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JOURNAL
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Vou. 38
and mathematical systems.*
nance, Navy Department.
Foreword——Many mathematicians as
well as engineers and physicists sometimes
fail to recognize the great principles un-
derlying mathematical reasoning and meth-
ods that permeate their particular fields.
- Instead, they are apt to turn their attention
solely to the formalism of the techniques
- involved. This is a tendency to be guarded
against and one to which professional
people and educators should give continued
attention, particularly in the teaching of
mathematics, science, and engineering.
This paper, therefore, urges wider consider-
ation of mathematical principles and meth-
ods by scientists and engineers, whether
or not they are primarily interested in
mathematics, and gives examples with
reference to one well-known mathematical
concept.’
1. Introduction.—The concept of equiva-
lence lies at the heart of nearly every trans-
action, physical theory, and mathematical
system. The literature abounds in such
phrases as
1 This paper was prepared from the manuscripts
of two addresses by the writer: The concept (and
misconcept) of equivalence, presented to the
Philosophical Society of Washington on January
18, 1947, and On the role of equivalence in pure and
applied science and in practical and everyday ae,
presented to the Oberlin Mathematics Club,
nual Banquet Meeting, on May 17, 1946. The
writer wishes to express his appreciation of the
_ Many constructive suggestions and critical com-
ments made during the preparation of the paper
by his colleagues Dr. D May, Mrs. A. B.
McCaleb Nazary, and Miss A. Madsen, of the
Bureau of Ordnance. The opinions expressed
herein are those of the author and not necessarily
Raa of the Navy Department. Received June 20,
See also Burineton, RicHarp 6&.,
_ frontiers, Science 101: 313-320. Mar. 30, 1945,
JANUARY 15, 1948
No. 1
MATHEMATICS.—The role of the concept of equivalence in the study of physical
RICHARD STEVENS BURINGTON,
Bureau of Ord-
(P)
which, unless properly defined, are often
meaningless or misleading (e.g., ‘‘an elec-
tric organ is equivalent to a pipe organ’”’;
“one 1937 dollar is equivalent to 60 cents’’).
When S is a physical system, the ele-
ments A, B,... of the system are identi-
fied with specific physical objects, quan-
tities, ..., and the types of equivalence
relations used must be carefully defined.
Each such definition constitutes a separa-
tion of A, B, . . . and the associated physical
picture into classes. Such separation may be
of considerable physical significance, each
type of equivalence often having associated
with it an extensive physical theory. Thus,
in electrical theory are defined: ‘‘equiva-
lent m-pole networks,” involving the ‘‘con-
gruence”’ of certain matrices characterizing
the physical system; ‘‘symmetric compo-
nents,” involving the ‘‘similarity”’ of certain
matrices; etc.
In the study of physical systems, perfect,
or approximate isomorphic (abstractly
identical) systems play a fundamental
role. Equivalent physical (or mathematical)
models are integral parts of the methods
used (e.g., as in hydrodynamic similitude
theories, .. . )
Considerable progress has been made by
mathematicians in extending the theory of
equivalence relations. To what extent
these abstractions will be of value in the
applied fields remains to be seen. This
much is clear. A consciousness of the con-
cept of equivalence is of real value. It
helps to clarify problems. It provides a
means of attack. The involved details of
the modern abstract theories of equivalence
A is equivalent to B,
2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
will be in themselves of little value in prac-
tical problems unless a penetrating inquiry
into the economic, physical, or other perti-
nent background of the problem at hand is
made.
2. The phrase (P) must be defined.—The
phrase
(P)
to have a well-defined meaning, requires
appropriate definitions of the entities A and
B, as well as a precise statement as to the
meaning to be attached to the phrase “‘is
equivalent to” as used in relation to A and
B. Thus, the use of the phrase (P) should
be accompanied by adequate and proper
definitions. For example, in the phrase
“1937 dollar is equivalent to 60 cents”
it is not known what a “1937 dollar’’ is,
what ‘‘60 cents” is, or what “is equivalent
to’? means. One would be at a loss to ex-
plain what the phrase means. Likewise,
the phrase ‘‘an electric organ is equivalent to
a pipe organ”’ is questionable since there is
nothing in the statement indicating in
_ what sense the two organs are considered
to be equivalent. Does the phrase mean
that the two organs can generate the same
level of noise as measured (in some manner
or other) in decibels in a given auditorium;
does it mean that each of the two instru-
ments can be used to play church music; or
does it mean that their tonal potentialities
are comparable to each other, and so on?
The list need not be extended further, for
the reader can no doubt contribute hun-
dreds of similar examples and queries.
_ 3. Importance of such statements as (P).—
The importance of such statements as (P)
becomes evident when one realizes that
the notion of equivalence lies at the very
basis of nearly every transaction and of
nearly every mathematical system or form-
ulation of a physical theory. For example,
in order that the statement ‘3 feet=1
yard” be understood, the concept of equiv-
alent lengths must be thoroughly under-
stood, and the fact that there exists stand-
ards of length, such as 1 foot and 1 yard,
must be appreciated. A proper understand-
ing of such statements as ‘2X3=6”’ re-
quires an accurate theory containing ade-
A is equivalent to B,
VOL. 38, NO. 1
quate definitions. Surely the operation of
multiplying 2 by 3 is not “the same”’ as 6.
If not “‘the same,” then what is meant by
the statement that 2X3=6? A complete
answer to such questions requires a rather
extensive treatment of the foundation of
the theory of numbers. This will not be
attempted here.
4. Historical remarks on the definitions of
equality—As man first attempted to dis-
cover the reasons for things, he began using
the concepts of equivalence and identity.
The philosophical considerations of these
concepts have been debated at length.
This phase of the subject is too vast to
enter into here.
Leibnitz, in Opera philosophica (Erd-
mann) gave the definition: ‘‘T'wo things are
called equal if, in every expression, one
may be replaced by the other.”’ This defini-
tion is open to much criticism.
Whitehead and Russell, in their Principia
mathematica (1910), set forth a number of
sets of postulates which an identity or an
equality should satisfy. These postulates
were developed over a period of time and
were not original with Whitehead and Rus-
sell. A certain set of these postulates is, es-
sentially, as follows:
I. Given any two elements A and B, either
A=B or A+B. (Determinative property.)
II..A =A. (Reflexivity property.)
III. If A=B, then B=A. (Symmetrical prop-
erty.
IV. id “3 and B=C, then A =C. (Transitiv-
; ity property.)
The critical student might well object to
the use of these postulates as the basis for
definitions of identity or equality. However,
they are a great improvement over earlier
definitions.
As MacDuffee? has pointed out, the
teleological concept of equality has been
favored by many mathematicians—until
recently by most of them. (Teleology: the
philosophical study of evidence of a co-
ordinated creative design in nature.)
It should be noted that equality is some-
times taken as one of the basic principles
of logic and not subject to further definition
or analysis.
3 MacDuFFEE, C. C., Different kinds of equality,
The Mathematics Teacher, Jan. 1936: 10-13.
Jan. 15, 1948
The newer approach to the subject is to
define a new type of equality for the ele-
ments of some system. When this is done,
it must be shown that the equality relation
as defined actually has the required pro-
perties I, ..., IV. This removes the con-
cept completely from philosophical study.
5. Abstract definition of the phrase (P).—
The abstract formulation of the notion of
equivalence has been carefully studied by
mathematicians. A brief outline of one
such formulation seems appropriate for the
purpose of this discussion, the formulation
given being one commonly used in defining
equivalence in algebraic systems, and in
many formulations of physical theories.
One abstract formulation of this concept
of equivalence may be embodied in the fol-
lowing four postulates and associated de-
finitions. |
Let A, B, C, . . . be elements in the fixed
system S being considered (such as abstract
entities, quantities,...), and suppose a
possible relationship that may occur be-
tween these elements A, B, C,...1is de-
fined in some manner or other. Suppose that
when A and B are so related, the relation-
ship is indicated by the symbol E, and
the expression A E B is written; and that
when A and B are not so related, the fact
is indicated by the symbol A E B. Then
the relationship expressed by the symbol
A E B is known as the equivalence relation
provided that it is defined to satisfy the
following four properties:
I. Determination. For any pair of elements A
and B of S the relation A E B either holds
or does not hold.
II. Reflerivity. For any A one has AE A.
Ill. Symmetry. When AE B, then BE
E E A.
IV. Transitivity, When AE Band BEC, then
ALEC.
A is said to be equivalent to Bif A E Bis
an equivalence relation.
[The symbol E is to be read ‘‘is equiva-
Jent to”; the symbol F is to be read ‘‘is not
equivalent to.’’]
Every such definition of equivalence,
which is ordinarily not unique for the given
system, constitutes a division of the ele-
ments A, B,C, ... into classes.
The determinative property (I) suggests
the existence of at most two cases for the
BURINGTON: THE CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENCE 3
definition of equivalence used, and that the
relation is determinative.
The reflexive property (II) is an exten-
sion of the earlier equivalence relation
known as the zdentzty.
The symmetric property (III) insures
that the relation of equivalence is sym-
metric.
The transitive property (IV) is an ex-
tension of the old concept ‘‘things equal to-
the same thing are equal to each other.”
The special equivalence relation A U B,
which is defined to hold for any pair of
elements A and B is called the universal
relation.
The equivalence relation A I B, which
holds only when A and B are the same or
‘Identical elements,”’ is called the zdentzty
or unit relation.
A serious study of systems which satisfy
these properties would be a large under-
taking. It would include study of systems
that do not satisfy all these—properties..
Such an undertaking would involve a great
many fields of mathematics. This will not
be attempted in the present paper.
6. Equality and equivalence—It should
be remarked that the formulation given in
paragraph 5 has been used to define the
statement
(E)
For the purposes of this paper the fine
points of reasoning which have led some
scholars to use the above postulates to
define ‘‘is equal to” and others to use them
to define ‘‘is equivalent to,” and to dis-
tinguish between ‘‘is equal to” and “1
A is equal to B.
is
equivalent to,”’ need not be discussed here.
7. Ordinary plane (Euclidean) geometry.
—Ordinary plane geometry when viewed
from the newer point of view is crudely as
follows:
(1) The elements of this geometry are points
and lines forming geometric figures.
(2) The concept of superposition is taken for
granted in such an intuitional geometry.
(3) Two geometric figures A and B are called
congruent (equal) if one figure may be ro-
tated and translated until it is brought into
coincidence with the other figure.
(4) Given any two geometric figures A and B:
(a) Hither these figures can be made to co-
incide (A E B), or they can not be made
4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
to coincide (A E B), Thus the property
of determination holds for the geome-
try under consideration.
(b) Every figure can be superimposed upon
itself. (A E A). Hence the property of
reflexivity holds.
(c) If one figure can be made to coincide
with a second figure, (A E B), then the
second can be made to coincide with
the first, (B E A). Thus the property of
symmetry holds.
(d) If one figure can be made to coincide
with a second figure, (A E B), and the
’ second figure can be made to coincide
with a third figure, (B E C), then the
first can be made to coincide with the
third, (A E C). Hence, the property of
transitivity holds.
Therefore, ordinary plane (Euclidean)
geometry satisfies the four required pro-
perties of an equivalence relation as de-
fined in paragraph 5.
(5) In this type of geometry, the geometry of
congruent figures is the study of those prop-
erties relating to the figures which remain
invariant under the equivalence relation of
congruence. (Thus, if two triangles are con-
gruent, their areas are equal.)
8. Other examples from elementary ge-
ometry.—In addition to the example given
above there are many other simple exam-
ples of equivalence to be found in elemen-
tary geometry. Thus, in Euclidean geo-
metry, two polygons A and B may be
equivalent in the sense that they have
equal areas, but they may or may not be
equivalent in the sense that they have the
same number of sides or angles, and so on.
Again, any two proper conics, A and B,
are equivalent (that is A E B) in the sense
that A may be transformed into B by
means of a _ projective transformation,
while on the other hand A may or may not
be equivalent to B in the sense that A may
be transformed into B by means of a trans-
lation and rotation.
In general, in geometry, whether two
geometric quantities are equivalent can be
determined by calculating certain numbers
known as invariants, which are associated
with the objects under study. In such cases,
if certain relative invariants for an object
A are identical, respectively, to the cor-
responding invariants for the object B,
the object A is equivalent to the object
B. If these two sets of invariants are not
VOL. 38, NO. 1
identical, respectively, A is not equivalent
to B.
For example, in ordinary translational
geometry, two lines
(1) ax+by+c=0,
and
(2) dx+ey+tf=0,
are equivalent in the sense of being parallel
if, and only if, the ratio a/b is equal to the
ratio d/e. These ratios are invariants of the
lines (1) and (2), respectively, for a trans-
lational geometry.
Ordinary plane similarity geometry. The
geometry of similar figures is a geometry
quite distinct from ordinary Euclidean
geometry. In this geometry the relation of
similarity is easily shown to satisfy all
four properties of an equivalence relation.
Other geometries. There are many other
geometries, and the relationships of con-
gruence used in them are examples of
equivalence relations. Familiar examples of
these types of geometries are projective,
non-Euclidean, affine, and the like.
9. Example from transportation.—In
order to show how these equivalence prob-
lems come up in practical fields outside of
mathematical subjects, an example may be
noted in the field of railroading. In the
transportation literature many types of
equivalence are commonly used. An ex-
ample of current discussion in the trans-
portation literature’ is that of locomotive
ratings, ‘‘equivalent locomotives.’’ A num-
ber of methods of rating locomotives are
commonly used, and much general con-
fusion exists as the result of careless use of
various types of equivalence relations.
Under present conventional systems of
rating, a steam, a Diesel, and an electric
locomotive, each locomotive rated as hav-
ing “a 6,000 h.p. output,” are actually only
equivalent: in the sense that the number
6,000 used happens to be the same, since
the method of calculating the horsepower
number is totally different in each case
(one is cylinder output; the second is
Diesel-engine output; the third is continu-
4 Wynne, F. E., Comparable locomotive ratings,
Railway Age 120 (6): 316-318. Feb. 9, 1946.
JAN. 15, 1948 ©
ous output at rails; and each of them re-
quires careful definitions).
If three locomotives are equivalent in the
sense that they can each deliver the same
useful output to the rail, they are not neces-
sarily equivalent in the sense of their ability
to handle the same weight of cars at 100
m.p.h. on level tangent track. And, if
three locomotives are equivalent in this
latter sense, they are not necessarily equiv-
alent in the sense that they can deliver
the same useful horsepower continuously at
the rails; nor are they necessarily equivalent
in the sense of their earning power, avail-
ability, reliability, etc.
Actually under present conventional
systems of ratings, three locomotives hav-
ing an advertised 6,000 h.p. output, one
steam, one Diesel, one electric, while
equivalent in the sense that the number of
6,000 is the same for all, are not equivalent
in the sense of the weight of cars that they
can handle at 100 m.p.h. on level tangent
track continuously, the values actually be-
ing about 1,000 tons, 900 tons, 1,300 tons,
respectively. Nor are they necessarily
equivalent in their cost per ton mile hauled,
availability ratio, etc. Furthermore, there
are many other equivalence relations used
in rating locomotives, all different, and
many times badly misunderstood because
of the lack, or omission, of good defini-
tions. A general practical definition of
“equivalent locomotives” has never been
adequately given; and any such definition
would doubtlessly involve the listing of
many categories of equivalence and a
scheme, or a set of schemes, for weighting
these equivalences. A similar situation
exists In many other fields.
10. Equivalence in the elementary theory
of sets—In the elementary theory of sets,
one of the basic notions is that of equiva-
lence. If the elements in two sets, A and B,
can be paired with each other in such a>
manner that to each element of A there
corresponds one and only one element of
B, and to each element of B there corre-
sponds one and only one element of A, then
the correspondence is said to be bi-unique,
and A and B are said to be equivalent.
Two finite sets have the same number
of elements if and only if the elements of the
BURINGTON: THE CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENCE 5
two sets can be put into bi-unique corre-
spondence. This is the idea of counting, for
when one counts a finite set of objects one
simply establishes a bi-unique correspond-
ence between these objects and a set of
number symbols 1, 2, 3,...., n. Thus, the
notion of equivalence for finite sets corre-
sponds to the ordinary notion of equality of
numbers.
The concept of equivalence has been
extended to infinite sets. This was done to
construct an arithmetic of infinities. In this
sort of theory there are just as many points
on a straight line as there are real num-
bers. This means that the set of all real
numbers and the set of all the points on a
straight line are equivalent in the sense
that, once an origin and a unit are chosen,
a bi-unique correspondence between the
real numbers and the points on the line
can be made. With this understanding of
equivalence, a finite set cannot be equiva-
lent to any one of its proper subsets, for ~
if the finite set contains n elements and
no more, any one of its proper subsets can
contain at most n—1 elements.
If a set contains infinitely many objects,
it may be equivalent to a proper subset of
itself. For example, there are just as many
positive integers as there are positive even
integers. This is easy to see from the bi-
unique correspondence shown below.
ioe 4.4505 n
a ge A: 0
2 ARS ccr = 20
In fact, there are just as many rational
fractions as there are integers. However,
the set of all real numbers is not equivalent
to the set of integers.
For those who wish to pursue this sort
of equivalence theory, much can be found
concerning the subject in the theory of
sets (begun by George Cantor at the end
of the nineteenth century).
11. Algebra.—Algebra furnishes many
illustrations of the appropriateness of the
concept of equivalence. Thus, if real posi-
tive numbers are assumed to be properly
defined, then it is possible to introduce
negative numbers in quite a logical manner
by means of a certain definition for the
equivalence of pairs of real positive num-
6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
bers. Such a treatment may be found in the
literature’ and gives quite satisfactory an-
swers to such questions as: Why does
(—1)(—1)=1? A similar treatment based
on the equality of pairs of real numbers can
be formulated to give a logical introduction
to complex numbers.
12. Klein’s definition of a geometry.
Groups.—In order to illustrate the connec-
tion between the theory of groups and the
theory of equivalence further examples
from geometry may be considered. Felix
Klein (1871) defined geometry as the study
of the invariants of a group of transforma-
tions. A group of transformations is a set
such that:
1. The resultant transformation of two trans-
formations is a transformation of the set.
2. The associative law holds.
3. There exists an identity transformation.
4. Every transformation has an inverse.
In ordinary Euclidean geometry, the
transformations (of rotations and transla-
tions) form a group. Likewise in similarity
geometry, the similarity transformations
form a group. Thus, the geometry of con-
gruent figures and the geometry of similar
figures are examples of geometries as de-
fined above.
13. The resemblance between the definition
of group and the definition of equivalence.—
This resemblance is a fundamental one.
In associating an equivalence relation with
a set of transformations, one associates
with a set A of elements the set 7 of trans-
formations which operates on A transform-
ing it into some set B of elements. One
might make a definition of equivalence by
saying that B is equivalent to A if there
exists a tranformation in the set 7’ which
transforms A into B, provided of course
that the four properties of an equivalence
relation are met. That this can be done, zf
and only if the transformations 7 form a
group, can be shown readily.
It can be shown quite easily that:
THEOREM. Equivalence relative to a group of
transformations is an equivalence relation
(satisfying properties I, II, III, IV).
Something of what this theorem means
may be illustrated by the following example:
5 See C. C. MacDurFes, loc. cit.
VOL. 38, No. 1
Example. Consider the set of all real rotations
T of the points in a plane about a fixed point O.
This group may be represented by the equation
CY) (42= —1).
By this formula any point z in the plane having
polar coordinates p and @ is rotated about the
point O into a point w in the plane having polar
coordinates p and (a+).
That the set (7') of rotations form a group can
be seen readily since:
1. The resultant of two rotations 6, and @ is a
rotation 6 =6,+6, of the set (7).
2. The associative relation holds since for suc-
w =ze*®,
cessive rotations, 61, 62, 63, 6:+(62+63)
= (6: +62) +43.
3. The rotation 6 =0 is the identity transforma-
tion.
4, Every rotation 6 has the inverse rotation
(—6).
All points P in the plane at a fixed distance p
from the point O could then be defined as equiv-
alent with respect to the group of rotations (7) in
the sense that any one point A of the points P can
be transformed into any other point B of the set
P by an appropriate rotation 9.
Thus, in this sense, all points on a circle with
radius p and center O are equivalent to each
other. But points on this circle are not equivalent
to points on a circle with center at O and radius r
where rp. However, all points on the second
circle are equivalent to each other in the sense
defined.
That this definition satisfies the four properties
for an equivalence relation follows since:
(A) Either two points in the plane fall on the
same circle with center at O, or they do
not. Thus property (I) is satisfied.
Two coincident points lie on the same circle
with center at O; hence property (II) is
satisfied.
When one point is equivalent to a second
point they fall on the same circle with
center at O; hence the second point is
equivalent to the first point. Thus prop-
erty (III) holds. .
(D) When a point A is equivalent to a point B,
they lie on a circle with center at O, and if
B is equivalent to C they lie on a circle
with center at O; hence A and C lie on the
same circle since B lies on both circles with
center at O. Thus property (IV) holds.
(B)
(C)
This example serves to illustrate the
resemblance between the definitions of
group and equivalence.
14. Isomorphic systems.—Another math-
ematical concept of considerable impor-
tance in its own right as well as in its appli-
cations is that known as isomorphic sys-
tems.
Consider two systems A and B each
consisting of a set of elements and a set of
’ Jan. 15, 1948
operations on these elements. Suppose that
each system is closed with respect to a given
system of operations in the system. The
two systems A and B are said to be 2s0-
morphic or abstractly identical with respect
to these operations if there exists a bi-
unique one-to-one correspondence between
the elements of A and B, such that any
formal combination of, or operation on,
the elements in A corresponds to the analo-
gous construction with the corresponding
elements in B.
In mathematics (such as in algebra)
two isomorphic systems are commonly
considered as equivalent; and the subject
matter of mathematics, in this sense, may
be considered as dealing with those pro-
perties of systems which are invariant
(remain unchanged) for isomorphic sys-
tems.
15. Applications to physical phenomena.
—In any specific situation the elements
a,b,c...ofasystem S are identified with
specific physical objects, numbers, quanti-
ties, entities, or the like, and the definitions
of equivalence used must be carefully given
in terms of these elements and the physical
systems to which they belong. Each defini-
tion of equivalence used constitutes a
separation of the set of elements a, b,c,...
and associated physical phenomena or
systems into classes. This separation into
classes is often of considerable physical
significance, each type of equivalence often
having associated with it an extensive
physical theory.
16. Hxamples from circuit theory.—As in
mathematical theories, so in physical
theories, many non-isomorphic types of
equality have been and can be defined,
each type of equality often having associ-
ated with it an extensive theory. Thus, in
the theory of equivalent linear electrical
circuits, two 2-pole networks may be equiv-
alent® in the sense that for all frequencies
they have identical driving-point admit-
tances (or more generally, for 2N-pole net-
_§ Burineton, Ricuarp S., Matrices in electric
circuit theory, Journ. Math. and Phys. 14 (4):
325-349. Dec. 1935; A matric theory development
of the Theory of Symmetric Components, Philos.
Mag. (ser. 7) 27: 605. May 1939; On circavariant
matrices and circa-equivalent networks, Trans.
Amer. Math. Soc. 48 (3): 377-390. Nov. 1940.
BURINGTON: THE CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENCE 7
works, that they have identical charac-
teristic coefficient admittance matrices),
yet they may not be equivalent in the sense
that they have the same number of inde-
pendent mesh circuits; or, are structurally
the same; or, are equally economical to
operate; or, are both readily physically
realizable; and that if A and B respectively,
are their network matrices, A and B may
or may not be equivalent in the sense of
matric congruence, .
Again in the theory of symmetric com-
ponents as used in electrical engineering,
the equivalence relationship used may
often involve that of matric similarity be-
tween the matrices used to represent certain
characteristics of the network in the various
reference systems used in the theory. In
this sort of equivalence the actual values
of the voltages, currents, and impedances
are left undisturbed, though the values of
their representations in the various refer-
ence systems may be greatly different. Here ~
the equivalence relation known as matric
similarity is distinctly different from the
equivalence relation known as matric con-
gruence. Yet, both of these types of equi-
valence happen to be examples of another
type of equivalence known as ordinary
matric equivalence.
17. Isomorphism as used 1n model stud-
ves. Principles of similitude—In the design
of structures, bridges, ships, dams, flood
control projects, and the like, the engineer,
naval architect, and others responsible for
the design must make accurate predictions
as to the characteristics, cost, and perform-
ance of the various proposed designs. In
such work the designers and planners can
ill afford to make errors. Such projects are
too expensive. Perhaps only one can ever
be constructed. The final product must be
right. It must do what it is designed to do,
reliably, safely, and economically.
Engineers and scientists, in such instan-
ces, frequently take recourse to the con-
struction and testing of models of the pro-
posed structure. The results of the tests of
the models are then used to predict the per-
formance and characteristics of the pro-
posed prototype. In order that a model test
be of real use in predicting the properties of
the prototype, great care must be exercised
8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
in its design. Furthermore, considerable
care is necessary in interpreting the meas-
ured and computed properties of the model
test in terms of the prototype.
Theoretically, in designing a model test
and in constructing the models for the
test, every physical parameter of impor-
tance in the prototype must be considered
and taken into account. It is not sufficient
merely to make the dimensions of the model
and prototype proportional. If a theory of
similitude is not available, then one must
be developed. Such a theory must serve as
the basis for designing and constructing the
model from its prototype dimensions. It
must serve also as the guiding principle in
interpreting the measurements made on the
model in terms of the corresponding meas-
urements as predicted for the prototype. If
this theory of similitude is a perfect one,
and the application of this theory is also
perfect, then there is a one-to-one bi-unique
correspondence between the various physi-
cal parameters of the prototype and the
corresponding ones of the model; and every
operation on or with the prototype has a
corresponding operation on the model. In
other words, any characteristic of the model
as predicted through the isomorphism thus
stated must be a true characteristic of the
prototype, and vice versa. (This is an ex-
ample of the equivalence property, if A E
B, then BE A.)
In practice it is impossible to apply per-
fectly such a theory and expect the results
predicted through the model test to be
completely true for the prototype. A meas-
ure of this perfection lies in a comparison of
the actual characteristics of the prototype
with those predicted by the model studies.
Consequently the aim in all such work is
the construction of as near perfect an equiv-
alent system of models as is humanly pos-
sible. In other words, these models must be
as nearly isomorphic with their correspond-
ing prototypes as possible.
An example where consideration is given
to many physical parameters of importance
may be found in hydrodynamics. In hydro-
dynamic studies, lengths L, a, b, c,...,
time 7’, velocity V, mass M, force F,
pressure increment p, mass density ,
specific weight yy, viscosity wu, surface
VOL. 38, No. 1
tension o, and elastic modulus e for the
object and fluid must be considered. (For
convenience, L, M, F may be taken as the
three fundamental dimensions. )
A number of theories of similitude have
been developed for use in aero- and hydro-
dynamics. In one such theory, widely used,
there is defined a certain set of dimension-
less numbers
a pV? V2/a
Va Va Ve
which must be kept unchanged if true
similarity (i.e., isomorphism) is to exist
between the flow about the prototype and
the flow about the model. In other words,
if true similarity is to exist, every dimen-
sionless parameter z,, referring to condi-
tions in the model, must have the same
numerical value as the corresponding
parameter for the prototype. This means,
for one thing, that the model and prototype
must be completely similar geometrically.
To put the problem in another way, the set
of dimensionless numbers 7m, ... for the
prototype must be identical with the cor-
responding set m,...for the model—if
true similarity between prototype and —
model exists, and if predictions made from
model studies are to be valid for the actual
prototype. A mathematician would say that
the parameters 7,..., must be absolute
invariants for the prototype and model
systems. Because the quantities m,...,
Tn,-..are invariant for these isomorphic
systems, the model and prototype systems
are said to be equivalent.
Thus, if 7:=a/b is to be invariant, where
a and 6 are any two linear dimensions of the
prototype, the corresponding linear di-
mensions a’ and 0’ of the model must be so
related that 2:=a’/b’. The reader can, for
himself, discover other requirements on the
model by merely holding each of the other
parameters ze,... fixed and interpreting
the quantities in these parameters first, in
terms of the prototype, and secondly, in
terms of the model.
From a practical standpoint it is usually
Jan. 15, 1948
_ impossible to realize fluids and values of the
_ physical parameters of these fluids to
satisfy all the requirements implied when
the absolute invariance of the set m, ... 1S
demanded. This means that it is impossible
to obtain a true model on any but the same
scale using any but the same fluid as proto-
type. Of course, in this case, the model and
the prototype would be equivalent. (‘This is
an example of the equivalence property
A EA.) In spite of the difficulty and the
knowledge that any practical model system
cannot be made perfectly isomorphic with
its prototype, much can be learned and
reasonably reliable predictions can be ob-
- tained from such model studies.
In the testing of ship models and partly
submerged objects, such as buoys and sea-
planes, it has been found possible to make
rather good predictions as to the behavior
of the prototype by designing the model
studies so as to keep the Froude number 75
invariant. This compromise places the
emphasis on the dominant physical para-
meters involved, namely, inertia and gra-
vity forces, since z; is their ratio. In such
work, 7, known as Newton’s number, can
also be kept invariant. As a rule it is not
possible to keep the remaining functions
12, 13, Ws,--. Invariant. This compromise
means that the model system will be equiva-
lent to the prototype system in the sense
that the Froude and Newton’s numbers are
identical, respectively, for both the proto-
type and the model; but it does not mean
that the prototype system and the model
system are completely isomorphic other-
wise.
When other physical parameters different
from mass and inertia are considered to be
of greater importance, then some other
dimensionless numbers become of prime
interest, and the functions 7;, 7;, correspond-
ing to the two most important physical
parameters are made absolutely invariant.
Thus, in aerodynamics, emphasis is often
placed on Reynold’s number, ze, rather
than the Froude number 7s, since skin fric-
tion (viscosity) is then of prime importance.
m, 1s the ratio of inertia and viscous forces.
Where inertia force and compressibility
predominate, emphasis is placed on the
Mach number, 7, which is the ratio of the
BURINGTON: THE CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENCE 9
velocity of flow to the velocity of sound in
the fluid at the given temperature.
18. The use of equivalence principles in
the design and testing of equipment.—Air-
craft, railway cars, and the like must be able
to withstand great stresses and strains and
much rough handling and must not be too
vulnerable to damage from a great variety
of causes. In designing such equipment a
great deal of attention must be given to
strength, safety, reliability, and costs, while
recognizing economical and _ utilitarian
values. Such considerations commonly in-
volve various types of testing procedures
designed to indicate the strength, reliabili-
ty, etc, of vital portions of the equipment,
as well as of the structure as a whole. Thus,
the wings of an airplane or the axles of a
truck can be tested in various ways for
strength, ability to withstand shock, etc;
the vulnerability of the fuselage or body to
fire can be studied; and so on. But the re-
sults of such studies are only a partial indi-
cation of the strength and vulnerability of
the airplane or car as a whole. Conse-
quently, when possible, tests of the equip-
ment as a whole are sometimes set up and the
results obtained compared with the results
of the tests of specific parts of the equip-
ment. Of course, the ultimate test lies in the
experience gained with the equipment un-
der actual service conditions for a long pe-
riod of time under a great variety of cir-
cumstances.
The quantities involved in criteria de-
veloped for use in testing may be quite
different from the quantities available from
over-all testing or from operational experi-
ence. An adequate theory for correlating
(a theory of equivalence) these measures
obtained in tests of specific parts and in
over-all testing and experience must be
formulated. Thus in attempting to measure,
say, the ability of a car to withstand colli-
sion, controlled tests might be made in the
laboratory, in which such parameters as
energy, velocity, deformation, stress distri-
bution, bending moments, momentum,
pressure, and the like are used. Yet such
parameters as these may not be available
in examining the damage to such a car in
collision; the only real information available
being that which can be observed and de-
10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
duced from the wreckage. The need for a
theory for correlation (equivalence) is evi-
dent in such a case.
