without some 
sort of contact involves a terrific strain on 
the theory of ‘psychic unity.’’’’ Phillips also 
recognized, as have others, that the Mexi- 
canlike material was spread like a thin wash 
in the Southeast and was certainly not part 
of the ‘original’? Middle Mississippi, what- 
ever and whenever that might have been. 

Some students have viewed these art 
styles as the expression of a religious revival 
brought about during a fanciful period of 
decline and decay of southeastern culture 
(Ford and Willey, 1941, pp. 357-359). In 
the writer’s opinion the art styles resem- 
bling Mexican forms are a part of the cul- 
ture at the highest aboriginal level of ac- 
complishment and represent not a stage of 
retrogression but the Southeast at its apogee. 

The recent archeological activity in the 
Southeast has demonstrated rather clearly 
that this particular cultural manifestation 
is almost certainly post-De Soto (1540) and 
belongs to a period only shortly before the 
coming of the French and English traders 
into the Southeast. During the Third 
Round Table Conference in Mexico City 
in 1943, I discussed this art style with Mexi- 
can anthropologists, who recognized it as 
having close relationship to the art forms 
of the Mixteca-Puebla Culture, which were 
contemporary with the Conquistadores 
(Vaillant, 1940, pp. 209-305; comments by 
Dr. Caso in Mexico City, September, 1943; 
Ekholm, 1944). In other words, we are deal- 
ing with approximately contemporary art 
manifestations. 

2 This opinion is largely negated in Moore, 
1905, pp. 225-227. 


3 Phillips, 1940, p. 356. This is essentially 
ae position and was seconded by Starr, 
189 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


Some individuals had suggested that De 
Soto might have taken mercenaries or camp 
followers from Mexico to the Southeast, 
but there is no record or suggestion that he 
did so. However, we do have record of an- 
other expedition into the Southeast, which 
may contain an explanation for this inter- 
areal connection. In 1559 Tristan de Luna 
led an expedition to the Gulf coast which was 
organized in Mexico City for the purpose 
of establishing a Spanish base on the Gulf 
coast and on the southeast Atlantic coast to 
forestall the encroachment into the area of 
other European powers.? 

The armed force or striking power of the 
expedition was furnished by Spaniards from 
Mexico City, Oaxaca, Los Zacatecas, and 
Puebla. It is possible that the Spanish 
soldiers and officers from these areas had 
local Indians as their servants and camp 
followers. The expedition left Mexico City 
in mid-April and moved to Tlaxcala where 
it remained until May 12. At this point the 
Viceroy wrote to de Luna regarding the 
composition of the expedition: 

They tell me that the canaille of halfbreeds, 
mulattoes, and Indians who are being taken by 
the people (soldiers) are very numerous; you will 
find that the great part of these will only serve to 
set the camp in confusion and eat up the supplies. 
I think it will be enough to send only as many 
servants as there are soldiers to go, and only those 


who are to embark should go down from Halapa. 
(Priestley, 1928, vol. 1, p. 54.) 


The sailing date from San Juan de Ulua 
was June 11, 1559. The party was composed 
of 500 soldiers, 1,000 servants and colonists 
(including women, children, Negroes), a 
large number of Mexican Indians, and 240 
horses. They embarked in 13 ships. Advane2 
knowledge and international considerations 
had set their goal as the port of Ochuse or 
Polonza (Pensacola Bay), but they sailed 
past it to the Bahia Filipina (Mobile Bay). 
A frigate was dispatched east to locate 
Ochuse, and after this was accomplished 
the whole fleet arrived at Ochuse on August 
14. Exploring parties were sent out, one of 
which evidently followed the course of the 
Escambia River. The area about Pensacola 

4The account of the expedition in this paper 
has been extracted and condensed from the fol- 
lowing publications: Swanton, 1922, pp. 159, 


230-239, 240, 254-256; 1939, pp. 909-218: 
Lowery, 1901, pp. 351— 377; Priestley, 1928, 1936. 


Snpt. 15, 1944 


was not densely populated nor was the 
Escambia drainage. While these scouting 
parties were gone, a hurricane blew for 24 
hours on August 19 and wrecked all but 
three small boats and destroyed most of the 
supplies. When the exploring parties re- 
turned and reported that the land was poor 
and there were few Indians to support them 
the expedition was faced with an unpleasant 
future. Another exploring party of 200 
Spaniards and ‘‘canaille’”’ was sent to pene- 

trate farther into the interior, and some 40 
leagues north they found a temporarily 
abandoned Indian town of 80 houses, called 
Nanipacana or Nanipacna, on a great river 
which is probably the Alabama. It was lo- 
cated close to the site of Mabila or perhaps 
may have been Mabila itself, since the story 
told by its inhabitants checks with the his- 
tory of Mabila, and the distance from Mo- 
bile Bay to both towns is very close. Hal- 
bert thought that Nanipacana was in Wil- 
cox County, while Lowery and Swanton 
favor a location in Monroe County. Cer- 
tainly, no very exact information is given in 
the accounts of the expedition. The name of 
this town is said to be a Choctaw word 
meaning “high mountain or hilltop.” In this 
village the scouting party found maize, 
beans, and other food that had been left by 
the Indians, who had fled as this new party 
of Spaniards approached. In the meantime, 
two vessels with provisions arrived from 
New Spain, so that de Luna did not move 
the majority of his party to Nanipacana un- 
til early April, 1560. He left a small party at 
Ochuse to guard the port. This meant that 
a motley group of 1,500 persons were at- 
tempting to live in an Indian village of 80 
houses. On April 15 de Luna sent out a 
party of about 300 under Mateo de Sauz 
to visit Coosa. They went toward the 
northeast and, not finding much food, were 
reduced to dire straits. The first part of 
June they found provisions and sent back 
to de Luna 40 bushels of corn from a town 
called Caxiti (Casiste, a day’s march west 
of Talisi, located at Durand’s Bend). Pro- 
ceeding up the Alabama they stopped at 
Onachiqui, one of the first Coosa towns 
which was near the Olibahali River. They 
did not stay long but journeyed north to 
Coosa, which turned out to be a community 


GRIFFIN: DE LUNA EXPEDITION AND ‘“‘BUZZARD CULT’”’ 


301 


of 30 houses and 7 suburban centers. This 
town was located on the east side of the Coosa 
River in Talladega County, between the 
mouths of Talladega and Tallaseehatchee 
Creeks. The majority of the party remained 
at Coosa for at least three months, and one 
of their most notable exploits was to aid 
their hosts in a conflict against the Napo- 
chies, who have commonly been identified as 
living to the west, because of the association 
of their name with Napissa, an Indian group 
mentioned as being associated with the 
Chickasaw by Iberville 140 years later and 
because of the mistaken idea that the Na- 
pochies lived near the Mississippi. How- 
ever, it was only a few days’ march from 
Coosa to the first Napochie town whose in- 
habitants had fled to the second Napochie 
town, which was near a river called Oque- 
chiton. This has been identified as the Mis- 
sissippi, the Yazoo, the Black Warrior, and 
the Tennessee. As the name given means 
“the great water,” as Padilla states, some 
historians have concluded that the party 
reached the Mississippi. The location of the 
towns is not known. 

Meanwhile, the main group at Nanipa- 
cana was slowly starving to death, and dur- 
ing June and Wuly serious differences of 
opinion arose as to the best course to follow. 
Of particular interest is the June 23 peti- 
tion, drawn up by the principal Indians and 
Indian craftsmen from Mexico, urging de 
Luna to allow them to return. The petition 
was ignored. De Luna wanted to march 
north to join Sauz in Coosa, but the major- 
ity of the expedition wanted to go back to 
Mobile Bay. The move south was effected 
about June 24, 1560, and a message was 
placed in an urn which was buried beneath 
a tree with a message placed on the tree for 
the returning Coosa party to “dig below.” 
Shortly after the main party arrived in 
Mobile Bay two ships arrived with addi- 
tional but insufficient supplies so that 
women, children, and the sick were allowed 
to embark for Havana and New Spain. At 
the command of King Philip of Spain, two 
boats were dispatched to set up a base near 
Beaufort, 8. C., in order to forestall the 
French from settling along the southeast 
coast. The main party moved back to 
Ochuse, where, in August, they received the 


302 


messengers from Sauz who reported that 
the scouting force was getting along fairly 
well at Coosa. De Luna wished to take the 
bulk of the able bodied and set up a base at 
Coosa,~but his men refused to follow him, 
and from September, 1560, to April, 1561, 
the remainder of the expedition struggled 
along in Pensacola Bay while the majority 
of the group sent to Coosa evidently re- 
mained there. De Luna’s successor, Villa- 
fane, had been ordered to establish the base 
on the southeast Atlantic coast, and in April 
1561, he took with him such members of 
the De Luna Expedition as still had stom- 
ach for pioneering. The official records do 
not pay much attention to the fate of the 
Indians taken on the expedition or say how 
many were left in Alabama, returned to 
Mexico, or perished in the Southeast. 

The Indians had been taken along as 
“C. B.” battalions or engineers to build 
settlements, repair broken equipment, and 
to undertake all the disagreeable but fun- 
damental tasks that the Spanish were too 
busy to do for themselves. De Soto had 
taken Indian women from Coosa and they 
spent almost 20 years in Mexico. They re- 
turned to Coosa with Sauz’s party. Thus, 
for almost two years there was a large group 
of Mexican Indians from the specific areas 
where the most profound resemblances to 
the southeastern late art styles are located, 
and they were in an area that is quite close 
to a heavy concentration of objects at- 
tributed to Mexican influence.® First of 
these sites is Moundville located on the 
Black Warrior River, a short distance south 
of Tuscaloosa, Ala., and which is fairly 
close to the probable location of the Na- 
pochie towns. The other prominent center 
of Mexicanlike material is at Etowah in 
Barlow County, Ga., in the headwaters of 
the Coosa. Both Moundville and Etowah 
are believed to belong to the later prehis- 
toric archeological period and have been 
tentatively dated by archeologists at about 
1550-1650. On the basis of the archeological 


5 Hkholm, 1944, pp. 443-444. The reference to 
“Htowah” should read Moundville. The re- 
semblances between the skull, heart, and long 
bones on Moundville vases and those in the 
Mexican Codices is reported in Moore, 1905. This 
was not mentioned by Phillips, nor was I aware 
of it at the Round Table Conference. This re- 
semblance was noted by Caso. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


*® 


VoL. 34, No. 9 


data there is little doubt that they were oc- 
cupied contemporaneously during at least 


part of their existence, for some of the pot- 


tery from Etowah was almost certainly in- 
spired by or directly derived from Mound- 
ville, and pipes of the distinctive late North 
Georgia style have been found at Mound- 
ville. Another center where shell objects, 
suggesting Mexican origin, have been found 
is around Montgomery. Another major cen- 
ter for the shell disks is in eastern Ternes- 
see. 

There have been some theories about the 
passage along the gulf coast of migratory 
groups, either by land or by boat, who then 
moved up the Mississippi and established 


~a center of Middle Mississippi culture. 


Some such explanation may later be demon- 
strated for earlier elements of either Middle 
Mississippi or Hopewellian, but the distri- 
butional features of the buzzard-cult arti- 
facts indicates that there was no significant 
use of such concepts in Texas, Louisiana, 
Arkansas, or southern Mississippi. There is 
one famous site that has a considerable 
amount of material of this nature, namely, 
Spiro in the Arkansas Valley of eastern 
Oklahoma, and that question will be dealt 
with in another paper. 

Unfortunately, European-manufactured 
objects, or items brought into the Southeast 
from Mexico, have been rarely identified as 
of this 1560 period. The sole exception 
known to me so far is a coin and other non- 
Indian material found by Moore with a 
burial under a pottery vessel in a mound at 
Bear Point in Perdido Bay. This was a 
Mexican silver coin of the 1525-1550 period 
(Moore, 1901, pp. 423-432). Since the ves- 
sel belongs in the Fort Walton period, some 
of our ideas about cultural chronology in 
the lower Southeast may be in for a change, 
depending upon the date at which the coin 
was deposited. It would seem reasonable 
that either at Nanipacana or at Coosa some 
item of Spanish origin would be associated 
with Indian artifacts so that cross dating 
might be effected. Many items of European 
origin have been recovered in the Montgom- 
ery area, but the majority of these are evi- 
dently of the 1680-1750 period, and the 
same holds true for the trade goods in com- 
parable sites on the Tennessee. 


Spt. 15, 1944 


It is, therefore, the purpose of this paper 
to suggest that the De Luna Expedition 
might well have furnished the impetus that 
resulted in the adoption in the southeast of 
various Mexican art styles and concepts. An 
intensive and considerable amount of re- 
search, however, is needed to analyze and 
compare the various representations in the 
Southeast and to examine the Mexican 
records to see the degree of resemblance to 
the culture of the area from which the De 
Luna Expedition in 1559 obtained their In- 
dians. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ExuHoim, Gorpon F. The Third Round Table 
Conference. Amer. Antiquity 9: 440-444. 
1944. 

Forp, JAMES ALFRED, and WILLEY, GORDON. 
An interpretation of the prehistory of the 
Eastern United States. Amer. Anthrop. 
43: 325-363. 1941. 

Hoitmes, Witiiam H. Art in shell of the 
ancient Americans. 2d Ann. Rep. Bur. 
Amer. Ethnol.: 179-305. 1883. 

Lowery, Woopsury. The Spanish  settle- 
ments within the present limits of the 
United States, 1513-1561. New York, 
1901. 

Moore, CLARENCE B. Certain aboriginal re- 
mains of the northwest Florida coast. Journ. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 10 (4): 421— 
499, 1901. 

. Certain aboriginal mounds of the Black 


CLARK: A NEW FOSSIL COMATULID 


303 


Warrior River. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia 13 (2): 127-247. 1905. 
NUTTALL, ZELIA. Comparison between Etowan, 
Mexican and Mayan designs. In “Etowah 
Papers,” pp. 137-144. Andover, Mass., 

1932. 


PuiIuuips, Paruip. Middle American influences 
on the archaeology of the Southeastern United 
States..In ‘““The Maya and Their Neigh- 
bors,’”’ pp. 349-367. New York, 1940. 

PRIESTLEY, HERBERT INGRAM. (Edited by H. I. 
Priestley.) The Luna papers. Publ. 
Florida State Hist. Soc. No. 8, 2 vols. 
Deland, Fla., 1928. 

. Tristan De Luna—Conquistador of the 


Old South. Glendale, Calif., 1936. 
Rapin, Pauu. The story of the American In- 
dian. New York, 1927. 


STARR, FREDERICK. A shell gorget from Mex- 
tco. Proc. Davenport Acad. Sci. 6: 173- 
1782 U897- 

SWANTON, JOHN R. Early history of the Creek 
Indians and their neighbors. Bur. Amer. 
Bthnol. Bulle 73: . 1922: 

. Final report of the United States De 
Soto Expedition Commission. 76th Con- 
gress, Ist Session, House Document No. 
TV 2939: 

Turuston, Gates P. The antiquities of Ten- 
nessee. Cincinnati, 1890. 

VAILLANT, GEORGE. Patterns in Middle Amer- 
ican archaeology. In ‘“‘The Maya and 
Their Neighbors,” pp. 295-305. New ~ 
York, 1940. 

WILLOUGHBY, CHARLES C. AHistory and sym- 
bolism of the Muskhogeans. In ‘‘Etowah 
Papers,”’ pp. 7-68. Andover, Mass., 1932. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—A new fossil comatulid from the Cretaceous of Cundinamar- 


ca, Colombia. 


Dr. José Royo y Gémez, geologist of the 
Ministerio de Minas y Petroleos, Bogot4, 
Colombia, with the consent of the Ministry 
and of Brother Apolinar Marfa, director of 
the Museo del Instituto La Salle, has kindly 
submitted to me for study two unusually 
interesting specimens of a fossil comatulid 
from the Cretaceous of Colombia. These are 
the first comatulids to be reported from the 
Cretaceous in any area outside of Europe. 
The specimens are unusually complete, 
with cirri, division series, arms, and frag- 
mentary pinnules; but they do not show the 
centrodorsal clearly, and the articular faces 
of the radials are not visible at all. They 
represent a remarkable new species quite 
different from any heretofore known, neces- 

1 Received April 3, 1944. 


Austin H. Ciarx, U. 8. National Museum. 


sitating the creation of a new genus. This 
new genus finds its closest association with 
the family Palaeantedonidae, known from 
the Upper Cretaceous to Quaternary in 
England, France, Belgium, Holland, Den- 
mark, southern Sweden, northern Germany, 
Austria, Hungary, Italy, Algeria, and pos- 
sibly Sinai, Java, and South Carolina. 
Some of the species belonging to certain 
genera of the family Palaeantedonidae 
might equally well be referred to the recent 
family Antedonidae, as for instance certain 
species of Palaeantedon. The specimens under 
consideration, however, although showing 
many features which would permit their 
reference to this family, present others, es- 
pecially the uniformly short pinnule seg- 
ments and the strong beaded ornamentation 


304 


of the distal edges of the brachials, that 
suggest a rather remote relationship to this 
group. 

I am deeply appreciative of the courtesy 
and generosity of Dr. Royo and of Brother 
Apolinar Maria in affording me the oppor- 
tunity of studying and reporting upon these 
most interesting specimens. In honor of 
Dr. Royo I take pleasure in designating 
the new genus represented by the name of— 


Roiometra, n. gen. 


Diagnosis.—A genus cf the family Palaean- 
tedonidae including large species (with the 
centrodorsal 12 mm in diameter) with very 
numerous (over 100 [C]) very slender cirri com- 
posed of elongate proximal and short smooth 
distal segments; 10 arms composed of short 
oblong, or nearly oblong, brachials, which have 
the distal edges ornamented with a row of con- 
spicuous beadlike tubercles; the IBr series 
2; and flexible pinnules composed of segments 
which are not longer than broad. 

Genotype.—Roiometra columbiana, n. sp. 

Occurrence.—Cretaceous of Cundinamarca, 
Colombia. 


Roiometra columbiana, n. sp. 


Description.—The surface of the centrodorsal 
is nowhere visible, but from the pattern of the 
basal segments of the cirri still adhering the 
centrodorsal appears to be hemispherical or 
subconical, about 12 mm broad at the base and 
about 10 mm high. The pattern of the basal 
cirrus segments indicates that the cirrus sockets 
are arranged in very numerous closely crowded 
alternating rows which, from the rim to the 
dorsal pole, are probably between 12 and 15, or 
possibly more, in number. From the small size 
of the basal cirrus segments it is apparent that 
the cirrus sockets are very small. The indica- 
tions are that the bare dorsal pole is very small. 

The cirri are exceedingly numerous and very 
slender, appearing somewhat like a tuft of 
coarse hair. They are probably well over 100 
(C) in number. Most of them appear to be 
about 27 mm in length, with the longest periph- 
eral cirri about 34 mm and the cirri near the 
dorsal pole much shorter; the width is from 
0.5 to 0.7 mm. They are composed of probably 
25-30 segments. In the longest cirri the longest 
earlier segments are between 3 and 4 times as 
long as broad, slightly constricted centrally and 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


slightly flaring distally, and the outer segments 
are from about as long as broad to half again 
as long as broad with slightly broadened distal 
ends. The terminal portion of the cirri appears 
to taper to a point. There are no indications of 
dorsal or of opposing spines. 

The division series and a considerable por- 
tion of the arm bases are concealed by the dense 
mass of cirri. The arms seem to have been 10 in 
number. They are about 5 mm in diameter, and 
as far as they are preserved, in one case for 80 
mm beyond the cirri, they do not taper. The 
brachials appear to be between 3 and 4 times 
as broad as long; the earlier have the ends 
somewhat oblique, the later have them parallel 
or nearly so. The distal ends of the earlier 
brachials are somewhat produced, and from 
their appearance were either tubercular or 
spiny. There is no definite evidence of syzygies. 

There are many scattered pinnule segments 
in the matrix between the arms, but most of 
them are indefinite. They are mostly grouped 
in short series. From the way in which most of 
these series are curved it is evident that the 
pinnules were flexible. Some series of pinnule 
segments lie across the arms where they simu- 
late a beadlike ornamentation of the brachials. 
The pinnule segments are all short, none of 
them being longer than broad. On what appear 
to be the earlier segments the outer end is pro- 
duced on the distal side into a high spine. The 
outer pinnule segments taper proximally to a 
narrow base. 

On the reverse side of the slab, beneath the 
specimen on the right, a IBr series is visible. 
The IBr, is about 2.5 mm long, and about half 
again as broad as long; the proximal and distal 
edges are rather strongly everted and thick- 
ened. The IBr. (axillary) is about 3.5 mm in 
length, broader than long, pentagonal, with the 
lateral borders about two-thirds as long as 
those of the IBr; and making a broadly obtuse 
angle with them, and the distal edges almost 
straight and ornamented with a row of 6 or 7 
prominent rounded tubercles; the anterior angle 

measures about 90°. 

The first brachial is wedge-shaped, about 
half again as long exteriorly as interiorly, and 
about as broad as long in the median line. The 
distal edge is bordered with a row of tubercles. 
resembling those on the distal edges of the 
axillaries.. The second brachial is less obliquely 
wedge-shaped, almost oblong though slightly 


ROIOMETRA COLUMBIANA, N. Sp. 


Upper: Two specimens, natural size. Lower: Portion of reverse side of slab, beneath the right hand 
specimen shown above, X2. Ax=IBr axillary; Ps =pinnule segments; Syn =synarthry; Syz =syzygy. 
Objects referred to are to the right of the letters, except the synarthry, which is below. 


- Sept, 15, 1944 


longer exteriorly than interiorly, slightly larger 
than the first brachial, with the surface 
slightly concave and the distal border everted 
and ornamented with a row of about 10 tuber- 
cles. As is shown on another arm, the first two 
brachials are united by synarthry. The third 
and fourth brachials are united by syzygy, 
forming a syzygial pair which is somewhat 
longer than broad; the fourth brachial (epi- 
zygal) has the distal edge everted and bor- 
dered with a row of tubercles; the distal edge of 
the third brachial (hypozygal) is unmodified. 
The right arm is broken off at the distal end of 
the first syzygial pair. On the left arm the fifth 
brachial is wedge-shaped, about twice as long 
exteriorly as interiorly, and short, about three 
times as broad as the median length. The sixth 
brachial is similar, but the long and short sides 
are reversed. 

The underside of the slab is almost entirely 
covered with brachials, mostly in more or less 
long series, but many as individuals or in small 
groups. Nearly all these are much worn and so 
the details can not be made out, though a few 
are in fairly good condition. Most of the bra- 
chials are from 4 to 4.6 mm in diameter, and 
the outline of the dorsal half is a regular semi- 
circle. The distal edge is everted and somewhat 
produced, and in the best preserved brachials is 
tubercular. From the ends of the transverse 
ridge through which the central canal passes 
the sides of the brachials converge ventrally in 
two straight lines making with each other an 
angle of about 70° to a rather sharply rounded 
apex; these two converging straight lines are 
the outer edges of the muscular fossae. Some 
of the brachials show syzygial faces. These are 
perfectly developed, with apparently 16-18 ra- 
diating ridges. 

Together with the brachials there are many 
pinnule segments, mostly in short series of vari- 
ous lengths, though many are isolated. Some 
few of these are still in close proximity to the 
brachials to which ‘originally they were at- 
tached. All these pinnule segments are so worn 
that little can be said about them further than 
that they are somewhat broader than long, or 
at least not longer than broad, with more or 
less constricted proximal ends. A first pinnule 
segment still attached to a brachial is subtri- 
angular with the apex, adjacent to the brachial, 
very broadly rounded, slightly broader than 
long, with a straight distal edge. The pinnule 


CLARK: A NEW FOSSIL COMATULID 


305 


segments are evenly rounded dorsally, and the 
distal border is usually more or less strongly 
produced. 

Type.—From Naranjillo, Municipio de La 
Vega, Departamento de- Cundinamarca, Co- 
lombia; in the Museo del Instituto de La Salle, 
Bogota, Reptiblica de Colombia. From the 
Middle Villeta formation of the middle Albian, 
or about middle Cretaceous. 

Remarks.—A considerable number of fossil 
comatulids have been recorded from the Cre- 
taceous of England, Europe, and north Africa. 
Quite unidentifiable are: Comatula sp. Etallon, 
1857 (France) ; Antedon sp. Downes, 1880, 1882 
(England); Antedon sp. Stolley, 1891 (Schles- 
wig Holstein); Anéedon sp. Jahn, 1895 (Bo- 
hemia); Antedon sp. Hennig, 1899 (Sweden); 
and Eudiocrinus sp. Briinnich-Nielsen, 1913 
(Denmark). Species known only from brachials 
are: Antedon granulata Briinnich-Nielsen, 1913 
(Denmark); and Antedon stevens, Briinnich- 
Nielsen, 1913 (Denmark). A species of which 
the arms are known but the calyx ossicles are 
only imperfectly described is: Pachyantedon 
beyrichi Jaekel, 1891 (north Germany). 

Species in which only the centrodorsal is 
known are all referred to the genus Gleno- 
tremites Goldfuss, since their true systematic 
position cannot be determined. These are: 
Glenotremites adregularis Gislén, 1925 (Eng- 
land); G. alternata Gislén, 1925 (England); G. 
angelint Gislén, 1924 (south Sweden); G. ar- 
naudi de Loriol, 1894 (south France); @. 
bathert Gislén, 1924 (England); G. concavus 
Schliiter, 1878 (Holland); G. discoidalis Gislén, 
1925 (Bohemia; Belgium); G. essenensis Schli- 
ter, 1878 (west Germany); G. e. var. tubercu- 
latus Gislén, 1925 (England); G. excavatus Gis- 
lén, 1925 (England); G. exilis de Loriol, 1869 
(Switzerland); G. faxensis Briinnich-Nielsen, 
1913 (Denmark); G. intermedius Gislén, 1925 
(England); G. janett Valette 1917 (France); 
G. laticirrus P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (England); 
G. lettensis Schliiter, 1878 (west Germany); G. 
lundgreni P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (England); G. 
minutissimus Valette, 1917 (France); G. para- 
doxus Goldfuss, 1831 (north and west Ger- 
many; Belgium, England); G. parvicavus Gis- 
lén, 1924 (Denmark); G. parvistellatus Gislén, 
1925 (England); G. parvus Gislén, 1925 (Eng- 
land); G. perforatus P. H. Carpenter, 1880 
(England); G. pusillus Fritsch, 1910 (Bo- 
hemia); G. pyropa Zahalka, 1892 (Bohemia); 


306 


G. rosaceus Geinitz, 1871 (Bohemia; ?Saxony); 
G. rotundus P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (England); 
G. rogosus P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (England); 
G. schluetertanus Geinitz, 1871 (Saxony); G. 
scutatus Gislén, 1925 (north Germany); G. 
semiglobularis Briimnich-Nielsen, 1913 (Den- 
mark); G. strvatus P. H. Carpenter, 1880 (Eng- 
land); G. sulcatus Schliiter, 1878 (south Swe- 
den); G. fourtiae Schliiter, 1878 (west Ger- 
many); and G. valetts Gislén, 1924 (France; 
England). 

Specimens in which at least the centrodorsal 
and the basal and radial rings are preserved are 
capable of more exact systematic allocation. 
As determined by Prof. Torsten Gislén these 
fall in the following families and genera: Family 
CoOMASTERIDAE: Palaeocomaster lovént P.H. 
Carpenter, 1880 (England). Family Souano- 
CRINIDAE: Solanocrinus almerart de Loriol, 
1900 (Spain); S. campichei de Loriol, 1879 
(Switzerland); S. gevreyi de Loriol, 1902 
(France); S. gillieroni de Loriol, 1879 (Switzer- 
land); S. hiselyi de Loriol, 1869 (Switzerland) ; 
S. humilis Gislén, 1924 (France); S. infracre- 
taceus Ooster, 1871 (Switzerland); S. leenhardti 
de Loriol, 1908 (France); S. pictets de Loriol, 
1879 (Switzerland); S. ricordeanus d’Orbigny, 
1850 (France); S. vagnacensis de Loriol, 1888 
(France); and S. valdensis de Loriol, 1868 
(Switzerland). Family CoNOMETRIDAE: Am- 
phorometra alta Gislén, 1925 (England); A. 
brydonet Gislén, 1924 (England); A. conoidea 
Goldfuss, 1839 (north Germany; Holland); 
A. c. var. laevis Gislén, 1924; A. c. var. granu- 
lata Gislén, 1924; Placometra mortenseni Gis- 
lén, 1924 (England); Jaekelometra belgica 
Jaekel, 1901 (Holland); J. columnaris Gislén, 
1924 (Holland); and Conometra rugiana Gislén, 
1924 (north Germany). Family NorocrinIDAz: 
Loriolometra retzit Lundgren, 1874 (Sweden); 
Sphaerometra aequimarginata P. H. Carpenter, 
1880 (England); S. carentonensis de Loriol, 
1894 (France); S.incurva P. H. Carpenter, 1880 
(England); S. semiglobosa Schliiter, 1878 (Ger- 
many); S. senonica Gislén, 1925 (England); 
and S. tetent Wegner, 1911 (Germany). Family 
PALAEANTEDONIDAE: Semiometra bohemica Gis- 
lén, 1925 (Bohemia); S. courvillensis Valette, 
1917 (France); S. ampressa P. H. Carpenter 
1881 (Sweden); S. lenticularis Schliiter 1878 
(Holland); S. minuta Gislén (England); S. 
plana Briinnich-Nielsen, 1913 (north Germany; 
Denmark); S. plana var. stellata Gislén, 1925 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


(England); S. pommerania Gislén, 1924 (north 
Germany); S. rowei Gislén, 1924 (England); 
S. scania Gislén, 1924 (Sweden); Hertha cava 
Briinnich-Nielsen, 1913 (Denmark); H. mystica 
Hagenow, 1840 (north Germany; Belgium); 
H. pygmea Gislén, 1924 (north Germany); H. 
suecica Gislén, 1924 (Sweden); and Palaeante- 
don danica Briinnich-Nielsen, 1913 (Denmark). 

Four additional species have not as yet been 
assigned to the genera now used; these are: 
Actinometra batallert Astre, 1925 (Spain); An- ~ 
tedon astellatus Lehner, 1937 (Germany); A. 
bellilensis Valette, 1935 (north Africa); and A. 
chatelett Valette, 1933 (France). 

In determining the systematic relationships 
of this new species the unidentifiable fragments 
and the species based upon brachials or arms 
may be disregarded. It is necessary, however, 
to consider the numerous species represented 
only by centrodorsals—assembled under the 
generic term Glenotremites. These species. are 
divisible into two groups. In the first group 
the centrodorsal is columnar to conical, more 
rarely discoidal, and the cirrus sockets are large 
and prominent and arranged in columns, or if 
they are in a single row they show a distinct 
transverse ridge. Evidently this new species 
can not belong here. In the second group the 
centrodorsal is discoidal to hemispherical and 
the cirrus sockets are in crowded alternating 
rows, or if they are in a single row they are 
without sculpture. The new species is not 
closely related to any of the described species 
in this group. 

The species in which at least the centrodorsal 
and the basal and radial circlets are preserved 
are distributed among the families Comasteri- 
dae, Solanocrinidae, Conometridae, Notocrin- 
idae, and Palaeantedonidae. The new species 
can not belong to the family Comasteridae, in 
which the centrodorsal is much flattened with 
the sides never divided into radial areas, and 
the cirrus sockets are large or absent. It can not 
belong to the family Solanocrinidae, in which 
the centrodorsal is discoidal to columnar with 
the sides never divided into radial areas, and the 
cirrus sockets are large and arranged in columns 
or in a single row. It can not belong to the 
family Notoerinidae, in which the centrodorsal 
is conical to hemispherical with the sides not 
divided into radial areas, and the cirrus sockets 
are large. Finally, it can not belong to the 
family Conometridae, in the known species of 


Sept. 15, 1944 


which the centrodorsal is conical or discoidal 
with the sides usually divided into definite ra- 
dial areas by bare stripes or low ridges, each 
radial area having two columns of rather large 
cirrus sockets. 

This leaves for consideration the family Pal- 
aeantedonidae. Gislén defines this family as 
including species with the centrodorsal varying 
from sharply flattened to hemispherical, the 
cirrus sockets small and arranged in closely 
crowded alternating rows, and the cirri com- 
posed of long segments. He says that the species 
are slender with 10 arms composed of moder- 
ately oblique brachials, and that synarthries 
and syzygies are well developed. 

The present species agrees with this defini- 
tion in haying numerous small cirrus sockets; 
in having the cirri composed, at least in the 
basal portion, of long segments; in having 10 
_ arms composed of moderately oblique bra- 
chials; and in having well developed synarthries 
and syzygies. The other details can not be de- 
termined. 

It would seem, therefore, that this species 
falls within the family Palaeantedonidae, which 
includes the genera Semiometra Gislén (Upper 
Cretaceous to Eocene), Hertha Hagenow (Up- 
per Cretaceous to Miocene), Discometra Gislén 
(Miocene), and Palaeantedon Gislén (Upper 
Cretaceous to Quaternary). 

These genera are unfortunately differentiated 
by characters in the centrodorsal and articular 
faces of the radials that can not be made out in 
the present specimens. Semiometra appears to 
be ruled out, as in that genus the centrodorsal 
is low or flattened, the cirrus sockets are rela- 
tively large, and the size is much less. Hertha 
is composed of small species with the centro- 
dorsal not exceeding 5 mm in diameter which 
have relatively larger cirrus sockets and much 
fewer cirri. In Discometra the centrodorsal is 
very much flattened, thick discoidal with a 
large bare dorsal pole. Palaeantedon, with a 
hemispherical centrodorsal, a small bare dorsal 
pole, and numerous closely set cirrus sockets 


arranged in alternating rows seems to offer 


characters nearest to those of the present spec- 
imens. 

Palaeantedon is known from the Upper Cre- 
taceous of Denmark (danica Briinnich-Niel- 
sen) ; the Eocene of South Carolina (caroliniana 
Gislén); the Miocene of Algeria (ambigua 
Pomel, cartenniensis Pomel, globosa Pomel, 


CLARK: A NEW FOSSIL COMATULID 


307 


lineata Pomel, and soluta Pomel); the Miocene 
of Italy (minima Noélli); the Miocene of Hun- 
gary (depressa Gislén and pannonica Vad4sz); 
the Pliocene of Java (weberi Sieverts); and the 
Quaternary of Algeria (rosacea Pomel). . 

These specimens cannot be referred to Pa- 
laeantedon because of their very much more 
numerous cirri, the maximum number in that 
genus being about 50 (L) (in P. pannonica). It 
is probable that if other characters could be 
determined other differences would be found. 

In 1925 Prof. Torsten Gislén created the 
genus Gasterometra based upon a much worn 
centrodorsal and radial pentagon from the 
Upper Cretaceous (probably Senonian) of 
Devon, England to which he gave the name of 
Gasterometra polycirra. He referred the genus 
Gasterometra to the family Palaeantedonidae. 
The various characters used in the diagnosis of 
the genus Gasterometra can not be made out in 
the present specimens. But Gasterometra poly- 
cirra is of large size with the hemispherical cen- 
trodorsal 9.2 mm in diameter and 4.2 mm high, 
and with its whole surface closely studded with 
a very great number—at least 300 (CCC)— 
very small cirrus sockets which are distributed 
in about 10 alternating rows. 

In its large size and in the very large number 
of cirrus sockets Gasterometra polycirra is in 
general agreement with the present specimens, 
although in these the outline of the centrodorsal 
can not be traced and none of the cirrus sockets 
are visible. As Gasterometra polycirra and the 
species represented by the present specimens 
agree in the very large number of very slender 
cirri, and in this feature are quite unique 
among both fossil and recent comatulids, it is 
probable that they are related, though it is un- 
likely that they belong to the same genus. 

Gislén noted that Palaeantedon rosacea Pomel 
is possibly, as suggested by Pomel himself, 
identical with Antedon mediterranea. In the 
present specimens the distal segments of the 
lower pinnules, a few short series of which are 
preserved in curved rows lying on the dorsal 
surface of the brachials, are exceedingly short, 
not longer than broad, with the proximal end 
constricted. They thus resemble, at least super- 
ficially, the lower pinnules found in the sub- 
family Heliometrinae of the family Antedoni- 
dae. In fact, the best general idea of the ap- 
pearance of these specimens would be conveyed 
by comparing them to very large individuals of 


308 


a species of Florometra with exceedingly nu- 
merous and slender cirri, brachials with, only 
slightly oblique ends, and short-segmented 
flexible distal as well as proximal pinnules. But 
it should be remembered that in the comatulids 


BOTANY.—A new species of Orcuttia from Baja California.! 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


superficial similarity does not always indicate 
close relationship. 

For the photographs reproduced on the plate 
I am indebted to Dr. Ray S. Bassler, head cura- 
tor of geology, United States National Museum. 


JASON R. SwAL- 


LEN, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. 


The genus Orcuttia Vasey was described 
in 1886 with a single species, O. californica, 
from Baja California. A second species was 
described by Vasey in 1891, from Chico, 
Calif. The genus was known only from these 
two rare species until recent years when 
both were collected in California and two 
new species in addition. A second species 
from Baja California was discovered in 1942 
by Howard Scott Gentry. 


Orcuttia fragilis Swallen, sp. nov. 


Annua; culmi 15-40 em longi, multinodosi, 
erecti vel decumbentes, geniculati, papillosi vel 
papilloso-pilosi, purpurascentes, e nodis superi- 
oribus breviter ramosis; folia 3.5—6.5 cm longa, 
6-12 mm lata, plana, acuta, papillosa vel 
papilloso-pilosa; ligula obsoleta; paniculae 
densae, breves 5-10 mm latae, parte inferiori 
inclusa; spiculae 3—8-florae, 6-12 mm longae; 
glumae aequales, 7 mm longae, acuminatae, 
marginibus tenuibus hyalinis; lemma infimum 
6-7 mm longum, acutum vel subacuminatum, 
mucronatum, pubescens et pilosum, minute 
dentatum; palea lemmate paulo brevior, den- 
tata, carinis minute scabris, marginibus tenu- 
ibus, hyalinis; antherae 3 mm longae. 

Annual; culms 15-40 cm long, many-noded, 
erect or usually ascending or decumbent at the 
base, incurved above, geniculate at the lower 
and middle nodes, the internodes rather short, 

1 Received May 20, 1944. 


of nearly equal length, prominently papillose or 
papillose-pilose, purple, in striking contrast to 
the pale green leaves, bearing short, appressed, 
flowering branches from the upper nodes; 
leaves 3.5-6.5 cm long, 6-12 mm wide, flat, 
acute, papillose or papillose-pilose, the division 
into sheath and blade not evident except for a 
slight constriction at the ligular area, the blade 
finally breaking off at this line; panicles dense, 
spikelike, all or partly enclosed in the upper 
leaves, the exserted portion 1-3 cm long, 5-10 
mm wide, or those on the lower branches 
smaller; spikelets 3—8-flowered, 6-12 mm long; 
glumes equal, 7 mm long, acuminate, the 
margins thin, hyaline; lemmas pubescent, 
especially toward the base, and also sparsely 
pilose, the lowest 6-7 mm long, acute or sub- 
acuminate, the others successively smaller, 
minutely toothed, the midnerve excurrent as 
a short mucro; palea a little shorter than the 
lemma, dentate, minutely scabrous on the 
keels, the margins broad, thin, hyaline; anthers 
3 mm long. 

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 
1865489, collected on playa, sandy clay; at 
Llano Dirai, Magdalena Plain, within the 
limits of the Sonoran Desert in southern Baja 
California by H. 8. Gentry (no. 4192). “‘An 
abundant forage grass over the great flood-plain 
following rain storage. Reported excellent for 
cattle.” 


Sept. 15, 1944 


MAXON: A NEW SPECIES OF HEMITELIA 


309 


BOTANY.—A new species of Hemitelia from Peru. Wivtutam R. Maxon, U.S. 


National Museum. 


The ferns collected in Peru by Mrs. Ynes 
Mexia in 1931 include the following strongly 
characterized new species of Hemitelza. 
Among American members of Cyatheaceae 
it appears unique in indusium characters, 
notwithstanding the great diversity shown 
by members of the family in this respect, 
and I know of none with similar venation. 


Hemitelia nervosa Maxon, sp. nov. 


§Cnemidaria. Rhizomatis vel caudicis frag- 
mentum solum adest, parte apicali dense palea- 
cea, paleis lanceolato-subulatis, longe attenu- 
atis, usque ad 2 cm longis, basi 3-4 mm latis, 
medio brunneis, scleroticis, lucidis, margine 
late albido-scariosis, subtiliter fimbriatis. Frons 
saltem 2-metralis; stipes ca. 70 cm longus, 
validus, basi curvata brunnea modice verruco- 
sus, sursum antice profunde trisulcatus; lamina 
ubique nuda et glaberrima, oblonga, 1.3 m 
longa, ca. 60 cm lata, apice acuta, basin versus 
non angustata, imparipinnata, rhachi sulcata; 
pinnae remotae, latere utroque 11, basales 
oppositae, ceterae suboppositae vel superiores 
alternae, omnes subaequales, ca. 30 cm longae, 
6.5-7.5 cm latae, anguste oblongo-lanceolatae, 
apice acuminatae, basi subrotundae vel latis- 
sime cuneatae, pleraeque petiolulatae (3-8 
mm), acumine excepto crasse serratis, serra- 
turis 5-9 mm longis, 1.5-3 (4) mm altis, con- 
vexo-curvatis, antice apiculatis; venae usque 
ad acuminem ca. 40 jugae, utrinque elevatae, 
venula basali transverse conjunctae, arcu 
costali 3 vel 4 radiis longe exeuntibus, his varie 
inter se acute conjunctis; venulae laterales 
6—-10-jugae, obliquae, apicales breves, liberae, 
ceterae plerumque cum venulis oppositis et 
arcuum radiis irregulariter angulo acutissimo 
anastomosantes, venulis consociatis pellucidis 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. Received May 20, 
1944, 


a°* 


saepe geminis; sori ca. 1.5 mm diam., 6—-10- 
jugi, In zonam latam’a costa remotam positi; 
indusia rotunda, plana, parva, tenere mem- 
branacea, primum subintegra et sporangiis 
numerossimis omnino operta, demum leviter 
lobata; receptacula magna, globosa, sessilia. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, nos. 
1615531—533, collected in a gully at mouth of 
Rio Santiago, above Pongo de Manseriche, 
Departamento de Loreto, Peru, altitude 300 
meters, December 18, 1931, by Mrs. Ynes 
Mexia (no. 6291). Presumably the trunk was 
decumbent or weakly ascending, attaining a 
length of less than one meter. 

Hemitelia nervosa differs widely from all 
previously known members of the subgenus or 
section Cnemidaria, especially in venation. 
The lateral veinlets are elongate, very oblique, 
and almost without exception unbranched. 
Of these, the three,to five apical pairs are free 
and run to the curved margin of the serrature. 
The four or five lower pairs are variously joined 
to opposed veinlets from the next vein or to 
the branches running up from the costal are. 
The common or combined veins running to the 
sinuses are variable in width, color, position, 
and structure, being sometimes single and 
simple, often single and very acutely once- 
forked, or not infrequently even distinctly 
paired. In addition to its curious venation H. 
nervosa is at once distinguished among Cnemi- 
daria species by its sharply curvate-serrate 
margins. 

In its flat, circular, delicately membranous 
indusium H. nervosa is unique within the 
genus, at least as represented in America. A 
few members of EKuhemitelia, it is true, have 
indusia that are rounded in general outline, 
instead of semicircular, but. these are species of 
distant relationship and the indusia are large, 
coarse, and divided into several spreading sac- 
cate lobes, thus widely different from 4H. 
nervosa. 


310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 9 


HEMITELIA NERVOSA Maxon 


Sept. 15, 1944 


ORNITHOLOGY .—The subspecies of the gnatcatcher Polioptila albiloris.? 
BropkorB, University of Michigan. 


MANN.) 


Study of the black-capped gnatcatchers of 
Mexico and Central America is complicated 
by marked sexual dimorphism and in most 
cases by equally marked seasonal plumage 
changes. Until recently seasonal changes 
were not known to occur or were misunder- 
stood. As a result, the several species and 
subspecies were hopelessly confused, some 
authors even going so far as to reduce them 
to a single wide-ranging species. As clearly 
demonstrated by van Rossem,? however, 
the black-capped gnatcatchers are divisible 
into three major groups which may be sum- 
marized as follows: 

A. Cap of male black only in summer; winter 
male gray-capped like the female at all 
seasons. 

 Polioptila nigriceps (northwestern Mexico) 
AA. Cap of male black at all seasons. 

B. Loral and superciliary regions of male black 
in summer, partially white only in winter 
Polioptila albiloris (southern Mexico and 
northern Central America) 

BB. No season change; loral and superciliary 

regions always entirely white. 


Polioptila plumbea (Central and South 
America) 


Van Rossem recognized the nigriceps 
forms as constituting a specific unit, but he 
reluctantly combined the albzloris forms in 
the same specific unit with bilineata, be- 
cause the two groups were said by others to 
intergrade. Zimmer? placed albilorzs in a sep- 
arate specific unit from bilineata, which lat- 
ter he considered a subspecies of Polioptila 
plumbea. He stated that albzloris and Poliop- 
tila plumbea superciliaris occur together 
without intergradation in parts of Nicara- 
gua and Costa Rica. In view of the confu- 
sion that existed previous to van Rossem’s 
work, I am inclined to follow Zimmer in 
disregarding the earlier claims of intergra- 
dation between these two forms, especially 
since I find no evidence of intergradation 
among the specimens examined by me. 

The species here understood as Polzoptila 


1 Received March 25, 1944. 

2 Concerning some Polioptilae of the west coast 
of Middle America, Auk 48, 33-39. 1931. 

3 Studies of Peruvian birds: No. XLII, Amer. 
Mus. Nov., No. 1168: 1-6. 1942. 


BRODKORB: THE SUBSPECIES OF POLIOPTILA ALBIx IS 


4 
rats 


311 


PIERCE 
(Communicated by HmRBERT FRIED- 


albiloris inhabits parts of Mexico and Cen- 
tral America below 1,000 meters altitude, 
from the state of Nayarit to Costa Rica. It 
is a bird of arid regions and is thus largely 
confined to the Pacific side of the continent. 
It occurs also in arid localities on the Atlan- 
tic side in northwestern Oaxaca, in the 
Grand Valley of Chiapas, on the tip of the 
Yucatan Peninsula, in the Motagua Valley 
of Guatemala, and in the interior of Hon- 
duras. Within the area outlined above the 
known distribution of the species is spotty. 
Several of the apparent gaps in its range are 
undoubtedly due to lack of exploration. 
Others are real and divide the range of the 
species into at least three isolated regions. 
One such area is the tip of the Yucatan Pen- 
insula. A second is the remainder of the 
Mexican range of the species outlined above. 
The third is the Central American part of 
the range. The last area consists of two sec- 
tions, on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of 
Central America, respectively. It is as yet 
unknown whether these two colonies meet. 

Some order may be made of the spotty 
nature of the range of Polioptila albiloris 
when the distribution of other species of the 
genus is considered. On the Pacific side the 
northern limits of albzloris are practically 
coterminous with the southern limits of 
Polioptila nigriceps nigriceps. The southern 
boundaries of the range of albzloris overlap 
slightly the northern boundaries of the 
range of Polioptila plumbea superciliaris. On 
the Atlantic side the range of albzloris ceases 
approximately at the beginning of the ranges 
of Polioptila caerulea deppet, Polioptila 
caerulea nelsoni, and Polioptila plumbea 
superciliaris, from north to south, respec- 
tively. 

In a few places Polioptila albiloris has 
been recorded as occurring together with 
other resident gnatcatchers. It has been 
recorded with Polioptila caerulea depper at 
Tehuantepec and Santa Efigenia, Oaxaca, 
and at Gualdn, Guatemala. Poloptila 
caerulea caerulea is not an uncommon winter 
visitant in these regions, and since the dif- 
ferences between depper and caerulea are 


312 


not very pronounced, it is possible that the 
‘above records of deppet may have been 
based on migrants of caerulea. All authentic 
specimens of deppez which I have examined 
are from the Gulf lowlands of Mexico. 

Polioptila albiloris albiventris has been 
recorded from Cozumel Island, where 
P. caerulea cozumelae breeds: This record, 
based upon two Gaumer-taken specimens, is 
perhaps open to doubt, since no subsequent 
collector has found the black-capped spe- 
cies on Cozumel. 

Nelson and Goldman collected both 
Polioptila albiloris and P. caerulea nelsoni at 
San Vicente, Chiapas, on the edge of the 
range of both species. 

In parts of Nicaragua and in northwest- 
ern Costa Rica P. albiloris and P. plumbea 
superciliaris occur together. 

In spite of the isolation of several of the 
populations of Polzoptila albiloris, subspe- 
cific differentiation has not progressed far. 
This fact possibly argues for the compara- 
tively recent expansion of the species into 
suitable areas which were at the time un- 
occupied by other members of the genus. 

Acknowledgments.—For the use of mate- 
rial Iam indebted to Merriam L. Miles and 
to the authorities of the Academy of Natu- 
ral Sciences of Philadelphia, the Donald R. 
Dickey collection at the University of Cali- 
fornia at Los Angeles, the Chicago Natural 
History Museum, the U. S. Fish and Wild- 
life Service, the Museum of Comparative 
Zoology, and the United States National 
Museum. This study was aided by a grant 
from the Faculty Research Fund by the 
board of governors of the Horace H. Rack- 
ham School of Graduate Studies in the Uni- 
versity of Michigan. 


Polioptila albiloris vanrossemi, n. subsp. 


Polioptila nigriceps [nec Baird] Lawrence, U. S. 
Nat. Mus. Bull. 4: 12. 1876 (Quiotepec, Ta- 
pana [=Tapanatepec], and Santa Efigenia, 
Oaxaca).—Salvin and Godman, Aves, Biol. 
Centrali-Amer. 1: 52, part. 1879 (Quiotepec, 
Tapana, and Santa Efigenia).—Sumichrast, 
Naturaleza 5: 241. 1882 (Quiotepec, Tapana- 
tepec, and Santa Efigenia, Oaxaca; Tonala, 
Chiapas).—Ridgway, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 
5: 387, part. 1882 (Oaxaca and Tehuantepec). 
—Herrera, Naturaleza, ser. 2, 3: 196, part. 1899 
(Quiotepec, Tapana, and Santa Efigenia).— 
Ridgway, U. S. Nat: Mus. Bull..50, pt. 3: 
729, part. 1904 (Cuicatlan, Quiotepec, Puerto 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 9 


Angel, Tehuantepec, Huilotepec, Tapana, and 
Santa Efigenia, Oaxaca).—Bangs and Peters, 
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 68: 398. 1928 (Chivela 
and Tapanatepec, Oaxaca). 

Polioptila nigriceps nigriceps Hellmayr, Tier- 
reich, pt. 18: 25, part. 1903 (Oaxaca and 
Tehuantepec).—Hellmayr, in Wytsman, 
Genera avium, pt. 17: 17, part. 1911 
(Oaxaca). 

Polioptila bilineata nigriceps Griscom, Bull. 
Mus. Comp. Zool. 75: 398, part. 1934 
(Coyuca, Guerrero).* 

Polioptila albiloris [nec Sclater and Salvin] 
Lawrence, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 4: 12. 1876 
(Santa Efigenia and Tehuantepec City, 
Oaxaca).—Salvin and Godman, Aves, Biol. 
Centrali-Amer. 1: 538, part. 1879 (Tehuantepec | 
and Santa Efigenia).—Sumichrast, Naturaleza 
5: 241. 1882 (Tehuantepec, Cacoprieto, and 
Santa Efigenia, Oaxaca).—Ridgway, Proc. 
U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 387, part. 1882 (Tehuan- 
tepec, Santa Efigenia, and Tapana, Oaxaca).— 
Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 10: 454, part. 
1885 (Tehuantepec).—Ridgway, Man. North 
Amer. Birds, p. 569, part. 1887 (Tehuantepec). 
—Herrera, Naturaleza, ser. 2, 3: 196, part. 
1899 (Tehuantepec and Santa Efigenia).— 
SHarPg, Hand-list 3: 242, part. 1901 (west 
Mexico).—Hellmayr, Tierreich, pt. 18: 28, 
part. 1903 (Isthmus of Tehuantepec).—Ridg- 
way, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 3: 725, part. 
1904 (Cuicatlin, Tehuantepec, Huilotepec, 
Santa Efigenia, and Tapana, Oaxaca; descrip- 
tion; measurements; bibliography). 

Polioptila albiloris albileris Hellmayr, in 
Wytsman, Genera avium, pt. 17: 16, part. 
1911 (Oaxaca).—Zimmer, Amer. Mus. 
Nov., No. 1168: 1, 2, 6, part. 1942 (Tapana 
and Santa Efigenia; 


ments). 
Polioptila bilineata albiloris Griscom, Amer. 
Mus. Novit., No. 414: 7, part. 1930 


(Tehuantepec and Chivela; criticism).— 
van Rossem, Auk 48: 34, part. 1931 (At- 
lantic drainage of southern Mexico).— 
Dickey and van Rossem, Publ. Field Mus. 
Nat. Hist., Zool. ser., 23: 462, in text, part. 

1938 (Atlantic drainage of Chiapas). 
Polioptila plumbea albiloris Hellmayr, Publ. 
Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool ser., 13, pt. 7: 
504, part. 1934 (southern Mexico). 

Polioptila bilineata [nec Bonaparte] 
Hand-list 3: 242, part. 1901 (Mexico). 
Polioptila bilineata bairdi [nec Ridgway] van Ros- 
sem, Auk 48: 35, part. 1931 (San Blas, Nay- 
arit).—Dickey and van Rossem, Publ. Field | 
Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. ser., 23: 462, in text, 
part. 1938 (San Blas). 

Polioptila plumbea bairdi Hellmayr, Publ. 
Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. ser., 13, Pt. 7 
505, part. 1934 (Santiago and San Blas, 
Nayarit; Iguala and Tierra Colorada, 


Sharpe, 


4 The specimens from Chilpancingo prove upon 
examination to be Polzoptila caerulea nelsoni. 


criticism; measure- . 


Spr. 15, 1944 


Guerrero; Sierra Santo Domingo, Te- 
huantepec, and Salina Cruz, Oaxaca).— 
Blake and Hanson, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. 
Hist., Zool. ser. 22: 542. 1942 (Apatzing4dn, 
Michoacan). 


Type.—U.S.N.M. 54441; adult male; Quio- 
tepec, District of Cuicatlan, Oaxaca; August 8, 
1868; Francis Sumichrast, original number 12. 

Characters.—Agrees with other races of Poli- 
optila albiloris in having the cap of the male 
constantly black after the postjuvenal molt; 
loral and superciliary regions of male entirely 
black in breeding plumage; loral and super- 
ciliary regions of both sexes largely white in 
winter but with a dark spot (black in male, 
dusky in female) at anterior corner of eye and 
with a broad dark postocular stripe. 

Differs from other subspecies of Poloptila 
albtloris in having the wing and especially the 
tail longer; the tail always longer than the wing. 
Differs further from P. albiloris albiventris in 
darker dorsal and ventral coloration. 

Range.—Southern Mexico in the interior and 
in the Pacific lowlands, from Nayarit (Santiago 
and San Blas), Michoacdn, (Apatzingdn), 
Guerrero (Coyuca, Acapulco, Tierra Colorada, 
and Iguala), Oaxaca (Quiotepec, Cuicatldn, 
Puerto Angel, Tehuantepec, Huilotepec, Salina 
Cruz, Chivela, Sierra Santo Domingo, Santa 
Efigenia, and Tapanatepec), to Chiapas (Ar- 
riaga, Tonalé, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, San Barto- 
lomé, San Vicente, and Chicomuselo). 

Remarks.—The characters of this form are 
best developed in the District of Cuicatlan, 
northwestern Oaxaca. Whether its range is con- 
tinuous from that district across to the Pacific 
coast is at present unknown. Specimens from 
the coast, from Acapulco to Puerto Angel, are 
slightly atypical. Those from the Grand Valley 
of Chiapas, while still less typical, are yet closer 
to the Oaxaca birds than they are to Central 
American specimens. Birds from the Isthmus 
of Tehuantepec and the Pacific coast of west- 
ern Chiapas, on the other hand, resemble bairdi 
at least as much as they do vanrossemi. Never- 
theless, in view of the hiatus in the range of the 
species along the Pacific coast between the 
isthmus and El Salvador, I have thought it ex- 
pedient to refer the whole Mexican colony to 
vanrossemt. 

Zimmer suspected the existence of a long- 
tailed Mexican subspecies, although the only 
specimens which he was able to examine were 


BRODKORB: THE SUBSPECIES OF POLIOPTILA ALBILORIS 


313 


from the intergrading population of the Isth- 
mus of Tehuantepec. 

Specimens examined.—Guerrero (Acapulco, 
3). Oaxaca (Quiotepec, 1, type; Cuicatlan, 3; 
Puerto Angel, 1; Chivela, 3; Tehuantepec, 4; 
Huilotepec, 2; Santa Efigenia, 2; Tapanatepec, 
1). Chiapas (Arriaga, 4; Tonalé, 9; Tuxtla 
Gutiérrez and vicinity, 11; San Bartolomé, 2; 
San Vicente, 1; Chicomuselo, 2). Total, 49. 


Polioptila albiloris albiventris Lawrence 


Polioptila albiventris Lawrence, Ann. New York 
Acad. Sci. 3: 273. 1885 (Temax, Yucatan; 
original description).—Ridgway, Man. North 
Amer. Birds, p. 569. 1887 (Yucatdn; charac- 
ters).—Stone, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel- 
phia, 1890: 211 (Progreso, Yucatdén).—Hell- 
mayr, Tierreich, pt. 18: 24, 1903 (Yucatan).— 
Ridgway, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 3: 729. 
1904 (Temax and Progreso; characters; meas- 
urements; bibliography). 

Polioptila nigriceps albiventris Hellmayr, in 
Wytsman, Genera avium, pt. 17: 16. 1911 
(Yucatan). 

Polioptila bilineata albiventris Griscom, Amer. 
Mus. Nov., No. 414: 7. 1930 (outer third of 
Yucatdn Peninsula; criticism). 

Polioptila plumbea albiventris Hellmayr, 
Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 
13, pt. 7: 503. 1934 (Temax, Mérida, Pro- 

~greso, and Cozumel Island; criticism; 
characters). 

Polioptila albiloris albiveniris Zimmer, Amer. 
Mus. Nov., No. 1168: 2, 6. 1942 (Temax; 
criticism; type in American Museum). 

Polioptila bilineata [nec Bonaparte] Boucard, 
Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1883: 4389 (Progreso). 
—Salvin, Ibis, ser. 5, 6: 246. 1888 (Cozumel 
Island). 

Polioptila nigriceps [nec Baird] Sharpe, Cat. Birds 
Brit. Mus. 10: 447, part. 1885 (Mérida, Yuca- 
tan). 


Characters.—Paler on dorsal and ventral sur- 
faces than any of the other subspecies of 
Polioptila albiloris. Agrees with vanrossemt in 
always having the tail longer than the wing, but 
differs in having the wing and especially the 
tail of lesser dimensions. 

Range.—Northern Yucatén (Progreso, Te- 
max, and Mérida). Cozumel Island?. 