To summarize in connection with such
test results there appears:
(1) The problem of the formulation of criteria
and methods for describing, defining, and
measuring such things as strength, safety,
vulnerability to damage, ...of the com-
ponent parts of the equipment, as well as of
the equipment as a whole.
The problem of formulating principles for
correlating these measures of strength,
safety, damage, .... These measures may
be observed in experiments—
(a) with specific parts of the equipment,
(b) with specific assemblies of the equip-
ment,
(c) with the equipment as a whole under
test conditions,
(d) with the equipment as used in actual
operations.
(2)
In order that an adequate basis for
reliably predicting the worth and safety of
a design be realized, each of these major
problems must be faced and an adequate
solution obtained when at all possible. The
construction of such a theory and mode of
prediction, if it is to be a good one, must
involve a careful use of the principles of
equivalence. The importance of this pro-
cedure is all the more important since ac-
tual operational experience with a new de-
sign of certain types of equipment may be,
costly (or even dangerous to human life)
and such experience cannot always be made
available before production.
Thus, in the field of design, testing, etc.,
there is a continuing need for the wise use
of the principles of equivalence.
19. Recent mathematical developments’.—
In recent years much progress has been
made by such mathematicians as Ore,
MacDuffee, Garrett Birkhoff, and others in
extending the analysis of the theory of
equivalence relations. ‘These extensions
have served to connect rather diverse math-
ematical fields and have gone deeply into
7 Wuitman, P. M., Lattices, equivalence rela-
tions and subgroups, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.
52 (6): 507-522. June 1946; Orz, OysTEIN,
Theory of equivalence relations, Duke Math.
Journ. 9 (3). Sept. 1942; BrrxkHorr, GARRETT,
On the structure of abstract algebras, Proc. Cam-
bridge Philos. Soc. 31: 433-454. 1935; Mac-
DuFFEE, C. C., loc. cit.
VOL. 38, NO. 1
various fields of abstract algebra, topology,
and related fields and apparently are lead-
ing to still a more general and abstract
theory of mathematical relations. These
investigations are of interest chiefly to
workers in certain branches of pure mathe-
matics. To what extent some of these ab-
stractions will be of immediate value to
workers in the applied fields remains to be
seen. But this much seems clear, that:
Consciousness of the concept of equivalence
as outlined herein is of real value in many
physical fields. It helps to clarify many
problems. It provides a means of attack. It
should be remarked, however, that the
involved details in the development of the
modern theory of equivalence relations
will in themselves be of little value in prac-
tical and scientific problems unless a pene-
trating inquiry into the economic, physical,
or other pertinent background of the prob-
lem at hand is made. This last point is of
great importance.
To illustrate what is meant, consider the
following well known mathematical results:
A partition P of the set S is a decomposition
of S into subsets Ci, - + -, Cn, > + - such that every
element in S belongs to one and only one set Cn.
The sets C, are called blocks of the partition P,
and P=P(C,) is written to indicate this.
|
|
|
Turorem. Any partition P(C,) defines an
equivalence relation E in the set S when one
puts AEB whenever A and B belong to the
same block Cn. Conversely, any equivalence
relation E defines a partition P(C,) where
the block C, consists of all elements equiva-
lent to any given element A.
This theorem tells us that there are many
possible equivalence relations definable for
a set S. Which particular equivalence rela-
tions are worth studying seriously will de-
pend on the set itself and what general
problems are under consideration. Thus, if
S is the set of all locomotives, many types
of equivalance relations can be defined, such
as equivalence in the sense of the same
cylinder output; or continuous output at the
rails; or equivalence in the sense that they
have, or do not have, brass trimming around
the edge of the headlight; or equivalence in
the sense that they can reach a maximum
speed of 100 miles per hour, or not; or
equivalence in the sense that the locomo-
|
|
|
|
|
JAN. 15, 1948 HERMANN: MISCELLANEOUS MIDDLE AMERICAN LONCHOCARPI 11
tives are named after some one, or are not;
etc. Now obviously, some of these types of
equivalence have some reason for existence,
while others are of course trivial or ridicu-
lous. To repeat the point: Involved details
in the theory of equivalence relations will
in themselves be of little value in practical
problems unless a penetrating inquiry into
the economic, physical, or other pertinent
background of the problem at hand is made.
20. Summary.—The present paper dis-
cusses some of the meanings that may be
attached to the phrase ‘“‘A is equivalent to
B.” A glimpse of the mathematical prop-
erties that must be possessed by an
equivalence relation has been shown. Iso-
lated examples of equivalences in geom-
etry, set theory, number theory, algebra,
electrical networks, hydrodynamics, and
engineering have been cited. Some atten-
tion has been given to the theories of
modeling and similitude, which are so im-
portant in hydro- and aerodynamics,
theories in which a form of equivalence
known as isomorphism plays a leading role.
The use of either perfect or approximate
isomorphic systems (or more general equiv-
alent systems) appears as a fundamental
process in almost all studies of physical
phenomena. The method consists broadly
of:
(1) The extraction from the physical phe-
nomena S of a nearly isomorphic (equiv-
alent) physical model P.
(2) Reduction of the physical model P to
an isomorphic (equivalent) mathematical
model M amenable to treatment.
(3) A solution of this mathematical system M.
(4) The interpretation of the solution found in
(3) in terms of the mathematical model M.
(5) The interpretation of the solution found in
(4) in the physical model P.
Finally, the interpretation of the result (5)
in the original physical settings.
(6
=Z
Although at present it is not clear how
much value the abstract extensions of the
theory of equivalence relations will prove
to be for use in the applied fields, it does
appear that the theory will be beneficial in
offering a background for the broad ap-
proaches to practical problems.
BOTAN Y.—Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, II: Miscellaneous Middle
American Lonchocarpi.'
Agriculture.
The most extensive and generally useful
of the comparatively recent partial treat-
ments of the genus Lonchocarpus is Henri
Pittier’s The Middle American species of
Lonchocarpus (Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 20:
37-93. 1917). This monographic account
embraces the 40 species known from Mexico
and Central America 30 years ago, to which
are appended a list of six excluded or doubt-
ful species and detailed descriptions of nine
related South American and West Indian
Lonchocarpi. One of the first tasks of a
current review of the genus as.a whole is,
therefore, to attempt to allocate within the
framework of the classification proposed by
the author of that work the miscellaneous
_ species subsequently described by various
other authors from the same area. In some
cases the systematic position of a recently
proposed species has been correctly indi-
cated by its author and characteristics dis-
1 Received July 8, 1947.
FREDERICK J. HmeRMANN, U. 8. Department of
tinguishing it from its nearest allies may have
been pointed out; in others lack of either
flowering or fruiting material may have
prevented this; in still others a misinterpre-
tation, due either to faulty earlier descrip-
tions or to the author’s lack of comprehen-
sive familiarity with the group, may vitiate
the supposed relationship and hence sec-
tional position or taxonomic status; and,
finally, in some instances no attempt what-
ever has been made to indicate the rela-
tionship of the new species.
No discussion seems to be required here
of such of these species as have been satis-
factorily disposed of by other authors, such
as Lonchocarpus caribaeus Urban (referred
to the synonymy of L. benthamianus Pit-
tier by Harms in Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov.
17: 323. 1924), L. capensis M. E. Jones
(shown to be actually Tamarindus indica
L. by Morton in Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 29:
103. 1945), L. modestus Standl. & Steyerm.
(transferred to Lennea by its authors in
12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Fieldiana, Botany, 24 (5): 275. 1946), and
L. trifoliolatus Stand]. (equated with L.
phaseolifolius Benth. by Standley and
Steyermark in Fieldiana, Botany, 24 (5):
282. 1946). Six additional names (L. argy-
rotrichus Harms, L. calderona Standl., L.
lindsayi Standl., L. obovatus Benth., L.
salvinii Harms, and L. schiedeanus (Sch-
lecht.) Harms) have been recently trans-
ferred to Willardia by the writer (Journ.
Washington Acad. Sci. 37: 427. 1947),
to which genus Standley (Contr. U. S.
Nat. Herb. 23: 483. 1922) had already
referred L. eriophyllus Benth.
It seems desirable to present the conclu-
sions of the writer upon the following ad-
ditional eight species, particularly since
certain original misinterpretations are
being perpetuated in recent important
floristic works such as the Flora of Guate-
mala.
Lonchocarpus amarus Standl., Carnegie
Inst. Washington Publ. 461: 63. 1935=Va-
TAIREA LUNDELLII (Standl.) Killip ex Record
(Tipuana lundellai Standl. l.c. 65).
Since the original material of Tipuana lun-
dellti lacked flowers and that of Lonchocarpus
amarus is without fruit, the failure to realize
the identity of the two is readily understand-
able. The alternate leaflets, diadelphous sta-
mens, wings of the corolla free from the keel,
and the strikingly funnelform calyx of Loncho-
carpus amarus definitely exclude it from that
genus. Flowering specimens of Vatairea lun-
dellit (collected since the publication of that
species), kindly lent to the writer for study by
the Chicago Natural History Museum, are
identical with the type of L. amarus. Vatairea
lundellit appears to be most nearly related to
the Amazonian V. fusca Ducke, from which it
is distinguishable by the appressed rather
than spreading pubescence of the calyx, pedi-
cels, and peduncles, by its broader wing petals
(4.5 mm), by having the stamens definitely
shorter than the pistil, and by the tendency of
the calyx to split in the late-bud stage, be-
tween the vexillar teeth.
Lonchocarpus dumetorum Brandegee, Univ.
California Publ. Bot. 10: 181. 1922=L. paRI-
ENsIS Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 69.
1917.
The type specimen of L. dumetorum (Purpus
von. 38, No. 1
8591; this and other Brandegee types reviewed
through the courtesy of the University of
California Herbarium) is a good match with
that of L. dariensis (Pittier 5615, U.S. National
Herbarium). It has, in addition to flowers and
leaves, nearly mature legumes, which are very
closely similar to those of L. megalanthus
Pittier, this similarity bearing out Dr. Pittier’s
tentative alignment of it, in the absence of
fruit, with the latter species. Both L. dariensis
and L. megalanthus, however, as well as the
closely related L. mexicanus Pittier, have leaflets
conspicuously punctate, and so they could not
be keyed out to his section Epunctati wherein
he placed them. It seems probable that this is
what led Brandegee to believe that he had an
undescribed species in his L. dumetorum, and
the same discrepancy may have been partly
responsible for his proposal of L. purpusit.
Lonchocarpus izabalanus Blake, Contr. U.
S. Nat. Herb. 24: 7. 1922=L. LUTEOMACULA-
Tus Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 64.
1917.
Lonchocarpus luteomaculatus is a highly vari-
able species, almost as polymorphic in fact as
its near ally L. latifolius (Willd.) HBK. The
type of L. izabalanus is very similar to many
recent collections of L. luteomaculatus. It was
differentiated, in the original description, prin-
cipally by the possession of a maroon banner
with a green spot at the base instead of a
purple banner with a basal yellow spot, but it
seems likely that the flower color ascribed to
L. luteemaculatus by its author was that of the
dried plant and that in the fresh state it may
be actually closer to the maroon-green pattern.
At any rate, there now seems to be no dis-
tinguishable difference between the corolla
colors of the two type specimens (Blake 7841
and Pittier 4170, U.S. Nat. Herb.).
Lonchocarpus kerberi Harms, Fedde Rep.
Spec. Nov. 17: 322. 1921=L. PENINSULARIS
(Donn. Smith) Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat.
Herb. 20: 56. 1917.
A fragment of the type of L. kerberi (Kerber
35) is fortunately preserved in the herbarium
of the Chicago Natural History Museum. This
is sufficiently ample to show that it is not at all
related to L. benthamianus Pittier, L. proteran-
thus Pittier, and L. punctatus HBK., as sup-
posed by Harms, and that it differs from the
type of L. peninsularis (Tonduz s.n. (Inst.
JAN. 15, 1948 HERMANN: MISCELLANEOUS MIDDLE AMERICAN LONCHOCARPI 13
Fis. Geogr. Costa Rica 13961), U.S. Nat. Herb.)
only in the corolla being slightly less pubescent.
It is not surprising that L. kerberz was regarded
as a new species by its author and that its
affinities were misinterpreted. Since it has
leaflets that are not impressed-nerved and
that are unmistakably punctate, its relation-
ship with L. peninsularis would scarcely be
suspected in view of the fact that the latter is
placed by Pittier in his series Impressinervi
and that his description includes no reference
to the conspicuously punctate character of the
leaflets mentioned by Donnell Smith in his
original description of the species as Derris
peninsularis (Bot. Gaz. 44: 111. 1907). Ac-
tually, Lonchocarpus peninsularis and the
likewise misplaced L. nicoyensis (Donn. Smith)
Pittier and L. costaricensis (Donn. Smith)
Pittier belong to the series Planinervi. Both L.
peninsularis and L. nicoyensis fall into the
section Punctati, the former being apparently
most closely related to L. longistylis Pittier. It
is doubtless due to the anomalous position in
Pittier’s classification of the frequently col-
lected L. peninsularis that still another syn-
onym of this species was created—L. purpusti
Brandegee.
Lonchocarpus monospermus Standl., Field
Mus. Publ. Bot. 4: 311. 1929=L. LuTEoMaAcu-
LATuS Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 64.
1917.
The distinguishing feature (‘‘small one-
seeded pods’’) attributed to L. monospermus
is quite prevalent in L. luteomaculatus, the
pods of the type specimen of L. luteomaculatus
(Pitter 4170, U. S. Nat. Herb.) being pre-
dominently l-seeded and 2.5 cm long. The
type of L. monospermus (Standley 538716,
Chicago Nat. Hist. Mus.) appears to differ in
no tangible respect from this.
Lonchocarpus purpusii Brandegee, Univ.
California Publ. Bot. 6: 500. 1919=L. PpENtN-
SULARIS (Donn. Smith) Pittier, Contr. U. S.
Nat. Herb. 20: 56. 1917.
The type specimen of L. purpusit (Purpus
7849, Univ. Calif.) is a very close match with
that of Derris peninsularis in the U. S. Na-
tional Herbarium. For discussion see L. dume-
torum and L. kerberi above.
Lonchocarpus seleri Harms, Fedde Rep.
Spec. Nov. 17: 324. 1921=L. HoNDURENSIS
Benth., Journ. Linn. Soc. 4: Suppl. 91. 1860.
L. seleri was set off from L. hondurensis by
_ Harms ‘durch fast sitzende Bliten auf lan-
gerem gemeinsamen Stiele und wohl auch
gréssere Vorblatten.”’ Examination of a large
series of L. hondurensis, however, shows the
relative length of peduncle and pedicel to be
very unstable; for example, Mell 530 (U. S.)
is L. selert in its peduncles but not in its pedi-
cels whereas Wilson 706 (U. 8.) is L. seleri in
its pedicels but not in its peduncles. No dif-
ference was found between the bracts in the
type fragment of L. selert in the Chicago
Natural History Museum (Seler 5052) and
those of L. hondurensis, which are exceedingly
variable.
Lonchocarpus xuul Lundell, Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 69: 391. 1942.
The reference of this species to the synon-
ymy of L. guatemalensis Benth. in the recently
‘published Flora of Guatemala (Fieldiana,
Botany, 24(5): 278-279. 1946) seems to be
clearly erroneous. The long stipes (averaging
1 em) of the short, thick pods (generally 2.5—4
em long) of ZL. ruul and its much smaller
flowers set it off at a glance from L. guatema-
lensis with its sessile or subsessile, long, flat
legumes (averaging 6-20 cm long). The author
of L. xuul correctly indicated its close rela-
tionship with L. constrictus Pittier among the
Middle American species. Its nearest ally in the
genus as a whole is the Venezuelan L. miran-
dinus Pittier, with which it shows a striking
similarity in its fruit but from which it differs
in its few (5 to 9 rather than averaging 15),
blunt leaflets and in its mainly green flowers.
The disposition of the following 17 bino-
mials, the remainder of those proposed from
Middle America since 1917, must be postponed
either because no specimens have yet been
procurable for study or because the material
so far available has not been sufficient for more
than tentative conclusions:
L. apricus Lundell, Lloydia 2: 90. 1939. Chiapas,
Mexico.
L. belizensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 55. British Hon-
duras.
L. castillot Standl., Tropical Woods 32: 15. 1932.
Guatemala; British Honduras.
L. chiapensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 152. 1946.
Chiapas, Mexico.
L. cruentus Lundell, Wrightia 1: 55. 1945. To-
basco, Mexico.
L. fuscopurpureus Brandegee, Univ. California
Publ. Bot. 10: 405. 1924. Veracruz, Mexico.
14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
L. galleotianus Harms, Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov. 17:
322. 1921. Oaxaca, Mexico.
L. gillyi Lundell, Wrightia 1: 56. 1945. Chiapas,
Mexico.
L. hidalgensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 153. 1946.
Hidalgo, Mexico.
L. hintoni Sandwith, Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1936:
4. 1936. Mexico and Guerrero, Mexico.
L. malacotrichus Harms, Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov.
17: 323. 1921. Mexico.
L. monofoliaris Schery, Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard.
30: 89. 1943. Panama.
.
VOL. 38, No. 1
L. nicaraguensis Lundell, Wrightia 1: 154. 1946
Nicaragua.
L. phlebophyllus Standl. & Steyerm., Field Mus.
Publ. Bot. 23 (2): 56. 1944. Guatemala.
L. stenodon Harms, Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov. 17:
324. 1921. Oaxaca, Mexico.
L. whitet Lundell, Wrightia 1: 154. 1946. Nica-
ragua.
L. yoroensis Standl., Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 9 (4):
296. 1940. Honduras.
ZOOLOGY.—On the crayfishes of the Limosus section of the genus Orconectes
(Decapoda: Astacidae).}
University of Virginia.
In the course of working over a series of
crayfishes from the Nashville, Tenn., area
collected for me by Dr. C. 8. Shoup, of
Vanderbilt University, and Dr. Mike
Wright, of Tusculum College, it was neces-
sary to examine the type specimens of
several of the species of the Limosus section.
In making this study I arrived at certain
conclusions, which are discussed below,
concerning the affinities of the members of
this section which are not in accord with the
opinions of others. In addition to the de-
scription of a new species I am including a
key to the species of the Limosus section.
The new species herein described was
first reported by Fleming (1939) under the
name Cambarus propinquus sanbornt Faxon.
I have compared my specimens with Flem-
ing’s description and figures which leave
much to be desired. In addition, I have
examined several crayfish he sent to the
United States National Museum? from the
only locality he cited for his C. propinquus
sanbornt, and I am convinced that his
specimens were members of the species
I am.describing below. The only locality
that Fleming recorded is ‘‘Mill creek, lo-
cated about 4 miles south of Nashville
where this creek crosses the Murfreesboro
Road [U. 8. Hy. 41], studied on August 18,
1935”’ (Fleming, 1939, 13: 298).®
1Received July 17, 1947.
2 These are not the specimens mentioned by
Fleming in his report of the higher Crustacea in
the Nashville region, for he stated that Mill
Creek was “studied on August 18, 1935,” and
these were collected on August 15, 1936.
3 This peculiar citation is necessary because
Horton H. Hoss, Jr., Miller School of Biology,
(Communicated by FENNER A. CHACE, JR.)
Genus Orconectes Cope 1872
Orconectes shoupl, n. sp.‘
Cambarus propinkuus Fleming, 1939, 14: 305
(in part).
Cambarus propinquus sanborni Fleming (not
Faxon), 19389, 14: 305, 306 (in part), 319, 320,
and pl. 14.
Diagnosis.—Rostrum with lateral spines,
margins thickened and concave laterad; upper
surface with or without a median carina. Fin-
gers of chela with usual longitudinal ridges much
reduced; whole hand resembling that of O.
rusticus placidus (Hagen, 1870: 65). Epistome
with a median carina (see Fig. 4). Areola ap-
proximately 9 to 10 times longer than broad,
with two or three punctations in narrowest
part—length 34-36 percent of entire length of
carapace; in male, hooks on ischiopodites of
third pereiopods only. Terminal elements of
first pleopod of first-form male short, reaching
almost to coxopodite of second pereiopod. Two
terminal elements separated for only a short
distance near tip: mesial process recurved
caudomesiad and shorter than central pro-
jection. Annulus ventralis immovable. (See
Fig. 5 for surface contour.)
Holotypic male, form I.—Body subovate,
Fleming’s paper was divided, and appeared in
two volumes of the Proceedings of the Tennessee
Academy of Sciences; an overlapping in page
references causes a further complication. See
“Literature Cited.”
4Dr. C. S. Shoup has made a definite and
worth-while contribution toward a knowledge of
the fauna of the State of Tennessee. In token of
the interest he has shown in my work on the cray-
fishes and the many specimens he has added to
iy collection, I name this new species in his
onor.
JAN. 15, 1948 HOBBS: CRAYFISHES OF GENUS ORCONECTES (LIMOSUS SECTION) 15
distinctly depressed. Abdomen narrower than
thorax. Width of carapace greater than depth
in region of caudodorsal margin of cervical
groove (15.2-9.4 mm).
Areola moderately narrow (9.6 times longer
than broad), with two or three punctations
in narrowest part; cephalic section of carapace
about 1.8 times as long as areola (length of
areola about 35.6 percent of entire length of
carapace).
Rostrum with thickened margins concave
laterad. Upper surface concave, but bearing a
weak median carina. Base of acumen set off by
corneous knoblike tubercles directed cephalo-
dorsad. Acumen long and terminating cephalad
in a corneous knob similarly disposed as the
tubercles at its base. Subrostral ridges promi-
nent and visible in dorsal aspect to base of
acumen. Raised lateral margins of rostrum
flanked laterally and mesially by rows of
prominent setiferous punctations.
Postorbital ridges prominent, grooved dorsad
and terminating cephalad in heavy acute tu-
bercles. Suborbital angle absent. Branchio-
stegal spine obtuse, very much reduced. Small
lateral spine present on each side of carapace.
Surface of carapace granulate laterally and
bearing prominent punctations dorsally; small
polished area in gastric region.
Cephalic section of telson with two spines
in each caudolateral corner.
Epistome bell-shaped in profile with a me-
dian longitudinal ridge; no cephalomedian pro-
jection.
Antennules of the usual form, with a small
spine present on ventral surface of basal seg-
ment.
Antennae broken in holotype but extending
caudad to cephalic margin of telson in other
specimens. Antennal scale of moderate width
with subparallel mesial and lateral margins;
outer portion broad and swollen and terminat-
ing distad in a heavy spine; lamellar portion
broad (see Fig. 9).
Chela somewhat depressed; palm inflated;
prominent setiferous punctations present over
most of chela. Inner margin of palm with three
rows of squamous ciliated tubercles. Fingers
widely gaping at base. Upper surface of im-
movable finger with a narrow well-defined
ridge along mesial margin; lateral and lower
margins with prominent punctations; upper
opposable margin with a row of 18 rounded
corneous tubercles; an additional prominent
tubercle present below this row at base of distal
fifth of finger; minute denticles occurring in a
single row on penultimate fifth of mesial sur- -
face of immovable finger; mesial distal fifth
with a broader zone of similar denticles; lower
proximomesial surface bearded. Opposable
margin of dactyl with 23 rounded corneous
tubercles; distal half of mesial margin bearing
minute denticles interspersed between the
rounded tubercles. Otherwise dactyl similar to
immovable finger.
Carpus of first pereiopod longer than broad,
with a prominent longitudinal furrow on
upper surface; all surfaces with scattered punc-
tations. Mesial surface with a heavy spinous
tubercle; distal upper mesial margin with a
prominent rounded tubercle; lower distal mar-
gin with two heavy tubercles.
Merus, viewed laterally, with a single promi-
nent tubercle on upper distal surface (a some-
what less prominent one lying mesiad of it but
not evident in lateral aspect, nor is it present
on sinistral merus). Lateral and mesial surfaces
sparsely punctate. Lower surface with a lateral
row of five small tubercles and a mesial row of
eight (only the distal one in each row at all
prominent).
Hooks on ischiopodites of third pereiopods
only; hooks strong with proximal surfaces sub-
plane and bearing setae.
First pleopod almost reaching coxopodite of
second pereiopod when abdomen is flexed. Tip
terminating in two distinct parts, which are
separated for only a short distance. Central
projection corneous, almost straight, and some-
what bladelike, with tip slightly recurved.
Mesial process extending distad for the proxi-
mal half of its length, then bending somewhat
sharply caudomesiad.
Morphotypic male, form II.—The only sec-
ond-form male collected from the type locality
is immature. Most of the tubercles mentioned
in the description of the first-form male are
present in this specimen as acute spines. The
lower surface of the carpus and the cephalo-
mesial surface of the merus of the cheliped with
tufts of long plumose setae. Rostrum without
median carina. Hook on ischiopodite of third
pereiopod very much reduced. See Figs. 16 and
19 for structure of first pleopod of a mature
second-form male from Mill Creek.
Allotypic female—Differs from the holo-
16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 1
14
Figs. 1-14.—1, Dorsal view of carapace of Orconectes shoupt, n. sp.; 2, lateral view of same; 3, upper
surface of chela of first-form male, O. shoupi; 4, epistome of O. shoupi; 5, annulus ventralis of O. shoupi;
6, mesial view of first pleopod of first-form male of O. pellucidus australis (Rhoades), from McFarlen
Cave, SWi NWisec. 22, T. 3, R.3 E., near Garth, Jackson County, Ala.;7, mesial view of first pleopod
of first-form male of O. pellucidus pelluicdus (Tellkampf), from Mammoth Cave, Roaring River, Ed-
monson County, Ky.; 8, caudal view of first pleopods of first-form male, O. pellucidus packardi Rhoades
(holotype), from Cumberland Crystal Cave at Alpine, Pulaski County, Ky.; 9, antennal scale of O.
shoupz; 10, mesial view of first pleopod of first-form male, of O. ¢znermzs Cope, from Seibert’s Well Cave
near Wyandotte Cave, Crawford County, Ind.; 11, mesial view of first pleopod of first-form male of
O. pelluctdus packardi Rhoades (holotype) (see explanation of Fig. 8); 12, caudal view of first pleopods ~
of first-form male of O. pellucidus pellucidus (Tellkampf) (see explanation of Fig. 7); 13, caudal view
of first pleopods of first-form male of O. pelluctdus australis (Rhoades) (see explanation of Fig. 6);
14, caudal view of first pleopods of first-form male of O. inermis Cope (see explanation of Fig. 10).
JAN. 15, 1948 HOBBS: CRAYFISHES OF GENUS ORCONECTES (LIMOSUS SECTION) 17
pi 17
i ay
21
|
2
Fies, 15-28 (all figures except 15, 16, and 19 lateral views of the first pleopods of first-form males) .—
28
15, Mesial view of first pleopod of first-form male of Orconectes shoupi, n. sp.; 16, same, second-form
male: 17, O. harrisont (Faxon), from stream at Irondale, Washington County, Mo.; 18, O. sloant
(Bundy), from Little Creek, Jefferson Township, Preble County, Ohio; 19, lateral view of first pleopod
of second-form male of 0. shoupi; 20, O. shoupi; 21, O. rafinesquei Rhoades (holotype), from Rough
River, at Falls-of-Rough, Grayson- Breckinridge Counties, Ky.; 22, O. lumosus (Rafinesque), from Le-
man Place, Lancaster County, Pa.; 23, O. tricuspis Rhoades (holotype), from Pete Light’s arene,
3 miles east of Canton, Trigg County, Ky.; 24, O. indianensis (Hay), no locality given, U.S.N.M. n
44448; 25, O. propinquus propinquus (Girard), from Rocky Creek, Muncie County, III.; 26, O. di fiicilis
(Faxon), from stream 1 mile south of Wilburton, Latimer County, Okla.; 27, O. kentuckiensis Rhoades
(holotype), from Piney Creek, 3 miles west of Shady Grove, Crittenden County, Ky.; 28, O. sloana
(Bundy), Indiana (probably from near New Albany), U.S.N.M. no. 58058.
a 23
18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
typic male in that the tubercles are for the
most part more spiniform; epistome with a
small cephalomedian spine; upper distal surface
of merus of cheliped with two prominent
tubercles evident in lateral aspect; extreme
distal margin of merus emarginate; lower sur-
face of merus and mesial surface of carpus with
tufts of plumose setae. Annulus ventralis sub-
spindle-shaped, with the greatest length in the
transverse axis; cephalic margin evenly rounded
and firmly fused with sternum; sinus originates
near cephalomedian margin, extends caudad
for a short distance, and turns gently caudodex-
trad, then abruptly sinistrad to cross the me-
dian line; here it turns caudad and slightly dex-
trad to the median line and then caudad to the
mideaudal margin of the annulus (see Fig. 5).
Measurements.—Ho.LotyPic MALE: Cara-
pace, height 9.4, width 15.2, length 26.9 mm;
areola, width 1.0, length 9.6 mm; rostrum,
width 3.8, length 6.4 mm; abdomen, length
27.7 mm; right chela, length of inner margin of
palm 7.5, width of palm 11.4, length of outer
margin of hand 28.7, length of dactyl 19.3 mm.
ALLOTYPIC FEMALE: Carapace, height 8.0,
width 11.6, length 22.6 mm; areola, width
0.70, length 7.8 mm; rostrum, width 3.2,
length 5.9 mm; abdomen, length approx. 24
mm; right chela, length of inner margin of
palm 5.2, width of palm 7.3, length of outer
margin of hand 17.2, length of dactyl 11.3 mm.
Type locality—Mill Creek, tributary of
Cumberland River, east of Oglesby near An-
tioch Pike, 10 miles south of Nashville, David-
son County, Tenn. Dr. Shoup has kindly fur-
nished the following information: This creek is
a hard-water stream flowing over sand and
rubble and in its upper reaches over limestone
ledges. The banks are silty and muddy, and
shade is provided by reeds and trees along its
banks. Much of its course is through pasture
and cultivated lands. In riffle areas the water
has a slightly greenish cast on cloudy days.
(M. O. alkalinity—154.0 p.p.m. on January
24, 1947.)
Disposition of types——The holotypic male,
the allotypic female, and the morphotypic
male, form IJ, are deposited in the United
States National Museum (no. 84072), and in
addition five second-form males and one fe-
male, collected by R. 8. Fleming (U.S.N.M.
no. 77908) are designated as paratypes. Of the
remaining paratypes, one male, form I, and one
VOL. 38, NO. 1
female are deposited in the University of
Michigan Museum of Zoology; one male, form
I, and one female in the Museum of Compara-
tive Zoology; and 11 males, form I, one male,
form II, two females, five immature males, and
one immature female are in my personal col-
lection at the University of Virginia.
Specimens examined.—TENNESSEE, David-
son County: Seven Mile Creek, 5 miles south-
east of Nashville, November 11, 1944, two
males, form I, one male, form II, and two
females—C. 8. Shoup, collector; Mill Creek,
10 miles south of Nashville, November 11,
1944, eight males, form I, one male, form II,
and three females—C. §. Shoup, collector;
Mill Creek at junction with U. 8S. Highway 41,
about 8 or 4 miles south of Nashville, October
11, 1939, two males, form I—W. K. Smith,
collector; same locality, August 15, 1936, five
males, form II, and one female—R. S. Fleming,
collector; Mill Creek at Antioch Pike, July
19, 1945, two males, form I, one male, form
II (shed test), and four immature males—
Mike Wright, collector.
Fleming (1939, 14: 319) states: ‘‘All of these
species (including C. propinquus sanborni
Faxon) were present throughout the region
studied ...”’; however, he cites only one lo-
cality in which this species was taken. I
strongly doubt that his statement is correct,
for Drs. Shoup and Wright have collected in a
large number of localities in the Nashville
region and have taken O. shoupi (=Fleming’s
C. propinguus sanbornt Faxon) from only the
localities cited above.
Variation—The rostrum may or may not
bear a median carina. The bearded condition
of the cheliped which is pointed out in the
description of the morphotypic male, form II,
is best developed in young specimens and may
be reduced or obsolete in older ones. As in most
species the spiniform condition is accentuated
in the younger specimens, and in the older
ones very much reduced; further, in some of the
females mirrored images of.the annulus ven-
tralis as described for the allotype occur.
Relationships.—Orconectes shoupi is a mem-
ber of the Limosus section; it possesses short
gonopods, the tips of which are separated for
only a short distance. Its closest affinities are
with O. sloanit (Bundy) (1876:24), O. tricus-
pis Rhoades (1944:117), and O. rafinesquer
Rhoades (1944:116). O. showpi may readily be
JAN. 15, 1948 HOBBS: CRAYFISHES OF GENUS ORCONECTES (LIMOSUS SECTION) 19
distinguished from any other species of the
Limosus section by the rostrum with thickened
ridges and the long-fingered chelae—both of
which resemble those of O. rusticus placidus.
(see further remarks below.)
Limosus SECTION
Ortmann (1931:64) defined the section of
Orconectes limosus as follows: ‘‘Gonopods of
male, short, rather thick up to near the tips,
reaching to the coxopodites of the third peraeo-
pod. Tips separated for a short distance only,
each tapering to a point. Males with hooks on
third, or on third and fourth peraeopods.” In
this section he included O. harrisoni, O. sloant,
- O. indianensis, O. limosus, O. pellucidus pel-
lucidus pellucidus, and O. pellucidus testit.
Since 1931 Rhoades has described several
additional species and subspecies belonging to
the Limosus section, and in his Crayfishes of
Kentucky (1944:117) recognized two groups
of the section, and listed under them the spe-
cies indicated below:
Limosus group—‘‘characterized by strongly di-
verging tips of the gonopods.” Species: O. limosus
(Rafinesque), O. sloani (Bundy), and O. indian-
ensis (Hay).
Rafinesquei group—‘‘the tips of the first pleo-
pod are both recurved in the same direction.”’
Species: O. rafinesquet Rhoades, O. tricuspis
Rhoades, O. pellucidus pellucidus (Tellkampf),
O. pellucidus testia (Hay), O. pellucitdus australis
(Rhoades), O. pellucidus packardt Rhoades, O.
kentuckiensis Rhoades, and O. harrisonz (Faxon)
It is questionable that the above subdivision
of the section into the Limosus and Rafinesquet
groups is based on true affinities: e.g., if the
pleopod of O. kentuckiensis is compared with
that of O. sloani and O. tricuspis, certainly it is
more like that of the former. This relationship
is seen not only in the first pleopod but also in
the annuli ventralis of the two. It also seems
to me that O. harrisoni is more nearly related
to O. sloani than it is to O. tricuspis or O.
rafinesquet. Except for the fact that the ter-
minal elements of the first pleopods of the
several subspecies of O. pellucidus are “‘re-
curved in the same direction” (and I might
indicate that among the specimens I have
examined of pellucidus pellucidus the terminal
elements are straight), I can see no indication
of closer affinities of these forms with the mem-
bers of the Rafinesquei group than with those
_ of the Limosus group—in fact, if any division
‘andianensis.
of the Limosus section is made then it would
seem that O. inermis and the various sub-
species of O. pellucidus would constitute a
natural group that should receive a status
equivalent to that of the other subdivisions.
The problem of the status of O. inermis re-
mains unsolved. Though I have seen relatively
few specimens or the several subspecies of O.
pellucidus I have examined several belonging
to all of them, and none are like O. inermis.
Perhaps it will be shown to be a subspecies of
O. pellucidus; however, until future work will
indicate intergradation between the two, it
seems advisable to retain its specific status.
As might be expected, with the discovery of
additional species the Limosus section has
become decidedly less clear cut, and certain
species exhibit characters transitional between
the more typical members of the Limosus
section and members of other sections of the
genus. Even in Ortmann’s diagnosis of the
Limosus section quoted above the best charac-
ter is stated on a relative basis, and a worker
not already familiar with an over-all picture of
the genus would have difficulty in deciding
whether a given specimen belonged to the
Limosus or Propinquus sections (Ortmann,
1931: 64, 65). The difficulty at the time that
Ortmann diagnosed the section was not so
great as it has been since the somewhat
“atypical” O. tricuspis, O. rafinesquei, and O.
shoupt have been added to the list of described
species belonging to the section. In these spe-
cies the terminal elements of the first pleopod
are almost as slender and long as are those of
some of the members of the Propinquus section
(see Figs. 21, 23, 25). These obvious resem-
blances as well as the similarities of the annuli
ventralis and other anatomical features be-
tween O. propinquus propinquus (Girard,
1852: 88) and O. tricuspis make the distinction
between the two sections seem somewhat
unnatural—i.e., there seem to me to be about
as many resemblances between O. tricuspis and
the subspecies of O. propinquus as between
O. tricuspis and O. sloani, O. limosus, and O.
Furthermore, considering the
pleopods alone, O. kentuckiensis is transitional
between O. limosus and O. sloant on one side
and O. difficilis (Faxon, 1898: 656) on the
other—the latter at present being relegated to
the Virilis section (Ortmann, 1931: 90).
Rhoades (1944: 123) states in reference to the
20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
affinities of O. kentuckiensis that it “represents
a more advanced stage in the series of the
‘Group rafinesquei’. The tips are stouter and
more differentiated and the annulus is more
depressed as in sloani and other members of the
‘Group limosus’. In this character it resembles
closely O. immunis immunits. Furthermore, it
is not difficult to see a possible affinity to the
‘Section of C. virilis’ [=O. virilis] even in the
gonopods of the male.”
Whether these similarities are results of
convergence or whether they indicate actual
close relationships can hardly be determined
until a more exhaustive study of the group
(which will necessarily mean extensive collect-
ing) is made. On the basis of the evidence at
hand I find it difficult to consider these re-
semblances arising independently in the three
sections.
The taxonomists working with the cray-
fishes of the Cambarinae have for a long time
found it convenient to recognize “‘sections,”’
“sroups,”’ and ‘‘subgroups,”’ and even though
there are certain species that on the bases of the
diagnostic characters appear to be intermedi-
ate between two sections or groups, at least a
temporary retention of their usage seems de-
sirable. Whereas the limits of variation in the
three sections of the subgenus Orconectes are
not decidedly marked, and almost impossible
to define in words, recourse to determined
specimens or figures should alleviate difficulty
in determining to which section or group any
specimen in question belongs. For this reason
I am including a sketch of the pleopods of
all the species and subspecies (except O. pel-
lucidus testit, of which I do not havea first form
male) belonging to the Limosus section, and in
addition, for comparative purposes, the pleo-
pods of O. propinquus propinquus and O.
difficilis.
KEY TO THE SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF THE
LIMOSUS SECTION OF ORCONECTES
(BASED ON THE First-ForM MALE)
1. Body pigmented, eyes well developed...... 2
Body not pigmented, eyes reduced......... 9
2. Terminal elements of first pleopod subequal
in length and distinctly divergent (central
projection directed cephalodistad and me-
sial process caudodistad)............... 3
Terminal elements of first pleopod subequal
or not subequal in length, but central pro-
jection never bent cephalodistad—either
straight, directed caudad, or caudodistad. .4
VOL. 38, No. 1
3. Lateral surface of carapace with only one
BR oss ahi ech 5 ae, O. tndianensis (Hay)
Lateral surface of carapace with more than
one spine...... O. limosus (Rafinesque)
4. Central projection bent caudad at an angle
greater than 45°....O. harrisoni (Faxon)
Central projection directed distad or bent
caudad at an angle less than 45°.......... 5
5. Terminal elements of first pleopod subequal
in length or mesial process slightly longer
than central projection... ..5.../.....6.5
bs tty i Beek Sh RS O. tricuspis Rhoades
Mesial process never extending quite so far
distad as central projection.......:.... 6
6. Central projection recurved (caudodistad)
throughout its length; no median carina
on rostrum....O. kentuckiensis Rhoades
Central projection not recurved caudodistad
throughout its length; median carina on
rostrum present or absebtzcu. «a. .e eee 7
7. Margins of rostrum thickened and concave
laterad Fie 2S? ee O. shoupt Hobbs
Margins of rostrum not thickened, and sub-
parallel or convergent up to base of lateral
SPINES... j...2 wa 2% «fs. os eer 8
8. Terminal elements of first pleopod widely
separated and thick (heavy); tip of mesial
process caudomesiad of central projection
Sn cue get ee nae See: Se O. sloani (Bundy)
Terminal elements of first pleopod not widely
separated, and slender and tapering; tip of
mesial process caudolaterad of central
projection...... O. rafinesquei Rhoades
9. Margins of rostrum uninterrupted; acumen
not distinctly set off from rest of rostrum
SAPS corto ae a ae O. pellucidus testit (Hay)
Margins of rostrum interrupted; acumen dis-
tinctly set off from rest of rostrum......10
10. Cephalic margin of pleopod without a shoul-
der at base of central projection; however,
either straight or curved.............. 11
Cephalic margin of pleopod with an angular
or. rounded shoulder... .... .....; .55eeee 12
11. Cephalic surface of first pleopod in region of
central projection straight; mesial process
directed distad and extending distad be-
yond. central projection... .. ..:2.s/2esnee
...O. pellucidus pellucidus (Tellkampf)
Cephalic surface of first pleopod in region of
central projection curved; mesial process
directed caudodistad and somewhat lat-
erad, and not extending distad beyond
central projection..... O. <inermis Cope
12. Shoulder on cephalic margin at base of central
projection rounded; hooks present only on
ischiopodites of third pereiopods..........
ES eet a: O. pellucidus australis (Rhoades)5
5 The holotype of O. pellucidus australis has a
small short acute spine (probably corresponding
to the caudal process seen in many members of
the genus Procambarus), which in lateral aspect
lies between the central projection and the mesial
process.
JAN. 15, 1948 DEIGNAN:
Shoulder on cephalic margin at base of cen-
tral projection distinctly angular; hooks
present on ischiopodites of third and fourth
pereiopods. O. pellucidus packardz Rhoades.
LITERATURE CITED
Bunpy, W. F. List of Illinois Crustacea, with
descriptions of new species. Bull. Illinois
Mus. Nat. Hist. 1: 3-25. 1876.
Faxon, W. Observations on the Astacidae in
the United States National Museum and in
the Museum of Comparative Zoology with
descriptions of new species. Proc.
Nat. Mus. 20: 643-694, 9 pls. 1898.
Freminc, R. 8. The larger Crustacea of the
Nashville region. Journ. Tennessee Acad.
Sci. 13(4): 296-324; 14(2): 261-264;
14(3): 299-324. 1938-39.
Grrarp, C. A revision of the North American
Astaci, with observations on their habits and
RACES OF THE BLACK-THROATED SUNBIRD 21
geographical distribution. Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia 6: 87-91. 1852.
Hacen, H. Monograph of the North American
Astacidae. Illus. Cat. Mus. Comp. Zool.
no. 3: 1-109, 11 pls. 1870.
Haye Week The crawfishes of the State of
Indiana. 20th Ann. Rep. Indiana Geol.
and Nat. Res. Sury.: 446-507, 15 figs.
1895.
OrTMANN, A. E. Crayfishes of the Southern
Appalachians and the Cumberland Plateau.
Ann. Carnegie Mus. 20(2): 61-160. 1931.
RAFINESQUE, C. S. Synopsis of four new
genera and ten new species of Crustacea
found in the United States. Amer. Monthly
Mag. and Crit. Rev. 2. art. 7(9): 40-43.
1817.
Ruoapes, R. The crayfishes of Kentucky,
with notes on variation, distribution and
descriptions of new species and subspecies.
Amer. Midl. Nat. 31 (1): 111-149, 10 figs.
10 maps. 1944.
ORNITHOLOGY—The races of the black-throated sunbird, Aethopyga saturata
(Hodgson).1 H. G. Deianan, U. 8. National Museum.
For more than 30 years the race of
Aethopyga saturata common on the moun-
tains of northwestern Siam has, without any
direct comparison of specimens, been re-
corded as sanguinipectus (a name originally
applied to the form of the Karen Hills).
Topotypes of sanguinipectus and of its pre-
sumed synonym waldenz (described from
Mount Muleyit in Tenasserim) are nowhere
available in America, but reference to the
first descriptions and especially to Shelley’s
Monograph of the Nectariniidae, pt. 6, 1878,
pp. 37-38 and colored plate (where the
description is taken from the types of
sanguinipectus and the illustration from the
types of waldenz), has shown that sanguini-
pectus has the entire throat (except only
the center of the chin) metallic blue or
violet and is thus quite different from the
_Siamese bird, as well as from the several
populations of Indochine that have been
masquerading under its name. This dis-
covery has made necessary a revision of the
species, with the result that the number of
races has been increased from the five ac-
cepted by Delacour (Zoologica 29: 34.
1944) to nine, of which three are here de-
scribed for the first time.
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received June 10,
1947.
Material essential to the prosecution of
this study has been courteously sent me by
the Museum of Comparative Zoology
(M.C.Z.), the American Museum of Natu-
ral History (A.M.N.H.), the Princeton
Museum of Zoology (P.M.Z.), the Acad-
emy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
(A.N.S.P.), and the Chicago Natural His-
tory Museum (C.N.H.M.).
1. Aethopyga saturata saturata (Hodgson)
[Cinnyris] Saturata Hodgson, India Rev. and
Journ. Foreign Sci. and Arts 1 (7): 273. Oct.
1836 (Nepal).
Nectarinia hodgsonis [sic] Jardine, Naturalist’s
Library 36 [Nectariniidae]: 240, 269 [where
spelled hodgsonzl, pl. 28, 1843 (Nepal).
Range. Himalayas, from Garhwal to Bhutan.
Remarks. The reference to Hodgson’s name
is incorrectly cited by Stuart Baker (Fauna of
British India, birds, ed. 2, 7: 285. 1930) as
“Ind. Review, vol. ii, p. 273, 1837.’’ Sherborn
(Index Animalium, p. 5753) gives ‘‘India Rev.
I. 1837, 273.’’ According to the researches of the
late C. W. Richmond, the first volume of the
India Review appeared in 12 monthly install-
ments from April 1836 to March 1837, and the
proper citation is that given above.
2. Aethopyga saturata assamensis
(McClelland)
Cinnyris assamensis McClelland, Quart. Journ.
22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soe. 1 (3): 322. July
1837 (Assam). Nomen nudum!
Cinnyris Assamensis McClelland, Proc. Zool.
Soc. London 7: 167. Mar. 1840 (Assam; type
locality here restricted to the neighborhood of
Sadiya, Sadiya Frontier Tract, Assam Prov-
ince, India).
Range.—Assam; Burma (north); Yunnan
(west).
Remarks.—Mayr (Ibis 1938: 302) has shown
that the bird of northern Burma, while most
like saturata; differs from it by a broadening
of the yellow band across the lower back and
by a slightly shorter wing and a much shorter
tail. For this population the old name assamen-
sis may be revived.
3. Aethopyga saturata sanguinipectus
Walden
Aithopyga sanguinipectus Walden, Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist. (4) 15: 400. June 1875 (‘“‘Tonghoo
hills [Karen-hee],’’ error; type locality cor-
rected to “the Tonghoo and Karen-nee hills’’
by Wardlaw Ramsay, zn The ornithological
works of Arthur, Ninth Marquis of Tweeddale,
p. 414, 1881).
Athopyga Walden1 Hume, Stray Feathers 5 (1):
51. Apr. 1877 (Mount Muleyit, Amherst Dis-
trict, Tenasserim Division, Burma).
Range.—Southeastern Burma, from lat.
19° N. south to lat. 14° N. (but see Remarks).
Remarks.—Shelley (loc. cit. in introductory
paragraph above) has observed that “the illus-
trations of both sexes are taken from the speci-
mens collected by Mr. Davison, and described
as 4. waldent by Mr. Hume, who has kindly
forwarded them to me from India to compare
with the types of 4. sanguinipectus, to which
species they evidently belong.” It may be
hoped that some latter-day students in London
will compare the two again to learn whether
they belong to the same subspecies!
The one bird of sanguinipectus-type avail-
able to me is a male from Mount Nwalabo
(lat. 14° N.), which may or may not be properly
placed under this name. The synonymy and
range given above for sanguinipectus must
therefore be considered only tentative.
4. Aethopyga saturata anomala Richmond
Aithopyga anomala Richmond, Proc. U. 8S. Nat.
Mus. 22: 319. May 12, 1900 (Khao Sung, pe-
ninsular Siam at lat. 7°32’ N., long. 99°50’ E.).
Range——Specimens are known from Khao
VOL. 38, NO. 1
Soi Dao (lat. 7°20’ N., long. 99°50’ E.), Khao
Nok Ra (lat. 7°25’ N., long. 99°55’ E.), Khao
Nam Pliu (lat. 7°35’ N., long. 99°50’ E.), and
the type locality, all hills in the range dividing
the Siamese provinces of Phatthalung and
Trang.
5. Aethopyga saturata wrayi Bowdler Sharpe
Aithopyga wrayt Bowdler Sharpe, Proce. Zool.
Soe. London 1887, pt. 3: 440, pl. 38, fig. 2.
Oct. 1 (Larut Range, at elev. 4,400 ft., Perak
State, Malaya).
Range.—Mountains of Malaya from north-
ern Perak to southern Selangor and in Pahang.
6. Aethopyga saturata petersi, n. subsp.
Type.—C.N.H.M. no. 76209, adult male, col-
lected at Pa Kha (lat. 22°32’ N., long. 104°18/
E.), Laokay Province, Tongking, on Decem-
ber 28, 1929, by J. Delacour and P. Jabouille
(original number 3312).
Diagnosis—The adult male of the new form
is immediately distinguishable from those of
A. s. saturata (Nepal), A. s. assamensis (As-
sam), and A. s. anomala (peninsular Siam) by
having the lower breast sulphur yellow, con-
spicuously streaked with blood red.
From those of A. s. sanguinipectus (Karen
Hills) and A. s. johnsi (southern Annam) it is
separable by having the entire area between
the metallic-blue mustachial streaks, from chin
to breast, unglossed black (not metallic blue).
It is, in fact, nearest the geographically re-
mote A. s. wrayt (Malaya), from which it may
be known by its having the sulphur-yellow
breast patch more clearly defined and poste-
riorly more extensive, the red streaks on the
breast patch more numerous, and the remain-
ing under parts a slightly paler, more yellowish,
less grayish, olive green.
Range—Yunnan (southeast); Tongking;
Annam (north); Haut-Laos; Southern Shan
States (Kengtung State); northern Siam (Chi-
ang Rai and Nan Provinces).
Specimens examined.—34 males, 3 females.
Remarks.—This race is named in honor of
James Lee Peters, of the Museum of Compara-
tive Zoology.
7. Aethopyga saturata galenae, n. subsp.
Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 331074, adult male,
collected on Doi Langka (Khao Pha Cho),
northern Siam at lat. 19°00’ N., long. 99°25’ E.,
JAN. 15, 1948 PROCEEDINGS
on November 10, 1930, by Hugh M. Smith
(original number 4307).
Diagnosis—The adult male is nearest that
of A. s. petersi (Tongking) but differs by having
the sulphur-yellow breast patch posteriorly
more extensive and less clearly defined from
the remaining underparts, which are oliva-
ceous-yellow (not grayish olive-green).
The adult female is separable from that of
A. s. petersi by having the underparts suffused
posteriorly with yellow, rather than a uniform
grayish olive-green.
Range.—Siam (northwest).
Specimens examined.—18 males, 3 females.
Remarks—Of four males from Doi Ang Ka
(lat. 18°35’ N., long. 98°30’ E.), three are in-
separable from topotypical A. s. galenae; the
exceptional specimen has the majority of the
feathers of the upper half of the throat wholly
or partly metallic blue and thus shows ap-
proach to A. s. sanguinipectus-waldenit of
Mount Muleyit. It is highly probable that
birds of the unexplored hills lying between Ang
Ka and Muleyit will prove to be true sanguini-
pectus-waldent.
This race is named in honor of my mother.
8. Aethopyga saturata ochra, n. subsp.
: THE ACADEMY 23
Type—C.N.H.M. no. 91613, adult male,
collected at Thateng (lat. 15°31’ N., long.
106°22’ E.), Saravane Province, Bas-Laos, on
November 26, 1931, by J. Delacour (original
number 312).
Diagnosis.—The adult male is nearest that of
A. s. galenae (northwestern Siam), from which
it differs (and so much the more from that of
A. s. petersi) by having the sulphur-yellow
breast patch posteriorly still more extensive
and scarcely defined at all from the remaining
underparts, which are more strongly suffused
with yellow then in any other race.
The adult female seems to be identical with
that of A. s. galenae.
Range——Bas-Laos (Boloven Plateau).
Specimens examined.—7 males, 2 females.
9. Aethopyga saturata johnsi Robinson and
Boden Kloss
Aithopyga sanguinipectus johnst Robinson and
Boden Kloss, Ibis (11) 1 (4): 621. Oct. 23, 1919
(Dran, Haut-Donai Province, southern An-
nam), °
Range.—Southern Annam (Langbian Pla-
teau).
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
THE ACADEMY
413TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS
The 413th meeting of the Board of Man-
agers, held in the Cosmos Club, December 15,
1947, was called to order at 8:10 p.m. by the
President, Dr. Watpo L. Scumirr. Others
present were: H. S. Rappieye, H. A. REHDER,
H. B. Couurns, Jr., F. G. Brickweppk, F. L.
Mouter, J. S. Want, W. W. Rusey, L. E.
Yocum, W. A. Dayton, M. A. Mason, C. L.
GaRNER, and C. L. Gazin.
Highteen persons were elected to member-
ship. Dr. Percy W. BripGMaNn, a member of
the Academy and a Nobel Prize winner, who
has spoken before the Academy, was proposed
for Honorary Membership. The Board voted
unanimously that he be awarded this distinc-
tion. Ten nominations for resident membership
were presented.
The Secretary, Dr. C. L. Gazin, reported the
death of Dr. Dwicut F. WINDENBURG on
November 14, 1947, formerly with the David
Taylor Model Basin. He also reported the resig-
nations of Drs. ALBERT E. LonGLry and JoHN
B. Murti, Jr. The Board accepted these resig-
nations, with regret, effective December 31,
1947. The request of Dr. H. C. OBERHOLSER,
who has paid dues from 1906 through 1947
and who has retired from the gainful practice
of his profession, that he be placed on the re-
tired list of Academy members was approved
by the Board.
The Secretary announced that he received,
on November 28, 1947, the nomination of Dr.
GILBERT GROSVENOR for President of the
Academy in 1948. |This candidate subsequently
withdrew.— Ed.]
The Treasurer, H. S. RAPPLEYE, requested
that he be authorized to transfer the present
two investment certificates, amounting to
$5,000 in total, in the First Federal Savings &
24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Loan Association, to a single account-book
form as proposed by the Association. This re-
quest was granted.
The meeting was adjourned at 9:42 p.m.
C. L. Gazin, Secretary.
NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY
There follows a list of persons elected to
membership in the Academy, by vote of its
Board of Managers, since December 16, 1946,
who have since qualified as members in ac-
cordance with the bylaws. (See also previous
list in May 15, 1947, issue of the Journal.) The
bases for election are stated with the names of
the new members.
RESIDENT
Elected December 16, 1946
WatTreR A. McCussin, botanist, Bureau of
Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recog-
nition of his contributions to the scientific basis
of plant quarantines and the means of distribu-
tion of parasitic fungi.
Drawn B. Cowrs, physicist, Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of
Washington, in recognition of his work in the
construction of the cyclotron at the Depart-
ment, for many cooperative researches in which
cyclotron products made by him were used, and
especially his work on the distribution of anti-
mony in Filaria infections.
Elected January 13, 1947
Marx W. Woops, botanist, National Cancer
Institute, in recognition of his studies on the
cytology of plant virus diseases and the origin
and nature of viruses.
Joun W. Avpricu, biologist, U. 8. Fish and
Wildlife Service, in recognition of his contribu-
tions to knowledge of the taxonomy and dis-
tribution of North American birds.
Elected April 14, 1947
Puitie Drucker, anthropologist, Bureau of
American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution,
in recognition of his contribution to the eth-
nology of the Northwest coast and to the
archaeology of these regions and of Veracruz,
Mexico.
Harriet L. FrusuH, chemist, National Bu-
reau of Standards, in recognition of her con-
tribution to organic chemistry, more especially
VOL. 38, No. 1
the development of the first satisfaetory mech-
anism for the production of orthoesters from
transacetohalogen compounds and the de-
velopment of methods for the separation of
manuric and galacturonic acids.
CaMILLE L. Leresyre, botanist, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, in recognition of his researches in plant
pathology, especially fungous diseases of forage
crops.
Curtis W. SaBrosky, entomologist, Bureau
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recog-
nition of his contributions to the classification
of the Diptera and in particular his work on the
taxonomy of the family Chloropidae.
WALTER B. Lang, geologist, U. 8S. Geological
Survey, in recognition of the pioneer study of
the stratigraphy and sedimentation of the
Permian of the Southwestern United States
and its application to the discovery of potash
and the development of a self-sufficient potash
industry.
LouisE M. RussELt, entomologist, Bureau
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recog-
nition of her contributions to the taxonomy of
the sternorhynchous Homoptera, in particular
her studies on the classification of the coccid
genus Asterolecanium, on various groups of the
whitefly family Aleyrodidae, and on various
species of the Psyllidae.
Grorce M. Foster, Jr., anthropologist,
Institute of Social Anthropology, Smithsonian
Institution, in recognition of his contributions
to the development of the science of ethnology
in Mexico.
FENNER A. CuHAce, Jr., biologist, U. S. Na-
tional Museum, in recognition of his contribu-
tions in zoology, especially in the field of
Crustacea.
Rutu E. Gorpon, bacteriologist, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, in recognition of her contributions to
bacteriology, especially her, researches on the
acid-fast and on the spore-forming bacteria.
Elected October 6, 1947
Husert R. SNoKE, engineer, National Bu-
reau of Standards, in recognition of his impor- —
tant work on roofing and building materials.
EvuLiotT B. Roperts, engineer, U. S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey, in recognition of his con-
tributions in the development of oceanographic
instruments and techniques, and in exploration
JAN. 15, 1948
and geodetic surveying in the Philippine Is-
lands, the Aleutian Islands, and other areas.
Curtis J. Humpureys, physicist, National
Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his work
on spectroscopy, including Zeeman effect and
intensity measurements in the spectrum of the
solar chromosphere.
Ricuarp K. Cook, physicist, National Bu-
reau of Standards, in recognition of his con-
tributions to acoustics and in particular to the
absolute measurement of sound intensity. -
NONRESIDENT
Elected October 6, 1947
THEroporE E. Waits, paleontologist, Mu-
seum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge,
Mass., in recognition of his contributions to
vertebrate paleontology, in particular to the
morphology of primitive tetrapods.
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
1268th Meeting
The 1268th meeting, the occasion of the
Fifteenth Joseph Henry Lecture, was held in
the Auditorium of the U. 8. National Museum,
May 25, 1946, President DEFANDORF presiding.
Program: Harvey FLrercHer, Bell Tele-
phone Laboratories: The pitch, loudness and
quality of musical tones. This paper has been
published in full in the American Journal of
Physics 14: 215-225. 1946.
1269th Meeting
The 1269th meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, October 12, 1946, President
_ DEFANDORF presiding.
Program: H. W. Wetts, Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism: Panoramic ionospheric
recorder.—The application of a new technique
for ionospheric research, developed at the
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Car-
negie Institution of Washington, under spon-
sorship of the United States Army Signal
Corps, has led to the discovery of hitherto un-
suspected rapid motions and fluctuations. The
panoramic ionospheric recorder in develop-
. Ment, operating over a range 1.0 to 20.0
megacycles per sec and registering the iono-
spheric echoes on a single frame of 16-mm
motion-picture film, was described briefly. This
apparatus makes two records each minute in
normal operation. Projection of the series of
PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 25
16-mm records thus obtained as a motion pic-
ture gives a condensation of time scale and a
continuity of events which reveal ionospheric
fluctuations of a surprising nature.
During periods of ionospheric and magnetic
storms, rapidly moving clouds are ‘‘tracked”’
into the F2 (outer) layer. Upon merging of the
clouds with the F2 layer the ionization is seen
to increase, and downward rippling motions
suggest an extension of the effect into lower
regions of the ionosphere.
The techrique of recording offers consider-
able promise both as a research tool leading to
a better understanding of atmospheric physics
and as an educational aid in training of per-
sonnel for ionospheric investigations. (A uthor’s
abstract.)
NEWBORN Smi1TH, National Bureau of Stand-
ards (paper read by Mr. SILBeRsTEIN): Longi-
tude effect in F2-layer characteristics—Before
adequate world-wide ionospheric observations
had been made, it was assumed that the
monthly average F2-layer critical frequencies
and virtual heights were the same, at the same
local time, for stations at the same geographic
latitude but different longitudes. Radio operat-
ing data indicated, however, that this assump-
tion was questionable, and ionospheric observa-
tions from the world-wide network of stations
established during the war showed a pronounced
longitudinal variation, apparently associ-
ated with differences in geomagnetic latitude.
This paper presented the evidence for the
longitude effect, indicating how it led to the
operational use of separate ionospheric predic-
tion charts for the different world zones.
(A uthor’s abstract.)
1270th Meeting
The 1270th meeting was held in the audi-—
torium of the Cosmos Club, October 26, 1946,
President DEFANDORF presiding.
Program: N. P. Hays, Wright Field: Polar
navigation.—Major Hays discussed his part as
navigator in the preparations and flight of the
Pacusan Dreamboat from Oahu to Cairo by
way of the geomagnetic pole. (Secretary’s ab-
stract.)
Str Ropert Watson-WatTtT, Radio Board
of Great Britain: Air navigation by radio meth-
ods.—The early history, development, and use
of radio were discussed. The use of radio re-
flections from the ionosphere and other small
26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
reflections was also emphasized. (Secretary’s
abstract.)
1271st Meeting
The 172lst meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, November 9, 1946,
President DmraNporRF presiding.
Program: J. H. Curtiss, National Bureau of
Standards: High-speed digital computing ma-
chines, Pt. 1—The chief purpose of this paper
was to list and describe the various current
Federally financed projects in the field of
automatic digital computing machines. Those
already in existence, listed in the approximate
order of completion, are: the “IBM Automatic
Sequence Controlled Calculator’ at Harvard
University; two small Bell Telephone Labora-
tories relay computers, of which one is at the
Naval Research Laboratory and the other is at
Fort Bliss, Tex.; five small relay calculators
developed by the International Business Ma-
chines Corporation, of which one is at the
Naval Proving grounds at Dahlgren, two are
at the Ballistics Research Laboratory of the
Aberdeen Proving Grounds, and two are at
Watson Laboratories in New York City; and
finally, the electronic ‘“ENIAC,” built at the
University of Pennsylvania for Aberdeen. Two
large Bell Telephone relay computers are al-
most finished; one is for Aberdeen and the other
for the Langley Memorial Laboratory of
N.A.C.A. Harvard University is constructing
a large relay machine for the Naval Proving
Grounds.