Specimens examined.—Yueatén (Progreso, 
12). 


Polioptila albiloris albiloris Sclater and Salvin 


Polioptila albiloris Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. 
Soc. London, 1860: 298 (original description; 
Motagua Valley, Guatemala).—Salvin and 
Sclater, Ibis 2: 397. 1860 (Choacus [ = Chuacts], 
Guatemala; type locality).—Owen, Ibis 3: 61. 


314 


pl. 2, fig. 3. 1861 (Choacus; description of nest 
and eggs).—Gray, Hand-list 1: 237. 1869 
(Guatemala).—Sclater and Salvin, Nomencla- 
tor Avium Neotrop., p. 4. 1873.—Salvin and 
Godman, Aves, Biol. Centrali-Amer. 1: 53, pl. 
5, figs. 1, 2. 1879 (Chuactis).—Ridgway, Proc. 
U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 387, part. 1882 (Guate- 
mala).—Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 10: 454, 
part. 1885 (Chuactis; types in British Museum; 
description; bibliography).—Ridgway, Man. 
North Amer. Birds, p. 569, part. 1887 (Guate- 
mala).—Herrera, Naturaleza, ser. 2, 3: 196, 
part. 1899 (Guatemala).—Hellmayr, Nov. 
Zool. 7: 536, in text. 1900 (criticism).—Sharpe, 
Hand-list 3: 242, part. 1901 (Guatemala).— 
Hellmayr, Tierreich, pt. 18: 28, part. 1903 
(Guatemala).—Ridgway, U. S. Nat. Mus. 
Bull. 50, pt. 3: 725, part. 1904 (Chuacts; 
bibliography).—Dearborn, Publ. Field Mus. 
Nat. Hist., orn. ser., 1: 186. 1907 (E. Rancho 
and Gualan, Guatemala). 

Polioptila albiloris albiloris Hellmayr, in 
Wytsman, Genera Avium, pt. 17: 16, part. 
1911 (Chuacts).—Zimmer, Amer. Mus. 
Nov., No. 1168: 1, 2, 6, part. 1942 (Pro- 
greso, Guatemala; criticism; measure- 
ments). ; 

Poltoptila bilineata albiloris Griscom, Amer. 
Mus. Nov., No. 414: 7, part. 1930 (Mota- 
gua Valley, from Progreso to QGualdn, 
Guatemala; criticism; reduces nigriceps, 
restrica, and bairdi to synonymy).—van 
Rossem, Auk 48: 34, part. 1931 (interior 
Guatemala; criticism; measurements; sea- 
sonal changes).—Griscom, Bull. Amer. 
Mus. Nat. Hist. 64: 288. 1932 (Progreso, 


DISTRIBUTION OF POLIOPTILA 
IN MIDDLE AMERICA 


Pp. ALBILORIS 
P. NIGRICEPS 
P. CAERULEA 
P. PLUMBEA 
son, (000 METER CONTOUR 


(00 50 0O 100 200 400 
EEE SS ES 
KILOMETERS 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


Guatemala).—Carriker and de Schauensee, 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 87: 439. 
1935 (Gualdn, [San Pablo near] Zacapa, El 
Rancho, and Marajuma, Guatemala).— 
Dickey and van Rossem, Publ. Field Mus. 
Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 23: 462, in text, part. 
1938 (Atlantic drainage of northern Cen- 
tral America; criticism). 

Polioptila plumbea albiloris Hellmayr, Publ. 
Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 13, pt. 7: 
504, part. 1934 (Chuacts, El Rancho, and 
Gualdn; bibliography). 

Polioptila bilineata [nec Bonaparte] Stone, Proc. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 84: 331. 1932 
(Cantarranas, Honduras). 

Polioptila bilineata bairdi [nec Ridgway] Dickey 
and van Rossem, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., 
zool. ser., 23: 461, part. 1938 (Lake Guija and 
San José del Sacare, El Salvador). 


Characters.—Differs from Polioptila albiloris 
albwentris in darker dorsal and ventral colora- 
tion and in having the tail but little if any 
longer than wing (tail usually shorter than 
wing). Differs from Polioptila albiloris vanros- 
semi in having a shorter wing and much shorter 
tail. 

Range.—Motagua Valley of Guatemala 
(Chuactis, Marajuma, Progreso, Ei Rancho, 
San Pablo, and Gualdn), the interior of El 
Salvador (Laguna Guija and San José del 
Sacare), and the interior of Honduras (Monte 
Redondo, Comayaguela, Cerro Cantoral, San 


Sept. 15, 1944 


Lorenzo, Montafia Vasquez, Hatillo, Canta- 
rranas, and La Flor Archaga). 

Specimens examined.—Guatemala (Gualan, 
5: San Pablo, 1; El Rancho, 9; Progreso, 4; 
Marajuma, 1). El Salvador (Lake Guija, 3; 
San José del Sacare, 1). Honduras (Monte 
Redondo, 8; Comayaguela, 2; La Flor Archaga, 
5; San Lorenzo, 3; Hatillo, 2; Montafia Vas- 
quez, 1; Cerro Cantoral, 1). Total 46. 


Polioptila albiloris bairdi Ridgway 


Polioptila bairdi Ridgway, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash- 
ington 16: 110. Sept. 30, 1903 (original de- 
scription; San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua, type in 
U. S. National Museum; Costa Rica); U. S. 
Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 3: 726. 1904 (Realejo, 
Grenada, Sucuy4, and San Juan del Sur, Nic- 
aragua; Liberia, Voledn de Miravalles, and 
Cartago [?], Costa Rica; description; measure- 
ments; bibliography).—Carriker, Ann. Car- 
negie Mus. 6: 751. 1910 (Bagaces, Miravalles, 
Bebedero, and Ciruelas, Costa Rica). 

Polioptila bilineata bairdi van Rossem, Auk 
48: 35, part. 1931 (Costa Rica, Nicaragua, 
and El Salvador; criticism; characters; 
measurements; seasonal changes).—Dick- 
ey and van Rossem, Publ. Field Mus. Nat. 
Hist., zool. ser., 23: 461, part. 1938 (Lake 
Olomega, Rio San Miguel, Voledn de San 
Miguel, La Unién, Volcdn de Conchagua, 
Rio Goascorén, Divisadero, Puerto del 


Triunfo, Zapotitdn [?], Barra de Santiago ~ 


[?], and Colima [?], El Salvador; northwest- 
ern Costa Rica; criticism; plumages; color 
of soft. parts; habits; food). 

Polioptila plumbea bairdi Hellmayr, Publ. 
Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 13, pt. 7: 
505, part. 1934 (La Unién, El Salvador; 
Nicaragua; Bebedero, Bagaces, Las Cajias, 
and Miravalles, Costa Rica; criticism; 
bibliography). 

Polioptila albiloris [nec Sclater and Salvin] Baird, 
Review Amer. Birds, p. 70. 1864 (Grenada and 
Realejo, Nicaragua; west coast of Central 
America).—Ridgway, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 
5: 387, part. 1882 (Realejo, Nicaragua; criti- 
cism).—Nutting, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 6: 
373. 1883 (San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua).— 
Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 10: 454, part. 
1885 (La Unién, El Salvador).—Ridgway, 
Man. North Amer. Birds, p. 569, part. 1887 
(Salvador; Nicaragua).—Zeledén, Anal. Mus. 
Nac. Costa Rica 1: 105. 1887 (Liberia and 
Cartago [?], Costa Rica).—Herrera, Natura- 
leza, ser. 2, 3: 196, part. 1899 (Nicaragua).— 
Hellmayr, Tierreich, pt. 18: 28, part. 1903 
(Nicaragua; Miravalles, Costa Rica). 

Polioptila bilineata albiloris Griscom, Amer. 
Mus. Nov., No. 414: 7, part. 1980 (north- 
west Costa Rica; western Nicaragua; criti- 
cism). 

Polioptila albiloris albiloris Zimmer, Amer. 


BRODKORB: THE SUBSPECIES OF POLIOPTILA ALBILORIS 


315 


Mus. Nov., No. 1168::1, 2, 6, part. 1942 
(Matagalpa, Leén, Calabasas, Volcdn de 
Chinandega, 4 miles north of Chinandega, 
San Rafael del Norte, Corinto, and Savana 
Grande, Nicaragua; Bebedero, Las Cafias, 
and Bagaces, Costa Rica; criticism; meas- 
urements). 

Polioptila bilineata [nec Bonaparte] Salvin and 
Godman, Aves, Biol. Centrali-Amer. 1: 52, 
part. 1879 (La Uni6én, E. Salvador).—Nutting, 
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 6: 380, part. 1883 
(Sucuyd, Nicaragua).—Sharpe, Handlist 3: 
242, part. 1901 (Central America). 

Polioptila nigriceps [nec Baird] Salvin and God- 
man, Aves, Biol. Centrali-Amer. 1: 52, part. 
1879 (La Unién, El Salvador).—Sharpe, Cat. 
Birds Brit. Mus. 10: 447, part. 1885 (La 
Unién).—Herrera, Naturaleza, ser. 2, 3: 196, 
part. 1899 (San Salvador).—Sharpe, Hand-list 
3: 241, part. 1901 (Salvador).—Ridgway, U. 8. 
Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 3: 729, part. 1904 (Pa- 
cific coast of Central America). 

Polioptila nigriceps mnigriceps Hellmayr, 
Tierreich, pt. 18: 25, part. 1903 (San Salva- 
dor; Bebedero, Costa Rica); in Wytsman, 
Genera Avium, pt. 17: 17, part. 1911 
(Salvador). 

Polioptila leucogastra [nec Wied] Ridgway, Proc. 
U.S. Nat. Mus. 5: 387, 388, part. 1882 (Gre- 
nada, Nicaragua). 

Poltoptila nigriceps restricta [nec Brewster] Hell- 
mayr, Nov. Zool. 7: 536-538. 1900 ([Bebedero,] 
Costa Rica). 

Polioptila restrica Sharpe, Hand-list 3: 241, 
part. 1901 (Costa Rica?). . 


Taterior Salvador Coast Hicare, 
Guatemala Bondures : EL Salvador Costa Rica 
l2¢ u¢é l2¢ 3¢ 


Fig. 2.—Wing length plus tail length (mm.) in 
Polioptila albiloris albiloris and P. a. bairdi. Hach 
Square represents one specimen. 


316 


Polioptila superciliaris superciliaris [nec Law- 
rence] Ridgway, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, pt. 
3: 727, part. 1904 (La Unidn, El Salvador). - 

Polioptila (2?) Underwood, Ibis, ser. 7, 
2: 432. 1895 (Miravalles, Bebedero, and 
Bagaces, Costa Rica). 


Characters.—Differs from Polroptila albiloris 
albiloris only in slightly longer wing and tail. 

Range.—Pacific lowlands of eastern El Sal- 
vador (west to the Rio Lempa), Nicaragua, and 
northwestern Costa Rica (east to the Rfo 
Tenorio). 

Remarks.—Zimmer synonymized bairdi with 
albiloris, since he was unable to find any stable 
character by which to separate it. Coastal birds 
tend to have both the wing and the tail longer 
than those albiloris from the interior, but only 
slightly more than half of my specimens can be 
determined by using the measurements of the 
wing and tail separately. By adding the indi- 
vidual wing and tail measurements, however, a 
clear division results. All the males from the 
coast of El Salvador have a wing-plus-tail 
measurement of 98.5 mm. or more, whereas 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 9 


that measurement in albiloris from the Mo- 
tagua Valley of Guatemala is 98.5 mm. or less. 
Birds from interior El Salvador and interior 
Honduras are somewhat intermediate, but are 
closer to albiloris than to the coastal race. 

The single Nicaraguan specimen examined 
(the type of baird:) and the few skins from 
Costa Rica seem to agree fairly well with those 
from the coast of El Salvador, but the series is 
not ample enough to demonstrate this conclu- 
sively. Examination of larger series from south- 
ern Nicaragua and from Costa Rica, is desir- 
able, since the possibility exists that Polioptila 
albiloris albiloris may cross over to the Pacific 
side in that region, as several other Caribbean 
forms do. In that event the name bairdi would 
become a synonym of albiloris, and the coastal 
birds of El Salvador would need another name. 

Specimens examined.—El Salvador (Puerto 
del Triunfo, 1; Voleén de San Miguel, 1; Rio 
San Migual, 5; Divisadero, 9; Laguna Olomega, 
6; Voleén de Conchagua, 2; Rio Goascordén, 
1). Nicaragua (San Juan del Sur, 1, type). 
Costa Rica (Punta Piedra, 5). Total, 31. 


TasBLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS (IN MM.) OF POLIOPTILA ALBILORIS 


Number Locality Wing Tail Culmen Wing plus tail 
30 District Cuicatl4n, Oaxaca...| 48.5-52 (50.0) | 52.5-57.5 (54.7) | 12.5-13 (12.8) | 101 -109.5 (104.7) 
39° | Acapulco to Puerto Angel....| 46 -50 (48.5) | 47.5-53.5 (50.5) | 18.5-14 (13.8) 93 .5-103 (99.0) 

10¢ Grand Valley, Chiapas...... 48 -52 (50.0) | 48.5-53 (51.4) 18 -14 (13.5) 96.5-105 (101.4) 
6c Isthmus of Tehuantepec..... 47 .5-50.5 (49.4) | 47 -50.5 (48.6) | 13 -14 (18.4) 95.5-101 (98.0) 
90 District Tonal4, Chiapas....| 47 -51 (49.1) | 48 -51.5 (49.8) | 13.5-15 (14.4) 97 -101 (98.6) 

120 Motagua Valley, Guatemala.| 47.5-49.5 (48.6) | 44.5-49.5 (47.5) | 13.5-14 (13.8) 92.5- 98.5 (96.1) 

18¢ Interior Salvador, Honduras.| 48 —51 (49.3) | 44.5-50 (48.0) 12.8-15 (13.5) 93 -100.5 (97.3) 

1440 Coast of El Salvador........ 49 -51 (50.1) | 48.5~-51 (49.7) | 12.5-14.5 (13.9) 98 ~-102 (99.8) 
4c Nicaragua, Costa Rica...... 49.5-52.5 (50.7) | 46.5-48.5 (47.6) | 14 -14.5 (14.2) 97 .5-101 (98.7) 
8c Vicatamy secu nrye ee rnc 44.5-48 (46.8) | 45.5-50.5 (48.6) | 12 -14 (13.1) 90 -98 (95.4) 
19 District Cuicatl4n, Oaxaca... 49 51.5 2 100.5 
19 Acapulco, Guerrero......... 46 48.5 12.5 94.5 
6 2 Grand Valley, Chiapas...... 46 -49.5 (47.8) | 47.5-50.5 (49.3) | 13 -14 (138.5) 93 .5-— 99 (97.1) 
62 Isthmus of Tehuantepec..... 45.5-49 (47.6) | 47 -50 (48.2) | 12.5-13.5 (13.1) 93 - 98.5 (95.6) 
49 District Tonal4, Chiapas....| 46 -49 (47.3) | 47 -51.5 (48.4) | 18.5-14.5 (14.1) 93.5-100.5 (95.6) 
Fe) Motagua Valley, Guatemala.| 45.5-49 (47.1) | 45.5-48 (46.6) | 13.5-14 (13.6) 91.5- 95 (93 .6) 
7@ Interior Hondunask. a. 4.6 45.5-51 (47.7) | 45 -48.5 (46.3) | 12 -14.5 (13.3) 91-97 (94.0) 

10 9 Coast of El Salvador........ 47 -—52.5 (48.2) | 44.5-50 (47.7) | 18 -14 (13.4) 91.5-102.5 (95.9) 
22 Costashicar mer ess ee 47 -48.5 (47.8) | 46.5-47.5 (47.0) | 18 -14.5 (13.8) 94 .5-95 (94.8) 
49 WAICAPAM: cc Wit. chickens ore prcne 45.5-47.5 (46.3) | 48.5-49 (48.8) | 12.8-13.5 (13.2) 94 —- 96 (95.0) 

TABLE 2.—PROPORTIONS (PERCENT) IN POLIOPTILA ALBILORIS 

Number Locality Wing /Tail Culmen/Tail 

49°9 District) Curcatlany Oaxacan ici tonierete rs 90.4— 95.1 (92.4) 22.6-24.8 (23.7) 

43°99 Acapuleo toebuerto, Angel... rc. eee ee 92.5- 99.0 (95.8) - 25.8-28.4 (27.0) 
160° 2 GrandsVialleya Chiapassseein eee aie ilercir rele 92.1-100.0 (97.1) 25.0-28.3 (26.7) 
120° 9 Isthmus of Tehuantepec. .....--..25..---+4--- 95.8-106.4 (100.2) 26.7-28.1 (27.3) 
130° Q Districh:honala Chiapas. suens eee aeons 93 .2-103.1 (98.0) 27 .0-33.3 (29.3) 
200° 9 Motagua Valley, Guatemala................... 97.0-107.9 (101.9) 27.3-31.5 (29.3) 
250 2 Interior Salvador, Honduras. w................-. 96.0-110.9 (102.9) 26.1-32.3 (28.3) 
240° 9 Coastiof Mi salvadors. 24 oe co nete erator erin 96.0-105.6 (100.9) 25.0-30.3 (28.0) 

60°92 INicaracua Costa ican 6. io eke ene bt or 98.9-108.2 (104.0) 27.4-31.2 (29.7) 
120° 9 PYALCATAM § screw hiss Ree Se ete = Cee ES secre errr tear 92.9- 98.9 (97.5) 24.0-28.6 (26.9) 


Awrnnorotocy.—The De De Lana Bsoeiion nd ee 


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- 


JOURNAL 
OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 34 


ANTHROPOLOGY.—Filed Indian teeth from Illinois. 


OcTOBER 15, 1944 


No. 10 


T. D. Stewart, U. S. 


National Museum, and P. F. Tirrerineton, St. Louis, Mo. 


Evidence that tooth mutilation was prac- 
ticed by the American Indians has been 
found mainly in parts of Middle America 
and in Ecuador in South America. Inlay 
was practiced in both of these areas, but 
filing seems to have been restricted chiefly 
to Middle America (Linné, 1940). With the 
importation of Negroes in historic times the 
African custom of chipping the teeth was 
superimposed to some extent upon the 
native practice and certainly was intro- 
duced into parts of Middle and South 
America formerly free from any form of 

dental mutilation (Stewart, 1942). 
North of Mexico there has been hereto- 
fore no very certain evidence for, and much 
negative evidence against, the existence of 

the custom. Although thousands of skulls 
* from North America have been the subject 
of general study, only one, so far as we can 
discover, has been described in print as 
having filed teeth. This exceptional speci- 
men is from the Pueblo region of Arizona. 
The description of it is contained in a foot- 
note in which Saville (1913, p. 378) defends 
a statement attributed to him by Lasch 
(1901) to the effect that the custom could 
be traced from the Pueblo region to south- 
ern Central America: ‘‘Regarding the 
Pueblo region, I made the statement after 
having photographed a skull found by Dr. 
Fewkes at Sikyatki, Arizona, a study of 
which seems to me clearly to indicate single 
serrations in at least three of the upper 
incisors and in the lower right lateral in- 
cisor.”’ Unfortunately, Saville did not re- 
produce the photograph of these teeth, and 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
ae onan Institution. Received June 9, 


it cannot now be located. The skull, cata- 
logued in the U. S. National Museum as 
no. 156319,? in the meantime has been sent 
in exchange to the Museum of South Aus- 
tralia. For the present, therefore, all that 
can be said is that Saville’s description of 
the mutilation pattern in this specimen is 
too vague to permit identification with any 
of those from Middle America with which 
we are familiar. 

In spite of this seeming rarity of dental 
mutilation in North America, many anthro- 
pologists probably will not be surprised to 
learn that undoubted examples now have 
been found in the Mississippi Valley, be- 
cause they have become increasingly aware 
of indications of late prehistoric contact be- 
tween our Southeast and Mexico (cf. Phil- 
lips, 1940). The new specimens are four in 
number and come from a small area within 
a radius of 40 miles of St. Louis, Mo. These 
specimens will be described not in the order 
of their recovery but in the order in which 
the mutilation was recognized. 


DESCRIPTION 


Jersey County bluff skeleton —The first 
specimen wasexcavatedbyoneofus(P.F.T.) 
in 1935 in a Jersey County bluff mound 
located 18 miles above the mouth of the 
Illinois River and designated as number 12 
(Titterington, 1935; fig. on p. 11 and pl. 1, 
fig. 1). The skeleton, being the fifth en- 
countered in this mound,’ was designated 
Jy°12-5. It was discovered extended on the 
back at a depth of 2 feet, and 43 feet from 

2 The identification of the skull is based on a 
note made by Hrdlitka years ago when he meas- 
ured it. ‘Filing of ail incisors.” 


3 A disturbed area contained fragmentary bones 
of at least three additional individuals. 


317 


318 


the north end of the mound. No artifacts 
accompanied this burial, but mussel shell 
spoons, bone awls (split tibia of deer, leg 
bone of turkey), and a corner notched white 
flint knife were found with the other burials. 
From the time of excavation until the den- 
tal mutilation was recognized recently by 
one of us (IT. D. 8.) there seemed to be 
nothing, except perhaps burial position and 
light bone color, to distinguish this individ- 
ual from others of the same and adjacent 
mounds. Extended burials are rather un- 
common in these mounds, having been ob- 
served in only 5 per cent of 852 burials 
(Titterington, 1943). Curiously, all but one 
of the five burials in mound 12 were found 
lying on the back or side, either fully ex- 
tended or with the knees slightly flexed. 
The lighter color and perhaps softer texture 
of skeleton no. 5 are of doubtful significance 
and under ordinary circumstances would 
not have merited attention; they are such 
as are sometimes seen resulting from pecu- 
liarities in soil and drainage. 

This individual is a male and about 25 
years of age. The age can be fixed fairly 
closely by the fact that the epiphyses of the 
iliac crest and ischial tuberosity are united, 
whereas the proximal epiphysis of the 
clavicle is still ununited. Also, the symphy- 
sis Shows the characteristic billowing of this 
age. 7 

The tooth mutilation exhibited by this 
young male (Fig. 1, A) consists of six A- 
shaped grooves or notches: two in the oc- 
clusal edge of each upper median incisor 
and one in each upper lateral incisor. The 
remaining upper teeth and all the lower 
teeth are not involved. The notches are not 
very deep but originally may have been 
deeper because about a millimeter of the 
occlusal edge has disappeared through at- 
trition. 

In most skull measurements no. 5 is 
above the average of the Jersey County 
bluff group, and yet well within the group 
range (57 males). The group as a whole, in- 


cluding this specimen, is rather low in. 


variability. The ratios between the skull 
measurements, likewise within the group 
range, are reasonably close to the group 
averages, aS Shown by the following figures: 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 34, No. 10 


Index No. & Male Average Range 
Cranial Wot 75.5 (57) 69.6- 81.6 
Mean height 89.9 88.5 (55) 82.0- 95.5 
Upper facial 52.8 54.2 (55) 46.4— 61.9 
Orbital 94.9 87.7 (57) 72.5-— 98.6 
Nasal 47.2 49.1 (57) 42.4— 56.9 
External alv. 130.2 122.5 (46) 110.2-134.0 


The fact that no. 5 has a rounder orbit and 
shorter palate is probably not significant 
in the sense of a true group difference. 
Cahokia isolated tooth.The single median 
incisor next to be described (Fig. 1, F, G) 
was picked up either by P. F. Titterington 
or by the late M. A. Wurtheimer in October, 
1925, on the surface of a village site three- 
fourths of a mile west of Monk’s Mound 
(Cahokia) in East St. Louis, Ill. When we 
examined this tooth together in 1943, but 
before the mutilation in the foregoing speci- 
men was recognized, we did not appreciate 
its full significance. It was difficult at that 
time to make the correct interpretation 
owing to several factors that will be de- 
scribed. Much of the enamel had been lost 
postmortem, and in addition there had been 
extensive antemortem wear of the occlusal 
edge. These alterations in the enamel so 
changed the appearance of the tooth that 
we were uncertain whether it was an incisor 
or canine, human or animal. Moreover, the 
nature of the markings on the remaining 
enamel surface also influenced our opinion. . 
These consisted of a transverse groove on 
the labial surface and four A-shaped notches 
in the occlusal edge (the outermost notches 
being incomplete now due to loss of enamel). 
As far as we know, a transverse groove has 
not been described heretofore in the West- 
ern Hemisphere.* Thus we were inclined 
earlier, upon cursory examination, to regard 
the markings on this tooth as an example 
of postextractional decoration. This inter- 
pretation was dispelled upon subsequent 
study when we decided that the tooth is 
really a human upper median incisor and 
that the markings show a polishing that 
could have been acquired only during life. 
Cahokia compound burial—In January, 
1944, one of us (P. F. T.) acquired some 
4 Dr. Gordon Willey tells us that a skull with a 
transverse groove on the labial surface of each 
median incisor was found in a Lamar culture site 


near Macon, Ga. Efforts to secure this skull for 
examination have been unsuccessful thus far. 


Oct. 15, 1944 


loose human teeth from two men, Joe Walta 
and Gregory Perino, who in the fall of 1943 
had found a compound burial, at a depth of 
3 feet, several hundred yards east of Monk’s 
Mound. The skeletal material is said to 
have been in poor condition and only the 
better preserved teeth from a few of the 
skulls were saved. Upon cleaning these teeth 
notches were observed in three, but no sig- 
nificance was attached thereto by the dis- 
coverers. The only recovered cultural ob- 
ject associated with this burial is a small, 
rough, 3-notched arrowhead. 

The three filed teeth—upper median in- 
cisors and upper right lateral incisor—were 
found upon close examination to have large 
facets of wear resulting from the rubbing 
together of the teeth at the points of their 
proximal contact. From the appearance of 
these facets it was possible to reestablish 
the original relationships of all three teeth 
(Fig. 1, D, E), and to demonstrate that 
they belonged to one individual. In the 
same way an unfiled right upper canine 
was found to articulate with the lateral 
incisor. No other teeth belonging to this 
individual could be definitely identified. 
As thus revealed, the mutilation pattern 
consists of three A-shaped notches in the 
occlusal edge of each upper median incisor 
_ and two in each (probably) lateral incisor. 
The notches are very shallow and involve 
only the enamel of the labial surface. Wear 
of the occlusal edge has reached the point 
of dentin exposure and is irregular owing to 
a slight malocclusion (rotation of median in- 
cisors). These facts suggest that the filing 
was done after attrition was well under way. 

Grindell skull.—The last example of filed 
teeth, which has come to our attention since 
the first of the year, was obtained by one 
of us (P. F. T.) from the collection of J. C. 
Grindell. In this case the whole skull was 
recovered and is known to be part of an 
extended burial, one of some 16, exposed in 
1937 by Gregory Perino at the base of a 
bluff 8 miles south of the Cahokia Mound 
group. The scanty cultural material found 
in association with these burials (barrel- 
shaped shell beads, cord-impressed grit- 
tempered sherd) are not diagnostic as to 
period. : 


STEWART AND TITTERINGTON: FILED INDIAN TEETH 


319 


The sex of this individual can not be de- 
termined with certainty from the skull 
alone. Supraorbital ridges are almost com- 
pletely absent, the orbital margins are 
sharp, and the occiput lacks muscle ridges— 
all female characters. On the other hand, 
the lower jaw is well developed and has a 
Square chin, as in a male. The sutures of 
the vault are still open and the teeth are 
only moderately worn. This indicates an 
early adult age period. 

The dental mutilation consists of three 
small A-shaped notches in the occlusal edge 
of each upper medial incisor (Fig. 1, B, C). 
The other teeth are not involved. Of the 
three notches on each of the two mutilated 
teeth, the one farthest to the right 1s largest 
and most distinct. As in the preceding cases 
only the labial surface of the enamel is 
involved. 

An indication of the physical type of this 
skull may be gained from the following in- 
dices derived from the cranial measure- 
ments and compared with the Jersey 
County bluff females: 


Grindeil Female 


OEE skull average wonge 
Cranial 79.9 75.9 (52) 69.9-— 84.3 
Mean height 84.3 88.7 (49) 83.2-— 94.7 
Upper facial 56.1 55.5 (47) 48 .5- 61.4 
Orbital 92.1 89.1 (51) 80.0-— 98.6 
Nasal 46.9 51.0 (53) 43 .1-— 60.9 
External alv. 118.2 118.7 (36) 105 .6-132.6 

DISCUSSION 


The four examples of tooth filing from 
Illinois here reported, together with the two 
other cases about which we have indirect 
knowledge—from Arizona and Georgia— 
have one thing in common: a late prehis- 
toric age. The specimens from near St. 
Louis most probably relate to the Middle 
Mississippi cultural period, “‘the last phase 
of the pre-Columbian history of the Mis- 
sissippi Valley, say roughly the interval 
between 1400 and 1700 A.D.” (Phillips, 
1940, p. 365). In general the Cahokia mound 
site belongs to this period, whereas the 
Jersey County bluff focus exhibits about 
equal numbers of Woodland and Middle 
Mississippi cultural traits (see McKern’s 
allocation in Titterington, 1943). The speci- 
men reported to have been found near 


320 


Macon, Ga., is attributed to the Lamar 
period of which Ford and Willey (1941, p. 
351) say: “This was probably well formed 
and had taken over the southeastern area, 
submerging the earlier Middle Mississippi 
culture, by 1600.” Similarly, Sikyatki in 
northern Arizona, while not yet accurately 
dated, is generally regarded as belonging to 
the Pueblo IV period, which extended from 
about 1250 to 1700 (Roberts, 1937). 

As already indicated, evidence has been 
accumulating that certain cultural traits 
attributed to the Middle Mississippi period 
seem to have been derived more or less 
directly from Mexico (Phillips, 1940). 
Since tooth mutilation is a good Middle 
American trait, the finding in Illinois of the 
first specimen described above suggested 
to one of us (T. D. 8.) that here was an 
actual bearer of this culture. How other- 
wise than by visiting a place where tooth 
mutilation was practiced could an Indian in 
these early times have learned about and 
had his own teeth filed? From this assump- 
tion it seemed logical to conclude that, since 
this individual was of the same physical 
type as the Jersey County bluff people 
among whom he was buried, he must have 
been a local Indian who had traveled as far 
south at least as Mexico. 

-The subsequent finding of three more ex- 
amples of tooth mutilation nearby changes 
this picture and indicates the danger in 
generalizing from insufficient information. 
It now seems possible that the custom was 
even more common and perhaps widespread 
in our country than we have detected. This 
being the case, we can not say that any 
one of these individuals bore the custom in 
his own teeth from Middle America, and it 
is more unlikely that all had made the trip. 

That there can be little doubt as to 
Mexico or Central America being the source 
from which our Indians derived the custom 
is Shown by the details of the mutilation. 
The same pattern of notches as exhibited 
by the Jersey County bluff specimen 
(1-2-2-1; or according to Rubin de la 
Borbolla’s classification: A-C-C-A) has been 
illustrated by Rubin de la Borbolla (1940, 
pl. 1c), Strebel (1885, pl. 8, no. 18), and 
Stewart (1941, pl. 1, D) with specimens 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 10° 


from Mexico (States of Michoac4n and 
Veracruz) and Honduras, respectively. 
Quite likely a thorough search of the litera- 
ture would reveal still other such illustra- 
ticns, for, judged from descriptions of iso- 
lated teeth, this pattern seems to have been 
used quite frequently. 

Teeth with three notches are also well 
known from Middle America (Rubin de la 
Borbolla, 1940) but their arrangement in 
patterns, such as that exhibited by the 
second Cahokia specimen (2-3-3-2, or 
C-D-D-C), does not seem to have been de- 
scribed. 

The first Cahokia specimen, which is an 
isolated tooth, and also the reported Lamar 
specimen (see footnote 4), exhibit pattern 
elements that appear to be new. In Bor- 
bolla’s summary of dental mutilations 
neither four notches in a single tooth nor a 
transverse groove is mentioned. This may 
indicate that the custom had already been 
present in this country long enough to have 
acquired variations. On the other hand it 
may mean merely that distance and a new 
setting had released the original custom 
from its habitual limitations. 

It is hoped that this report will stimulate 
others in possession of cranial collections 
from Middle Mississippi sites to look for 
further examples of this trait. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Forp, J. A., and WiLLEY, Gordon R. An in- 
terpretation of the prehistory of the eastern 
United States. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., 43: 
325-363. 1941. 

Lascu, Ricuarp. Die Verstiimmlung der 
ZLahne in Amerika und Bemerkungen zur 
Zahndeformierung im Allgemeinen. Mitth. 
anthrop. Ges. Wien 31: 18-22. 1901. 

Linnt, 8. Dental decoration in aboriginal 
America. Ethnos5 (1-2): 1-28. 1940. 

PuILuips, Pottip. Middle American influences 
on the archaeology of the southeastern 
United States. Chap. 26: 349-367, in “The 
Maya and Their Neighbors.’’ New York, 


1940. 
RoBErtTs, FRANK H.H. Jr. Archaeology in the 
Southwest. Amer. Antiq. 3: 3-33. 1937. 


RUBIN DE LA Borspouua, D. F. Types of tooth 
mutilation found in Mexico. Amer. Journ. 
Phys. Anthrop. 26: 349-365. 1940. 

SAVILLE, MarsHatt H. Precolumbian deco- 
ration of the teeth in Ecuador with some ac- 
count of the occurrence of the custom in other 


Fig. 1.—Four cases of filed Indian teeth from Illinois: A, Jersey County bluff 
skull; B and C, Grindell skull; D and E, Cahokia compound burial; F and G, 
Cahokia isolated tooth. Except for the first specimen, both labial and lingual 
views are given. Slightly enlarged. 


| 
mie 
Ba 
ee 


vas 
h 


re 


Ocr. 15, 1944 


parts of North and South America. Amer. 
Anthrop., n.s., 15: 377-394. 1913. 

STewarT, T. D. New examples of tooth mutila- 
tion from Middle America. Amer. Journ. 
Phys. Anthrop. 28: 117-124. 1941. 

—.. Persistence of the African type of tooth 
pointing in Panama. Amer. Anthrop., 
n.s., 44: 328-330. 1942. 


CAMPBELL: A SKULL FROM ARIZONA 


321 


STREBEL, Hermann. Alt-Mexiko. Archdo- 
logische Beitrage zur Kulturgeschichte seiner 
Bewohner. WUamburg and Leipzig, 1885. 

TITTERINGTON, P. F. Certain bluff mounds of 
western Jersey County, Illinois. Amer. 
Antiq. 1: 6-46. 1935. 


—. The Jersey County, Illinois, bluff fo- 


cus. Amer. Antiq. 9: 240-245. 1943. 


ANTHROPOLOGY .—The dental condition of a skull from the Sikyatki site, Ari- 


zona.) 
T. D. STEWART.) 


The deformed male skull, the teeth of 
which here are being described, is unique, 
inasmuch as it is the only known example 
of artificial tooth mutilation from the south- 
western part of the United States. This 
specimen, from the Pueblo region of Arizona 
(Sikyatki site), reached the South Aus- 
tralian Museum through exchange with the 
U.S. National Museum in 1931, and bears 
the latter’s no. 156319. 

-General.—Upper jaw and mandible intact. 


87654321/1234567. 
87654321/1234567. 


The upper left third molar appears either 
to have been lost for some time or never to 


Teeth present: 


1 Received August 1, 1944. 


T. D. CAMPBELL, South Australian Museum. 


(Communicated by 


have erupted (no X-ray confirmation made 
of this). The lower left third molar has been 
lost postmortem, the socket being quite 
apparent. 

Many of the teeth in both arches have 
lost a portion of their crown énamel, which 
has chipped off postmortem. In the upper 
first and second molars on both sides, this 
condition is fairly marked. The three lower 
right molars also have lost appreciable 
amounts of their enamel. Upper and lower 
incisors have been similarly affected. 


Caries.—The only teeth present showing 
| 6 


any indication of dental caries are ale, 


which present very small (pinhead) cavities 
on the cervical region of their distal enamel 
surface. 


Fig. 1.—Anterior view of mandible showing obvious filing on 21]; slight filing on |2 ; 
not apparent on |1. 


322 


Attrition.—Practically all the teeth pres- 
ent, except the third molars, show definite 
wear of the occlusal surface. Most of them 
approximate stage II (Broca), that is, show 
suficient wear of enamel to expose the 
cuspal eminences of the dentine. This con- 
dition of wear also definitely includes the 
incisors and cuspids, both upper and lower. 


Alveolar process margins.—There appears 
to have been some minor degree of absorp- 
tion of the peridental alveolar crest during 
life; but in places further loss has taken 
place postmortem. 


Filing of teeth.—This artificially made 
condition involves both upper and lower 
four incisors. Without other specimens with 
this form of mutilation for comparison, it is 
suggested that the filing has not been car- 
ried out to any appreciable depth unless 
attrition has reduced the original effect. 

In the case of the upper incisors the filed 


condition is obliterated to some extent on 


zh + by postmortem loss of the labial 


surface enamel. It is considered so much so 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 10 


that a photograph of these upper teeth 
would be useless. In general, it-may be said 
that the depth of filing in the form of a 
small narrow V-shaped notch (formed by 
labiolingual filing across the incisal edge) 
on all the incisors is, at the most, not more 
than 1 mm in depth. The file notches are 
evident only on the labial and lingual 
enamel, as the incisal edges have been worn 
to flat surfaces with exposed dentine show- 
ing inside the ring of enamel. This latter 
point suggests that possibly the filing was 
done well before adulthood, or before at- 
trition had obliterated the incisal edges of 
the teeth concerned. If this be so, the V 
notch was probably much deeper than seen 
on this specimen. Other examples should 
confirm this, or otherwise. 

The dental condition of this specimen 
does not present any other features of 
special interest requiring description for 
present purposes. 

Fig. 1 shows an anterior view of the man- 
dible. Filing is quite obvious on 21]; very 
slight on |2 ; on |1 not apparent. 


BOTAN Y.—Descriptions and revisions of several species of viruses in the genera 


Marmor, Fractilinea, and Galla.? 


H. H. McKinney, Bureau of Plant In- 


dustry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering. 


Several species and varieties of viruses 
infecting cereal and forage grasses are 
herein described and named. The descrip- 
tion of the wheat mosaic-rosette virus is 
emended. The description of the tobacco 
ring-spot virus is emended, and the species 
is transferred to the genus Marmor Holmes 
emend. McKinney (14). The virus inducing 
mild dark-green mosaic in tobacco is de- 
scribed and named. 

The viruses infecting cereal grasses in 
Russia and Siberia are placed in the genus 
Fractilnea McKinney (14), because they 
induce chlorotic mottling and streaking re- 
actions that are almost identical with the 
reactions induced by the grass-mosaic 
viruses, and they are transmitted by leaf- 
hoppers or by planthoppers. It is not en- 
tirely clear that the necrosis referred to by 
some writers in the U.S.S.R. is associated 
chiefly with the phloem as some writers 

1 Received April 4, 1944. 


state that there is necrosis in the paren- 
chyma. The grass mosaics occurring in the 
U.S.8.R. seem to be sufficiently distinct in 
their transmission and other characteristics 
to justify specific ranks in each case. 

The wheat-mosaic viruses reported from 
Japan seem to be very similar to the soil 
inhabiting wheat-mosaic viruses occurring 
east of the Mississippi River in the United 
States, and no attempt is made to separate 
them at present. The rosette expression has 
not been positively identified with the 
viruses occurring in Japan, but it is possible 
that none of the wheat varieties used in the 
Japanese tests carry genetic factors for the 
rosette expression. ; 

The virus inducing the wallaby-ear dis- 
ease of corn (maize) is placed in the genus 
Galla Holmes as redefined by McKinney (14). 

Each virus species is designated as a bi- 
nomial, and the description embraces only 
characteristics that are common to all the 


Ocr. 15, 1944 


recognized forms included under it. In all 
cases in which subdivisions of a species are 
recognized, the name var. typicus is given 
to the form on which the species was orig- 
inally based or which is selected as the typi- 
cal form in case the species as originally 
described included more than one form. This 
procedure is in accord with that followed by 
several students of the flowering plants, in- 
cluding Croizat (1) and Ley (6). The de- 
scription of the species may require emen- 
dation from time to time as new strains and 
closely related species are described, as it is 
not possible to foretell what characters may 
differentiate undiscovered strains. All the 
strains described are accorded the rank of 
variety. All these have been isolated with 
comparative ease from diseased plants 
growing under field culture conditions. As 
further study may indicate that some of 
these strains, or possibly some of the spe- 
cies, should be placed at higher or at lower 
levels in the scheme, the changes may be 
made in accordance with the International 
Rules of Botanical Nomenclature. 


Marmor tritici Holmes (2) emend. 


- Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum L. (T. 
vulgare Vill.), T. compactum Host, T. turgidum 
L., T. durum Desf., T. spelta L., T. timo- 
pheevt Zhuk., T. dicoccum Schrank, T. poloni- 
cum L., T. monococcum L., Hordeum vulgare L., 
Secale cereale L., and in Bromus commutatus 
Schrad., induces chlorotic streaking and mot- 
tling in varying degrees from slight to severe. 
Optimum experimental conditions for expres- 
sion of disease reactions near 15.6° C. with a 
daily photoperiod near 8 hours. Induces vacuo- 
lar cell inclusions associated with cells of the 
epidermis, mesophyll and phloem parenchyma. 
Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv., Bromus inermis 
Leyss., Avena sativa L., A. byzantina C. Koch, 
Zea mays L., Nicotiana tabacum L., Lycopersi- 
con esculentum Mill., Cucumis sativus L., and 
Phaseolus vulgaris L. are immune or highly 
resistant. 

Transmission: By inoculation with expressed 
juice, using needle pricks in the bases of small 
seedlings or by the carborundum-wiping meth- 
od, but with difficulty. In nature virus over- 
seasons in soil, more especially soils of heavy 
texture; natural infection in fall-grown winter 


MCKINNEY: DESCRIPTIONS OF VIRUSES 


323 


annuals and in certain fall-sown spring annuals 
that survive mild winters. Infection rare in 
spring-sown suscepts and in winter wheats that 
emerge in spring when sown very late in 
autumn. 

Insect vector not known, but some soil in- 
habiting vector is suspected, as no infection 
has occurred in plants grown in sterilized soil 
to which was added ample quantities of virus- 
infested plant tissue. Wheat plants grown in 
sterilized soil in containers located in infested 
areas during the entire natural growing season 
have never developed mosaic. 

Mutation: Mutation has not been proved, 
but it is suspected. However, it appears that 
interference (antagonism) between the type 
virus and its presumed strains is of a low order 
as the strains have been isolated by methods 
that would fail to isolate the mutants of other 
viruses that manifest a high degree of uni- 
lateral interference. 

Physical properties: Inactivated in 6 to 14 
days at room temperatures in leaf tissue col- 
lected fresh, clipped in short pieces and al- 
lowed to dry. Heavily infested soil was ren- 
dered noninfectious when drenched with a solu- 
tion of 1 part formalin in 49 parts of water, also 
when heated in a moist condition for 10 min- 
utes at temperatures near 60° C. and above; 
when diluted with 31 parts of noninfectious 
soil, infection in wheat was reduced from 98 
percent in the control to 5.3 percent. 


Marmor tritici var. typicum, var. nov. 


Wheat virus 1 McKinney (10); Triticum 
virus 1 Smith (20); Marmor tritict Holmes (2). 

Common name: Wheat mosaic-rosette virus. 

Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum var. 
Harvest Queen and a few other varieties of 
winter wheat, virus induces mild green mosaic, 
bud proliferation, rosetting, and dwarfing; in 
most varieties of 7’. aestivwm and in other sus- 
cepts, induces mosaic ranging from mild green 
to severe yellow types. 

It has not been possible to maintain this 
virus indefinitely in manually inoculated 
wheat plants cultured under apparently opti- 
mum conditions in chambers. The infection 
rate has gradually decreased until none ob- 
tained, and it became necessary to make new 
isolations from time to time from naturally 
infected plants in the field. 


324 


Distribution: Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, 
Virginia, North Carolina; possibly Japan. 


Marmor tritici var. fulvum, var. nov. 


Wheat virus 3 McKinney (10). 

Common name: Prairie wheat yellow-mosaic 
virus. 

Varietal name from L., fulvws, deep yellow. 


Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum var. — 


Harvest Queen and in other suscepts, induces 
yellowish-green to yellow mosaic; severe stunt- 
ing, leaf rolling, and death in highly suscepti- 
ble hosts, but no systemic necrosis or rosette. 

It has not been possible to maintain this 
virus indefinitely in manually inoculated wheat 
plants cultured under apparently optimum 
conditions in chambers. The infection rate has 
gradually decreased until none obtained, and 
it became necessary to make new isolations 
from time to time from plants infected in the 
field. 

Distribution: Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, 
Virginia, North Carolina; possibly Japan. 

References to literature: (2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 15, 
20528, 29; 30; 31/32). 


Marmor campestre, sp. nov. 


Specific name from Latin, campester, adj., 
dwelling on open plains. 

Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum L., T. 
spelta L., T. tumopheevt Zhuk., and in Hordeum 
vulgare L., induces chlorotic mottling and 
streaking; no proliferation or rosetting. Opti- 
mum conditions for expression of disease reac- 
tions near 15.6° C. with a daily photoperiod 
near 8 hours, induces vesicular cell inclusions. 
Avena sata L., Bromus inermis Leyss., Agro- 
pyron repens (L.) Beauv., Zea mays L., Nico- 
tiana tabacum L., Lycopersicon esculentum 
Mill., Cucumis sativus L., and Phaseolus vul- 
garis L., are immune or highly resistant. 

Transmission: By inoculation with expressed 
juice, using needle pricks in the bases of small 
seedlings or by the carborundum-wiping meth- 
od, but with difficulty; overseasoning in soil not 
known; no insect vectors known. © 

Mutation: Mutation has not been proved, 
but it is suspected. However, it appears that 
interference (antagonism) between the type 
virus and its presumed strains is of a low order 
as the strains have been isolated by methods 
that would fail to isolate the mutants of other 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 34, No. 10 


viruses that manifest a high degree of inter- 


ference. 
Physical properties: Inactivated in about 7 


months in leaf tissue at temperatures near 
—17° C. 


Marmor campestre var. typicum, var. nov. 


Wheat virus 4 McKinney (10). 

Common name: Plain’s wheat green-mosaic 
virus. 

Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum vars. 
Harvest Queen and Turkey, induces light-green 
mosaic and stunting. 

It has not been possible to maintain this 
virus indefinitely in manually inoculated wheat 
plants cultured under apparently optimum con- 
ditions in chambers. The infection rate has 
gradually decreased until no infection occurred, 
and it became necessary to make new isolations 
from time to time from plants infected in the 
field. 

Distribution: Riley County, Kansas. 


Marmor campestre var. galbinum, var. nov. 


Wheat virus 5 McKinney (10). 

Common name: Plain’s wheat yellow-mosaic 
virus. 

Varietal name from Latin, galbinus, adj., 
yellowish green, yellowish. 

Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum vars. 
Harvest Queen and Turkey, induces severe yel- 
low mosaic, sometimes yellow streaking, stunt- 
ing, and sometimes killing. 

This virus has been maintained in manually 
inoculated plants without difficulty under opti- 
mum conditions, but not under the high- 
temperature conditions obtaining during the 
summer period. 

Distribution: Riley County, Kansas. 

Reference to literature: (10). 


Marmor virgatum, sp. nov. 


Specific name from Latin, virgatus, adj., 
striped. 
Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum L., T. 


-timopheevi Zhuk., T. turgidum L., T. durum 


Desf., T. spelta L., T. dicoccwm Schrank, T. 
polonicum L., T. monococcum L., Hordeum vul- 
gare L., Avena byzantina C. Koch, A. sativa L., 
A. sativa var. orientalis (Schreb.) Alef., A. brevis 
Roth, A. strigosa Schreb., and Zea mays L., 
induces chlorotic mottling and streaking (con- 


Oct. 15, 1944 


tinuous and broken); dwarfing of plant, but 
- not necrosis, proliferation, or rosetting; induces 
vesicular cell inclusions. Disease reactions ex- 
pressed over a relatively wide range of tempera- 
tures, from 15.6° C. to summer temperatures, 
apparently depending largely on the optimum 
requirements for the hosts. In Zea mays var. 
Golden Giant sugar, the incubation period 
ranges from 6 to 22 days; infection has not oc- 
curred in more than 50 percent of the seedlings 
when the best known methods were used, 1.e., 
young seedlings inoculated before the third leaf 
exceeds 2.5 cm in length, with fresh virus ob- 
tained from young infected wheat leaves. 

Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv., Poa pratensis 
L., P. compressa L., Bromus inermis Leyss., 
Secale cereale L., Nicotiana tabacum L., Cucumis 
sativus L., and Phaseolus vulgaris L., are either 
immune or very resistant. 

Transmission: By incoulation with expressed 
juice, readily in most hosts by wiping carbo- 
-rundum dusted leaves of young seedlings, but 
difficult in Zea mays; overseasoning in soil null; 
insect vectors not known: 

Physical properties: Inactivated in plant 
juice near 55° C. in 10 minutes; after about 7 
months in tissue frozen near —17° C. in dry 
tissue after 34 to 40 days at room temperature; 
dilution-end-point near 5,000 x. 


Marmor virgatum var. typicum, var. nov. 


Wheat virus 7 McKinney (10). 

Common name: Wheat yellow streak-mosaic. 

Host reaction: In Triticum aestivum var. 
Harvest Queen and Turkey, induces yellow 
streaks, continuous or broken; especially 
severe in Victoria and White Tartar varieties 
of oats, and in Hard Federation and Kawvale 
varieties of wheat. Seems to be the predominat- 
ing type in wheatfields infested with this 
species. This virus has been maintained in 
manually inoculated wheat plants cultured over 
a wide range of conditions. 

Distribution: Saline and Riley Counties, 
Kansas. 


Marmor virgatum var. viride, var. nov. 


Wheat virus 6 McKinney (10). 

Common name: Wheat green streak-mosaic 
virus. 

Varietal name from Latin, viridis, green. 

Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum var. 


MCKINNEY: DESCRIPTIONS OF VIRUSES 


325 


Harvest Queen and Turkey, induces light-green 
streaks, continuous or broken, and wide longi- 
tudinal bands; in Kawvale wheat symptoms are 
similar to those induced by var. typicum, there- 
fore, this wheat is not a good differential host 
for the two viruses. In Zea mays var. Golden 
Giant sugar, the reactions are practically in- 
distinguishable from those induced by var. 
typicum. The virus has been maintained in 
manually inoculated wheat plants cultured 
over a wide range of conditions. 

Distribution: Saline and Riley Counties, 
Kansas. 

Reference to literature: (10). 


Marmor graminis, sp. nov. 


Common name: Brome-mosaic virus. 

Host reactions: In Bromus inermis Leyss., 
Triticum aestivum L., Hordeum vulgare I.., 
Secale cereale L., Avena sativa L., var. orventalis 
Schreb., A. byzantina C. Koch, Sorghum 
vulgare Pers., Euchlaena mexicana Schrad., E. 
perennis Hitche., Zea mays L., induces light- 
green to yellow mottling and streaking; no bud 
proliferation or rosetting. In Euchlaena mexi- 
cana, certain collections of HE. perennis, and in 
Zea mays, induces local and systemic necrosis 
and death. In Zea mays var. Golden Giant 
sugar, the incubation period is from 36 to 40 
hours for local lesions, and from 52 to 70 hours 
for systemic symptoms at high summer tem- 
peratures in the greenhouse. All seedlings be- 
come infected and die within a few days when 
inoculation is done by the best known methods. 
Increase of natural resistance with the aging of 
the corn plants is very marked. Buchloé 
dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm., Eragrostis curvula 
(Schrad.) Nees., E. trichodes (Nutt.) Nash, and 
Oryzopsis hymenoides (Roem. and Schult.) 
Ricker, are “symptomless” carriers at tem- 
peratures near 21° C. during the winter. In 
Phaseolus vulgaris L., var. Scotia, virus induces 
small inconspicuous brown local lesions; in 
Cucumis sativus L., var. Early White Spine, and 
in Nicotiana tabacum L., var. Samsun(Turkish), 
induces local faintly chlorotic spots on the 
wiped cotyledons and leaves respectively, and 
there is a marked increase of virus in each host. 
This virus has a wide host range, especially 
among the grasses, and it is easily maintained 
in pure culture over a wide range of conditions. 

Saccharum officinarum L., var. Louisiana 


326 


Purple, Oryza sativa L., and Phaseolus lunatus 
L., vars. Henderson Bush lima and Jackson 
Wonder lima are either immune or highly re- 
sistant. 

Cellular pathology apparently unlike that 
induced by other viruses studied in cereal hosts. 
In unstained, living epidermal cells the inclu- 
sions are irregularly shaped, transparent, or 
translucent masses, usually located in the ends 
of the cells. 

Transmission: By inoculation with expressed 
juice from diseased plants, readily by wiping on 
carborundum-dusted leaves of small seedlings; 
difficult in older plants. 

Physical properties: Inactivated in 10 min- 
utes at temperatures between 79 and 80° C. in 
juice from infected corn seedlings, after 12 
months in dry leaves of Bromus inermis at room 
temperature; after 14 months at temperatures 
near —17° C. in juice from B. inermis. Dilu- 
tion-end-point as high as 100,000 to 300,000 x, 
using juice from B. inermis and diluting with 
distilled water. 

Distribution: Manhattan, Kansas. 

Reference to literature: (13). 


Marmor agropyri, sp. nov. 


Host reactions: In Agropyron repens (L.) 
Beauv. and in Triticum aestivum L., induces 
chlorotic mottling; no bud proliferation or 
rosetting. Optimum experimental conditions 
for expression of disease reactions near 15.6° C. 
with a daily photoperiod near 8 hours. Induces 
granular cell inclusions in epidermal cells occa- 
sionally. 

Transmission: By inoculation with expressed 
juice, using needle pricks in bases of small 
seedlings or by the carborundum-wiping meth- 
od, but with difficulty. Virus overwinters in the 
rhizomes. 

Mutation: Suspected, but interference seems 
to be of a low order, if it occurs. 


Marmor agropyri var. typicum, var. nov. 


Wheat virus 2 McKinney (10). 

Common name: Agropyron green-mosaic 
virus. 

Host reactions: In Agropyron repens and 
Triticum aestivum var. Harvest Queen, induces 
mild-green mosaic that is masked during the 
summer. } 

Distribution: Arlington County, Virginia. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 10 


Marmor agropyri var. flavum, var. nov. 

Common name: Agropyron yellow-mosaic 
virus. | | 

Varietal name Latin, flavus, golden-yellow. 

Host reactions: In Agropyron repens and 
Triticum aestivum var. Harvest Queen, induces 
yellow mosaic that is very mild during the 
summer, but not masked. 

Distribution: Arlington County, Virginia. 
Coincident with var. typicum, but in separate 
colonies of the host. 

Reference to literature: (10). 


Marmor constans, sp. nov. 


Tobacco virus 12 Johnson (5); Nicotiana 
virus 6 Smith (20). | 

Common Name: Tobacco mild dark-green 
mosaic virus. 

Specific name from Latin, constans, adj., 
fixed, referring to the relatively stable nature 
of the virus with regard to mutation. 

Host reactions: In Nicotiana tabacum L., var. 
Turkish (Samsun) and other commercial vari- 
eties of tobacco, induces chlorotic-mosaic mot- 
tling that tends towards a very coarse pattern; 
in N. glauca R. Grah. (Canary Isl. Col.) pro- 
nounced chlorotic mosaic mottling. In WN. 
glutinosa L., N. rustica L., N. sylvestris Spegaz. 
Comes induces local necrotic lesions when cul- 
tured near 22° C. In Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. 
Scotia, induces small inconspicuous local necrot- 
ic lesions when cultured near 33.3° C. In cer- 
tain collections of N. tabacum from Colombia 
(derivatives from Ambalema and T.I. 448A), 
induces only occasional chlorotic spots or no 
visible reactions, this resistance coinciding 
with that against Marmor tabaci (Holmes ex 
Valleau) McKinney. Lycopersicon esculentum 
Mill., and Cucumis sativus L. are immune. In- 
terference (antagonism) between M. constans 
and M. tabaci ranges from very low or none to 
moderate, depending on the host and culture 
conditions. 

Transmission: Readily by inoculation with 
expressed juice; insect vectors not known. 

Mutation: No positive mutation has been 
observed in the hundreds of infected plants 
studied in the greenhouse, but isolates from N. 
glauca growing in the Canary Islands revealed 
what appears to be a closely related yellow 
type. 

Physical and chemical properties: Inactivated 


Oct. 15, 1944 


near 86° C. in 10 minutes in plant juices; activ- 
ity not lost completely after 12 years’ storage 
of dry tissue at room temperatures; dilution 
end point near 100,000 x; the unit paracrystals 
of the virus protein at pH 4.5, measure 1.0 to 
1.6u in length and 0.4 to 0.5u in width, being 
about one-fourth to one-half the length of those 
of Marmor tabaci in comparative tests. 

Distribution: Islands of Grand Canary and 
‘Teneriffe. 

References to literature: (5, 7, 11, 17, 20, 27). 


Marmor anularium, nom. nov. 


Tobacco virus 10 Johnson (5); Nicotiana 
virus 12 Smith (20); Annulus tabaci var. Vir- 
giniensis Holmes (2). 

Common name: Tobacco ring-spot virus. 

Specific name from Latin, anularius, adj., 
ringlike, referring to the ring spots induced in 
certain hosts. 

Host reactions: In Nicotiana tabacum L., a 
moderately resistant host, induces acute and 
chronic reactions that are unusually distinct, 
especially when infection obtains in the young 
plants. In the acute phase, the virus induces 
primary and secondary necrotic lesions and 
chlorotic ring spots, and sometimes secondary 
chlorotic-line or oak-leaf patterns. In the 
chronic phase, the virus induces no striking re- 
actions at 20° C., and above, but when culture 
temperatures are near 16° C., certain tobacco 
varieties, especially Burley types and certain 
collections from Colombia, 1.e., Ambalema and 
T.I. 448, manifest mosaic patterns in the young 
leaves. In Cucumis sativus L., var. Early White 
Spine, a very susceptible host, the virus in- 
duces primary necrotic and chlorotic spots, 
secondary chlorotic spots, and typical mosaic 
mottling which usually persists throughout the 
summer growing season. In Phaseolus vulgaris 
L., especially at high temperatures (33.3° C.), 
induces local necrotic lesions, systemic necrosis 
and death. This species has a very wide host 
range including many legumes. 

- Transmission: By inoculation with expressed 
juice, readily by wiping carborundum-dusted 
leaves of thrifty plants with concentrated fresh 
virus; through a portion of the seeds from dis- 
eased tobacco and petunia plants. Insect vec- 
tors not known. 

Physical and chemical properties: Inactivated 
near 68° C. in 10 minutes in plant juice; after 


MCKINNEY: DESCRIPTIONS OF VIRUSES 


327 


3 to 4 days in plant juice at room temperatures; 
after several months near or below freezing. 
Does not withstand drying in leaves at room 
temperature. Dilution end point in plant juice 
between 1,000 and 10,000 X; minimal diameter 
of particles about 15 my, passes the fine (W) 
Berkefeld filter. Regarded as a high molecular- 
weight protein. 

Distribution: Commercial tobacco-growing 
areas in the United States, especially in the 
Eastern States. 

References to literature: (2, 5, 12, 20). 