Important development projects are: (1) At
the National Bureau of Standards, construc-
tion of large-capacity digital computers for
the U. 8S. Navy and the Bureau of the Cen-
sus, and a component development project
for the Ordnance Department of the Army;
(2) at the University of Pennsylvania, con-
struction of another electronic digital computer
for Aberdeen; (3) at the Institute for Advanced
Study and RCA Laboratories at Princeton,
N. J., construction of an electronic digital
computer; (4) at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, construction of a large electron-
ic digital simulator for the Navy and also a
component research project financed by the
Rockefeller Foundation. (A uthor’s abstract.)
S. N. AupxanpEerR, National Bureau of
Standards: High-speed digital computing ma-
chines, Pt. 2—There are two basic approaches
VOL. 38, NO. 1.
by which scientific computations can be re-
duced to an automatic operation. These are the
analogue and the digital procedures. The ana-
logue procedure had been exploited to the
greater extent prior to the war. During the
war the need for greater accuracy and flexi-
bility led to intensive development of the digi-
tal procedure. The first of these machines,
using electromechanical devices, was developed
jointly by Harvard University and the In-
ternational Business Machines Corporation.
Next, the Bell Telephone Laboratories de-
veloped a computing machine using electrical
relays. Finally, an essentially electronic ma-
chine of greatly increased operating speed was
constructed at the University of Pennsylvania
for the Army Ordnance. These applications of
electromechanical and electronic techniques
pointed the way toward making available the
flexibility that is inherent in the digital pro-
cedure. An immediate goal is to apply this
flexibility to the solution of partial differential
equations. To accomplish this will require the
development of still faster electronic machines
of much greater capacity. Consequently, the
present program for the development of large-
scale, high-speed digital computing machines
is being pursued with even more vigor than
during the war. (A uthor’s abstract.)
1272d Meeting
The 1272d meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, November 23,
1946, President DEFANDORF presiding.
Program: R. J. SpncER, Naval Ordnance
Laboratory: Shock-wave phenomena.—A signifi-
cant property of linear differential equations
is the principle of superposition of solutions,
e.g., Huygens’s principle in physics. Is there a
corresponding principle in the case of nonlinear
differential equations? Shock-wave phenomena
presents a means of studying this question from
the viewpoint of Nature’s own integrations.
This paper formed essentially a report of the
research along this line initiated at the Bureau
of Ordnance (Navy Department) by J. Von
NerumaAN. It started with optical illustrations
of shock waves occurring in ballistics, air jets, —
wind tunnels, and explosions. The mathemati-
cal concept of a shock wave was presented,
leading to the simple step-shock model de-
scribed by the Rankine-Hugoniot equations.
This model has been used in the investigation
Jan. 15, 1948
of the interaction of shock waves. The theoreti-
cal predictions for reflection from a rigid wall
were compared with the experimental obser-
vations. For so-called regular reflection the
simple model is adequate. In the case of Mach
reflection, which involves an intersection of
three shock waves (and a temperature dis-
continuity) moving away from the wall, there
is an enigma that can not be solved by any
simple physical picture such as uniform pres-
sure between the shocks or even by Prandtl-
Meyer modification of this uniformity. (Au-
thor’s abstract.)
F. J. Weyut, Naval Ordnance Laboratory:
Optical analysis of supersonic flow.—The varia-
tions in density, which will be found whenever
a compressible fluid is engaged in nonuniform
motion, imply accompanying variations in the
local index of refraction. Consequently a beam
of transluminating light will be disturbed by
the presence of flow without, in its turn, dis-
turbing the flow. This fact is used in three
basically different fashions, depending on the
optical apparatus inserted into the light path,
to obtain records of the density variations in
the compressible flows. Referred to as the
shadowgraph, the schlieren, and the inter-
ferometric methods, they render visible re-
spectively the total distortion, the change in
direction, and the change in the time of transit
experienced by the transluminating light beam
on account of the presence of the flow. These
three methods were first discussed from a
quantitative analytic viewpoint and were then
illustrated individually by typical records al-
lowing a direct comparison of their respective
strengths and weaknesses. (Author’s abstract.)
1273d Meeting
The 1273d meeting, the 76th annual meeting,
was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club,
December 7, 1946, President DeraNnporF pre-
siding.
The report of the treasurer, confirmed by the
report of the auditing committee, showed an
income from dues and interest on investments
of $1357.54 and expenditures of $1137.20,
leaving a net gain of $220.34 on ordinary ex-
penses. The ordinary expenses were at the
rate of $3.27 per member. The total estimated
assets of the Society showed a decrease of
$271.76 from $16,694.19 as of December 1,
1945, to $16,377.43 as of December 1, 1946.
PROCEEDINGS. PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 27
The joint report of the Secretaries showed an
active membership of 359 as of December 1,
1946—a, net increase of 12 members during the
year. The following persons were elected during
the year: W. D. Apprt, C. E. BartTHELt,
R. D. BenneETT, T. J. Carrout, G. E. Davis,
R. F. Gevuer, P. H. Grrovarp, D. Harkin,
W. N. Harrison, Mary W. Hopeas, H. J.
Hoge, R. L. McKinney, D. E. Parsons,
G. W. Prerrerson, E. K. Piyuter, B. P. Ram-
say, E. B. Roperts, L. H. Rumpavuau, G. B.
SaBINE, G. H. SHortiy, H. 8. Stewart, R. D.
STIEHLER, EK. J. STovauu, JR., R. WELLER,
F. J. Wey, W. J. Wyatt.
The Secretaries reported the deaths of
Pauu Brockett, W. N. HamiuTon, and W. P.
WHITE.
Following the report of the Committee on
Elections, these officers were declared elected
for the year 1947: President, FRED L. MouHLER;
Vice-Presidents, WALTER RAMBERG and KEN-
NETH L. SHERMAN; Recording Secretary,
WaLTeR L. CuHeney; Treasurer, FRANK C.
Kracexk; Members-at-Large of General Com-
mittee, Kari F. HerzFeLD, and LAWRENCE A.
Woop.
Program: R. P. Pererson, Johns Hopkins
Applied Physics Laboratory: Exploration of the
upper atmosphere by rockets, Pt. 1—A review
of the advancements in cosmic rays shows that
measurement vs altitude has been important
in illuminating the subject. The measurement
of residual ionization vs altitude by Hess and
by Koehorster in 1912 gave the first positive
evidence of the extraterrestrial nature of the
cosmic radiation. Later, the measurements of
Bowen, Millikan, and Neher of ionization vs
altitude at various latitudes indicated the
charged-particlelike character of the primaries
and gave an energy spectrum for the primary
radiation. At present there remain important
unsolved problems; the mesatron component
increases to the highest altitudes to which meas-
urements have been made, yet its radioactive
character insists that it is a secondary and
therefore that it must eventually decrease;
there is reported an overabundance of soft
component at higher altitude; primary particles
and their basic interactions (at energies 10,000
times the highest now sought for in man-made
machines), which produce the soft and mesa-
tronic secondaries appear to be largely observ-
able only above the highest balloon flights.
28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
This paper described the G. M. telescope of
the type that Schein has used. This telescope
measures total ionizing flux and compares the
penetrating ionizing flux with the penetrating
nonionizing flux, which converts in 2 em of
lead. The paper also described the arrangement
used in the V-2 and presented a short discussion
of the results obtained. There was indicated a
need for additional verification, because of a
rather large and unexpected presence of a
nonionizing component of the primaries, or
energy greater than 109 HV and capable of
converting in 2 cm of lead.
Finally, there was presented a general de-
scription of data recovery from such rocket
flights including results of aerodynamic spoiling
to obtain lower landing speeds for the recovery
of mechanical recorders, air sample bottles,
cameras, spectrographs, etc. (Author’s abstract.)
H. E. Newer, Naval Research Laboratory:
Exploration of the upper atmosphere by rockets,
Pt. 2—The principal features of the V-2 rocket
and its usefulness as a vehicle for upper-at-
mosphere experimentation were discussed.
Following a review of the general aspects of |
upper atmosphere research including a dis-
cussion of the recovery problems, there was a
discussion of the Naval Research Laboratory’s
work on solar spectroscopy, cosmic rays, pres-
sure measurements, and ion-density measure-
ments in the ionosphere. The paper was illus-
trated by means of slides pertaining to the
October 10 V-2 flight at White Sands, N. Mex.
(A uther’s abstract.)
1274th Meeting
The 1274th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, January 4, 1947,
President MouHLmr presiding.
The retiring president, Francis M. Dsg-
FANDORF, National Bureau of Standards, de-
livered his presidential address on the subject
The measurement of high voltage. This address
will be published in full in the JouRNAL.
1275th Meeting
The 1275th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, January 18, 1947,
President MouLER presiding.
Program: R. §S. Burinetron, Bureau of
Ordnance: The concept (and misconcept) of
equivalence—This paper in expanded form is
VOL. 38, No. 1
published in this number of the JouRNAL (38:
1-11. 1948).
1276th Meeting
The 1276th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, February 1, 1947,
President MouueEr presiding.
Program: JamMEs M. Kuaasse, Naval Ord-
nance Laboratory: Airborne magnetometer in
geophysical exploration, Pt. 1—The magnetic
airborne detector AN/ASQ-3A was developed
by the Naval Ordnance Laboratory and the
Bell Telephone Laboratories and was produced
by the Western Electric Co. for use in the U. 8.
Navy’s Bureau of Aeronautics for locating
submarines from aircraft. Modified systems of
this type have been used extensively by the
Naval Ordnance Laboratory and the U. S.
Geological Survey in airborne geophysical sur-
veys throughout the United States and in
Alaska.
In the magnetometer described, detection of
a magnetic field employs an inductor with
nearly ideal magnetization and saturation
characteristics and negligible hysteresis. When
the inductor winding is driven well beyond
saturation field for the core material by a sine-
wave current, the resulting distortion of flux
wave-form produces harmonics of the driving
frequency. The even-harmonic content is pro-
portional to the magnetic field applied along
the inductor axis. The second harmonic is
selected by suitable filtering. Three such induc-
tors are arranged mutually perpendicular. Two
of these are used in a servo system to maintain
automatically the axis of the third along the
direction of the total field, and also to com-
pensate for flight errors in the orientation
system. A controlled variable direct current
is supplied to the third inductor winding to
suppress the total field to a small fraction of the
earth’s field. The low-frequency response of the
system permits continuous recording of the
earth’s magnetic field intensity and anomalies
as small as 1075 gauss (1 gamma) while air-
borne. (Author’s abstract.)
F. Ketter, U. 8. Geological Survey: Air-
borne magnetometer in geophysical explorations,
Pt. 2—The adaptation by the Geological
Survey in cooperation with the Naval Ordnance
Laboratory of the AN/ASQ-3A Magnetic
Airborne Detector to problems of exploration
in geophysics has made it possible to produce
wate rest
~ JAN. 15, 1948
maps of large areas showing total intensity
variations of the earth’s magnetic field with
greater accuracy and speed and with less ex-
pense than by ground measurements.
The U. 8S. Geological Survey obtains the
data by towing the magnetic detector element
behind a twin-engined airplane in a stream-
lined housing called a ‘“‘bird.” Variations in
magnetic intensity are recorded on a tape in the
plane. The location of the plane is determined
at all times by a gyroscopically stabilized
Sonne continuous strip camera. A system of
electrically operated counters and edge mark-
ers make it possible to correlate recognizable
ground check points with the strip film and
magnetometer record.
Magnetic surveys of over 120,000 square
miles in areas which covered extreme contrasts
of geological and magnetic environments have
proved the value of the airborne magnetometer
as a reconnaissance tool in exploration for
mineral resources. (A uthor’s abstract.)
1277th Meeting
The 1277th meeting was the occasion of the
Sixteenth Joseph Henry Lecture and was held
in the auditorium of the U. S. National Mu-
seum, February 15, 1947, President MoHLER
presiding.
Program: JESSE W. Beams, Professor of
Physics in the University of Virginia: High
centrifugal fields. This address has been pub-
lished in full in the JouRNAL 37: 221-241. July
1947.
1278th Meeting
The 1278th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, March 1, 1947,
President Mouter presiding.
Program: U. Fano, National Bureau of
Standards: Contributions of physics to biology,
Pt. 1—The borderland between physics and
biology is today the subject of widespread
interest, especially from the side of young
physicists, who think of making it their main
line of work. It seems timely, therefore, to
examine critically which specific, actual or
potential, lines of endeavor should go under the
name of biophysics. A few lines are well
defined, such as: (a) the design, production,
and employment of physical tools which help
in solving biological problems; this is primarily
a branch of applied physics; (6) the investiga-
PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
29
tion of biological problems which involve phys-
ical measurements and tools; this requires
knowledge of physical apparatus and _ tech-
niques belonging primarily to biology as far as
its motivation and methodology are concerned;
(c) the participation of workers with training
and experience in physics in the investigation
of biological problems; this has often proved
extremely effective.
It should be stressed that the field of en-
deavor is a biological one and physics plays no
further part than lending ways of thought and
methods of approach to problems. (Author’s
abstract.)
G. Gamow, The George Washintgon Uni-
versity: Contributions of physics to biology, Pt.
2—Until comparatively recent time the phe-
nomena of life were so widely separated from
familiar physical and chemical phenomena in
inorganic matter that it seemed that the gap
between the two could never be covered. This
led to various “‘vitalistic’ theories which in-
sisted that the phenomenon of life is principally -
different from the ordinary physical phenom-
ena and requires for their explanation some
peculiar force known as “‘vis vitalis.”’
The recent progress of biology seems to
cover the existing gap. In fact, the things like
viruses and genes seem to represent the ‘‘missing
links” between organic and inorganic matter.
Although there is little doubt that viruses and
genes represent the ordinary (although very
complex) chemical molecules obeying the or-
dinary laws of quantum chemistry, they are
also attributed to all basic properties of living
organisms.
It is time now to attack the problem of these
elementary living organisms from the purely
physical point of view, and, while the biolo-
gists dig deeper and deeper into the properties
of these entities from the complex and of bio-
logical forms, the physicist may be expected to
approach the problem from the other end and
“build up” the theory of gene and virus mole-
cules on the basis of our present vast knowledge
concerning the properties of atoms and atomic
combinations. Just as the hydrogen atom
represents the simplest model of atomic struc-
ture, and the deuteron the simplest nucleus,
virus-particles are most probably the simplest
biological models which can be treated theo-
retically.
Although there are still tremendous difficul-
30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ties ahead, we may not be so far from the pos-
sibility of constructing the model of the sim-
plest living unit on the basis of purely atomic
considerations. (A uthor’s abstract.)
1279th Meeting
The 1279th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, March 15, 1947,
President MoutLeEr presiding.
Program: 8. E. Forsusy, Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism: Cosmic rays from the
sun?—During the past 10 years three unusual
and sudden increases in cosmic-ray intensity,
lasting several hours, have been observed
simultaneously in different parts of the world
except at the Equator, where no increase was
observed. All three increases began nearly
simultaneously with unusually long and intense
radio-fadeouts and solar-flares. The cosmic-ray
increases were similar and simultaneous on the
day and night side of the earth. Magnetograms
from several magnetic observatories indicate
that the increase in cosmic-ray intensity can
not be ascribed to changes in the earth’s mag-
netic field. While the increases in cosmic-ray
intensity might be ascribed to changes in the
sun’s general magnetic field which would per-
mit more cosmic rays from outer space to reach
the earth, such mechanism should be equally
effective whether the solar-flare occurred in the
front or back side of the sun. This with other
arguments indicates that changing magnetic
fields associated with a sunspot or flare may
act as a magnetic accelerator for charged par-
ticles. Similar processes on stars might account
for all cosmic rays. (A.uthor’s abstract.)
P. H. Asetson, Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism: The transuranic elements——The
paper reviewed the facts leading to the dis-
covery of neptunium. The nuclear and chemi-
cal properties of the transuranic elements were
discussed. Possible methods of producing ele-
ments of higher atomic number than 96 were
described. These included the bombardment
of uranium or plutonium with high speed
carbon, oxygen, or other nuclei. (Author’s ab-
stract.)
1280th Meeting
The 1280th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, March 29, 1947,
President MoHLER presiding.
Program: Hueu L. Drypsn, National Bu-
reau of Standards: Exploring the fundamentals
VOL. 38, NO. 1
of aerodynamics.—This paper has been pub-
lished in full in the JourNAL 37: 145-156. May
1947.
1281st Meeting
The 1281st meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, April 12, 1947,
President MouueEr presiding.
Program: A. H. Bennett, American Optical
Co.: The phase contrast microscope.—The older
microscopic methods are particularly useful for
certain types of specimens, but for materials
whose details have little absorption differences
but differences in optical path, the phase
method has advantages. In phase microscopy
such microscopic details are imaged as bright-
ness differences to which the eye or photo-
graphic plate are sensitive. Work leading to
phase microscopy was done by Abbé (prior
to 1892), Bratuschek (1892), Rheinberg (1904),
and Conrady (1905). Zernicke (1935) de-
scribed the application of the phase contrast
method to microscopy. Burch and Stock
(1942) described their results using simplified
equipment. Study of the theory, application,
and apparatus for the method was begun by
Richards, Osterberg, Jupnik, and the writer
in 1941. In phase microscopy an annular ring
placed near the lower focal plane of the sub-
stage condenser acts as a secondary light
source. This ring is imaged by the condenser
and the objective onto a diffraction plate which
by means of evaporated metal and dielectric
films, alters the amplitude and phase relation-
ships between the light undeviated by the
specimen and the diffracted light. The light
distribution in the image formed under the
above conditions is determined by means of
diffraction theory. (A uthor’s abstract.)
O. W. RicHarps, American Optical Co.:
Applications of the phase contrast microscope.—
While theoretical considerations indicate the
possibility of a large number of diffraction
plates, a relatively small number serve the
needs of practical microscopy. Bright contrast
is useful in counting and for finer details.
Dark contrast is useful and sometimes is pre-
ferred as the image resembles that from stained
preparations. Detail is brought out in living
cells, emulsions, and on transparent surfaces.
Photomicrographic records are possible and
stereophotomicrographs reveal detail in three
dimensions. When stained or pigmented, speci-
Jan. 15, 1948
mens do not have high contrast, it is possible
to add phase contrast of greater visibility. All
four types of Spencer diffraction plates have
proved of use in microscopy. Replicas of Form-
var, acetate, or silica surfaces may be examined
with the phase microscope which opens a new
field for investigation. Photomicrograph lan-
tern slides were shown of typical applications
including living unstained epithelial cells,
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and spermatozoa;
unstained tissues, chromosomes, and malaria
parasites; stained chromosomes, urine casts,
emulsions, wool, rayon, paper, and replicas of
steel surfaces. (A uthor’s abstract.)
W. R. Duryer, Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism: A film on the mechanism of cell
division.—The paper consisted essentially of
the showing of a film prepared by K. Michel
of the Zeiss Co. using phase contrast lenses and
time-lapse photography.
The material photographed consisted of
living spermatocytes of the grasshopper Pso-
phus stridulus Linnaeus isolated in a physiolog-
ical salt solution. Since time lapse photog-
raphy was used, processes lasting over 5 to
15 hours were reviewed in a few minutes. In
addition the phase contrast lenses brought out
many details, relationships, and structural
contrast that the human eye unaided could not
see in normally transparent cells.
Major sequences in the film were, first,
prophase changes in the nucleus. Chromosomes
were visible shortening and thickening in their
colloidal matrix. Arrangement of chromosomes
on the spindles was followed by grouping of
mitochondria in the mid-cytoplasm, next in the
metaphase details of spindle lateral spread
preceded actual elongation. Thirdly, separation
of the chromosomes and other cytoplasmic
movements during anaphase were shown. Final
stages of cytoplasmic fission and telophase
reconstitution of the daughter nuclei were
clearly photographed.
A remarkable sequence showed continual
elongation of spindle substance even after each
eell had divided. Concomitant sol-gel reversals
of the polar surfaces were evident. New details
of spermatocyte transformation into the early
spermatic concluded the picture.
The film has been adopted by the Surgeon
General’s office as a medical technicians’ train-
ing film and was shown through the courtesy
of the War Department. (A uthor’s abstract.)
PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ol
1282d Meeting
This was a joint meeting with the Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences, held in the audito-
rium of the Cosmos Club, April 17, 1947.
Program: P. W. Bripaman, Professor of
Physics in Harvard University.—High pres-
sures and their effects.
1283d Meeting
The 1283d meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, April 26, 1947,
President MoHLER presiding.
Program: Pau F. Wacxksr, National Bureau
of Standards: Heat capacities of gases.—Ex-
perimental heat capacity data for gases are
useful both for the calculations of heat require-
ments in industrial operations and in checking
statistical calculations of heat capacity, heat
content, entropy, and free energy of compli-
cated molecules. These calculations are made
for extremely wide temperature ranges and
permit calculations of yields of reactions as -
well as heat requirements.
Heat leaks were made negligible by the use
of thermostated radiation shields and a care-
fully designed calorimeter. This absence of
heat leaks made high precision possible and rez
duced consistent errors to very small values.
The working time was also reduced, since or-
dinarily it is necessary to make measurements
as a function of flow rate in order to correct for
heat leak. As a check for consistent errors, the
heat capacity of oxygen was measured and
compared with highly accurate values calcu-
lated statistically from spectroscopic data. The
values at — 30°C and + 90°C differed from the
spectroscopic data by 0.06 percent and 0.10
percent, respectively, while the experimental
value at +40°C did not differ from the spec-
troscopic data by a significant amount. Con-
sideration of the data obtained for oxygen and
the known sources of error indicates that the
measurements with the apparatus have a
probable error of 0.06 percent or 0.07 percent.
(Author’s abstract.)
W. H. Avery, Johns Hopkins Applied
Physics Laboratory: Infrared spectra at low
temperatures.—Difficulties caused by overlap-
ping of the infrared absorption bands restrict
the application of these spectra to the analysis
of complex hydrocarbon mixtures. Theoretical
considerations suggested that these difficulties
32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
might be minimized by observing the spectra
at low temperatures, since the width of the
absorption bands is predicted to be propor-
tional to the square root of the absolute tem-
perature. Using a cell with a reflecting bottom
surface which could be immersed in liquid
hydrogen, upon which films were condensed,
spectra were obtained of a number of saturated
hydrocarbons. The spectra were found to show
the predicted narrowing of the absorption
bands and a striking decrease in overlapping of
the bands. Quantitative application of the
method was interfered with, however, because
of the scattering due to small crystals of the
condensed hydrocarbons. A change from the
gaseous to solid phase did not produce any
significant shifts in the position of the bands of
saturated hydrocarbons, but there were some
indications that overtone and combination
bands were changed in intensity by the conden-
sation. The use of liquid helium was suggested
for a further improvement in resolution of the
spectra. A theoretical analysis of probability
of the overlapping bands in complex mixtures
showed that the use of low temperatures might
be expected to increase tremendously the num-
ber of mixtures susceptible to infrared analysis.
(Author’s abstract.)
1284th Meeting
The 1284th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, May 10, 1947,
President MOHLER presiding.
Program: D. H. Mrnznu, Harvard College
Observatory: Problems of the sun.—Our rapidly
accumulating observational data on the sun
have served to focus our attention on the many
unsolved problems of the solar atmosphere.
Although the surface layers appear to possess
a temperature of about 6,000°C, the tempera-
ture and excitation rise rapidly in the higher
levels. In the upper chromosphere and promi-
nences, the temperatures range from 10,000°C
to 25,000°C. In the solar corona, temperatures
may attain values in excess of a million de-
grees. There are many additional problems such
as the support of the prominences and chromo-
spheric layers and the explanation of the gases
in the solar atmosphere. Thus far, we have no
completely satisfactory theory of any of these
phenomena.
VOL. 38, NO. 1.
The solar observations made regularly at the
High Altitude Observatory of the Harvard
University and the University of Colorado,
located at Climax, Colo., have provided the
astrophysicists with new indices of solar ac-
tivity. Even though we do not yet understand
the basic physical processes, we realize that
marked changes in the output of solar ultra-
violet radiation accompany the prominences
and coronal disturbances. These ultraviolet
variations, in turn, affect the ionosphere, the
earth’s magnetic field, and the luminosity of
the night sky. There is also a high probability
that there may be a relationship between solar
activity and terrestrial weather. The ozone
layer of the earth’s atmosphere acts as a me-
dium to transmit solar impulses from the upper
to the lower atmospheric levels.
Study of the sun, for the above-mentioned
practical reasons, assumes an increasingly im-
portant place in science. Accurate forecasting
of radio-propagation conditions or of weatherin —
general would possess immense economic value.
For example, if only we could tell the farmer
that the next growing season will be hot or
cold, wet or dry, late or early, many losses
would be avoided.
For the long-range view, study of solar radi-
ation has additional practical applications. No
natural process is now replacing the stock of
oil and coal, produced over geological ages.
An understanding of the sun and solar process-
es will help us to utilize more effectively the
solar radiation, upon which we shall eventually
have to depend for heat and power. (Author’s
abstract.)
1285th Meeting
The 1285th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, May 24, 1947,
President Mouunmr presiding.
Program: A. E. Ruarx, Johns Hopkins
Applied Physics Laboratory: Behavior of par-
ticles 1n scattering and absorbing media.
A. J. SHNEIDEROV presented an informal
communication regarding gravitation. ;
The president announced the election of the
following Committee on Communications for
the season 1947-48: G. B. SaBinz, chairman,
R. C. HerMAn, and THomMas CARROLL.
WaLttTerR L. CHeney, Recording Secretary.
_ Marsematics.—The rile of the deiteepe of ee het 9 in a
physical and mathematical systems. ! eke sag is sgt INS
Borany.—Studiesin ipckacasaes, and seine genera, Il:
Middle American Loe 2 Rtas: Bee ; sea
OnnrrHoLocy.—The Traces of the: core Sab i
saturata ae ue G. Daicnan
1
ue
Femavany
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JOURN AL,
OF THE
Vou. 38
PHYSICS.—The measurement of high voltage.'
Bureau of Standards.
INTRODUCTION
This paper presents an outline of the
basic principles used in measuring high
voltages. It appraises the accuracies at-
tained by some of the methods and devices
currently in use, rather than attempts to
4
give historical credit for discovery and in-
vention, although numerous references are
cited which should prove useful to one inter-
ested in tracing such matters. The expres-
sion “‘high voltage,” in the title of this paper,
will be construed to include voltages of the
order of 100 kilovolts and higher. It will be
convenient to leave out of consideration
many voltage measuring devices useful in
the neighborhood of 100 kv and lower but
of doubtful value in extending the range to
much higher voltage by increasing the pro-
portions of the device. This demarcation
also serves to exclude from this discussion
the methods of measurement of voltage at
extremely high frequencies because voltages
of this magnitude are nonexistent at those
frequencies. The first portion of this paper
will logically be devoted to a discussion of
certain reliable methods of extension in
range from low voltage standards.
It is proper to ask why one should be in-
terested in the accurate measurement of
high voltage. One must be interested be-
cause many phenomena depend on voltage.
For instance, the hardness limit of X-radia-
tion emitted by an X-ray tube depends
upon the maximum value of the voltage
across the tube including the ripple or any
‘Superposed surge. Similarly the sparkover
voltage of a sphere gap and the a-c flash-
+ Address of the Retiring President of the
Philosophical Society of Washington, delivered at
the 1274th meeting of the Society on January
4, 1947. Received July 28, 1947.
FEBRUARY 15, 1948
33
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
No. 2
F. M. Derranporr, National
over values for a string of line insulators
depend upon the crest of the alternating
voltage applied to the gap or string. In
those cases it is the maximum voltage aris-
ing from the combination of all voltage
components in which we are interested. In
the surge-voltage breakdown test of a light-
ning arrester it is the crest of the applied
surge that is fundamental, although the
form of the surge, if it rises very rapidly,
may be important. This is because with
surges of increasingly steep wave front the ©
crest breakdown voltage actually increases
because it requires an appreciable though
short time to establish the mechanism of
breakdown. On the other hand, in the com-
mercial sale of energy it is the effective value
of the voltage and its phase with respect to
the current that is important. Thus the
measurement of high voltage in the cases
just mentioned presupposes some knowl-
edge not only of the magnitude of voltage,
say from thousands to several millions of
volts, but also a knowledge of the variation
of the voltage with time. This variation of
voltage with time, which may have the
form of a wave, pulse, ripple, or some other
shape in no way resembling our everyday
conception of a wave, is called wave form.
From the foregoing discussion one may
conclude that the significant characteristics
of voltage to be measured, illustrated in
Fig. 1, may be listed as:
1. Direct voltage (d-c voltage).
2. Effective alternating voltage (effective a-c
voltage).
3. Average alternating voltage (average a-c
voltage).
4. Crest or maximum voltage of a rippled
d-c-, alternating-, or surge-voltage.
5. The wave form of a surge- or alternating-
voltage.
34
For the measurement of voltage it has
been found convenient to adopt as a pri-
mary standard, the vcltage of the standard
cell. The unsaturated standard cell, the
voltage of which is approximately 1.0186 +
volts, is almost universally used as a lab-
oratory reference standard for voltage
measurements. When kept in a thermo-
stated enclosure and used under favorable
conditions, it exhibits a remarkable con-
stancy of voltage. The small differences that
may arise in a thermostated group of cells
from year to year are of the order of micro-
volts. Unfortunately, similar electrochem-
ical devices having 100, 1,000, or 1,000,000
times the voltage of a standard cell do not
exist. Therefore, in the usual measurement
of higher voltages, it has been necessary to
develop devices which ultimately refer back
to the standard cell.
Resistance methods of extending the
range of voltage upward from the value of
the voltage of the standard cell make use of
the fact that by selecting suitable alloys and
heat treating them properly resistors can be
constructed to have a resistance, or a ratio
of resistance, that remains constant to
within a few parts in 100,000 over a satis-
V
DCG VOLTAGE
Time
60 CYCLE SINE WAVE
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 2
factory temperature range. The use of a ;
potentiometer or of a tap resistor (volt box)
is the simplest method for extending the
range of measurements of direct voltages by
reference to the standard cell. If r is the
resistance from one end to the tap point and
R is the total resistance including r, then
the voltage e across r can be measured with —
reference to a standard cell by using a
potentiometer and the voltage V across R —
is then V =e-R/r.
“q hee te —*
me
Although this simple resistance method ©
is adequate for small steady direct voltages
it requires modification for the precise
measurement of the high varying direct-, ©
alternating-, surge-, and pulse-voltages that _
one encounters in practice. The manner in
which the voltage at any instant varies —
with the time is a fundamental factor in the ©
problem of measurement. It is necessary to —
express alternating voltage in terms of di- ©
rect voltage which can be evaluated by ~
reference to the standard cell. Instruments
designed to read the same on the effective
value of alternating voltage as on direct —
voltage are called “‘transfer instruments.” —
As transfer instruments, electrostatic in- —
struments (1) are favored in Great Britain, ©
Vg: SOR ts soe
m --Vm
!
| ALF CREST
‘
|
|
| 1
i a Scars Ae Cian 2
A Sec Time
I-5 AWS SURGE PULSE
Time
RIPPLED VOLTAGE
Fig. 1.—Wave forms.
Fes. 15, 1948
while electrodynamic instruments (2) find
favor in this country. An electrostatic volt-
meter, for instance, should give the same
indication for a direct voltage V as it does
in the case of an alternating voltage of pure
sine-wave form for which the crest or maxi-
mum voltage Vn=vV/2 V.
If rectified alternating voltage is applied
to a direct current voltmeter the instru-
ment will read the average value of voltage
applied to it, i.e., Vare= (1/t)/, vdt.
- If, however, completely rectified alter-
nating voltage is applied to a good electro-
static voltmeter the voltmeter will read the
crest voltage. Crest voltage can also be de-
termined from the length of a spark gap
across which it will just cause a discharge,
or it can be readily evaluated from the wave
form determined by use of a calibrated os-
cillograph.
A more detailed knowledge of the varia-
tion of the voltage with time such as is
given by an oscillograph becomes of special
interest in the case of pulse and surge volt-
ages. Thus it would seem appropriate to ap-
praise the value of the several devices used
in the delineation of wave form, and to men-
tion each type under the particular voltage
divider or device with which it is generally
associated.
A consideration of high-voltage measur-
ing devices appears to lend itself better for
discussion under a classification of methods
of measurement or types of devices rather
than under the classification of character-
istics of voltage previously outlined. The
devices which are useful in measuring high
voltage may be conveniently classified as
to type by considering whether the method
of measurement employs:
1. A high series impedance with a low-imped-
ance instrument to indicate current through the
impedance.
2. A potential divider in which a fraction of the
total voltage is measured across tap points of
the impedance.
3. A voltage transformer that permits measure-
ment of a low voltage having a direct ratio to the
high voltage.
4. A generating voltmeter in which a voltage
proportional to the field intensity in the region of
the instrument is indicated.
5. A spark discharge in which the length of the
spark gives a measure of the voltage.
6. The cooling effect of an “electric wind”’ as in
the ionic wind voltmeter.
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 35
7. Force arising from the attraction or repul-
sion of electrostatic charges on electrodes.
8. The deflection of a stream of charged par-
ticles by means of a known field, either electro-
static or magnetic, after their acceleration in
vacuo by the voltage to be measured.
The devices used in measuring high volt-
age will be considered in accordance with
the above classification and in the order
listed.
SERIES IMPEDANCE METHOD
The simplest method of measuring high
voltage would appear to be to connect a
high impedance in series with a sufficiently
sensitive current measuring instrument hav-
ing a negligible impedance compared to the
value of the high series impedance, Z. Val-
ues of the indicated current, 2, would then
give the high voltage, V=7Z. The imped-
ance Z may, of course, be primarily resis-
tive, inductive, or capacitive or combina-
tions of these elements.
Series resistors —This basically simple
method has been widely used in nuclear dis-
integration work for direct voltage measure-
ments, wherein the impedance Z is built: of
many high resistance units in series (dia-
gram at A in Fig. 2), care being taken to
insure that the current entering at the high
voltage end of the resistor is the same as
that leaving through the deflecting instru-
ment at the low voltage end. For reliable
measurements it is necessary to be sure that
the electrical leakage across insulating sup-
ports of the resistor and from section to sec-
tion is negligible and that there is negligible
corona current from the units. Changes
arising from self-heating must be made
negligibly small or must be allowed for. The
design of such a series resistor should be
substantially the same as for the potential
divider type to be discussed later in detail.
Series reactors.—For alternating voltage
measurements, series reactors have been
used as the series impedance (3). They have
the drawback, however, of requiring iron
cores at lower frequencies if the inductive
reactance is to be made large in comparison
with the resistance of the windings. Stray
and distributed capacitance effects raise
additional objections so that series reactors
have been little used in high voltage meas-
urements.
36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
saa
<
VOL. 38, NO. 2
m. Am.
Fig. 2.—Diagrams of series impedors.
Series capacitors —For the measurement
of high alternating voltage, capacitance
may be used in series with the low voltage
indicating instrument, as indicated at B
and C in Fig. 2. The capacitor, which must
be relatively free from losses, corona, and
brush discharges, magnifies the effect of
harmonics present in the voltage wave form
unless the low voltage instrument is of the
capacitance type.? However, if harmonics
are present, corrections can be applied.
This device in a form for measuring high-
crest voltage was originally described by
Chubb (4) who employed the two spheres
of a sphere gap as the capacitor, the lower
and grounded sphere being insulated to
permit rectification of the capacitance cur-
rent to it. Such devices (5, 6, 7) appear to
have been used more generally in foreign
laboratories than in this country. The ar-
rangement is indicated at C in Fig. 2. Hae-
fely & Co. patented (7) such a device which
employs as one electrode of the high-volt-
age capacitor, a large insulated circular
segment of the lower sphere. The remainder
of the sphere serves as the grounded guard
for this segmental electrode. The upper
sphere serves as the high-voltage electrode.
2 Here the combination serves as a potential
divider and a low voltage electrostatic voltmeter
across a large capacitance gives effective values
of voltage independent of wave form.
These devices generally permit only a
rough computation of capacitance and
therefore need to be calibrated against some
other voltage standard, but they have the
advantage over the sphere spark gap of giv-
ing a continuous rather than transient indi-
cation of voltage when used with an elec-
trostatic voltmeter or rectifier-milliam-
meter combination. Although the early de-
vice of Chubb gave the crest value’ of volt-
age, later similar arrangements (9) were
devised that permit the determination of
both crest- and effective-values of voltage,
and when supplemented with a cathode ray
oscillograph or synchronous commutator
(8) give the high voltage wave form as well.
For relative measurements, this series ca-
pacitance method should be good to a few
tenths of one percent.
POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
The potential divider is essentially some
form of impedance with one or more tap
points permitting the measurement of the
voltage drop between tap points by a
method which preferably does not change
appreciably the current flowing through the
divider. The potential divider is connected
across the voltage to be measured. The
3 Except in the case of alternating voltages of
unusual wave form in which there are several
maxima (8).
io)
s
(op)
re
&
o)
~_
LY 0)
A
ple}
DM
fas}
bh
—_
a)
Fy
ao Rm
(e) a=
A 3S
A
ee
ae
A Ss
a fe|
—
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ma 6
» M
mS
aa
Quy
<D)
fe
TB)
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q
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.
resi
=.
Fes. 15, 1948
value of voltage measured between taps,
when multiplied by the ratio of the value
of the total impedance to that of the tapped
section then gives the value of voltage
across the total impedance. Potential di-
viders are commonly constructed of sections
of resistance, of resistance shunted by
capacitance, or of capacitance. Types of
each of these will be described.
Corona shielded resistor.—For a resistive
divider one may use 7 resistors, each of re-
sistance 7, all exactly alike (or nearly so),
connected in series, or one resistor (n—1)
times as large as the smaller one connected
in series with it, and across which the volt-
age drop is measured. For use at higher
voltages, both the electrical and mechanical
designs of the physical device require care.
Improvements in his earlier designs (10)
have been incorporated by L. 8. Taylor in a
resistor, not yet described, which is in
use in the measurement of the high rec-
tified voltage supply for a _ 1.4-million-
volt X-ray tube in the X-ray Labora-
tory of the National Bureau of Standards.
As seen in Fig. 3, the column at the left
side contains the corona-shielded. resistor,
which is installed immediately adjacent
to the column of 10 large cascaded-rectifier
tanks, each of which at maximum volt-
age contributes 140 kv to the total voltage
of 1.4 million. This arrangement provides
double shielding. The external system
seen in Fig. 3 has tubular connections
from the spun-metal corona shields to
each section of the cascaded supply. The
internal resistor assembly, also separately
corona shielded, is thoroughly insulated
from this outer system. Thus the currents
required by the outer shields are supplied
as a sectionalized direct load on the supply
independently of the measuring circuit.
This outer shield therefore takes care of
current flow arising from external ioniza-
tion, migratory dust particles, and minor
surface discharges as well as surface leakage
across the insulating columnar supports,
and relieves the internal resistor of the
resulting irregularly varying effects. In
addition, the separate outer shields provide
mutual field grading and the large top
shield is effective in shaping the general
electrostatic field. The internal resistor as-
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 37
sembly is sectionalized, each section con-
sisting of uniformly spaced wire-wound re-
sistors located between toroidally shaped
corona shields, which are electrically con-
nected to the end of each group of resistors.
Isolantite insulation is used for supporting
the resistors and the uniformly spaced co-
rona shields. The shields were constructed
of smooth copper-tubing of circular section
in order to provide satisfactory field grading
along the resistor and thus to insure free-
dom from corona discharge currents at the
highest intended operating voltage. The de-
sign provides for adequate insulation, me-
chanical support, and centering of this
Fig. 3.—1.4-million-volt rectifier column with
shielded resistor column on left side.
38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
column inside the outer corona shield. Each
section was adjusted and thoroughly tested
at rated voltage before assembly and subse-
quent measurements of individual sections
show their resistance to be practically free
from drift. These precautions were taken to
make sure that the current throughout the
resistor will be the same as at its low voltage
end where measurement of the current is
made; i.e., in order that the high voltage,
V, being measured is equal to nri where nr
is the total resistance of the stack of n
shielded resistors. Actually the current, 2,
is often determined by adding a small re-
sistor, 7, and measuring v=27r, by means of
a potentiometer.
Manganin wire-wound resistors and a
relatively large current of 1 milliampere
were chosen as design values in order to
minimize parasitic effects of leakage, ab-
sorption, and corona currents, and thus to
insure a resistor that would permit measure-
ments to 0.1 percent or better. A current of
1 milliampere corresponds to a load of 1.4
kilowatts, so that the resistor was designed
to dissipate a corresponding amount of
heat. Carbon or the so-called “‘metallized”’
radio-type resistors have a much higher
temperature coefficient and are in general
less stable than wire-wound resistors. Con-
siderable care must therefore be taken in
their use to insure freedom from thermal
and voltage effects. Although reduction in
self-heating and in energy loss in such resis-
tors may be secured by reducing the current
say to 0.1 milliampere, the effects of leakage
currents become relatively more important
and may contribute to some extent in re-
ducing the attainable accuracy to the order
of 0.5 percent. .
Still another consideration that should
not be overlooked is the shunting effect on
the resistance of the capacitance of the
shields. In the case of a resistor of the high
resistance type, sudden surges are easily
transmitted through the shunting capaci-
tances so that the measuring instrument,
which must be correspondingly more sen-
sitive, requires increased surge-protection.
Thus there are drawbacks to either in-
creasing the current in the measuring resis-
tor to values greatly exceeding one milli-
ampere because of increased energy loss, or
VOL. 38, NO. 2
decreasing it to values much below 0.05
milliampere because of the instability of the
resistance insulation, and of other troubles.
For much of the pioneering nuclear disinte-
gration work (1/1) carbon resistors available
in units of much higher resistance per unit
length than the wire-wound type have
proved both economical and useful.
It should be observed that the relatively
high shunting capacitance of the corona
shields of this type of resistor limits its
usefulness as a resistor for alternating cur-
rent measurements.
Capacitance shielded and guarded resistors
for alternating current.—The resistor di-
vider, in high favor for the measurement
of direct voltage, has certain specific defects
in addition to its relatively large consump-
tion of power. It necessarily has residual
inductance and stray capacitance associ-
ated with its resistance. As shown at A in
Fig. 4, each section 71--+ 7, may be con-
sidered as having at its terminals a lumped
shunting capacitance of value (i--- Cn,
and between its upper terminal and ground
a capacitance Ca---Cm. If the value of
capacitive reactance 1/27fCi is >r and
1/2xfC.>n7 and if the impedance used in
the measuring circuit shunting 7, is >rn,
the voltage division by resistance will be
trustworthy. As a result of the increase in
shunting effect of the stray capacitances
with frequency, these inequalities grow
less until the division of the applied voltage
is no longer proportional to resistance.
The shielded a-c resistor (12) minimizes
the effects of the unavoidable ground ca-
pacitances at the cost of additional energy
dissipation, by employing a second or guard
resistor in parallel with the first or “‘work-
ing’ resistor. This guard resistor is so con-
nected to the shields that it supplies current
to the ground capacitances that otherwise
would have to be charged through and
along portions of the working resistor. In
an a-c shielded resistor the working, or
shielded resistor, is composed of sections
of value r each contained within a metal
shield or box as indicated at B in Fig. 4.
Each shield is maintained at a potential
corresponding to the midpoint of its en-
closed resistor by connecting it to a tap
point on the proper section R,, of the guard
Fes. 15, 1948
resistor. Thus this arrangement makes the
value of each shunting capacitance definite
and supplies the ground capacitance cur-
rent from the guard circuit. This is ac-
complished at the cost of a slight increase
in the shunting capacitance of the indi-
vidual resistors because of the capacitance
to the shield in which they are located,
since one end of the enclosed resistor is
above and the other below the potential of
the shield. However, because the potential
difference across the capacitance of either
end of the resistor element to its shield is
only one-half the voltage drop in this sec-
tion of resistance r, the shunting effect
need not be excessive at low frequencies,
say 25 or 60 cycles. Such a resistor, com-
posed of about 25 shielded sections, is used
in a voltage transformer testing setup for
phase-angle measurements and ratio meas-
urements to 0.01 percent at the National
Bureau of Standards. This resistor is rated
at 0.05 amperes in each of the two (working
and guard) 500,000-ohm circuits. In this
device, which at 25 kv absorbs 2.5 kw, the
individual sections of the working resistor
are enclosed in metal shield boxes, which
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 39
are filled with oil in order to improve ther-
mal characteristics. This resistor is ar-
ranged in tiers, each tier consisting of four
working resistor boxes with corresponding
sections of the guard resistor supported on
a mahogany framework. Tiers are as-
sembled one above the other by means of
porcelain bus-type insulators, which serve
to provide additional insulation and to
permit bolting together of the resistor-
supporting frameworks to form a mechan-
ically stable assembly. Each box contains
20 flat mica cards wound unifilarly with
manganin wire. It is not feasible to extend
the range of a-c shielded resistors and retain
the same order of accuracy (0.01 percent)
by this procedure much above 30 kv because
of the effects of the capacitances which
shunt the guard resistances. The resulting
error increases as the fourth power of the
voltage.
An a-c shielded resistor of this type is
also satisfactory for use as a series resistor:
in conjunction with an indicating volt-
meter or sensitive oscillograph. It may be
used equally well on direct current but
would ordinarily not be used because its
Fig. 4.—A-C shielded resistor.
40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
4
VOL. 38, NO. 2
Fig. 5.—Surge resistor.
load on the source is greater than that for
the simpler corona shielded resistor.
Weller (13) devised a shielded a-c resistor
for use in transformer testing up to 132 kv
in which the shield current was supplied by
auto-transformers rated at 75 kva, instead
of by a tapped resistor.
Surge resistors.—In surge voltage testing
equipment used for studies of surge effects
on electric power and transmission equip-
ment, the fundamental component of volt-
age in a 14X40 microsecond wave’ is of
the order of 10° cycles per second. Hence
components as high in frequency as 10’
cycles per second are of significance in
fixing the wave form. The cathode ray
oscillograph used to delineate such surge
wave forms in conjunction with a potential-
dividing resistor is generally located at some
distance from the resistor and main dis-
charge circuit in order to avoid induction
effects from the large surge currents. Fig. 5
indicates the common method used for
connecting the resistor tap point through a
coaxial cable to the deflecting plates of the
oscillograph. The resistor is composed of a
series of resistance cards. Each card has two
similar windings wound in opposite direc-
tions and connected in parallel to reduce
4JT.e., one that rises to crest in 1} micro-
seconds and falls again to one-half crest value in
40 microseconds.
inductance. The cable connection to the
cathode ray oscillograph has a surge im-
pedance usually of the order of 50 ohms,
whereas the full-scale sensitivity of the
cathode ray oscillograph is of the order of
2,000 volts for a cold cathode-type and 200
volts for a hot cathode-type cathode-ray
oscillograph. Thus for full-scale deflection
the currents to a cable considered as a
resistance would be of the order of 40 or
4 amperes, respectively.
Resistance dividers for high-voltage
surge measurements are not provided with
corona shields because they would add
excessive stray capacitance but are often
so located adjacent to the surge generator —
itself that some degree of shielding and
field grading along the divider is secured.
Since a resistor for a 2,000,000-volt surge
measurement must be at least 700 cm. long
to provide adequate longitudinal insulations
and avoid flashover troubles in air, its
distributed and stray capacitances intro-
duce disturbing effects unless the resistance
is held proportionately low. Thus a divider
resistor for a 2,000,000-volt surge may have
a resistance as low as 5,000 ohms and, if
wire-wound, the wire must be of sufficient
diameter to carry high momentary currents
without damage. As a rule, accuracies of
the order of one percent are all that are
required. If it is desired to study surge com-
Fes. 15, 1948
ponents of the order of 10° or 10° cycles per
second the residual inductance of each ele-
ment and the distributed and particularly
the non-uniform stray capacitance effects,
assume especial significance in surge resis-
tor dividers. For those frequencies, sup-
plementary capacitance elements (14) may
be added to the resistance elements of the
divider in such a manner as to make uniform
the capacitance shunting effect on each
element and thus insure proper division of
the surge voltage and its correct delineation
by the oscillograph. The present interest in
better voltage measurements of surge wave-
fronts of duration less than one microsecond
should lead to improved designs of surge-
voltage resistor dividers.
The cathode ray oscillograph plays such
an important role in the field of surge-
voltage (and surge-current) measurements
that its contribution should be mentioned
at this point. Although its value for use at
lower frequencies should not be underesti-
mated, it stands alone in versatility for use
in high-frequency, surge, and pulse meas-
urements. It owes this versatility to the
small inertia of its electron beam, which
serves at the same time as the moving ele-
ment and pointer. The cathode-ray oscillo-
graph, with a suitable sweep circuit, am-
plifiers, shunts, and potential dividers, has
been developed into one of the most useful
pieces of electrical laboratory equipment
and covers a range from a few cycles per
second to frequencies of millions of cycles
per second. Developments in electron optics
and of new phosphors are constantly en-
larging the place of the cathode-ray oscillo-
graph as a useful precision device in spite
of the complication of its accessory equip-
ment. In the future an order of accuracy
better than 1 percent may be expected.
For most measurements, and especially
those of high voltage surges, its high effec-
tive impedance results from the low capaci-
tance between its deflection plates. The
energy loss, arising largely from stray ions
and electrons within the tube, is so small
as to be of little concern. Thus in the visual
or photographic delineation of wave, surge,
and pulse shape the starting point now
seems to be a calibrated cathode-ray oscillo-
graph except in very special instances in the
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 41
low frequency range where a higher order
of accuracy is required.
Capacitor dividers.—Because residual in-
ductance and residual capacitance effects
in a resistance divider are unavoidable, not
only in the resistance elements themselves
but also in their electrical connections, it is
natural to turn to the use of capacitance
elements for alternating voltage division.
The capacitance divider generally consists
of a single high-voltage guarded-electrode
capacitor in series with a low-voltage capac-
itor of very much higher capacitance. The
is
Lh hhh hhh
wt
AN. COAXIAL
CABLE in
finned copper
sleeving
WS
~ \ t
Qe hi oo rr
fi
Fic. 6.—Compressed-gas capacitor. Diagram of
Bousman and Ten Broeck capacitor altered to
include complete shielding of the working elec-
trode.
42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
residual inductance effects in capacitors are
minimized by properly shaping their sizable
conducting parts. The residual resistance
effects are minimized (1) by using high
grade solid insulation for the electrode sup-
ports in order to keep electrical leakage
through and across the surface of the insu-
lation low; (2) by using free-air or com-
pressed gases (15, 16) as the dielectric
because of their low dielectric loss; and
(3) by using electrodes with well-rounded
contours and smooth surfaces to insure
freedom from corona discharge. It is cus-
tomary to support the guard electrode on
its own insulation opposite the high-voltage
electrode and in turn to support the guarded
low-voltage electrode on the guard. The
insulation between the guard and the
guarded electrode is arranged to lie outside
the high electrostatic field so that dielectric
losses as well as surface and volume leak-
age to the working capacitance are mini-
mized.
The range of various types in free air is
limited by the breakdown voltage of air to
a practical value of about 15,000 v/cem
gradient. Churcher (17) has described a
capacitor for use at 300 kv, cylindrical in
form, with an over-all diameter of 2 meters
and a height of 7 meters. This unit is to
some extent an absolute standard as it
permits computation of its capacitance
from dimensions measured under normal
working conditions. To that extent it is
preferable to a smaller compressed gas
type (16) shown in Fig. 6° for use up to 300
ky, having an outside diameter of less than
1 meter and height over the bushing of
3 meters, and a shielded capacitance to the
high-voltage electrode of 50 micromicro-
farads. However, when the space available
is limited, the compressed-gas equipment
may be built to occupy about one-fourth
the space of a free air unit of the same rating.
The one advantage, which may be in part
psychological, of constructing a capacitor
whose capacitance can be calculated from
its dimensions lies in the care and precision
demanded in its design and manufacture.
§ In this figure the original design of Bousman
and Ten Broeck has been modified to show com-
plete shielding of the outer guarded cylindrical
section by the guard.
VOL. 38, No. 2
A rather recent and desirable circuit ar-
rangement using a compressed-gas shielded
capacitor for testing potential transformers
is described by Bousman and Ten Broeck
(16). Their circuit arrangement is similar to
a Schering bridge, i.e., a bridge in which
the A and X arms are capacitances instead
of resistances. The difference lies primarily
in the mode of supplying the voltage to the
bridge, the high-voltage arm (A) being
supplied by connection to the ungrounded
end of the high-voltage winding of the
transformer, and the low-voltage arm (X)
being connected to the ungrounded end of
the low-voltage winding. Thusif this bridge
is balanced when supplying power to one
winding of the transformer, one may de-
termine from the settings of the bridge arms
both the voltage ratio and phase angle of
the transformer. A simple reconnection of
the bridge arms to a suitable supply per-
mits quickly checking the constancy of the
bridge arm components before and after
ratio and phase angle measurements. Thus
in this bridge reliance for the ratio measure-
ment is placed primarily not on capacitanc-
es but on the -constancy of resistance
coils which are more suitable as reference
standards because of their stability, while
the phase angles are based on the air ca-
pacitors. An extension in range to higher
voltages might logically follow the arrange-
ment of Bousman and Ten Broeck without
serious reduction in the accuracy of 0.1
percent claimed for their equipment.
The subject of high-voltage wave form
should also be considered in connection
with capacitance dividers. Offhand, capaci-
tance dividers would appear to be ideal for
use with the cathode-ray oscillograph, as
its impedance is essentially capacitive reac-
tance. In surge measurements, however,
it is usually both desirable and convenient
to locate the cathode-ray oscillograph
at some distance from the surge circuit
in order to minimize inductive effects.
This involves the use of a fairly long
high-quality cable (preferably coaxial) con-
necting the divider to the oscillograph so
that the surge impedance of the cable,
primarily resistive, rather than the capaci-
tive impedance of the oscillograph plates
assumes the major role in the measurement
Fes. 15, 1948
circuit. Thus, as suggested earlier, a surge
resistor is to be preferred although surge
capacitor dividers (18) have been used. For
lower-frequency measurements this objec-
tion does not exist to the same extent and
capacitor dividers with cathode-ray oscillo-
graphs as well as with amplifiers supplying
electromagnetic oscillographs (string or
loop in use up to several thousand cycles
per second) have been found useful in
delineating wave form with an accuracy of
a few percent.
A eapacitance-divider method yielding a
high order of precision in delineating low-
frequency wave form is due to Silsbee (19)
who, in line with the early work of Rosa,
used a point-by-point method. In his device
a potentiometric balance by means of a
quadrant electrometer is obtained across
the low voltage portion of a capacitance po-
tential divider for as many points in a
repeated voltage wave as may be desired,
thus permitting the evaluation of crest-,
average-, and effective-values of the wave
form. This method requires a synchro-
nously driven contactor which may be. set
accurately for each balance point selected
for delineating the wave. The accuracy of
measurement is very high and appears to be
limited primarily by the steadiness of the
alternating voltage source, say to a few
parts in ten thousand.
TRANSFORMER METHODS
Voltage transformer—The method of
measuring high alternating voltage in com-
mon use in the United States employs a
step-down transformer termed a voltage or
‘notential’”’ transformer by the manufac-
turer in order to designate its intended use
in voltage and power measurement. The
high-voltage winding is connected across
the terminals of the voltage source to be
measured, a voltmeter is connected across
the low-voltage winding and its reading is
multiplied by the ratio of transformation to
obtain the value of the high voltage. The
ratio of voltage of the high-voltage winding
to that of the low-voltage winding of a
well-designed transformer remains nearly
constant over a wide range of voltage. The
measured values of ratio of well-built
transformers kept under normal laboratory
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 43
conditions have been found to remain re-
markably constant over long periods of
time, variations in ratio requiring for their
detection measurements having an accuracy
of the order of 0.01 percent. Departures
from nominal ratio have been determined
by resistance bridge methods (20) up to 30
ky with a precision of 0.01 percent and by
capacitance bridge methods up to 132 kv
with a precision of 0.1 percent or better
(16).
Where symmetrical multiple high-voltage
windings are provided in a voltage trans-
former the following “‘series-parallel prin-
ciple’ has been found valid for extrapolat-
ing measurements of ratio factor at low
voltage to permit their use at higher volt-
age. Within the voltage limits of a high-
voltage shielded resistor or capacitor, and
with the high-voltage windings in parallel,
measurements of ratio factor are made to
cover the voltage per coil range of the low-
voltage winding. The nominal ratio for
series connection is then multiplied by the
measured ratio factor at the same volts per
coil for the parallel connection. Reliable
measurements of effective alternating volt-
age by this method can be made to better
than 0.1 percent (20) and are in use up to
250 kv. The cost of transformers with such
symmetrical multiple windings increases
rapidly with voltage. Other less expensive
and less accurate (1 percent to 0.5 percent)
transforming devices such as (1) a number
of small chain-connected or cascaded trans-
formers (21, 22) and (2) a high-voltage
resistor (23), reactor (24), or capacitor
(25) in series with a small transformer, have
been introduced in Europe for measuring
high voltage but have not met with general
favor in the United States.
Supply transformer with high-voltage wind-
ing tap or with voltmeter coil Although the
use of a voltage transformer with only an
instrument connected as the burden on the
low-voltage winding represents the ideal
arrangement, it should be mentioned that
adequately precise values of high voltage
may often be deduced from voltage meas-
urements made on the low-voltage input
windings. This is particularly true if the
resistance and leakage reactance of the
high-voltage winding are low and the cur-
44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
rent drawn by the load on the high-voltage
winding is small. Better still, an instrument
connected between ground and a tap point
on the high-voltage winding (26) near its
erounded end may serve for measuring
a relatively low voltage which will be pro-
portional to the high voltage except in so
far as the voltage across the tapped section
of winding is affected by distributed and
stray capacitance currents which flow
through it from the rest of the high-voltage
winding. Fig. 7 shows three such 350 kv
60 c/s 1,000 kva transformers in the High
Voltage Laboratory of the National Bureau
of Standards. These units are shown con-
nected in cascade to give 1,000,000 volts.
Each unit has a high-voltage winding tap
VOL. 38, NO. 2
connection giving an accuracy of voltage
measurement of about 2 percent at full
load and correspondingly better accuracy
at lighter loads. Still another arrangement
consists in providing a third winding or
voltmeter coil (27) so located relative to the
low- and high-voltage windings that the
magnetic flux linked by it automatically
takes into account any voltage drop in the
high voltage winding arising from the load
connected to it. An accuracy of one-half
of 1 percent at full-load leading current and
better accuracy at smaller loads is claimed
for a good design. These latter arrange-
ments are not considered to be as trust-
worthy as the use of a separate voltage
transformer.
Fic. 7.—Three transformers connected in cascade to give 1,000,000 volts.
/
Furs. 15, 1948
A
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 45
B
Fic. 8.—Bipolar generating voltmeter.
GENERATING VOLTMETER
The generating (rotary) voltmeter (28)
first described by Kirkpatrick has been
useful in estimating local potential gradi-
ents and as an auxiliary control device. It
has been likened to a d-c generator, but
instead of currents induced by moving
Wires in a magnetic field it employs a
configuration of electrodes which permits
the commutation of charges induced on
plates alternately exposed to and shielded
from an electrostatic field. Fig. 8 shows the
diagram of a bipolar generating voltmeter.
Fig. 9 shows a ceiling-mounted type de-
signed by Behr that employs a sector disk
as the rotating element.
The fundamental idea has been incor-
porated in many designs. Because of the
necessity of alternately exposing and shield-
ing the active plates (electrodes) the gen-
Sed
erating voltmeter appears to offer greater
promise for use in relative measurements
than in absolute measurements. Thus it is
usually first calibrated in terms of other
satisfactory low-voltage standards, prior
to use at higher voltage, but it may be used
in those cases not requiring a high order of
accuracy and thus amenable to simplifying
assumptions for the purpose of computing
the high voltage from dimensions. By so
shaping the high voltage electrodes that
discharges and consequent space charges
are avoided it may be used by extrapolation
techniques to extremely high voltages both
on direct and alternating voltage. Without
an incorporated high-voltage electrode it is
essentially a gradient measuring device. It
has been useful in a study of atmospheric
electric charge and field phenomena re-
sponsible for lightning (29), and as a voltage
Fic. 9.—Rotating segments of Behr generating voltmeter.
46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
measuring device associated with high-
voltage generators of the Van de Graaff
type.
When the generating voltmeter is used
as a voltage measuring component (i.e., as
an instrument for determining a value of
gradient to be multiplied by a constant
factor in order to obtain the total voltage
difference) it is not sufficient that the fields
in the immediate neighborhood of the in-
strument shall be below corona or dis-
charge-forming values, but it is equally
necessary that the gradients at surfaces in
the neighborhood of the sample field as
well as those at the high-voltage electrode
be below discharge-forming values and that
there be no nearby relatively large sources
of air ionization or dust. The effect of dust
and charged particles may indirectly pro-
duce serious distortions in high fields by
being deposited and aligned on otherwise
smooth polished metal surfaces so as to
form the necessary points for initiating
discharges and consequent space charges
that would otherwise not exist. If the
charge on the surface of the segments al-
ternately exposed to the electric field is to
be in definite ratio to the total field, then
at no place in the field may the gradient
exceed the approximate breakdown gradi-
ent, 30 kv crest/cm, in air at NPT. The
practical limit is actually much lower. For
instance, the value of average gradient at
which self-propagating discharges occur
in the case of thunderstorms appears to be
about 10 kv/cem. In the ease of the Brooks
electrometer (30) discharges have been
known to occur between the parallel faces
of the electrometer plates when the voltage
applied divided by the spacing had a value
of 5 kv eff/ecm. Thus in air at NPT it is
doubtful that for a generating voltmeter an
average value of gradient exceeding 7 kv
max/em with an upper limit of 20 kv/em at
the electrode surfaces can be employed con-
tinuously without some error in measure-
ment arising from the above causes. Pre-
sumably this practical limit arises from
the almost ever-present small particles of
dust (insulating or semi-conducting) which
when deposited on the surface upset the
ideal condition of pointless smooth surfaces
one wishes to assume after the instrument
VOL. 38, NO. 2
maker has done his best to produce them.
With reasonable care and cleanliness in
assembly, dust has not been found to be a
problem in generating voltmeters operating
within a pressure chamber at higher gradi-
ents (31).
When used with suitable precautions, the
generating voltmeter offers a means of ob-
taining information not readily available in
other ways. For instance when its com-
mutating device is provided with a phase-
shifting mechanism and the rotor is syn-
chronously driven it provides a means of
determining wave form (32) at high voltage
with practically no load on the source being
investigated. It is effective on a rippled
direct voltage as well as on alternating
voltage. When used for determining wave
form it may be located in an undisturbed
and readily accessible portion of the high
voltage field. The generating voltmeter
method of determining wave form should
be good to a few tenths of 1 percent.
AIR SPARK-GAP BREAKDOWN
Sphere and rod gaps.—If an accuracy of
the order of 3 percent in determining crest
voltage is sufficient, as in the case of insu-
lator testing, the sphere spark gap in air is
useful as a crest voltage measuring device.