Fractilinea tritici, sp. nov. 


Common name: Russian wheat-mosaic virus. 

Host reactions: In Triticum aestivum L. 
(winter and spring varieties), Avena sativa L., 
A. byzantina C. Koch, A. fatua L., Hordeum 
vulgare L., Secale cereale L., induces light-green 
or yellow mottling or streaking in foliage, 
proliferation of stalks in some winter wheats 
(rosette), dwarfing of plants, little or no pro- 
liferation in the spring-grown species, great 
reduction in grain, death frequently in young 
plants, necrosis of phloem, vacuolar cell inclu- 
sions, needle-shaped protein “‘crystals”’ in cells 
when leaf sections are placed in an acid me- 
dium. 

Transmission: By the leafhopper Delto- 
cephalus striatus L. Attempts to transmit the 
virus by means of the planthopper Delphacodes 
striatella Fall. (Delphazx striatella), many other 
insects, and by inoculations with expressed 
juice met with failure. Attempts to obtain in- 
fection through the soil have met with failure. 

Distribution: Russia, east of the Ural Moun- 
tains, especially in the Voronezh district since 
about 1935; to some extent near Moscow and 
south to the Caucasus Mountains. 

References to literature: (18, 21, 33, 34, 35, 36, 
37). 


Fractilinea avenae, sp. nov. 


Common name: Siberian oat-mosaic virus 
(zakooklivanie). 

Host reactions: In Avena sativa L., A. strigosa 
Schreb., A. byzantina C. Koch, A. fatua L., and 
A. sterilis L:, induces light-green to yellow 
mottling and streaking in foliage and leaf 
sheaths; in certain species and varieties of 
Avena induces dwarfing, excessive tillering 
(rosette), floral deformations, sterility, great 


328 


reduction in grain, vacuolar cell inclusions re- 
sembling those in Marmor tritici var. typicum, 
necrosis of phloem and parenchyma in cases of 
severe mosaic reaction, vacuolar cell inclusions, 
giant protein inclusions, ‘‘erystals’”’ and fibers. 
Infection occurs in Zea mays L., Hordeum vul- 
gare L., Secale cereale L., Panicum miliaceum 
L., Oryza sativa L., and is suspected in Triticum 
aestivum L., and Bromus sp. A few individuals 
of Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth, found sus- 
ceptible, but the species seems to be very re- 
sistant. The virus was found to overwinter in 
Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv., Bromus inermis 
Leyss., Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. and 
Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv., but in the first three 
_ species there seems to be very high resistance, 
and a small virus reservoir. Setarza viridis is 
very susceptible, highly attractive to the vector 
and an important reservoir for the virus. 

Transmission: By the planthopper Delpha- 
codes striatella Fall. (Delphax striatella). At- 
tempts to transmit the virus by means of the 
leafhopper Deltocephalus striatus L. and by in- 
oculations with expressed juice have met with 
failure. Attempts to obtain infection through 
the soil have also met with failure, though early 
observers postulated the overseasoning of the 
virus in the soil. | 

Distribution: Over most of Siberia from the 
Ural Mountains, to the Pacific coast, but more 
especially in the vicinity of Omsk, since 1922. 
In Japan the virus of rice-stripe disease is also 
transmitted by Delphacodes striatella, thus sug- 
gesting that the two diseases may be caused by 
similar or identical viruses. 

References to literature: (16, 22, 23, 24, 25, 
26). 


Galla zeae, sp. nov. 


Common name: Wallaby-ear disease of corn 
(maize). 

Host reactions: In Zea mays L., induces, in 
young plants, small swellings on secondary 
veins on undersides of top leaves, suggesting 
the galls associated with the Fiji disease of 
sugarcane, veins swelling rapidly from the tip 
to base of the leaf blade; inward rolling of 
leaves as in drought; green color accentuated, 
dwarfing of plant and all of its organs. Older 
plants give mild reactions. 

Transmission: By the leafhopper Cicadula 

bimaculata Evans. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 10 


Distribution: Southeastern Queensland, Aus- 
tralia. 
Reference to literature: (19). 


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wheat. Relation between the development 
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491-501, 847-854. 19387. In Japanese. 
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(4) Jounson, Fouxn. Heat inactwation of 
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(6) Ley, ARLINE. <A taxonomic revision of 
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(8) Evidence of virus mutation in the 
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(9) Virus mutation and the gene con- 
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(10) — Mosaic diseases of wheat and 


related cereals. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cire. 
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(11) McKinney, H. H. Virus antagonism 
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Amer. Journ. Bot. 28: 770-778. 1941. 

and Cuayton, E. E. Acute and 

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(14) — Genera of the plant viruses. 
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(12) 


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2 Abbreviation for Review of Applied Mycol- 
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Oct. 15, 1944 


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Compt. Rend. (Doklady) Acad. Sci. 
1 ae 20: 745-748. 1938. In Eng- 
ish. 
(26) . The injuriousness of ‘‘zako- 
oklivanie’”’ of oats and the mode of its 


dissemination in nature. Bull. Acad. 


MCKINNEY: DESCRIPTIONS OF VIRUSES 


329 
Sci. U.R.S.S., ser. biol., 1: 121-144, 6 
figs., 1 diagr. 1939. In Russian. Abst. 
R.A.M. 18: 666. 1939. 


(27) THornBeRRY, H. H., and McKInney, 
H. H. Purification of Nicotiana virus 6 
protein. Phytopath. 29: 250-260. 
1939. 

(28) Wana, Erraro, and Huxano (Fukano), 
Hirosut. On the difference of X-bodies 
an green and yellow mosaics of wheat. 
Agr. and Hort. 9: 96-108. 1934. In 
Japanese, English summary. 


(29) On the wheat strains suscep- 
tible to yellow mosaic. Agr. and Hort. 
11: 2697-2702. 1936. In Japanese. 

(30) ——————.. On the difference and dis- 


crimination of wheat mosaics in Japan. 
Journ. Imper. Agr. Exp. Stat. Tokyo 3: 
93-128, pl. 8-15. 1937. In Japanese, 
English summary. 
(31) Wess, Ropert W. Soil factors influenc- 
ung the development of the mosaic disease 
of winter wheat. Journ. Agr. Res. 35: 
587-614. 1927. 


(32) Further studies on the soil rela- 
tionships of the mosaic disease of winter 
wheat. Journ. Agr. Res. 36: 53-75. 
1928. 


(33) ZazHuRILo, V. K., and Sirnikxova, G. M. 
Mosaic of winter wheat. Compt. Rend. 
(Doklady) Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S. 25: 798- 
801, 2 figs. 1939. In English. 

———. Mosaic of spring cereals in 
the Voronezh district Compt. Rend. 
(Doklady) Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S. 26: 474- 
478, 2 figs. 1940. In English. 

————. Natural ways of transmis- 

ston of the winter wheat mosaic virus. 

Compt. Rend. (Doklady) Acad. Sci. 

U.R.S.S. 29: 429-432. 1940. In Eng- 

lish. 


(34) 


(39) 


(36) Diagnosis of virus diseases 
of cereals. Compt. Rend. (Doklady) 
Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S. 30: 664-666 1 fig., 
1941. In English. 

The relation of the virus of 
winter wheat mosaic to its vector (Delto- 
cephalus striatus L.). Compt. Rend. 
(Doklady) Pan-Sov. V. I. Lenin Acad. 
Agric. Sci. Moscow 6: 27-29. 1941. 
In Russian. Abst. R.A.M. 22: 59-60. 
19438. 


(37) = 


330 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 10 


BOTANY .— Additional records of aquatic Phycomycetes isolated from Mexican soils. 
LELAND SHANOR, University of Illinois.1 (Communicated by W. W. Dieu t:) 


A relatively small number of aquatic 
Phycomycetes have been collected in Mexi- 
co. Wolf (1939) reported eight species 
which are distributed among three orders, 
the Blastocladiales, the Saprolegniales, and 
the Leptomitales. Stiiben (1939) obtained 
a blastocladiaceous species, described as 
Sphaerocladia variabilis, from Mexican soil. 
Couch and Whiffen (1942) have transferred 
Sphaerocladia variabilzs to the genus Blasto- 
cladiella, renaming it Blastocladiella sti- 
benii. Nabel (1939) obtained from Mexico 
the interesting phycomycete Rhizidiomyces 
bivellatus, a species belonging in the order 
Anisochytridiales (Karling, _1943). The 
author (Shanor, 1942) discovered and de- 
scribed Monoblepharella mexicana, this 
being the first representative of the order 
Monoblepharidales to be reported from this 
area. Therefore, to date, five orders of the 
aquatic Phycomycetes are represented 
among the fungi that have been collected 
in Mexico. 

It is the purpose of the present paper to 
record other aquatic Phycomycetes that 
have been isolated from Mexican soils, add- 
ing representatives of two more orders. The 
large and widely distributed order Chytri- 
diales is not represented by any species 
previously reported. The most numerous 
isolates encountered in the present study 
belong to this group. 

The majority of the soil samples from 
which the fungi to be reported here were 
isolated were generously procured for me 
during the summer of 1941 by William C. 
and Mrs. Martha M. Leavenworth, mem- 
bers of the Fourth Hoogstraal Biological 
Expedition to Mexico. The manner in which 
these samples were collected and subse- 
quently handled was described briefly in the 
introductory remarks to my previous paper. 

Through the courtesy of Prof. H. J. 
Fuller, additional samples were collected 
during February, 1942, and made available 
for my study. These samples were taken 
from moist soil, allowed to dry, and then 
placed in carefully sealed envelopes and 
later mailed to the Botanical Laboratory of 


1 Received May 29, 1944. 


the University of Illinois, where they were 
put in jars to which were added sterilized 
distilled water and suitable substrata for 
growth of aquatic Phycomycetes. As fungal 
growth appeared on these materials, indi- 


vidual species were isolated from them for 


more careful study. 

With very few exceptions all the samples 
collected by the Leavenworths were taken 
at high altitudes and from soil rich in hu- 
mus. The samples obtained by Professor 
Fuller were from much lower altitudes and 
were mostly from somewhat sandy or from 
clay soils. All isolates belonging to the 
rather widely distributed genus Allomyces 
obtained in the present study were secured 
from the samples taken at the lower alti- 
tudes. Isolates of Allomyces were obtained 
much more frequently than species of other 
genera from the Mexican soil-samples col- 
lected and studied by Wolf (1939). 

The following résumé of species found in- 
cludes collection data submitted with the 
soil samples from which isolates were ob- 
tained. Additional distributional data per- 
taining to the species recorded here are to 
be found in recently published works by 
Coker and Matthews (1937), Middleton 
(1943), and Sparrow (1948). 


Order CHYTRIDIALES 


Family RHIZIDIACEAE 


Rhizophlyctis rosea (deBary and Woronin) 
Fischer 


Rabenhorst Kryptogamen—FI. 1 (4): 122. 1892. 


(1) From mud taken on north side of Mount 
Tancitaro at elevation of about 11,000 feet; 
July 23, 1941. Leavenworth and Leavenworth. 

(2) From mud and humus from wet meadow 
on north side of Mount Tancitaro at elevation 
of about 10,000 feet; July 24, 1941. Leaven- 
worth and Leavenworth. 

(3) From clay soil taken from meadow near 
Monterrey; February 5, 1942. Fuller. 

(4) From clay soil taken at Cérdoba, Vera- 
cruz; February 20, 1942. Fuller. 

(5) From mud taken from forest near Taxco; 
February 22, 1942. Fuller. 

This species was isolated more frequently 
than any other chytrid. Vigorous growth was 


Ocr. 15, 1944 


obtained on pieces of corn-seedling leaves, 
grass leaves, and on cellophane bait. Resting 
spores were formed abundantly on the pieces of 
corn-seedling leaves and on cellophane and 
were similar to those described by Ward (1989). 
No attempt was made to demonstrate in these 
isolates the heterothallic nature of this species 
as reported by Couch (1939). 


Rhizophlyctis petersenii Sparrow 
Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 78 (1): 48. 1937. 


(1) From mud and humus from wet meadow 
along stream north side of Mount Tancitaro 
at elevation of 10,000 feet; July 24, 1941. 
Leavenworth and Leavenworth. 

(2) From clay soil from Cérdoba, Veracruz; 
February 24, 1942. Fuller. 

The sporangia of these isolates varied con- 
siderably in size. The long exit tube and the 
behavior of spores upon emergence are dis- 
tinctive characteristics of the species. Resting 
spores have been observed several times which 
were similar to those described by Sparrow 
(1937). : 

Family CHYTRIDIACEAE 
Cylindrochytridium johnstonii Karling 
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 68: 382. 1942. 


(1) From mud from a wet meadow along 
north side of Mount Tancitaro at an elevation 
of 10,000 feet; July 24, 1941. Leavenworth 
and Leavenworth. 

This fungus was isolated only once. It pro- 
duced sporangial thalli abundantly on corn- 
seedling leaves and on pieces of lens paper and 
on filter paper. Resting bodies were found in 
considerable numbers on a small piece of brown 
paper-in the original sample, and a few formed 
after a long time on pieces of filter paper used 
as a substratum. These were nearly spherical, 
with thick, smooth, light-brown or amber- 
colored walls, and each possessed one large 
yellowish oil globule when mature. 

I have also isolated this species on seed coats 
of hemp seed placed in water samples from 
central Illinois. In view of the recent data pub- 
lished by Karling (1942), it appears that this 
handsome chytrid is rather widely distributed 
in southeastern and central United States. 

Endochytrium operculatum (deWild.) Karling 
Amer. Journ. Bot. 24: 353. 1937. 

(1) Mud from stream north side of Mount 
Tancitaro at elevation of 10,000 feet; July 24, 
1941. Leavenworth and Leavenworth. 


SHANOR: PHYCOMYCETES FROM MEXICAN SOILS 


301 


(2) Soil from La Majada; August 6, 1941. 
Leavenworth and Leavenworth. 

Sporangia and resting bodies were produced 
abundantly on filter paper and on corn-seedling 
leaves. 


Family MEGACHYTRIACEAE 
Nowakowskiella elegans (Nowak.) Schroeter 
Eng. and Prantl. Naturlichen Pflanzenfam. 1 (1): 

82. 1892. 

(1) Mud from wet meadow along a stream 
on north side of Mount Tancitaro at an eleva- 
tion of 11,000 feet; July 24, 1941. Leavenworth 
and Leavenworth. 

(2) Soil from La Majada; August 8, 1941. 
Leavenworth and Leavenworth. 

(3) Soil from meadow near Monterrey; 
February 5, 1942. Fuller. 

(4) Clay soil from near Veracruz; February 
20, 1942. Fuller. 

Although sporangia were produced abun- 
dantly on cellophane, lens paper, filter paper, 
hemp seed, and corn-seedling leaves, I was 
unable to obtain resting bodies from any of 
these isolations. 


Nowakowskiella hemisphaerospora Shanor 
Amer. Journ. Bot. 29: 174. 1942. 


(1) In leaf tissue included with soil from wet 
meadow, north side of Mount Tancitaro, eleva- 
tion 10,000 feet. Leavenworth and Leaven- 
worth. 

Although I have not: obtained isolations of 
this fungus from any of the samples collected, 
it is being included provisionally in this list of 
Mexican aquatic fungi on the basis of resting 
bodies observed in the tissue of some partially 
decomposed leaf. The resting bodies of this 
species are so distinctive that they are not 
likely to be confused with resting bodies of any 
similar known species. 

Karling (1942) reports obtaining this chytrid 
from a number of localities in southeastern 
and south-central United States. 


Family CLADOCHYTRIACEAE 
Cladochytrium replicatum Karling 
Amer. Journ. Bot. 18: 538. 1931. 


(1) From soil and humus from near Vera- 
cruz; February 20, 1942. Fuller. 

This single isolation produced sporangia 
abundantly, but resting bodies were rarely 
found and all observed were of the smooth- 
walled type. 


ood 


Cladochytrium hyalinum Berdan 
Amer. Journ. Bot. 28: 425. 1941. 


(1) Wet meadow along side of stream, north 
side of Mount Tancitaro at an elevation of 
10,000 feet; July 24, 1941. Leavenworth and 
Leavenworth. 

The single isolation was obtained on cello- 
phane and on pieces of boiled corn leaves. 
Resting bodies were not produced in any 
abundance by this isolate. 


Order BLASTOCLADIALES 
Family BLASTOCLADIACEAE 
Allomyces javanicus Kniep 
Berichte Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 47: 211. 1929. 


(1) Meadow near Monterrey; February 5, 
1942. Fuller. 

(2) Soil from forest near Taxco; February 
22, 1942. Fuller. 

In both of these isolations gametophyte 
plants appeared only rarely among sporophytes 
and were not seen at all until after several 
months’ study and after several attempts to 
obtain them from resistant sporangia that had 
been allowed to become dry had proved unsuc- 
cessful. Male gametangia were more numerous 
than female gametangia and were found in 
some cases along main branches on which re- 
sistant sporangia were formed. These two 
isolates should probably be assigned to var. 
perandrus of Emerson (1941). 


Allomyces anomalus Emerson 
Lloydia 4: 133. 1941. 


(1) Soil from near Veracruz; Feburary 20, 
1942. Fuller. 

During a period of over six months while this 
isolate had been under observation, I- was 
unable to obtain gametophytes or cyst forma- 
tion so am provisionally assigning it to this 
species proposed by Emerson to include iso- 
lates in which sexual reproduction is appar- 
ently lacking. 


Order MONOBLEPHARIDALES 

Family MONOBLEPHARIDACEAE 

Monoblepharella mexicana Shanor 
Mycologia 34: 242. 1942. 


(1) Soil from wet meadow along stream on 
north side of Mount Tancitaro at an elevation 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 10 


of 10,000 feet; July 24, 1941. Leavenworth and 
Leavenworth. 

(2) Soil from forest near Taxco. February 
22, 1942. Fuller. 

This very interesting fungus was first de- 
scribed in considerable detail from the isolates 
obtained from the Mount Tancitaro samples. 
The isolate from Taxco agrees in all major 
aspects with those obtained from the type 
locality. : 


Order SAPROLEGNIALES 
Family SAPROLEGNIACEAE 
Achlya flagellata Coker 
The Saprolegniaceae: 116. 1923. 


(1) Soil from wet meadow along stream on 
north side of Mount Tancitaro at an elevation 
of 11,000 feet; July 23, 1941. Leavenworth and 
Leavenworth. 

This isolate did not appear on hemp seed 
that was placed in the battery jar until several 
months after the soil sample was put into the 
jar and flooded with sterilized distilled water. 


Order PERONOSPORALES 
Family PYTHIACEAE 
Pythium debaryanum Hesse 
Inaugr. Dissert. Halle. 1894. 


(1) Soil from La Majada; August 8, 1941. 
Leavenworth and Leavenworth. 

This isolate was found to be highly patho- 
genic to the following seedlings planted in 
flats of sterilized soil into which it was intro- 
duced: garden peas (Pisum sativum L.), water- 
melon (Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.), cucumber 
(Cucumis sativus L.), spinach (Spinaca olera-— 
cea L.), tomato (Lycopersicon esculent: m Mill.), 
beet (Beta vulgaris L.), and radish (Raphanus 
sativus L.). 


Pythium graminicolum Subramaniam 
Agr. Res. Inst. Pusa Bull. 177: 1-5. 1928. 

(1) From soil from meadow near Monter- 
rey; February 5, 1942. Fuller. 

This is a widely distributed species both in 
the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. During 
the present study it was isolated on hemp seed — 
and on pieces of corn-seedling leaves. 


SUMMARY 
Fourteen species of aquatic Phycomycetes 
are reported that were obtained from Mexican 
soil samples. They are distributed as follows: 


Ocr. 15, 1944 


CHYTRIDIALES—Rhizophlyctis rosea, R. pe- 
tersenit, Cylindrochytridium johnstonii, Endo- 
chytrium operculatum, Nowakowskiella elegans, 
N. hemisphaerospora, Cladochytrium replicatum, 
and C. hyalinum. 

BLASTOCLADIALES—Allomyces javanicus and 
A. anomalus. 

MoNnOBLEPHARIDALES—WM onoblepharella mex- 
icana. 

SAPROLEGNIALES—Acilya flagellata. 

PERONOSPORALES—Pythium debaryanum and 
P. graminicolum. 

With the exception of the two species of 
Allomyces and of Monoblepharella mexicana, 
none of these species appears to have been 
reported previously from Mexico. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Coxer, W. C., and Matruews, VELMA Dare. 
Saprolegniaceae. North Amer. Flora 2 
(1)217—58. 1937. 

Coucu, J. N. Heterothallism in the Chytridt- 
ales. Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 55: 

~ 409-414. 1939. 

—, and WHIFFEN, ALMA J. Observaticns 
on the genus Blastocladiella. Amer. Journ. 
Bot. 29: 582-591. 1942. 

Emerson, R. An experimental study of the life 
cycles and taxonomy of Allomyces. 
Lloydia 4: 77-144. 1941. 

KARLING, JOHN 8. A new chytrid with giant 


RUSSELL: NINE SPECIES OF ALEUROPLATUS 


333 


zoospores: Septochytrium macrosporum 
Amer. Journ. Bot. 29: 616-622. 


carpli gen. nov. et sp. nov., and a synopsis 
and classification of other fungi with an- 
teriorly uniflagellate zoospores. Amer. 
Journ. Bot. 30: 637-648. 1943. 

MippLeETON, JoHn T. The taxronomy, host 
range and geographic distribution of the 
genus Pythium. Torrey Bot. Club Mem. 
20: 1-171. 1943. 

NaBEL, K. Uber die Membran niederer Pilze, 
besonders von Rhizidiomyces bivellatus nov. 
spez. Arch. Mikrobiol. 10: 515-541. 1939. 

SHANOR, LELAND. A new Monoblepharella 
from Mexico. Mycologia 34: 241-247. 
1942. 

Sparrow, FrepericK K., Jr. Some chytridi- 
aceous wnhabitants of insect exuviae. Proc. 
Amer. Phil. Soc. 78 (1): 23-53. 1937. 

. Aquatic Phycomycetes exclusive of the 
Saprolegniaceae and Pythium, 785 pp. 
Ann Arbor, 1943. 

StuBen, H. Uber Entwicklungsgeschichte und 
Ernahrungsphystologie eines neuen niederen 
Phycomyceten mit Generations-wechsel. 
“Planta,” Archiv wiss. Bot. 30 (3): 353- 
383. 1939. 

Warp, M. W. Observations on Rhizophlyctis 
rosea. Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soe. 
55: 353-360. 1939. 

Wo.r, Frep T. A study of some aquatic 
Phycomycetes isolated from Mexican soils. 
Mycologia 31: 376-387. 1939. 


ENTOMOLOGY —Descriptions of nine species of Aleuroplatus from eastern North 


America (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae).! 


Louise M. Russe, Bureau of Ento- 


mology and Plant Quarantine. (Communicated by C. F. W. MursEsBeckx.) 


The species of Aleuroplatus Quaintance 
and Baker treated here form a well-defined 
group and are closely allied. Owing to their 
structural similarity and to the difficulty of 
obtaining microscopic preparations satis- 
factory for critical study, the species fre- 
quently have been confused with one an- 
other. The pupae, the stage on which this 
study is based, usually can be more success- 
fully mounted when recently emerged than 
after they are mature and have become 
black, brittle, and covered with wax. This 
group of whiteflies appears to be of actual 
or potential economic importance, for sev- 
eral species occur on plants of commercial 
value, and one is suspected of being a vector 
of the blueberry stunt virus disease, 

1 Received May 26, 1944, 


Types of the species discussed are in the 
collection of the United States National 
Museum. 

Botanists of the Division of Plant Explo- 
ration and Introduction, Bureau of Plant 
Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineer- 
ing, United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, kindly identified several plants and 
checked the names of the hosts. 

The following combination of characters 
distinguishes these species from other mem- 
bers of Aleuroplatus: Marginal teeth mod- 
erately rounded, slightly wider than long; 
submarginal disk pores (for terminology see 
Russell, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 45: 
[131]-132, 1943) in a single row less than 
five times the width of a marginal tooth 
from marginal teeth; without conspicuous 


334 


sculpturing along median molting suture; 
dorsal minute spinelike points absent; trans- 
verse molting suture terminating nearly 
opposite its midpoint, disk pores not in a 
row posterior to its distal portions; sub- 
median meso- and metathoracic setae 
shorter than segment bearing them, or ab- 
sent; cephalic setae present, shorter than 
metathorax; eighth abdominal setae lo- 
cated just laterocephalad of vasiform ori- 
fice; vasiform orifice not largely covered by 
a transparent membrane; minute spines on 
ventral surface, in a band paralleling body 
margin. 


The species may be separated by the fol- 
lowing key: 


1. Submedian mesothoracic and metathoracic 


setae present! 2). vedios. ac okt RO ee ee 2 
Submedian mesothoracic and metathoracic 
Setaciabsent cock sew ees. Oe ee cee ee 6 


2. Vasiform orifice with a well-defined tongue, 
bottom of orifice extending just anterior to 
posterior margin of operculum; eye spots 
inconspicuous, slightly lighter than adjacent 
derm;notelevateds; ()G 055% 22 fo ere 3 

Vasiform orifice without a well-defined tongue, 
if with a tooth then bottom of orifice ex- 
tending nearly to anterior margin of opercu- 
lum; eye spots conspicuous, much lighter 
than adjacent derm, elevated............ 5 

3. Vasiform orifice nearly as wide as long, ap- 
proximately its length from body margin; 
caudal setae nearer to submarginal teeth 
than to orifice; central subdorsal disk pores 
usually absent from abdominal segments 4—7 
ieee sere myricae Quaintance and Baker 

Vasiform orifice distinctly longer than wide 
and less than its length from body margin; 
caudal setae nearer to orifice than to sub- 
marginal teeth; central subdorsal disk pores 
usually present on abdominal segments 4 
and 5 and sometimes on6and7.......... 4 

4. Sides of vasiform orifice opposite operculum of 
nearly uniform thickness and sclerotization, 
nearly vertical from bottom to rim, slightly 
removed from operculum, a curved tongue 
arising from bottom of orifice about midway 
between operculum and end of orifice (fig. 3); 
abdominal minute setal bases usually near 
central subdorsal disk pores; posterior end of 
body noticeably broader than anterior end 
Spur Wass 2+ sr-+2e-s.plumosus (Quaintance) 

Sides of vasiform orifice opposite operculum 
somewhat thickened and heavily sclerotized 
on lower portion, forming a vertical wall 
close to the operculum, the wall abruptly 
interrupted posteriorly and a _ spatulate 
tongue in interval between its ends, mem- 
brane sloping from wall to rim (fig. 4); 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 10 


abdominal minute setal bases usually near 
inner subdorsal disk pores except on segment 
3; posterior end of body nearly as narrow as 
anteniomend seo e semiplumosus, n.sp. 

5. Vasiform orifice without a tooth, its sides 
slightly convex laterally and strongly so 
posteriorly, membrane extending from edge 
of convex portion to posteriorly projecting 
rim, bottom of orifice extending just anterior 
to posterior margin of operculum (fig. 6); 
dorsal abdominal disk pores rather numer- 
ous, 7-9 pairs on each of segments 3 and 4, 
usually 3 submedian pairs on each of seg- 
ments 1 and 3-6; body slightly constricted 
at posterior third...... magnoliae, n. sp. 
Vasiform orifice with a tooth, its sides convex 
opposite operculum but nearly vertical 
posteriorly, membrane extending from bot- 
tom to vertical rim, bottom of orifice ex- 
tending nearly to anterior margin of opercu- 
lum (fig. 7); dorsal‘abdominal disk pores less 
numerous, 2 or 3 pairs on each of segments 

3 and 4, 1 submedian pair on each of seg- 
ments 1-6; body rather strongly constricted 
at\posterior third. 2). oe tlicts, n. sp. 

6. Dorsal abdominal disk pores fairly numerous, 
1 submedian pair on each of segments 1-6, 
and a total of 2-4 pairs on each of segments 

3 and 4; body constricted at posterior third; 
eye spots at least moderately conspicuous. .7 
Dorsal abdominal disk pores more numerous, 
1 or 2 submedian pairs on each of segments 
1-6, but a total of 5-13 pairs on each of 
segments 3 and 4; body not constricted at 
posterior third; eye spots inconspicuous... .8 
7. Bottom of vasiform orifice reaching nearly as 
far anteriorly as operculum, a tooth just 
posterior to operculum, sides of orifice con- 
vex anteriorly, orifice usually slightly longer 
than wide; eighth abdominal setae much 
shorter than, and caudal ones about as long 
as, width of orifice..... liquidambaris, n. sp. 
Bottom of vasiform orifice reaching just an- 
terior to posterior margin of operculum, a 
tongue at end of orifice, sides of orifice nearly 
vertical anteriorly, orifice practically as wide 
as long (fig. 8); eighth abdominal setae 
nearly as long as, and caudal setae much 
longer than, width of orifice. . vaccinit, n. sp. 
8. Subdorsal disk pores fairly numerous on ab- 
dominal segments 3—5, 3—5 pairs on segment 
3, 2-4 pairs on segment 4, and 1-8 pairs on 
segment 5; vasiform orifice at least its length 
from body margin; caudal setae nearer to- 
gether than eighth abdominal ones........ 

i dips Gogh Sera ae) ca araecares, BNR EME eplgaeae, n. sp. 
Subdorsal disk pores unusually numerous on 
abdominal segments 3—5, 8-13 pairs on seg- 
ment 3, 5-9 pairs on segment 4, and 4 or 5 
pairs on segment 5; vasiform orifice slightly 
less than its length from body margin; caudal 
setae slightly farther apart than eighth 
abdominal ones........... bignoniae, n. sp. 


Oor. 15, 1944 


Aleuroplatus plumosus (Quaintance) 


Aleurodes plumosa Quaintance, U. 8. Dept. Agr., 
Div. Ent., Tech. Ser. 8: 33-35, illus., in part. 
1900. 

Tetraleurodes plumosa (Quaintance), Quaintance 
and Baker, U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Tech. 
Ser. 27: 108, in part. 1914. 

Aleuroplatus plumosus (Quaintance), Quaintance 
and Baker, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 51: 394-395, 
illus., in part. 1917. 


In the original treatment of A. plumosus 
Quaintance stated, ‘“‘A rather common species 
in Florida hammocks and higher woodlands; 
on leaves of various plants, as Persea carolinen- 
sis, Magnolia grand flora; M. glauca; Ilex 
opaca; Viburnum nudum and Vaccinium spp.” 
It is uncertain whether specimens from each 
of these hosts were before Quaintance when he 
prepared the description of plumosus, but at 
the present time none from Ilex or Viburnum 
are in his aleyrodid material in Washington. 
Quaintance did not designate a holotype of 
plumosus; he included more than one species 
under the name; and his description applies to 
one species as well as to another. In 1917 
Quaintance and Baker designated a type lot 
consisting of three mounted specimens, a pupa 
and one crushed adult of each sex; this pupa 
should be regarded as the lectotype of the 
species. These specimens are labeled as having 
been collected from Quercus, a host not speci- 
fically listed by Quaintance and not recorded 
elsewhere in the present paper. 

The specimens stated by Quaintance and 
Baker, in 1917, to be abundant on cranberry 
in Cranmoor, Wis., apparently should have 
been recorded from leatherleaf. In unmounted 
material from this source all specimens of 
plumosus are from leatherleaf, those from cran- 
berry representing the species epigaeae. Infor- 
mation associated with this material states that 
the insects were common on leatherleaf and 
were found occasionally on cranberry. Quain- 
tance and Baker also assigned some other 
specimens to plumosus which actually belong 
elsewhere. 

Living on the lower surface of leaves. 

Perfect specimens with a whitish, waxy 
exudation extending outward from submargin 
and upward from dorsum in thin sheets, dorsal 
tranverse sheets coalesced with longitudinal 
ones. 

Oval, widest across abdominal segments 2 


RUSSELL: NINE SPECIES OF ALEUROPLATUS 


339 


and 3, anterior end almost pointed or narrowly 
curved, narrower than the broadly curved 
posterior end; measuring 0.75-1 mm long and 
0.50-0.75 wide (males in lower brackets of 
figures). Black, heavily sclerotized. 

Marginal teeth rounded, slightly wider than 
long, somewhat variable in width, 13-17 in 
100u; 3-5 at each tracheal pore area longer 
and with incisions between them wider at base 
than incisions between other teeth. Submargi- 
nal teeth equidistant from and about the width 
of a tooth from marginal teeth, smaller than 
marginal ones, 3-5 at each tracheal pore area 
larger than others; their apices heavily and the 
remainder rather lightly sclerotized. Ridges 
extending from margin to submarginal disk 
pores. Submarginal disk pores in a single row, 
some irregularly spaced and placed, the major- 
ity two to three times the width of a marginal 
tooth from marginal teeth, absent opposite 
tracheal pore areas, approximately one-third as 
numerous as teeth. 

Transverse molting suture curved posteriorly 
from its midpoint but recurved cephalad and 
terminating nearly opposite its center, in outer 
subdorsum. Cephalothoracic suture weak or 
absent, pro-mesothoracic suture rather weak, 
other segmental sutures well defined to inner 
subdorsum; third through seventh abdominal 
ones weakly defined to outer subdorsum, their 
ends curved cephalad. Eye spots transverse, 
slightly lighter than adjacent derm, inconspicu- 
ous. A submedian pair of cephalic, meso- 
thoracic and metathoracic setae, each less than 
9. long; eighth abdominal setae about 60y, 
located just laterocephalad of vasiform orifice; 
caudal setae about 80, slightly nearer to- 
gether than eighth abdominal pair, slightly 
nearer to orifice than to submarginal teeth, a 
small, transverse thickening between them. A 
pair of minute setal bases usually near central 
subdorsal disk pores on each of abdominal 
segments 3-6, sometimes a central subdorsal 
pair on prothorax, posterior to eye spots. 
Dorsal disk pores somewhat variable in num- 
ber and position, the subdorsal ones often less 
numerous in males than in females; abdominal 
ones usually grouped; pairs arranged approxi- 
mately as follows: Cephalic segment, 1-3 near 
median line in center of segment and 1 each 
side of cephalic setae; prothorax, 1 near median 
line and 1 (usually central) subdorsal; meso- 


336 


thorax, 2 near setae, 2 inner subdorsal (or 1 
outer submedian), and 1 central subdorsal; 
metathorax, 1 or 2 near setae, 2 inner subdorsal 
(or 1 outer submedian), and 2 or 3 central 
subdorsal; first abdominal, 2 submedian; sec- 
ond abdominal, 1 submedian; third through 
sixth, each 2 submedian, 1 inner and 1-3 
(usually 2 or 3) central subdorsal; seventh, 1 
submedian, 1 inner and 0 or 1 central subdor- 
sal; eighth, 1 inner subdorsal (opposite widest 
part of orifice). Vasiform orifice less than its 
length from body margin, longer than wide, 
measuring about 50—-60u long (from rim at 
anterior end to edge of rim around posterior 
end) and 36—46 wide; its rim rather thick and 
pronounced, and entirely vertical or produced 
diagonally backward at posterior end; sides of 
orifice nearly vertical, its bottom extending 
just anterior to posterior margin of operculum; 
an apically curved, transverse tongue midway 
between operculum and end of orifice. Opercu- 
lum sculptured, broadly curved posteriorly, 
24-30 long and wide. 

Minute spines on ventral surface, in a band 
paralleling body margin. 

Lectotype—U.S.N.M. No. 19195. Florida, 
from Quercus. 

Redescribed from a few unmounted speci- 
mens and about 55 mounted ones as follows: 
Quercus sp., Florida, A. L. Quaintance, 9-1-98 
(lectotype); Magnolia sp., Florida, paratypes; 
Persea borbonia (L.) Spreng. (=P. carolinensis 
Nees), Florida, A. L. Quaintance, 5-25-98 
(possibly paratype but not so labeled); myrtle 
bay, Citra, Fla., February 10, 1895; leather- 
leaf, Cranmoor, Wis., C. W. Hooker, April 25 
and August 27, 1910; leatherleaf, April 17, and 
blueberry, July 18, 1914, Pemberton, N. J., 
H. B. Scammell; inkberry, Whitesbog, N. J., 
H. B. Scammell, February 17, 1915, and March 
13, 1916; Myrica sp., Lake Weir, Fla., H. W. 
Fogg, October 1923; laurel, Washington, D. C., 
W. B. Wood, July 26, 1927; Kalmia sp., Silver 
Spring, Md., Louise M. Russell, October 11, 
1942; Vaccinium corymbosum L., Pemberton, 
Noid. S. Beckwith, September 27, 1943. 


Aleuroplatus semiplumosus, n. sp. 


Differing from A. plumosus as follows: Body 
widest across abdominal segments 1 and 2, 
posterior end nearly as narrow as anterior end. 
No thickening between caudal setae. Two cen- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 34, No. 10 


tral subdorsal pairs of minute setal bases on 
prothorax, abdominal ones usually near inner 
subdorsal disk pores except on segment 3. Sub- 
median and inner subdorsal disk pores on ab- 
dominal segments 3-5 somewhat equally 
spaced rather than grouped; 2 or 3 submedian 
and inner subdorsal, and 3 or 4 central subdor- 
sal (a total of 7 or 8) pairs on segment 3; 1-3 in- 
ner and central subdorsal pairs on segments 4, 
5, and sometimes on 6, but central subdorsal 
sometimes absent from segments 5 and 6, and 
usually absent from segment 7. Vasiform orifice 
56-64u long and 36-44 wide; lower part of 
sides opposite operculum forming a somewhat 
thickened and heavily sclerotized vertical wall 
close to the operculum and following its curve, 
the wall interrupted abruptly at its posterior 
end and a somewhat spatulate tongue in inter- 
val between its ends; membrane sloping out- 
ward and upward from wall to rim of orifice. 

- Type—vU.S.N.M. No. 56951. Norfolk, Va., 
from Persea. 

Described from many unmounted specimens 
and 91 mounted ones as follows: Ilex opaca Ait., 
Vienna, Va., A. C. Baker, March 2, 1912; holly, 
Urbana, IIl., C. O. Woodworth, December 23, 
1915; Lauraceae, Bamboo Garden near Savan- 
nah, Ga., H. L. Sanford, February 28, 1922; 
American holly, Silver Spring, Md., Carlo Zei- 
met, April 2, 1922; laurel, Bethesda, Md., R. D. 
Kennedy, April 26, 1922; Sassafras albidum 
(Nutt.) Nees, Rock Creek Park, Washington, 
D. C., J. E. Walter, August 6, 1922; laurel, 
Cass, W. Va., F. W. Gray, August 1922; Nyssa 
sylvatica Marsh.? and laurel, Black Mountain, 
N. C., Carlo Zeimet, September 7, 1922; holly, 
Holly Springs, Miss., T. F. McGehee (from 
R. W. Harned), 1922; Persea sp., New Orleans, 
La., H. L. Dozier, January 20, 1923; Ilex sp., 
Glendale, Md., R. G. Cogswell, September 27, 
1923; Rhododendron sp., Baltimore, Md., C. E: 
Prince, May 9, 1924; Kalmia latifolia L., Fort 
Myer, Va., H. L. Sanford, May 27, 1924; 
Rhododendron sp., Kennett Square, Pa., W. B. 
Wood, August 10, 1932, and W. W. Chapman 
and W. J. Ehinger, June 25, 1935; Kalmia 
latifolia L., near Sperryville, Va., H. H. Keifer, 
June 4, 1940; Kalmia sp. and Ilex sp., Silver 
Spring, Md., Louise M. Russell, April 29, 1943; 
Persea borbonia (L.) Spreng., Norfolk, Va., 
L. D. Anderson, August 10 and 30 (including 
holotype), 19438; Persea pubescens (Pursh) 


Ocr. 15, 1944 


Sarg., Richmond Hill, Ga., L. A. Mayer, De- 
cember 2, and Max Kisliuk, December 13, 
1943. 

The only available third-stage specimen of 
this species has submedian mesothoracic and 


metathoracic setae, and a vasiform orifice simi- 


lar to that of the pupae. 


Aleuroplatus myricae Quaintance and Baker 


Aleuroplatus myricae Quaintance and Baker, Proce. - 


U.S. Nat. Mus. 51: 389-390, illus. 1917. 

Aleuroplatus plumosus (Quaintance), Quaintance 
and Baker, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 51: 395, in 
part. 1917. 


A specimen from cranberry, New Egypt, 
N. J., assigned to plumosus by Quaintance and 
Baker, belongs to myricae. 

Differing from A. plumosus as follows: Wid- 
est across abdominal segments 1 and 2, poste- 
rior end of body nearly as narrow as anterior 
end. Caudal setae nearer to submarginal teeth 
than to vasiform orifice. Abdominal minute 
setal bases usually near inner subdorsal disk 
pores except on segment 3, sometimes absent 
from any one of segments 4-6. Dorsal disk 
pores less numerous, usually 1 submedian and 
2 subdorsal pairs on meso- and metathorax, 
frequently only 1 submedian pair on one or an- 
other of abdominal segments 1 and 4-6, ab- 
dominal central subdorsal ones usually present 
only on segment 3. Vasiform orifice around 45y 
long and 40 wide, approximately its length from 
body margin; tongue at end of orifice. 

Lectotype-—U.S.N.M. No. 19198. 
Ga., from Myrica. 

Redescribed from a few unmounted speci- 
mens and 30 mounted ones as follows: Myrica 
pensylvanica Loisel. (identified by botanists of 
U. S. Dept. Agr.), Griffin, Ga., A. L. Quaint- 
ance, April 25, 1899 (including lectotype, 
hereby designated); cranberry, New Egypt, 
May 21, 1914, and New Lisbon, April 26, 1915, 


Griffin, 


and sheep laurel, Pemberton, N. J., February © 


23, 1915, H. B. Scammell; Kalmia sp. and 
Rhododendron nudiflorum (L.) Torr., Sligo 
Park, Silver Spring, Md., Louise M. Russell, 
November 6, 1943. 

The only available third-stage specimen of 
myricae has submedian meso- and metathoracic 
setae, and a vasiform orifice similar to that of 
the pupae. 


RUSSELL: NINE SPECIES OF ALEUROPLATUS 


337 


Aleuroplatus magnoliae, n. sp. 
Aleurodes plumosa Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Div. Ent., Tech. Ser. 8: 33-35, in part. 1900. 
Tetraleurodes plumosa (Quaintance), Quaintance 


and Baker, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Tech. 
Ser. 27: 108, in part. 1914. 


Aleuroplatus plumosus (Quaintance), Quaintance 
and Baker, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 51: 394-395, 
in part. 1917. : 


The specimens treated here doubtless are the 
ones from Magnolia glauca included under plu- 
mosus by Quaintance; some are labeled plumo- 
sus but are not marked cotype. 

Differing from A. plumosus as follows: 
Slightly constricted at posterior third. Sub- 
marginal disk pores approximately one-half as 
numerous as teeth, usually forming a double 
row in spots; porettes of these and dorsal disk 
pores relatively conspicuous. Eye spots con- 
spicuous, much lighter than adjacent derm, 
slightly elevated, irregularly elliptical. No 
thickening between caudal setae. Two central 
subdorsal pairs of minute setal bases on pro- 
thorax, abdominal ones usually inner subdorsal 
except on segment 3. Three submedian pairs of 
disk pores on first, and 2 on second abdominal 
segment; each of abdominal segments 3-6 with 
a row of pores ending slightly mesad of central 
subdorsal area, those at ends of row grouped on 
segments 3 and 4; usually 3 submedian pairs on 
each of segments 3-6; 6 subdorsal pairs on seg- 
ment 3, 4 or 5 on segment 4, 3 or 4 on segment 
5, 2 or 3 on segment 6; 2 submedian and 1 sub- 
dorsal pair on segment 7. Sides of vasiform ori- 
fice slightly convex laterally and strongly so 
posteriorly, at posterior end the upper portion 
of convex area rimlike and nearly as high as | 
operculum, membrane sloping from this rim to 
outer edge of true rim of orifice which projects 
backward; orifice measuring 56—60y long and 
40-44 wide; without a tongue. 

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 56952. Lake City, 
Fla., from Magnolva. 

Described from 17 mounted specimens from 
Magnolia virginiana L. (=M. glauca L.), Lake 
City, Fla., A. L. Quaintance. 


Aleuroplatus ilicis, n. sp. 


No conspicuous waxy exudation observed, 
body covered by a thin coating of transparent 
glassy wax. 


338 


Differing from A. plumosus as follows: Body 
constricted at posterior third, bulging anterior 
to this point. Eye spots conspicuous, much 
lighter than adjacent derm, slightly elevated, 
subcircular to roughly elliptical. Eighth ab- 
dominal setae around 12y long; caudal setae 
usually around 40u, no thickening between 
them. Usually 2 pairs of central subdorsal mi- 
nute setal bases on prothorax and 0 on abdo- 
men. Dorsal disk pores less numerous, usually 1 
pair near cephalic and mesothoracic, and 0 near 
metathoracic setae; 1 inner and 1 central sub- 
dorsal pair on each thoracic segment; 1 sub- 
median pair on each of abdominal segments 
1-7, 1 inner subdorsal pair on each abdominal 
segment, and 1 central subdorsal pair on seg- 
ment 3 and occasionally on segment 4 or 5. 
Vasiform orifice approximately its length from 
body margin, usually slightly longer than wide 
but sometimes as wide as long, measuring 44— 
56u long and 40-48 wide; sides of orifice thick- 
ened, strongly sclerotized, and strongly convex 
opposite operculum, thinner and nearly vertical 
at posterior end; bottom of orifice extending 
cephalad nearly as far as operculum; a flat or 
peglike tooth arising from bottom of orifice at 
end of operculum. 

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 56953. Silver Spring, 
Md., from Ilex. 

Described from many unmounted specimens 
and 66 mounted ones as follows: Holly, Ur- 
bana, Ill., C. O. Woodworth, December 23, 
1915; Kalmia sp., Lea Springs, Tenn., October 
4, 1909; Ilex sp., near Brooksville, Fla., 
H. L. Sanford, February 14, 1922; laurel, Cass, 
W. Va., F. W. Gray, August 1922; laurel, Black 
Mountain, N. C., Carlo Zeimet, September 7, 
1922; holly, Holly Springs, Miss., T. F. Mc- 
Gehee (from R. W. Harned), 1922; holly, Rich- 
mond, Va., F. R. Freund, May 4, 1939; Ilex 
opaca Ait., Silver Spring, Md., Louise M. Rus- 
sell, May 10 (including holotype) and June 7, 
1942; holly, Gordo, Ala., collected in Calif. by 
D. D. Sharp (from H. L. McKenzie), Decem- 
ber 22, 1942; common and dahoon holly, 
Chapel Hill, N. C., F. J. LeClair (from C. §. 
Brimley), May 4, 1943; Ilex sp., Richmond Hill, 
Ga., Max Kisliuk, December 6, 1943. 

Mesothoracic and metathoracic setae are 
present in the only third-stage specimen availa- 
ble. In this insect the bottom of the vasiform 
orifice is relatively much shorter than in the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 10 


pupa and there is a suggestion of a spatulate 
tongue at the end of the orifice. In three first- 
stage specimens at hand the submedian meso- 
and metathoracic setae are present and are 
practically the same size as the cephalic ones. 

This species is sometimes abundant, literally 
covering the lower surface of the leaves. It is 
very difficult to mount satisfactorily. 


Aleuroplatus liquidambaris, n. sp. 


Aleurodes plumosa Quaintance, U.S. Dept. Agr., 
Div. Ent., Tech. Ser. 8: 33-35, in part. 1900. 

Tetraleurodes plumosa (Quaintance), Quaintance 
and Baker, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Tech. 
Ser. 27: 108, in part. 1914. 

Aleuroplatus plumosus (Quaintance), Quaintance 
and Baker, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 51: 394-395, 
in part. 1917. 


Some specimens originally assigned to plu- 
mosus by Quaintance, and apparently later 
considered as belonging to that species by 
Quaintance and Baker, must be transferred to 
liquidambaris. 

Differing from A. ilicis in lacking submedian 
meso- and metathoracic setae, in sometimes 
having a metathoracic submedian pair of disk 
pores, and in usually having at least 1 pair of 
abdominal minute setal bases. 

Type.—U.5S.N.M. No. 56954. New Orleans, 
La., from Liquidambar. 

Described from a few unmounted specimens 
and 40 mounted ones as follows: Vaccinium sp., 
Florida, A. L. Quaintance (labeled cotype of 
plumosus); Magnolia sp. (presumably grandi- 
flora L., judged from Quaintance collection 
notes and data published with plumosus), Flor- 
ida, A. L. Quaintance (labeled cotype of plumo- 
sus); Asimina sp., Lake City, Florida, A. L. 
Quaintance, August 24, 1897; Liquidambar 
styraciflua L., A. L. Quaintance; L. styraciflua 
L., New Orleans, La., H. K. Plank, September 
17, 1924 (including holotype); L. styraciflua 
L., St. Leonard, Md., October 6, 1940, and 
Pracnnthe coccinea Reem , silver Spring, Md., 
October 7, 1941, Louise M. Russell! 

Specimens cron Magnolia and Vien 
differ from the others included here in that 
most of them have a metathoracic pair of sub- 
median disk pores and at least one pair of ab- 
dominal minute setal bases. It is believed, 
however, that they are conspecific. 

This species is very similar to A. ilicis, the 
only seemingly important difference observed 


Ocr. 15, 1944 


plumosus, vasiform orifice, 460. 


RUSSELL: NINE SPECIES OF ALEUROPLATUS 


oh i AN 
i ie en a 


te rf 
Pan 


AEN 


11 


Fig. 1.—Aleuroplatus plumosus, dorsum, X50. Fig. 2.—A. vaccinii, dorsum, X50. 


a HIN 


myricae, vasiform orifice, X460. Fig. 6.—A. magnoliae, vasiform orifice, 460. 


vasiform orifice, 460. 


i) A 


an tl i 


\ A sith ih } i 


339 


Fig. 3.—A. 


Fig. 4.—A. semiplumosus, vasiform orifice, 460. Fig. 5.—A. 
Fig. 7.—A. ilicis, 
Fig. 8.—A. vaccinii, vasiform orifice, X460. Fig. 9.—A. epigaeae, vasiform 


orifice, X460. Fig. 10.—A. bignoniae, vasiform orifice, 460. Fig. 11.—A. bignonzae, half of third 


abdominal segment, X165. 


Fig. 12.—A. semiplumosus, minute setal base, disk pore and porette, 


X1,500. Fig. 13.—A. vaccinia, margin and submargin around thoracic tracheal pore area, X650. 
(Drawings by Sara Hoke DeBord.) 


340 


being the absence of submedian meso- and 
metathoracic setae. This difference is thought 
to be important, however, because there is very 
little variation in this character in the pupae of 
the species discussed in this paper. Also, in the 
few third-stage specimens examined, the meso- 
and metathoracic setae are present or absent 
just as in the pupae of the same species. They 
are absent in the third-stage specimen of liqui- 
dambaris. There is a distinct spatulate tongue 
in the vasiform orifice of this specimen, and the 
bottom of the orifice is relatively shorter than 
in the pupae. 


Aleuroplatus vaccinii, n. sp. 


Aleuroplatus plumosus (Quaintance), Quaintance 
and Baker, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 51: 395, in 
part. 1917. 

Certain specimens from cranberry, New 
Egypt, N. J., assigned to plumosus by Quain- 
tance and Baker belong to this new species. 

Differing from A. ilicis as follows: Eye spots 
moderately conspicuous, not elevated. Eighth 
abdominal setae 35u long; caudal setae about 
60Qu, nearer to submarginal teeth than to vasi- 
form orifice, a faint thickening between them. 
Usually 0 or 1 pair of central subdorsal minute 
setal bases on prothorax, 1 central subdorsal 
pair on abdominal segment 3, and usually 1 in- 
ner subdorsal pair on segments 4, 5, and some- 
times 6. A submedian pair of disk pores on 
metathorax, and 1 or 2 central subdorsal pairs 
on each segment of thorax and on abdominal 
segments 3 and 4. Vasiform orifice about one 
and one-half times its length from body margin, 
40-44u long and 38-44 wide, its sides nearly 
vertical, its bottom extending just anterior to 
posterior margin of operculum; a curved tongue 
at end of orifice. ‘ 

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 56955. Pemberton, 
N. J., from Vaccinium. . 

Described from many unmounted specimens 
and 97 mounted ones as follows: Pipsissewa, 
Orono, Maine, May .6, 1899; cranberry, New 
Egypt, May 21, 1914, wintergreen, Pemberton, 
February 23, 1915, and inkberry, Whitesbog, 
N.. J.,,,.March 135.1916, JH. Bs Scammell: 
Chimaphila wmbellata (L.) Barton, Southold, 
N. Y., from E. P. Felt, October 1919; Gaylus- 
sacia frondosa (Wang) Torr. & Gray, Takoma 
Park, Md., Carlo Zeimet, August 6, 1922; Gel- 
semium sempervirens (L.) Ait, f.; Savannah, Ga., 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 10 


collected at Washington, D. C., W. T. Owrey, 
August 11, 1922; Gaylussacia baccata Wang 
and Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.?, 1922, Black 
Mountain, N. C., Carlo Zeimet, September 7, 
1922; Ilex sp., Glendale, Md., R. G. Cogswell, 
December 1923; undetermined host, Washing~- 
ton, D. C., W. B. Wood, July 26, 1927; Kalmia 
latifolia L., Washington, D. C., R. G. Cogswell, 
May 24, 1928; laurel, Washington, D. C., W. B. 
Wood, June 8, 1931; Chimaphila wmbellata (L.) 
Barton, Greensboro, Ind., W. B. Wood, April 
27, 1937; Pyrola sp., Canada, intercepted at 
Boston, Mass., J. T. Beauchamp, May 16, 
1940; Vaccinium corymbosum L., Pemberton, 
N. J., C. S. Beckwith, August 30 and Septem- 
ber 27 (including holotype), 1943; Chimaphila 
umbellata (L.) Barton, and Vaccinium vacillans 
Torr., Sligo Park, Silver Spring, Md., Louise 
M. Russell, November 6, 1943. 

The two available third-stage specimens lack 
submedian mesothoracic and metathoracic 
setae and have the vasiform orifice as in the 
pupae. 

This species is suspected of being a vector of 
the blueberry stunt virus disease. 


Aleuroplatus epigaeae, n. sp. 


Differing from A. plumosus as follows: Sub- 
median meso- and metathoracic setae absent. 
Caudal setae as near to submarginal teeth as to 
vasiform orifice. Abdominal minute setal bases 
inner subdorsal except on segment 3, often ab- 
sent from segments 5 and 6. Usually 1 pair of 
central subdorsal disk pores on metathorax; 
abdominal segments 6, 7, and sometimes 5 
without central subdorsal pores, 1 or 2 inner 
subdorsal pairs on each of segments 3-5, often 
only 1 submedian pair on segment 6; outer sub- 
median pair on any segment usually as near to 
inner subdorsal as to inner submedian pair. 
Vasiform orifice slightly more than its length 
from body margin, measuring 44—52y long and 
44-48 wide; tongue at end of orifice. 

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 56956. Silver Spring, 
Md., from Epigaea. 

Described from many unmounted specimens 
and 107 mounted ones as follows: Cranberry, 
Cranmoor, Wis., C. W. Hooker, October 7, 
1910 (see discussion under plumosus) ; Epigaea 
repens L., Reading, Pa., J. G. Sanders, May 17, 
1917; blueberry (in greenhouse), Washington, 


Ocr. 15, 1944 


D. C., H. L. Sanford, August 23, 1919; E. re- 
pens L., Mattituck, N. Y., Roy Latham, July 
18, 1920; wintergreen, Albany, N. Y., E. P. 
Felt, May 16, 1922; laurel, Washington, D. C., 
W. B. Wood, July 26, 1927, and R. G. Cogs- 
well, May 24, 1928; blueberry (in greenhouse), 
Washington, D. C., September 2, 1932; E. re- 
pens L., Prince Edward Island, New Bruns- 
wick, and Nova Scotia, Canada, intercepted at 
Boston, Mass., by J. T. Beauchamp, W. J. 
Ehinger, and E. Hodson, May 23, 1939, to May 
4, 1943; EH. repens L., Sligo Park, Silver Spring, 
Md., Louise M. Russell, November 6, 1943 (in- 
cluding holotype). 

In the lot containing the holotype, 2 third- 
stage specimens lack submedian mesothoracic 
and metathoracic setae; 2 apparently second- 
stage insects lack mesothoracic setae, but a 
metathoracic one is suggested on one half of 
one specimen and on each half of the other; in 
10 first-stage insects, mesothoracic and meta- 
thoracic setae are present but are much smaller 
than the cephalic ones. The vasiform orifice of 
the third-stage specimens is similar to that of 
the pupae. 

This species was abundant on some samples 
of Epigaea examined by the writer. It is rather 
similar to A. myricae. 


RIDDLE AND SCHOOLEY: PROGESTERONE 


341 


Aleuroplatus bignoniae, n. sp. 


Differing from A. plumosus as follows: Sub- 
median mesothoracic and metathoracic setae 
absent; caudal setae slightly farther apart than 
eighth abdominal ones and nearer to submar- 
ginal teeth than to orifice. Two pairs of central 
subdorsal minute setal bases on prothorax, 
abdominal ones usually nearer to inner than to 
central subdorsal disk pores except on segment 
3. One distinctly submedian pair of dorsal 
disk pores on each of abdominal segments 1-7; 
subdorsal abdominal ones unusually numerous, 
more or less grouped in inner, central, and outer 
subdorsum, the outer ones sometimes nearly 
indistinguishable from submarginal ones; ab- 
dominal segment 3 with 8-13 pairs, segment 4 
with 5-9 pairs, segment 5 with 4 or 5 pairs, 
segment 6 with 2-4 pairs, segment 7 with 1 
pair. Vasiform orifice around 56u long and 48 
wide; tongue located at end of orifice. 

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 56957. Brooksville, 
Fla., from Bignonia. 

Described from several unmounted speci- 
mens and six mounted ones from Bignonia sp., 
Brooksville, Fla., H. L. Sanford, Feb. 11, 1922. 

The one available third-stage specimen lacks 
meso- and metathoracic setae, and has the vasi- 
form orifice similar to that of the pupae. 


ZOOLOGY .—Tests indicating absence of progesterone un certain aman ovaries. 
OscaR RippLE and JAMES PLUMMER SCHOOLEY,? Carnegie Institution of 
Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. 


Histological evidence of the presence of 
luteal tissue in the ovary of fowl, and of 
some other birds, has been frequently as- 
serted and perhaps still more frequently 
denied. This subject was treated extensively 
by Fell (1925). In reptiles, however, histo- 
logical studies seem to have demonstrated 
the presence of a typical corpus luteum in 
some species and its absence in others. In 
certain viviparous lizards both macroscopic 
and microscopic evidence of corpora lutea 
was noted by Hett (1924), Weekes (1934), 
and Cunningham and Smart (1934). The 
last-named authors also noted the absence 
of corpora in oviparous lizards. Clausen 


1 Received June 24, 1944. 
2 Now director of Endocrine Laboratories, 
Difco Laboratories, Inc., Detroit, Mich. 


(1935) briefly reported important observa- 
tions on the presence, and on effects of re- 
moval (total ovariectomy), of ‘‘luteal’’ 
bodies in viviparous snakes. Fraenkel and 
Martins (1938) noted the presence, in preg- 
nant viviparous snakes, of bodies indistin- 
guishable from the corpora lutea of mam- 
mals and further showed that these 
corresponded in number to the ova or em- 
bryos present in the oviducts. At this stage 
in the development of the subject a short 
abstract of results of the present study was 
published. (Riddle and Schooley, 1938a). 