For voltages above 17 kv spheres of 6.25
em diameter and larger (up to 2 meter
diameter for approximately 2,000,000 volts)
operated under controlled conditions serve
as voltage standards for electrical break-
down measurements of dielectrics (33).
Earlier theories of breakdown of sphere
gaps assumed that pure air, as well as other
gases, has a definite breakdown strength or
breakdown gradient at normal pressure and
temperature. Paschen’s law relating the
length of the breakdown gap with air den-
sity permits correction for usual tempera-
ture and pressure variations. Russel, Dean,
Peek, and others have given empirical re-
lationships based in part on electrostatic
field theory for both sphere and cylindrical
gaps, which, although they fit well in a
limited domain of pressure and tempera-
ture, are not so satisfying as relations (34)
developed at a later date on the basis of the
newer atom-physical background. The de-
tailed work on discharges in gases by Loeb
ey Dep
Fes. 15, 1948
(35) and his collaborators as well as much
other valuable work in this field has pro-
vided a fairly satisfactory explanation of
some of the scattering of breakdown values
of spark gaps. Meek (36) suggests that in
the case of the shorter gaps the electron
avalanche initiated at the cathode con-
stitutes the usual initial process whereas in
the case of larger gaps the mechanism is
more akin to the positive streamer dis-
charge of lightning and originates within
the gap at some distance from the electrode.
For gaps of intermediate length there lies a
domain in which the initiation may be of
either variety and such gaps show a larger
scattering of breakdown values. The prob-
ability of a free electron existing in the right
location to initiate a discharge is, of course,
an important factor in the scattering of the
initial breakdown voltage when the time
of application of voltage is extremely short.
Irradiation (37) of small electrodes of the
gap with radium or with ultraviolet light to
produce photoelectrons is helpful in reduc-
ing this type of scattering but appears not
to be necessary in the case of large spheres
because of the much higher probability, in
the larger volume of air between the spheres
of the presence of an initiating ion or elec-
tron.
An idea of the effectiveness of ultraviolet
irradiation in reducing scattering may be
cited in the case of 12.5 em diameter brass
spheres. Irradiation of the spheres by an
open carbon arc reduced the scattering of
individual 60-cycle sparkover values by a
factor of 5 as compared with the results
obtained without irradiation. On the other
hand the average values of sparkover volt-
age were lower by from two to five percent
in the irradiated case, the amount of lower-
ing being dependent on the intensity of
radiation.
Basing his work on the detailed informa-
tion now available on the mechanism of
spark formation Ver Planck (38) appears to
have successfully correlated the enormous
amount of data on sphere spark gaps.
From the very nature of the spark be-
tween spheres and of corona on cylinders,
voltage measurements based on sphere
gaps and corona cylinders (34), because of
their dependence on surface shape, cleanli-
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 47
ness of the surface, and cleanliness of the
air, appear to be limited to a rather low and
questionable accuracy, say from 1 to 3
percent. When extreme precautions are
used by following a ritual of cleansing, the
use of ultraviolet irradiation of the spheres,
limitation by resistance of surface pitting
by the spark current, and by insuring
“cleanup” of the sparking surfaces of the
sphere gap through preliminary sparking, a
series of 10 or more sparkover values often
may be observed to agree to within +0.1
percent. However, this apparent high pre-
cision, equal to that of the high-grade indi-
cating voltmeter employed as part of the
equipment in making such observations, is
deceptive. Painstaking observations made
the following day under seemingly identical
conditions may agree among themselves to
the same precision but their average value
will almost invariably differ by several
tenths of one percent, and sometimes by
more than 1 percent from those made on the
previous day. In spite of its low order of
accuracy the sphere gap serves as a com-
mercial standard (33) for high alternating-
and surge-voltage measurements appar-
ently because of its basic simplicity. In
larger sizes it gives a useful measurement of
the maximum value of surge voltage and
essentially serves as a voltage limiter when
it is used in parallel with a device under-
going voltage-withstand tests.
Simple needle gaps, as a matter of his-
torical interest, were once accepted as al-
ternative standard voltage measuring gaps,
but as a result of the inherently high scat-
tering of values of sparkover voltage, varia-
tion in sparkover values with changes in
humidity, and large scattering in sparkover
voltage when used for measuring surge
voltage, they have been discarded as stand-
ards. Rod gaps (39) in which the elec-
trodes are used repeatedly as contrasted
with the formerly prescribed use of new
#00 needles for each sparkover of the needle
gap, have sparkover values which are also
affected by humidity to about the same
extent as the flashover of porcelain insula-
tion and appear to have replaced needle
(or point) gaps for those uses where gaps
are desired for correlating the flashover
voltage of insulators.
48
IONIC WIND VOLTMETER
The Ionic Wind Voltmeter described by
Thornton, Waters, and Thompson (40)
merits some mention because it represents
a unique application of a thermal method
to the measurement of high alternating
voltage. Use is made of the cooling effect
on a heated filament arising from ‘‘elec-
tric wind.”’ (See Fig. 10.) The heated fila-
ment, with a suitable grounded shield, is
located at a distance from the high-voltage
electrode in such a position that, although
in the electric field, it will always be below
corona-forming voltage. Ions that may be
present move back and forth as a result of
the alternating electric field and in striking
neutral molecules increase the general
molecular motion. This results in an in-
crease in cooling effect on the heated fila-
ment proportional to the electric field. A
filament that has a high temperature co-
efficient of resistance is connected in one
arm of a Wheatstone bridge. The bridge
out-of-balance indicator is then calibrated
in terms of the high voltage applied to the
Ionic Wind Voltmeter. Although this de-
vice may be constructed to have good
sensitivity and is useful as a control device
or relay, its indications are affected by
change in wave form and an accuracy of
only +2 percent is claimed for it.
ELECTROSTATIC VOLTMETERS AND
ELECTROMETERS
Electrostatic voltmeters and electrom-
eters basically depend for their indication
on a measurement of the force of attraction
between charges on the movable portion
of one electrode surface and charges of
opposite sign on another fixed electrode
surface. By arranging the movable portion
of the electrode to be part of a suitable
geometric surface—sphere, ellipsoid, or
plane—it is possible to devise an instrument
in which the voltage applied can be com-
puted theoretically from measured dimen-
sions and the measured force of attraction.
An electrometer designed to approximate
quite closely the theoretical assumptions as
to the conductor shape and relative di-
mensions required for simple theoretical
computations, and thus to permit computa-
tion of the value of applied voltage from
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 2
dimensions and the resulting force, is
termed an absolute electrometer. This is in
contradistinction to the term electrostatic
voltmeter, which signifies an instrument
that may be used for relative measurements
but that requires calibration by means of
some other standard of voltage measure-
ment. A number of designs of high-voltage
electrostatic voltmeters (47-51) have been
constructed. Such instruments require
much less electrical energy for their opera-
tion than an electrodynamic instrument
with a series resistor. Corners rounded suf-
ficiently to avoid electric discharges, high-
quality insulation, and electrode spacing
adequate to prevent discharges are pre-
requisites in the construction of both elec-
trostatic voltmeters and electrometers.
Electrostatic voltmeters —With a few ex-
ceptions (46, 47, 49) the high voltage elec-
trostatic voltmeters follow the pattern of
the Kelvin (52) guard-ring electrometer by
having a guard ring for the attracted disk
or movable electrode while placing less
emphasis on the flatness of the movable
electrode. Provision is usually made for
----
Fig. 10.~~Ionic wind voltmeter.
Fes. 15, 1948
change in range by adjusting the spacing
between the high-voltage electrode and
grounded electrode of which the moving
element usually forms a part. It is interest-
ing to consider the developments in these.
instruments over a few years as shown in
Figs. 11, 12, and 13. In the early design of
Abraham and Villard (47) (1911), Fig. 11,
the curvature of the disk and guard is
Fig. 11.—Abraham and Villard electrostatic
voltmeter.
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE
49
nearly spherical. The moving system is
rather massive with a separate damping
chamber within the guard. The Imhof (44)
(1926) design, Fig. 12, provides a flattened
guard ring and fits the light-weight at-
tracted electrode into its own damping
chamber. Starke and Schroeder (43) (1928)
in one model, Fig. 13, employed a relatively
larger flat-guarded electrode and a flat-
strip suspension for the movable rectangu-
lar flat electrode, P, providing it with a
mirror instead of a mechanical pointer, as
well as with a balanced damping chamber
arrangement. Nearby objects would be
increasingly less effective in producing de-
flection errors at equivalent spacings in the
later voltmeters. These voltmeters may be
read to closer than 1 percent but unless
calibrated in place, especially when used at
large spacings at maximum rated voltage,
are likely to be affected by nearby objects.
Ellipsoidal voltmeter.—The _ ellipsoidal
voltmeter of Thornton and Thompson
(58), illustrated in Fig. 14, is of the nature
of an electrometer and satisfactory theoret-
ical equations have been developed for it.
It, like the electrometer, depends on a
relatively undistorted axial field if it is to
be used as an absolute instrument.
The moving element consists of a metallic
ellipsoid of revolution carried on a bifilar
silk suspension and is provided at its lower
end with a reflecting mirror and damping
Fig. 12.—Imhof electrostatic voltmeter.
Pos
oe
tee
Ses:
50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
eenwaes as ees
CY eta f Sy LP Ph rh Be |
SSSA aaa *
VOL. 38, NO. 2
ee
ong
at
Fig. 13.—Starke and Schroeder electrostatic voltmeter.
vane. The ellipsoid is suspended with its
long axis horizontal and is centrally located
between two vertical circular plates facing
each other and at an adjustable distance
apart. Polarization of the ellipsoid by the
electric field established between the plates
by the source of voltage to be measured,
gives rise to a mechanical couple tending to
align the ellipsoid, which is initially set at
an angle to the horizontal axis perpendicu-
lar to both plates. Although the change in
the angular deflection of the ellipsoid may
be used as a measure of the voltage applied,
a more sensitive and rather interesting
method of voltage indication has been con-
trived which involves measuring the in-
crease in frequency of its swings when volt-
age 1s applied. Thus:
E=k(n?—n,?)'? (1)
where £ is the electric field strength, kis a
constant found from dimensions, 7 is the
number of swings per second with the volt-
age on, and n, is the number of swings per
second with the voltage off.
Sufficiently large plates are used and at
such a separation that the electric gradient
FE throughout a considerable volume along
the axis would be substantially uniform if
the ellipsoid were not present. Since the
disturbance effected by the ellipsoid is
small, the voltage applied to the plates is
V = Ea, | (2)
where d is the plate separation.
The instrument described was designed
for measurements up to 200 kv. As shown
schematically in Fig. 14 the plates were
140 cm in diameter and were spaced as
much as 100 cm apart (1.e., average gradi-
ent of 2 kv per cm). An exploration of the
field indicated that it was quite uniform at
the midpoint between the plates within a
radial distance of 25 cm; however, no study
of its longitudinal variation appears to have
been made. Great care was taken to insure
that the ellipsoids of revolution were ac-
curately shaped so that the theoretical
relationships would apply. One ellipsoid
of duralumin was 3.9692 cm long and 0.5970
cm in diameter and weighed 2.0496 grams.
The electric gradients at the tips of the
ellipsoids are considerably higher than the
average gradient between the plates. These
gradients must be kept well below corona-
forming values if disturbing effects from
electric wind are to be avoided. In its prac-
tical form where it is to be used as a de-
flection instrument for laboratory or shop
measurements an insulating enclosure is
provided for the suspension, ellipsoid, mir-
ror, and damping mechanism to shield
them against wind and dust. At the bottom
end of the moving-system assembly the
damping vane is suspended in a damping
chamber attached to a tube whose upper
end is cemented to the bottom of a hollow
glass sphere in which the ellipsoid is cen-
tered. The upper end of the sphere is ce-
mented to a second tube housing the bifilar -
Fes. 15, 1948
suspension and an adjustable suspension
control for changing the period of swing.
The control mechanism and the torsion
head are mounted at the supported upper
end of the tube. A spherical shape was used
for the hollow glass sphere enclosure for the
ellipsoid so as to permit a theoretical eval-
uation of the effect of the dielectric of the
sphere on the electric field H at the ellip-
solid. The theoretical correction derived
for this spherical glass enclosure agreed
well with experimental results when the
relative humidity was not high enough to
cause electrical surface leakage.
The ellipsoidal voltmeter is said to be
accurate to 0.1 percent and to be only
slightly affected by humidity. Because of
low average gradient, 2 kv eff/cm, it ap-
pears to be more bulky than other electro-
static voltmeters and is of interest mainly
because it is a unique arrangement per-
mitting absolute measurements.
Sparkless sphere-gap _ voltmeter.—Large
spheres ordinarily used as sphere spark-gap
voltmeters in measuring high crest-voltage
have been modified to permit their use as
electrostatic voltmeters for measuring the
effective value of voltage at spacings
slightly in excess of sparking distances.
This arrangement has been called a spark-
less sphere-gap voltmeter (47).
Hueter (46) employed a vertical ar-
rangement of 1-meter spheres. The upper
high-voltage sphere was supported on a
spring whose additional extension as a
result of the electrostatic force was magni-
fied by a lamp-mirror-scale arrangement.
The spring and the mirror optical-lever
»arrangement were mounted within the
sphere shank which was provided with a
small window. An external arc-lamp and
scale were mounted on an adjacent wall
in the laboratory and gave satisfactory
readings in daylight. The vertically adjust-
able lower sphere was grounded and its
driving screw mechanism was arranged to
indicate the gap length. The weight of the
upper one-meter sphere was 60 kg and for a
75 cm gap the electrostatic attraction was
approximately 800 grams at 1,000,000
volts. In order to minimize effects of
changing gap length, only small displace-
ments (less than 0.5 percent of the gap
length) of the spring-suspended sphere were
cA.
BES
px
lax
i
lax
Gamesy
las
cy
C)
Draught =
shield
ro)
peeeOy
H.T. ee
plate
H.T. eo
busbar ~——
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 51
used. An oil-cup damper made the sphere
motion nearly aperiodic. An accuracy of 1
percent was claimed.
Sorensen (47, 48) employed a horizontal
arrangement of l-meter spheres with rather
long slender shanks presumably in order
to reduce effects of attraction arising from
the shanks. The electrostatic attraction of
the grounded sphere could be readily meas-
ured as it was supported by suspending its
shank by four ropes tied to the shank at
the apices of the two thus-formed V-sus-
pensions. The upper ends of the ropes were
attached to ceiling members. This laterally
stable suspension possessed only a small
longitudinal stability so that differences in
longitudinal electrostatic forces of several
hundred grams could be measured to better
than one gram. A small wire in line with and
attached to the end of the grounded sphere
shaft ran over the rim of a bicycle wheel
thus insuring low friction. A small weight
pan attached to the end of the wire per-
mitted weighing the force of attraction.
These two sphere-electrometer devices
represent useful laboratory tools for they
can be calibrated and used as voltmeters
for measuring effective voltage. They can
Mirror & dashpot
Fia. 14.—Ellipsoidal voltmeter.
i
also be employed in the usual manner as
sphere spark-gaps for the measurement of
crest voltage. If one is satisfied with the
accuracy of the sphere spark-gap as a
high-voltage standard, measurement of the
voltage wave form permits calibration of
these devices as electrometers for the meas-
urement of effective voltage without re-
course to other methods. To a very limited
extent they may be considered to be abso-
lute electrometers, particularly if adequate
relative clearances to the floor, walls, leads
and other conductors and insulators are
maintained so that approximate corrections
can be made for the presence of these ob-
jects. Simple theoretical calculations of the
force of attraction can be made by the
method of image charges in the case of two
insulated or one grounded and one insulated
sphere. For a 25-cm spacing of his 1-meter
spheres Sorensen considered that no cor-
rection was necessary, and at 35 cm the
effect of shanks and other nearby objects
was sald not to exceed 1.5 percent.
One may hope for an accuracy approach-
ing 0.5 percent with the design of Hueter
in making relative measurements up to one
million volts. This would involve ample
clearance for the spheres and first calibrat-
ing by an accurate lower voltage method
using a separation of the spheres adequate
for one million volts and making certain
that corona-free electric field conditions
exist in the neighborhood.
Disk electrometers—About 1880 Lord
Kelvin made an outstanding contribution
by incorporating a guard ring for the disk
of the attracted disk electrometer. The
guard ring not only validified the use of the
simplifying mathematical assumptions in
computing the electrostatic force of attrac-
tion of the disk but it established the basis
for a design whose readings were less ef-
fected by nearby objects. When coplanar
with the guard ring the force
V2A
eae (3)
where V, the voltage is in electrostatic
units, A is the area of the disk, and d the sep-
aration from the opposite grounded plate.
For deflections of a guarded disk away
52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 2
from coplanarity, Snow (54) has developed
a mathematical solution which takes into
account the change in force arising from
change in position of the disk. This change
in force might at first appear only to vary
inversely with the separation d (shown by
a simple differentiation of equation (3)).
However, Snow has evaluated the addi-
tional change in force arising from the
redistribution of the charges, which in the
case of a protruding disk results in an
increase in concentration of charge at the
edge of the disk at the expense of the charge
on the adjacent edge of the guard plate
and vice versa in the case of a retracted
disk. Troublesome instability in disk elec-
trometers arising from this latter com-
ponent of force has for a long time been
recognized as a weakness in electrometers
designed to cover a wide range of voltage
measurement by adjusting the spacing d.
One may either elect to provide a linear
restoring force adequate for all spacings d
at a considerable sacrifice in sensitivity at
large spacings or provide for some adjust-
ment of the restoring force with change in
spacings at nearly constant maximum al-
lowable gradient. The restoring force re-
quired to balance the electrostatic attrac-
tion in high voltage electrostatic volt-
meters and electrometers has been pro-
vided by the following devices:
(1) Suspension of the moving electrode on one
arm of a gravity balance, 1.e., change of restoring
force secured by adjustment of e.g. of balance
relative to central knife edges (52, 30).
(2) Suspension of moving electrode on a coiled
spring (46, 61).
(3) Pendulous suspension of electrode (49).
(4) Suspension of disk electrode assembly on a®
flat-strip (torsion) suspension (43, 58).
(5) Suspension of the disk from a metallic
membrane (50, 81).
(6) By combining the torque provided by a
flat-strip supporting suspension with that pro-
duced in a current-balance arrangement of coils
which permits adjustment of the restoring force
(55) by change in current.
The last three types merit special men-
tion because of the novelty of their ar-
rangement. Fig. 13 illustrates the flat-strip
suspension arrangement of Starke and
Schroeder. The sixth of the above arrange-
ments, used by Nacken (55), employs two
pairs of “current balance”’ coils in a con-
Fes. 15, 1948
nection that permits adjustment of sta-
bility as well as of sensitivity. The restoring
force arises in part from the vertical strip
suspension which carries the disk with its
plane vertical as well as the two similarly
mounted astatically connected current bal-
ance coils. One pair of field coils with cur-
rent 2; is connected in series aiding one
moving coil and provides a torque propor-
tional to 7; for balancing the electrostatic
force on the disk; the other pair of coils
with current 7» 1s connected in series op-
posing so that by reversing 27,, and adjusting
its value relative to the current in the mov-
ing coil the restoring force of the strip
suspension toward the null or coplanar
position of the disk may be either opposed
or aided thus altering the stability of this
system by the simple adjustment of the
current in this pair of coils. Thus this ar-
rangement permits a desirable adjustment
toward higher sensitivity at large spacings
of the electrodes where the deflecting force
decreases.
The fifth of the above arrangements is
exemplified in the devices of Rogowski and
Boécker (50, 51) (illustrated in Fig. 15) in
which an elastic diaphragm D provides the
restoring force for the attracted disk. The
diaphragm supports an iron-cored coil
(above) which is actually part of a current
transformer (‘‘Messdose’’) constructed
with two air gaps in its iron core. The fixed
coil with its core form the other part of the
current transformer which is supplied from
a voltage-regulated alternating-current sup-
ply. Very small changes in the air gap
(moving coil position) suffice to produce
full scale deflections of an ammeter con-
nected across the moving coil and this am-
meter is calibrated to read the high voltage.
As part of this particular moving system,
arranged for use in a compressed gas en-
closure, a force coil (Druckspiile) K is sus-
pended below in an iron-clad solenoid es-
pecially constructed to permit a measure-
ment of force in terms of solenoid current.
This arrangement permits, prior to assem-
bly of the unit in the compressed gas cham-
ber, a direct calibration with known weights
on the disk for current in the solenoid
against deflections of the diaphragm as in-
dicated by the ammeter. This preliminary
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 55)
calibration with known weights against
current is made in order to permit subse-
quent checking of the calibration of the
electrometer by means of the current in-
stead of weights after it has been filled with
compressed gas.
Brooks absolute electrometer—The ab-
solute high voltage electrometer of Brooks
(30) (Figs. 16 and 17) is illustrative of what
can be accomplished in the way of precision
when the attracted disk is supported on
one arm of a gravity-type balance. Brooks’s
modification of the Kelvin electrostatic
attracted disk electrometer with guard ring
was designed for use in free air up to 275
kv on alternating voltage and was arranged
to allow a step by step experimental evalua-
tion of errors not readily calculable. In ad-
dition to a guard ring, it employed guard
(©) (©) (2)
[eM
Fie. 15.—Rogowski and Bécker compressed-
gas electrostatic voltmeter.
54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 2
hoops equally spaced between the guarded
and grounded electrodes. These guard
hoops, spaced 2 cm apart, are connected to
tap points on a potential dividing capacitor
also across the voltage source. Thus the
equally spaced hoops are maintained at
equally spaced potentials corresponding to
the voltage applied between the high-volt-
age (upper) and grounded (lower) plates of
the electrometer. The hoops not only screen
oN
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Bal Cay
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N
F&LLA,
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S
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Bled habe
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S SS
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obo
Fic. 16.—Brooks attracted disk electrometer (schematic).
Fes. 15, 1948
the disk from external fields, but by their
potential distribution tend to correct,
within their diameter, electric field distor-
tion that would otherwise arise from edge
effects at the upper guard ring and lower
plate. A mathematical solution of the con-
tribution to force on the disk arising from
these hoops has been carried through by
Snow (54) and Silsbee (30) and has been
demonstrated to be adequate by suitable
experimental tests. For instance by omit-
ting hoops, or electrically shorting various
sets of hoops, their potential distribution
was changed drastically. For such condi-
tions when the corresponding corrections
were applied based on the mathematical
solution and experimentally measured po-
tential distribution, very good agreement in
the measured values of voltages was ob-
tained.
As a result of the work on the Brooks
Absolute Electrometer, which was com-
pared with the transformer voltmeter
method of measuring voltage, it was con-
cluded that this instrument is reliable for
absolute determinations to about 0.01 per-
cent. This work was limited to 100,000
volts—approximately one-third its rated
voltage—because the clearances in the
space in which the equipment was housed
were inadequate. Results up to full rated
value, 275 kv, are not yet available. (With
the cessation of the war it is expected to
extend the measurements to higher values
of voltage in the modern High Voltage
Laboratory of the National Bureau of
Standards. )
6 The simple equation (3) may be rearranged
V.=2dV2F/A. This equation may be thought
of as being satisfactory for measurements yield-
ing an accuracy of 1 per cent. If an accuracy of
0.01 per cent is desired, correspondingly refined
experimental techniques must be employed and
additional physical measurements must be made
as indicated by the larger number of terms in the
complete equation for the voltage in electro-
magnetic units of the Brooks electrometer,
y,, sole the) ae A,—A,
o (ro +14) 2M rg
Y f(Sv—Sm) fhm
its (S»—So) ci 2¢ =P 9
Ree —1 h
—-> CC eee, (=) +¢2 (=) |.
k=1 2 Td Th
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 55
Compressed gas electrometer.—A consider-
ation of the compressed gas electrometers
of Tschernyscheff (56), Palm (57), Rogow-
ski, Bécker (50, 51), and others who at-
tained accuracies approaching 0.1 percent
leads one to consider whether additional
design features might be incorporated in
the compressed gas type in order to give
an accuracy approaching that of the Brooks
electrometer in free air.
Actually the matter of precise weighing
of the forces (less than 2.5 grams) on a
16-cm diameter disk, involved in the Brooks
electrometer offers no serious problem in
free air aside from the necessity of providing
a carefully thermostated enclosure to
avoid air currents. The possibility of having
correspondingly higher forces to measure
has its appeal. In the Rogowski and Boécker
voltmeter the maximum force of attraction
of the disk may reach 250 grams and is
measured to 0.2 grams. Thus the forces
employed in measurements are one hundred
times as large as in the Brooks electrom-
eter, however, the relative accuracy of
measurement of this larger force is less in
their device.
At the outset one would have to provide
a force-measuring device approaching the
accuracy and repeatability of a high-grade
gravity balance, i.e., something better than
that incorporated in the Rogowski and
Bocker electrometer. Smaller-scale length
measurement would have to be made with
about the same relative accuracy and the
flat metal surfaces of the plates would re-
quire a high quality optical finish. The
greatest loss involved in the use of com-
pressed gas rather than free air, as in the
Brooks electrometer, lies in the relative
difficulty of making and checking mechani-
cal measurements under pressure before
and after voltage observations.
The immediate gain from the use of
compressed air (15) or other gases (51B)
is to increase sparkover voltages nearly in
proportion to pressure. For instance in the
design for use to 400 kv alternating, Bocker
used carbon dioxide at 15 atmospheres
pressure which permits a gradient of 100
kv eff/em as compared with 2.5 kv eff/cem
in the Brooks electrometer as limited by the
present potential dividing capacitor con-
Ke
nected to the hoops. Gaseous ‘‘freon’’ (48)
(dichlorodifluoromethane) has between
smooth electrodes about 2.3 times the
breakdown strength of air at pressures up
to six atmospheres where it still remains
gaseous. In the case of points or sharp
edges the relative breakdown strength of
freon is still higher. Freon has the disad-
vantage of breaking down into highly
corrosive products if corona or other dis-
charges actually take place in it, making it
less desirable than carbon dioxide on that
account. Sulfurhexafluoride (S8C) appears
to offer some advantages over freon be-
cause of its greater chemical stability and
higher equilibrium pressure at normal
temperatures.
The greater size of the “free air’ as
compared with the “compressed gas’’ elec-
trometer appears to be its chief drawback,
making it too cumbersome at the highest
voltages.
DEFLECTION OF FREE-MOVING CHARGED
PARTICLES AND THE HIGH VOLTAGE SCALE
The cathode ray oscillograph and electro-
static (and magnetic) analyzers are ex-
amples of devices that employ the deflection
of free-moving charged particles. Employ-
ing for this discussion the relations given
by Hanson and Benedict (59), if a slowly
moving stream of charged particles is
accelerated in vacuo along an electrostatic
field of total voltage V, then
V.e=smv? (4)
where m is the mass of the particle, v its
velocity, and e the charge on the particle.
When a stream of particles with the velocity
v is directed between parallel plates perpen-
dicular to the electric field established by
the voltage Vz between the plates then for
the idealized arrangement of plates at the
far edge the deflection
d= V gel?/2Smv? (5)
where / is the length and S is separation of
the plates. For nonrelativistic velocities if
L is the distance to and D the deflection at
the screen or receiver
D=Ld/(1/2)=VaeLl/Sme? (6)
506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 2
so that
Va/Va=Ll/2SD, (7)
and if the relativistic velocities are taken
into account (59)
Vue
ye a eee
/ ( 2(E,+V.e)
)-Ly/2sp, (8)
where the rest energy L,=m,c? and m, is
the rest mass and c the velocity of light.
For relation (8) it may be shown that
the relativistic correction is about 1 percent
for electrons accelerated by a voltage V.=
10.5 kv and increases to about 14 percent
at 200 kv. The existence of a relativistic
correction of such magnitudes on account
of high electron velocity may be looked on
as somewhat of a nuisance and as a limita-
tion of the cathode-ray oscillograph when
used for the direct measurement of high
voltages. Applications of the cathode-ray
oscillograph therefore seem to have been
limited to the measurement of lower volt-
ages. As is well known, the beam-accelerat-
ing voltage source for V, is generally main-
tained as constant as possible in order to
preserve the sharpness of the cathode spot.
The voltage to be measured (or a fraction of
it from the voltage divider) is applied as the
voltage Vz to the deflecting plates. Va is
kept sufficiently low to leave the deflection
D materially unaffected by the relativistic
mass correction for velocity of the electrons.
At first thought the fundamental simplic-
ity of this method of measuring voltage is
decidedly appealing. It applies the accel-
erating voltage field directly to the elemen-
tary charge of the electron unhampered by
additional matter. As indicated above and
by equation (8) there is a disadvantage
because the resulting high electron veloci-
ties even for relatively low-voltage accel-
erating fields become so large that relativ-
istic corrections for moving charges must
be introduced. Thus on second thought, the
method involving the acceleration of elec-
trons appears far from ideal but an exami-
nation of equation (5) indicates the ad-
vantage to be gained by using charged par-
ticles of greater mass than the electron be-
cause of the resulting lower velocity. Al-
though what one might consider a practical
Fes. 15, 1948
device for everyday use in the measurement
of high voltage by deflecting a stream of
free-moving positively charged particles
has not been developed, the nuclear phys-
icist has used such a device in his work for
a number of years. To help him on his way
in measuring high voltages he has estab-
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE ov
lished the High Voltage Scale. A short di-
gression in explanation of how this was
accomplished seems in order prior to a
presentation of the contribution of the
free-moving charged-particle deflection-
method in this work.
The study of atom physical phenomena
+
e
og:
-
Fig. 17.—Brooks attracted disk electrometer.
58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
led to the physicists’ need for a voltage
reference standard of the order of 1,000,000
times the voltage of the standard cell.
Historically, one may go back to Planck’s
equation hy=Ve wherein fh is Planck’s
constant, v is the maximum frequency cor-
responding to the maximum accelerating
voltage V, and e is the value of the ele-
mentary charge. Duane and Hunt (60)
used a steady high-voltage storage battery
in order to evaluate A from a careful meas-
urement of the accelerating voltage V and
the corresponding maximum frequency
limit of the continuous X-ray spectrum
produced. Since those measurements were
made the value of h has been well estab-
lished by other methods. Thus this relation
affords a method of determining V by a
measurement of the maximum frequency of
emitted continuous X-radiation. Little use
has been made of this method as a high-
voltage reference standard largely because
of the accuracy required in evaluating the
frequency. With the advent of work on
nuclear disintegration a pressing need for
high voltage reference standards became
apparent as the usual extrapolation meth-
ods of measuring V, the particle accelerat-
ing voltage, were both cumbersome and
none too reliable. In early bombardment
work it was found that resonance radiation
of gamma rays occurred within a rather
narrow range of the voltage used in accel-
erating the protons. The early careful
measurements by Tuve, Hafstad, and Hey-
denburg (11) of the voltage at which these
radiations occurred provided the basis for
their adoption of certain values of voltage
corresponding to the resonance gamma ra-
diation for selected elements as fixed points
on the High Voltage Scale.
The measurement process for establishing
values for the fixed points on the High Volt-
age Scale consists in:
(1) Providing a source of protons which are ac-
celerated by a carefully measured adjustable volt-
age V.
(2) Directing this beam of protons on a target
of a selected element such as lithium or one of its
salts.
(8) Measuring the gamma-ray resonance radia-
tion effects by means of Geiger-Mueller counters
or similar devices which permit a quantitative
measurement of this radiation as a function of the
accelerating voltage.