Further morphological studies on the 
corpora of viviparous snakes have been 
made by Rahn (1938; 1939) and Fraenkel 
and Martins (1939; 1940). Porto (1941) 
made crude ethanol extracts of such corpora 


342 


and showed that they contained progester- 
one. It should be noted that Porto’s tests 
were made by subcutaneous injection into 
immature rabbits to which 10 I.U. of estra- 
diol benzoate had been administered daily 
for eight days. Though relatively large 
amounts of progesterone are required for 
detection following subcutaneous injection, 
an extract from only 2.9 gm of corpora from 
pregnant snakes was shown to contain pro- 
gesterone. Slightly preceding this group of 
studies, McGinty, Anderson,. and McCul- 
logh (1938; 1939) developed a highly sensi- 
tive method by which as little as 0.25 to 
1 wg of crystalline progesterone may be de- 
tected. That method made it practicable 
to carry out the present study, since fowl 
and pigeon ovaries could be expected to 
contain only minute amounts of proges- 
terone. In Corner’s laboratory Haskins 
(1939) observed that as little as 0.25 gamma 
of progesterone, also the amount present 
in 0.2 cc serum from a pregnant guinea-pig, 
may be detected by the McGinty test. 
Later, Haskins (1940) reported important 
studies in which mitotic counts in the 
uterine epithelium were utilized to increase 
the sensitivity of the test, and also to make 
it usable for the quantitative assay of pro- 
gesterone. 

Besides contributing to our growing 
knowledge of progesterone production in 
Oviparous and viviparous vertebrates, it 
was hoped that the results of the present 
study might incidentally provide informa- 
tion bearing on the role of progesterone in 
the induction of broodiness in lower verte- 
brates. Noble, Kumpf, and Billings (1938) 
noted that progesterone, like prolactin, has 
the ability to induce broody behavior in 
normal and castrate jewelfish; and Riddle 
and Schooley (1938b) observed that some 
male and female ring doves could be made 
completely broody within 2 to 5 days by 
temporary implantation of pellets of pro- 
gesterone. If bird ovaries were found to con- 
tain much progesterone this would provide 
at least a possibility that this hormone may 
participate in the onset or regulation of 
broodiness; if bird ovaries were shown to 
contain no progesterone any physiologically 
significant role of this hormone in broodi- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 10 


ness would be rendered doubtful or ex- 
cluded. This question has not been defi- 
nitely answered, however, by the present 
study. It has been shown that properly 
conducted tests on three samples of bird 
ovaries, all of which were suitable for test 
(since they contained ovulated follicles in 
various early stages of regression and a few 
growing follicles), failed to show the minute 
amount of progesterone that is detectable 
by the McGinty test. 


MATERIAL 


Tests were made on a sample of rat — 
ovaries, a sample of pigeon ovaries, and on 
two samples of fowl ovaries. Each of the 
two samples of fowl ovaries, prepared for 
study of their progesterone content, was de- 
rived from three hens belonging to three dif- 
ferent breeds (Rhode Island Red, Plymouth 
Rock, White Rock); in all these breeds the 
hens are usually capable of becoming 
broody. These six laying hens, whose egg- 
laying records were accurately known for 
the previous five days, were removed from 
fenced-in ‘‘runs’” on an adjacent farm to 
similar ‘‘runs’’ at the laboratory three days 
before their ovaries were removed; trap- 
nest records were continued to the time of 
killing for samples. During this 3-day inter- 
val one group of three hens received no 
treatment except such as was incidentally 
connected with their change of habitat and 
food; though these changes usually dimin- 
ish egg production, laying was not im- 
mediately suppressed in either of these 
three birds and both unovulated follicles 
and ovulated follicles in various stages of 
regression were found in each of the three 
ovaries. Extract A was prepared from the 
ovaries of this group. Two of the three hens 
of the other group laid irregularly during 
the total of eight days for which trap-nest 
records were kept; each of these hens re- 
ceived 1,000 units (3.33 mg) of luteimizing 
hormone from pregnancy urine daily during 
the last three days, and although only one 
of them was definitely known to lay during 
this period (two eggs were laid outside the — 
trap-nest) rather recently emptied follicles 
were found at autopsy in all cases. Extract 
B was prepared from the ovaries of this 


Ocr. 15, 1944 


group. In all cases the walls of all ova (fol- 
licles) more than 2 mm diameter were slit 
open and the yolk contents eliminated from 
the sample. Thus 16.8 gm of ovarian tissue, 
including the thick walls of unovulated and 
of recently ovulated follicles, was the start- 
ing point for extract A, and 12.1 gm the 
source of extract B. These two samples of 


Ovarian tissue were then subjected to. 


Allen’s (1932) method for the preparation 
and purification of progesterone. Each ex- 
tract was injected into two rabbits, one of 
which (lower ones on table 1), however, re- 
ceived more than two-thirds of the prepara- 
tion. The McGinty method was followed 
closely with the exception that any pro- 
gesterone contained in our extracts was not 
in solution in peanut oil but in unseparated 
fatty material (soluble in methyl alcohol) 
from the bird’s own ovary. These tests were 
made during May-June. 

The pigeon ovaries selected for extraction 
and.study were obtained within 20 hours 
after the ovulation of the second ovum of 
the clutch. This period is practically coinci- 
dent with the onset of broodiness in pigeons, 
and the two ovulated follicles had, respec- 
tively, undergone 64 and 20 hours of regres- 
sion. 


RIDDLE AND SCHOOLEY: PROGESTERONE 


343 


Most of the rabbits used were of a large 
breed, New Zealand White. All were less 
than 2.0 months old when priming with 
estrone was started. 


RESULTS 


Table 1 gives details of the dosages used 
and the results of treatments. The data in- 
dicate that the simultaneous presence of 
some lipoid material other than progester- 
one—such as is contained in a crude methyl 
alcohol extract of brain tissue—did not 
measurably affect the sensitivity of the 
McGinty test for progesterone. Though the 
rabbits used gave positive tests with 1 yg 
progesterone, with or without admixture of 
the brain extract, two rabbits were wholly 
negative to extracts (A and B) from ap- 
proximately 10 gm of prepared fowl ovary; 
two other rabbits were wholly negative to 
slightly less than one-half that quantity of 
the extracts. A crude extract from only 120 
mg of luteinized rat ovary gave a reaction 
equal to that obtained with 1 or 2 ug of 
progesterone. The ‘“‘plus’ signs (+ to 
+++) of the table are not necessarily the 
same as those of previous workers; they 
represent degrees of stimulation observed in 
our tests. 


TABLE 1.—DatTa RELATING TO TESTS FOR PROGESTERONE IN HXTRACTS OF OVARIES OF FowL, PIGEONS, AND RATS BY 
INJECTION INTO UTERI OF IMMATURE RABBITS 


Material and quantity in ce injected into— 


Progestational proliferation 


Rabbit 
WeieBl Biche Horn Left horn Right Left 
cc cc 
963 4 wg progesterone.......... 0.2 Sesameyoleeniec ssn 0.2 +++ _ 
900 Extr. pigeon ovary!........ 0.2 Crude extr. brain?.... 0.2 - — 
Mies iIPartiextract Aen... sss. o: 0.25 2 wg progesterone..... (O)aal ~ ++ 
1695 Partiextract Bat. 4.2 sess. 0.2 1 wg progesterone..... 0.05 = + 
1075 Remainder extract A’...... 0.6 INORG a ee eee ok: —5 - 
1090 Remainder extract B4...... 0.5 INONGH aa ee —5 — 
1185 1 wg prog.-+brain extr...... 0.2 1 wg progesterone..... 0.1 ++ + 
1760 4 pg. prog.6-+brain extr..... 0.2 4 wg progesterone ..... 0.2 + +++ 
1250 0.1 Extr. rat ovary’...... 0.2 =P45 sear 


1 wg progesterone.......... 


1 Crude methyl alcohol extract (73 mg) of two pigeon ovaries (1.0 gm). 

2 Similar crude methy] alcohol extract (50 mg) of brain of pigeons. 

3 The smaller dose (0.25 cc) represented 30 percent, and the larger dose (0.6 cc) 70 percent, of the total ‘‘progesterone fraction” 
obtained from 16.8 gm of fowl ovaries. 

4 The smaller dose (0.2 cc) represented 29 percent, and the larger dose (0.5 cc) 71 percent, of the total ‘progesterone fraction’”’ 
obtained from 12.1 gm of ovaries from treated fowl. 

5 The isolated loop of the uterus was distended with purulent fluid. 

6 A considerable fraction of this material was lost at injection. 

7 The injected material (not weighed) was a crude, methyl alcohol extract of 120 mg of rat ovary heavily luteinized with a preps- 
ration from pregnancy urine. 


344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 10 


Fig. 1.—Left horn of rabbit uterus (control) injected with 0.2 ce sesame oil. No progestational 
proliferation. Fig. 2.—Right horn of rabbit uterus injected with lug progesterone-+brain extract 
(0.2 cc). Well-marked progestational proliferation. Fig. 3.—Right horn of rabbit uterus injected 
with extract A (0.6 cc) from 11.7 gm fowl ovaries. Distention but no progestational proliferation. 
Fig. 4.—Right horn of rabbit uterus injected with extract B (0.5 ec) from 8.6 gm of ovaries from fowl 
treated for three days with human pregnancy urine. Distention but no progestational proliferation. 
Fig. 5.—Right horn of rabbit uterus injected with extract B (0.2 cc) from 3.5 gm of ovaries from fowl 
treated for three days with human pregnancy urine. No progestational proliferation. Fig. 6.—Left 
horn of rabbit uterus injected with crude extract of 120 mg rat ovary luteinized with human pregnancy 
urine. Well-marked progestational proliferation. 


Ocr. 15, 1944 


The condition of several uteri following 
treatment with extracts of various types of 
ovaries is shown in Figs. 2-6. A control 
uterus, injected with sesame oil only (Fig. 1) 
ard three of the uteri treated with extracts 
A and B (Figs. 3-5) show no progestational 
proliferation. A uterus treated with 1 ug 
progesterone+ brain extract (Fig. 2), and 
another treated with extract of rat ovary 
(Fig. 6), show such proliferation clearly. 


DISCUSSION 


The studies of Fraenkel and Martins, and 
of Porto, seem to have demonstrated that 
corpora lutea and progesterone (i.e., a sub- 
stance able to induce progestational pro- 
liferation) are produced in some viviparous 
reptiles. It was thus made evident. that 
vertebrates both lower and higher than 
birds are capable of producing luteal cells 
and progesterone. The fact that some famz- 
lies of lizards and snakes contain both ovip- 
arous and viviparous species—and that the 
viviparous forms are presumably derived 
from oviparous ancestors—suggests that a 
latent capacity to produce this hormone may 
be widespread among exclusively oviparous 
forms, such as birds. Indeed, it may now be 
regarded as probable that a wide distribu- 
tion of thatlatent capacity wasa prerequisite 
for the origin and success of intrauterine 
embryonic development in several unrelated 
genera of reptiles and in (early) mammals. 
Perhaps only special endocrine and ovi- 
ducal states or conditions can convert this 
latent capacity into the actual formation of 
luteal cells (and of progesterone production 
in detectable amounts) in oviparous birds, 
and certainly not all these states or condi- 
tions were subjected to test in this investi- 
gation. The present study is a contribution 
to this problem since, for the first time, the 
ovaries of two oviparous species have been 
tested for the presence or absence of proges- 
terone. Tests on other species and reproduc- 
tive states will require several additional in- 
vestigations. All that is claimed for the 
present study is that the ovaries utilized by 
us were shown to contain either no proges- 
terone or an amount which is relatively in- 
significant in comparison with that found in 
ovaries of mammals. 


RIDDLE AND SCHOOLEY: PROGESTERONE 


345 


The apparent ability of progesterone to 
induce broodiness in some fishes (Noble, 
Kumpf, and Billings, 1938) and _ birds 
(Riddle and Schooley, 1938b; Riddle and 
Lahr, 1944), and its similar ability to ini- 
tiate maternal behavior in rats (Riddle, 
Lahr, and Bates, 1942), provided a special 
reason for interest in the outcome of our 
search for progesterone in the ovaries of 
fowl and pigeons. If progesterone is a sub- 
stance directly concerned in the release of 
broodiness, and not merely one of a variety 
of substances having ability to cause the 
pituitary to release the directly effective 
hormone (Riddle, Lahr, and Bates, 1942), 
it should be possible to obtain detectable 
amounts of progesterone from the bird 
ovary. The absence of such amounts of that 
hormone in the present tests provides an 
item of evidence, inconclusive though it is, 
that progesterone is not directly involved in 
the initiation of broody behavior. 


SUMMARY 


The sensitive McGinty test showed that 
a crude extract of 120 mg of luteinized rat 
ovary contained more than sufficient pro- 
gesterone to produce definite progestational 
proliferation in the uterus of an immature 
rabbit. 

Partly purified extracts from 11.7 gm 
(also from 5.1 gm) of ovarian tissue from 
three laying hens, and similar extracts from 
8.6 gm (also from 3.5 gm) of ovaries of 
three such hens treated over three days with 
3,000 units of luteinizing hormone from 
pregnancy urine, did not contain an amount 
of progesterone detectable by theMcGinty 
test. A test made with a crude extract from 
two pigeon ovaries (1.0 gm) taken at 20 
hours after ovulation of the second egg of 
the clutch was likewise negative. 

Since 0.25 to 1.0 wg of crystalline proges- 
terone, and also the amount of progesterone 
present in 0.2 cc of serum from a pregnant 
guinea-pig, are detectable by this method, 
it is concluded that fowl and pigeon ovaries 
in the reproductive phases tested by us con- 
tain either no progesterone or a relatively 
insignificant amount in comparison with 
that found in ovaries of mammals and some 
viviparous snakes. 


346 


It is noted that these results have bearing 
upon questions involved in the numerous 
independent origins of viviparity in families 
of higher vertebrates, and also upon the 
possibility that progesterone participates in 
the normal induction of broodiness in birds. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Auten, W. M. The preparation of progestin. 
Journ. Biol. Chem. 98: 591. 1932. 

CLAUSEN, H. J. The effects of ovariotomy and 
hypophysectomy on parturition in snakes. 
Anat. Rec. (Suppl.) 64: 88. 1935. 

CUNNINGHAM, J. T., and Smart, W. A. M. 
The structure and origin of corpora lutea in 
some of the lower vertebrates. Proc. Roy. 
Soc. London 116B (798): 258. 1934. 

Feit, H. B. The relationship of the ‘luteal’ 
cells of the ovary of the fowl to the tissue 
occupying the atretic and discharged follicles, 
and the question of the homology of the latter 
tissue and the mammalian corpus luteum. 
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 69: 591. 1925. 

FRAENKEL, L., and Martins, T. Sur le corp 
jaune des serpents vivipares. Compt. 
Rend. Soc. Biol. 127: 466. 1988. 

——_——_———.. Estudos sobre a fisiologia sexual 
das serpents. Mem. Inst. Butantan 13: 
393. 1939. 

and Metutio, R. F. Studies on 
the pregnancy of viviparous snakes. Endo- 
crinology 27: 836. 1940. 

Hett, J. Das corpus luteum der Zauneidechse 
(Lacerta agilis). Zeit. mikr. Anat. 
Forsch. 1: 41. 1924. 

Haskins, A. L. Jr. Assay of progesterone by 
intra-uterine application in the rabbit. 
Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med. 42: 624. 
1939. 

. Modification of the intrauterine assay 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 10 


method for progesterone. 
27: 983. 1940. 
McGinty, D. A., ANDERSON, L. P., and Mc- 
Cututoen, N. B. Effect of local applica- 
tion of progesterone on the rabbit uterus. 
Amer. Journ. Physiol. (Proc.) 123: 133. 
1938. 


Endocrinology 


. Effect of local application of 
progesterone on the rabbit uterus. Endo- 
crinology 24: 829. 1939. 

Nose, G. K., Kumpr, K. F., and Briurnes, 
V.N. The induction of brooding behavior 
in the jewel fish. Endocrinology 23: 353. 
1938. 

Porto, A. Sobre a presenca de progesterona no 
corpo amarelo de serpentes ovovivipares. 
Mem. Inst. Butantan 15: 27. 1941. 

Raun, H. The corpus lutewm of reptiles. 
Anat. Rec. (Suppl.) 72: 55. 19388. 

. Structure and function of placenta and 
corpus luteum in viviparous snakes. Proce. 
Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med. 40: 381. 1939. 

Ripp1e, O., and Laur, E. L. On broodiness of 
ring doves following implants of certain 
steroid hormones. Endocrinology 35. 1944. 

and Batrs, R. W. The role of 
hormones in the initration of maternal be- 
havior in rats. Amer. Journ. Physiol. 137: 
299. 1942. 

RippueE, O., and ScHoouny, J. P. Tests in- 
dicating absence of progesterone in fowl 
ovary. Anat. Rec. (Suppl.) 62: 59. 
1938a. | 

. Hormonal basis of maternal be- 
havior and broodiness. Carnegie Inst. 
Washington Year Book 37: 56. 1938b. 

WerEKES, H. C. On the distribution, habitat 
and reproductive habits of certain Huropean 
and Australian snakes and lizards with par- 
ticular regard to their adoption and adaptiv- 
ity. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales 
59: 380. 1934. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


559TH MEETING 


The 559th meeting was held in the Auditori- 
um of the Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on Thurs- 
day, January 13, 1944. The retiring President, 
STERLING B. Henpricks, Bureau of Plant In- 
dustry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, 
U. 8. Department of Agriculture, spoke on 
Polymer chemistry of silicates, borates, and phos- 
phates. This address was published in this 
JOURNAL 34(8): 241-251. 1944. 


560TH MEETING 
The 560th meeting was held in the Auditori- 


um of the Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on Thurs- 
day, February 10, 1944. Donald B. Keyes, pro- 
fessor of chemical engineering, University of 
Illinois, and chief of the Chemical Industries 
Branch of the Office of Production Research 
and Development, War Production Board, 
spoke on The chemical side of the Davis-Keyes 
mission to London. 


561st MEETING 
The 561st meeting was held in the Statler 
Hotel on Thursday, March 9, 1944, at 7:30 
p.M. This was the annual dinner meeting of 
the Society. The Hillebrand Prize for 1943 was 
awarded to B. H. Nico.tetT, Bureau of Dairy 


Oor. 15, 1944 


Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, in 
recognition of his work on cysteine, threonine, 
and serine. The speaker of the evening was 
Mitton Harris, of the Textile Foundation. 
His subject was Polymer chemistry of wool. 


562p MEETING 


The 562d meeting was held in the Auditor- 
ium of the Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on Thurs- 
day, April 13, 1944. Henry Eyrine, professor 
of chemistry, Princeton University, spoke on 
The effects of pressure, temperature, and certain 
narcotics on bioluminescence. 


563p MEETING 


The 563d meeting was held in the Arts and 
Science Building of the University of Mary- 
land, College Park, Md., on Thursday, May 
11, 1944, at 8:15 p.m. Following a brief, gen- 
eral meeting, divisional programs were pre- 
sented as follows: 


Biochemistry, DEAN BuURK, presicing 

A chemical and physiological study of mimo- 
sine, a new alpha-amino acid in Leucaena 
glauca. RutH K. Yosuipa (Bureau of Plant 
Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineer- 
ing). 

The determination of estrone in blood. F. P. 
VeiTcH, Jr., and H. S. Martone (Georgetown 
University). 

On the mode of action of lipooxidase. MARIAN 
W. Kiss (Department of Biochemistry, George 
Washington University). 


Inorganic and analytical chemistry, 
CHARLES E. WHITE, presiding 


Low-fluorine calcium phosphates for agricul- 


OBITUARIES 


347 


final uses: W. Hann, Bh. J. Fox-and.D,; 8. 
REYNOLDS (Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, 
and Agricultural Engineering. 

The determination of the optical constants of 
single microscopical crystals. CHARLES P. Say- 
Lor (National Bureau of Standards). 

Visual qualitative analysis with the electric 
arc. M. J. Prrerson, J. D. RicHarps, and 
M. F. SaHerrren (Bureau of Mines). 


Organic chemistry, H. 8. IsBELL, presiding 


The development of indicators for acidity and 
basicity 1n hydrocarbons and other oganic solv- 
ents. Marion E. McLean (National Bureau of 
Standards). 

The thermal decomposition of acetaldehyde. 
F. O. Rick and Mary Tuomas Murpuy 
(Catholic University of America). 

Synthesis in the porison-iwy field. Howarp 8. 
Mason (U.S. Public Health Service). 


Physical chemistry, T. 1. TAYLorR, presiding 


The application of the rlkovic equation to 
quantitative polarography. FLoyp BucKLEY and 
JoHN K. Taytor (National Bureau of Stand- 
ards). 

Equilibrium constants of some reactions in- 
volved in the production of 1, 3-butadiene. F. G. 
BRICKWEDDE, H. W. Woo.uey, and M. Mos- 
kow (National Bureau of Standards). 

The thermodynamics and molecular vibration 
frequencies and internal rotation in propane. 
KENNETH PITZER. 

The separation and recovery of aromatic hy- 
drocarbons from paraffins and naphthenes by ad- 
sorption. BrEvERIDGE J. Marr and ALPHONSE 
ForziaTi (National Bureau of Standards). 


@bituaries 


GEORGE STEIGER, retired chief chemist of the 
U. S. Geological Survey, died in Washington, 
D. C., on April 18, 1944, after an illness of 
many months. Born in Columbia, Pa., on May 
27,1869, he was brought to Washington in early 
childhood by his parents. His primary educa- 
tion, obtained in the public schools of this city, 
was followed by attendance at Columbian Col- 
lege, now George Washington University, 
where he received the bachelor of science and 
master of science degrees in 1890 and 1892, re- 
spectively. In this latter year he joined the staff 


of the U. 8. Geological Survey as a chemist. 
His work, in collaboration with and under the 
guidance of Dr. W. F. Hillebrand, produced a 
wealth of carefully prepared rock and mineral 
analyses and did much to standardize analyti- 
cal procedure in inorganic chemistry. In 1916 
he was made Chief Chemist and served in that 
position until 1930, when, upon his own re- 
quest, he was relieved of the duties of adminis- 
tration in order to devote full time to research 
work in spectrography, which he continued un- 
til his retirement in 1939. 


A 


348 


Until failing health in his later years forced 
upon him curtailment of physical activity, 
Steiger had been a devotee of pursuits that 
brought him in close contact with the woods 
and waters around Washington. Chief among 
these was boating. He was the proud owner of 
a houseboat and several motor-driven boats, 
which were berthed on the old Chesapeake and 
Ohio Canal and the Potomac River. A charter 
member of the Sycamore Island Boat Club, he 
was ever ready to tell of his experiences in 
camping and boating along the Potomac and 
the canal. 

Mr. Steiger never married. His life was char- 
acterized by a simplicity that resolved itself 
into a philosophy of kindliness and gentleness, 
winning for him a host of friends both within 
and without his profession. _ 

In addition to being a charter member of the 
Geological Society of Washington, founded in 
1892, and a member of the American Chemical 
Society, for more than 50 years, he was a fellow 
of the Mineralogical Society of America and 
the American Association for the Advancement 
of Science. He was a member of the Washing- 
ton Academy of Sciences, the American Insti- 
tute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, 
and the Cosmos Club. 

JosEPH J. FAHEY. 


Rocer Cuiark WELLS, chief chemist of the 
U.S. Geological Survey, died unexpectedly on 
April 19, 1944, only a few hours after the death 
of George Steiger, retired chief chemist. 

Dr. Wells was born at Peterboro, N. Y., on 
October 24, 1877, son of Byron Wells and Lucy 
(Clark) Wells. He graduated from Harvard in 
1901 and received his doctorate there three 
years later, working on the atomic weights of 
sodium and of chlorine, under T. W. Rich- 
ards. This early training in exact analytical 
chemistry is reflected in all his later analyses, 
all done with meticulous attention to accuracy. 
After holding instructorships at Harvard and 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 10 


Pennsylvania Universities, and serving a year 
as research chemist with the General Electric 
Co., he was appointed physical chemist on the 
Geological Survey in 1908, becoming chief 
chemist in 1930. | 

Probably because of his early work on the 
atomic weight of sodium, he always retained a 
strong interest in that element and became 
mineral resources specialist on soda and sodium 
compounds. Later, with R. E. Stevens, he de- 
veloped methods for the separation and deter- 
mination of the rare alkalies. 

His contact with the mineralogical work of 
the Geological Survey evoked a strong interest 
in the chemical composition of minerals, es- 
pecially those containing the less common ele- 
ments, resulting in a number of difficult analy- 
ses of minerals of complex composition. The 
lead-uranium ratio in minerals, as an index of 
geologic age, fascinated him and for several 
decades he served on the National Research 
Council Committee on Measurement of Geo- 
logic Time, as well as on several other commit- 
tees of the Council. 

Dr. Wells was a member of many scientific 
societies, among them the Washington Acad- 
emy of Sciences in which he served as vice-pres- 
ident in 1923 and 1938. He was president of 
both the Chemical and Geological Societies of 
Washington and a member and former elder 
of the Chevy Chase Presbyterian Church. In 
1914 he married Etta May Card, of Syracuse, 
N. Y., who, with two sons, Arthur Byron and 
Roger Clark, survives him. 

In recent years the administration of an ‘n- 
creased chemical force, with urgent war de- 
mands for a greatly increased output, placed a 
heavy burden on Wells.. Yet he remained the 
same kindly, cheerful, and conscientious leader, 
with no indication to his associates of the strain 
under which he, was working. Ill but a week, 
his sudden death is a reflection of that strain. 


W. T. SCHALLER. 


Ara 


and Pe F. emmncr 


Pi 


ull from 


Botany. —Aaditonal : ecords of aquatic ry omye te 


ae 


- Zoouoey. —Tests indicating eee o! p oge ste é 
ovaries. Oscar RippLeE and JAMES Pi UMMER 8 OO 


jp Be CY : 
,, ie 3 Now No. 11 
FA * 
Comes BOARD OF EDITORS 
oPER =—s—(‘<i‘s)”sCO#C@LE is: V.. JUDSON : Haraup A. Reapr. ; 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 34 


NoveEMBER 15, 1944 


No: 11 


 PALEOBOTANY.—Temperate species in the Eocene flora of the southeastern 


United States.! 


The Eocene flora of the southeastern 
United States, collected from sediments de- 
posited along the ancient, coastal margin 
of the land, has been interpreted as a sub- 
tropical, chiefly strand, lagoon, and bayou 
flora. This conclusion is inferred from the 
character of its composition, which included 
types of ferns, palms, and dicotyledons, 
whose living counterparts or relatives are 
adapted to life at or near sea level in the 
tropics and subtropics. Roughly 80 per cent 
of the dicotyledons had leaves with entire 
margins, confirming, according to the 
Bailey and Sinnott (1915) formula, the inter- 
pretation based on composition. ‘‘There is 
not a single strictly temperate type in the 
whole assemblage,’ says Berry (1916, p. 
136), “‘the nearest approach to such types 
being the genera Juglans, Myrica, Magnolza, 
Cercis, Ilex, Nyssa, and Frazxinus. 

The purpose of this paper is not to dispute 
the general conclusion just stated but to 
call attention to some specimens that I 
believe have hitherto been misidentified and 
that may have originated from trees grow- 
ing under temperate conditions inland from 
the coast, perhaps along streams in the 
foothills of the Eocene Appalachians. These 
relatively rare specimens include species of 
Fagus, Sassafras, and Staphylea. Other 
genera, with temperate rather than sub- 
tropical implications, are listed in the EKo- 
cene column of Table 7 in Cain’s (1943) 
paper discussing the Tertiary aspect of the 
present temperate forests of the Great 
Smoky Mountains National Park. Many 
of these genera are represented only by 


1 Published by permission of the Director, 
Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the In- 
terior. Received June 19, 1944. 


Ro.Lanp W. Brown, U.S. Geological Survey. 


fragmentary leaves, fruits, or seeds, and 
their identifications at best are largely con- 
jectural. Of Salix, Quercus (except Dryophyl- 
lum), Celtis, and Platanus (of the occiden- 
talis type) I find no authentic fossil record, 
and the leaf called Cercis wilcoriana Berry 
represents Cercidiphyllum arcticum (Heer) 
Brown. The presence of Cladrastis, Prunus, 
Ilex, Aralia, and Cornus is, it seems to me, 
based on specimens that need further con- 
firmation before they can be cited as re- 
liable evidence of the existence of those 
genera in the Eocene flora of the south- 
eastern States. 

Despite these criticisms all the temperate 
genera listed by Cain were most likely pres- 
ent in the Eocene inland and upland forest. 
Their absence from the fossil record may be 
explained by their having lived on sites un- 
favorable to the preservation of their re- 
mains, and to the destruction of such re- 
mains before reaching suitable sedimentary 
basins near the coast. Even so, an occasional 
fortunate accident may have preserved a 
leaf or a seed that now awaits discovery by 
more thorough search of the fossil-bearing 
strata. 

Whether a Tertiary flora may be ad- 
judged subtropical or temperate depends 
upon a sane application of the assumption 
that, in general, Tertiary species had habi- 
tat and climatic requirements similar or 
nearly similar to their modern equivalents. 
The critical point here, of course, is the 
accurate determination of the existing 
equivalents, if any; for, even if fossils are 
correctly identified generically, the mis- 
identification of their specific living equiva- 
lents may lead to erroneous conclusions as 
to habitat and climate. The modern North 


349 


350 


American correlatives of the fossil species 
about to be treated are wide-ranging in the 
temperate zone, but none reaches the Tropic 
of Cancer except species of Acer, Carpinus, 
and Staphylea at moderate to high altitudes 
in Mexico and Central America. These, 
however, can hardly be called indicative or 
representative of a subtropical climate in 
the ordinary sense. 

In a previous paper (Brown, 1940, p. 351) 
I discussed Acer knowltoni (Berry) Brown 
from Eocene deposits near Somerville, 
Fayette County, Tenn. This maple is repre- 
sented by asymmetric leaflets and charac- 
teristic samaras, which suggest comparison 
with the living boxelder maple, Acer ne- 
gundo Linnaeus. Moreover, these fossils are 
associated with those hereinafter described 
as Staphylea splendens (Berry) Brown just 
as their living counterparts may be found 
associated today, thus strengthening the 
conviction that a maple of the negundo type 
is correctly identified as present in that 
Eocene flora. The absence of authentic 
Salicaceae and Betulaceae from the Eocene 
floras of the southeastern States would seem 
inexplicable if other predominantly tem- 
perate genera like Acer, Sassafras, and 
Staphylea were present. In 1942, however, in 
a collection made by F. S. MacNeil, of the 
U. S. Geological Survey, on the Taylor 
farm, Chester County, Tenn., I found well- 
preserved portions of betulaceous leaves 
having the pinnate secondary venation and 
the doubly serrate or serrulate margin char- 
acteristic of most Betulaceae. Examples of 
other missing temperate genera will doubt- 
less be found as collectors become aware of 
the possibilities. 


Fagus aspera (Berry) Brown, n. comb. 
Diospyros asper Berry, U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. 
Paper 156: 127, pl. 25, fig. 32. 1930. 

In 1937 I found several more specimens of 
the kind described by Berry as calyces of 
Diospyros asper at the same locality on Mili 
Creek, Hardeman County, Tenn. These fossils 
received the specific name asper because their 
outer surface 1s conspicuously roughened by 
pointed, short prickles or papillae. Although 
D. asper was compared with the calyces of D. 
lanceolata Roxburgh, from India, and with a 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vot. 34, No. 11 


fossil, D. rugosa Saporta, from the Oligocene of 
southeastern France, the comparisons upon 
closer inspection fail to be convincing. The 
rugosity of the living and fossil species cited 
consists chiefly of cross-wrinkles or striae and 
not of papillae. No living species of Diospyros, 
so far as I am aware, has calyces with papillose 
rugosity. On the other hand, the fossils can be 
matched very well with the 4-parted burs of 
Fagus. 

Associated with these likely burs of Fagus 
are leaves hitherto called Dryophyllum tennes- 
seensis Berry. There seems to be no doubt that 
these leaves belong to the Fagaceae, but they 
are sufficiently different from those of living 
species of Fagus to arouse caution before assign- 
ing them to that genus. The leaves, moreover, 
have been found abundantly at other localities 
where no burs of Fagus have yet been taken. 
Consequently, more exploration seems indi- 
cated before a conclusion can be reached as to 
the organic relationship of the leaves and burs. 

Occurrence—On Mill Creek, Hardeman 
County, Tenn. 


Sassafras suspectum Brown, n. sp. 


Sterculia wilcozensis Berry, U. S. Geol. Survey 
Prof. Paper 156: 107, pl. 26; pl. 27, fig. 5 
[not other references]. 1930. 


The leaves referred to here, described and 1l- 
lustrated by Berry, despite general resem- 
blances seem to me to differ in important re- 
spects from the remainder hitherto synony- 
mized with Sterculia wilcozensis. The latter have 
wide, open sinuses between the relatively nar- 
row, pointed lobes, and the midveins of the 
lateral lobes display a tendency to spread away 
from rather than to converge toward the apex. 
I can match the former easily by leaves from 
Sassafras; but I know of no living leaves that 
compare readily with the latter. If these also 
are Sassafras they should be kept distinct from 
the former. 

These leaves are somewhat larger than those 
of the Tertiary species described from the 
northwestern States. In general appearance 
they also resemble some leaves of Artocarpus 
pungens (Lesquereux) Hollick, but the lobes of 
the latter are sharp-pointed. 

Occurrence.—Railroad cut at Pine Top, Har- 
deman County, Tenn. 


Nov. 15, 1944 BROWN: EOCENE FLORA OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES 


Staphylea splendens (Berry) Brown, n. comb. 

Euonymus splendens Berry, U. S. Geol. Survey 
Prof. Paper 91: 267, pl. 61, fig. 6; pl. 62, 
figs. 1-5. 1916. 

Hicoria crescentia Knowlton. Berry, U. S. Geol. 
Survey Prof. Paper 156: 59, pl. 34, figs. 1-5. 
1930. 

The first specimens described as Euonymus 
splendens were single detached leaves which 
aroused no suspicions of their being leaflets, al- 
though the describer noted that they were 
slightly inequilateral and bore some resem- 
blance to AHicoria antiquorum (Newberry) 
Knowlton. In 1930, Berry reported compound 
leaves from Somerville, Tenn., as Hicoria 
crescentia Knowlton, on the basis of resem- 
blance to a very fragmentary specimen de- 
scribed by Knowlton from Eocene strata in 
Yellowstone National Park. Whether Knowl- 
ton’s specimen was correctly identified even 
generically is a moot question, but the leaflets 
of the Berry specimens of both species, as may 
be seen by comparing the illustrations, resemble 
. one another so closely that I venture to believe 
they represent but one species. 

In 1937 I visited Grand Junction and 
Somerville, Tenn., the chief localities from 
which the Berry specimens came and made 
collections containing additional material which 
convinces me that these specimens need reallo- 
cation. The outstanding facts about the com- 
pound leaves are that all are trifoliate, and all 
the leaflets have relatively long petiolules. 
Neither of these facts harmonizes with the as- 
signment of the leaves to Huonymus or Hicoria, 
but they are consonant with an interpretation 
as Staphylea. 

Unfortunately, none of the characteristic 
bladdery pods of Staphylea has yet been found 
in the Tennessee localities to confirm this iden- 
tification. Collectors should be on the alert for 
them. 

This species resembles closely Staphylea 
acuminata Lesquereux (1878, p. 267, pl. 48, figs. 


4, 5) from the lake beds at Florissant, Colo., but | 


351 


in the Florissant specimens the petiolules of the 
side leaflets are very short, thus harmonizing 
more closely with the existing species, S. trifolia 
Linnaeus, of the eastern United States. 

In general form, venation, and marginal den- 
tition these leaves are similar to some called 
Euonymus glandiferus Ball (1931, p. 85, pl. 6, 
figs. 1, 2, 4; pl. 7, fig. 1) from the Indio forma- 
tion of Texas. The latter, however, differ 
uniquely in having prominent glands in the an- 
gles made by the secondary veins with the mid- 
vein and about 5 mm from the midvein. At 
present I have no opinion as to the propriety of 
assigning the Indio specimens to Huonymus. 

Occurrence-—One mile north of Somerville, 
Fayette County, Tenn.; one mile south of 
Grand Junction, Hardeman County, Tenn. 


REFERENCES 


Batuey, I. W.,andSinnortt, E.W. A botanical 
index of Cretaceous and Tertiary climates. 
Science, n. ser., 41: 831-834. 1915. 

Batu, O. M. A contribution to the paleobotany - 
of the Eocene of Texas. 1. Bull. Agr. and 
Mech. College Texas, ser. 4,2 (5). 19381. 

. Ibid. 2. Bull. Agr. and Mech. College 
Texas, ser. 4, 10 (3). 1939. 

Berry, E. W. The lower Eocene floras of 
southeastern North America. U.S. Geol. 
Survey Prof. Paper 91. 1916. 

. Additions to the flora of the Wilcox 

group. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

1315 4—Dir 9 1922; 

. Revision of the lower Eocene Wilcox 

flora of the southeastern States. U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 156. 1930. 

. Additions to the Wilcox flora from 
Kentucky and Texas. U.S. Geol. Survey 
Prof. Paper 198: 83-99. 1941. 

Brown, R. W. New species and changes of 
name im some American fossil floras. 
Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 30: 344- 
356. 1940. 

Cain, S. R. The Tertiary character of the cove 
hardwood forests of the Great Smoky Moun- 
tains National Park. Torrey Bot. Club 
Bull. 70: 213-235. 1943. 

LESQUEREUX, Lro. The Tertiary flora. U.S. 

Geol. Survey Terr. Rept. 7. 1878. 


302 


MYCOLOGY.—“Oedema,”’ or “‘wart,”’ of cultivated violet identified as scab. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 11 


ANNA 


E. JENKINS, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering.? 3 


This article reports the recent identifica- 
tion of ‘‘oedema,”’ or ‘‘wart,’’ of violet 
(Viola odorata L.) as the Sphaceloma disease 
now known as scab of violet (11). The 
work has involved historical research that 
has led to a better orientation of the almost 
unknown account of the ‘‘oedema,’’ or 
‘““wart,’’ published in 1899, as well as to a 
more complete documentation of what ap- 
pears to be the only representative speci- 
men. The existence of these early records 
was ascertained in 1932, during a prelimi- 
nary study (12) of the scab. At that time, 
however, material was insufficient to per- 
mit the tracing of this fungus malady to the 
‘““oedema.’’ As the name connotes, this was 
thought to be of physiologic origin. Recent- 
ly, when it became a question of identifying 
the ‘‘oedema”’ as scab, ample material of 
the scab was available for comparison. As- 
sembled from various places and represent- 
ing the disease on wild, as well as cultivated, 
violet (10, 11), these specimens show the 
range of symptoms that may be exhibited 
by this highly disfiguring and destructive 
disease. 7 


1 Received July 12, 1944. 

2 This paper was presented at the meeting of 
the Potomac Branch of the American Phytopatho- 
logical Society held at the Plant Industry Station, 
Beltsville, Md., on February 23-24, 1944. The 
abstract will be published in Phytopathology. 

3 Certain historical facts reported in this arti- 
cle, not available from other sources, were ob- 
tained over a period of years in various personal 
conferences with Drs. B. T. Galloway and A. F. 
Woods and Messrs. W. E. Taylor, David Bissett, 
and J. W. Byrnes as former or present members 
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. During 
the period with which this paper deals, Dr. Gal- 
loway was chief of the Division of Vegetable Pathol- 
ogy, renamed in 1895 (4, p. 169) the Division of 
Vegetable Physiology and Pathology (16). Dr. 
Woods joined Dr. Galloway’s staff as physiologist 
in 1893 (16). In the same year Mr. Taylor entered 
the division as Dr. Galloway’s clerical assistant. 
The two greenhouse floriculturists, Messrs. Bis- 
sett and Byrnes, in 1904 and 1906, respectively, 
became members of the Bureau of Plant Industry 
in which the ‘‘Department’s work on plants was 
consolidated” in 1901 (15, p. 197) with Galloway 
as chief. It is a pleasure to acknowledge here the 
helpful assistance freely given at one time or 
another during the present study by all those 
mentioned. It is proper to mention that Dr. 
Woods was in attendance during the morning ses- 
sion, February 23, when this paper was presented. 


The account of the oedema now comes to 
the fore not only as the first known record 
of violet scab, but also as one of the few 
Sphaceloma diseases encountered in the 
United States during the early phytopatho- 
logical period. It may be stated, then, that 
through the effort herein recorded another 
advance has been made in the reconstruc- 
tion of the history of plant diseases caused 
by Sphaceloma. This paper elaborates upon 
an aspect of early pathological history 
emanating from the U. 8. Department of 
Agriculture, although barely apparent in 
its annals. 


HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 


Extraordinary interest in violets at the 
turn of the century is expressed in the 
separate section entitled ‘Violets’ in Dr. 
Galloway’s first annual report as chief of 
the Bureau of Plant Industry (6, p. 89, also 
see 14). The pertinent passage from Gallo- 
way is quoted as follows: 


As a result of the demand for the violet and the 
price which it commands in the market, nearly 
every person interested in a general supply of cut 
flowers, grows or attempts to grow violets, while 
many others make violet culture their specialty. 
and main dependence. In consequence of the 
many failures which are annually reported in this 
line, the work of the Experimental Gardens and 
Grounds has been extended to include a test of 
methods of culture and varieties of violets best 
suited to commercial growing. As a beginning in 
this direction two houses have been erected and 
so arranged that the various conditions of soil, 
heat, and moisture demanded by the violet can 
be studied. A variety collection, comprising all of 
the commercial sorts of both the United States 
and Europe, has been brought together for the 
purpose of determining their fitness for commer- 
cial work and their value as parent stock for new 
varieties. 


Throughout his earlier chiefship of the 
phytopathological division already named, 
Dr. Galloway was actively concerned with 
diseases of violets grown under glass. This 
is shown by brief mention of the subject in 
most of his annual reports for the period, 
viz., 1890-1900. 

Investigations of violet diseases were car- 


Nov. 15, 1944 sJmNKINS: ‘OEDEMA,’ OR ‘‘WART,” OF CULTIVATED VIOLET 


ried out by the division not only in the 
laboratory and. ‘‘Department greenhouse”’ 
(cf. 3, p. 11), but also in certain violet 
houses at Garrett Park, Montgomery 
County, Md.* (cf. 3, p. 11). These were 
built about 1894-95 by Dr. Galloway and 
_P. H. Dorsett® and were privately owned 
and operated by them until about 1898; 
thereafter solely by Dorsett. At Dorsett’s 
request about 1900 the violet houses were 
purchased by Mr. Bissett. He had received 
exceptional training in floriculture and had 
had wide experience in violet culture. In 
part, the original violet houses were de- 
stroyed by fire about 1904 (7, p. 237); Mr. 
Bissett constructed others, again in Garrett 
Park, and there continued with his specialty 
until about 1930. The blooms produced in 
his houses commanded the highest prices in 
large city markets and members of the 
Bureau familiar with the work still attest to 
their exceptional beauty, size, and fragrance. 
He has been, therefore, deservedly regarded 
as one of the most outstanding specialists 
in violet culture. , 


GALLOWAY’S TREATISE ON VIOLET CULTURE 


Galloway’s book on Commercial violet 
culture, published in three editions (5), com- 
memorates his and Dorsett’s experience in 
growing violets under glass. To quote from 
the preface to the first edition (5, 1899): 

“IT wish to express my thanks to Mr. P. H. 
Dorsett, who shared with me all the trials 
and vexations which fall to the lot of the 
beginners in this work. He is now a success- 
ful grower and many of the illustrations 
given are from his houses.”’ 

- The numerous illustrations (61 halftones) 
in the first edition are reproductions from 
photographs made by Mr. Dorsett, as 
Messrs. Bissett, Byrnes, and Taylor affirm. 
This explains the source of the photograph 
of the ‘‘oedema,” or “‘wart,” to be men- 
tioned later. 

The book does not mention the location 
of the violet houses, but this is known to 
have been at Garrett Park, as already indi- 

4 Garrett Park is in the Rock Creek Valley, 
aout 1? miles northwest of the District of Co- 


5 Mr. Dorsett was a member of Dr. Galloway’s 
early phytopathological staff (16). 


353 


cated. This is definitely mentioned by Gallo- 
way in his separate article already cited (7), 
in which he specifies that the varieties 
grown at Garrett Park were chiefly Lady 
Hume Campbell and to a lesser extent 
Marie Louise. 

Chapter 8, or nearly one-fourth of the 
text, deals with ‘‘Diseases and Insect Ene- 
mies.”’ This chapter embodies the investi- 
gations of the trio of scientific workers, 
Galloway, Dorsett, and Woods, as Dr. 
Woods has verified and as may be deduced 
from Galloway’s direct reference to ‘‘ Messrs. 
Albert F. Woods and P. H. Dorsett, who 
have been associated with the writer in 
work on plants under glass... . ” 


THE “OEDEMA”’ 


The account of the ‘‘oedema,”’ or ‘‘wart,”’ 
with which this article is particularly con- 
cerned, is precisely the same in all three 
editions of Galloway’s Commercial violet 
culture (5, ed. 1, pp. 182-185, fig. 55; ed. 2, 
pp. 186-188, fig. 57; ed. 3, pp. 193-194, fig. 
59). Coon’s Practical violet culture (2) is es- 
sentially a successor to this early treatise by 
Galloway and admittedly draws heavily 
upon it. But there is here no direct reference 
to the “oedema” in the much reduced dis- 
cussion corresponding to Galloway’s chap- 
ter 8. Gregory and Davis’s (9) mention of 
“‘oedema”’ or “‘dropsy”’ clearly is taken from 
Galloway. 

The section on “oedema” in Galloway’s 
book is here quoted in full: 


Oedema, or Wart Disease. This trouble often 
proves quite serious, but is easily kept under con- 
trol by the proper handling of the plants. The 
affected plants show wart-like growths over the 
leaves, and these are usually of a brownish color. 
These warty growths vary in size, some of them 
being quite small and others one-eighth of an inch 
long and one-sixteenth of an inch high. The corky 
growths are not confined wholly to the leaves. In 
fact, they frequently occur on the leaf stalks, and 
sometimes on the flower stalks also. It is found 
that where these warty formations are developed 
the whole leaf is in a peculiar condition. It is brit- 
tle, and when taken in the hand cracks very 
easily. The leaves, in other words, instead of hay- 
ing a live, elastic feel, appear to the touch to be 
dry like a shaving, and when bent will break with 
a cracking noise. Wherever a break of this kind 
occurs the corky growth appears in time. The 
corky formations may also develop wherever an 


304 


insect punctures the leaves. The punctures of 
aphides and the bites of spiders cause many of 
these swellings. When the plants get into this con- 
dition it is practically unfit for flowering, and 
when badly diseased it is very difficult to ever get 
it into proper shape again. The trouble is one 
that is brought on gradually by improper rela- 
tions between the moisturé of the soil, moisture 
of the air, and the light. 

Where plants are mulched and the soil kept 
constantly wet the trouble is likely to follow, es- 
pecially if heavy shading is adopted. Where the 
plant is grown for some time under these condi- 
tions all of its tissues get into a dropsical or 
oedemic state, and it needs only an injury of some 
kind to cause the formation of the wart-like 
growths. If the conditions are very favorable, in- 
juries are not necessary for the wart-like growths, 
as they will be produced by the plant without 
intervention of anything of this kind. This is due 
to the fact that the plant is really making an ab- 
normal effort at growth, and the warts are noth- 
ing more than excessive growth of the cells at 
particular points. This trouble seldom occurs in 
houses properly lighted and ventilated. In under- 
ground pits, and in outdoor frames where heavy 
shading is used, it is apt to occur, especially if the 
practice of mulching is adopted. 

By paying proper attention to light, ventila- 
tion, and watering, little or no difficulty is experi- 
enced from the trouble. In case it is seen that 
plants are becoming oedemic it will be necessary 
to modify at once the surroundings to such an 
extent as to admit more light to the leaves and 
more air to the soil. It will not do, however, to 
bring about these changes too rapidly. Light 
should be gradually given, and the amount of 
water added to the soil should be slowly dimin- 
ished. If the change is too abrupt, serious conse- 
quences may result, as the plant, having been 
grown under such abnormal conditions, is not 
able to withstand the unusual exposure to bright 
light and dry soil, which the sudden change might 
bring about. 


Bearing the legend ‘‘oedema, or wart dis- 
ease,” an accompanying illustration, un- 
fortunately indistinctly reproduced, repre- 
sents the lower surface of a fresh, severely 
diseased leaf blade. Careful comparison re- 
veals that the illustration corresponds so 
closely to the leaves of the specimen of the 
“‘oedema”’ mentioned in the introduction of 
the present paper (Fig. 1, D) that it could 
well represent them, i.e., when freshly 
gathered. 

This historic specimen, undated and with- 
out a formal label, was included among the 
physiological specimens of the Mycological 
Collections of what is now the Bureau of 
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural 


ih 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 11 


Engineering. It consists of several more or 
less broken leaves, together with numerous 
leaf fragments (Fig. 1, D, a—-d). These leaves 
are definitely those of Viola odorata.6 On a 
slip of paper within the packet is written 
in Dr. Galloway’s hand:’ “Soft or brown 
spot, Garrett Park.’’ Penciled on the outside 
of the packet appears: ‘Called wart... 
may follow insect bites.” The name 
“‘oedema,’’ which does not appear on the 
specimen, was original with Dr. Woods, as 
he has explained to the writer. In lieu of the 
exact date of collection, it seems reasonable 
to assume that it was between the years 
1897-99: By 1897 a violet crop had been 
harvested as shown by Galloway’s encour- 
aging statement of the price received for 
blooms of the variety Lady Hume Campbell 
during the 8-month period October 1897— 
May 1898 (4, ed. 1, p. 223; ed. 2, p. 232; ed. 
3, pp. 256-257); by 1899 Galloway’s book 
was published, and, as indicated by the 
preface to the first edition, he was no longer 
connected with the violet-growing venture 
at Garrett Park. | ; 

Among the trio, Galloway, Dorsett, and 
Woods, it befell Dr. Woods as physiologist 
to take the lead with respect to the “‘oede- 
ma’’ as it appeared in the violet house at 
Garrett Park. The serious problem con-. 
fronting them was to determine practical 
means of holding the diease in check. This 
Dr. Woods accomplished, and investigation 
into the cause of the disease was not pur- 
sued further. 

Since the autumn of 1932, when violet 
scab first came to the attention of Massey, 
White, and Jenkins (1/2) through an out- 
break of the disease in field plantings in 
Pennsylvania and New York, it has been 
found that the disease is more or less gener- 
ally distributed throughout the District of 
Columbia area and not only at Garrett 
Park. This is shown by herbarium specimens 
presented in Fig. 1, A, which illustrates the 
disease on Viola odorata from a garden in 
Arlington, Va. (Fig. 1, A, a); on a wild 


6 Verification kindly made by Dr. 8. F. Blake, 
Division of Plant Introduction and Exploration, 
Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md. 

7 Handwriting verified by Dr. Woods. 

8 Handwriting of Mrs. F. W. Patterson, who 

joined Dr. Galloway’s staff in 1895 (8). 


Nov. 15, 1944 JENKINS: “OEDEMA,” OR ““WART,’’ OF CULTIVATED VIOLET 355 


violet hybrid (V. affinis ‘Le ConteXV. Ajit.) from the District of Columbia (Fig. 1, 
papilionacea Pursh) growing naturally ina A, c). Norton’s (13, p. 117) report of an 
glade in Rock Creek Park, Md. (Fig. 1, A, unidentified disease of violet in Maryland 
b), and on blue marsh violet (V. cucullata (place undesignated) in 1909 suggests a stil 


Fre. 1.—A, Dry pressed specimens of scab of violet representing gatherings made in the open in the 
District of Columbia area: a, sweet violet, upper leaf surface, from a garden in Arlington, Va., October 
24, 1941, N. Rex Hunt; b, wild violet hybrid, folded parts of leaf representing lower leaf surface, Rock 
Creek Park, Md., October 12, 1935, J. A. Stevenson; c, lower leaf surface of blue marsh violet from a 
garden, District of Columbia, October 7, 1939, A. E. Jenkins. B and C, Fresh infected blossom 
stalks and capsules from same source as A, c, October 16, 1935, W. T. Swingle. D, ‘‘Oedema”’ of 
sweet violet: a, lower leaf surface; b, lesions on petioles; c, upper leaf surface; d, single lesion on petiole, 
Garrett Park, Md., 1897-1899 (see explanation in text), B. T. Galloway. All natural size. Photographs 
A and D by R. L. Taylor and B and C by M. L. F. Foubert. 


356 


earlier record of violet scab. Thus it reads: 
‘‘Watery pimples on leaf R [symbol for 
‘rare’], cause (?), perhaps insect.”’ 

In the autumn of 1932, the only fresh 
material of scab of violet that the writer 
had seen consisted of diseased specimens 
of cultivated violet, variety Freys Fragrant, 
from Pennsylvania (11, p. 1 and pl. 1, A—D, 
and pl. 2, A—D, E, and F). At that time the 
same gathering of fresh specimens obtained 
for the purpose were shown to Dr. Galloway 
and then to Mr. Bissett, and later described 
to Dr. Woods. Still more recently Dr. 
Woods has been shown the published il- 
lustrations just cited as well as herbarium 
specimens. Upon seeing the specimens Dr. 
Galloway turned to the illustration of 
“‘oedema”’ in his book, but he was not cer- 
tain that this was the disease affecting the 
violets from Pennsylvania. At the moment 
he could not recall that the ‘‘oedema”’ af- 
fected other organs of the plant than leaves. 
The writer remarked that, since the disease 
of. Freys Fragrant was caused by Sphace- 
loma, it should resemble anthracnose of 
grape caused by a fungus of the same genus. 
Galloway, who was thoroughly conversant 
with this grape disease, then observed that, 
actually, the symptoms of the ‘‘oedema”’ 
resembled those of grape anthracnose. 

From the writer’s description of the scab 
on Freys Fragrant, Dr. Woods did not 
recognize this disease as the same as that he 
had known as “‘oedema.’’ More recently, 
when he saw specimens of the disease on 
Freys Fragrant, he still found it different 
in appearance from the ‘‘oedema”’ he had 
known at Garrett Park, 1.e., as illustrated in 
Galloway’s book. Dr. Woods and the 
writer reviewed various specimens of violet 
scab, such as those here illustrated (Fig. 1, 
A-C), and finally concluded that the 
marked difference in the leaf spot on Freys 
Fragrant as compared with that of the 
“oedema”’ might be explained on the basis 
of the reaction of the two different sweet 
violet varieties to infection by the Sphace- 
loma. No physiological disturbance that 
might truly be called oedema was known to 
Dr. Woods, and none has been found by 
the writer in the literature on violet dis- 
eases. 

On Freys Fragrant initial infection often 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 11 


occurs on the lower leaf surface, thus ac- 
counting for the leaf spot being generally 
more conspicious on that side of the leaf. 
Violet scab blade lesions may be surrounded 
by a deep green border and this is par- 
ticularly noticeable on the flattened to 
moderately bulged Freys Fragrant leaf spot 
(11, pl. 1, D, and pl. 2, F). The Galloway 
specimen, shows numerous raised, hyper- 
plastic lesions on the upper surface, to- 
gether with occasional vein lesions, and two 
vein lesions are distinguishable near the 
base of the blade illustrated by Galloway. 
Among the three leaves illustrated in Fig. 
1, A, the third (c) shows lesions practically 
limited to the veins below. Clearly, this in- 
fection originated on the lower leaf surface, 
where the symptoms are the more promi- 
nent. Similarly, on the leaf illustrated in 
Fig. 1, A, b, where the lesions are chiefly 
interveinal, initial infection was correspond- 
ingly limited to the lower leaf surface. In- 
spection of the leaf of Viola odorata shown 
in Fig. 1, A, a, as well as of other leaves 
from the same source, reveals that initial 
infection must have taken place on both 
blade surfaces: thus there are lesions of 
equal prominence and appearance on either 
side of the leaf. 

Returning to the Galloway specimen and 
the representative illustration, it may be 
discerned that the more prominent lesions 
evidently represent infection on the upper 
leaf surface. A similar instance of leaf spots 
bulged below and raised above resulted in 
the case of a related disease, namely, lima 
bean scab, when leaves were artificially in- 
oculated with the pathogene of that disease 
(1, Fig. 1, A, B). In artificial inoculations 
on leaves of the variety Princess Mary these 
proved to be more susceptible to infection 
on the lower, rather than the upper blade 
surface (11, p. 8, pl. 4, A). The culture used 
as inoculum was from violets, probably of 
the variety Mrs. David Lloyd George, 
grown on the Hudson, i.e., at Rhinebeck, 
NENG 

Among all those who saw the fresh 
severely diseased specimens of Freys Fra- 
grant in 1932, Mr. Bissett was the only one 
to whom the disease was familiar. With his 
broad knowledge of violets he at once 
named the particular variety and as quickly 


Nov. 15, 1944 senxKINS: “OEDEMA,” OR ‘““WART,”’ OF CULTIVATED VIOLET 


recognized the malady. Essentially, his 
statement was as follows: 

“The disease is what has been called 
‘oedema.’ Stems and blossom stalks, as 
well as leaves, may be affected. When the 
trouble is present, cultural conditions are 
unfavorable. Cold, too much moisture, and 
poor ventilation are environmental condi- 
tions favorable to the disease. I have re- 
ceived specimens from various places; once 
I took a specimen to Dr. E. F. Smith, who 
told me that the disease was caused by a 
fungus.”’ 


More recently, Mr. Bissett has stated © 


that when Galloway and Dorsett were con- 
tending with the ‘‘oedema’”’ at Garrett 
Park, violet growers on the Hudson also 
were having to deal with it. He offered the 
further information that when he acquired 
the violet houses at Garrett Park he re- 
moved the partitions, thus improving air 
circulation, and exercised particular care to 
keep the plants dry, and in this way com- 
pletely eliminated the disease. Mr. Bissett 
stated also that he had observed the ‘‘oede- 
ma’ on wild violets in a woodland near 
Garrett Park. 

In critical examinations of Sphaceloma 
violae Jenkins, as the pathogen of violet 
scab is designated (1/1, p. 7), the writer has 
found it more satisfactory to examine peti- 
ole rather than blade lesions for hyphal 
fragments, stromata, and also conidia. Fol- 
lowing this plan in the examination of the 
Galloway specimen, microscopic prepara- 
tions were made from scrapings from the 
delicate petiole lesions (Fig. 1, D, b and d). 
A few hyphal fragments, together with a 
number of conidia recognizable as of the 
Sphaceloma, were found in these mounts. 

A summary of the known distribution of 
violet scab (10) shows that the disease now 
has been found in this country in all coastal 
states from Massachusetts to Texas, except 


Delaware’; outside the United States its 


* The presence of violet scab in Louisiana was 
ascertained when Dr. M. A. Petty, formerly of the 
Southwestern Louisiana Institute, Lafayette, La., 
remarked upon seeing illustrations that he was 
familiar with this same disease as affecting wild 
violet on the horticultural farm of the Institute. 
Specimens had been collected a number of times 
during class excursions, he said, but remained un- 
identified. 