VOL. 38, No. 2
From plotted curves of gamma radiation
against accelerating voltage (proton en-
ergy) the rather sharp maximum of gamma
ray effect fixes the value of voltage chosen
as the resonance voltage. By selecting
elements for these reactions in which a
single sharp maximum occurs and by care-
fully determining the corresponding volt-
ages in terms of the standard cell, the volt-
ages at which particular reactions occur
were established as reference points on the
High Voltage Scale. In a similar manner
but using a boron fluoride ionization cham-
ber (paraffin surrounding the target tube
and nearby chamber) instead of the Geiger-
Mueller counter, neutron counts may be
made for similar reactions In which neu-
trons are ejected from the bombarded tar-
get by voltage accelerated protons. In this
case points for the scale are determined by
gradually reducing the accelerating voltage
V and choosing that voltage at which there
is an abrupt decrease in ionization chamber
current as the limiting voltage for ejection
of neutrons is reached.
Early experimental values of voltage cor-
responding to the resonant radiation in the
bombardment of lithium by protons was
fixed at 440 kv for Li (py) with a probable
error of 2 percent and a relative accuracy
of 1 percent by Tuve, Hafstad, and Hey-
denburg (11) of the Carnegie Department
of Terrestrial Magnetism. A redetermina-
tion of voltage values for some of the fixed
points was reported in 1944 by Hanson and |
Benedict (59), of the University of Wiscon- . _
sin. Their electrostatic analyzer (a device
for determining the value of the electro-
static field at right angles to a beam of
charged particles that will deflect the beam
a given amount) was carefully constructed
so that its deflection constant could be
computed from dimensions as a check on
values determined experimentally. Their
experimental method employed an elec-
tron beam in place of the proton beam
used later in their evaluation of the fixed
points. The use of a low-voltage electron
beam (accelerating voltages of 8 to 20
kv) and of small deflecting voltages (150
tc 360 volts) permitted precise voltage
measurements and higher precision for de- —
termining the deflection constant of their
‘Fup. 15, 1948
analyzer than the absolute method consist-
ing of a computation of the deflection con-
stant using carefully measured dimensions.
Various refinements including the use of a
highly stabilized source for the deflecting
voltage and automatic regulation of the
ion-accelerating voltage reduced fluctua-
tions and contributed to highly precise
measurements of the fixed points on the
High Voltage Scale. Hanson and Benedict
consider the following values expressed in
terms of the Million Electron Volt scale
to be accurate to 0.3 percent: L1(py)
0.4465, F(py) 0.877, Li(pn) 1.883, Be(pn)
2.058. Their apparatus gave relative values
agreeing to better than 0.1 percent. Their
values are seen to agree within the toler-
ances given for the values of Tuve, Haf-
stad, and Heydenburg although they are
approximately 1.5 percent higher.
The establishment of the High Voltage
Scale based on a phenomenon unaffected by
temperature, pressure, and humidity except
as their abnormalities plague the collateral
work of the investigator, thus represents a
distinct step forward in the process of better
measurements and standards for high volt-
ages.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The principal methods in use for measur-
ing high voltages have been outlined
through the discussion of a number of
devices. Mention was first made of the
correlation of different methods of high-
voltage measurements through extrapola-
tion techniques in which the standard cell
was used as the primary standard of volt-
age. Absolute high-voltage electrometers
were later discussed and the good agree-
ment between their independently deter-
mined values when compared with a stand-
ard-cell voltage-extrapolation method was
noted. Concluding remarks cited the use of
both the standard-cell voltage extrapola-
tion-technique and a less precise absolute
method in establishing the voltage values
for certain fixed points on the High Voltage
Scale.
At the moment it appears that high
voltages as we know them in the laboratory
stop with values of the order of 10,000,000
volts. On the other hand, charged particles
DEFANDORF: THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE 59
come to us from space or may be accelerated
in the laboratory by resonance techniques
to have electron velocity equivalents ap-
proaching one hundred times that value.
Presumably the future holds in store some
new insulating arrangement for the col-
lector of the high energy particles that man
is able to produce—an arrangement that
will permit the collector to build up to the
unbelievable potentials we think of when
we hear of a new machine in the rumor or
blueprint stage that will produce 1,000
million electron-volt particles. Just what
such voltages will be used for and how they
will be measured I wish to leave as part of
your field of conjecture.
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Frs. 15, 1948
CHEMISTRY.—Standardization of the pH scale.
BATES AND SMITH: STANDARDIZATION OF THE PDH SCALE 61
RoGcer G. Bates and EDGAR
REYNOLDS Smi1TH, National Bureau of Standards.
The pH is not a definite thermodynamic
quantity, and the lack of a universally
accepted definition of the pH scale has led
to an unfortunate state of confusion. The
two scales of pHin common use at the pres-
ent time differ by 0.04 unit. Some workers
are using one definition for computations
and measuring a different quantity. To
correct this situation it is of primary impor-
tance that a single scale be generally adopted
(1).
Commercial pH meters of the glass-elec-
trode type are now found in nearly every
laboratory where chemical analyses and
tests are performed. These instruments
must be calibrated from time to time with
buffer solutions of assigned pH. Two difficul-
ties are encountered in any attempt to
measure pH accurately. First, neither the
concentration nor the activity of hydrogen
ion in a buffer solution can be exactly and
uniquely determined. In the second place,
the potentials at the liquid junctions be-
tween the various standard and unknown
solutions and the bridge solution of the
reference electrode can never be perfectly
matched or eliminated. Measured pH
values will still be uncertain for this reason,
even when exact standards are available.
Nevertheless, the larger differences due to
lack of agreement on a fundamental defini-
tion and on a method of calculation can be
avoided by the co-operation of all who
determine pH. As a means to this end, the
National Bureau of Standards proposes the
adoption of a standard scale of pH having
reference points based upon certain repro-
ducible buffers. In this discussion, the ad-
vantages and limitations of the several
common pH scales will be considered, and
the nature of the problems involved in an
evaluation of the hydrogen-ion activity of
the standard buffer solutions from electro-
motive-force measurements will be indi-
cated.
S. P. L. Sgrensen first proposed the use of
the hydrogen-ion exponent (Potenz) to
facilitate the designation of the extremely
1 Received September 2, 1947.
small concentrations of hydrogen ion of
physiological significance (2). This unit of
acidity will be called pcH. Its definition is
formulated
pcH = —log cy; ppeH=—log mz, (1)
where c represents volume concentration
(molarity or normality) and m is molality.
The hydrogen-ion concentration, it was
supposed, could be obtained experimentally
by measurement of the electromotive force
(emf, E) of a suitable galvanic cell. Sgrensen
chose the cell,
: 3.5-M | 0.1-M
Pt; H2(g), Solution |
KCl Res
Hg.Cl, (s); Hg, (2)
for the practical determination of pcH. The
vertical lines represent liquid junctions. Ion
transfer across these boundaries gives rise to
an unknown liquid-junction potential, E;,
which was partially eliminated by the ex-
trapolation procedure suggested by Bjer-
rum (3).
With the aid of standard solutions com-
posed of hydrochloric acid with and without
sodium or potassium chloride, Sgrensen
determined H°, the ‘“‘standard potential”’ or
‘normal potential’’ of cell (2). The hydro-
gen-ion concentration of these standard
solutions was taken to be the product of the
concentration of hydrochloric acid and the
classical degree of dissociation derived from
measurements of electrolytic conductance.
By definition, E° is the potential of cell (2)
when the hydrogen-ion concentration of the
solution is 1 normal. Sgrensen’s value of H°
0.5050 at 182 C (2 4.5, 6)« At. 25° C, the
standard potential is 0.3376 (6). It was in-
tended that the pH at 25° C of ‘‘unknown”’
solutions should be computed by the simple
equation,
_ E-0.3376
ae 3
8 0.0591 8)
where F is corrected insofar as possible for
the undesired potential at the liquid junc-
tion between the solution and 3.5-/V/ potas-
62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
sium chloride. This experimental pH value
defined by Sgrensen’s value of #° is not, as
he intended, pcH. It is designated psH in
equation (3). The constant 0.0591 in the
denominator is the value of 2.303 RT'/F at
25° C, where R, 7’, and F represent the gas
constant, absolute temperature, and fara-
day, respectively.
In the light of modern concepts, it is
clear that the laws of ideal solutions can not
justifiably be employed in this way. Nor
will the classical degree of dissociation
yield, as Sgrensen assumed, the hydrogen-
ion concentration of mixtures of strong
electrolytes. Activity now replaces concen-
tration in the equations for the emf. Indeed,
at a temperature of 25° C,
E—E’'—E; (4)
a2 So Seon
where a represents activity. The standard
potential, H”, is referred to unit activity
instead of normality and includes the
constant chloride-ion activity in the vicin-
ity of the calomel electrode. The activity, a,
is the product of concentration, c or m, and
an activity coefficient, f. If H; could be
evaluated, the exact hydrogen-ion activity
would be forthcoming. Unfortunately, the
eile
oe
no)
Q
PH NUMBER
no)
wn
fais
Tee
MnaAdc
Fic. 1.—pH of acetate buffer solutions at 25°C
on four different seales as a function of concen-
tration.
VOL. 38, NO. 2
liquid-junction potential can not be caleu-
lated without a knowledge not only of fx
and other activity coefficients but also of
the compositions of the multitude of transi-
tion layers of which the boundary is com-
posed. For this reason, the activity of a
single ionic species is without physical
reality (7).
The new concept of the thermodynamics
of cell (2) led to the definition of paH by
S¢grensen and Linderstrgm-Lang (4):
paH = —log ax. (5)
Although paH can not be determined by
thermodynamic methods, its character can
be simply and unequivocally defined in
terms of measurable mean activity coeffi-
cients. The paH scale has likewise been
defined in terms of the thermodynamic
ionization constants of weak acids in dilute
buffer solutions (8, 9, 10, 11).
The pH values, on these three scales, of
buffer solutions composed of equal molar-
ities of acetic acid and sodium acetate are
compared in Fig. 1. At infinite dilution,
paH and pcH are equal, for the activity
coefficient becomes unity by definition in
that limit. However, the Sgrensen value,
psH, remains lower by about 0.04 unit than
paH at all concentrations. The pwH, defined
as —log (agfci), changes but little with dilu-
‘tion. This unit will receive further mention.
When it is desired to convert psH to paH,
the following relationship will serve with an
uncertainty probably less than 0.02 unit:
paH = psH+ 0.04. (6)
The Sgrensen scale, or psH, is probably
the scale most widely used today. The pH
values given in the well-known monograph
of Clark (6) correspond to this scale. Yet
psH is neither —log ay nor—log cg. It usually
lies, in fact, between these. When a pH
meter is standardized on this scale, all
measured values must be corrected to yield
a quantity that can be employed in equilib-
rium computations, if they are to have
quantitative significance. The hydrogen-
ion concentration possesses the physical
reality that the activity lacks. A knowledge
of the hydrogen-ion concentration would be
useful, but this quantity can not readily be
determined by an emf measurement with
Fup. 15, 1948
the pH meter. For this reason, the activity
scale has been chosen as the most practical
for general use. We shall now consider the
assignment of paH values to the buffer
solutions that will serve as fixed reference
points on this scale.
Cells without liquid junction are not only
somewhat more advantageous from a theo-
retical standpoint than are cells with liquid
junction, but they are also more reproduci-
ble and can readily be measured at different
temperatures. They are, however, usually
impractical for routine measurements.
Efforts have been made at the National
Bureau of Standards to use emf measure-
ments of cells without liquid junction to
establish standards of hydrogen-ion activity
with which to calibrate the pH meter. Each
emf measurement of the hydrogen-silver
chloride cell,
Pt; H.(g, 1 atm), Buffer solution,
Cl-(m), AgCl(s); Ag,
yields a value of —log (fufcimn), if the
standard potential, #°, and the molality,
‘m, of chloride ion in the solution are known,
by the following equation:
(E—E)F
2.303RT
If the buffer solution is composed of a weak
acid, HA, and its salt, where HA is either a
—log (fafcimn) = +log mc. (8)
BATES AND SMITH: STANDARDIZATION OF THE DH SCALE 63
monobasic acid or an acid anion, and pK
for the dissociation equilibrium is known,
f, is also obtained unequivocally:
log f. Digg tlon
A
MHA
= pK —log a +log (fufcimn). (9)
A
The quantity —log (fafcymu) will be
termed pwH. Inasmuch as pwH is thermo-
dynamically exact, its use as a unit of acid-
ity has been suggested (12, 13). The pwH of
a buffer solution composed of a weak mono-
basic acid, such as acetic acid, and its salt,
however, changes but slightly with rela-
tively large variations in hydrogen-ion con-
centration, as shown in Fig. 1. For this
reason, —log (fafcimx) is often not a useful
unit of acidity in spite of the fact that it
retains its significance at all ionic strengths.
The paH is derived from pwH by adding the
logarithm of an ionic activity coefficient:
paH = pwH+log fei
MHA
= pK —log —log f,+log fei. (10)
Ma
Thermodynamics can offer no help in
estimating the activity coefficient of chloride
ion in equation (10). For this reason it 1s
usually necessary to resort to theoretical
equations or to assumed relationships
TABLE 1—paH or BUFFER SOLUTIONS WITHOUT CHLORIDE AT 25° C. COMPUTED FROM THE EMF orf CELLt (7)
Molality Toke mii for— paH, cells
Buffer system* of each pH p3H ps psH with liquid
strength 5 5
component +—4 a; =6 junction
Acetic acid + f 0.01 0.01 4.714 4.717 4.716 — — — 4.700; 4.714
sodium acetate.......... \ 0.1 0.1 4.648 4.663 4.663 = — — 4.640; 4.645
Acid potassium phthalate.} 0.05 0.053 4.002 4.011 4.010 — — 4.005 4.000; 4.010
: : 0.01 0.04 5.169 Sailr if 5.174 5.170 5.164 5.168
Acid pot
— 0.02 0.08 5.098 | 5.111 | 5.109 | 5.100 | 5.089 | 5.096
phthalate +dipotassium
_ 0.05 0.2 4.991 5.013 5.019 4.996 4.969 4.987
le Oe t! 0.4 4.907 4.940 4.960 4.919 4.867 4.902
( 0.005 0.02 GeO, 7.022 7.020 7.018 7.019 7.018 7.026
Potassium dihydrogen 0.01 0.04 6.956 6.964 6.961 6.958 6.961 6.959 6.963
phosphate+disodium — 0.025 0.1 6.856 6.871 6.873 6.858 6.865 6.860 6.858
hydrogen phosphate..... 0.05 0.2 6.767 6.789 6.796 6.767 6.783 6.772
0.1 0.4 6.663 6.696 6.716 6.660 6.693 6.671
] Se 0.01 0.02 9.177 9.182 9.180 — — — 9.178
0.025 0.05 9.172 9.181 9.179 — a --- 9.167
* When two components are present, their concentrations are equal.
64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
among the ionic activity coefficients in com-
binations that can be experimentally deter-
mined, such as mean activity coefficients or
f, of equation (9). These methods give
equivalent results in very dilute solutions.
Some of these assumptions will now be con-
sidered.
The equations of Debye and Hiickel (74,
15) represent observed values of the mean
activity coefficients of strong electrolytes
with considerable success. Thus the Hiickel
formula,
Azer/p
1+ Bai/p
might be employed to evaluate the activity
coefficient of an ion 2 of valence z;. In this
equation, A and B are constants at a par-
ticular temperature for the water medium,
whereas a; and 8; are parameters character-
istic of the mixture of ions. At ionic
strengths, u, below 0.1, the linear term can
_ often be compensated by a small change in
a; and the logarithm of the activity coeffi-
cient expressed satisfactorily by the first
term on the right alone. The magnitude of
a; 1s of the same order as the ionic diameter
in angstroms. Although the numerical
value of this parameter lies between 3.5 and
6.5 for many strong electrolytes, there is no
known basis for selecting the correct value
of a; for a single ionic species.
Inasmuch as cell (7) is reversible to hy-
drogen and chloride ions, it would not be
unreasonable to assume that the activity
coefhicient of chloride ion is about equal to
the mean activity coefficient of hydrochloric
acid in the buffer solution or in a mixture of
strong electrolytes of the same _ ionic
strength and composition with respect to
cations. Unfortunately, these mean activity
coefficients are often unknown. The mean
activity coefficient of hydrochloric acid in
its pure aqueous solution is well established,
however, over a wide range of concen-
trations (16, 17, 18). A practical scale of
paH can be defined by assuming the equal-
ity of fc, in the buffer mixture and fgo) in a
solution of hydrochloric acid of the same
ionic strength.
Another possible approach is the sepa-
ration of the measured f, into fo:and fra/fa.
—log fi= = Bip; (11)
Practical considerations limit this compu-
tation to buffer systems in which HA is an
anion, that is, to systems where A bears a
charge different from Cl. The partition of
f, might reasonably be based upon valence
relationships valid in very dilute solutions,
namely,
fa=fa—=fa—-—'? =f,
where A~, A~~, and A~—~ represent anions
with 1, 2, and 3 negative charges.
Two other separation formulas are most
readily described in terms of the parameters
of equation (11). When the acid, HA, is a
singly charged anion, it has been found that
,’, the limit of f, in chloride-free solutions,
can be expressed by
AvV/u
14+ Bay
One method of obtaining fc; assumes that a°
and 6° can be identified with a; and £; for
the computation of foi by equation (11).
The other method identifies a° with a; of
equation (11) and drops the linear or “‘salt-
effect’? term in computing fo; in a buffer
solution that contains no chloride.
These five assumptions lead to five differ-
ent paH scales (19). When —log fc) is com-
puted by the first term on the right of equa-
tion (11) with a value of a; not derived from
experimental data, the scale will be called
mili. The poH is that unit obtained by set-
ting fc; equal to fac; in a solution of the
same ionic strength as the buffer solution.
Partition of f, according to the relationships
assumed in equation (12) yields p3H. Iden-
tification of a° and 6° with a; and B; leads to
the unit designated psH, whereas omission
of the salt-effect term gives p;sH. The paH
of buffer solutions without added chloride is
thus expressed in terms of experimentally
defined quantities by the following equations:
(12)
log fiP= + Bp. (13)
pill =(pwH)*—Av/u/(1+Ban/u). (14)
poH = (pwH )?+log faci. (15)
p3H = (pwH)°— 1/2 log f,°. (16)
psH = (pwH)°—1/2 log f,°+3/2 6%. (17)
psH = (pwH)°— 1/2 log f,9+1/2 Bm. (18)
The relationship among these last three
VOL. 38, NO. 2 3
Fes. 15, 1948
paH scales is evidently given by
pal =p;H + 6u=p3H+3/2 Bu. (19)
In each of these equations the superscript
zero indicates that the effect of chloride has
been removed by extrapolation to a pure
buffer solution without chloride.
The paH at 25° C of several buffer solu-
tions on these five scales is listed in Table 1
and compared, where possible, with the paH
derived from measurements of cells with
liquid junction reported by Hitchcock and
Taylor (9) and by MacInnes, Belcher, and
Shedlovsky (11). Inasmuch as the choice of
a; in equation (14) is partially arbitrary,
two piH values, calculated with 4 and 6 for
a;, are given. When the ionic strength is
0.01, these differ by only 0.003 unit. The
pwH of the acetate, phthalate, phosphate,
and borax solutions was derived from pub-
lished emf data (19, 20, 21, 22).
It must be emphasized that thermody-
- namics offers as much, or as little, support
for the choice of one paH scale as another.
One cannot state categorically that a partic-
ular method of computation is wrong and
another right. The assumptions can only be
compared with respect to their reasonable-
ness. Chloride ion evidently plays a unique
role in these pH equations. None of these
formulas can qualify as adequate unless it
furnishes the same paH for a given buffer
solution in the absence of sodium bromide
or sodium iodide, for example, as it gives in
the limit of zero concentration of sodium
chloride. Electromotive-force measurements
of hydrogen-silver halide cells containing
phosphate buffer solutions with added
sodium chloride, sodium bromide, and so-
dium iodide (23) offer an interesting, though
not exhaustive, test of the adequacy of
these five methods of computation (19).
Both pwH and log f, were obtained for
varying ratios of halide to phosphate. The
limiting values in the phosphate buffer so-
lutions without halide were found by extra-
polation. By fitting f,° to equation (13), a°
and 8° were determined as well.
The paH of equimolal phosphate buffer
solutions on the poeH, p3H, psH, and p;H
scales was computed by equations (15),
(16), (17), and (18). The values on the last
four scales are shown in Fig. 2 as a function
BATES AND SMITH: STANDARDIZATION OF THE DH SCALE
65
of ionic strength. The lines representing
these scales are labeled 2, 3, 4, and 5. The
results derived from bromide cells are
marked with a single prime and those from
iodide cells with a double prime. Lines un-
marked save for the identifying figure repre-
sent data from the chloride cells. The dots
(curve 5) are the values of the NBS scale.
The upper and lower dashed lines locate the
pili curve when a; is arbitrarily assigned the
extreme values of 8 and 3 for the computa-
tion. The molality of each phosphate salt
is one quarter of the ionic strength.
The three sets of p2H values computed by
equations of the form of equation (15) from
—log (fufxmu), where X represents halide,
and the activity coefficient of the correspond-
ing halogen acids agree well among them-
selves but are from 0.01 to 0.03 unit higher
than curve 5 at ionic strengths between 0.1
and 0.2. It is noteworthy, however, that all
methods of calculation give essentially the
same paH at low ionic strengths. The course
of the true —log aq curve can never be ascer-
tained. Nevertheless, at ionic strengths of
0 0.04 0.08 O12
IONIC. STRENGTH
Fic. 2.—p.H, p3H, psH, and p;H of phosphate
buffer solutions as a function of ionic strength.
Curves representing the four scales are labeled
2, 3, 4, and 5. The values were derived from the
emf of cells with silver-silver chloride electrodes
(unprimed), silver-silver bromide electrodes (sin-
gle prime), and silver-silver iodide electrodes
(double prime). The dashed lines indicate the
course of the curve of piH for a; values of 8
(upper line) and 3 (lower line). The dots (curve
5) are the NBS values.
66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
0.01 or below, where all of these reasonable
assumptions give practically identical re-
sults, the paH can be said to possess some
measure of thermodynamic significance.
It is evident that the paH is markedly
affected at high or even moderate ionic
strengths by the assumption used in its
evaluation. For this reason, primary stand-
ards of hydrogen-ion activity should be
solutions of low salt concentration. Al-
though the true activity is unknown at the
higher ionic strengths, the NBS pH stand-
ards are consistent with one another over
the pH range 4 to 9.2 at all concentrations
to which the pH has been assigned. The
NBS scale is a true scale of activity at low
concentrations. At the higher ionic strengths
it is best regarded as a self-consistent scale
which, though based upon activity, per-
force embraces an assumption not subject
to experimental proof. This scale of pH ap-
pears to be the most convenient and useful
to adopt as standard.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Smiru, E. R., and Batzs, R. G. Comptes
rendus de la reprise de contact du bureau,
du consetl, et des commissions, a issue
de la seconde guerre mondiale, p. 63.
International Union of Chemistry,
London, July 1946.
(2) SéRENSEN, 8. P. L. Compt. Rend. Lab.
Carlsberg 8: 1. 1909.
(3) BspRruM, N. Zeitschr. Physik. Chem.
53: 428. 1905.
(4) SdrensEN, 8. P. L. Ergeb. Physiol. 12:
393. 1912.
(5) Sdrensen, S. P. L., and LinpERSTR¢M-
VOL. 38, NO. 2
Lane, K. Compt. Rend. Trav. Lab.
Carlsberg 15, No. 6. 1924.
(6) CLARK, M. The determination of
hydrogen ions, ed. 3. Baltimore, 1928.
(7) Taytor, P. B. Journ. Phys. Chem. 31:
1478. 1927.
(8) Coun, E. J., Heyrorn, F. F., and Mren-
Kin, M. F. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.
50: 696. 1928.
(9) Hircucockx, D. I., and Tayrtor, A. C.
Journ. Amer. Chem. Soe. 59: 1812.
1937; 60: 2710. 1938.
Kauxo, Y., and Arroua, A. Zeitschr.
Physik. Chem. A178: 437. 1937.
MacInnss, D. A., BeLcuer, D., and
SHEDLOVSKY, T. Journ. Amer. Chem.
Soc. 60: 1094. 1938.
GuGcGENHEIM, E. A. Journ. Phys. Chem.
34: 1758. 1930.
Hitcucock, D. I. Journ. Amer. Chem.
Soc. 58: 855. 1936; 59: 2753. 1937.
Desyre, P., and Hticxent, E. Physik.
Zeitschr. 24: 185. 1923.
Htcxet, E. Physik. Zeitschr. 26: 93.
1925.
Harnep, H. 8., and Enters, R. W.
Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 55: 2179.
1933.
SHEDLOVSKY, T., and MacInnss, D. A.
Journ. Amér. Chem. Soc. 58: 1970.
> 1936.
AKERLOF, G., and TEAaRE, J. W. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 59: 1855. 1937.
Batrs, R. G. Chem. Rev., in press.
Hamer, W. J., and Acres, S. F. Journ.
Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 32: 215.
1944; 35: 381. 1945.
Batss, R. G., and Acres, 8. F. Journ.
Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 34: 373. 1945.
Manov, G. G., DeLouus, N. J., Linp-
VALL, P. W., and Acrrz, S. F. Journ.
Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 36: 543. 1946.
Bates, R. G. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur.
Standards 39: 411. 1947.
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
ANTHROPOLOGY.—The true form of the cranial deformity originally described
under the name “‘téte trilobée.”! T. D. Stewart, U. S. National Museum.
Among the earliest accounts of deformed
skulls from America is one by Louis-André
Gosse, a Swiss physician-anthropologist,
published in 1855. Included in this essay,
which is concerned primarily with the classi-
fication of deformity types, is the first de-
scription of a skull from Isla de los Sacri-
ficios, a tiny island 5.5 km southeast of the
port of Veracruz, Mexico. Gosse’s descrip-
tion of this skull is of historical importance
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received September
9, 1947.
because the artificial distortion which it
exhibited which he characterized as “téte
trilobée”’ has influenced all subsequent gen-
eralizations regarding the distribution of de-
formity types in Middle America. Thus in
Dingwall’s book on cranial deformity
(1931, p. 154) it is stated that—
The skulls from Isla de los Sacrificios, near
Veracruz, where the Spaniards first saw the gory
remains of human sacrifice are unusually dis-
torted, and Salas [1921, quoting Gosse] describes
them as trilobed on account of the depressions
doubtless left by the constricting bandages. This
again suggests that at least two important forms
<a? ey
aa eae
Fes. 15, 1948
of cranial deformation were known in Central
America from early times, that produced by
boards and that produced by bandages.
Also, Imbelloni (1934, p. 65), in plotting out
the regions of deformity throughout the
hemisphere, says that—
[The Quiché-Huasteca] region presents deformi-
ties of the type [tabular erecto], with the peculiarity
of transverse grooves that, according to Gosse,
facilitated the carrying of burdens (they are what
Gosse calls trilobed). It comprises the coast of
Mexico corresponding to the province of Vera-
cruz (with the nearby Isla de los Sacrificios) and
Guatemala. (Free translation.)
Recently (1948) a careful archeological
investigation was made on Isla de los Sacri-
ficios by the Mexican archeologist Wilfrido
du Solier in the course of which several
skulls were encountered. Through the
kindness of du Solier I was able to examine
these skulls during my visit to Mexico City
in September 1946. So different from the
classical description of Gosse is the type of
deformity in these new specimens that I
have reviewed the whole subject with the
- interesting results that follow.
HISTORICAL
According to Gosse, his description of the
Sacrificios type of deformity was based upon
the cast of one of several male skulls brought
to France and deposited in the ‘‘Anthro-
pological Museum of Paris’ by a French
naval officer named ‘‘Reymond.”’ The cast
was made by a Paris physician, Guy the
Elder, and was seen by Gosse in the museum
in Geneva. The peculiar trilobed shape ex-
hibited by the cast is clearly shown in
Gosse’s drawings (Fig. 1).
In 1861, at a meeting of the Anthropologi-
cal Society of Paris, Gosse again referred
to this type of deformity; this time in con-
nection with his paper on a deformed skull
from Ghovel, Mexico. Here he uses the
term “‘trilobée’”’ synonymously with ‘‘occi-
pito-sincipito-frontale.”’ In explanation he
says (1861, pp. 576-577):
The impressions left on the skull seem to indi-
cate that the trilobed form was obtained by means
of a thick compress, narrow and long, extending
from the neck to the sinciput, that produced a
deep depression along the median line of the
occipital squama and along the posterior half of
the sagittal suture, thus dividing the back of
STEWART: THE TRUE FORM OF THE “TETE TRILOBEER”’
67
the head into two lobes. Moreover, one or two
small compresses were applied on the frontal and
the whole was held in place by the aid of two
bands, one transverse, passing over the sinciput,
and the other circular, passing around the base
of the skull. (Free translation.)
Further information on this type of de-
formity was supplied by Hamy (1884-
1891).? According to this author, the cast
seen by Gosse had been considerably altered
(“‘fortement remanié’’) and consequently
the description based thereon should be
modified in many important points (foot-
note 2, p. 91; footnote 1, p. 93). Further-
more, Hamy states that the skull from
which this cast was made may have come
from the Dumanoir collection (footnote 2,
p. 91). This was plausible because Captain
Dumanoir, who commanded the French
corvette Ceres, explored Isla de los Sacri-
ficios in 1841 and discovered sepulchers
there containing human remains (Mayer,
1844, p. 96). However, all this is difficult to
reconcile with Hamy’s specific statement
(p. 91) that the Dumanoir collection had
not been described before 1884.
Besides the Dumanoir collection, Hamy
mentions (p. 91) a collection made by a Dr.
Fuzier, who excavated at Sacrificios during
the French occupation (1838) and who gave
to the museum “‘a certain number’’ of more
or less damaged skulls. Three of these skulls
are shown in line drawings of the norma
verticalis in Hamy’s plates 10 and 11. No
other skulls from Sacrificios are specifically
mentioned in the text or tables of measure-
ments. A total of 6 specimens, 5 male and 1
female, without reference to collector, is
indicated in the table on Hamy’s p. 92.
In the plate illustrating the two skulls
from the Fuzier collection, which plate Iam
designating no. 10, are featured two other
skulls. These are stated in the legend to be
from Sabine Lake and the Reynaud collec-
tion. Referring to the relevant text (p. 98),
we find that—
2 This publication appeared in three parts be-
tween the dates given. Most bibliographies list
it as incomplete, perhaps because plate no. 18 is
missing. It does not appear that this plate ever
was printed. Moreover, two plates are given the
number 10, whereas none bears the number 12. I
have assumed from the wording of the text that
the plate illustrating the skulls from Sacrificios
and Sabine should be no. 10.
68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 2
Fic. 1.—Two views of the cast of a deformed skull from Isla de los Sacrificios,
Mexico, as illustrated by Gosse in 1855 (pl. 1, figs. 4* and 4°).
The skulls offered to the Museum of Natural
History of Paris by Admiral Reynaud under the
name of skulls from Sabine Gulf of Mexico do not
differ sensibly from those of the second type from
the island of Sacrificios.®
Footnotes 3 and 4 on the same page offer
the additional information that these
skulls—
... for a long time have been confused under the
name of Sacrificios, but their primitive label is
such that we came to transcribe it. Sabine is the
name of a gulf and of a river which forms the
boundary between Texas and Louisiana.
Our first type of Sacrificios was not encoun-
tered among these skulls. (Free translation.)
Line drawings of one of the skulls said to
have come from Sabine are shown in Fig. 2.