BLY 


known geographic range includes New 
South Wales in Australia, and the Union of 
South Africa, in Africa. 


LITERATURE CITED 


(1) Brunsr, 8. C., and Jenxins, Anna E. 
Identity and host relations of the Elsinoé of 
lima bean. Journ. Agr. Res. 47: 783-789. 
1933. 

(2) Coon, N. Practical violet culture. 
pp. New York, 1925. 

(3) Dorsert, P. H. Spot disease of the violet 
Alternaria violae n. sp. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
Div. Veg. Phys. and Path. Bull. 23, 16 
pp. 1900. 

(4) Gattoway, B. T. Report of the chief of the 
Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathol- 
ogy, pp. 169-174. In Rept. Sec. Agr. for 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1895, 174 pp. 
Washington, 1895. 

. Commercial violet culture: A treatise 

on the growing and marketing of violets for 

profit, 244 pp. New York, 1899. (Kd. 2, 

239 pp., 1903; ed. 3, 244 pp., 1914). 

. Report of the chief of the Bureau of 

Plant Industry (pp. 47-108). In Rept. 

Sec. Agr. for fiscal year ended June 30, 

1902, 402 pp. Washington, 1902. 

. Violet growing as a_ business. 

Country Life in America 5: 233-237. 

1904. 


127 


(5) 


(6) 


(7) 


(8) . Flora W. Patterson 1847-1928. 
Phytopathology 18: 877-879. 1928. 

(9) Grecory, C: T., and Lavis, J. J. Com- 
mon garden pests: What they are and how to 
control them, 150 pp. Des Moines, Iowa, 
1928. 

(10) Jenxins, ANNA E. Additional records of 
violet scab. (Phytopathological note.) 
Phytopathology 33: 168-169. 1943. 

(11) Massry, L. M., and Jenkins, ANNA E. 
Scab of violet caused by Sphaceloma. 
Cornell Univ. New York Agr. Exp. Stat. 
Mem. 176, 9 pp. 1985. 

, Wuitr, R. P., and JENKINS, 
Anna E. Disease of cultivated sweet violet 
caused by Sphaceloma. (Abstract.) Phy- 
topathology 23: 22-23. 1933. 

(13) Norton, J. B.S. Report of Committee on 
Botany and Plant Pathology: Plant diseases 
for 1909. Proc. Ann. Meeting State Hort. 
Soc., pp. 106-117. 1909. 

(14) Sautrrorp, H. The violet revival. 
and Garden 78: 30, 50. 1940. 
(15) Trun, A.C. A history of agricultural ex- 
perrmentation and research in the United 
States 1607-1925, including a history of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. 
U.S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Publ. 251, 321 pp. 

1937. 

(16) Woop, A. 8S. Beverly Thomas Galloway: 
Born October 16, 1863—Died June 18, 
1988. Science 88: 6. 1988. 


(12) 


House 


358 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 11 


MYCOLOGY.—The fungus genus Cheiromyces, with description of a new species. 
G. W. Martin, State University of Iowa. 


Some pieces of oak bark collected in Iowa 
City and placed dry in a sterile Petri dish 
on August 17, 1943, were moistened on 
November 20. Late in December numerous 
small black sporodochia were observed to 
have developed, which appeared to belong 
to a species of Chezromyces. Attempts to 
determine the species led to a realization of 
the uncertainty that exists concerning this 
genus. ; 

Chetromyces has a curious history. It was 
first mentioned quite casually in a footnote 
on page 312 of Berkeley’s Cryptogamic 
botany (1857). On the following page crude 
drawings are reproduced of C. stellatus B. 
& C. from specimens on Scirpus ertophorus 
sent from Pennsylvania by Michener. No 
formal description is given, but it is clear 
that the fungus bore its spores on a sporo- 
dochium, that the hyphae were dark, and 
that the spores were composed of two to 
four parallel digits arising from a common 
base. No septa are shown in the spores, but 
it is difficult to conceive of such spores 
without septa. Eighteen years later (Gre- 
villea 3: 97. 1875) a brief diagnosis of the 
genus and species (the specific name mis- 
spelled stllatus) was published, with cita- 
tion of the earlier mention in the Crypto- 
gamic botany. In addition to the collection 
from Pennsylvania, another one from Ala- 
bama, by Beaumont, is recorded, appar- 
ently on the same substratum, with the 
added comment “On a Sphaeropsis,’’ which 
presumably applies to both. 

-The Alabama collection may be the 
source of the material distributed by Curtis 
as C’. beaumontit B. & C. The latter name 
was apparently never validly published, and 
doubt has been expressed as to whether it is 
conspecific or even congeneric with the ma- 
terial to which the name C. stellatus was 
first applied. Saccardo, however (Sylloge 4: 
554. 1886), cites it as a synonym. 

Peck (Bot. Gaz. 5: 35. 1880) described a 
second species, C’. tinctus, from Vermont. 
He states that in external appearance it 
closely resembles ‘‘C. beaumontii B. & C., 
of which Dr. Curtis distributed specimens 

1 Received July 6, 1944. 


but of which I have seen no description. In 
it the spores are smaller, of a brown color 
and destitute of septa.’”’ The spores of C. 
tinctus are described as having 2 to 5 
divisions, these 1—3-septate and tinged with 
blue, 12.5-18y in length. In compiling this 
and the preceding species Saccardo lists 
the genus under the Dematiaceae but notes: 
“Ad Tubercularieas nutat.”’ 

Two additional species were added to the 
genus. C. comatus Ell. & Everh. (Proc. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1893: 171) was 
described from Azalea twigs in New Jersey 
and C’. spetroides Hohn. (Ann. Myc. 1: 408. 
1903), from coniferous wood in lower 
Austria. Also, Ellis distributed material as 
C’. beaumontit B. & C. on Acer and Pyrus in 
N. A. Fungi 762, with the note: ‘‘Sec. to 
specce. in herb. Curtis.”’ | 

Hohnel’s description is very full and pre- 
cise. The spores of his fungus are septate, 
commonly 6-celled, and attached at one of 
the central cells, after which the two ends 
bend upward so that they are more or less 
parallel. He discusses the previous species 
and transfers C. comatus to Exosporium. 
Later (Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. 
K1., Abt. I, 119: 664. 1910), he reviewed the 
entire genus. He states that the fungus is 
no longer present on the type material of C. 
stellatus at Kew but decides, on the basis of 
Berkeley’s figure, that the spores are un- 
septate. He is convinced that C. beaumonti 
B. & C. isnot a synonym of stellatus, as had 
been supposed, but is not only specifically 
but generically distinct. He therefore erects 
for it the genus Cheiroconium, which he as- 
signs to the Melanconiaceae and states that 
he does not doubt that C. tinctus Peck is the 
same species. His own C. speiroides he re- 
moves from Cheiromyces on the basis of the 
multicellular spores and the pale or hyaline 
hyphae of the stromatic base, erecting for 
it the new genus Cheiromycella, suggesting 
that Spetra inops Bomm. Rouss. & Sace. 
may also be included. This reduces Chezro- 
myces to Berkeley’s original and somewhat 
uncertain species as reported in 1857. 

Examination of the material distributed 
by Ellis as C. beawmontii in N. A. Fungi 762 


Nov. 15, 1944 


suggests that if this is really the same as the 
specimen from Alabama originally sent to 
Berkeley by Beaumont, Hohnel is correct 
in removing it from Cheiromyces. It is at 
least equally probable, however, that the 
Ellis collections represent an entirely dif- 
ferent fungus. On the basis of Peck’s de- 
scription, it may be doubted whether C. 
tanctus is the same, particularly as Peck im- 
plies that he had seen C. beawmonti as 
distributed by Curtis. 

Dr. G. R. Bisby has been kind enough to 
examine the material of C. stellatus in the 
Kew Herbarium and found a brown septate 
body that may represent a spore or part of a 
spore of the Cheiromyces, although he adds 
‘no trust can be placed in it.’”?’ He found 
several spores of C’. “‘beawmontit,”’ the second 
collection later assigned by Berkeley to 
C. stellatus. These are brown, digitate, and 
septate, although Berkeley’s drawings on 
the cover depict it as without septa and cor- 
respond in all essential respects with the 
drawings made from Michener’s Pennsyl- 
vania collection. We are therefore justified 
in assuming that the spores of the original 
collection were also brown and septate. 


Fig. 1.—Cheiromyces digitatus n. sp. Photomicro- 
graph of section through acervulus, 300. 


There still remains to be considered the 
question as to whether Chezromyces is dis- 
tinct from Speira and Dictyosporium. 
Lindau (in Rabenh. Krypt.—FIl. 9: 163. 
1910) places both the latter genera in his 
subsection Coniothecieae, lacking differen- 
tiated conidiophores. Berlese’s illustration 
of Speira toruloides Corda, reproduced on 
page 198, shows spores strongly suggesting 
those of the Iowa fungus although some- 
what larger. The distinction between the 
two genera is that in Dictyosporium the 


MARTIN: THE FUNGUS GENUS CHEIROMYCES 


Fig. 2.—Cheiromyces digitatus, n. sp. 
a—c, Successive stages in development; d, e, ma- 
ture spores, as seen in face view; f, g, same, seen 
from side. All 1,000. 


Spores: 


conidial chains remain together, while in 
Speira they tend to separate. Guéguen 
(Bull. Soc. Myc. France 21: 98. 1905) denies 
that this is a valid generic distinction. Inci- 
dentally, Lindau cites Botryosporium Schw. 
1832 as a synonym of Spezra Corda 1837. If 
the two are synonyms, then Schweinitz’s 
name is valid, but only reference to the 
latter’s specimen can decide that point. In 
the present instance, however, the constant 
occurrence of a definite sporodochium in the 
Cheitromyces and the complete lack of any 
suggestion of separation of the filaments 
making up the compound spore seem to 
warrant recognizing Berkeley’s genus and 
assigning it to the section Dictyosporae of 
the Tuberculariaceae, among the dark- 
spored genera. Since the Iowa collection 
seems clearly distinct from Berkeley’s 
species, it is described as new. 


Cheiromyces digitatus, n. sp. 


Epixylo, superficiali; sporodochiis pulvinatis, 
atris, minutissimis, 0.2-0.3 mm latis, ex hyphis 
hyalinis dense compositis, strato conidiorum 
tectis; conidiis nigro-olivaceis, multicellulari- 
bus, planis, e cellulis adnatis, in ordinibus 
3-4(—5) longitudinalibus instructis, 27-39 x 15- 
22 X6-10p. 

Sporodochia pulvinate, circular or elliptical 
in outline, 0.2—0.3 mm in diameter, sometimes 


360 


anastomosing longitudinally, black, often 
hoary at surface; substance composed of ob- 
scurely filamentous, septate, gelatinized hyphae 
mostly 3—4u in diameter, bearing spores at their 
tips; conidia dark olivaceous, composed of 
mostly 4, less commonly 3, rarely 5 rows of cells 
closely appressed in a single plane, arising from 
a basal cell, each row 3-7-septate, the basal cell 
somewhat and the terminal cells distinctly 
paler than the others, 27-389 X15-22u in face 
view, 6—10y thick. 


ZOOLOGY.—WNotes on Mexican snakes from Oaxaca. 
and Dixon M. Woopsury, University of Utah. 


BERT FRIEDMANN.) 


This paper is a report of studies made of 
136 specimens of snakes of 25 species in the 
herpetological collection of the University 
of Utah obtained from Wilbur Barker who 
reports that they were collected from the 
general vicinity of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, 
Mexico, on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 
According to notes of field collections, most 
of them come from places in or near the 
city, but a few specimens are reported from 
areas 10 or 15 miles away. These notes have 
also been useful in helping to elucidate the 
habitats occupied. . 

We are greatly indebted to Dr. Hobart 
M. Smith for advice during the progress of 
the study and for his comments and criti- 
cism of our views of the problems. All colors 
are referred to the Dictionary of color by 
Maerz and Paul. 


Leptotyphlops phenops phenops (Cope) 

Six specimens, usually found under litter. 
They show unusually high total scale counts. 
The rostral is white dorsally and is completely 
separated from the supraoculars by the nasals. 
The scales usually have dark brown centers, 
which become lighter ventrally and in some 
cases become indistinguishable from the edges. 
The scale edges are light brown, sometimes giv- 
ing a whitish aspect. Dorsally the dark centers 
tend to connect in longitudinal series to form 
seven dark stripes which usually have a beaded 
appearance due to the narrow connections be- 
tween the dark centers. The tail beyond the 
end of the stripes is black above and ‘is white 
below for half or two-thirds of its length, the 
white involving the tip. 


1 Received April 24, 1944. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vo. 34, No. 11 


On oak bark in moist chamber, Iowa City, 
Iowa, December, 1943. G. W. Martin 4921, 
type. 

As may be seen from the illustration, es- 
pecially Fig. 2, a-c, the development of the 
spores of C’. digitatus is fundamentally different 
from the process as described by Hoéhnel for C. 
spetroides. It seems probable, therefore, that his 
removal of the latter species to his new genus 
Cheiromycella is justified, although for a reason 
different from that originally stated. 


By Anaus M. WoopBURY 
(Communicated by Hmr- 


Scalation of 5 specimens: Total scales from 
rostral to tip of tail 251, 256, 261, 265, 277; sub- 
caudals 19, 18, 19, 17, 17; longitudinal scale 
rows 14. 

Measurements: Total length 76, 155, 81, 195, 
171 mm; tail length 5, 8, 5, 10, 8 mm.; ratio of 
tail to total length 6.6, 5.2, 6.2, 5.1, 4.7 per cent. 


Loxocemus bicolor bicolor Cope 
LIGHT-CHINNED AMERICAN PYTHON 


Five specimens (UU 2507 &, 2522 #, 2707 &, 
2718 2, 2800 #) from wooded areas containing 
fallen logs, leaf litter, and loose soil, where it is 
usually concealed in the litter, under logs, or 
behind the bark. According to the collector’s 
notes, the two forms of Loxocemus are found in 
the same habitat. 

The dorsal color is a dark brown, darkest on 
the head; the ventral is light gray with slight 
variations. Details of color and scalation will be 
discussed under L. b. swmichrastt. 


Loxocemus bicolor sumichrasti Bocourt 
DARK-CHINNED AMERICAN PYTHON 


Four specimens (UU 2526 9, 2530 9, 2717 9, 
2737 9) from the same habitat where L. b. bi- 
color was found. The dorsal color is essentially 
alike in the two forms, but differences occur on 
the ventral surface. These colors are analyzed 
quantitatively as well as qualitatively in the 
following table, which is based upon the Dve- 
tionary of color, by Maerz and Paul, 1930. This 
shows for the dorsal, ventral, and chin colors 
for each specimen the Maerz and Paul number 
in the dictionary and the components of the 
inks used to produce those colors as sorted out 


Nov. 15, 1944 WwoopBURY AND WOODBURY: NOTES ON MEXICAN SNAKES 361 


and translated into percentage in the various 
columns. These percentages are based upon the 
gradations used in the dictionary to produce 


the various hues and thus represent quantita- 
tive measurements of the colors of the snakes in 
terms of the colors found in the dictionary. 


ABDOMINAL COLOR 


Loxocemus bicolor sumichrasti 
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% 


2737 9 Guancen el, fee ee eee pares he RAN erie eer BAP ae Pad OR See. 
red 
gray 
2530 Q orange ee SS 9 1 So 0 hn oS So Et SS Sh eS a at 0S SE on 
gray 
2717 9 orange ttt 
REG) 0 eS 
gray 
9526 [e) orange ee ee ee a Cw os he ew (0 9 0 an 0 ae wa wo as (ania we aw ae 0 eye 
gray 
Loxocemus bicolor bicolor 
9522 fof yellow Shel eicusie| cqenieTekele je) sie! aeleelejeelelelie eleiel\el.c .exaile eerie) 
orange paar tNe Nola wee wae wa a2 w eeeatiemne eS a oan ta ae eee 
gray 
2718 9 gray 
2707 gray REE oat 
2800 gray 
2507 oO yellow eletehetatereclfevelslelalelielsie clelevateleieeiiaiie) «le\are| shee! cllaysiiel|p fe eiel ever ete’ (s 
orange Py ete ong ak eae oie oie i Neots oo elanie eee 
gray 


CxHIN CoLoR 


Loxocemus bicolor sumichrasti 


y Les S2O ae SO 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% 
inn a ee Ten ki Po ae, 2 RL eh oe ee 
2737 @ a aa eae rece ele Sn Ey Soa ee eee ees 
gray ; 
2530 9 cod, | CE eV Be NN ice Oe nO De ee Se A eee Er eee 
red-purple 9K 2k 2k KKK HK A A KK 
gray 
27179 egg Eee SS 
gray 
2526 9 red wren 5 - == 
gray =H 
Loxocemus bicolor bicolor 
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% 
mmnmmrmmnnmes SEAGER aM ME Feige) a wie p des Aly ald nace, Slee hp Sepa ee 
25220" gray ; 
2718 9 orange ttt 
gray Cet Seba a Me RR te ee ES 
2707 & orange 
gray 
2800 & orange Meee eae nn ERO ea 
gray iS ee TE a SES ce aca lee ee 
2507 # orange ee ee eee 


gray 


362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 11 
Dorsau CoLor 
Loxocemus bicolor sumichrasti 
fe) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% 
2737 @ red SS 
red-purple We OOK 2K 2 2k 2K 2K EK 2K 2k OK KOK OK KK OK EK KK KK KK EK KOK KK KK KKK KK KK KKK KK 
gray 
2530 9 REG) SS SSS SS SS SS SSS ESS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SS SES SSS SSS SS SSS SSS 
gray 
2717 9 TOS ark yu SERS oe ee 
red-purple 2K 2k 9K 2 2k 2k 2 2K 26 2k 2K 26 2 OK KK 2k OK OK OK 2K 2 KOK KK 2 ok KE 2 2 OK 2 2 ok 2K 2K 2 oe 2 ok OK 2K ok OK 2 2 OK 2k Ok OK 2 KOK KO OK OK KO KK 
gray 1 
2526 9 Ted) Sy SRE ESTA Sg OD 
gray 
Loxocemus bicolor bicolor 
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% 
2522 # Ted 0 Ss Se a ac ee age eT 
red-purple 2K 2K 2k 2 2k 2 2K 2K 2K 2K 2K OK 2 2K 2 2K 2K OK OK OK 2K OK 2K OK Ok ie 2 OK ok 2 OK OK OK OK OK OK KK OK OK OK OK OK KK KK KK KK 
gray ape 
2718 9 red= 2p 0 SSS ESS ee ee ee ee ee 
red-purple 3K 26 2K 2K 26 2 OK 2K 2 2k 2K 2K 2k OK OK OK 3K OK 2K OK OK OK OK EK KK OOK KOK KK OK EK KEK KKK KK KK KKK K KK KK KKK KA KKKKKKK 
gray ws 
2707 o Ted eee a = 
red-purple 2K OK 2K 2k 2 KK 2K kK KK KK KE 
gray 
2800 red ---=------------ 
red-purple 3K 2K 2K 2k 2 2k 26 KOK 2K 2k 2k kK 2 OK OE OK OK OK ok OK KE OK KK OK KK OK EK OK KK EK EE KE EK KK KKK 
gray 
2507 TEC’ 45") UP SSeS ee ee ae Lae 
gray 
Dorsal color Abdominal color Chin color 
7 Per cent of color Per cent of color Per cent of color 
°S- IM & P M &P —|M&P 
NG Gray | Red ee No: Gray | Red |Orange|Yellow Gray | Red a Orange | Yellow 
purple purple 
Loxocemus bicolor bicolor 
| 
25077 | 8L1 100 | 100 0 13G6 57 0 45 55 13A3 57 0 0 18 (0) 
2522¢ | 8H4 } 100 64 64 13F6 57 0 45 45 14A1 71 0 (0) 0 0 
2707 oc | 8J2 100 82 18 5A7 Zi 0 0 (0) 14A2 71 0 0 9 0 
27182 | 8J5 100 82 82 5A7 57 0 0 0 14A2 71 0 (0) 9 0 
28000 | 8C4 100 18 64 3A7 28 0 0 0 14A3 71 0 0 18 (0) 
Loxocemus bicolor sumichrastt 
25262 | 8L1 100 | 100 0 7A11 86 0 82 0 8H1 | 100 64 0 0 0 
253809 | 8Ll 100 | 100 0 7A11 |. 86 0 82 0 8J2 100 82 18 0 0 
27172 | 8C5 100 18 82 7C9 86 18 18 0 8H1 | 100 64 0 0 0 
27372 | 8E4 100 36 64 8L10 100 100 64 (0) 8J1 100 82 (0) 0 0 


Nov. 15, 1944 WwoopBURY AND WOODBURY: NOTES ON MEXICAN SNAKES 363 
The following table gives comparative material on scalation and measurements: 
Labials Length 
Number Seale Rows | Abdominals} Caudals |——_____...... Ratio % 
Supra | Infra Body | Tail | Total 
Loxocemus bicolor bicolor 
2507 & 31-33-25 254 42 11-11 12-12 477 56 533 10.5 
2522 0 31-33-26 256 39 11-11 12-12 652 68 720 9.4 
2707 o 31-35-26 260 41 11-12 12-12 620 67 687 9.8 
2718 9 29-33-25 254 42 11-11 12-13 695 80 775 10.3 
2800 7 33-33-25 256 40 11-11 14-13 878 86 964 8.9 
Loxocemus bicolor sumichrasti 
2737 2 31-33-2% 263 46 11-11 14-13 1061 125 1186 10.5 
2530 Q 31-33-26 252 42 9-9 11-12 555 60 615 9.8 
2717 2 31-33-26 254 41 11-11 11-12 647 72 719 10.0 
2526 2 31-33-25 251 41 10-10 12-13 543 62 605 10.2 


Discussion —Dr. Hobart M. Smith (1943, p. 
445) has considered these two forms as distinct 
species, but the evidence at our disposal raises 
the question whether they are separate species 
or merely subspecies. Admittedly, the evidence 
is inconclusive, and any decision at the present 
time, based upon such evidence as is now avail- 
able, must of necessity be only tentative, pend- 
ing the accumulation of more conclusive data. 

No evidence is available to indicate that the 
two forms occupy different habitats. In fact, 
the field notes of the collector indicate that 
both forms were taken from the same habitat in 
-wooded areas containing leaf litter, fallen logs, 
and loose soil, presumably during the dry sea- 
son. Smith (letter, March 5, 1944) adds that 
they appear to be underground during the dry 
season. Without contradictory evidence, it 
must be assumed that they occupy the same 
niche in the same habitat in Oaxaca. 

According to Smith (letter, September 19, 
1942), the two forms occupy the same range 
from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec northwest- 
ward to Morelos and Guerrero, a distance of 
about 300 miles; but beyond that to Colima, 
another 300 miles, only swmichrasti is known, 
while southeastward from the isthmus to El 
Salvador, about 400 or 500 miles, only bicolor 
is known. 

Presumably, the habitat occupied in Oaxaca 
is typical of that throughout the range of both 
forms. Smith (1942, p. 201) has implied in a 
similar case that there might be some sort of a 
barrier separating two forms in the same habi- 
tat. He indicates (letter, March 5, 1944) that 


such barriers may include breeding at different 
times of year, repugnance to odor, emergence at 
different times of day or night, or many other 
possibilities. To date, however, no such bar- 
riers have been discovered; at least none are 
known to the writers. In the absence of evi- 
dence about such barriers, one way or another, 
the writers are inclined, on the basis of other 
evidence, to assume that they do not prevent 
interbreeding. 

In relation to scalation, Smith (letter, De- 
cember 23, 1943) states, “I early dropped the 
idea of any constant differences in scutellation; 
they may exist, but I did not discover them, 
and those proposed by Taylor do not hold.” 
Smith’s conclusion seems to fit our specimens 
from Oaxaca, where the chin-shield characters 
suggested by Taylor (1940a, p. 447) show con- 
siderable intergradation. We do not know 
whether there might be constant differences be- 
tween specimens from Colima and El Salvador, 
extremes of the two ranges. If so, the condition 
in Oaxaca would indicate intergradation. Oth- 
erwise, the hereditary scutellation in the two 
forms is so nearly identical as to be indistin- 
guishable in the present state of knowledge. 

Dorsal color appears to be as indistinguisha- 


ble as scalation. It is in the ventral color where 


differences appear. Some are darker than others 
underneath. The abdominal color seems to 
show some indications of intergradation be- 
tween the dark and light phases, but chins show 
decided contrast, some light, others with dark 
markings. 

This is the critical difference in heredity be- 


é 


364 


tween the two forms, and the question arises 
whether such differences could be maintained 
in heredity if interbreeding occurs. So far as the 
writers are aware, there is nothing in genetics 
against the idea of inheritance of alternative 
characters in the same interbreeding popula- 
tion. The light and dark chins may well be al- 
ternative characters transmitted by the same 
parents. They may even be unit characters that 
cannot intergrade. 

Klauber (1936, p. 18; 1939, pp. 1-23) has 
shown that king snakes in California may trans- 
mit to different members of the same brood 
either the striped or the banded pattern, which 
would be suspected of belonging to much more 
complicated heredity patterns than the chin 
color of the American pythons. It thus seems 
that it stands well within the realm of possibil- 
ity, as well as of probability, that these chin 
patterns could well be transmitted within an in- 
terbreeding population in distinct form so that 
the possessors could readily be distinguished 
from. one another, even though they might in- 
tergrade or be indistinguishable in all other 
characters. 

If it be an interbreeding population where the 
two ranges overlap, how can the spread of one 
form to the north and the other to the south be 
explained? Would it necessarily imply that the 
two forms had once been separated and had later 
been freed of the separating barrier and are now 
gradually mixing so that the forms will eventu- 
ally become completely mixed and the distinc- 
tions vanish? Or might it imply that the two 
types arose in the same population and one 
spread southward and the other spread north- 
ward? If so, might this be another example of 
the principle of segregation of different types in 
different geographic areas of which there are so 
many examples everywhere, the genetics of 
which are discussed by T. Dobzhansky in his 
Genetics and the origin of species (1937, p. 147), 
and by R. C. Murphy in his article on ‘“‘The 
Need of Insular Exploration as Illustrated by 
Birds” (Science 88: 535). 1938)? 

In light of the well-known Jordan’s rule, 
which holds that the nearest relative of a spe- 
cies is not found in the same area, but in an ad- 
jacent area separated by some sort of barrier, 
it could not be maintained that these forms 
represent different species unless a barrier of 
some sort could be found to prevent interbreed- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 11 


ing and force them into different niches in the 
habitat. 

The rule of ecological incompatibility, based 
upon extensive evidence from paleontology, 


- z00geography, and taxonomy, is even more 


convincing. This rule (Angel Cabrera, 1932, p. 
114; 1935, p. 509) holds that “related animal 
forms are ecologically incompatible, and their 
incompatibility is the more profound, the more 
directly they are related.”’ It seems inconceiva- 
ble that two forms could occupy the same eco- 
logical niche in competition with each other 
without either interbreeding or being crowded 
into separate niches. * 

In light of the available evidence, it seems 
that the weight tips the scales heavily in the 
direction of the idea that the snakes represent 
one species with two subspecies that interbreed 
in the intermediate range. This conclusion 
seems tenable unless and until evidence is 
found to show that the two forms occupy dif- 
ferent niches in the same habitat separated by 


some kind of barrier. This conclusion seems to ~ 


be in harmony with the practices in the much 
more intensively studied fields of ornithology 
and mammalogy. 


Constrictor constrictor imperator (Daudin) 
BANANA BOA 


Three females, found around banana groves. 
Dorsal ground color light brown or gray. Dark 
lines on head form a cross between eyes. A se- 
ries of 25 to 29 dark brown biconcave trans- 
verse dorsal blotches, sometimes with small 
light centers and sometimes connected laterally 
to enclose oval dorsal areas of lighter ground 
color. A dorsolateral series of small triangular 
blotches are separated anteriorly by a lighter 
line about 2 or 3 scales wide from the dorsal 
blotches with which they tend to alternate, but 
with which they tend to coalesce posteriorly, 
enclosing portions of the light line which finally 
disappear before the tail is reached. A series of 
diamond-shaped dark brown light-centered 
lateral blotches run the length of the body. 
Ventral ground color is creamy white, mottled 
with light brown and with a tendency toward a 
double row of black spots or groups of spots 
which run the length of the body ue fuse into 
a single row on the tail. 

Dorsal scale rows, 54-63-36, 60-75-41, 55-75- 
36; supralabials, 16-16, 19-20, 18-18; infrala- 


Nov. 15, 1944 woopBURY AND WOODBURY: 


bials, 19-19, 23-23, 22-23; dorsal body blotches, 
27, 25, 29; abdominals, 240, 250, 257; caudals, 
59, 68, 67 respectively; anal entire. Greatest 
length, body 646 mm, tail 83, total 729; tail 
11.4 to 13.1 per cent of total length. 


Masticophis mentovarius mentovarius 
(Duméril and Bibron) 


Six specimens, all collected in banana groves, 
apparently feeding on rats and mice. These 
specimens of different sizes and ages show se- 
quences in changes of the color pattern. The 
most conspicuous juvenile pattern occurs on a 
specimen (UU 2771 ¢) 1,130 mm in length and 
probably about three years of age. The top of 
the head is dark brown, and this extends onto 
the sides but is there mottled with cream, es- 
pecially on the preoculars and postoculars and 
upper labials. Behind the head the brown dor- 
sal color is darker in the neck region but lighter 
on the posterior half of the body, where it be- 
comes suffused with pink, especially on the sides 
and on the tail. The ventral ground color is 
cream or yellow anteriorly and is mottled on 
chin and throat with dark brown spots which 
tend to form two central rows. The cream or 
yellow ground color is gradually replaced by 
pink on the posterior abdomen and tail. 

On the side of the neck a series of distinct 
light and dark lines extending backward tend 
to become fainter and disappear posteriorly, 
but two of the lines persist faintly as far as the 
anus. Each dark line consists of dark spots or 
streaks through the center of successive scales 
with one exception, in which case the line is 
located on the ends of abdominals. The light 
lines include the lateral edges of the scales and 
tend to run between the scale rows. Dorsally 
the dark spots on the scales become enlarged 
and occupy most of the scale surface and the 
light lines tend to become obsolete. One centi- 
meter behind the head the first, second, and 
fifth light lines are most conspicuous. Four cen- 
timeters behind the-head the fourth line is lost 
by reduction of scale rows. Posteriorly the lines 
disappear by reduction in contrast of colors. 

A second specimen (UU 2784 2) of approxi- 
mately the same size and age, 1,160 mm in 
length, has the same pattern except that the 
lines do not persist so far posteriorly. 

An 866-mm specimen (UU 2715 2) about two 
years of age shows essentially the same pattern 


NOTES ON MEXICAN SNAKES 365 
with slight variations. Just behind the head the 
second and fifth light lines are most conspicu- 
ous, and dorsally the ninth light lines form a 
conspicuous pair that extend backward a short 
distance and forward to make semicircular 
turns around the side of the neck to the angle 
of the mouth just missing the last upper labials. 
The dorsal color anteriorly behind the head is 
dark gray rather than brown. 

A 548-mm specimen (UU 2719 2) about one 
year of age closely resembles the preceding 
specimen except that the first light line is nearly 
as conspicuous as the second and the ninth 
stripes although discernible are inconspicuous. 

By contrast with these young specimens, two 
older specimens (UU 25280, 27929), 1,690 
and 1,741 mm in length, except for a decided re- 
duction in the line effects, show the typical color 
pattern with brown head, dark gray dorsal an- 
terior color intergrading posteriorly with brown 
and ventral color essentially as previously de- 
scribed. Some of the lateral lines are faintly 
discernible, the second being most conspicuous. 

Scalation: Scale rows, 19-17-13; supralabials, 
7-7; infralabials, 10-10 in four specimens, 9-10 
in one, and 9-9 in one. Preoculars 2-2 in five, 
and 3-2 in one specimen; postoculars, 2-2; 
loreals, 1-1 in four specimens, 1-2 in one, and 2-2 
in one. Nasal divided. 

Slight sexual dimorphism is indicated in the 
following comparison of the sexes: 2 males show . 
187 and 192 (189.5) abdominals, 109 and 114 
(111.5) subcaudals, 836 and 1,225 mm body 
length, 324 and 465 mm tail length, and ratios 
of 27.5 and 27.9 per cent tail to total length; 
whereas 4 females show comparative figures of 
194 to 201 (198) abdominals, 107 to 112 (109) 
subcaudals, 410 to 1,292 mm body length, 138 
to 449 tail length and ratios of 25.2 to 27.3 per 
cent tail to total length. 

Discussion.—Basically the striping pattern 
of longitudinal dark spots or streaks through 
the centers of scales and light streaks between 
scale rows formed by light lateral edges is iden- 
tical with the striping pattern of M. t. taenzatus. 
Even the emphasis on the stripes is very simi- 
lar. The light stripes are more conspicuous on 
the sides, but the dark stripes so dominate the 
dorsum that the light stripes are nearly obsolete 
in both races. 

There are, of course, some differences. In 
taeniatus this pattern is distinctly visible 


366 


throughout the full length of the body and ex- 
tends even on to the tail, whereas in the young 
of mentovarius, up to about three years of age, 
it is distinctly visible only on the anterior part 
of the body and fades posteriorly until it is 
nearly obsolete near the anus. In adult speci- 
mens, however, this fading is much more pro- 
nounced but is generally recognizable on the 
neck, even though it may become ccmpletely 
obsolete elsewhere. 

This similarity of the adult taeniatus to the 
young mentovarius, even though the posterior 
part of the pattern is only faintly visible, is so 
striking as to strengthen the hint given by 
Hartweg and Oliver (1940, p. 19) that mento- 
varius might belong to the taeniatus group. This 
raises the question of whether the faintly visi- 
ble pattern of the young mentevarius is an ex- 
panding pattern which will eventually spread 
to the adult stage or a remnant of a more com- 
plete pattern like that of taeniatus which has 
been nearly lost in the adult and is now being 
suppressed in the young. 

The preponderance of available evidence fa- 
vors the latter idea that color patterns of young 
reptiles are atavistic. It is consonant with the 
general idea of growth and development in 
which the zygote is generalized and successive 
steps of cell multiplication offer chances for 
more and more specialization. The older the in- 
dividual and, consequently, the farther re- 
moved from the zygote the greater is the chance 
for divergence from ancestral conditions. This 
idea is essentially in agreement with Eimer,? 
who outlined color pattern changes in the liz- 
ards of the genus Lacerta of the Old World and 
with Cope,’ who did likewise with the lizards of 
the genus Cnemidophorus in the New World 
both of which practically parallel the present 
case. In both genera striping was considered to 
be primitive, and it was shown that adults of 
some species maintained the striped pattern 
throughout life, whereas others abandoned the 
striped color pattern of the young in later 
stages of life, and developed other color pat- 
terns of broken lines, crossbands, reticulations 
and finally spots on a plain background, some 
species reaching one stage, other species contin- 
uing on through to the other stages. 

In the absence of evidence to indicate a mu- 


2 Archiv fiir Naturg. 1881: 239. 


3 The primary factors of organic evolution: 41- 
45. 1896. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 34, No. 11 


tation producing a striped pattern of the em- 
bryo from nonstriped parents in the Masticophis 
snakes, the alternative idea of atavistic color 
patterns in the young becomes predominant. 
In the matter of scalation, Stuart (1941, p. 
31) indicates a reduction trend in dorsal scale 
rows in the Dryadophis—Salvadora—M asticophis- 
Coluber series. If this conclusion be accepted, 
then the higher scale formula, 19-17-13 in 
mentovarius is doubtless more ‘‘primitive” than 
the 15-13 formula of taeniatus. This suggests 
the idea that the latter has been obtained by 
reduction from a larger scale-formula, prob- 


. ably similar to that of the former. 


If the implications of Stuart (cbid.) in rela- 
tion to the probable derivatives of Dryadophis 
are tenable, then it seems possible that the ge- 
nus Masticophis could have been derived from 
South American stock that spread northward 
through Central America. In that case, the evi- 
dence would tend to support Smith’s hypothe- 
sis (1941, pp. 388, 396) that the northern races 
had been derived from primitive stock south of 
the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 

The evidence from scalation is in agreement 
with this hypothesis, but the evidence from 
color pattern seems to call for a slight modifica- 
tion of Smith’s (zbid.) conclusion that mento- 
varius ‘represents the nearest approach to the 
ancestral type of pattern in the genus.” This 
can be brought into harmony by assuming that 
the primitive ancestor had both high scale- — 
formula and full body pattern. Then both 
taeniatus and mentovarius could be derived, the 
former by reduction in scale formula, the latter 
by reduction of color pattern from the primi- 
tive conditions. 


Thamnophis ruthveni Hartweg and Oliver 


Eight specimens were collected in light brush 
open fields, and pastures, around water. These 
snakes fit closely the description of Oliver 
(1938, pp. 1-4) from this same locality. The 
lower two postoculars are white as is the pos- 
terior half of the preoculars. Two males have: 
Abdominals 151, subcaudals 71 and 74, body 
length 346 and 350 mm, tail length 96 and 102 
mm, ratio of tail to total length 21.7 and 22.6 
per cent. Six females have: Abdominals 143 to 
152 (146), subcaudals 59 to 70 (63.7), body 
length 334 to 570 mm, tail length 94 to 130+ 
mm, ratio of tail to total length 20.4 to 22.0 per 
cent. 


PA 


Nov. 15, 1944 WwooDBURY AND WOODBURY 


Salvadora lemniscata (Cope) 


Nine specimens were collected in banana and 
coconut groves and open fields. These speci- 
mens all agree with Bogert’s description of this 
species (1939, pp. 140-147). Eight males have: 
Abdominals 200 to 206 (203), subcaudals 135 
to 140 (138), body length 721 to 1,150 mm, tail 
length 344 to 485 mm, ratio of tail to total 
length 30.9 to 32.3. One female has: Abdom- 
inals 205, subcaudals 141, body length 752 mm, 
tail length 348 mm, ratio of tail to total length 
31.6 per cent. 


Drymobius margaritiferus fistulosus Smith 


Two specimens, an adult female and an im- 
mature male. In general, the adult fits Smith’s 
description (1942, p. 383) of the types. The 
black scales with light centers show considerable 
variation, but all or nearly all show a complete 
black border. On the dorsum the light center is 
light blue, with a longitudinal yellow streak 
through its center. On the sides the blue center 
gradually increases its area on each scale at the 
expense of the black until the first scale row and 
the ends of the ventrals show the light blue 
areas in conspicuous contrast with the narrow 
black borders which are wider on the posterior 
edges. In the same direction the yellow streak 
_ diminishes in intensity until it is nearly obso- 
lete on the first scale row and entirely missing 
on the ends of the ventrals. The black borders 
of the ventrals (abdominals and subcaudals) 
are limited to the extreme ends. 

The young male is similar, except that the 
yellow streak is missing in the blue portions of 
the scales and the ventrals have longer and 
more conspicuous black borders. 

Scalation: Scale rows 17-17-15. Supralabials 
8-8 with 4 and 5 in orbit and 3 barely entering, 
and 9-9 with 5 and 6 in orbit and 4 barely enter- 
ing. Infralabials 10-10 and 10-9. Preoculars 1-1; 
postoculars 2-2. Abdominals 148 and 151; sub- 
_ eaudals 29+ and 117. 

Length: Body 645 and 199; tail 105 + and 104 
mm; total 750+ and 303. In young male, tail 
represents 34.3 per cent of total length. 


Dryadophis melanolomus tehuanae Smith 


Six specimens collected in hilly country in 
second-growth timber. In alcohol, general ap- 
pearance above, nearly unicolor (lighter on tail) 
slate tinged with blue or brown and slate blue in 


> NOTES ON MEXICAN SNAKES 


367 


freshly shed specimens. Closer examination, 
however, reveals that many scales have dark 
edges anteriorly and slate blue centers, whereas 
other scales, especially on the anterior part of 
the body, have the dark pigment extending 
over most of the scale. All scales have white 
fringes on the posterior V-shaped edges which 
produce the appearance of diamond shaped 
white markings around each scale, which is a 
conspicuous feature of the general pattern. 

Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 17-17-15. Supra- 
labials 9-9 except one which is 8-9. Infralabials 
10-10 in 3 specimens, 9-10 in two and 9-9 in one. 
Preoculars 1-1 in 4 specimens and 2-2 in two. 
Postoculars 2-2. Abdominals 177, 178, 181, 181, 
183, 184. Caudals in the same sequence 55+, 
107, 118, 97+, 108, 111. Body lengths 591 ¢, 
675%, 709%, 7409, 7650, 7802 mm; tail 
lengths 222+, 165+, 283, 306, 326, 314 mm; 
total length in same sequence 813+, 840+, 
992, 1046, 1091, 1094 mm. Ratio of tail to total 
length, males 28.5 to 29.9 per cent; females 28.7 
to 29.3 per cent. 


Drymarchon corais melanurus 
(Duméril and Bibron) 


Three specimens, two females and a male, 
which seem to be intergrades between melanu- 
rus and rubidus as described by Smith (1941, p. 
476). Two of the snakes, Nos. 25830 and 
2746 9, are nearer melanurus than rubidus. 
They are both distinctly lighter anteriorly than 
posteriorly. The preocular labials are partly 
edged with black, and the light areas of the 
labials are light brown, not white. Most of the 
posterolateral gular scales are tipped with 
black. Anteriorly, about one-third of the ven- 
tral plates are black on the posterolateral sur- 
face of one or both sides. Although not of regu- 
lar pattern, these black streaks become pro- 
gressively longer and more frequent until they 
cover the scales forming a solid black color 
posteriorly on body and tail for about one-third 
of its length. No. 2521 @ is nearer rubidus, be- 
ing much darker dorsally than the others, but 
there is much less contrast between the anterior 
and posterior portions of the body. The dorsal 
surface of the head is nearly black. All the 
supralabials are edged posteriorly with black, 
and the light areas are light brown. Nearly all 
of the gular scales are tipped with black. The 
ventral pattern, although similar to the others, 
has much more black pigment. 


368 


Scalation: Supralabials 8-8; infralabials 9-9. 
Dorsal scale row formula 19-17-15 or 14. Ab- 
dominals: one male 188, 2 females, 195 and 
191. Subcaudals: male 78, females 72 and 71. 
Measurements. Body length: male 1,320 mm, 
females 1,215 and 840 mm. Tail length: male 
321, females 281 and 201 mm. Ratio of tail to 
total length: male 19.6 per cent, females 18.8 
and 19.3 per cent. 


Elaphe chlorosoma (Giinther) 


A young female showing distinctly the juve- 
nile pattern has a series of 59 dorsal blotches 
with light brown centers and dark brown edges 
on the body and 25 less distinct blotches on the 
tail. These body blotches, reaching to the four- 
teenth scale rows, run transversely diagonal 
across the dorsal surface through the light 
brown ground color. Anteriorly on the body 
there is a series of lateral blotches which alter- 
nate with the dorsal blotches for about one- 
fourth the length of the body. Posteriorly they 
become indistinct. The ventral surface is im- 
maculate. 

Sealation: Scale rows 31-37-23. Abdominals 
274; subcaudals 111. Anal divided. Supralabi- 
als 8-8; infralabials 9-10. Preoculars 1-1; post- 
oculars 2-2. Length of body 585 mm;; of tail 149 
mm; total 734 mm. Tail represents 20.3 per 
cent of total length. 


Leptophis diplotropis diplotropis (Giinther) 


Fourteen specimens, arboreal in habit, from 
banana groves and light forested areas. The 
basic color is blue, darker above than below. 
In alcohol, it varies dorsally from a light blue 
(384 F 6 near lotus) through varying stages of 
pigmentation to a very dark blue (40 A 6 near 
slate). Two phases of coloration seem to be ex- 
hibited, a dark and a light phase. 

The light phase has a black line running 
through the orbit, extending forward faintly to 
nostri] and involving the upper edge of labials. 
Posteriorly, it occupies the lower postocular, 
most of the first temporal, the lower post tem- 
poral, upper edges of last two labials and the 
lower edge of the upper posttemporal. The head 
above is light blue and below is mainly white, 
usually being suffused with blue on the upper 
labials and the lateral gulars. 

Behind the head the black line widens until 
it involves scale rows 3 to 6 and edge of row 7. 
Back about 5 or 6 centimeters this line begins 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 34, No. 11 


to break into obliquely transverse dark 
blotches, which gradually become less distinct 
and disappear about a third or half way along 
the body. Along the center of the back, the 
vertebral scales are much lighter in color, some 
nearly white, giving the appearance of a chain 
of light-colored diamonds. Behind the neck the 
paravertebral scales become keeled and the 
keels become colored black, thus forming a pair 
of narrow black paravertebral lines which ex- 
tend backward to the anus. The white of the 
throat gradually becomes suffused with blue 
posteriorly. 

The dark phase is similar but darker and has 
black covering the entire top of the head and 
neck, except the light vertebral diamonds. 

Scalation: Scale rows 15-15-11. Supralabials 
8-8, except one 8-9; infralabials, 10 with 11-11, 3 
with 11-10, and 1 with 10-10. Preoculars 1-1; 
postoculars 2-2. Loreal single. Nasal divided. 


LEPTOPHIS DIPLOTROPIS DIPLOTROPIS (GUNTHER) 


Length : 
Abdom- Ratio 
No. Sex are Caudals ; (%) 
Body|, Tail | Total 2 
2567 ot 169 117+) 601 — _— — 
2569 fof 173 152 610 334 944 35.4 
2579 of 171 137 642 346 988 35.0 
2713 of 171 127 636 339 975 | 34.8 
2714 fot 174 138 691 345 1036 Sou0 
2728 fou 172+1| 137 682 355 1037 34.2 
2729 rofl 173 148 768 441- | 1209 36.5 
2730 of 174 111+] 682 306+! 988-+-| — 
2753 of 173 134+] 710 379-+| 1089-+-| — 
2791 of 176 134 263 393 1156 34.0 
2754 Q 177 99+] 750 302+] 1052+) — 
2765 Q 175 116+] 632 291+] 9238+) — 
2766 Q 172 125 630 312 942 Sit 
2772 Q 174 134 595 311 906 34.3 


Trimorphodon biscutatus biscutatus 
(Duméril and Bibron) 


Fourteen specimens, nocturnal in habits, 
from hillsides and lowlands, light forests, or 
open areas. 

Coloration: Gray above, yellowish below 
with dark brownish-gray blotches forming 
series along the back, along the sides and along 
the ends of the ventrals. The dorsal series shows 
a great deal of variation, ranging from plain 
transverse light-centered blotches (secondary), 
toward one extreme becoming narrower and 
less distinct until only a light brown area is left 
(tertiary blotches), and toward the other ex- 
treme becoming wider and more conspicuous 


Nov. 15, 1944 woopBuRY AND WOODBURY: NOTES ON MEXICAN SNAKES 


until some partially split to make pairs of light 
centered blotches (primary) joined at the lat- 
eral ends; but occasionally separated. 

According to our interpretation these varia- 
tions of blotches represent developments of 
some at the expense of others. In order to ex- 
plain the present pattern, we propose to assume 
a hypothetical primitive ancestral pattern de- 
rived from evidences still persisting on the 
specimens. This pattern consisted of light areas 
alternating with dark dorsal blotches which 
numbered about 65 to 72 on the body and a 
similar pattern extended on to the tail. 

A change in this pattern was produced by ex- 
pansion of alternate dark blotches, correlated 
with a suppression of the others both in size and 
color, leaving a pattern of about 32 to 36 dark 
blotches alternating with light tertiary blotches 
bordered by the primitive light interblotch 
areas, presumably like quadruplez. 

Some specimens show an additional or sec- 
ondary reduction, especially in the midbody 
region, in which some alternate dark blotches 
~ (usually not all) expand in correlation with sup- 
pression of those secondary dark blotches be- 
tween them, leaving a pattern usually un- 
changed on neck and posterior body, but show- 
ing in midbody some expanded primary 
blotches alternating with narrower more or less 
suppressed secondary blotches which in turn 
are bordered by the plain remnants of the ter- 
tiary blotches which again are usually bordered 
by the light interblotch sections. In a few cases, 
these latter light areas are missing and the plain 
tertiary remnants are fused with the secondary 


369 


blotches to make one on the dorsum but lat- 
erally the three are often clearly indicated. 

The number of primary blotches left depends 
largely upon the number and amount of sec- 
ondary reductions. It is nearly impossible to 
set a precise limit between primary, secondary 
and tertiary blotches because they show all de- 
grees of gradation between them. Separated on 
the basis of judgment, the specimens show a 
range of 20 to 33 primary blotches. 

Scalation: In all specimens, both nasal and 
anal are divided; both pre- and postoculars are 
3-3, except one specimen which has 4 postocu- 
lars on one side. Some variable characters are 
listed in the table below. 

A comparison of ventrals on our specimens 
with similar data taken from Smith (1941, p. 
158; 1948, p. 492) for populations from nearby 
regions is given as follows: UU specimens: 
Abdominals 245 to 267 (259), subcaudals 83 to 
96 (88), total ventrals 335 to 357 (346). T. b. 
semirutus: abdominals 260 to 275, subcaudals 
85 to 102, total ventrals 358 to 376. T. b. bi- 
scutatus: abdominals 251 to 271, subcaudals 81 
to 96, total ventrals 343 to 359. T. b. quadru- 
plex: abdominals 251 to 263, subcaudals 82 to 
93, total ventrals 334 to 347. 


Imantodes splendidus oliveri Smith 


Two females from open forested areas and 
hillsides. Color patterns fit description given 
by Smith (1942, p. 388). 

Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 17-17-15. Anal 
divided. Supralabials 8-8. Infralabials 10-10. 


TRIMORPHODON 

Scale Abdom Hee tabials Body peneeh Ratio 
No. Sex inal Caudals| ven- Loreals Pipeaned (%) 

aoe ete trals | Supra Infra Body Tail Total o 
2523 fof 25-25-20 255 96 351 9-9 13-13 3-3 21 771 184 955 19.3 
2722 of 26-27-20 254 93 347 10-9 12-13 4-3 2G 860 202 1062 19.0 
2744 fof 25-25-20 245 90 Oe) 9-9 12-12 3-3 20 452 96 548 17.5 
2554 ce) 25-26-19 262 85 347 9-9 13-12 2-2 22 941 184 1125 16.4 
2710 Q 25-26-19 264 | 86 350 9-9 13-13 3-3 23 490 99 589 16.8 
Pat Q 25-27-19 266 83 349 9-9 12-12 2-3 PP) 951 183 1134 16.1 
2721 9 25-25-20 247 91 338 9-9 12-12 2-3 22 767 189 956 19.8 
2745 Q 25-27-20 261 83 344 9-9 12-13 2-3 22 467 88 555 15.9 
2760 fe) 27-28-20 267 64+21| 352? 9-9 12-13 3-3 24 1074 177+} 1251+) — 
2762 Q 26-26-19 253 84 337 9-8 12-13 3-3 24 724 171 895 19.1 
2770 fe) 25-26-21 267 90 357 9-9 13-14 3-3 24 994 1385+} 1129+) — 
2776 Q 23-26-19 262 86 348 9-9 12-12 3-3 23 559 105 664 15.8 
2777 Q 25-27-20 264 88 352 9-9 14-14 3-3 22 881 189 1070 WP 
2783 Q 25-28-22 256-+1| 69+17| 342? 9-9 13-13 3-3 33 930 160+} 1090+) — 


? indicates estimated value. 


370 


Preoculars 1-1, postoculars 2-2. Loreal single. 
Nasal single. Abdominals 237 and 225; caudals 
132 and 123, respectively. 

Length: Body 628, tail 252, total 880 mm; 
body 605, tail 239, total 844 mm. Tail 28.6 and 
28.3 per cent respectively of total length. Ver- 
tebral scales only slightly larger than adjacent 
paravertebral scales. 


Leptodeira maculata (Hallowell) 


Three specimens found usually in brush. 
Dorsal ground color light brown. There are 
26-29 dark brown blotches extending from the 
neck to the anus and 12 on the tail. Some of 
these blotches are confluent. The blotches ex- 
tend laterally to the first, second, or third 
scale rows. Ventrals immaculate. 

Scalation: Nasals divided. Loreal single. 
Both preoculars and postoculars 2-2. Supra- 
labials 8-8; infralabials 10-10. Anal divided. 
Seale rows 21-21-17, 21-23-17, 21-25-17. Ab- 
dominals 167, 171, 175. Subcaudals 74, 33 +31 
estimated (broken), 67. 

Body lengths 380, 408, 494 mm, tail lengths 
115, 56+, 121 mm. Ratio tail to total length: 
male 23.2 per cent, female 19.7 per cent. Body 
_ blotches: male 26, female 29. Tail blotches 12. 


Manolepis putnami (Jan) 


Three specimens collected toward evening on 
open roads around open brush under which 
they spend the night, according to the collec- 
tor. The color fits the description given by Cope 
(1898, p. 1092). 

Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 19-19-15. Anal 
divided. Upper labials 8-8. Lower labials 10-10. 
Preoculars 1-1. Postoculars 2-2. Loreal absent. 
Nasal divided. Abdominals: one male 169, 2 
females 179 and 180. Subcaudals: male 73, fe- 
males 64 and 65. 

Body length: male 399 mm, females 315 and 
500 mm. Tail length: male 121, females 77 and 
130 mm. Ratio of tail to total length: male 23.3 
per cent, females 19.6 and 20.6 per cent. 


Conophis vittatus viduus Cope 


Sixteen specimens taken from sparsely 
wooded or lightly forested areas, particularly 
around the edges of openings in the forests. 
Ground color creamy white with one dorsal and 
two lateral black or brown stripes, two or three 
scale rows wide, beginning at the rostral edge 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Vou. 34, No. 11 


and running posteriorly to the tail where they 
become faint on the tip. The lateral stripes bor- 
der the upper edge of labials and pass through 
the orbit under the supraoculars. 

Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 19-19-17 in all 
but two specimens which show 19-19-15. Anal 
divided. Upper labials 7-7. Lower labials 8-8 in 
4 specimens, 9-8 in one, 9-9 in eight, 9-10 in 
two and 10-10 in one. Preoculars 1-1 in twelve 
specimens, 1-2 in three and 2-2 in one. Post- 
oculars 2-2. Loreal single. Nasal divided. Ab- 
dominals: 9 males 154 to 166 (159.6), 7 females 
162 to 170 (167). Subcaudals: males 61 to 69 
(65), females 57 to 67 (62.8). 

Total length: males 454 to 724 mm, females 
222 to 752 mm. Tail length: males 111 to 156 
mm, females 45 to 142 mm. Ratio of tail to to- 
tal length: males 20.8 to 24.9 per cent, females 
17.4 to 20.8 per cent. 


Oxybelis acuminatus (Wied) 


Nine specimens taken in arboreal habitats in 
low second-growth timber. Ground color gen- 
erally ashen to brownish gray and brownish 
red, both below and above. Head above same 
as body. Supralabials creamy white separated 
from dorsal head color by a black line which 
extends from edge of rostral along upper border 
of labials to neck region. Lower labials, chin 
and neck are creamy white, the color gradually 
fading into ground color on first few abdomi- 
nals. | 

Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 17-17-13 in all 
but two specimens which show 17-17-15. Anal 
divided. Upper labials 9-9 in 6 specimens, and 
9-10 in three. Lower labials 9-9 in 2 specimens, 
10-10 in two, 10-11 in three, 10-12 in one, and 
11-11 in one. Preoculars 1-1. Postoculars 1-1 in 
two specimens, and 2-2 in seven. Loreal absent. 
Nasal single. Abdominals: 5 males 186 to 194 
(191), 4 females 188 to 199 (193.5). Subcau- 
dals: 5 males 167 to 181 (175), 3 females 163 to 
168 (165). 

Total length: 5 males 1,276 to 1,468 mm, 3 
females 1,313 to 1,895 mm. Tail length: 5 males 
531 to 609 mm, 3 females 510 to 539 mm. Ratio 
of tail to total length: 5 males 40.4 to 42.1 per 
cent, 3 females 38.6 to 38.8 per cent. 


Tantilla rubra Cope 


Two specimens, female and juvenile, found 
under refuse and fallen timber, feeding prin- 


Nov. 15, 1944 WwoopBURY AND WOODBURY 


cipally on small insect life, according to the 
collector. Color as described by Smith (1942, 
p. 40), except that in addition part of the lower 
labials are black. 

Scalation: Scale rows 15-15-15. Abdominals 
147 and 164; subcaudals 60 and 68. Labials all 
7-7 except one with infralabials 6-6. Preoculars 
1-1; postoculars 2-2. Loreal missing; nasal di- 
vided; anal divided. 

Length: 260 +85 mm and 116+31 mm; to- 
tals 345 and 147 mm; ratio of tail to total, 24.6 
and 21.1 per cent. 


Coniophanes imperialis copei 
Hartweg and Oliver 

Three specimens collected under refuse and 
fallen timber. Color as described by Hartweg 
and Oliver (1938, p. 4). In addition, the male is 
darker than the females and all three specimens 
show two short lines produced by rows of dark 
specks on the ends of the anterior ventrals. 

Sealation: Dorsal scale rows 19-19-17. Upper 
 labials 8-8. Lower labials 9-9. Preoculars 1-1. 
Postoculars 2-2. Loreal single. Nasal divided. 
The male has 128 abdominals, 78 subcaudals, 
body length 234 mm, tail length 110 mm, total 
344 mm, tail 31.9 per cent of total length. Two 
females have 131 and 135 abdominals, tails 
broken, body lengths 172 and 220 mm. 


Coniophanes piceivittis Cope 

A single specimen, a female, was collected. 
Dorsal ground color dark brown, with two dor- 
solateral white stripes running from the rostral 
above the orbit along the edge of the supraocu- 
lar, along the outer edge of the parietals and 
on to the neck 6 or 7 scales, where they are 
broken for 2 scales and thence extend poste- 
riorly to the tip of the tail. The white stripes oc- 
cupy scale row 8 and halves of 7 and 9. The 
ventrals and the first three scale rows are im- 
maculate, except on chin, lower and upper 
labials where the white is conspicuously stip- 
pled with dark brown. The yellow parietals and 
frontal are also stippled with brown. 

Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 23-25-19. Anal 
divided. Supralabials 8-8; infralabials 10-10. 
Preoculars 2-2; postoculars 2-2; loreal single; 
nasal divided. Abdominals 172. Part of the tail 
is missing. Body length 155 mm. 


Micrurus ephippifer (Cope) 


A single female was collected under rubbish. 


: NOTES ON MEXICAN SNAKES 


371 


Tip of head back to posterior tip of frontal, tip 
of parietals on top and postoculars and half of 
third supralabial on sides is black; mental and 
first two infralabials are also black. Behind this 
black ring is a yellow ring (white in alcohol) 
which extends back nearly to the posterior edge 
of the parietals and laterally through the last 
infra and supralabials. Behind this is a black 
nuchal color which involves the posterior tip of 
the parietals and extends posteriorly eight 
scales in the dorsal surface and ends on the 
fourth abdominal ventrally. There are fifteen 
black rings (5 abdominals wide) on the body 
and three on the tail. These 15 complete black 
rings are bordered on both sides by yellow 
(white) rings about 24 scales wide which enclose 
14 red rings that have the dorsal surfaces 
mostly replaced by black but some red edges 
persist. This dorsal black extends down the 
sides usually to the third, second or first scale 
rows producing some concave borders anterior- 
ly and a few black spots occur on the ventral 
surface. 

Scalation. Scale rows 15-15-15. Labials 7 and 
7. Preoculars 1-1; postoculars 2-2. Loreal ab- 
sent. Nasal divided. Abdominals 224; sub- 
caudals 36. Body length 400 mm, tail 41 mm, 
total 441 mm. Tail 9.3 per cent of total 
length. 


Stenorhina freminvillii lactea Cope 


Two females collected in underbrush. Color 
in alcohol light red above on head, body, and 
tail. This color becomes gradually lighter on 
sides and fades into pink on the ventral sur- 
face, being darker under the tail and progres- 
sively lighter anteriorly toward the chin. The 
upper and lower labials. are a very light pink. 
One specimen has a narrow black streak begin- 
ning on the upper edge of second supralabial 
which extends backward along the upper edge 
of the labials, through the eye, involving the 
preocular, lower postocular and ending on the 
seventh labial. On the other specimen, this line 
is nearly missing. Both specimens show suf- 
fusion of dark pigment on the parietals and 
indications of a faint middorsal line extending 
backwards. ~ 

Scalation: Dorsal scale rows 17-17-17. Anal 
divided. Labials all 7-7 except one has 7-8 infra- 
labials. Preoculars 1-1; postoculars 2-2. Loreal 
1-1 in one specimen, and 1-0 in the other. Nasal 
divided; temporals 1-2-3. Abdominals 167, 179; 


312 


caudals 39, 35. Body length 472, 510 mm; tail 
length 83, 73 mm; total length 555, 583 mm. 
Tail 15 and 12.5 per cent of total length. 


Bothrops dunni (Hartweg and O’iver) 


Eleven specimens, four adults, and seven 
juveniles from wooded and brushy areas 
around open fields, in nearly the same type 
habitat as the rattlesnake. Color as described 
by Hartweg and Oliver (1938, p. 6). The dorsal 
blotches vary from 13 to 20 in number. Adult 
males are darker than the females and some of 
the juveniles can be similarly separated, but 
others are indistinguishable. 

Sealation: Dorsal scale rows 23-23-19 in six 
specimens and 25-23-19 in three specimens. 
Anal entire. Supralabials 9-10 in two speci- 
mens, 10-10 in five, 10-11 in one, and 11-11 in 
one. Infralabials 9-11 in one specimen, 10-10 in 
four, 10-11 in three, and 11-11 in one. Pre- 
oculars 3-3. Postoculars 3-3 in seven; 3-4 
in one, and 2-2 in one specimen. Nasal di- 
vided. Abdominals: 7 males 145 to 151 (147), 
4 females 150 to 156 (152.5). Subcaudals: males 
37 to 41 (40), females 32 to 38 (35). Body 
length: Males 159 to 348 mm, females 192 to 
415 mm. Tail length: males 23 to 56 mm, fe- 
males 22 to 53 mm. Ratio of tail to total 
length: males 12.1 to 13.9 per cent, females 
10.3 to 11.6 per cent. 


Crotalus atrox Baird and Girard 


A single female was collected. Dorsal scale 
rows 25-25-21. Anal entire. Supralabials 16-15; 
infralabials 16-16. Preoculars 3-3; postoculars 
2-3. Loreal single. Abdominals 179; subcaudals 
24. Length: body 294 mm, tail 20 mm, total 314 
mm. Tail 6.4 per cent of total length. Body 
blotches 39; tail blotches 6. The snake con- 
tained a Cnemidophorus lizard. 


Crotalus durissus durissus Linnaeus 


A single female was collected. Dorsal scale 
rows 29-31-21. Anal entire. Supralabials 16-15; 
infralabials 15-17. Preoculars 1-1; postoculars 
2-3. Loreals 2-2. Abdominals 184. Subcaudals 
26. Dorsal body blotches 27. Length: body 408 
mm, tail 32 mm, total 440 mm. Tail 7.3 per 
cent of total length. 


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Nov. 15, 1944 


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_ 1941. | 

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. Notes on the Mexican snakes of the 
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Kansas Sei. Bull. 27: 239-258. 1941. 

TERRON, Cartos Cusrsta. Los crotalianos 
mexicanos. Anal. Inst. Biol. 1: 187-199. 
1930. 

. Conopsis nasus_heliae, 

Ibid. 1: 175-176. 1930. 


subsp. nov. 


. Los crotalianos mexicanos. Ibid. 2: 
A(-42., © 1981. 
——. Los coralillos mexicanos. Ibid. 3: 5- 
[42 £932) 


ZOOLOGY.—A new Obritile-star (Ophiocoma anaglyptica) from Canton Island.' 


CHARLES A. Ey, University of Wisconsin. 


CLARK.) 


H. L. Clark lists 19 species for the genus 
Ophiocoma Agassiz in his ‘“The Echinoderm 
Fauna of Torres Strait.’’? All these have 
been known for 25 years or, in many Cases, 
much longer. Since the publication of Dr. 
Clark’s paper, apparently only three new 
species have been assigned to the genus, and 
one has been removed to the new genus 
Ophiocomella established by A. H. Clark in 
1938. In view of the fact that the genus is a 
conspicuous one and already well known, 
the addition of another species is rather 
remarkable, although perhaps not surpris- 
ing since the fauna of many isolated Pacific 
‘islands is still incompletely known. 


Ophiocoma anaglyptica, n. sp. 
Named anaglyptica (embossed) in reference 


to raised interbrachial plates. 


1 Received July 15, 1944. 
2 Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 214 (Dept. 
Mar. Biol., vol. 10). 1921. 


(Communicated by Austin H. 


Description.—The disk is about 20 mm in di- 
ameter, with well-spaced granules that en- 
croach upon the interbrachial areas to a varia- 
ble extent. Among the normal scales thus ex- 
posed in each interbrachial area are a number 
of enlarged bare plates, usually between 25 and 
30. The genital slits are bordered by eight to 
ten small granules. In length the arms are 
about five times the width of the disk. The up- 
per arm plates, which are thickened and raised 
above the general surface, are about two and 
one-half times as broad as long; of irregular out- 
line and extremely variable in shape. The ma- 
jority of these plates suggest an open low- 
arched fan from which one of the lateral angles 
has been sheared abruptly. The uppermost arm 
spine on the side of the missing angle is greatly 
swollen and enlarged, while a similar spine on 
the opposite side of the same segment is lack- 
ing. As a rule there is an alternation of this ar- 
rangement from segment to segment. Thus an 
upper plate with the right angle missing and a 


3v4 


swollen dorsal spine will be followed by one 
with a deficient left angle and a swollen left 
dorsal spine. Occasionally both upper plate 
angles are present, in which case the large spine 
is lacking on both sides. Conversely, both an- 
gles may be lacking and both upper spines 
present and enlarged. The first few segments 
frequently bear five spines; the next few four; 
and the remainder bear three on one side and 
four on the other alternately down the arm. 

The lowermost spine is the shortest and tends 
to taper to a flattened blunt tip. The second 
lowest is slightly longer and spatulate. The 
next spine above is about a third longer than 
the one below and tapers to a rounded tip. The 
highest spine, when present, is typically bottle- 
shaped, expanded in the middle but slightly 
compressed; as a rule, narrowing abruptly to 
form a short neck. It is about two and one-half 
to three segments long. 

There are two tentacle scales on all but the 
first two or three segments, each of which may 
bear three. 

The shape of the oral shields is typical of the 
genus. They are roughly obovate with the proxi- 
mal border nearly straight. The triangular 
adoral shields are equilateral and separated by 
the width of the oral shields. There are gen- 
erally eight distinct oral papillae, with two or 
three small granular ones at the apex which are 
indistinguishable from dental papillae. The 
first is rectangular and lies above the second 
which is round and scalelike; the remainder are 
toothlike. There are five or six dental papillae. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 34, No. 11 


The lateral arm plates are barely visible 
above and below. 

The under arm plates are as broad as long, 
regular in size and shape, and overlap distally. 
They are pentagonal, with gently rounded 
angles and with slightly concave sides. 

The color of dry specimens is uniformly choc- 
olate-brown above except for white bands ex- 
tending the length of the lower three arm spines 
and, in some instances, spotted areas at the base 
of the uppermost spines. The lateral interseg- 
mental spaces are occasionally white with con- 
spicuous black stripes extending between the 
lateral arm plates. 

The oral surface is variously spotted and 
mottled with white, yellow, and light brown. 
The teeth and oral papillae are almost entirely 
white. The oral shields and proximal ventral 
arm plates are mottled with white and brown, 
but farther out on the arms the ventral plates 
are colored with barely visible dense dark spots 
on a slightly lighter background. The two low- 
ermost spines are nearly all white near the disk; 
farther out they are white at the tip and become 
dark brown near the base. In some cases they 
are spotted similarly to the lower arm plates. 

As seen from within the radial shields are 
small for the genus. 

Locality.—Canton Island, reef; near shore 
beneath loose coral blocks. Three specimens 
were collected November 18, 1941. 

Remarks.—The presence of 25 to 30 enlarged 
interbrachial plates serves to separate this new 
species from O. scolopendrina and 0. erinaceus, 


Fig. 1.—Ophiocoma anaglyptica, n. sp.: a, Oral view of disk and arm bases; b, aboral view of arm. 


Nov. 15, 1944 


with which it seems most closely allied. Both of 
these species may show the general arrangement 
of arm spines and dorsal arm plates, but with 
less extreme and less regular development. In 
these species the fan-shaped or triangular dor- 
sal arm plates are sheared to a lesser degree at 
the lateral angles, and consequently the upper- 
most arm spines of each segment are less con- 
spicuously developed. However, three and four 
spines on opposite sides of the same segment 
occur in some specimens of these species. Often 
both species possess the flattened spatulate 
lower spine. In general, as shown by comparison 
of specimens from Canton Island, anaglyptica 
approaches scolopendrina more closely than 


GINSBURG: A NEW GOBIID FISH FROM VENEZUELA 


375 


ertnaceus in these respects. However, consid- 
erable individual variation very likely occurs. 
In coloration, anaglyptica is somewhat inter- 
mediate. The uniform coloration suggests 
erinaceus, but it is not black. On the other hand, 
the lighter spotted and mottled oral surface and 
striped lateral intersegmental areas are more 
typical of scolopendrina. Further noteworthy 
differences may be seen in the disk granules 
which are more widely and evenly spaced in 
anaglyptica than in either erinaceus or scolopen- 
drina. Also the shape of the second innermost 
oral papilla is distinctive for anaglyptica. In this 
species it is round and scalelike, whereas in 
ertnaceus and scolopendrina it is rectangular. 


ICHTHYOLOGY .—A description of a new gobiid fish from Venezuela, with notes 


on the genus Garmannia.' 


Isaac GinsBurG, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 


(Communicated by Lzonarp P. Schultz.) 


The specimens forming the basis of this 
paper were collected by Dr. Leonard P. 
Schultz, curator of fishes in the U. 8S. Na- 
tional Museum, on his recent expedition to 
Venezuela and turned over to me for study. 
These comprise one specimen of Evorthodus 
lyricus, 45 specimens of Bathygobius sopora- 
tor, and 158 specimens, in six samples, be- 
longing to populations of Garmannia, most 
nearly related to G. spes. The latter speci- 
mens illustrate a common course of specia- 
tion in fishes. 

Garmannia spes was described by me 
(JouRN. WASHINGTON Acap. Sci. 29: 62. 
1939) from three small specimens, not in 
very good condition, which were brought 
back from the Canal Zone by Dr. Samuel F. 
Hildebrand in 1937. The samples collected 
by Dr. Schultz in Venezuela are evidently 
closely related to spes. Although these 
samples were taken in comparatively close 
proximity, within a range of about 50 miles, 
yet they show average morphological dif- 
ferences, but of varying degrees. The popu- 
lations represented by the samples examined 
are divisible into two primary groups, which 
may be treated as representing two species. 
The other differences, within the primary 
groups, are of lesser degree, racial, or sub- 
specific at the most. One of the species from 
Venezuela is evidently the same as the 


1 Received July 25, 1944. 


Panamanian spes. The other species is here 
described as follows and named for Dr. 
Leonard P. Schultz: 


Garmannia schultzi, n. sp. 


Diagnosis.—Anterior part of body naked, 
scaled posteriorly. Transverse row of scales on 
caudal baseabsent. A lengthwise row of 3-6 non- 
imbricate, spaced scales behind pectoral base. 
Head depressed to subterete. First dorsal spine 
not prolonged. Dorsal rays usually 11, often 12. 
Anal rays usually 10, often 9, infrequently 8. 
Pectoral rays modally 17, often 18, sometimes 
16, infrequently 19. Usually diffusely and ir- 
regularly cross-banded, alternating lighter and 
darker, irregular areas; often nearly uniformly 
colored, especially in the larger males; caudal 
uniformly pigmented or faintly cross-banded, 
band at base usually rather more prominent; 
ventral aspect usually more or less pigmented, 
moderately or not much ligher than side. Ex- 
tent of squamation differing markedly with sex, 
less extensive in male, as follows (also differs 
with population, see below). Male: scales ex- 
tending forward to a point under base of fifth 
to tenth dorsal ray; transverse rows of scales 
7-12, longitudinal rows 3-5. End of maxillary 
reaching approximately to under posterior 
margin of eye. Female: scales extending for- 
ward to under base of third to eighth ray; trans- 
verse rows 9-14; longitudinal rows 3-7. Maxil- 
lary ending under posterior margin of pupil. 


376 


Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 121546, male, 22 
mm, Lago de Maracaibo, 7 km south of Mara- 
caibo City; gravel and sand; March 6, 1942; 
Leonard P. Schultz. 

Paratypes.—U.8.N.M. no. 121547; 19 males, 
12-21 mm, 14 females, 12-17 mm; obtained 
with the holotype. 

Other specimens examined.—Lago Maracaibo 
at Yacht Club, just north of Maracaibo City, 
hard bottom, rubble to gravel; 4 males, 17—28 
mm, 2 females, 21-23 mm, 1 specimen, 13 mm, 
sex not determinable by external examination; 
these 7 specimens in two samples, collected 
March 5 and May 16, U.S.N.M. nos. 121549 
and 121550, respectively. Salina Rica, coast of 
El Tablazo (the latter a bay between Lake 
Maracaibo and Gulf of Venezuela, partly con- 
tinuous with both), 5 km north of Maracaibo 
City; bottom thick vegetation in mud; 5 males, 
21-28 mm, 2 females, 24 mm, all in one sample 
collected February 20, U.S.N.M. no. 121548. 
Ciénaga del Guanavana, on coast of Gulf of 
Venezuela, 12 km north of Sinamaica; swampy 
bottom; March 11, one male, 29 mm, with 16 
pectoral rays, 2 specimens, partly dried, with 
17 rays, U.S.N.M. no. 121552. All specimens 
collected by Dr. L. P. Schultz in 1942, in 
brackish water. (Dr. Schultz kindly furnished 
the ecological notes. A discussion of the itiner- 
ary during which the samples were taken is 
given by Dr. Schultz in a paper entitled ‘‘The 
Catfishes of Venezuela, with Descriptions of 
Thirty-eight New Forms,” Proc. U. 8. Nat. 
Mus. 94: 173-338. 1944.) 

Squamation.—The extent of squamation, 
both vertically and horizontally, varies widely 
with the individual, and the norm differs with 
the population. There are several ways in 
which the variability of this character may be 
expressed: (1) by counting the number of trans- 
verse rows; (2) stating the position of the an- 
teriormost scales with reference to the second 
dorsal base; (3) counting the number of longi- 
tudinal rows; (4) noting whether the dorsal 
aspect of the caudal peduncle is scaled over or 
naked. The first two ways express the hori- 
zontal extent of squamation; the last two the 
vertical extent. All the four ways have been 
determined on the specimens examined. 

In counting the transverse rows, the first 
row usually consists of one or two scales; this 
row was included in the count. The number of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 34, No. 11 


transverse rows constitutes a fair numerical 
expression of the horizontal extent of squama- 
tion. It is more difficult to express adequately 
the variability in the vertical extent, as the 
number of longitudinal rows is much fewer and, 
what is more important, there is much greater 
variability in the number of individual scales 
in the different rows. The number of scales in 
the two outer longitudinal rows, one above and 
below, is very variable, often consisting of only 
one scale, and such a row was also included in 
the count. Therefore, it is evident that the num- 
ber of longitudinal rows represents only a very 
roughly approximate expression of the vertical 
extent of squamation. 

The spaced scales in the row behind the pec- 
toral base are often partly or wholly missing in 
preserved specimens, being more or less de- 
ciduous. However, when missing, the edge of 
the scale pocket may be readily raised with a 
dissecting needle, and the number of scales 
originally present in any given specimen may 
be thus ascertained. The distribution given in 
Tables 2 and 3 includes specimens so deter- 
mined. 

Sex differences—Males and females differ 
in the extent of squamation, and it is necessary 
to separate data for scale characters by sex, asis 
done in Tables 2 and 3. This is a sex difference 
that is out of the ordinary in fishes. Table 1 
also shows some average sex differences in fin- 
ray counts; but these differences are slight and 
their reality may be doubted. They may be due 
to vicissitudes of sampling. 

Comparison.—Garmannia schulizi is very 
closely related to G. spes. The most divergent 
character separating them is the pectoral count. 
They overlap even in this character (Table 1) 
but the degree of divergence is high. Their index 
of divergence, using the measure proposed by 
me (Zoologica 13: 253-279. 1938), is 92, which 
is of the magnitude of full species. The popula- 
tion represented by the holotype also differs 
to some extent from spes in the extent of 
squamation, but the Salina Rica population of 
schultz nearly agrees with spes in this respect. 

As there is no other widely divergent char- 
acter to correlate with the pectoral count, single 
specimens usually can not be distinguished with 
certainty. If a specimen has 15 pectoral rays it 
almost certainly belongs to spes, and if it has 18 
or 19 rays, it evidently belongs to schultzi; but 


Nov. 15, 1944 


single specimens having 16 or 17 rays (these are 
the counts in which the majority of the speci- 
mens fall, 16 and 17 being the modal counts of 
spes and schultzi, respectively) can not be 
identified with assurance, and it is necessary to 
have a sample of 5 or 10 specimens for a satis- 
factory identification. For instance, in a sample 
of three specimens from the Ciénaga del Guana- 
vana (see above), one had 16 and the other two 
17 pectoral rays, and it is consequently most 
likely that this small sample belongs to a 
population of schultzt. 

Populations —Though it is true that they are 
relatively near one another geographically, the 
populations of schultzi represented by the 
samples examined apparently differ to a con- 
siderable extent morphologically. The differ- 
ences in the extent of squamation, as expressed 
by the number of transverse and longitudinal 
rows and the number of spaced scales in the 
row behind the pectoral base, are shown in 
Tables 2 and 3. The small samples examined 
suggest that the population living 7 km below 
Maracaibo City diverges from the Salina Rica 
population, which is only 5 km above Mara- 
caibo City, to a degree that may prove to be of 
subspecific magnitude when adequately larger 
samples are examined. Another difference be- 
tween these two populations, which is also a 
result of the difference in the extent of squama- 
tion, is as follows: In the Salina Rica popula- 
tion the dorsal aspect of the caudal peduncle is 
partly or almost wholly scaled over, while in 
the population about 12 km farther south it is 
naked. The Salina Rica population also may 
possibly prove to average slightly fewer dorsal 
and anal rays (see Table 1), but such differ- 
ences, if real, are evidently of very low degree. 

The southernmost population of schultzi ex- 
amined averages the least extent of squamation, 
consisting in some extreme variants, usually 
males, of virtually nothing more than a moder- 
ate elongate patch on the caudal peduncle. The 
population at the Yacht Club is, in general, 
morphologically about intermediate between 
the two populations compared above; but only 
one specimen out of seven has the dorsal aspect 
of the caudal peduncle scaled, being in this re- 
spect nearest the southernmost population. 

The sample taken in a bayou near Sinamaica, 
which is referred to below to spes, is possibly 
just another closely related local population 


GINSBURG: A NEW GOBIID FISH FROM VENEZUELA 


3v7 


which, however, has diverged from the others 
to such a degree that it may be treated as a dis- 
tinct species. This Venezuelan population is 
morphologically near enough to the Canal Zone 
population, originally described as spes, for the 
two to be treated taxonomically as belonging 
to one species. If this conjecture (that the 
Venezuelan sample of spes represents merely a 
highly divergent local population) is tenable, 
it follows that among these populations mor- 
phology is not always regularly correlated with 
geographic distribution. The population at the 
Yacht Club is geographically as well as morpho- 
logically intermediate between the populations 
north and south of it; but the population near 
Sinamaica, which is here referred to spes, is 
sandwiched in between populations that are 
sufficiently divergent from it to be properly 
placed in another species. 

It should be added that the samples ex- 
amined are not strictly comparable for size; the 
34 specimens of schultzi from south of Mara- 
caibo City are considerably smaller than most 
specimens in the other samples of the same 
species. However, the full adult squamation 
appears to be developed in specimens as small 
as 14 mm, and the differences outlined above 
are evidently population differences. 

The ecological factors are not well enough 
known for one to discuss adequately, or specu- 
late about, influence of environment on morpho- 
logical diversification. The nature of the bottom 
does not seem to be decisive, as schultzt seems 
to inhabit both soft and hard bottoms (see 
above). All the populations referred to schultzi 
were taken in saline water, while the Venezue- 
lan sample of spes was taken in fresh or nearly 
fresh water. However, the original sample of 
spes from the Canal Zone was taken in saline 
water also; consequently, salinity likewise does 
not seem to play a decisive role. 


Garmannia spes Ginsburg 


Garmannia spes Ginsburg, Journ. Washington 
Acad. Sci. 29: 62. 1939. 

Sample collected in a cafio [bayou] about 3 
km west of Sinamaica (the latter about 55 
km north of Maracaibo City), Gulf of Vene- 
zuela; in thick vegetation on mud; nearly fresh 
water; L. P. Schultz; March 11, 1942; 52 males, 
18-41 mm, 55 females, 15-27 mm, U.S.N.M. 
no; 121551. 


378 


As shown in Tables 1-3, the Venezuelan 
population represented by the above sample is 
close enough to the one from the Canal Zone 
for the two to be grouped in one species. As 
there are only three Canal Zone specimens 
available for comparison, the differences be- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 11 


tween the two populations can not be discussed 
at length. Very likely the Canal Zone popula- 
tion will prove to average a higher dorsal count, 
to what extent remains to be seen. 
Morphological relationship of the species of 
Garmannia.—Seven species of Garmannia, 


TABLE 1.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF THE FiIn-Ray Counts IN GARMANNIA SCHULTZI AND G. SPES 


Pectoral Dorsal Anal 
Population Sex 
15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 8 9 10 1l 
schultzi: 
Below Maracaibo City.... ve E: 1 = : : Re A : 1 : i tev" 
YachtiClubwass2h sate { s a a ‘ iy ae ak : i Re EF ‘ a 
Salina Ricans scm ae ee { Z he 1 5 - cy ee : ons ape : 5 a 
Phe et fo || 21 | 29 Ae Ss Ics Be fii | 9 | 42 1 
fais nee ta a Le 12 | 39 4{/—]|— Pee Shee es) — | 10 | 44 1 
lebhoe nage ie cece Cos 6 As holee x $ s. 2 pus om ye 2 ne ae z i 
Petes Ge PO) 1 ve eee) tom! | | ae eee eee 
abieelewe! ee vene (ese lever ee) 9) shis' \ Q are 1 10 pale 15 2 1 4 12 peta! 
Grand'totalon ; —_ 5 33 12 1 — 35 12 1 8 38 —_— 
spes: 
Grand totalaacs. .2 eee 33 71 6 — — %) 68 40 — 19 89 2 
TABLE 2.—;FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF SCALE CouNtTSs IN MALES or GARMANNIA SCHULTZI AND G. SPES 
ree Number of scales 
Tranverse rows Longitudinal rows behind pectoral 
Population 
7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 
schultzi: 
Below Maracaibo City.... 1 2 9 6 = ae 8 10 1 — 9 10 1 
Waehti@lubs.cas: ssaases — — 4 — — — — 1 3 —- 2 2 —_ 
Salinaenicanan eee — — 1 1 2 — — — 5 —- 4 1 
spes: 
Venezuela... 35 coeicca oe — 5 16 15 1 2 10 24 1 21 28 3 
TABLE 3.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF SCALE CouNTS IN FEMALES OF GERMANNIA SCHULTZI AND G. SPES 
j 
SMU Number of scales 
Transverse rows Longitudinal rows behind pectoral 
Population 
9 | 10] 11 | 12 | 18-] 14] 15 | 16 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 
SCHULZ eae ac ee 
Below Maracaibo City....... 3 2 1 5 1)—>| =>] — 3 4 2 3{/—}|/—] 2 9 3) [== 
Yacht Club atin s core vie hee. oe —|—}]—]— 1 1}/—{]—]}—J]— 1 1/—}y—j— 1;— 1 
SalinatRica jes so skies Gane —;—}]—jy —] — 2)/—);—y—]—]— 1 1{}—|]— 1 1 
spes: 
Venezuela... oS Ss —|— 2 4 |) 13] 15 4 1 |} — | — | 23 | 20 1 || — 6 | 25 | 18 6 
Panama oe baie eee —}—|]— 1 1|— 1}/—y—{|]— 1 1);— 1 1 1);—!-— 


Nov. 15, 1944 


namely, hildebrandi, spilota, spes, homochroma, 
pallens, gemmata, and medvocricula, have been 
described by me at different times during the 
past four years. Two other species, Gobius 
chiquita Jenkins and Evermann and Gobiosoma 
macrodon Beebe and Tee-Van, generally placed 
in other genera by authors, should also be in- 
cluded in Garmannia. The above species to- 
gether with paradozxa, the genotype, and the 
one here described, schultzi, constitute a total 
of 11 species now known, which are comprised 
within the limits of Garmannia. Other species 
hitherto placed by authors in Garmannia ap- 
parently should be transferred to other genera. 
(Gobiosoma diguet: Pellegrin, inadequately de- 
scribed, the type of which is presumably in the 
Paris Museum and has not been examined by 
me, possibly also belongs to Garmannia.) It is, 
therefore, timely to give a short resume of the 
genus. 

The 11 species of Garmannia show differences 
of varying degrees, some of them diverging 
widely in their morphological characters as 
compared with others. In order to display 
prominently the divergences for taxonomic pur- 
poses the genus may be divided into a number 
of subgenera, as follows: 


Subgenus Tigrigobius Fowler 

Tigrigobius Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- 

_ delphia 83: 401. 1931. 

Genotype: Garmannia macrodon (Beebe and 
Tee-Van) =Gobiosoma macrodon Beebe and 

Tee-Van (Zoologica 10: 226. 1928). 

Besides the genotype, pallens is also refer- 
rable to Tigrigobius. This subgenus differs from 
all others in the dentition of the upper jaw. The 
outer row of teeth ends about midway between 
the symphysis and the angle of the mouth and 
the last tooth in the row.is caninoid, appreci- 
ably larger than the teeth anterior to it. The 
maxillary is rather long, attaining approxi- 
mately to the posterior margin of the eye. The 
head is strongly compressed. The squamation 
covers about the posterior third of the body in 
pallens and is reduced to a small patch on the 
caudal peduncle in macrodon. The color pattern 
is sharply cross-banded in macrodon, more 
moderately so in pallens. 


Gobicula, n. subg. 


Genotype: Garmannia gemmata Ginsburg 
(Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 98 (14): 3. 1939). 


GINSBURG: A NEW GOBIID FISH FROM VENEZUELA 


379 


This monotypic subgenus is nearest to 
Tigrigobius, nearly agreeing with it in the back- 
ward extension of the maxillary and the head 
shape. It differs in the dentition of the upper 
jaw, which, as in the other subgenera, except 
Tigrigobius, has the teeth in the outer row 
extending nearly to the angle of the mouth and 
the posterior teeth are somewhat smaller than 
the anterior ones. The squamation is confined 
to the caudal peduncle. The cross-banded color 
pattern is obsolescent. 


Gobiolepis, n. subg. 


Genotype: Garmannia hildebrandi Ginsburg 
(JOURN. WASHINGTON ACAD. Sct. 29: 62. 1939). 

Besides the genotype, chiquita and spilota are 
also referable to Gobiolepis. This subgenus dif- 
fers, in general, from the others, except Gobicu- 
lina, in the greater extent of squamation, al- 
though the division is not sharp when all the 
species are considered. The squamation on the 
midline extends all the way forward nearly to 
the pectoral base. In hildebrandt the anterior 
squamation, in the area anterior to the second 
dorsal, is much reduced, consisting largely of 
a rather narrow band of scales on the midline; 
in chiquita nearly the entire body is scaled over; 
while in spilota the squamation is about inter- 
mediate between that of the preceding two 
species. The maxillary ends under the posterior 
margin of the pupil or middle of eye. The head 
is depressed or subterete. The color pattern is 
diffusely cross-banded or no cross-bands are 
evident. 


Subgenus Garmannia Jordan and Evermann 
Garmannia Jordan and Evermann, Proc. Cali- 
fornia Acad. Sci. (2) 5: 497. 1895. 

Genotype: Garmannia paradoxa (Ginther) = 
Gobius paradoxus Ginther (Proc. Zool. Soc. 
London, 1861: 372). 

Besides the genotype, medtocricula, which 
was described from two specimens in rather 
indifferent condition, probably also belongs to 
the subgenus Garmannia. This subgenus differs 
from all others, except Gobiohelpis, in having 
the fourth transverse row of cutaneous papillae 
on the cheek interrupted instead of continuous. 
The head and maxillary are about as in Gobio- 
lepis. The squamation closely approaches that 
of Gobiolepis, but it is not quite so extensive. 
The posterior half of the body is scaled over; 
the anterior half is either naked or a median 


380 


row of nonimbricate or overlapping scales is 
present, sometimes a second incomplete row. 


Gobiohelpis, n. subg. 


Genotype: Garmannia spes Ginsburg (JOURN. 
WasHINGTON Acap. Sct. 29: 62. 1939). 

This subgenus comprises spes and schultz. It 
differs from all other subgenera in lacking a 
transverse row of scales on the caudal base. In 
other characters it nearly agrees with the sub- 
genus Garmannia. 


Gobiculina, n. subg. 


Genotype: Garmannia homochroma Ginsburg 
(JOURN. WASHINGTON ACAD. Sct. 29: 62. 1939). 

This monotypic subgenus differs from all 
others in having a small barbel below the an- 
terior nostril, a very long maxillary which ex- 
tends somewhat behind the eye, at least in the 
male, and a markedly depressed head. The 
extent of squamation is about as in Gobiolepis. 

Remarks.—The above is a brief outline of 
some of the characters, which omits for the sake 
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JOURNAL 


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VOLUME 34 


ETHNOLOGY .—The Delaware Indians as women.) 


DECEMBER 15, 1944 


No. 12 


C. A. WrestaGcer, Archaeol- 


ogical Society of Delaware. (Communicated by Witiiam N. Fenton.) 


Among the strange concepts in the social 
symbolism of the American Indian tribes of 
the East was the treatment accorded a van- 
quished enemy group by the victors. We 
have heard much repeated, analyzed, and 
even contradicted accounts in a century and 
- a half of historical literature concerning the 
relationship between the Five Nations Iro- 
quois and the Delaware Nation, culminat- 
- Ing in the degradation of the latter. The 

‘Five Nations relegated the Delaware to a 
position of ““women’’ by applying the sym- 
bolic attributes of the female to them as a 
nation of women, devoid of political or mili- 
tary power. This subjugation and lowering 
of status of the enemy were linked with sex- 
-ual connotations, real and symbolical, 
which are fraught with mystery and which 
placed the Delaware tribe in a subservient 
social position. As women they could not 
go to war or negotiate peace treaties. In 
fact, their entire political organization by 
this act of humiliation was deprived of 
masculine prerogatives. They were com- 
pelled to accept the chiefs of the Iroquois 
Confederacy, the League of Five Nations, 
as their spokesmen, agents and overlords in 
the political family of nations. . 

Loskiel, the Moravian historian, was 
among the first contemporary observers to 
eall attention in print to the Delaware in 
their status as women. The story related to 
him either directly by Delaware informants, 
or more probably to him through his fellow 
missionary Heckewelder, was that in the 
distant past the Five Nations met with the 
Delaware and convinced them that it was 
senseless for the Indians to war against each 
other as they had been doing. The Five 


1 Received October 4, 1944. 


Nations proposed, therefore, that the Dela- 
ware tribe accept an honorable, noncom- 
batant position as peacemakers. In such a 
role they would not engage in combat and 
consequently as a neutral party could nego- 
tiate. peace between warring tribes. The 
right was one that belonged to the ‘‘tribal 
matrons’”’ as the position accorded women 
was regarded in their social policies, who 
could with impunity propose cessation of 
hostilities to their men fighters. Such sub- 
terfuge would permit their warriors to 
‘save face,’’ since it would not be necessary 
for either of them to sue for peace. Yet both 
would be spared further bloodshed. The 
Delaware, so their story went, accepted this 
respected position as matrons. During a 
ceremony that marked the occasion, the 
Iroquois, according to the Delaware ver- 
sion, are supposed to have said: ‘‘We dress 
you in a woman’s long habit reaching down 
to your feet and adorn you with earrings,” 
meaning that they should not take up arms 
again. ‘‘We hang a calabash filled with oil 
and medicine on your arms,” meaning that 
they should use the oil to clean the ears of 
those who could not distinguish good from 
evil, and also use the medicine to heal those 
walking in evil. ‘‘We deliver unto your 
hands a plant of Indian corn and a hoe,” 
meaning that they should thereafter be as 
women.” 

Later the Delaware claimed that they 
had been duped, their independence for- 
feited, their autonomy humiliated. After ac- 
cepting the pact in good faith, they said 
that they found they had sacrificed their 
individual rights and the Five Nations were 
exploiting them and that they were helpless 


2G. H. Losxret, History of the mission of the 
United Brethren, etc.: 126, London, 1794. 


381 


382 


to retaliate, having obligated themselves by 
their sacred word of honor which could not 
be broken. 

The Five Nations told an entirely differ- 
ent story. They averred that the Delaware 
version was a complete fabrication to win 
sympathy. They maintained they had con- 
quered the Delaware fairly in open battle 
and as a penalty had reduced them to the 
disgraceful position of women. Thus the 
impartial observer has found himself faced 
with two opposing views and is at a loss to 
settle on the correct one. Zeisberger® pre- 
sents the two sides to the controversy as 
does Heckewelder,* although the latter’s 
conclusions are that the Delaware story was 
the authentic one. He deduced from in- 
formation given him that the Dutch had 
instigated the scheme to weaken the Dela- 
ware. 

Morgan claims that it is true that the 
Five Nations defeated the Delaware and 
that the latter acknowledged their depend- 
ence by sending tributary wampum but 
were not then reduced to womanhood. How- 
ever, Morgan says that while the Delaware 
were under the protection of the Five Na- 
tions they made inroads upon a western 
nation also under Five Nations dominance. 
To punish the Delaware for their unauthor- 
ized conduct a deputation of Iroquois chiefs 
went among them and degraded them from 
the rank of a tributary nation to that of 
women. Morgan unfortunately does not 
give us the source of his information. He 
makes an obvious error by stating that the 
Delaware ‘“‘never emancipated themselves 
after this act of denationalization,’’ as we 
shall shortly see.® 

Brinton devotes a chapter to the Dela- 
ware aS women but touches only superfi- 
cially upon the historical events from 1754 
to 1758, when the relationship between the 
Delaware tribe and Five Nations reached 
its climax and when the details of the fem- 


8’ David Zeisberger’s History of the Northern 
American Indians, ed. by A. M. Hulbert and 
W. N. Schwarze. Ohio State University, 1910. 

4 JoHN HECKEWELDER, History, manners and 
customs of the Indian Nations. Historical Society 
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1876. 

> Lewis H. Morean, League of the. 
quots; 328-329. New York, 1922. 


.. Lro- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 12 


inization stand out in clearer perspective. 
Brinton says that the feminizing occurred 
around 1725 and that the Five Nations 
made the Delaware as women in conse- 
quence of their refusal to join in an attack 
on the English settlements. This explana- 
tion is based entirely on an interpretation 
given him by Shawnee informants but is 
not tenable, for the Five Nations were long 
known to be pro-English.® 

The writer has had the good fortune to 
uncover hitherto unrecognized sources in 
the Provincial Records of Pennsylvania re- 
garding the Delaware as women. The refer- 
ences at hand do not entirely explain but 
they add measurably to our understanding 
of this little known and much debated diplo- 
matic contention. 

Early in colonial history, the Five Na- 
tions (later known as the Six Nations) as- 
sumed a position of dominance over the 
Indians living in the Delaware and Susque- 
hanna River Valleys.’ After defeating the 
Susquehannock Indians, they seized con- 
trol of the Susquehanna Valley and ap- 
pointed their agent Shikellamy to supervise 
the affairs of the Susquehannock as well as 
the Shawnee, Conoy, Nanticoke, and others 
who had lately settled in the region by their 
invitation.® 

As aresult of white intrigue in land sales 
and the pressure exerted by the Five Na- 
tions, the Delaware Indians, who had 
formerly occupied eastern Pennsylvania, 
New Jersey, and the northern parts of 
Delaware as a solid nation, began to experi- 
ence political disintegration. By 1712 some 
remained in New Jersey; a larger body of 


6D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and their legends. 
Philadelphia, 1885. 

7 For a summation of the Iroquois and their 
historical position, see WitLt1am N,. FENTON, 
Problems arising from the historic northeastern 
position of the Iroquois, Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 
100: 159-251. May 1940. 

8 The present author discusses the subjection of 
the Nanticoke in The Nanticoke Indians in early 
Pennsylvania history, Pennsylvania Mag. Hist. and 
Biogr., Oct. 1943: 345-355. Additional data are 
presented in an essay, The Nanticoke Indians, 
their emperors and estates, to be published soon by 
the Historical Society of Delaware. 

For a discussion of the absorption into the 
League of these subjected tribes see FRANK G. 
Speck, The Nanticoke and Conoy Indians. His- 
torical Society of Delaware, 1927. 


Dec. 15, 1944 


Munsee affiliation was settled at the forks 
of the Delaware near present Easton; some 
were living on the Schuylkill River; and a 
few families remained on the upper Brandy- 
wine. Others had moved west and were liv- 
ing on the Susquehanna, and some had 
even straggled farther west to establish 
themselves in the Allegheny Valley at Kit- 
tanning. 

In May, 1712, Sassoonan, also called Al- 
lumapees, and Skalitchy, chiefs of the 
Unami Delawares, met with the Pennsy]l- 
vania governor and acquainted him that 
“many years ago being made tributary to 
the Mingoes or 5 Nations and being now 
about to visit them,” they deemed it 
proper to show the governor the tribute 
they were carrying to their overlords. It 
consisted of 32 belts of wampum. The chiefs 
also exhibited a pipe with a stone head, 
which had been given them by the Five 
Nations who, they frankly admitted, ‘had 
subdued them and obliged them to be their 
tributaries.’’® 

This is an important reference because it 
is the earliest admission appearing in the 
public documents, by the Delaware them- 
selves, that they had actually been sub- 
dued by the Iroquois. Two years later Sas- 
soonan said in another conference that the 
“Five Nations had often told them that 
they were as Women only and desired them 
to plant corn and mind their own private 
business for that they [the Five Nations] 
would take care of what related to war and 
peace.’’!° 

By 1742 the Delaware Indians remaining 
at the forks of the Delaware near Easton 
demanded that the English make restitu- 
tion for the lands which they had confis- 
cated, especially in the fraudulent “walking 
purchase” of 1737. The English produced 


® Minutes of the Provincial Council 2: 546. This 
set of records on which most of this essay is based 
- will be referred to hereafter as ‘‘Minutes.”’ It was 
issued in 16 volumes, under the full title, Minutes 
of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, pub- 
lished by the State. Volumes 1, 2, and 3 were 
printed by Jo. Severns & Co., Philadelphia, 1852. 
Volumes 4 to 16, inclusive, were printed by Theo. 
Fenn & Co., Harrisburg, 1851-1852. 

10 Minutes 3: 334. Sassoonan is believed by 
ne historians to be a son of the famous Tama- 
nend., 


WESLAGER: THE DELAWARE INDIANS AS WOMEN 


383 


deeds to prove that they had paid for the 
lands. The controversy reached its climax 
at a meeting held on July 12, 1742, with the 
Pennsylvania authorities. Also present were 
Canassatego and Shikellamy representing 
the Five Nations; Sassoonan representing 
the Unami Delawares then living at Sham- 
okin; and Nutimus and other chiefs repre- 
senting the Delaware Munsi living at the 
forks whose lands were the point at issue. 

At this meeting Canassatego made a 
speech, now famous in Indian history. He 
upbraided these Delaware chiefs unmerci- 
fully for questioning the words of ‘‘their 
fathers,’’ the English, and then he said: 

“But how came you to sell land at all? 
We conquered you, we made Women of 
you, you know you are Women, and can 
no more sell land than women.... We 
therefore assign you to two places to go, 
either to Wyomon or Shamokin. You may 
go to either of these Places, and then we 
shall have you more under our Eye and 
shall see how you behave.”’!! 

He forthwith seized the Delaware speaker 
by the hair and forced him out of the coun- 
cil room. Canassatego, as we have reason to 
believe, may have conspired with the Eng- 
lish to rid the land of the Delaware, but the 
fact remains that his accusation of the 
Iroquois having made the Delaware as 
women through conquest stood without re- 
futation. 

Two bands of Delaware, humbly yet re- 
luctantly, settled at the two assigned vil- 
lages under the vigilant eye of Shikellamy, 
the Five Nation agent. In a short time, 
some of them moved farther west to join 
the growing bands of the Allegheny under 
the leadership of the two brothers, Chief 
Beaver and Chief Shingas.!? Sassoonan re- 
mained on the Susquehanna River with 

11 Minutes 4: 578. As we know today, Wyomon, 
or Wyoming, was on the north branch of the Sus- 


quehanna River near present Wilkes Barre, Pa. 
Shamokin was near the present site of Sunbury, 


a. 

122 C, Hae Sipe, Indian wars of Pennsylvania: 
276, Harrisburg, 1929, points out that they were 
brothers. Beaver’s son Peter later became a rene- 
gade leader of some of the Delaware; see Minutes 
7: 381. Shingas and Beaver are believed to have 
been nephews of Sassoonan, and thus descendants 
of the great chief Tamanend. Like Tamanend, 
they were members of the Turkey Clan. 


384 


others of his tribe until the time of his death 
about 1748.18 For a time following his death, 
the Delaware were without a national 
leader. Finally, from the village Wyoming, 
a new figure arose to lead them, a chief 
who was to become one of the greatest Dela- 
ware sachems of all time—Tedyuskung, or 
as he was called in English, Honest John." 
In 1755 he was acknowledged by the Five 
Nations as the Delaware “‘king.’’® | 

With the changes in Indian political life. 
there were also transitions taking place 
among the whites which must be given due 
attention for a full understanding of Indian 
relations. By 1754 the situation in colonial 
affairs was as follows: 

The French and English had crossed 
paths in the New World and were about to 
declare war on each other. The Five Nations 
allied themselves with the English, promis- 
ing the assistance of the tribes then under 
their domination, including Delaware, Nan- 
ticoke, Conoy, Shawnee, Twightwee, and 
Susquehannock (called Conestoga). The 
French, in turn, were doing their utmost to 
incite the Indians to arise and join them in 
an attack on the English. The French were 
especially determined to gain control of the 
Ohio Valley and its tributaries, and sent 
their emissaries to contact the Delaware 
and Shawnee living there and solicit their 
aid. They threatened the Indians with ex- 
tinction if they did not join them in warring 
against the English. Out of this crisis, 
well recorded by colonial scribes, we can 
see the Delaware breaking their feminine 
shackles. In 1754 one of the Delaware 
bands sensing they were in jeopardy sent 

3 Minutes 5: 222 state that the Delawares in 
1748 were looking for a proper person to succeed 
“Olomipas, the King of the Delawares lately de- 
ceased.” In Vol. 7, p. 726, it is brought out that 
he was of the Unami, the ‘‘sub-tribe’’ who claimed 
hereditary chieftainship over the other Dela- 
wares, according to Brinton, op. cit. 

4 Sipe, op. cit., p. 262, says that Tedyuskung 
was the son of John Harris and was born in Tren- 
ton, circa 1705. This is corroborated in Minutes 
7: 359, where it is stated that he had moved from 
New Jersey to Wyoming. Also in Vol. 7, p. 220, 
it is noted that Tedyuskung had three sons, Amos, 
Kesmitas, and John Jacob. Later we see that a 
chief named Captain Bull was termed a son of 
Tedyuskung. Heckewelder, op. cit., p. 302, says 
that Tedyuskung joined the Indian Christian 
congregation in 1749 and was baptized and given 


the name Gideon. 
16 Minutes 7: 199. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


voL. 34, No. 12 


the following message to the Five Nations; 
the italics are mine: 

“Uncles the United Nations. We expect 
to be killed by the French your fathers; we 
desire, therefore, that you will take off our 
petticoat that we may fight for ourselves, our 
Wives and Children; in the condition We 
are in you know we can do nothing.’’!® Their 
‘condition’? as women meant that they 
were unable to protect themselves. 

The Delaware chief Beaver also addressed 
himself to the Five Nations as follows; the 
italics are mine: 7 

“Uncles: I still remember the time when 
you first conquered us and made Women of us 
and told Us you took Us under your Pro- 
tection and that we must not meddle with 
Wars but stay in the House and mind Coun- 
cil affairs. We have hitherto followed your 
directions and lived very easy under your 
Protection, and no high Wind did blow to 
make us uneasy, but now things seem to 
take another turn and a high wind is rais- 
ing. We desire you, therefore, Uncles, to 
have your eyes open and watchful over us, 
your Cousins, as you have always been here- 
tofore.’’!7 
_ Tedyuskung, speaking at a council meet- 
ing with the English in 1755, voiced a hope 
that the Delawares would eventually be 
emancipated from womanhood when he 
said: 

“Tho our Uncles have made Women of 
Us, yet in time to come We may have chil- 
dren, who when born, may look up and see 
the Sun and Sky clear and the Roof open 
between Us and You; and we will advise 
them to take and always continue to hold 
fast by the middle of that Chain as their 
ancestors have done before them.’’!8 

After Braddock’s defeat by the French 
and Indians, there was terrible bloodshed 
on the Pennsylvania frontier. The Dela- 
ware, still angered at the confiscation of — 
their lands by the English and goaded on 
by the French, joined the Shawnee and de- 
serted the English interests. They allied 
with the French, detached themselves from 
their dependence on the Five Nations, and 
went on the warpath. They burned many 

16 Minutes 6: 36. 


17 Minutes 6: 155. 
18 Minutes 6: 363. 


Dec. 15, 1944 


homes, scalped settlers, and took scores of 
women and children prisoners. They re- 
vealed themselves as ruthless warriors and 
not the peaceful women they were reputed 
to be. 

The Five Nations sent an ultimatum to 
the Delaware to cease hostilities against the 
English with whom the Five Nations were 
then more closely allied than ever before. 
The Delaware refused flatly and replied as 
follows to the message from their overlords; 
the italics are mine: 

“We are men and are determined not to 
be ruled any longer by you as Women; And 
we are determined to cut off all the English 
except those that may make their escape 
from us in Ships. So say no more to us on 
that Head, lest we cut off your Private Parts 
and make Women of you as you have done of 
Si 

The English, with the endorsement of the 
Five Nations, subsequently declared war 
on the Delaware, offering bounties for their 
scalps. Here followed a period of conflict 
that does not now concern us. 

By 1756, however, the Delaware repented 
having attacked the English, and Tedyus- 
kung opened negotiations with the English 
for a permanent peace and a satisfactory 
settlement of the land disputes. The Five 
Nations then aware that the Delaware 
were no longer willing to remain in the in- 
ferior position of women felt it expedient to 
allow them more latitude. Tedyuskung ap- 
peared before the Pennsylvania Council in 
July of 1756 and exhibited a wampum belt. 
‘““This belt,”’ he said, ‘‘denotes that the Six 
Nations by their chiefs have lately re- 
newed their covenant chains with us; for- 
merly we were Accounted Women, and 
employed only in Women’s business, but 
now they have made men of us and as such 
we now come to this Treaty having the au- 
thority as a Man to make peace.’’?® 

Tedyuskung exaggerated when he 
claimed that the Iroquois had made them 
completely men, for it was a masculinity 
with the specific reservation that the Dela- 
ware refrain from making war. In fact, the 
wampum belt sent to Tedyuskung by the 
Iroquois, which he exhibited, had been ac- 


19 Minutes 7: 522. 
20 Minutes 7: 213. 


WESLAGER: THE DELAWARE INDIANS AS WOMEN 


385 


companied by the following significant mes- 
sage: 

“‘Cousins, the Delaware Indians: You will 
remember that you are our women; our 
forefathers made you so, and put a petticoat 
on you and charged you to be true to us and 
lie with no other man. But of late you have 
Suffered the string that tied your petticoat 
to be cut loose by the French and you lay 
with them and so became a common bawd, 
in which you did very wrong and deserve 
Chastisement, but notwithstanding this, 
we will still Esteem you, and as you have 
thrown off the Cover of your modesty and 
become Stark naked which is a shame for a 
woman, we now give you a little Prick and 
put it into your Private Parts, and so let 
it grow there till you shall be a compleat 
man. We advise you to act as a woman yet, 
But be first instructed by us, and do as we 
bid you and you will become a noted 
man.’’?! Thus did the Five Nations express 
themselves as willing to have the Delaware 
eventually rate full manhood provided 
they followed their bidding. They were re- 
luctant to relinquish a control they had 
exercised over the vanquished tribe for 
many years, but they realized they were 
now dealing with warriors who might sud- 
denly turn against them as they did against 
the English. 

The Pennsylvania governor, desirous of 
verifying Tedyuskung’s standing, sent an 
Iroquois messenger named New Castle to 
confer with the Five Nation chiefs to ap- 
praise the status of the Delaware. New 
Castle conferred with several sachems, in- 
cluding Canyase, a Mohawk chief and one 
of the principal counselors of the League. 
Canyase admitted having had a long dis- 
course with Tedyuskung, at which time he 
reminded him that the Delaware were 
women, and in attacking the English had 
behaved in a manner not becoming to their 
condition. ‘“‘But,’’ Canyase had said to 
Tedyuskung, ‘‘since you have been so fool- 
ish as to obey that voice, a Stranger’s voice 
and cut off your Pettycoats and taken the 
Tomahawk and now appear in the Char- 
acter of a Man. I join and help to cut off 
your Pettycoats, and so far make a Man of 
you, but I do not put the Tomahawk in 

21 Minutes 7: 218. 


386 


your hand. I know what is for your good 
and therefore I will not allow you to carry 
a Tomahawk.’’” 

Having had his figurative skirts removed, 
Tedyuskung’s position was strengthened, 
and he embarked on a program to consoli- 
date the Indians. Within a short time he 
claimed to be not only the “king” of the 
Delaware but a “‘spokesman”’ empowered 
by ten nations, namely, “the Lenopi, 
Wenami, Munsey, Mahickon, Tiawaco or 
Nanticokes, Senecas, Onandogas, Cayugas, 
Oneidas and Mohawks.’’? Furthermore, his 
position was strengthened when he was ap- 
pointed by the English as one of their In- 
dian agents, and in his dealings he was 
assisted by Charles Thompson, a Philadel- 
phia Quaker and a champion of Indian 
rights, who served as the chief’s secretary 
in some of the conferences with the whites.” 

At a council meeting with the Pennsyl- 
vania authorities held at Easton, Tedyus- 
kung announced that he was now a man. He 
said (the italics are mine): 

‘“‘Now you may remember I was stiled 
by my uncles the Six Nations a Woman in 
former years and had no hatchet in my 
hand, but a pestle or Hominy pounder. 
But now, Brethren, here are some of my 
Uncles, who are present to witness the truth of 
this; as I had no Tomahawk and my Uncles 
were always stiled Men and had Toma- 


22 Minutes 7: 297. New Castle’s Indian name 
was Cashiowayah. He succeeded Scarroyady who 
succeeded Shikellamy as the Iroquois agent over 
the tributary tribes. 

23 Minutes 7: 665. Tedyuskung’s genius is evi- 
denced in the adroit way he renewed friendship 
with the English after the frontier massacres, and 
at the same time outsmarted the Five Nations. 
That he exercised authority he did not rightfully 
possess must now be admitted, although it was 
then not known to the English. In 1758 he said 
that eight more nations had joined the ten he al- 
ready represented, namely, ‘‘Ottawas, Twight- 
wees, Chippewas, Toawaws, Caughnawagos, Ma- 
hoowa, Pietoatomaws, and Nalashawwna.”’ See 
Minutes 8: 33. 

24 Minutes 7: 664. Tedyuskung was probably 
the first Indian chief to appear at a meeting with 
his own secretary to make a written record of the 
transaction. The whites usually were the only 
party of the contract who had a written record, 
and this obviously placed them in an advanta- 
geous position, because the Indians were forced to 
trust to memory. See also CHARLES THOMPSON, 
An inquiry into the causes of the alienation of the 
eae and Shawnee Indians. Philadelphia, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 12 


hawks in their Hands, they gave me a 
Tomahawk. And as my Uncles have given 
me a Tomahawk and appointed and au- 
thorized me to make peace with a Toma- 
hawk in my Hand, I take that Tomahawk 
and turn the edge of it against your en- 
emies, the French.” 

Thus, by diplomatic negotiation, Tedy- 
uskung placed the Five Nations in the posi- 
tion of being forced to recognize the Dela- 
ware as men. If they refused to give them 
the tomahawk and prohibited them from 
fighting, it would displease the English and 
make it appear that the Five Nations were 
unwilling to support the English cause with 
all their resources. 3 

Those of his ‘uncles’? whom Tedyuskung 
offered in witness to the statement that he 
was now a man were not members of the 
Great Council but young Iroquois braves 
who had no authority to speak for their 
elders, although the English seemingly were 
not fully aware of this. 

At a subsequent conference in 1758, a 
delegation of bona fide Five Nations chiefs, 
angered at Tedyuskung’s self-imposed au- 
thority, demanded to know who gave him 
the authority he claimed. For a moment, 
his fate hung in the balance, and the fate 
of the Delaware as a whole, but having won > 
the confidence of the English and of his own 
people, he managed to retain his position of 
importance. He was also shrewd enough 
when confronted by his Iroquois critics to 
answer that while he was a chief of the 
Delaware he was only a humble messenger 
of his ‘‘Uncles and Superiors.’’?6 Neverthe- 
less, he had effectively severed the bonds of 
womanhood, even though the Delaware 
continued to rely on the Five Nations for 
advice and to respect their wishes. The Five 
Nations, in turn, no longer commanded the 
Delaware, but on one occasion “‘asked”’ as 
their indulgent uncles that they return the 
English captives they had taken during the 
earlier frontier incidents.?” 

It is also significant that the Delaware’s 
emancipation from the Five Nations was 
known and accepted by other tribes, as 
evidenced in a note sent to Tedyuskung in - 


2 Minutes 7: 710. 
26 Minutes 8: 191-192. 
27 Minutes 8: 194. 


Dec. 15, 1944 


1758 by the Cherokee in which this excerpt 
appears. “Formerly, you used to Wear a 
petticoat and did not go to war, etc.’’8 
Nevertheless, the reader must not gather 
the impression that all of the Delaware 
were immediately relieved of the pressure 
from the Five Nations. The tribe at that 
time was widely scattered, and some of the 
outlying Munsee bands continued to be 
dominated by the Seneca. In May, 1758, a 
Seneca chief reported in a conference with 
the whites that the ‘“Munseys are Women 
and can not hold treaties for themselves.’’2° 
The Munsee, as we know today, were affili- 
ates of the Unami, or Delaware proper, but 
like the Mahican were a separate political 
entity. 

Tedyuskung’s decease, a sudden and ir- 
reparable loss to the Delaware, was a tragic 
one. On April 16, 1763, he was burned to 
death in a fire which razed his cabin at 
Wyoming. It is said that the old chief was 
in a drunken stupor and that the Five Na- 
tions started the fire with the deliberate 
purpose of killing him.*° 

During the Revolution the Five Nations 
continued in their alliance with the English, 
whereas most of the Delaware went over to 
the American cause. In 1775, at a meeting in 
Pittsburgh, the Seneca made a final effort 
to win the Delawares over to their side, and 
reminded them that they had once been 
women. The Seneca had apparently never 
reconciled themselves to the fact that the 
Delaware had regained their manhood, nor 
publicly admitted it. The Delaware chief, 
Captain White Eyes (Koquethagechton of 
the Turtle Clan) replied as follows to the 
insinuation: ) 

“You say that you had conquered me, 
that you had cut off my legs—had put a 
petticoat on me, giving me a hoe and corn 
pounder in my hands saying: ‘Now 
woman! Your business henceforward shall 
be to plant and hoe corn and pound the 
same for bread for us men and warriors.’ 
Look at my legs! If as you say, you had cut 
them off, they have grown again to their 


28 Minutes 8: 136. 

29 Minutes 8: 158. 

30 Gro. P. DonEHOO, in Hodge, F. W. (Ed.) 
Handbook of American Indians, Bur. per: Eth- 
nol., Bull. 30, 2: 714-717. 1910. 


WESLAGER: THE DELAWARE INDIANS AS WOMEN 


387 


proper size!—the petticoat I have thrown 
away, and have put on my proper dress; the 
corn hoe and pounder I have exhanged for 
these firearms and I declare that I am a 
man.’’# 

In 1779 the Delaware under the leader- 
ship of Captain White Eyes joined Colonel 
Daniel Brodhead in an expedition against | 
the Seneca. Thus they showed their con- 
tempt even more eloquently than in words. 
After White Eyes’ death, some of the Dela- 
ware were persuaded by Captain Pipe, an- 
other Delaware chief, to go over to the 
British side, and once more they were allied 
with their former Iroquois overlords. In the 
upheaval in the Indians’ social and political 
organizations during the Revolution, it is 
exceedingly difficult to find either continu- 
ity or consistency in their behavior. 

In 1794, shortly before the treaty of 
Greenville, the Five Nations delegates 
came forward to declare officially that the 
Lenape (Delaware) were no longer women 
but men, and the famous chief Joseph 
Brant formally placed in their hands the 
war club. 


CONCLUSIONS 


Without presuming to add finality to the 
question of the Delaware as women, we can 
draw from our data, which contain specific 
admissions by Delaware speakers of their 
defeat, that the Five Nations feminized the 
Delaware prior to 1712 through conquest. 
Between then and 1756, the Five Nations 
treated the Delaware contemptuously, pro- 
hibiting them from going to war or making 
treaties. Following Braddock’s defeat the 
Delaware went on the warpath against the 
English, refusing to accede to the demands 
of the Five Nations that they lay down their 
arms. Under the leadership of Tedyuskung, 
the Delaware by 1756 declared that they 
were not women and forced the Five Na- 
tions to accept them on new and more lib- 
eral terms. However, the Five Nations did 
not then grant them complete manhood and 
withheld granting them permission to go to 
war. 


31 JoHN HECKEWELDER, Narrative of the mission 
of the United Brethren among the Delaware and 
Mohegan Indians: 140-141. Philadelphia, 1820. 

32 HECKEWELDER, op. cit.: 70; SCHWEINITZ, Life 
of David Zeisberger: 430, 641. - 


388 


During the Revolution, the Delaware 
denied they were in any way under Five 
Nations’ domination and joined the colon- 
ists in fighting the English and their Five 
Nation allies. Finally, as an anticlimactic 
gesture, at the close of the Revolution, the 
Iroquois conceded that the Delaware were 
no longer women but men. 

In the sexual symbolism of the feminiz- 
ing, we recognize unfathomed depths in 
native philosophy. Whether the figurative 
deprivation of the Delaware of their male 
accoutrements, both physiological and cul- 
tural, had its origin in literal practices re- 
mains unknown. Brinton claims, quoting 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 34, No. 12 


Hammond, that young men of some of the 
western tribes were deprived of their viril- 
ity, clothed like women, and assigned to 
women’s work.*®® The institution of the 
berdache or transvestite was widespread 
among American tribes, which attests to its 
antiquity, and it is well known from the 
Plains. However, the feminizing of the 
Delaware, which follows similar lines of 
thought, is the outstanding recorded in- 
stance of its kind in the East. It is probably 
the only time that the rite was so institu- 
tionalized as to affect the status of an entire 
tribal group. 
33 Brinton, op. cit.: 110. 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Thyridocrinus, a new wnadunate crinoid genus from the 


Stlurian. 


In 1908, Slocum described a crinoid from 
the Niagaran of Illinois as Achradocrinus 
patulus. This is the first recorded occurrence 
of a crinoid referable to the family Gaste- 
rocomidae in the Silurian. In 1926, Springer 
described a crinoid from the Middle Silurian 
of Tennessee, which he placed with doubt in 
the genus Lecythiocrinus. He specifically 
states that the form could not be referred 
to the Gasterocomidae. In the present paper 
both of these species are included in a new 
genus Thyridocrinus, which is placed in the 
Gasterocomidae. 


Thyridocrinus, n. gen. 


Genoty pe.—Lecythiocrinus? problematicus 

Springer. 

Only the theca is known, but this is in an ex- 
cellent state of preservation. Both species re- 
ferred to the genus are small. 

Dorsal cup. Low, broadly turbinate, composed 
of very heavy plates. 

IBB. Three elements. The unfused JB is right- 
posterior in position. 

BB. Small, except the posterior, which is con- 
siderably larger than the others in the type 
species. In the type species the distal face of 
post B forms the lower margin of the exposed 
lateral opening. In 7. patulus a plate is inter- 
posed between post B and the opening. 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. 
Geological Survey. Received August 30, 1944. 


Epwin Kirk, U.S. Geological Survey. 


RR. Large, with very large articulating faces. 
The arms must have been very heavy and 
directed nearly horizontally outward, closely 
simulating Arachnocrinus. The articulating 
face is pierced by a submedian axial canal. 
The distal portions of the radials form a 
broad shelf, leaving a relatively small area 
to be covered by the tegminal plates. The two 
posterior radials meet above the lateral open- 
ing. 

Post IR. As noted above, in the type species the 
lateral opening is bounded below by the 
post B. In T. patulus a plate rests on the 
truncated distal face of post B, and this in 
turn forms the lower margin of the lateral 
opening. The significance of this plate and 
the nature of the lateral opening will be dis- 
cussed later. 

Tegmen. The greater part of the tegmen con- - 
sists of a somewhat elevated rosette of ir- 
regularly disposed plates. At a lower level, 
between the rosette and the inner margins 
of the radials, are small groups of tegminal 
plates lying in the interambulacral areas. 
Each interambulacral area has from one to 
three of these plates. The rosette consists in 
the main of five orals. The posterior oral is 
large and is probably a madreporite, al- 
though pores cannot be made out with cer- 
tainty. Radiating from the periphery cf the 
rosette and covering the ventral groove of 
each radial is a double row of covering plates 


Dec. 15, 1944 


having a biserial arrangement. These doubt- 

less extended outward, covering the ventral 

groove of the arm. 
Column. Lumen circular, as judged by the 
perforation of the JBB. 

Geological range.—Thyridocrinus is known at 
present only in the Middle Silurian of Illinois 
and Indiana. 

Species referred to the genus.— 


Thyridocrinus problematicus (Springer), 
n. comb. 

(?) Lecythiocrinus problematicus Springer, 1926, 
p. 1338, pl. 31, figs. 11, lla, 11b: ‘“‘Laurel lime- 
stone, Niagara, St. Paul, Indiana.”’ 

As photographed and described by Springer 
the type specimen of 7. problematicus had the 
infrabasals intact. When first seen by me the 
specimen was mounted, base down, on a bit of 
plasticine affixed to a strip of light cardboard. 
Upon detaching the specimen it was found that 
the BB were missing. The contact faces of the 
surrounding basals are perfectly clear and show 
that the arrangement of the BB was that de- 
scribed and figured by Springer. The one miss- 
ing structure is the lumen. 


Thyridocrinus patulus (Slocum), n. comb. 


‘Achradocrinus patulus Slocum, 1908, p. 288, pl. 
85, figs. 1-4: 
limestone at Romeo [Illinois].”’ 

Elsewhere, pages 273-275, Slocum explains 
that these silicified fossils found at Romeo 
came from postglacial clays filling erosion chan- 


nels in the Niagaran dolomite. The original : 


source of the crinoid and associated fossils was 
a limestone near Lemont, IIl., some 5 miles dis- 
tant. This limestone in place yielded a fauna 
that Slocum considered very much like that of 
the Silurian at St. Paul, Ind. (Laurel lime- 
stone). 

Slocum’s reference of his species to Achra- 
docrinus is quite understandable but can not be 
maintained. Shultze’s figures of Achradocrinus 
ventrorsus (1866, pl. 12, figs. 6, 6a) could be 
interpreted as showing the radial facets pierced 
by axial canals. His diagram, page 101 (213), 
fig. 19, and his description on the same page 
unequivocally indicate the presence of such 
canals. The actual type specimen (M.C.Z. 
1238) shows that such is not the case, however. 
The specimen has been treated with acid, but 
the dark matrix filling the ventral grooves of 


KIRK: A NEW SILURIAN CRINOID 


“Clay pockets of the Niagara 


389 


the radials has not been removed in some cases. 
It is clearly shown that there is a deep, fairly 
narrow, open groove without a separate axial 
canal. Again, the articulating facets of the 
radials are small and quite unlike those of 
Gasterocoma or Thyridocrinus. Incidentally, the 
lumen of the column is pentagonal. 

T. patulus agrees well with T. problematicus 
except for the presence of the supplementary 
plate in the post IR. This will be discussed later. 
Slocum (p. 288) assumed anchylosis of the BB. 
In closely united circlets of plates the presence 
or absence of sutures is often a matter of per- 
sonal opinion, and in silicified specimens such as 
this usually no sound judgment can be formed. 

Relationships.—The most obvious difference 
between Thyridocrinus and Gasterocoma is the 
possession of three infrabasal elements in the 
former as against the anchylosed circlet in the 
latter. The well-defined rosette of apposed orals 
of Thyridocrinus is quite at variance with any 
known tegminal structure in species referred to 
Gasterocoma. The apparently circular columnar 
lumen of Thyridocrinus as judged by the per- 
foration of the IBB is quite unlike the quadri- 
partite perforation of Gasterocoma. As to the 
presence of peripheral canals in Thyridocrinus, 
no information is to be had. 

Remarks.—Springer (1926, p. 1383) recog- 
nized a ‘‘superficial resemblance”’ of his species 
to the Gasterocomidae but stated that “it is 
definitely excluded from them by its lack of un- 
divided infrabasal disk and peripheral axial 
canals.’’ On the contrary, the form seems to be 
linked closely to the Gasterocomidae and fur- 
nishes a logical Middle Silurian ancestral struc- 
ture for the Middle Devonian genera. The tri- 
partite infrabasal circlet is the customary inter- 
mediate stage between five 7BB and an anchy- 
losed ring. The central lumen of the column with 
peripheral canals occurs elsewhere among the 
Inadunata and, although interesting structur- 
ally, is of doubtful value in defining systematic 
units. In any event, we do not know the col- 
umn of Thyridocrinus, and the fact that no 
signs of peripheral canals are shown on the JBB 
is inconclusive, to say the least. In my opinion, 
the species has no relationship to Lecythio- 
crinus, with which it agrees only in the posses- 
sion of three infrabasal units and a lateral open- 
ing. 

Apart from the immediate consideration of 
structure as applied to Thyridocrinus the struc- 


390 


ture of the posterior interradius of the Gastero- 
comidae has far wider implications. We have 
in effect in these forms an incipient anal tube. 
We find one or more of the proximal tube plates 
enlarging and becoming incorporated in the 
cup. In the case where a single tube plate 
hypertrophies and becomes fixed in the cup one 
has a structure that is certainly analogous to 
that in Cyathocrinus and its near allies. Per- 
sonally, I believe the plates in the two cases to 
be homologous. 

An examination of Schultze’s (1866) figures 
of Gasterocoma or, of course even better, an 
examination of actual specimens will show a 
‘great variation in the supplementary plates of 
the posterior interradius. In the type species, 
G. antiqua, almost any specimen will show one 
or more plates attached to the post B or to the 
RR at the margins of the Jateral opening. In 
better preserved specimens a complete ring of 
plates is shown, and in one specimen that I 
have examined the entire opening is covered. In 
this specimen there is a nipple-like protuber- 
ence composed of small plates. The tip is frac- 
tured, but evidently there is a small opening 
that is the anal opening proper. I suspect that 
a similar structure obtains in Schultze’s (1866) 
plate 12, figure 1C, where both in the figure and 
in the explanation of the plate the small anal 
opening is given as piercing the posterior basal. 

There is considerable variation in the size 
and arrangement of these covering plates. In G. 
antiqua the posterior basal seems most often to 
support two plates. Three plates are occasion- 
ally found, and in some specimens there is a 
single plate extending the full width of the dis- 
tal face of the basal. The simple plate structure 
is well shown by Schultze (1866) in pl. 12, fig. 
2, 1n another species, G. miilleri. Such a plate is, 
I believe, comparable to the single plate shown 
in T. patulus, and such a structure does not 
militate against the inclusion of patulus within 
the genus Thyridocrinus. As a matter of fact, 
T. problematicus may have had a similar plate, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 12 


not so well developed nor so thoroughly incor- 
porated in the cup. 

Some years ago (1934, p. 6), in the descrip- 
tion of the genus Corynecrinus and the estab- 
lishment of the family Lecythocrinidae, I sug- 
gested that the anal tube of Lecythocrinus and 
Corynecrinus might well be derived from an 
incipient anal tube such as is shown in Gastero- 
coma. In these two genera and in Cestocrinus 
from the Mississippian subsequently described 
(1940) two subequal tube plates rest on post B. 
Whether an anal tube be short or long is of little 
consequence. The fundamental structures are 
there in any event. Now I would go even fur- 
ther. In the case of many crinoids with a single 
plate in the posterior interradius, such as 
Cyathocrinus proper, I think the weight of evi- 
dence is strongly in favor of considering it as 
originally a proximal tube plate. In describing 
the genus Zygotocrinus (1948, p. 644) I stated 
my belief that the so-called RA and RT of 
Parisocrinus were originally tube plates. I shall 
now add the X of Parisocrinus as having a like 
origin. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Kirk, Epwin. Corynecrinus, a new Devonian 
crinoid genus. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 83: 
1-7, pl. 1. Oct. 8, 1934. 

. Cestocrinus, a new fossil inadunate 

crinoid genus. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 88: 

221-224, pl. 31. 1940. 

. Zygotocrinus, a new fossil inadunate 
crinoid genus. Amer. Journ. Sci. 241: 
640-646, pl. 1. Oct. 1948. 

Scuuttze, Lupwic. Monographie der Echino- 
dermen des FEifler Kalkes. Denkschr. 
Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. Kl. 26: 
113-230. 1867. (Author’s edition pp. 
1-118, pls. 1-13, text figs. 1866.) 

Stocom, A. W. New crinoids from the Chicago 
area. Publ. Field Columbian Mus. 123, 
geol. ser., 2: (10) 273-306, pls. 82-87, text 
figs. Jan. 3, 1908 (corrected date, date on 
title page Oct. 31, 1907). 

SPRINGER, Frank. American Silurian eri-— 
noids. Smithsonian Inst. Publ. 2871, pp. 
i-iv, 1-239, pls. 1-33. 1926. 


Dec. 15, 1944 


DELONG: THE GENUS OLLARIANUS 


391 


ENTOMOLOGY.—The genus Ollarianus (Homoptera: .Cicadellidae) in North 


America, including Mexico.' 


Dwieut M. DreLonea, Ohio State University. 


(Communicated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK.) 


The leafhopper genus Ollarranus was 
erected by Ball in 1936? to include several 
similar species from the Southwestern 
United States and Eutett:x ball: Van Duzee, 
a Jamaican species, which was designated 
as the genotype. The species of the genus 
are similar in color and general appearance. 
The vertex is short, broad, almost parallel- 
margined, and rounded to the front. Most 
species have four black spots in a row be- 
tween the anterior margins of the eyes. The 
outer and inner pairs may differ in size in 
different species or be entirely wanting as in 
strictus. There may be a pair of round black 
spots on the outer portion of the pronotum 
and in some species a pair on the scutellum. 

In order to identify the Mexican species, 
which resemble those from the southwestern 
United States in form and coloration, it was 
necessary to study the characters of the 
male genitalia. This study has revealed the 
fact that although the aedeagi may differ in 
form among the species of the genus, all 
have either one or two pairs of pygofer 
spines, the number, position, and type being 
definite for any species. Certain species ex- 
hibit decided affinities on the basis of gen- 
ital structures. For instance, strictus and 
bullatus can be separated only by the longer 
ventral spines in the latter species, while 
iripartitus has an aedeagus quite similar to 
those of strictus and bullatus. The aedeagi of 
ollus and vestigit are almost exactly alike, 
but the apical spines are entirely different. 
The aedeagi of lobatus, insignis, bidentatus, 
and armus are similar in type, and each of 
these species has one pair of ventral pygofer 
spines. The aedeagus of rudiculus, as well 
as that of muesebeckz, is unique in type as 
compared to all the other species. 

It is unfortunate that E. balls was made 
the genotype as that species was described 
from a single specimen from Jamaica that 
had lost the abdomen. The genital charac- 
ters for neither sex are therefore known. In 
spite of this fact, it has seemed advisable 


1 Received September 29, 1944. | 
2 Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 31: 59. 1936. 


to determine and illustrate the specific char- 
acters of the other known species and to 
describe those that have distinct genital 
characters but that have not been previ- 
ously treated. 

According to present records only one 
species, strzctus, is common to both the 
United States and Mexico. O. rubianus Ball 
is a member of the genus Eutettix, while 
Exitianus armus Ball is a member of OI- 
larvanus. After studying all the species 
which have been placed in or assigned to the 
genus, and examining the genitalia, it 
seems advisable to include in the genus the 
described species ballz, bullatus, strictus, 
rudiculus, ollus, and armus and to describe 
at this time six Mexican species, muese- 
beckt, tripartitus, insignis, bidentatus, lobatus, 
and vestegiz, which are new. 


SEPARATION OF SPECIES ON THE BASIS OF 
GENITAL STRUCTURES 


1. Pygofer with one pair of spines............ 2 
Pygofer with two pairs of spines........... 3 

2. Spines basodorsal, especially long. ..bidentatus 
Spines more ventral, much shorter.......... 

PE: Sa A aye Re ae ee armus, insignis, lobatus 

3. Ventral pair of spines especially short, incon- 
SPIGUIOUS 3 ete ake seks @etel SS, ota eae strictus 
Ventral spines longer, conspicuous......... - 

4, Aedeagus erect, short, broadened toward apex, 
and appearing to have three apical processes 

eG ue Soe Ba Me ee eR bullatus, tripartitus 
Aedeagus longer, not broadened apically but 
usually with a pair of apical processes... .5 

5. Aedeagus with a dorsally curved, hooked proc- 
ess at apex of elongate, slender ventral portion 


See IE WARS ABR ee Sat ASR Ae ea eae 6 
Aedeagus not elongate and slender and without 
dorsally curved hooked apices........... i 

6. Apical pygofer spines short, enlarged at apex, 
and set with pointed teeth........... ollus 
Apical pygofer spines long, slender, with a 
foot-shaped enlargement at apex... .vestigiz 


7. Pygofer spines flat, broad at base, bladelike, 
aedeagus with a median dorsal projection. . 

Bee gree ep tases ot Irs TLE oo muesebeckt 
Pygofer spines not bladelike, broadened near 
apex to be spearlike, aedeagus elongate, 
broadened at middle, and constricted just 
before blunt apex............... rudiculus 


Ollarianus balli (Van Duzee) 


Eutettix ballt Van Duzee, Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. 
Hist. 8: 68. 1907. j 


392 


A small pale species with a transverse row of 
four black spots on anterior portion of vertex. 
Length 4 mm. 

Vertex broadly rounded scarcely longer at 
middle than next the eyes. 

Color pale testaceous-yellow, vertex with a 
transverse row of four black spots between the 
anterior margins of the eyes. The outer pair is 
on the ocelli, the median pair minute, the four 
are about equidistant in spacing. Pronotum 
with a round black spot behind each eye and a 
transverse spot on the disk. Scutellum with a 
pair of median brown spots. Face pale with a 
pair of minute spots on base. Elytra subhyaline 
marked with fuscous spots on clavus, disk, and 
apical areoles smoky. 

Genitalia: Nothing is known of either male or 
female structures. 

This species was described from a single 
specimen from Montego Bay, Jamaica, in 1907, 
the abdomen of which was missing. In order to 
determine the identity of this species, which 
has been made the genotype, it will be neces- 
sary to obtain a male from the same locality 
and determine the male structures by dissec- 
tion. There is no question about its generic rela- 
tionship to the other species included in the 
following pages. 


Ollarianus armus (Ball), n. comb. 


Exitianus armus Ball, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 28: 
227. 1933. 


Vertex broadly rounded, about one-third 
wider between eyes at base than length at mid- 
dle. Length 3.7—4.5 mm. 

Color pale yellowish, a large round black spot 
next each eye just above margin, a pair of 
proximal small transverse spots on middle be- 
tween the larger spots. Pronotum with a large 
round black spot next each lateral margin be- 
hind eye, some smaller markings on disk. Scu- 
tellum pale with a black line along each side of 
apex. Elytra subhyaline, veins dark brown. 
Face pale with two minute spots on middle of 
face below margin. 

Genitalia: Female last ventral segment 
slightly excavated each side of a broad median 
slightly produced lobe, which is embrowned on 
margin. Male plates triangular, narrowing to 
slender apices. Styles broad at base rapidly 
tapered to a pointed, outwardly curved apex. 
Aedeagus rather short and thick with a pair of 
rather long pointed apical processes which are 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 12 


directed ventrally. A dorsally produced portion 
arises at base. There is one pair of spines on 
pygofer and these arise ventrally at about the 
middle. . 

This species has been recorded for southern 
Arizona only, where it was taken from desert 
hackberry at Tucson and Superior by Dr. Ball. 


Ollarianus strictus (Ball), n. comb. 


Eutettix strictus Ball, Can. Ent. 32: 204. 1900. 
Chlorotetttix minor DeLong, Ohio State Univ. Bull. 
23: 6. 1919. New synonym. 


A yellowish species usually without definite 
markings. Length 3.5-4 mm. 

Vertex broadly roundedly produced, almost 
twice as wide between eyes at base as median 
length. 

Color yellowish, often washed with gray and 
usually unmarked. Face pale yellow. Sometimes 
the vertex has the four characteristic small 
spots of other species of the genus in a trans- 
verse row before the eyes and a pair of small 
round spots on disc of scutellum. 

Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with 
posterior margin truncate, slightly produced at 
middle. Male plates broad at base, long, tri- 
angular with the acute apices produced and 
bright orange in color. The styles are rather 
broad to near apex where they are excavated 
on the outer margin to form rather pointed 
apices which are curved outwardly. Aedeagus 
short, broadened from base to form what ap- 
pears to be in lateral view three distinct apical 
portions. In ventral view these appear as lateral 
protrusions. There are two pairs of spines on 
the pygofer, a long pair that arises from the 
dorsal median portion and extends ventrally 
and caudally. A smaller pair is short and arises 
on the ventral basal portion of the pygofer. 

This species was described from specimens 
taken in Arizona and it has since been collected 
in Texas. Mexican specimens have been col- 
lected at Hermosillo, Sonora, November 29, | 
1927 (M. F. 1220); Cajeme, Mexico, November 
19, 1935 (M. B. 384); Yaqui Valley, Sonora; 
Montemorelos, Nuevo Leén, June 3, 1930 
(M. F. 2023); Los Mochis, Sinaloa, May 17, 
1930 (M. B. 301); and Eloxochitlan, Oaxaca, 
June 27, 1932 (M. F. 2638), collected by Dr. 
Dampf. Specimens were also collected at 
Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, October 13, 1941, by 
Caldwell, Good, Plummer, and DeLong. 


Dec. 15, 1944 


Ollarianus rudiculus Ball 


Ollarianus rudiculus Ball, Journ. Washington 


Acad. Sci. 26: 434. 1936. 

A pale species with four round black dots in 
a row across anterior portion of vertex and a 
pair on scutellum. Length 5 mm. 

Vertex broad, rounded, more than twice as 
- wide between eyes at base as median length. 

Color pale yellow, a row of four round black 
spots about equidistant from one another 
across vertex between anterior margins of eyes. 
The middle pair is a little posterior to the 
outer pair. Pronotum with a round black spot 
on anterior margin, either side just posterior to 
middle of eye. Scutellum, with a pair of small 
round proximal spots on disk. Face pale with 
portions of brownish arcs. 

Genitalia: Female last ventral segment trun- 
cate, the median third roundedly produced. 
Male plates broad at base, narrowed, then pro- 
duced into rather broad apices which are diver- 
gent, sloping to outer margin at apex. Styles 
long and slender, broadened at base but rapidly 
narrowed and produced to slender produced 
portions which are sharply pointed at apex. 
The aedeagus is broadened at middle then con- 
stricted before an apical headlike tip. On the 
dorsoanterior margin a slight enlarged process 
is formed just beyond the enlarged portion. 
Two pairs of spines occur on the pygofer. A 
long pair arises on the dorsal apical portion and 
extends ventrally. In caudal view they are 
broad, bladelike and are pointed at apex. A 
second pair arises ventrally at about the middle 
of the pygofer and extends inwardly and dor- 
sally. 

The specimens from which this species was 
described were all taken in southern Arizona. 
It has been collected in Texas by Prof. J. N. 
and Mrs. Dorothy Knull. 


Ollarianus bullatus Ball 


Ollarianus bullatus Ball, Journ. Washington Acad. 
Sci. 26: 483. 1936. - 


A black-faced species with four spots across 
anterior portion of vertex or without vertex 
markings. Length 4 mm. 

Vertex broad, blunt, scarcely twice as broad 
between eyes at base as median length. 


Color, face black, appearing as a black, mar- _ 


ginal line from above. The vertex may not 
bear color markings. In well-marked speci- 


DELONG: THE GENUS OLLARIANUS 


393 


mens with a row of four black spots across an- 
terior portion of vertex between anterior mar- 
gins of eyes. The central pair is larger so that 
in poorly marked specimens the central pair 
may persist when the outer pair is not visible. 
Elytra pale, veins inconspicuous. 

Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with 
posterior margin truncate, with a broad, 
roundedly triangular median projection. Male 
plates broad at base, roundedly narrowed to 
long acute tips. Style rather broad, excavated 
on outer margin just before outwardly bent and 
pointed apices. Aedeagus very similar to strictus 
with a broadened apex which appears divided 
into three apical portions. Pygofer with two 
pairs of long spines. One pair arises dorsally 
and basally, and the other arises on the ventral 
median portion. 

This species can be separated from strictus 
by the black face and the long ventral pygofer 
spines. 

All specimens in the type series were from 
southern Arizona. The collections made by Pro- 
fessor and Mrs. Knull have shown that it oc- 
curs in Wickenburg, Patagonia, and the Santa 
Rita Mountains in Arizona, and in the Davis 
Mountains and Val Verde County in Texas. 


Ollarianus ollus Ball 


Ollarianus ollus Ball, Journ. Washington Acad. 

Sci. 26: 433. 1936. 

Resembling rudiculus in form and general ap- 
pearance but with distinct male genitalia. 
Length 4—4.6 mm. 

Vertex broad, rounded, almost parallel-mar- 
gined. 

Color pale yellow, with four faint black spots 
jn a transverse row between the anterior mar- 
gins of the eyes. These are sometimes wanting. 
Elytra slightly smoky in the males with the 
cross nervures emphasized. 

Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with 
posterior margin nearly truncate, the median 
third roundedly produced. Male plates nar- 
rowed to elongate pointed apices. The concave 
portion of margins before the tips are heavily 
margined with black. Style rather broad to 
near apex where the outer margin is rather 
deeply excavated forming a narrow fingerlike 
apex, which is curved outwardly. Aedeagus 


composed of a ventral straight portion, which 
- has a dorsally curved pointed hook at apex. At 


the base a dorsal portion is directed dorsally 


394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 34, NO. 12 


STRICTUS 


BULLATUS 
TRIPARTITUS 


i 


OLLUS OLLUS BIDENTATUS 


Fig. 1.—Leafhoppers of genus Ollarianus Ball: Ventral and lateral views of male genital structures 
of species as labeled. 


Dec. 15, 1944 


DELONG: THE GENUS OLLARIANUS 


395 


- 
-- 


ff, 
tva~7% 
le ad 


VESTIGII 


MUESEBECKI 


US 
LOBATUS LOBATUS RUDICUL 


Fig. 2.—Leafhoppers of genus Ollarianus Ball: Ventral and lateral views of male genital structures 
of species as labeled. 


396 


and apically. It is shorter and a little broader 
than the ventral portion and is narrowed at the 
apex. There are two pairs of pygofer spines. 
The apical pair arises on the apical dorsal por- 
tion of the pygofer. These are rather short, en- 
larged at apex and bear several radially ar- 
ranged apical pointed teeth. The ventral pair 
is long and slender, arises near the base of the 
pygofer, and extends inwardly and apically. 

The specimens from which this species was 
described were taken in the Santa Rita Moun- 
tains of Arizona. 


Ollarianus muesebecki, n. sp. 


In general form, appearance, and coloration 
resembling rudiculus but with distinct male 
genitalia. Length 4.5 mm. 

Vertex broadly rounded, more than twice as 
wide between eyes at base as median length. 

Color yellowish, vertex with four round black 
spots about equidistant from each other in a 
row across vertex between anterior margins of 
eyes. Pronotum with a round black spot on an- 
terior margin behind each eye. Pronotum ap- 
pearing darker. 

Genitalia: Female last ventral segment 
roundedly produced with a rounded notch or 
excavation each side of median third, giving 
the posterior margin a trilobate appearance. 
Male plates narrowed to bluntly pointed, out- 
wardly curved apices. Style broad at base 
rather gradually but strongly tapered to 
acutely pointed outwardly curved apex. Aed- 
eagus rather short and erect, the apex divided 
into two converging processes which are up- 
turned. At about its middle a process extends 
dorsally which is rather long, thick, and blunt 
at apex. The apical spines arise on the dorso- 
apical portion of the pygofer and extend ven- 
trally. These are flattened like broad blades in 
caudal view. The ventral spines arise at about 
the middle on the ventral side and extend in- 
wardly. 

Holotype male collected at Iguala, Guerrero, 
Mexico, September 11, 1939, and allotype fe- 
male collected at Chilpancingo, Guerrero, 
Mexico, elevation 4,488 feet, September 10, 
1939, by Plummer and DeLong. Paratype 
males from Iguala, Guerrero, elevation 2,398 
feet, same date; Chilpancingo, Guerrero, Octo- 
ber 25, 1941; Zamora, Michoacdn, elevation 
5,140 feet, October 2, 1941, all collected by 
Plummer, Good, Caldwell, and DeLong. A 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 


paratype from El Mante, Tamaulipas, eleva- 
tion 264 feet, October 26, 1930, collected by 
Dr. Dampf (M. F. 1775). 

I take pleasure in naming this species in © 
honor of Dr. C. F. W. Muesebeck through 
whose kindness it has been possible to study 
the types of this genus in the U. S. National 
Museum and thus describe the Mexican species 
that have previously been unnamed. 


Ollarianus tripartitus, n. sp. 


Resembling rudiculus in form and general — 
appearance but with distinct male genitalia. 
Length 4.5 mm. 

Vertex broadly rounded, more than twice as 
wide between eyes at base as median length. 

Color yellowish, vertex with a straight trans- 
verse row of four round black spots just before 
anterior margins of the eyes. The outer pair is 
much larger than the median pair. Pronotum 
with a round black spot behind each eye on an- 
terior margin. A pair of round black proximal 
spots on disk of scutellum. Elytra subhyaline, 
veins pale brown. Face yellow. 

Genitalia: Male plates long, gradually tap- 
ered to bluntly pointed apices. Style elongate, 
rather narrow, apical portion narrowed to a 
finger-like process which is curved slightly out- 
wardly. Aedeagus short, erect, the basal and 
median processes are single, the apical-ventral 
portion is paired. Two pairs of spines are lo- 
cated on the pygofer. The apical pair arises on 
the apical dorsal portion and extends ventrally 
and anteriorly. The ventral pair arises at about 
the middle of the ventral margin and extends 
medially and apically. 

Holotype male and paratype males collected 
at Iguala, Guerrero, Mexico, elevation 2,398 
feet, September 11, 1939, and October 25, 1941. 
Paratype males from Mexcala, Guerrero, ele- 
vation 1,706 feet, December 13, 1929, collected 
by Dampf (M. F. 1518), and Veinco, Guerrero, 
September 3, 1940 (M. F. 1790). 


Ollarianus insignis, n. sp. 


Resembling armus in the intense color pat- 
tern but with distinct male genitalia. Length 5 
mm. 

Vertex broad, bluntly produced, less than 
twice as wide between eyes at base as median 
length. 

Color gray, vertex with a transverse straight 
row of four black spots between anterior mar- 


Dec. 15, 1944 


gins of eyes. The outer pair of spots is larger 
than the inner pair. Pronotum with brown 
mottling on disk, the humeral angle almost en- 
tirely covered by a large black spot. Scutellum 
pale with two black spots along outer margin on 
each side. Elytra marked with brown spots. 
Usually three pairs along commissure, a spot 
each side on disk and tips of elytra smoky. 
Face pale with two small proximal spots on up- 
per portion. 

Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with 
posterior margin sloping to median third, 
which is roundedly produced. Male plates long, 
strongly concavely narrowed to slender apices. 
Style gradually narrowed from base to form 
narrow apices, which are bent outwardly. 
Aedeagus rather short with a dorsal process at 
base. The main portion of aedeagus curved, 
extended apically with a pair of rather long 
apical spines extending ventrally and laterally. 
A pair of pygofer spines arises ventrally at about 
the middle and curves apically. 

Holotype male collected at Puente de Ixtla, 
Morelos, December 27, 1929 by Dampf (M. F. 
1557). Allotype, female, collected at Zamora, 
Michoacan, elevation 5,140 feet, October 2, 
1941. Paratype males and females collected at 
Acapulco, Guerrero, elevation 328 feet, October 
24, 1941; Chilpancingo, Guerrero, elevation 
4,488 feet, October 25, 1941; Jiutepec, Morelos, 
elevation 3,500 feet, September 6, 1939; Iguala, 
Guerrero, elevation 2,398 feet, October 22, 
1941; Zamora, Michoacan, elevation 5,140 feet, 
October 2, 1941; Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, eleva- 
tion 328 feet, October 13, 1941; Mexcala, Guer- 
rero, elevation 1,706 feet, October 22, 1941; 
Guadalajara, Jalisco, elevation 5,051 feet, Oc- 
tober 3, 1941; Puente de Ixtla, Morelos, De- 
cember 27, 1929; Pungarabato, Guerrero, 
August 22, 1930 (M. F. 1769); Zincauro, Guer- 
rero, September 2, 1930 (M. F. 1789); and 
Paxtial, Guatemala, elevation 660 feet, Sep- 
tember 14, 1925 (M. F. 807). 


Ollarianus bidentatus, n. sp. 


Resembling ollus in general form and ap- 
pearance but with distinct genitalia. Length 4— 
4.5 mm. 

Vertex broad and blunt, almost parallel- 
margined, about twice as wide between eyes at 
base as median length. 

Color yellow with the usual row of four black 
spots between the anterior margins of the eyes. 


DELONG: THE GENUS OLLARIANUS 


397 


The outer pair is large and rounded, the inner 
pair minute. Scutellum with a small spot on 
either side not far from apex. 

Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with 
posterior margin truncate, median third round- 
edly produced. Male plates long, strongly con- 
cavely rounded on outer margins to form long 
slender apices. Style broad at base, narrowed 
rather abruptly before middle, the apex pointed 
and bent outwardly. Aedeagus with a short 
dorsally directed process at base. The main 
portion of aedeagus elongate, narrowed toward 
apex with a pair of rather long slender pointed 
apical spines directed ventrally. One pair of 
pygofer spines arises on the dorsal portion near 
the middle. These are long and slender, extend- 
ing ventrally and medially, then curving 
apically and extending almost to apices of the 
plates. 

Holotype male, allotype female, and male 
paratypes collected at Iguala, Guerrero, eleva- 
tion 2,398 feet, October 25, 1941, and Septem- 
ber 11, 1939, by Plummer, Good, and DeLong. 
Paratype males collected at Balsas, Guerrero, 
August 15, 1930 (M. F. 1754); Zirandaro, 
Guerrero, elevation 639 feet, August 29, 1930 
(M. F. 1786); San Geronimo, Guerrero, August 
30, 1930 (M. F. 1787); Coyuca-Catalon, Guer- 
rero, August 24, 19830 (M. F. 1771) by J. 
Parra; male paratypes were also collected at 
Jiutepec, Morelos, elevation 2,500 feet, Sep- 
tember 6, 1939, and Valles, San Luis Potosi. 
elevation 312 feet, September 24, 1941, by 
Plummer, Good, Caldwell, and DeLong. 


Ollarianus lobatus, n. sp. 


Resembling bidentatus in form and appear- 
ance but with vertex more produced and with 
distinct genitalia. Length of male 5 mm. 

Vertex broadly rounded and bluntly pro- 
duced, basal width about twice median length. 
A little longer at middle than next the eyes. 

Color yellow with a transverse row of four 
black spots on vertex between anterior margins 
of the eyes. The outer pair is rounded and 
larger. The inner pair is minute. Elytra sub- 
hyaline without conspicuous veins, face with 
traces of pale arcs. 

Genitalia: Male plates rather long, concavely 
rounded on apical half to form pointed apices. 
Style broad at base rapidly narrowed to nar- 
row, pointed outwardly bent apices. Aedeagus 
with a dorsally extended lobate structure at 


398 


base. The main portion is curved, directed api- 
cally and bears a pair of rather long laterally 
directed spines at apex. Pygofers with a pair 
of ventral spines arising not far from base which 
extend inwardly and curve apically. 

Holotype male collected at San Geronimo, 
Guerrero, August 30, 1930, by J. Parra (M. F. 
1787). 

Ollarianus vestigii, n. sp. 


Resembling strictus in general form and ap- 
pearance but with distinct male genitalia. 
Length 4—4.5 mm. 

Vertex broad, bluntly produced, more than 
twice as broad at base as median length. 

Color, vertex yellow with faint traces of the 
four black spots on anterior portion between 
eyes. The median pair is most easily recog- 
nized. Pronotum dull gray. Scutellum with a 
transverse row of minute round spots across 
disc. Elytra subhyaline with dark brown veins 
especially the apical cross veins, which are con- 
spicuous. Three pairs of brown spots along com- 
missure on clavus and small brown spots on 
base, corium, and posterior clavus. Apical por- 
tion smoky. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 12 


Genitalia: Female last ventral segment with 
posterior margin truncate, median third rather 
broadly, roundedly produced with a brown mark 
at middle and one either side of produced por- 
tion. Male plates elongate, triangular, tapered 
to acute, pointed apices. Style long, narrowed 
near base, apical portion excavated on outer 
margin and curved outwardly. Aedeagus com- 
posed of a long slender ventral portion which is 
curved dorsally and bears a hook at apex. A 
shorter but slightly thicker portion arises at 
base and curves dorsally. The pair of apical 
pygofer spines is elongate, slender, and 
broadened to form a footlike apex. The ventral 
pair arises basally, is rather long, and extends 
inwardly. 

Holotype male, allotype female, and female 
paratype collected at Palomas, San Luis Potosf, 
October 12, 1931, by Dr. Alfonse Dampf (M. B. 
338). 

This species can be separated from ollus to — 
which it is apparently closely related by the 
longer apical spines, which are broadened at 
the apex to form a footlike structure, and the 
absence of the ventral pygofer spines. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Siudies on flower flies (Syrphidae) in the Vienna Museum of. 


Natural History.? 
by ALAN STONE.) 


This paper presents the final study of 
some syrphid flies from a small collection 
submitted to the author in 1936 through the 
courtesy of Dr. Hans Czerny, whom I wish 
to thank for the opportunity of studying 
them. Other short articles have described 
species from this material from time to 
time. The types of the flies here described 
were deposited in the Naturhistorischer 
Museum in Vienna in 1938. 


Genus Baccha Fabricius 
Baccha ariela, n. sp. 


This species is readily recognized by the 
large, central, irregular triangle of brown upon 
the middle of the wing, which connects broadly 
with the complete, anterior border of brown. 
Related to clarapex Wiedemann. 

Female.—Length 11 mm; wing 10 mm. Head: 
hemispherical. The vertex and front are dark, 
shining brown, obscured by mold, probably 


1 Received July 31, 1944 


F. M. Huu. University of Mississippi. 


(Communicated 


violaceous in life. The large, shield-shaped, 
light-brown area before the antennae contains 
a small shining black spot. The antennae are 
widely separated and short. The third segment 
is thick and rounded. The face is rather promi- 
nent; the very large tubercle juts barely farther 
than the antennal prominence. The antennae 
are dark brown. The arista is short and thick- 
ened and black. The face is light reddish brown 
or yellow. The tubercle is dark brown and dif- 
fuse. From the lower part of the tubercle, 
along the oral margins of each side, there is a 
narrow blackish stripe running to the black 
cheeks. The cheeks posteriorly and along the 
oral margin are dark brown. The extreme 
lower occiput along the oral margin is light 
brown. The eyes are strongly excised just 
above the middle, silver-pubescent and scalose- 
pilose. The occiput behind is quite concave, so 
that the head fits well over the thorax and is 
very much wider than the thorax. Thoraz: the 
dorsum is dully shining black with a strong 


Dec. 15, 1944 


violet cast. The sides, in a stripe almost as 
wide as the humeri and uninterrupted at the 
suture, are light ochre-brown. The pleura are 
entirely light yellowish brown. The humeri ap- 
parently are bare, but with some very short 
pubescence. The scutellum is entirely light 
coffee-brown, dully shining. There is no scutel- 
lar fringe, but it may have been rubbed away. 
Abdomen: strongly spatulate; the sides of the 
fourth segment are parallel and three times as 
wide as the middle of the second segment. The 
end of the second segment is one and two- 
thirds or one and three-fifths as wide as the 
middle. The extreme base of the abdomen is 
twice as wide as the narrow part of the second 
segment. The base of the second segment is 
little wider than the narrowest part. The end 
of the fifth segment is two-thirds as wide as the 
base of that segment; sixth segment small. 
Abdomen obscured by mold; it appears to be 
dark reddish brown, with obscure yellow spots 
that are palest on the fourth segment, and tri- 
angular in shape in the anterior basal corners. 
There are very dark opaque brown cross bands 
present; these are rather wide and begin on 
the posterior, lateral margin and are directed 
obliquely toward the anterior middle of the 
segment and meet very broadly in the middle. 
This is the arrangement on third and fourth 
segments. The second segment in the middle 
has a large, opaque, cone-shaped spot of the 
same color as the cross band. The pile of the 
abdomen is quite appressed and black. The 
halteres are pale orange. The squamae are 
whitish with yellow margins. Legs: the first and 
second femora and tibiae are light orange- 
brown or yellow, paler at the apices and bases 
of femora and tibiae, respectively. All the tarsi 
are dark brownish black. The bases of the hind 
tibiae are pale yellow. Wings: hyaline, except 
for extensive brown patterns. There is no stig- 
mal cross vein; the vena spuria is faint; wings 
villose. The alulae are well developed. The en- 
tire anterior margin of the wing above the third 
vein is dark brown; this brown color descends 
basally to fill the first and second basal cells 
or slightly below them, to fill the basal anterior 
corner of the first posterior cell, nearly the 
basal half of the discal cell, and the basal half 
of the posterior to the discal cell. 

Holotype.—A female, from Brazil (collection 
of Winthem). 

This species was figured in the review of 


HULL: STUDIES ON FLOWER FLIES 


399 


Baccha by the author, in Entomologica Ameri- 
cana 23: 89, fig. 49. 1943. 


Genus Microdon Meigen 
Microdon (Omegasyrphus) biluminifera, n. sp. 

Characterized by the slender form and the 
large hyaline spots at the base of the brownish 
abdomen. Related to such species as baliopterus 
Loew. 

Male.—Length 12 mm exclusive of antennae; 
wings 10.2 mm. Antennae 2.5 mm. Head: 
short, much wider than the thorax. The ocelli 
are raised into a very conspicuous, round, sub- 
globose, vertical dome, in front of which is a 
marked crease. The front, beginning at this 
crease, is rather short and barely longer than 
the second antennal segment. The antennae 
are thus set high upon the head; they are elon- 
gate. The second segment is barely longer than 
wide, the third segment nearly five times as 
long as the second and the first segment about 
as long as third, or barely longer. The third 
segment is subtruncate and flattened at tip, 
widened in the middle, with a lateral crease 
and with a deeply thickened arista, which is 
only two-thirds the length of the segment. First 
two segments dark brown, third lighter. The 
vertex and the front and upper part of the face 
are very dark shining brown, the lower part of 
the face and cheeks light shining brown. There 
is a thick band of silvery-yellow pile on the 
lower sides of the face which is continued nar- 
rowly up the sides of the face, not quite to the 
level of the antennae. There is a bare shield- 
shaped spot above the antennae. The eyes are 
bare. Thorax: very dark brown and covered 
with an appressed, setaceous-black pile; and 
on the suture there is a band of flattened, pale, 
brassy pile and similar flattened pile in the 
posterior part of the midline, which is directed 
posteriorly and meets a broad, semicircular 
area of similar pile lying just in front of the 
scutellum and which is directed forward so as 
to intermesh with this. The scutellum is light 
brown, shining, roughly triangular on its pos- 
terior margin and terminates in two tiny, very 
close-set points. Humeri pilose. The pleura 
have a row of pale, sericeous, stiffened hairs. 
The metanotum is conspicuous and large. The 
halteres are orange, the squamae pale brown. 
Abdomen: rather elongate, a little wider than 
the thorax; nearly four times as long as wide. 
The sides of the last two segments are nearly 


400 


parallel but practically cylindrical; they are 
barely wider at the base of the third segment. 
The second segment is only a trifle wider in the 
middle than the third segment but is much 
flattened, especially over an area corresponding 
to the spots, which are actually concave. The 
lateral, ropelike margin on the second segment 
‘is thick and prominent. The first segment is 
rather short, with a deep crease between it and 
the second segment. The second segment is 
neither cylindrical nor flat; it is rather inflated 
and marked on each side with a large, poste- 
riorly pointed, anteriorly broad, quite hyaline 
spot, which is continuous on the sides with the 
translucent yellow margins and which is di- 
vided in the middle by a roughly triangular, 
black spot; its base lies on the posterior margin 
of the segment, its peak is narrowly continuous 
with the first segment. The remainder of the 
abdomen is very dark brown and densely ap- 
pressed-setate with crevices for the setae; on 
the posterior margin of the third segment, not 
reaching the sides, there is a band of flat, gold- 
en, posteriolaterally directed pile, which is 
widely separated in the middle. A similar band 
on the fourth segment is equally separated, be- 
ginning about the middle of the segment, and 
obliquely directed away toward the posterior 
corners, after first being directed toward the 
midline. The hypopygium is perfectly rounded. 
Legs: light orange-brown, becoming almost 
golden yellow on the tibiae and tarsi. The hind 
femora are a little thickened, especially on the 
scar a third of the way from their bases. The 
thickening gradually extends throughout the 
remainder of each femur. There are no ventral 
spines. The last half of each of the hind tibiae 
is rather thick, ending simply, with an oblique 
scar in the middle. Wings: considerably longer 
than the abdomen, very pale brown and 
thickly pilose. The spurious vein is chitinized, 
the posterior veins are brown; the anterior 
veins yellow, the stigmal cell pale yellow, the 
costal cell and the small area past it also yel- 
low. 

Holotype—A male, from Espirito Santo, 
Brazil (collection of Fruhstorfer). 


Microdon (Omegasyrphus) baliopterus 
Loew brunnipennis, n. var. 


Male.—Length 9.56 mm without antennae; 


wing 7.2 mm. Head: hemispherical and a little 
wider than the thorax. The vertex is swollen, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 12 


convex, and purplish coppery; the sides of the - 
face are parallel. The face is quite convex, 
slightly violaceous, and narrower than in bali- 
opterus Loew. The first segment of the antennae 
is light brown and about four times as long as 
wide; the second segment is light brown and 
about a fourth as long as first segment; third 
segment missing. Thorax: dark shining black 
with very obscure violaceous vittae. The scutel- 
lum is shining, with a violaceous cast and two 
small points upon the rim, which are much 
shorter and somewhat farther apart than in 
baliopterus. Abdomen: of the same type of 
coloration as in baliopterus but without any 
black upon the sides of the third and fourth seg- 
ments. Legs: entirely light brownish red and 
but little darker on the femur; the basal scar 
is much less prominent than in baliopterus. The 
halteres are almost white instead of deep 
orange-brown. The squamae are white, but 
are yellow to orange in baliopterus. Wings: the 
pattern of the infuscation of the wings is sim- 
ilar to that of baliopterus, but the bulge in the 
lower vein seems to be less conspicuous. The 
dark markings seem to be more uniform and 
less diffuse in the centers of the cells. 

Holotype.—A male, from St. Thomas, Guate- 
mala (Alte Sammlung). 

Originally, I held this fly to be distinct from 
baliopterus; I now believe it better considered 
a variety for the present; the species of Micro- 
don seldom have a large range, and this must 
be considered quite an extension of the range of 
baliopterus. 


Genus Merodonoides Curran 
Merodonoides czernyi, n. sp. 


Related to circularis Curran, this species is 
distinguished by the chiefly reddish femur and 
a different pattern of eye stripes. 

Male—Length 11.5 mm; wing 6.5 mm. 
Head: large and somewhat broader than the 
abdomen. The eyes are bare and red-brown, 
with four vertical stripes; the posterior stripe 
lies on the margin of the eye, is smooth-edged 
and continuous; the other three are equally 
spaced but quite irregular and become very 
slender and disappear ventrally and are partly 
broken up into spots. The vertex is dark 
brown, the upper front black and covered with 
light yellowish-brown pubescence; the eyes are 
barely approximated, not actually touching; 
the lower front, except from the narrow, shin- 


Dec. 15, 1944 


ing black rim to the antennal prominence, is 
shining black and densely covered with yellow- 
ish pubescence. The face below the antennae 
is covered everywhere, except from the facial 
knob and a narrow continuation of the knob to 
the epistoma, with pale pubescence and thick, 
rather long, shiny, yellowish pile; this pile and 
pubescence are omitted on the extreme lower 
face and cheeks. The antennae are fairly large. 
The third segment is a little over one and one- 
half times as long as wide; it is rounded apically 
and is pale orange and has narrow, dark, dorsal 
margins; the first two segments are slightly 
darker. The arista is basally thickened, barely 
longer than the antenna, and pale orange. 
Thorax: the ground color is feebly shining and 
very dark brown; on the mesonotum are four 
wide, black vittae; the outer pair is not inter- 
rupted at the suture, the inner pair is slightly 
closer than the separation between outer and 
inner stripes. The stripes do not reach the 
scutellum. The scutellum is large, broad, two 
and one-half times as wide as long, with sub- 
truncate rim and feebly impressed rim; its color 
is light reddish brown. The pile of the thorax, 
scutellum, and humeri is light yellowish, be- 
coming golden on the scutellum. Abdomen: not 
quite twice as long as wide, rather thick; the 
terminal segments are cylindrical, with a large 
hypopygium. The base of the fourth segment 
is three-fifths as wide as the widest part of the 
second segment close to the base. From near 
the base of the second segment the abdomen 
tapers gradually down to the end of the third 
segment. The first segment is gray; the second 
segment has a narrow but conspicuous black 
basal border and just before the apex a wider, 
dark brown band that is produced obtusely 
forward in the middle and not quite touching 
the anterior black band, and instead of brown 
in the middle of this band there is an oblong, 
elongate black spot. The remainder of segment 
is light brownish yellow. The third segment is 
similar in color without. any black band and 
with the posterior brown band vague in form 
and in outline. The entire basal three-fifths of 
the fourth segment, except for narrow, small 
triangles in the lateral corner at the base, is 
dark brown; the remainder is light yellow. The 
pile of the abdomen is pale yellow to reddish 
brown according to the area. Legs: almost en- 
tirely light reddish brown, with an irregular 
black band in the middle of each of the thick 


HULL: STUDIES ON FLOWER FLIES 


401 


hind femora which disappears toward the top 
half of the femora. On the inside of each of the 
front femora there is a small, basal, black spot; 
the apical portion of each of the front femora 
and all the front and middle tibiae and the 
extreme base of the hind tibiae are light yellow. 
The tarsi are light reddish. The apical spines 
of the femoral and basal patch of setae are 
black; otherwise the pile is pale. Wings: short 
and broad, the veins outlined in dark brown; 
remainder of the wings pale brown; a stigmal 
cross vein is present and beyond it a brown 
stigma, which is a little longer than wide. The 
spurious vein is chitinized. The wings appar- 
ently lack villi. 

Holotype—A male, from Tonkin, Montes 
Mauson, April-May, 2,000-3,000 feet (H. 
Fruhstorfer). 


Genus Mallota Meigen 
Mallota brevipila, n. sp. 


This fly is characterized by its pale pink or 
reddish color on the abdomen, its whitish pile, 
and the slender black fascia on the abdomen. 
Apparently it is not closely related to other 
described species of Mallota. 

Male.—Length 11 mm. Head: eyes bare, the 
vertex dark brownish black with yellowish- 
gray pollen and pale yellowish-white pile. The 
front is similarly colored; the pollen is yellower 
and somewhat sparser in the middle, particu- 
larly in front of the antennae; the dark-brown 
ground color of the front is thus allowed to 
shine through. The front is narrowly yellow- 
ish brown just in front of the antennae; the 
pile of the front and face is yellowish white. The 
eyes are rather widely separated in the male 
but are angularly produced toward each other. 
The width between them is as great as the dis- 
tance between the posterior ocelli. The face is 
dark brown, thickly covered with yellowish- 
white pubescence, which is a little thinner on 
top of the well-developed tubercle and appears 
to have been rubbed off. The face is deeply 
concave beneath the antennae, and the cheeks 
are dark shining brown and largely bare. The 
antennae are dark brown. The third segment 
is wider than long, the first two segments equal. 
The arista is light yellow and thickened 
throughout its length; the apex, however, is 
sharpened. Thorax: brownish black and thickly 
covered with light brownish-gray pollen and 
thick but short, almost white pile. There is 


402 


a thin band of brownish-black pile across the 
middle between the wings. The pile of the post- 
calli, of the scutellum, and of the mesonotum in 
front of the scutellum is entirely whitish. The 
pleural pile is abundant and white. The 
squamae and their border and fringe are yel- 
lowish white. Abdomen: the first and second 
segments are almost entirely light red, becom- 
ing orange upon the lateral margins. The pos- 
terior border of the first segment exclusive of 
the posterior corners is, however, gray with 
yellowish-white pubescence. On the posterior 
part of the second segment near the posterior 
margin there is a somewhat darker brown, nar- 
rower fascia, which fades into light red as it 
approaches the lateral margin; the posterior 
margin is narrowly yellowish white with sim- 
ilarly colored pubescence and pile; the pile of 
both of these two segments is entirely white and 
becomes slightly more yellowish in the middle 
of the second segment. The third segment is 
light red; its posterior and anterior margins are 
narrowly yellowish white and pollinose, and on 
each side of these fasciae there is a slender, 
transverse fascia of black; the black fascia 
laterally fades into red on each side at a con- 
siderable distance from the lateral margin. Be- 
tween the black fascia the segment is red. The 
fourth segment is dully shining black; upon it 
there is a trace of a basal, lateral, linear, yel- 
lowish-white pubescent fascia on each side of 
the segment. Lying within this black area on 
each side there is also a trace of a red, diffuse 
obscure fascia, which continues laterally into 
the reddish lateral margin. The posterior mar- 
gin is broadly yellowish-white-pollinose. The 
hypopygium is shining black and white-pilose. 
The pile of the third and fourth segments is 
black on the posterior black areas and yellowish 
in front of the black areas and white elsewhere. 
The pile of the abdomen is much shorter than 
is characteristic for the genus Mallota and is 
rather short and setaceous and subappressed 
posteriorly on the second to the fourth seg- 
ments. Legs: the first four femora are dark 
brown; their tibiae are brownish black in each 
case upon the apical half and yellowish brown 
basally. The tarsi are light brown. The hind 
femora are moderately thickened and are light 
orange-brown upon the lateral surface for the 
basal two-thirds and upon the dorsal surface 
for the basal two-fifths; elsewhere, except at 
its extreme apex, it is brownish black; its pile 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, NO. 12 


is long, abundant, and whitish, except for a 
ventral patch of black, appressed setae near 
the apex and except for a thick patch of longer, 
erect, black bristles ventrally near the base and 
a little more toward the medial surface. The 
hind tibiae are brown, and darker brown later- 
ally upon each apical third. The tarsi are dark 
brown. Wings: nearly hyaline, the marginal 
cell widely open. 

Holotype.-—A male. One paratype male. Both 
from Turkmenien. Paratype in author’s col- 
lection. 


Mallota apimima, n. sp. 


This species is related to saltt Curran but is 
distinguished by the wholly black legs, and it 
is separated from colombi1 Macquart by the 
yellow pilose abdomen. 

Male—Length 15 mm. Head: the eyes touch 
quite narrowly at a point on the upper part of 
the head leaving the vertical triangle less than 
half as long as the front. The eyes are thick 
white-pilose and the vertex is feebly shining 
black with thick, long, black pile. The front is 
polished, shining black with sparse, long, yel- 
low pile on the sides and a few long, black hairs 
at the top and through the middle. The face 
and cheeks are shing black with sparse, long, 
pale, pale yellowish pile that becomes dark 
brown to black in front of the cheeks. The an- 
terior part of the cheeks and adjacent posterior 
part of face covered with a broad band of 
sparse white pubescence, which runs from the 
eye margin to the epistoma. The face is thus 
left broadly bare; the concavity below the an- 
tennae is rather deep, the tubercle low and 
broad. The first two segments of the antennae 
are black and black-pilose; the third segment is 
very dark reddish brown, obliquely oval, and a 
little longer below. The arista is pale yellow, 
thickened on the basal half. Thorax: mesono- 
tum opaque black covered by dense brownish- 
black pollen. Across the mesonotum in front of 
the suture there is a band of dense, deep, yellow 
pile, which on the two sides is continued on to 
the humeri and the upper part of the meso- 
pleura. Most of the mesopleural and all the 
pteropleural pile is brownish black. The pile 
on the posterior half of the mesonotum behind 
the suture and on the postcalli is blackish, the 
hairs apically becoming brown. There are just 
a few long yellow hairs immediately in front of 
the scutellum. Scutellum opaque reddish, or 


Dec. 15, 1944 


sepia-brown with very long and very dense 
brownish-yellow pile. Abdomen: black, opaque 
upon the first two segments and shining black 
upon the remainder of the abdomen. The pile 
of the abdomen is thick, long, subappressed 
and brownish yellow on the whole of the second 
and third segments, except that there is con- 
siderable purplish-brown to blackish pile in the 
basal corners of the second segment and nar- 
rowly upon the sides of the first and second 
segments. The pile of the fourth segment is 
long, quite sparse, and light yellow. Legs: 
black and largely shining with black pile that 
becomes dark purplish brown upon the femora. 
The hind femora are only moderately thick- 
ened, the greater part of the thickening being 
found on the basal two-thirds. Wings: strongly 
tinged with brown; the interiors of the cells are 
more pale centrally, but there is a large, exten- 
sive, diffuse, brown blotch in the center of the 
wing. The apical half of the first basal cell has 
a diffuse, longitudinal, nearly hyaline bar down 
its middle, and there is a similar bar down the 
middle of the basal half of this cell. 

Holotype—A male, and one paratype male, 
from Venezuela. Paratype in author’s collec- 
tion. 


Genus Cerioides Rondani 
Cerioides rubrobrunnea, n. sp. 


This species is related to kertesz1 Shannon, 
from which it is distinguished by the reddish 
antennal prominence, and reddish third anten- 
nal segment, besides differences in the pattern 
of the wing. | 

Female.—Length 19 mm; antennae 5 mm; 
wing 14 mm. Head: the vertex is rather swol- 
len; the ocelli are tuberculate; the occiput is 
not greatly produced behind the eyes near the 
vertex. There is a strong sunken depression 
just before the ocelli, and sublunate areas of 
opaque black lie at the top of the front along 
the eyes. The vertex and the front and upper 
face, except about the antennal process, are 
shining black with*a slight bluish cast. The 
whole lower half of the face, from above the 
lower level of the eyes, as well as the cheeks 
and lower occiput, the antennal process, the 
third antennal segment, and a spot below the 
process are all light reddish or coffee-brown. 
The. first and second antennal segments are 
dark brown to blackish. The apical half of the 
style is white. The antennae are elongate; the 


HULL: STUDIES ON FLOWER FLIES 


403 


process is long, nearly as long as the slender 
first segment. The second segment is three- 
fifths the length of first and third segments; 
without the style it is a little longer than the 
second. The style is two-fifths as long as the 
second segment. On the black area of the face 
there is one pair of roundish spots of thick 
silver pubescence, and there is another pair a 
short distance farther down on the sides by the 
eyes. The face has a small rounded tubercle 
well below the eyes, and the face is deeply 
produced and slightly pointed at the apex of 
the epistoma. Thorax: unusually convex from 
any angle; it is entirely shining, slightly bluish 
black with, in certain light only, an overlay of 
vague, silver pubescence, and a vague, small, 
brown spot of the same lying longitudinally on 
the posterior half of the thorax in the middle. 
The thorax is quite scrobiculate. The scutellum 
is broad, short, rounded, and the basal margin 
and apical margin are light clay brown; its 
middle is bluish black, the surface scrobiculate. 
The metanotum is well developed and very 
steep. The halteres are pale yellow, humeri 
very prominent and convex; squamae white, 
brown-fringed. The pleura are entirely black, 
silvery pubescent in places. Abdomen: very 
strongly constricted basally; the apex of the 
second segment is barely wider than the base 
of the first; the second segment is only a little 
more than two-thirds longer than the first seg- 
ment. The base of the second segment has a 
conspicuous, translucent, pale-brown band, 
which is narrowly interrupted in the middle. 
The second segment at its narrowest width is 
scarcely more than a third as wide as the pos- 
terior part of this segment. It is a little less 
than half as wide as the base of the first seg- 
ment. Between the end of the second segment 
and the beginning of the third segment is a 
crease and a constriction, and the second seg- 
ment expands suddenly and gradually into a 
beautifully rounded semicylindrical body, 
which reaches its maximum at the end of that 
segment and then tapers off into the long, 
slender fourth segment, which is one-half longer 
than the third segment and which, at its tip, is 
only half as wide as the end of the second seg- 
ment. The fifth segment is drawn out into a 
blunt point. The entire remainder of the ab- 
domen, the yellow basal annulus excluded, is 
dull shining black, with a very faint bluish 
cast and a heavily scrobiculate surface. Legs: 


404 


hind legs entirely dark brown, the basal half of 
the fore and middle femora deep reddish brown, 
the fore and middle tarsi light orange-brown; 
elsewhere the legs are dark brown. Wings: quite 
elongate and pointed; longer than the abdomen 
with the anterior border of the wing past the 
middle light orange-brown. The posterior 
basal half of the wing is of the same color. The 
posterior, apical half of the wing is quite pale 
brown, nearly hyaline and has a strong, rich, 


dark brown stripe running from the base of the - 


wing to the apex; it includes the costal cell, the 
two cells beneath, and the entire upper half of 
the cell containing the spurious vein; it is de- 
limited by this vein and by the upper outward 
half of the cell above. 

Holotype.—A female, from Muzo, Colombia, 
400-800 meters (collection of Fassl). 


Cerioides polistiformis, n. sp. 


This species is related to facialis Kertesz, 
from which it is distinguished by the yellow 
posterior fasciae on several of the segments of 
the abdomen and by the pattern of the face and 
wing. 

Female.—Length 15 mm; antennae 4.5 mm; 
wings 14 mm. Head: the vertex is slightly raised 
and considerably developed behind the eyes; it 
is dark, dull shining black. The upper front has 
two sublunate impressions. The antennal prom- 
inence or process is two-fifths as long as the 
first segment. The front and face and cheeks 
are everywhere shining black, except that be- 
ginning a short distance beneath the antennal 
process there is a pair of rather slender, light 
yellow, vertical stripes, which are a little 
wider apart at the top than they are at the 
tubercle, and they continue to converge to- 
ward the epistoma but do not meet. The an- 
tennae are very elongate; the process and first 
two segments quite black, somewhat shining 
and deep black, flat-appressed-pilose. The base 
of the third segment is deep, rich red. The re- 
mainder of this segment is grayish brown, only 
the extreme tip of style white. The face has a 
rather prominent knob, though it is scarcely 
tuberculate, which lies below the eyes. The 
face is rounded, pointed, and considerably pro- 
duced downward. Thorax: dull, shining black 
with papillose pile, which is exceedingly short. 
The black of the thorax is overlaid with very 
dark reddish-brown pollen, quite obscure and a 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 12 


little more evident where it forms a wide 
median vittae; in some lights the pollen appears 
to cover all the dorsum, leaving the sutures and 
a short abbreviated stripe at the inner ends of 
the sutures outlined in black. The scutellum is 
black and shining, with a narrow, brownish- 
yellow margin, scarcely visible above. The 
metanotum is conspicuous. Abdomen: elongate 
and pointed at the tip; the second segment is 
quite conspicuous, the end of the second seg- 
ment is a little wider than the base of the first, 
and the base of the second segment is a very 
little wider than the narrowest part of this seg- 
ment. The second segment is very little longer 
than the third segment. Third and fourth seg- 
ments equal. Fifth segment small and pointed. 
The narrow lateral margin of the anterior half 
of the second segment and a conspicuous though 
fairly narrow, posterior margin on the second 
segment which is widest in the middle and upon 
the sides, and together with a similar slightly 
wider, uniform band upon the posterior margin 
of the third and fourth segments, are all yellow. 
Upon the third and fourth segments there are 
middle bands of yellowish-gray pollen, punc- 
tate and well interrupted in the middle, and on 
the fourth segment these bands are sublunate, 
their inner ends pointed, and the concave sur- 
face directed anteriorly. Legs: largely dark 
brown. The lateral surface of each of the fore- 
femora, the ventral surface of the midfemora, 
all the hind femora, the hind tibiae except their 
apices, the midtibiae except their apices, and 
the foretibiae except their bases are all very 
dark brown. The remainder of the legs are light 
orange-brown. The ventral spines of the rather 
slender hind femora are double-rowed, run the 
entire length, are rather long, sparse, black, and 
exceedingly sharp. Wings: the anterior margin 
of the wing above the third vein is brown, and 
the third vein is narrowly margined with brown 
posteriorly ; also the upper half of the first basal 
cell is brown. The brown of the submarginal 
cell, and of the distal portion of the stigmal 
area of the subcostal cell, is considerably darker 
in color. The third vein emits a downward, 
oblique spur vein, and at the point of emission 
it is angularly but shallowly kinked; third vein 
and subapical cross vein confluent practically 
at wing apex. 

Holotype-—A female, from Cuesta de Cil- 
lutincara, Bolivia, 3,000 meters (collection of 
Fassl).. 


Dec. 15, 1944 


COCKERELL: SOUTH AFRICAN BEES 


405 


ENTOMOLOGY.—South African bees of the genera Scrapter and Notomelitta 


(Hymenoptera).? 
by C. F. W. MuESEBECKE.) 


The types of the new species described 
herein will all be placed in the British 
Museum, from which they were received. 


Genus Scrapter Lepeletier and Serville 


Scrapter braunsianus Friese and S. leonis 
Cockerell 


Turner’s No. 16, represented by 30 females 
and 5 males from Worcester, C. P., Lion’s 
Head, Cape Town, and (1 female) Rapenburg, 
Cape Flats, is a mixture of three different 
things. The Rapenburg species has light red 
hair at end of abdomen, and mainly red tarsi, 
so it is quite distinct from the others. Sixteen 
females from Worcester agree with S. braunsi- 
anus, while 13 females and 5 males from Lion’s 
Head are conspicuously smaller and must be re- 
ferred to S. leonis Cockerell, although the re- 
current nervures are in most specimens nearly 
equally distant from the ends of the second 
submarginal cell. It is now questionable 
whether S. leonis is really distinct from S. 
capensis (Friese), but the latter was based on 
a male, 10 mm long, from Little Namaqualand, 
and the males of the Turner species are all 
much smaller. Hence it appears certain that the 
original S. capensis is a different species, 
though S. leonts may later have been confused 
with it. 

Scrapter subincertus, n. sp. 


Female.—Length about 8 mm; shining black, 
the abdomen without bands; head broad, face 
and front with long white hair, not hiding the 
surface of the face; mandibles very faintly 
brownish; flagellum brown beneath except at 
base; clypeus coarsely punctured, with a deep 
median groove on upper half; supraclypeal area 
brilliantly polished; thorax with thin, pale hair, 
scanty above, except behind scutellum, where 
it is slightly reddish; mesonotum coarsely punc- 
tured, shining between the punctures; scutel- 
lum polished; area of metathorax rugulose and 
dull; tegulae very dark brown; wings dusky 
hyaline; stigma red, nervures brown; basal 
nervure falling a moderate distance short of 
nervulus; second submarginal cell long (much 
longer than in supposed female of S. niger 


1 Received August 28, 1944. 


T. D. A. CockERELL, Boulder, Colo. 


(Communicated 


Lepeletier and Serville), receiving first recur- 
rent nervure some distance from base, the sec- 
ond more distant, but not twice as distant, 
from end (in S. pallidipennis Cockerell the first 
recurrent is nearer the base); legs black, with 
the tarsi reddish, and the anterior tibiae red in 
front; scopa of hind legs all pale; hair at end of 
abdomen pale, slightly reddish. 

Cape Province: Rapenburg, Cape Flats, 
October 1-14, 1920. (R. E. Turner, 16 in part.) 
I was puzzled to know whether this could be 
the female of S. nager, but what I have identi- 
fied as probably S. niger, from Natal, is cer- 
tainly different. S. niger was described from 
Caffraria. The darker nervures, the absence of 
the dusky cloud beyond the cells, the details of 
the venation, and the dark tegulae rule out S. 
pallidipennis Cockerell. S. divergens Brauns I 
know only in the male; it has the face narrow; 
the flagellum dusky reddish orange beneath; 
tarsi dark, hind legs very slender; basal nervure 
falling short of nervulus; second submarginal 
cell receiving recurrent nervures about equally 
distant from base and apex; mandibles strongly 
bidentate; first tergite elevated, strongly con- 
vex in lateral profile, with a deep suture be- 
tween it and second; mesonotum coarsely 
punctured; area of metathorax dull. Found by 
Brauns at Willowmore. Evidently this is related 
to S. subincertus, but I think it can not be its 
male. S. glaberrimus Friese, among other char- 
acters, has a very much larger and darker 
stigma. 


Scrapter merescens, n. sp. 


Female——Length 8-9 mm; black, shining, 
the mesonotum closely punctured and not 
highly polished; pubescence scanty, not red on 
thorax above; the abdomen without hair- 
bands, the hair at apex black. Clypeus closely 
and finely punctured; mandibles black, supra- 
clypeal area polished; face broader than long; 
antennae black, rufescent apically beneath; 
wings dusky, with brown nervures, stigma 
rather slender, dark brown; second submarginal 
cell long, receiving recurrent nervures far from 
base and apex; basal nervure falling short of 
nervulus; tibial scopa pale, not bicolored. 

Considerably smaller than S. braunsianus 


406 


Friese and distinguished from S. leonits Cocker- 
ell by the duskier wings and the absence of red 
hair on the scutellum, as well as the broader 
head. The mesonotum is entirely different from 
that of S. glaberrimus Friese. It is smaller than 
S. fuscipennis Friese, without the bicolored 
scopa. S. fuscipennis is described from ‘‘Kap- 
land,”’ without precise locality. 

Cape Province: Worcester, September, and 
August 31, 1928. (R. E. Turner.) Seven fe- 
males. There is a single male, taken at Worce- 
ster by Turner in the latter part of August 
1928, which should apparently belong to this 
species, but the wings are only faintly brown- 
ish, and the long hair on the posterior part of 
the thorax above is light yellow, contrasting 
with the pure white hair of the mesonotum. The 
legs are black. This is much larger than S. 
glaberrimus Friese, and the stout abdomen does 
not have the constriction, between the first 
and second tergites, so conspicuous in S. 
glaberrumus. 

Scrapter macrocephalus Cockerell is very 
much like S. merescens but is easily distin- 
guished by the light hair at end of abdomen and 
the highly polished scutellum. 


Scrapter sinophilus, n. sp. 


Male (type) —Length about 9 mm; black, 
with the tarsi light yellow, dark at end; 
pubescence long and white, varying to red on 
thorax above; face densely covered with pure 
white hair; mandibles black; flagellum long, 
dusky reddish beneath; face dull; mesonotum 
dullish, finely punctured, more shining poste- 
riorly; area of metathorax dull; tegulae small, 
very dark brown; wings hyaline, stigma dusky 
reddish, nervures pale brown; basal nervure 
falling far short of nervulus; second submar- 
ginal cell very long, receiving recurrent ner- 
vures far from base and apex; hind legs long 
and slender, the spurs very long; abdomen 
rather slender, moderately shining, the de- 
pressed hind margins of tergites colorless; first 
tergite narrowly reddened apically; middle ter- 
gites with thin hair-bands. 

Female.—Similar, but stouter, with the legs 
all black, and the hyaline hind margins of ter- 
gites much broader; wings more brownish; 
flagellum red beneath; hair of scutellum clear 
ferruginous, of mesonotum whitish, but not 
‘clear white. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 34, No. 12 


Cape Province: Mossel Bay, August 1932, 12 
males, 4 females (R. E. Turner, 18). 

In my key this runs (male) near S. flavitarsis 
Cockerell but is larger, with dark antennae. 
In Friese’s table the male runs nearest to the 
much smaller S. glaberrimus Friese. 

The female runs in Friese’s table to S. lon- 
gulus Friese, but that is quite different, as 
shown in Stylops, March 1933. S. longulus dif- 
fers by the extremely broad head and the basa! 
prominence on third abdominal sternite of the 
male. 


Scrapter flavipes Friese 


Seven from Umtata, Transkei, February— 
March 1923; 10 from Weenen, Natal, January 
1925. The first taken by R. E. Turner (his 17), 
the others by H. P. Thomasset. The sexes differ 
in the marking of the abdomen, so that they 
might. be taken for different species. In the fe- 
males, the short black vertical mark at each 
side of the red second tergite is characteristic. 
The types came from Zululand. 


Scrapter flavostictus Cockerell 


Natal: Van Reenen, Drakensberg, December 
1926 and March 7, 1927, 9 males, 11 females 
(R. E. Turner, 15). 


Scrapter brunneipennis, n. sp. 


Male.—Length about 8 mm, anterior wing 
6.3 mm; black, shining, the head and thorax 
with long white hair; mandibles faintly reddish 
apically; face with very long white hair; an- 
tennae long, the flagellum obscurely reddish 
beneath; mesonotum shining, with large punc- 
tures, and a strong median sulcus; scutellum 
highly polished; area of metathorax entirely 
dull; tubercles black; tegulae very dark brown; 
wings rather dilute fuliginous, stigma dusky 
brown; lower section of basal nervure not 
arched (as it isin S. caffra Brauns) ; second sub- 
marginal cell of the shorter type (style of S. 
perpunctatus Cockerell); first recurrent nervure 
ending a little nearer base of second submar-_— 
ginal cell than second to apex; legs black, tarsi 
pale reddish, fron tibiae pale yellowish in front, 
middle tibiae pale at base and apex; abdomen 
very stout, black, without hair-bands, the apex 
with scanty dark hair. 

Cape Province: Mossel Bay, August 1932 
(R. E. Turner). 


Dec. 15, 1944 


Easily known from 8S. sinophilus by the 
shining mesonotum with very strong punc- 


tures, pale reddish tarsi, much shorter second - 


submarginal cell, and abdomen without hair- 
bands. Known from S. leonis Cockerell by the 
pale reddish stigma and very brown wings. The 
wings are much brower and the stigma is not 
so red as in S. subincertus. S. perpunctatus 
Cockerell, known only from the female, is very 
similar, but the stigma is larger and darker, and 
the area of metathorax quite different, with 
conspicuous raised ridges. S. caffra Brauns, of 
which I have seen the male, differs in vena- 
tion and otherwise. There remains the briefly 
described S. fuscitpennis Friese, known only in 
the female, 10 mm long. It is not impossible 
that our insect is the male of S. fuscipennis. 


Scrapter sphecodoides Friese 
Cape Province: Matjesfontein, October 16— 


21, 1928 (R. E. Turner). I have specimens from 
Cape Town collected by Peringuey. 


Genus Notomelitta Cockerell 
Notomelitta rufocincta, n. sp. 


Male (type).—Length 12-12.5 mm, rather 
slender, with shining abdomen as in N. politzs- 
sima Cockerell, which it closely resembles, but 
it differs by having the second and third ab- 


COE: A NEW HOPLONEMERTEAN 


407 


dominal segments, above and below, bright fer- 
ruginous, the tergites each with a very broad 
triangular black mark, based posteriorly; the 
first tergite is sometimes slightly reddish at 
sides, and the fourth sternite is largely reddish, 
while the fourth tergite is red at the extreme 
(usually covered) base. There is a variable 
amount of black hair on the thorax above, es- 
pecially on the anterior part of the scutellum. 
The second submarginal cell has its outer side 
vertical, but the inner very oblique. The ab- 
dominal hair-bands are narrower than in JN. 


— politissima. 


Female-—Length about 13 mm. Abdomen 
colored as in male. Hind basitarsi extremely 
broad, reddish, with mainly black hair, but 
white hair in front, and long white hairs at 
base. The front tarsi are not unusually long. 

Natal: Van Reenen, Drakensberg, December 
1926 (one male, January 1927). Five males, 
seven females. In my key in Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist., April 1934, this runs to N. politissima. 
In the key based on venation it runs near to N. 
politissima, but the third submarginal cell is 
less produced at end. In my key to Melitta in 
Ann. Transvaal Mus. 17: 76. 1935, it runs 
nearest to M. longicornis Friese, which differs 
by the dullish, unbanded abdomen. All the 
specimens were collected by R. E. Turner. 


ZOOLOGY.—A new species of hoplonemertean (Paranemertes biocellatus) from . 


the Gulf of Mexico.' 


Wes.ey R. Coz, Osborn Zoological Laboratory, Yale 


University, and Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of Cali- 


fornia. 


Among the nemerteans collected on the 
intertidal sand flats near Biloxi, Miss., were 
three specimens of an undescribed species of 
Paranemertes Coe. Only five other species of 
that genus have been previously reported; 
four of these were found on the Pacific coast 
of North America and one on the coast of 
South Africa. This new species presents 
such morphological deviations from the 
others that their description will supple- 
ment in some degree the available knowl- 
edge of nemertean morphology. 

Individuals of this new species, which 
may be known as Paranemertes biocellatus 
resemble those of P. californica, found on 

1 Received October 5, 1944. 


Contributions of the Scripps Institution of 
Oceanography, New Series No. 241. 


(Communicated by Watpo L. ScumirTT.) 


the Pacific coast, in size and general appear- 
ance but differ in having the proboscis 
sheath nearly as long as the body, in the 
character of the proboscis armature, in size 
and shape of ocelli, and in other morphologi- 
cal details. The species also resembles 
Amphiporus bioculatus McIntosh in having 
a narrow, pointed head and a single pair of 
ocelli but differs widely in most other char- 
acteristics. 


DESCRIPTION 


Body long, moderately slender, pointed an- 
teriorly and much flattened in intestinal region. 
Shape and general appearance similar to the 
published figure of P. californica (Coe, 1904, pl. 
15, fig. 2). Size when mature 60 to 120 mm or 
more in length and 2 to 4 mm in width. 


408 
Color.—Although no record is available as to 
the details of coloration in life, the specimens 


a short time after preservation were translu- - 


cent, (with a pale opalescence and tinges of 
green and rose anterior to the intestinal region. 
The rest of the body varied from pale to deep 
green, fading to colorless near the posterior ex- 
tremity. The green color was confined mainly 
to the intestinal diverticula. The general ap- 
pearance in life must have been similar to the 
colored figure of P. californica published by Coe 
(1904, pl. 15, fig. 2), although the colors were 
presumably paler than those shown in that 
figure. 


ep SGT 
SSS 
olm — 3,00 aoa 


Aare DOV ATS 
° 
j ilm 2 4/4 670 ‘9 000 
t CO NEC 200 ° 
a SS Oo 
y 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 12 


After clearing in oil the tissues become pale 
yellowish with the exception of the intestinal 
diverticula, which retain their green pigmenta- 
tion. 

Ocelli.—The tip of the head is provided with 
a single pair of large, kidney-shaped, intensely 
black ocelli. These are always conspicuous after 
clearing in oil, and presumably also in life, al- 
though they are situated deep in the tissues of 
the head. In a specimen about 100 mm in length 
each ocellus measures 0.009 mm in length and 
0.006 mm in diameter (Fig. 1). | 

Proboscis.—This species differs from the 
other described species of the genus in having 


Paranemertes biocellatus, n. sp.: Fie. 1.—Diagram of organ systems in anterior end of body after 
clearing in oil; c, caecum; cd, caecal diverticulum; cg, cerebral ganglion; cso, cerebral sense organ; 
e, esophagus; In, lateral nerve cord; m, opening of mouth into rhynchodeum; oc, ocellus; pyl, pylorus; 
r, rhynchodeum; ro, rhynchodeal opening on ventral surface of head; st, stomach. Fie. 2.—Portion of 
transverse section of body posterior to brain, showing the two layers of longitudinal muscles; cm, circu- 
lar muscular layer; dv, dorsal blood vessel; ep, epithelium of body wall; ilm, inner layer of longitudinal 
muscles; Jn, lateral nerve cord; lv, lateral blood vessel, with branches in surrounding parenchyma; 
olm, outer layer of longitudinal muscles; ps, proboscis sheath; rc, rhynchocoel; sé, stomach. Fie. 3.— 
Central stylet and basis from two individuals. Fic. 4.—Diagram of transverse section through septum 
of proboscis, showing, in center, stylet basis and canal leading from anterior to posterior proboscis 
chamber, and longitudinal musculature surrounded by eight pouches of accessory stylets; gl, wreath 


of pigmented gland cells. 


Dec. 15, 1944 


the proboscis sheath nearly as long as the body. 
The proboscis is armed with a slender, nearly 
cylindrical basis and with four or eight pouches 
of accessory stylets (Fig. 4). In one specimen 
the basis was of nearly equal diameter through- 
out the entire length and truncated posteriorly, 
while in another specimen it was slightly en- 
larged posteriorly (Fig. 3). In an individual ex- 
ceeding 100 mm in length the basis was four 
times as long as its diameter, measuring 0.24 
mm in length and 0.052 to 0.06 mm in diam- 
eter. In an individual 45 mm long the basis was 
only 0.016 mm long and 0.05 mm wide ante- 
riorly and 0.07 mm posteriorly. The stylets are 
approximately two-thirds as long as the bases. 
The latter are deep brown in color. There are 12 
proboscidial nerves. 

Musculatures—In this species, as in the 
others of the genus, the longitudinal muscula- 
ture in the anterior portion of the body is di- 
vided into two distinct layers, as described and 
figured by Coe (1904, 1905) for P. californica. 
Of these, the outer layer is approximately equal 
to the circular layer in thickness, while the 
inner layer averages several times as thick. The 
two layers are separated by a thin sheet of con- 
nective tissue carrying numerous blood vessels 
and branches of the lateral peripheral nerves 
(Fig. 2). In the brain region this inner muscula- 
ture closely invests the brain and esophagus 
and so nearly fills all the space between these 
organs and the outer muscular walls that the 
cephalic parenchyma is reduced to small 
patches. This inner longitudinal musculature is 
continuous with the proboscis insertion mus- 
culature. 

In the region of the pylorus the sheet of con- 
nective tissue separating the two longitudinal 
musculatures becomes thicker but diminishes 
again anterior to the intestinal region, and the 
two layers become united more posteriorly. 
The inner portion can, however, be recognized 
by its larger fibers far back in the intestinal re- 
gion. 

Digestive system. is shown in Fig. 1, the 
mouth opens by a long slit into the Fin Cho: 
deum some distance posterior to the rhyncho- 
deal opening when the proboscis remains in its 
normal position within the body. The slender 
esophagus leads to the elongated stomach and 
thence to the slender pylorus, which opens into 
the midgut somewhat farther behind the brain 
than the distance from brain to tip of head. The 
caecum is remarkably short and bears but a 


COE: A NEW HOPLONEMERTEAN 


k 


409 


single pair of diverticula (Fig. 1). The paired 
midgut diverticula are as in other species. 

Blood and nephridial systems.—In the two 
specimens cut into serfal sections the blood ves- 
sels were much contracted, both in the head 
and throughout the body. Near its origin from 
the cephalic anastomosis of the lateral vessels, 
the dorsal vessel passes into, but not through, 
the wall of the proboscis sheath for a short dis- 
tance and then continues on the ventral side 
of the sheath to the posterior end of the body. 
There are numerous connections between. the 
dorsal and lateral vessels. 

In neither of the two specimens are the 
nephridial canals well preserved, nor could the 
efferent ducts be demonstrated. The same diffi- 
culty was encountered in two specimens of P. 
californica (Coe, 1905), although in a third 
specimen both the canals and the efferent ducts 
were conspicuous (Coe, 1940). 

Nervous system.—The brain is situated far- 
ther back from the anterior end of the head 
than in most hoplonemerteans (Fig. 1). The 
four ganglia and their dorsal and ventral com- 
missures are of the usual hoplonemertean type. 
The 12 proboscidial nerves are large and well 
differentiated from the interneural plexus. The 
lateral nerves unite posteriorly on the dorsal 
side of the rectum. 

Cerebral sense organs.—These organs, with 
their sensory and glandular components, are 
relatively small, elongated structures situated 
far anterior to the brain. They are connected 
with the exterior by a pair of ciliated canals 
leading anterolaterally to the lateral surfaces 
of the head (Fig. 1). 

Reproductive organs.—The gonads are of the 
usual hoplonemertean type, alternating more or 
less regularly with the intestinal diverticula. 
The gametes were not fully ripe in December. 

Habitat.—These specimens were found bur- 
rowing in intertidal sand flats at Deer Island 
and at two other localities on the shore at 
Biloxi, Miss., by M. W. Williams. Cotypes, 
U.S.N.M. 20641. 


REFERENCES 


Cor, Westey R. The nemerteqns. Harriman 
Alaska Exped. 11: 1-202. 1904. 

. Nemerteans of the west and northwest 
coasts of America. Bull. Mus. Comp. 
Zool. 47: 1-319. 1905. | 
. Revision of the nemertean fauna of the 
Pacific coasts of North, Central and northern 
South America, Allan Hancock Pacific 
Exped. 2: 247-323. 1940. 


410 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 34, No. 12 


ICHTHYOLOGY.—A new species of cichlid fish of the genus Petenia from Colom- 


bia. 


Recently, while studying the cichlid 
fishes of Venezuela and attempting to iden- 
tify other specimens from South America 
in the collections of the U. 8S. National 
Museum that had never been identified or 
reported upon, I came across two fishes that 
appear to belong to a new species of the 
genus Petenia. A few years ago Dr. George 
S. Myers, when in charge of the fish col- 
lections in the National Museum, had 


examined these two specimens and noted — 


that they seemed to represent a new species, 
but he did not work up a description or 
separate it from other members of the 
genus. In view of Dr. Myers’s preliminary 
notation, I take great pleasure in naming 
this new species in his honor. ~ 


Genus Petenia Giinther 


Petenia Ginther, Catalogue of the fishes in the 
British Museum 4: 301. 1862. (Genotype: 
Petenia splendida Giinther.) 


Petenia myersi, n. sp. 


Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 120533, a specimen 
137 mm in standard length, collected by 
Brother Nicéforo Maria, in the Rio Dedo, 
tributary of the Rio Orteguaza, near Florencia 
(Amazon system), Colombia. 

Paratype.—U.S.N.M. no. 120534, a specimen 
65 mm in standard length with same data. This 
fish is in poor condition, with injured snout, and 
was preserved in a hunchback position. Meas- 
urements, therefore, may not be very reliable, 
although I tried to straighten the specimen. 

Description.—Measurements are expressed 
in hundredths of the standard length, first for 
the holotype, then for the paratype in paren- 
theses. Standard length in mm 137 (65). 

Length of head 37.9 (40.0); greatest depth of 
body 43.1 (46.9); length of snout 14.6 (13.1); 
diameter of eye 8.61 (11.5); width of interorbit- 
al space 10.2 (9.23); least width of preorbital 
4.89 (4.62); postorbital length of head 15.7 
(16.9); snout tip to rear end of maxillary 24.1 
(— —); snout to nostril 10.9 — —); eye to nostril 
3.65 (3.08); length of caudal peduncle 17.7 
(14.2); least depth of caudal peduncle 14.2 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
cae Smithsonian Institution. Received April 13, 
44, 


LEONARD P. Scuuttz, U. 8. National Museum. 


(13.8); length of fifth dorsal spine 12.4 (16.5); 
length of last dorsal spine 12.4 (——); longest ray 
of pelvics 31.0 (31.5); longest ray of pectorals 
21.5 (24.9); distance out from base that cau- 
dal fin is scaled 13.9 (11.5); longest caudal fin 
ray 25.5 (26.2). 

The following counts were made, respec- 
tively: Dorsal rays XV,13 (XV,13); anal rays 
V,9 (V,9); pectoral rays 15-15 (15-15); pelvic 
rays, I,5-1,5 (1,5-1,5); branched caudal fin rays 
14 (14); scale rows below lateral line 32 (32); 
scales from dorsal origin to lateral line 6 (6); 
scales from pelvic base to lateral line 12 (12); 
pores in lateral line 18+13 (18+11); seales 
from base of last dorsal spine to lateral line and 
on base of dorsal 5+2 (5+2); zigzag row of 
scales around caudal peduncle 20 (20). 

Body compressed, greatest depth at origin 
of dorsal fin 24 in standard length; caudal 
peduncle a little longer than deep; head 22 in 
standard length; eye 1.9 in snout and 44 times 
in head; interorbital equal to snout tip to nos- 
tril and 32 in head; snout tip to rear of maxillary 
1.6 in head, maxillary curving downward to un- 
der middle of eye; premaxillary greatly pro- 
tractile, the premaxillary process reaching to a 
vertical through middle of operculum; gill 
rakers short, stubby, about 1 +9; teeth in a vil- 
liform band on both jaws, the outer rows en- 
larged, curved, conical, caninelike teeth and 
widely spaced, largest forward; upper and lower 
lips fleshy, continuous around the end of the 
jaw without a frenum; scales large, ctenoid, 
forward on top of head to middle of interorbital 
space; cheeks and operculum scaled, except the 
preopercular edge posteriorly, which is naked; 
spinous dorsal with a row of scales at its base 
posteriorly, then several rows of scales on soft 
dorsal, mostly on membranes between the rays; 
base of anal fin similarly scaled; caudal fin scaled 
out for half its length; soft rays of vertical fins 
prolonged; soft rays of pelvic fins filamentous 
and extending to opposite base of first few anal 
spines; pectoral fin rounded, reaching just past 
the middle black vertical bar; nostril twice 
nearer eye than tip of snout. 

Color (in aleohol).—Light brownish, darker 
above, paler ventrally; a black vertical bar be- 
ginning at dorsal origin, passing through eye, 
thence downward just behind maxillary to un- 


Dec. 15, 1944 


SCHULTZ: A NEW CICHLID FISH FROM COLOMBIA 


411 


TABLE 1.—Fin-RAY Counts RECORDED FOR THE SPECIES OF PETENIA 


Dorsal 
Species Spines soft 
XV XVI XVII 10 11 
splendida.... xl x a —_ ex 
spectabilis.. . x _- — == = 
RFOUSSIU =~... 4 15 1 4 16 
MYCTSt. ...<: 2 — == ee oe 


1x means that counts were taken from the literature. 


derside of head; brownish area on back below 
front of spinous dorsal fading at lateral line; 
then a second vertical dark brownish bar from 
bases of seventh to tenth dorsal spines down- 
_ ward across middle of body to a little in front 
of anus; third vertical bar extending downward 
from front of soft dorsal and fourth at and a lit- 
tle behind rear of soft dorsal; fifth bar occur- 
ring at rear of caudal peduncle, narrowly sepa- 
rated from a dark bar at base of caudal fin; a 
more or less indistinct and broken lateral band 
from behind eye to caudal peduncle on the holo- 
type but lacking on the paratype; pelvics black- 
ish; other fins appearing to be plain in color at 
the present time. 

Remarks.—The members of the genus Pe- 
tenia may be recognized by the combination of 
the following characters: Premaxillary ex- 


Anal 
Spines soft 
13 V | VI VII 8 9 10 
x | x —- x x x 
x paar x = as x x 
— — 19 1 5 14 iL 
2 2 = =: = 2 — 


tremely protractile, with the ascending process 
reaching from behind the orbits to a vertical 
line through middle of operculum, this pre- 
maxillary process nearly as long as length of 
head; lips thick, fleshy, without a frenum; 
maxillary much exposed, only partly slipping 
under preorbital, and extending to a vertical 
line through middle of eye; in the outer row 
teeth enlarged, curved, conical, and widely 
spaced, followed by a band of villiform teeth 
inside; lateral line interrupted, continuing on 
middle of caudal peduncle; the upper lateral 
line separated from base of dorsal fin by 4 or 
more full-sized scales; lateral line scales same 
size as those above and below; gill rakers short, 
thick, about 9 or 10 on lower part of first arch; 
preorbital narrower than diameter of eye; nos- 
tril closer to eye than tip of snout; bases of soft 


ea 


oon 


ij Fey 4 \ ay 


Fig. 1.—Petenia myersi, n. sp.: Holotype (U.S.N.M. No. 120533). 
Drawn by Mrs. Aime N. Awl. 


412 


rays of median fins scaled; gill membranes 
joined but forming a wide, free fold across isth- 
mus; scales ctenoid; dorsal rays XV or XVI, 
rarely X VII, 10 to 13; anal V or VI (rarely VII), 
8 to 10. See Table 1 for counts made on the spe- 
cies of Petenia. 


This new species may be distinguished — 


from all others referred to the genus Petenia 
by the following key: 


la. Pores in lateral line 18 to 21-+-15 to 20; 6 to 8 
black blotches along midaxis, first on oper- 
cle, then 5 or 6 on midaxis of body, the last 
an ocellated spot on base of upper rays of 
caudal fin; head and median fins black 
spotted; scale formula—6 from dorsal or- 
igin to lateral line, 38 to 41 from upper 
opercular opening to midcaudal fin base 
below lateral line, and 15 to 20 from pelvic 
origin to lateral line; dorsal rays XV or 
XVI, 12 or 13; anal V or VI, 8 to 10; head 
23 to 3, depth 22 to 22 in standard length 
eNotes Rae Petenia splendida Giinther? 

1b. Pores in lateral line 18 to 20+9 to 138; scale 
formula—5 or 6+29 to 32+11 to 13; color 
pattern of blackish vertical bars or not more 
than 3 black blotches along midaxis; head 
23 to 22 in standard length. 

2a. Three black blotches along midaxis, the 
first on opercle, sometimes joining with 
a black blotch on shoulder at beginning 
of lateral line, the second in middle of 
length below lateral line, the third an 
ocellated spot on base of upper caudal fin 
rays; no black vertical bar through eye; 
distance from rear base of anal fin to 
midcaudal fin base 1.1 or 1.2 in least 
depth of caudal peduncle; depth 2% to 22 
in standard length. 
da. Greatest depth 2% to 23 in standard 
length; last dorsal spine 22 to 22 in 
head; opercular and shoulder spots 
usually prominent on adults, less so or 
absent on young; about 6 usually 
double darkish vertical bars on body 
and vertical fins somewhat black 
spotted; dorsal rays XV or XVI, 10 or 
11; anal VI, rarely VII, 8 or 9; scales 
6 +29 to 30+11 to 13; pores in lateral 
lime 19 or 2049 to 11s. 0s os ee 
ee ae. Petenia kraussiz Steindachner® 


2J have observed the following references to 
this species: Petenia splendida Giimther, Cat. 
Fishes Brit. Mus. 4: 301. 1862 (Lake Petén).— 
Kigenmann and Bray, Ann. New York Acad. 
Sci. 7: 615. 1894 (Lake Petén).—Regan, Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 7) 16: 433. 1905 (Lake 
Petén).—Regan, Biologia Centrali-Americana, 
Pisces: 29. 1908 (Lake Petén).—Pellegrin, Mem. 
Soc. Zool. France 16: 243. 1903 (Lake Petén; 
Bélize). 

$I have noticed the following references to this 
species: 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, No. 12 


3b. Greatest depth 2 in standard length; last 
dorsal spine 23% in head; shoulder 
spot and opercular spot absent; verti- 
cal fins not spotted; vertical dark bars 
lacking; dorsal rays XV, 12 or 18; anal 
rays VI, 9 or 10; scales 5 or 6+380+11 
or 12; pores in lateral line 19 or 20+11 
£0 AB ee ES Be ee 
....Petenia spectabilis (Steindachner)* 
2b. No ocellate black spot on caudal fin base; a 
blackish bar from dorsal origin through 
eye to underside of head; a second black- 
ish bar from middle of base of spinous 
dorsal to belly in front of anus, a third 
one from front of soft dorsal, one or two 
more bars on caudal peduncle, and an- 
other blackish bar on base of caudal fin; 
pelvics black; vertical fins probably black 
spotted; no black blotches along midaxis 
of body, as in 2a; a more or less indistinct 
darkish lateral streak along midaxis on 
adult, absent on small specimen; length 
of caudal peduncle about 0.8 or 0.9 in its 
least depth or longer than deep: least 
depth 22 to 22 in standard length; dorsal 
rays XV, 13; anal rays V, 9; scales 6+ 
32-+12; lateral line pores 18 or 19+11 to 
Iba oar deemed Petenia myerst, n. sp. 


Petenta kraussiz Steindachner, Denkschr. Akad. 
Wiss. Wien 39: 28, pl. 2, fig. 1, a—b. 1878 
(Rio Magdalena); 42: 56. 1879 (Rio Cauca); 
72: 1380. 1902 (Rio Lebrija, trib. Rio Mag- 
dalena. at Santander).—Higenmann and 
Bray, Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 7: 615, 
1894 (Rio Magdalena).—Pellegrin, Mem. 
Soc. Zool. France 16: 244, 1903 (Maracaibo; 
Rio Magdalena). 

Cichlosoma krauss1, Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 
(ser. 7) 16: 339, 1905 (Baranquilla, Colom- 
bia; Venezuela). 

Cichlasoma kraussii, Eigenmann, Mem. Carnegie 
Mus. 9 (1): 207. 1922 (Magdalena and Atrato 
Basins).—Myers, Stanford Ichthy. Bull. 2 
(4): 114. 1942 (Quebrada Sargento, trib. Rio 
Limon, north of Maracaibo, Venezuela). 

Astronotus (Petenia) kraussi, Eigenmann and 
EKigenmann, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 14: 69. 
1891 (Magdalena system). - 

In addition, I collected this species in 17 locali- 
ties in the Maracaibo Basin of Venezuela during 
1942. 

4 T have noticed the following references to this 
species: 

Acara (Petenia) spectabilis Steindachner, Sitzb. 
Akad. Wiss. Wien 71: 36, pl. 4. 1875 (Ama- 
zon River at Gurupa and Obidos). 

Petenia spectabilis Eigenmann and Bray, Ann. 
New York Acad. Sci. 7: 615, 1894 (Amazon 
near Gurupa and Obidos).—Pellegrin, Mem. 
Zool. Soc. France 16: 244. 1903 (Parda). 

Cichlosoma spectabile, Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist. (ser. 7) 16: 339. 1905 (Rio Amazon). 

Astronotus (Petenia) spectabilis Eigenmann and 
Eigenmann, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 14: 69. 
1891 (Gurupa; Obidos). 


INDEX TO VOLUME 34 


An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an aftiliated society. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


Anthropological Society of Washington. 183. 
Chemical Society of Washington. 61, 346. 
Philosophical Society of Washington. 160. 
Washington Academy of Sciences. 198. 


AUTHOR INDEX 


ALDEN, Witu1amM C. Frank Leverett (obituary). 
206. 

AuuarD, H. A. An analysis of the flora of the 
Bull Run Mountain region of Virginia using 
Raunkiaer’s ‘‘life-form’’ method. 112. 

BARAKAT, GEorGE M. See Jonn P. HARRING- 
TON. 383. 

BELKIN, JoHN N., and ScHiossER, RatepH J. A 
new species of Anopheles from the Solomon 
Islands. 268. 


BENSON, SetH B. The type locality of Tadarida - 


mexicana Saussure. 159. 

BRODKORB, PreRcE. The subspecies of the gnat- 
catcher Polioptila albiloris. 311. 

BROMBACHER, W.G. Altitude by measurement 
of air pressure and temperature. 277. 

Brown, Rotanp W. Temperate species in the 
Eocene flora of the southeastern United 
States. 349. 

Bryan, G. S. George Washington Littlehales 
(obituary). 96. 

CampsetL, T.D. The dental condition of a skull 
from the Sikyatki site, Arizona. 321. 

CurisLterR, V. L. *Field measurements of air- 
raid warning devices. 160. 

CuarK, Austin H. A new fossil comatulid from 
the Cretaceous of Cundinamarca, Colombia. 
303. 


James McKeen Cattell (obituary). 207. 

CocHRAN, Doris M. Leonhard Stejneger (obitu- 
ary). 95. 

CockERELL, T. D. A. South African bees of the 
genera Scrapter and Notomelitta (Hymenop- 
tera). 405. 

Cor, WrestEy R. A new species of hoplonemer- 
tean (Paranemertes biocellatus) from the Gulf 
of Mexico. 407. 

Geographical distribution of the nemer- 

teans of the Pacific coast of North America, 

with descriptions of two new species. 27. 

Nemerteans from the northwest coast of 
Greenland and other Arctic seas. 59. 

Couuins, Henry B.,-Jr. Ales’ Hrdlitka (obitu- 


anVe)e = Oo. 
CoopEerR, G. A. Charles Elmer Resser (obituary). 
32. 


Courant, Ricuarp. *Stability and instability 
as demonstrated by soap films. 165. 

Curtis, H. L. Leon Wilson Hartman (obitu- 
any,)2. 205: 

CusHMAN, J. A. Additional notes on Foramini- 
fera in the collection of Ehrenberg. 157. 


DreLone, Dwicut M. The genus Ollarianus 
(Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in North Amer- 
ica, including Mexico. 391. 

The Mexican species of leafhoppers of 
the genus Texananus (Homoptera: Cicadel- 
lidae). 228. 

DRAKE, C. J., and HaAmMBLETON, EK. J. Concern- 
ing Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemiptera). 120. 

Ey, CHAaruEs A. A new brittle-star (Ophtocoma 
anaglyptica) from Canton Island. 373. 

EMBREE, JoHN F. Sanitation and health in a 
Japanese village. 97. 

Fanny, JosepH J. George Steiger (obituary). 
347. 

Fenton, Witut1AMN. SeeJ.N.B. Hewitt. 65. 

GausE, G. Rupert. *Statistical control of qual- 
ity in manufacturing and inspection. 165. 

GinssurG, Isaac. A description of a new gobiid 
fish from Venezuela, with notes on the genus 
Garmannia. 375. 

GRIFFIN, JAMES B. The De Luna Expedition 
and the “buzzard cult” in the Southeast. 299. 

Hacearp, Howarp W. Andreas Vesalius. 1. 

HaMBLETON, E. J. See C. J. DRAxeE. 120. 

HARRINGTON, JOHN P. A new method of trans- 
literating’ Russian. 108. 

Origin of clock-dial V and of zero. 137. 
The origin of our State names. 255. 
and BARAKAT, GEoRGE M. Western Med- 
iterranean island names and survival of Ara- 

bie’s most divergent dialect. 33. 

HENDRICKS, STERLING B. Polymer chemistry of 
silicates, borates, and phosphates. 241. 

Hewitt, J. N. B. The requickening address of 
the Iroquois condolence council. (Edited by 
WiuuiaAM N. Fenton.) 65. 

HoprFiELD, J. J. *The Raman effect in chemical 


compounds. 165. 
Hopkins, Sewett H. See Mitprep Sanpoz. 
132. 


Hui, Frank M. Some genera of flies of the 
family Syrphidae. 129. 

Studies on flower flies (Syrphidae) in the 
Vienna Museum of Natural History. 398. 

Ineuis, D. R. *The moments of atomic nuclei. 
161. 

JENKINS, ANNA E. ‘“‘Oedema,” or ‘‘wart,” of 
cultivated violet identified as scab. 352. 
Kirk, Epwin. Cribanocrinus, a new rhodocrin- 

oid genus. 138. 
Cytidocrinus, new name for Cyrtocrinus 
Kirk. 85. 


413 


414 


Thyridocrinus, a new inadunate crinoid 
genus from the Silurian. 388. 

LEsHER, C. E. Edward Wheeler Parker (obitu- 

ary). ~239: 

LotKa, A. J. Comparison of two methods of 
estimating capitalized value of earning ca- 
pacity. 10. 

MantTEeR, Harotp W. Notes on the trematode 
subfamily Loimoinae (Monogenea), with a 
description of a new genus. 86. 

Martin, G. W. The fungus genus Chetromyces, 
with description of a new species. 358. 
Maxon, WiLtit1AM R. A new species of Hemitelia 

from Peru. 309. 
Five new species of Dryopteris from Peru. 


24. 

—— Three new species of Alsophila from 
Colombia and British Honduras. 46. 

May, ALBERT. *The latent image in the photo- 
graphic plate. 160. 

McKinney, H. H. Descriptions and revisions of 
several species of viruses in the genera 
Marmor, Fractilinea, and Galla. 322. 

Genera of the plant viruses. 139. 

McNatuy, Paut A. *The universe in which we 
dwell. 164. 

Metrravux, Aurrep. ‘‘Tapirage,”’ a biological 
discovery of South American Indians. 252. 

Moox, Maurice A. Algonkian ethnohistory of 
the Carolina Sound. 181, 213. 

MvELLER, E. F. Nathan Sanford Osborne (obit- 
uary). 166. 

Nouttine, P. G. The formation of colloid from 
halloysite in dilute acid solutions. 110. 
Parr, Letanp W. Aspects of epidemiology of 

tuberculosis. 169. 

REED, Howarp 8S. An account of sixteenth-cen- 
tury agriculture on the Mexican Plateau. 
209. 

REESIDE, JOHN B., JR. 
(obituary). 168. 

REICHELDERFER, F. W. Charles Frederick Mar- 
vin (obituary). 134. 

REINHARD, Epwarp G. Rhizocephalan parasites 
of hermit crabs from the Northwest Pacific. 
49. 

RIDDLE, Oscar, and ScHOOLEY, JAMES PLUMMER. 
Tests indicating absence of progesterone in 
certain avian ovaries. 341. 

Rona, EvizapetH. *Radioactivity of the ocean. 


Edward Oscar Ulrich 


162. 
Rossini, FrepERIcK D. *Modern thermochem- 
istry. 1638. 


RussEuL, Lovis—e M. Descriptions of nine spe- 
cies of Aleuroplatus from eastern North 
America (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). 333. 

Sanpoz, Miuprep, and Hopkins, SEWELL H. 
Zoeal larvae of the blue crab Callinectes 
sapidus Rathbun. 132. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


- TitterRINGToN, P. F. See T. D. STEWart. 


VoL. 34, No. 12 


ScHaLuER, W. T. Roger Clark Wells (obituary). 
348. 

SCHLOSSER, RatpH J. See JoHN N. BELKIN. 268. 

SCHOOLEY, JAMES PLUMMER. See Oscar RIDDLE. 
341, 

Scuuttz, LEonarp P. A new genus and species 
of pimelodid catfish from Colombia. 93. 

A new species of cichlid fish of the genus © 
Petenia from Colombia. 410. 

Seitz, FRepERIcK. *The photoelasticity of crys- 
tals. 160. — 

SHanor, Letanp. Additional records of aquatic 
Phycomycetes isolated from Mexican soils. 
330. 

SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. Description of a 
new species of Amphipoda of the genus 
Anisogammarus from Oregon. 89. 

SINGEWALD, JosEPH T., JR. Edward Bennett 
Mathews (obituary). 167. — 

SmitH, Hopart M. Notes on a small collection 
of reptiles and amphibians from Tabasco, 
México. 154. 

SPRINGER, STEWART. Sphyrna bigelowi, a new 
hammerhead shark from off the Atlantic 
coast of South America, with notes on 
Sphyrna mokarran from New South Wales. 
274. 

STEVENSON, JOHN A., and WELLMAN, FRED- 
ERICK L. A preliminary account of the 
plant diseases of El Salvador. 259. 

STEWART, T. D., and TirtERineTon, P. F. Filed 
Indian teeth from Illinois. 317. 

Stone, ALAN. Some relationships of Anopheles 
lungae Belkin and Schlosser (Diptera: Cu- 


licidae). 273. 
StosE, GEorcE W. Arthur Keith (obituary). 
240. 


SWALLEN, JASON R. A new species of Orcuttia 
from Baja California. 308. 

The Alaskan species of Puccinellia. 16. 

B17. 

*Physical science and 


ToL~MAN, RicHarRD C. 


philosophy. 162. 
TuckERMAN, L. B. *Early use of meteoric iron 
in weapons. 163. 


VoRHIES, CHARLES T. Elmer Darwin Ball (obit- 
uary). °205: 

WEIGHTMAN, R. H. Edward Hall Bowie (obitu- 
Ary Je wltooe 

WELLMAN, FREDERICK L. See JoHN A. STEVEN- 
SON. 259. 

WESLAGER, C. A. The Delaware Indians as 
women. 381. 

Woopsury, ANcus M., and Woopgsury, Drxon 
M. Notes on Mexican snakes from Oaxaca. 


360. . 
Woopsury, Dixon M. See Anaus M. Woop- 
BURY. 360. 


Dec. 15, 1944 


INDEX 


415 


SUBJECT INDEX 


Anthropology. Filed Indian teeth from Illinois. 
T. D. Stewart and P. F. TirTeRIncrTon. 
Siz: 

The De Luna Expedition and the “buzzard 
cult’? in the Southeast. James B. Grir- 
FIN. 299. 

The dental condition of a skull from the 
Sikyatki site, Arizona. T. D. CamMpBEtu. 
a2k. 

Astronomy. *The universe in which we live. 
Paut A. McNatry. 164. 

Botany. Additional records of aquatic Phyco- 
mycetes isolated from Mexican soils. 
LELAND SHANOR. 38380. 

An account of sixteenth-century agriculture 
on the Mexican Plateau. Howarp S. 
REED. 209. 

A new species of Hemitelia from Peru. 
WiiiiAM R. Maxon. 309. 


A new species of Orcuttia from Baja Cali- 


fornia. JASON R. SwAaLLEN. 308. 

A preliminary account of the plant diseases 
of El Salvador. JoHuN A. STEVENSON and 
FREDERICK L. WELLMAN. 259. 

Descriptions and revisions of several species 
of viruses in the genera Marmor, Fractt- 
linea, and Galla. H.H.McKInnNzEy. 322. 

Five new species of Dryopterts from Peru. 
WiutiaM R. Maxon. 24. 

Genera of the plant viruses. 
KINNEY. 139. 

The Alaskan species of Puccinellia. 
R. SwaLuEn. 16. 

Three new species of Alsophila from Colom- 
bia and British Honduras. Wiuuiam R. 
Maxon. 46. 

Chemistry. “Modern thermochemistry. 
ERICK D. Rossini. 163. 
Polymer chemistry of silicates, borates, and 


He. (Me- 


JASON 


FRED- 


phosphates. STERLING B. HENDRICKS. 
241. 

*Radioactivity of the ocean. ELizABETH 
KONA. —162. 


Ecology. An analysis of the flora of the Bull Run 
Mountain region of Virginia using Raun- 


kiaer’s ‘‘life-form’”’ method. H. A. AL- 
LARD. 112. 
Economics. Comparison of two methods of esti- 


mating capitalized value of earning capac- 
iy. A.J. LorKa., 10: 

Entomology. Anew species of Anopheles from the 
Solomon Islands. JoHn N. BELKIN and 
Rawupu J. SCHLOSSER. 268. 

Concerning Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemip- 
tera). C. J. Drake and E. J. Hamstiet- 
TON. 120. 

Descriptions of nine species of Aleuroplatus 
from eastern North America (Homoptera: 
Aleyrodidae). Louise M. Russeuu. 333. 

Some genera of flies of the family Syrphidae. 
Frank M. Huu. 129. 

‘Some relationships of Anopheles lungae 


Belkin and Schlosser (Diptera: Culicidae). 
ALANSTONE. 278. 

South African bees of the genera Scrapter 
and Notomelitta (Hymenoptera). T.D.A. 
CocKERELL. 405. 

Studies on flower flies (Syrphidae) in the 
Vienna Museum of Natural History. 
F.M. Huu. . 398. 

The genus Ollartanus (Homoptera: Cicadel- 
lidae) in North America, including Mexico. 
Dwicut M. DeLone. 391. 

The Mexican species of leafhoppers of the 
genus Texananus (Homoptera: Cicadel- 
lidae). Dwigut M. DreLonea. 228. 

Ethnology. Algonkian ethnohistory of the Caro- 
lina Sound. Maurice A. Mook. 181, 
213. 

Sanitation and health in a Japanese village. 
JOHN F. EMBREE. 97. 

‘“‘Tapirage,”’ a biological] discovery of South 
American Indians. ALFRED M®b&TRAvUX. 
252. 

The Delaware Indians as women. 
WESLAGER. 381. 

The requickening address of the Iroquois 
condolence council. J. N. B. HeEwirrt. 
(Edited by Wituram N. Fenton.) 65. 

Western Mediterranean island names and 
survival of Arabic’s most divergent dialect. 


CAs: 


JoHN P. Harrineton and GrorcE M. 
BARAKAT. 383. 

Geochemistry. The formation of colloid from 
halloysite in dilute acid solutions. P. G. 
Nurrine. 110. 

Grants in aid. 380. 

Ichthyology. A description of a new gobiid fish 


from Venezuela, with notes on the genus 
Garmannia. Isaac GinsBpuRG. 375. 

A new genus and species of pimelodid catfish 
from Colombia. Leonarp .P. ScHutrz. 
93. 

A new species of cichlid fish of the genus 
Petenta from Colombia. LEronarp P. 
Scuuttz. 410. 

*Sphyrna bigelowt, a new hammerhead shark 
from off the Atlantic coast of South Amer- 
ica, with notes on Sphyrna mokarran from 
New South Wales. STEWART SPRINGER. 


274. 
Linguistics. A new method of transliterating 
Russian. JoHn P. Harrineton. 108. 
Origin of clock-dial V and of zero. JouN P. 
HARRINGTON. 137. 
The origin of our State names. JouHN P. 
HARRINGTON. 255. 
Mammalogy. The type locality of Tadarida 


mexicana Saussure. SETH B. BENSON. 
159. 
Medicine. Andreas Vesalius. Howarp W. Hac- 


GARD. 1. 
Aspects of epidemiology of tuberculosis. 
LELAND W. Parr. 169: 


416 

Meteorology. *Early use of meteoric iron in 
weapons. L. B. TuckERMAN. 163. 

Mycology. ‘‘Oedema,”’ or ‘“‘wart,’’ of cultivated 


violet identified as scab. ANNA HE. 
JENKINS. 352. 
The fungus genus Cheiromyces, with descrip- 


tion of a new species. G. W. Martin. 


358. 

Obituaries. Bau, ELMER Darwin. 205. 
Bowikt, Eywarp Hau. 135. 
CaTTELL, JaMES McKergEn. 205. 
CuARK, ALLEN CuLLING. 64. 
HartTMaNn, LEon Witson. 205. 


HrpuicKa, ALES. 62. 

Keitu, ArtHurR. 240. 

LEVERETT, FRANK. 206. 

LITTLEHALES, GEORGE WASHINGTON. 96. 

Marvin, CHARLES FREDERICK. 134. 

MatuEws, Epwarp BENNETT. 167. 

OsBORNE, NATHAN SANFORD. 166. 

PARKER, EpwarRD WHEELER. 239. 

REsSsER, CHARLES ELMER. 382. 

STEIGER, GEORGE. 347. — 

STEJNEGER, LEONHARD. 95. 
Uuricu, Epwarp Oscar. 168. 
WeELLis, RoceR CiarK. 348. 

Ornithology. The subspecies of the gnatcatcher 

Polioptila albiloris. PIERCE BRODKORB. 
311. 

Paleobotany. Temperate species in the Eocene 
flora of the southeastern United States. 
Rotanp W. Brown. 349. 

Paleontology. A new fossil comatulid from the 
Cretaceous of Cundinamarca, Colombia. 
Austin H. CuarKx. 303. | 

Cribanocrinus, a new rhodocrinoid genus. 
Epwin Kirk. 13. 

Cytidocrinus, new name for Cyrtocrinus Kirk. 
EpwINn Kirk. 86. 

Thyridocrinus, anew inadunate crinoid genus 
from the Silurian. Epwin Kirx. 388. 


Physics. Altitude by measurement of air pres- 
sure and temperature. W. G. Brom- 
BACHER. 277. 


*Field measurements of air-raid warning de- 
vices. V.L.CHRISLER. 160. 
*Physical science and philosophy. 

C. TotmMan. 162. 
*Stability and instability as demonstrated by 
soap films. RicHarD Courant. 166. 


RICHARD 


| 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 34, NO. 12 


*The latent image in the photographic plate. — 


ALBERT May. 160. 

*The moments of atomic nuclei. D. R. 
Ineuis. 261. 

* The photoelasticity of crystals. FREpD- 


BRICK SEiTz. 160. 

*The Raman effect in chemical compounds. 
J.J. HOPFIELD. 165. 

Statistics. *Statistical control of quality in manu- 
facturing and inspection. G. RUPERT 
GausEe. 165. | 

Zoology. Additional notes on Foraminifera in the 
collection of Ehrenberg. J. A. CUSHMAN. 
157. ; 

A new brittle-star (Ophiocoma anaglyptica) 
from Canton Island. CHarues A. Ety. 
3 Goe re 

A new species of hoplonemertean (Para- 
nemertes biocellatus) from the Gulf of 
Mexico. WrEsLEY R. Con. 407. : 

Description of a new species of Amphipoda 
of the genus Anisogammarus from Oregon. 
CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. 89. 

Geographical distribution of the nemerteans 

of the Pacific coast of North America, with 
descriptions of two new species. WESLEY 
Re Conn t: ee 

Nemerteans from the northwest coast of 
Greenland and other Arctic seas. WESLEY 
R. Cor. 59. 

Notes on a small collection of reptiles and 
amphibians from Tabasco, México. Ho- 
BART M.Smirn. 154. 

Notes on Mexican snakes from Oaxaca. 
Ancus M. Wooppury and Dixon M. 
WoopsurRy. 360. 

Notes on the trematode subfamily Loimoinae 
(Monogenea), with a description of a new 
genus. Harotp W. ManteErR. 86. 

Rhizocephalan parasites of hermit crabs from 
the Northwest Pacific. Epwarp G. REIN- 
HARD. 49. ; 

Tests indicating absence of progesterone in 
certain avian ovaries. Oscar RIDDLE and 
JAMES PLUMMER SCHOOLEY. 341. 

Zoeal larvae of the blue crab Callinectes 
sapidus Rathbun. _Mitprep Sanpoz and 
SrwxELut H. Hopkins. 132. 


(ad 


eo 
NB grec.) 


be t 


CONTENTS 


EruHNoLogy.—The Delaware Indians as women. C. A. WESLAGER.. 


/ PALEONTOLOGY.—Thyridocrinus, a new inadunate crinoid genus from 
the Stlunan:.) Wawa Kae Ro) a ee eerie 


EntromoLoay.—The genus Ollarianus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in 
North America, including Mexico. Dwicur M. DeELonc...... 


ENToMoLogy.—Studies on flower flies (Syrphidae) in ae Vienna 
Museum of Natural History. F.M. Huun...........550. 00% 


ENToMOLoGy.—South African bees of the genera Scrapter and Noto- 
melitta (Hymenoptera). T. D. A. CocKmRELL................ 


ZooLocy.—A new species of hoplonemertean (Borate Le laen 
from the Gulf of Mexico... Wstey R. Com...04 0%... 21708 


IcHTHYOLOGY.—A new species of cichlid fish of the as Petenia biden 
Colombia. \Lwowarp P, ScHULTe. 20005 ea Ae 


INDEX TO: VOLUME S4 ie Oe ee a ee ee eae 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. 


Page 


381 


391 


405 


—_———..... 


3 9088 01303 1885 


ni