Readers will recall that Gosse attributed
the original of his cast to the collection of a
naval officer named ‘‘Reymond.”’ This
name is remarkably similar to that of the
admiral, Reynaud, who, Hamy says, made
the Sabine collection, which was believed
for a long time to have come from Sacrifi-
3’ Hamy’s second type of deformity corresponds
to Gosse’s ‘‘téte trilobée.’? Hamy’s first type is
based upon a single specimen and differs merely
in having a greater compression of the frontal
bone.
cios. Could it be, therefore, that one of these
names is an erroneous spelling and that the
same collector is referred to? If so, did Gosse
really describe a skull from Sabine instead
of from Sacrificios? Or is Hamy in error in
changing the locality of the collection from
Sacrificios to Sabine? These are important
questions, because if it can be proved that
this deformity type occurs as far north on
the coast of the Gulf of Mexico as the
boundary between Texas and Louisiana,
another cultural link between Mexico and
the southeastern United States will have
been established.
Further search in the literature has
brought to light two references that clarify
this subject somewhat:* (1) In Larousse’s
Grand dictionnaire universel du XIX* siécle
(1875, vol. 3, p. 1136) there is a biography of
a distingusihed French naval officer by the
name of Aimé-Félix-Saint-Elme Reynaud
who began his maritime career in 1827. In
1850 he became Captain of a frigate and in
1864 a Vice-Admiral. This biographical dic-
4J am indebted to Mrs. Elizabeth H. Gazin,
U. S. National Museum librarian, for locating
these references.
Fes. 15, 1948
tionary fails to list a ‘‘Reymond.”’ (2) A foot-
note to a paper by Serres (1855, footnote 1,
p. 46) reads in part as follows:
The ideal beauty that the Aztecs sought to
produce was favored by the normal elongation
of the bones of the skull and face of this tribe. By
compression they only exaggerated their normal
type. This is true also of the skulls which for the
first time have been given to the museum by Reynaud,
distinguished officer of the French navy and so far
found only in the island of the sacrifices, in the Gulf
of Mexico. All of the bores of the skull and face
are large, the inverse of the preceding. The com-
pression thus was exerted in inverse sense; it was
for the purpose of enlarging the skull and giving it
the trilobed form that they represent... . (Free
translation; italics mine.)
Since Serres’ paper was published in the
same year—1855—as that by Gosse, and
both he and Gosse refer to a collection of
skulls from Sacrificios given earlier to a
_ Paris museum by a French naval officer, it
seems reasonable to believe that they are
speaking of the same event.’ Furthermore,
since Serres gives this officer’s name as
“Reynaud” and there was a distinguished
°> Gosse (1855, Paris ed., p. 40) states that Prof.
Serres gave him permission to examine the speci-
mens in the anthropological museum.
STEWART: THE TRUE FORM OF THE “TETE TRILOBEE”’ 69
French naval officer by that name living at
that time, whereas Gosse gives this officer’s
name as ‘‘Reymond,” for which there is no
corresponding biographical record, it seems
likely that Gosse misspelled the name.
Such misspelling is understandable because
in longhand a’s may look like 0o’s, u’s like
n’s, and m’s like n’s.
What is still not explained is the later
confusion as to the provenience of this col-
lection. It seems to have been well estab-
lished in 1855 that Reynaud obtained it
from Sacrificios. And yet in 1891 Hamy
reports the old label as reading “‘cranes de
Sabine, gulfe du Mexique.”’ In view of the
improbability that a French naval officer
would have an opportunity just prior to
1855 to carry out archeological excavations
in the region of Sabine Lake (Texas-
Louisiana) and in view of the subsequent
failure to recover other skulls thus deformed
from either Texas or Louisiana, I believe
that Hamy was wrong in attributing the
Reynaud collection to the Sabine. There-
fore, I regard these skulls not only as ex-
hibiting a type of deformity characteristic
of Sacrificios, as Hamy admits, but as
actually coming from that place.
Fic. 2.—Two views of deformed skull no. 5 from the Reynaud collection believed by Hamy to have
come from Sabine Lake on the Texas-Louisiana boundary. Redrawn and reoriented from Hamy’s
illustrations of 1884-91 (pl. 10, figs. 1 and 5).
70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
DEFINITION OF TYPE
Taking into account this decision, let
us now summarize what is known about the
skulls from Sacrificios. All these, except for
the new finds of du Solier, seem to be in
Paris and to total at least 15. The early
collectors, who visited the island around the
years 1838-1841, were Dumanoir, Fuzier,
and Reynaud. The only firsthand descrip-
tions of the deformity are by Gosse (1855)
and Hamy (1884-1891). These descriptions
seem to be based upon extreme cases, for
both Gosse and Hamy admit that the arti-
VOL. 38, NO. 2
ficial characteristics are less pronounced in
the majority of cases than they have de-
scribed them. Thus there is good reason to
believe that the skull shown in Fig. 2,
which was illustrated originally only be-
cause it was believed to come from Sabine
rather than from Sacrificios, is more typi-
cally deformed. So far as I can discover
from the descriptions, only one skull has
the curious projection of the upper part of
the frontal bone illustrated by Gosse (Fig.
1). This one specimen seems to have fur-
nished the excuse for the name “téte tri-
Fic. 3.—Two views of a deformed skull collected by du Solier in 1943 on Isla de los Sacrificios,
Mexico. (Photographs supplied by the Museo Nacional of Mexico.)
Fes. 15, 1948
lobée”’ under which this deformity is gen-
erally known.
If we ignore this extreme case, the de-
formity can be recognized by the following
characteristics: (1) When the skull is held
in the Frankfort position the vertex or
highest point is at or near bregma; (2)
looked at from above, the skull is very
broad, sometimes broader than long; (3)
the posterior parietals are pressed down-
ward and forward, sometimes with ac-
companying compression of the frontal
and/or occiput (the latter tending to as-
sume a vertical plane); and (4) there may
be more or less of a depression along the
sagittal suture and behind the coronal su-
ture. A skull deformed in this manner sug-
gests that it has had its growth restricted
along the midline of the vault and conse-
quently that expansion took place laterally,
Also, when compression is high upon the
parietals the skull appears to have a low
vault.
The skulls recovered by du Solier are not
markedly distorted. Indeed, the lateral
view of the skull shown in Fig. 3 looks un-.
deformed. This is due to the fact that the
flattening of the posterior parietals in this
case 1s asymmetrical (see vertical view) and
the least involved side has been presented
to the camera. As a matter of fact, this
skull illustrates, if not ideally, the really
significant element of the Sacrificios de-
_ formity type; namely, the inclined compres-
sion plane involving the posterior parietals
and the upper part of the occipital. In ac-
cordance with current custom I am calling
this element of the deformity “lambdoid”
flattening, although it might with more ac-
curacy be called ‘‘obelionic’”’ (Stewart,
1939). As I have shown elsewhere (Stewart,
1947; in press), lambdoid flattening, with
or without frontal and/or occipital compres-
sion, made its appearance in late prehis-
toric times throughout a large part of Mexi-
co. Having seen numerous skulls with lamb-
doid deformity from other late sites in this
region, I have no doubt that this is the true
and significant form of the Sacrificios de-
formity type.
The so-called lobation (double or triple)
which is present in extreme cases of the de-
_ formity and which Gosse stressed, appears
STEWART: THE TRUE FORM OF THE “TETE TRILOBER”’ 71
to be a secondary feature. Owing perhaps
to the pattern of cranial growth under arti-
ficial restraint there is present sometimes a
postcoronal depression and a depression
along the sagittal suture. The opposite con-
dition, an expansion, usually characterizes
the midparietal parts in these cases. Thus
the effect is that of lobation. Because some
lobation can be found in all classes of de-
formity and wherever deformity was prac-
ticed, I attribute it to altered growth proc-
esses rather than to direct pressure from
longitudinal and transverse constricting
bands.
In view of what is here pointed out, gen-
eralizations regarding the distribution of
deformity types, such as that of Imbelloni,
are misleading where they have to rely
upon early descriptions of atypical speci-
mens and where the chronological sequences
have not been worked out.
LITERATURE CITED
DINGWALL, Eric JoHn. Artificial cranial de-
formation; a contribution to the study of
ethnic mutilations xvi+313, pp. London,
1931.
Du Souter, WILFRIDO. A reconnaissance on
Isla de Sacrificios, Veracruz, Mexico.
Notes on Middle American Archaeology
and Ethnology, Carnegie Inst. Washing-
ton, Div. Hist. Res., no. 14: 63-80 (mimeo-
graphed). 1943.
Gossz, L.-A. Essai sur les déformations arti-
ficielles dw crane. Ann. Hygiéne Publ.
et Méd. Légale, ser. 2, 3: 317-393; 4: 1-
83. (Also published separately in Paris,
159 pp.+7 pls.) 1855.
. Présentation d’un crane deformé de
Nahoa trouvé dans la vallée de Chovel
(Mexique). Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris 2:
567-577. 1861.
Hamy, E.-T. Anthropologie du Mexique. Mis-
sion scientifique au Mexique et dans l Amér-
ique Centrale. Recherches zoologiques pub-
liées sous la direction de M. Milne Ed-
wards. Pt. 1, 148 pp.+pls. 1-17, 19-21.
Paris, 1884-1891.
IMBELLONI, J. América; cuartel general de las
deformaciones craneanas. Actas XXVe
Congr. Internac. Americanistas (La Plata,
1932) 1: 59-68. Buenos Aires, 1934.
LAROUSSE, PreRRE. Grand dictionnaire uni-
versel du XIX siécle, vol. 3. Paris, 1875.
Mayer, Brantz. Mevico as it was and as it is,
x1i+390 pp. New York, 1844.
Serres, A.-E.-R.-A. Note sur deux Micro-
céphales vivants, attribués a une race amér-
icaine. Compt. Rend. Hebdomadaires
Séances Acad. Sci. Paris 41: 43-47. 1855.
72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Stewart, T.D. A new type of artificial cranial
deformation from Florida. Journ. Washing-
ton Acad. Sci. 29: 460-465. 1939.
. The cultural significance of lambdoid
deformity in Mexico. Amer. Journ. Phys.
Anthrop., n.s., 5: 233-234, abst. 10. 1947.
——. Distribution of the type of cranial de-
VOL. 38, NO. 2
formity originally described under the name
“téte trilobée.”’ El Occidente de México.
4e Reunidn de Mesa Redonda sobre
Problemas antropolégicos de México y
Centro América, 23 a 28 de septiembre
de 1946, Sociedad Mexicana de Antro-
pologia. (In press.)
BOTAN Y.—Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, III: Humboldtiella and
Callistylon.}
Next to Willardia the two plants most
frequently confused with Lonchocarpus in
America are Humboldtiella ferruginea
(HBK.) Harms and Callistylon arboreum
(Grieseb.) Pittier. Belonging as they do to
the tribe Galegeae, both of these shrubs or
small trees of arid open or sparsely wooded
slopes, coasts, and roadside thickets are
readily separable when bearing mature
fruit from Lonchocarpus and other genera
of the Dalbergieae by their dehiscent pods.
Their alternate (occasionally subopposite)
leaflets likewise distinguish them from
Lonchocarpus. But, like many tropical
shrubs, they have a tendency to drop both
pods and leaves toward the end of the dry
season and to burst into flower with the
first rains, generally before the new leaf-
buds have begun to expand. This leafless
flowering stage is particularly attractive to
collectors, and the superficial resemblance
between their inflorescences and those of
some of the Lonchocarpi accounts for the
large number of specimens in herbaria re-
ferred at least tentatively to the latter
genus. In this leafless condition both plants
seem to be most readily separable from
Lonchocarpus by their persistent, indurated,
awl-shaped stipules, by the lack of evident
bractlets, and by the conspicuous articula-
tion of the pedicels at both base and apex.
The calyx, with its deep tube, its compara-
tively long teeth, and its subbilabiate form,
so pronounced in the bud, might also be
considered diagnostic.
The combination of the half-dozen or so
characters, for the most part of fundamen-
tal taxonomic significance, here listed for
setting off these two plants from Loncho-
carpus is found in both the monotypic
genera Humboldtiella and Callistylon. Such
1 Received August 7, 1947.
FREDERICK J. HERMANN, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
an apparently fortuitous combination of
characters occurring simultaneously in sup-
posedly separate genera naturally raises the
question of their status, and an examination
of their history reveals that in each case
this has had a varied career.
First known of the two was Humbold-
tiella, originally described by Kunth in
Humboldt and Bonpland’s Nova genera et
species plantarum (6: 395. 1823) as Robinia
(?) ferruginea. The basis of Kunth’s de-
scription was a fragmentary flowering speci-
men, lacking leaves and fruit, collected by
Humboldt or Bonpland in the Quebrada
de Tacagua near Caracas, Venezuela, and
deposited in the quondam Berlin Herbar-
ium (Field Museum photograph no. 2079).
In 1924 Harms (Fedde Repert. Spec. Nov.
19: 12-14) pointed out its departure from
Robinia, in its rostrate carina and narrow
pod with unmargined lower suture, and
from Coursetia, which does possess these
characteristics, in its broad, short calyx-
teeth and its coalesced vexillar stamen.
Because of these discrepancies he proposed
for it the new genus Humboldtiella. Pittier,
however, maintained (Journ. Washington
Acad. Sci. 18 (8): 209. 1928) that the only —
character that would exclude it from Ro-
binia ‘is the absence of a conspicuous
margin on the upper suture of the pod,
which would certainly not be sufficient to
establish a new genus’’—a conclusion diffi-
cult to reconcile with the fact that the plant
differs from Robinia in possessing monodel-
phous stamens, a thick, fleshy calyx with
short, relatively blunt teeth, and articulate
pedicels, in addition to the rostrate keel
noted by Harms. At any rate, Pittier
seems to have abandoned his original low
opinion of the merits of Humboldizella for —
generic recognition, since in his latest work —
on the subject (Leguminosas de Venezuela, —
Fess. 15, 1948
I—Papilionaceas. Boletin Técnico No. 5,
Ministerio Agric. y Cria, Caracas, 1944) we
find (p. 152): ‘Como lo habia hecho entrever
el Dr. Harms, hace algunos ajios, la planta
que acabamos de definir no pertenece real-
mente al género Robinia. Difiere principal-
mente en la forma del c4liz y de las semillas,
en la ausencia de un ala en la sutura su-
perior de la legumbre y en otros detalles.”
The second plant, the Colombian ‘‘Ra-
moncillo,”’ was originally described as Cour-
setia arborea by Grisebach (Flora of British
West Indies, 183) in 1859. Harms considered
it, or at least such material of it as was
available to him, to be sufficiently close to
Robinia ferruginea to be relegated to its
synonymy in his transfer of the latter to
Humboldtiella. This fact seems to have been
overlooked by Pittier when he expressed
surprise at finding Coursetia arborea among
the numbers cited by Harms under his
Humboldtiella ferruginea (l.c., 208-209).
His own comment (‘‘Later, when revising
the Papilionatae for the Venezuelan Her-
barium, I was surprised to find that, among
the numbers cited by Dr. Harms as belong-
ing to his Humboldtiella ferruginea, one
(no. 5780) apparently corresponds to
Gliricidia sepium HBK., another (no.
9078) is unmistakably Coursetia arborea
Griseb., and only one (no. 6004) belongs to
the real Robinia ferruginea HBK...”’)
seems to be a more fitting basis for surprise
not only because one would logically expect
to find Coursetia arborea (Pittier 9078)
cited under Humboldtiella ferruginea when
treated as a synonym of that species but
also because at least the specimens in the
U. S. National Herbarium of the other
cited numbers bear out Harms’s rather than
Pittier’s determinations, that is, Pittder
8780 shows no resemblance to Gliricidia
but is typical Robinia ferruginea, while
Pittier 6004 is Coursetia arborea, not Robinia
ferruginea. Following his criticism of
Harms’s work, Pittier proposes segregating
Coursetia arborea as the type of a new
genus, Callistylon. In the proposal of
Callistylon, its distinctiveness from Cour-
setia is carefully elaborated ; but no reference
is made to its relationship with Humbold-
tiella until the necessity of keying out both
genera arose in the Leguminosas de Vene-
HERMANN: HUMBOLDTIELLA AND CALLISTYLON 73
zuela. Here we find (l.c., 189-140, 152) car-
ried still further a confusion in the char-
acters of Humboldtiella and Callistylon,
which was already apparent in the original
publication of Callistylon. In the proposal
of Callistylon the lateral calyx teeth are
described as more or less acute and the
lowermost tooth as acute, whereas a new
description of Robinia ferruginea accom-
panying the same paper states that the
calyx teeth in that plant are obtuse. Ex-
actly the reverse is true, however, as is
apparent from Kunth’s original description
of Robinia ferruginea (Humboldt & Bon-
pland 6: 395) as having the calyx “lobis
...acutis” and from an examination of a
photograph of the type specimen. In the
generic key to the Venezuelan Papilionatae
this inversion is perpetuated as ‘‘Dientes
del caliz cortos y todos obtusos...”’ for
Humboldtiella, and ‘‘Dientes del cAliz
alargados o desiguales, pero siempre el
carinal largo y agudo...”’ in the lead for
Callistylon and Coursetia together. The lead
setting off Callistylon from Coursetia de-
scribes the calyx teeth as ‘‘muy desiguales,
los 2 superiores obtusos y unidos, los la-
terales mAs cortos y agudos, el inferior otra
vez mAs largo y agudo,”’ but it is only in the
bud stage that the teeth could strictly be
called very unequal and the lateral teeth
shorter than the upper pair. In flowering
and fruiting material of typical Callistylon
arboreum the calyx teeth are subequal, the
lateral and lower ovate and obtuse to sem-
iorbicular rather than deltoid and acute as
in typical Humboldtiella ferruginea. The
original description of Callistylon calls for a
plant with leaflets ‘“‘petiolulatis ... ex-
stipellatis,’’ whereas the petiolules are ac-
tually stipellate, and describes the style as
glabrous as opposed to “‘basi glabro apicem
versus utrinque villosulo,’ whereas the
villosulous character applies equally well
‘to the styles of both plants. Callistylon is
originally described as having ‘‘bracteolae
parvae et inconspicuae,”’ but the generic
description in Pittier’s later treatment
specifies ‘‘bracteas y bracteolas nullas.”’
Diligent search of the 38 sheets of Callisty-
lon available to the writer has failed to
reveal any trace of bractlets, but the bracts,
although caducous, are fully as conspicuous
74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
during most of the bud stage as are the
equally evanescent bracts of Humboldtiella
ferruginea. Callistylon is keyed out from
Coursetia in Leguminosas de Venezuela by
the additional character of having ‘“‘valvas
de la legumbre de dehiscencia plana y no
elastica,’’ yet the elastic dehiscence of the
pods in the Pittier collections of Callistylon
numbered 7833, 10780, and 11447 (the
last cited under the original description)
could not be more striking.
There can scarcely be any question that
the peculiarities of the calyx alone in
Callistylon are sufficient to set it off generi-
cally from Coursetia, just as the calyx
morphology in Humboldtiella is adequate
basis for removing HA. ferruginea from
Robinia. But between Humoboldtiella and
Callistylon there appears to be no distin-
guishing character of generic rank. The
treatment of the two plants by Harms as
specifically indistinguishable, and Pittier’s
inability to consistently separate the two as
evidenced by his citation of his collection
6004 (typical Callistylon arborea) under
Robinia ferruginea, would seem to be signif-
icant corroboration of this view. It is
therefore proposed that the genus Callisty-
lon be abandoned, and that Coursetia
arborea be transferred as follows:
Humboldtiella arborea (Griseb.) Hermann,
comb. nov.
Coursetia arborea Griseb., Fl. Brit. W. Ind. 183.
1859.
Callistylon arboreum (Griseb.) Pittier,
Washington Acad. Sci. 18 (8): 212. 1928.
The submergence of this species in Hum-
boldtiella ferruginea by Harms is not difficult
to understand when one considers the prev-
alence of collections which are annoyingly
intermediate between the two. Of the 53 col-
lections of Humboldtiella in the U. S. National
Herbarium, 7 can be conscientiously referred
to H. ferruginea, 38 may be with varying de-
grees of confidence assigned to H. arborea, but
8 are too nicely balanced between the two to
justify outright committal in favor of one or
the other. On the other hand, the differences
between the typical forms of both plants (well
illustrated in plates 80 and 81 in Pittier’s
Leguminosas de Venezuela) are too fundamental
to permit of their being interpreted as mere
ecological extremes of a single polymorphic
species, nor is there a geographic segregation of
Journ.
VOL. 38, NO. 2
the two sufficiently marked to warrant their
designation as varieties (i.e., “subspecies,”
as currently employed with increasing fre-
quency). A hypothesis of hybridization be-
tween the two species, and that of a contem-
poraneous, fertile and vigorous type, would
seem to be the most plausible explanation of
the frequency of these transitional forms and
the comparative impurity of many of the forms
identifiable as possessing predominantly the
characteristics of one of the extremes. Geo-
graphically the specimens of H. arborea at
hand represent localities scattered throughout
most of northern South America north of
latitude 5°, from the Department of Bolivar,
Colombia, eastward to Trinidad and the Ka-
nuku Mountains in British Guiana; H. fer-
ruginea is almost restricted to the Venezuelan
North-Central States of Yaracuy, Carabobo,
Aragua, Distrito Federal and Miranda, with
one outlying station in Sucre; and the inter-
mediates are apparently centered in two dis-
junct areas, in the Venezuelan North-Central
States where the ranges of the putative parents
overlap and on Trinidad and the extreme east-
ern tip of the Paria Peninsula in Sucre, Vene-
zuela. The nearest authenticated specimen of
H. ferruginea is from a locality approximately
80 miles west of this second area of extensive
hybridization, although Pittier cites two
Trinidad specimens that are not available
for verification. Harms cites a Brazilian col-
lection under his H. ferruginea, as well as re-
ports for Panama and Guiana, but his concept,
of course, included both species.
The following key is an attempt to empha-
size the more constant characters by which the
two species may be separated. Pronounced
departures from these distinctions are indi-
cated in the citations of collections below.
Calyx slightly if at all gibbous, generally tapering
toward base, averaging 6 mm in length, densely
ferruginous-strigose, tube 1} to 2} times length of
lateral teeth; calyx-teeth typically deltoid, acute,
lateral averaging 2 mm long; leaflets generally
elliptic-lanceolate- to oblong-lanceolate, broad-
est below middle, acute, sparsely strigose above,
pilose-strigose beneath.......... H. ferruginea
Calyx typically gibbous on vexillar side, generally
rounded at base, averaging 5 mm in length,
with thinner and paler pubescence, tube 33 to 4
times length of lateral teeth; calyx-teeth typically
ovate to semiorbicular, obtuse, lateral averag-
ing 1 mm long; leaflets generally oval-elliptic
to oblong, broadest at middle, obtuse, typi-
cally slabrous):) io G50. see ree H. arborea
ae
ge
_ Fes. 15, 1948 CLARK: SOME INTERESTING STARFISHES AND BRITTLE-STARS
dillin and Antioquia,
SPECIMENS EXAMINED
(Allin U. S. National Herbarium, except Steyer-
mark collections in Chicago Natural
History Museum)
HUMBOLDTIELLA FERRUGINEA
VENEZUELA: Ll. Williams 12331, La Entrada,
Carabobo (typical); Pittier 7594, between El
Eneanton and Los Teques, Aragua (typical);
Pittier 9159, between La Victoria and Los Teques,
Aragua (calyx-lobes mostly obtuse); Pztizer 5780,
La Trinidad de Maracay, Aragua; F. Tamayo
1305, near Guayas, Aragua; Pittter 11956, Los
Moriches, Miranda; A. Allart 283, near Las
Moriches, Miranda; A. Allart 283, near Las Mos-
tazas, Miranda (calyx pale); Steyermark 62403,
between Cumanacoa and Cocollar, Sucre (calyx-
tube nearly 4 times the length of lateral teeth).
HUMBOLDTIELLA ARBOREA
Cotomstia: R. D. Metcalf 30017, between Me-
Antioquia; Dugand &
Jaramillo 2849, between Cartegena and Turbaco,
Bolivar; H. M. Curran s. n., Apr.—May 1916,
Island of Mompos, Bolivar; Bro. Elias 1192,
Puerto Colombia, Atlantico; Dugand 1181 & 323,
Barranquilla, Atlantico; Dugand & Jaramillo
4042, between Juanmina and Cuatrobocas, Atlan-
tico; Dugand 3640, Juanmina, Atlantico; H. H.
Smith 935, Santa Marta, Magdalena (calyx-lobes
acutish).
VENEZUELA: Pittier 10780, near Valera, Tru-
jillo; Pattier 13125, Escuque, Trujillo; F. Tamayo
1694, Valera, Trujillo; Saer 230, La Ruesga,
Lara; Saer 247, Barquisimeto, Lara (indument
ferrugineous); A. Jahn 1197, Humocaro, Lara;
Pittier 7665, between Valencia and Puerto Ca-
bello, Carabobo (typical); Pzttier 9078, between
Puerto Cabello and San Filipe, Carabobo (calyx-
lobes unusually acute); Pitiier 9413, same, in
fruit (calyx-lobes blunt); Pittter 7631, near Va-
lencia, Carabobo; Pittier 10310, between Caracas
and La Guaira, Dist. Federal; Killip & Tamayo
37053, Santa Lucia, Miranda; Pittier 6004,
79
Siquire Valley, Miranda (typical); Pztiter 7833,
Guatire, Miranda; Pvttter 11447, El Sombrero,
Guarico; Archer 3025, between El Sombrero and
La Democracia, Gudrico (typical); Ll. Williams
12566, El Cristo, Bolivar (calyx acute at base);
Steyermark 61488, Bergantin, Anzoategui; Brown,
Gillin & Bond 21, Paria Peninsula, Sucre; Broad-
way 796, Cristébal Colén, Sucre; Broadway 809,
same (typical).
TRINIDAD: Brition 478, Teteran Bay; Britton
485, same (leaflets broadest below middle); Brit-
ton, Hazen, & Mendelson 523, Patos Island;
Britton, Freeman, & Watis 2704, Chacachacare;
A. Fendler in 1877-1880, without definite locality;
Britton & Broadway 466, Lady Chancellor Road.
BritisH Guiana: A. C. Smith 3092, Kanuku
Mountains.
HUMBOLDTIELLA ARBOREA X H. FERRUGINEA
VENEZUELA: Pittier 12601, San Pedro, Yaracuy
(calyx nearest H. arborea; leaflets nearest H.
ferruginea); Pittter 8196, between Puerto Cabello
and San Esteban, Carabobo (calyx proportions of
H. arborea, but lateral teeth rounded-deltoid;
indument dense, dark); Ll. Williams 10400,
Carmen, Aragua (calyx gibbous but tapering at
base, densely hairy, the tube only twice the length
of the acute lateral lobes; leaflets of H. arborea);
Broadway 266, Cristébal Colén, Sucre (calyx pro-
portions of H. arborea but teeth nearly deltoid,
varying to broadly obtuse; leaflet shape and size
of H. ferruginea, but glabrous); Broadway 813,
same (calyx proportions of H. ferruginea and lat-
eral lobes acute, but vesture pale; leaflets blunt,
not broadest below middle).
TRINIDAD: Broadway s. n., March 7, 1930 (lat-
eral calyx-teeth deltoid but the tube 4 times their
length; indument pale); Broadway 3619, without
definite locality (calyx proportions intermediate,
the tube 3 times the length of the lateral teeth;
leaflets blunt, but broadest below middle);
N. L. & E. G. Britton 2201 coastal thicket (calyx
teeth deltoid but tube 33 times as long).
ZOOLOGY .—Some interesting starfishes and brittle-stars dredged by the Atlantis
an the mid-Atlantic.
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu-
tion has recently submitted to me for ex-
amination, through Dr. Louis W. Hutchins,
a small but interesting collection of star-
fishes and brittle-stars dredged by the At-
lanizs in the mid-Atlantic. The expedition
on which these were found, Cruise No. 150
of the Ailantis, was sponsored by the Na-
tional Geographic Society, Columbia Uni-
? Contribution from the Woods Hole Oceano-
graphic Institution No. 410. Published with the
ermission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian
nstitution. Received November 5, 1947.
im
fi
AusTIN H. Ciark, U. 8. National Museum.
versity, and the Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution. I am much indebted to the
Institution and to Dr. Hutchins for the
privilege of studying this collection.
The species represented in the collection
are the following:
Hyphalaster parfaiti E. Perrier
Locality —Atlantis station 15; mid-Atlantic
west of Gibraltar (lat. 35° 37’ N., long. 30° 51’
W.); 3,200 meters; August 16, 1947. Seven
specimens.
Notes—The details of the seven specimens
are as follows:
76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 2
Cribriform United The arms beyond the swollen basal portion
Specimen R r organ marginals ; ‘ ‘ -
are in cross section triangular with the apex
1 34 mm 14 mm. 7 10 rounded, about as high as broad, becoming
: es if d i higher than broad toward the arm tips.
4 30 7m 7 8 The adambulacral plates have a strongly
5 27 11 7 8 curved crest which is set at an angle of about
: - : . ; 60° with the axis of the arm, the distal end of
Pythonaster atlantidis n. sp.
Description.—R =165 mm, r=28 mm. The
height at the center of the abactinal system is
26 mm. The rays are 31 mm wide at the base,
tapering rapidly to 10 mm at 30 mm from the
base, from this point tapering gradually to 3
mm at the tip. A shallow interradial sulcus
runs from the middle of each interradius to the
center of the disk. The animal may be de-
scribed as broadly stellate, with each point of
the star produced into a long and slender arm.
There is no abactinal skeleton, but the skin
is filled with minute rounded plates, which are
almost contiguous on the disk and arm bases
but become scattered on the outer part of the
arms. Among these are the much larger and
denser circular lenticular plates, which carry
the groups of spines.
On the midline of each ray, running from the
center of the disk to the end of the swollen
portion of the arm bases, is a band 10-15 mm
wide consisting of groups of from 2 or 3 to
about 10, commonly 5 or 6, very slender and
delicate spines 2-3 mm long arising from a
common base on a deeply embedded lenticular
plate, the whole enclosed in a bag of thick skin
by which the spines are entirely concealed. In
a patch about 15 mm long on the inner part of
the disk these spine-containing sacculi are in-
termixed with papulae. On the disk this band
of sacculi is bordered on each side by a patch of
bare skin through which the large eggs, 2 mm
in diameter, are visible. These bare patches
may bear two or three sacculi including 4-7
spines. The apical region is closed by 5 large
radially placed triangular flaps consisting of
numerous delicate spines enclosed in a web of
thick skin. The madreporite is situated at the
inner end of an interradial sulcus at the outer
end of the line between two of these valves or
flaps. Just beyond the central valves and bor-
dering the interradial sulcus for about half its
length are a few cup-shaped structures consist-
ing of about a dozen slender spines radiating
upward from a common base and enclosed in
thick skin.
each crest being considerably farther inward
than the proximal end of the crest following.
These crests carry a row of 8-10 slender spines
which are closely placed with their swollen
bases contiguous and are united by a web;
the innermost spines are about 1 mm long,
those following gradually increasing in length
to the outermost, which is 3 mm long. The
outer part of each adambulacral plate bears a
single much stouter spine 4 mm long, these
stouter spines supporting a broad fin-like web
which runs along the actinolateral border of
the arm resembling the actinal web of many
Pterasteridae. Beyond the proximal swollen
portion of the arms the adambulacral spines be-
come reduced in number, being usually 5.
Running upward from each adambulacral
plate to the dorsolateral border is a band about
1.5 mm broad composed of numerous fine
spines arising in small groups, sometimes
singly, from a row of independent concretions,
the whole band being enclosed in a continuous
envelope of thick skin. Beyond the swollen
proximal portion of the ray the bands of the
two sides meet in the middorsal line. Distally
these bands become narrower, the concretions
bearing only 1-3 spinelets.
The pair of mouth plates is 9 mm broad at
the mouth edge, 2 mm broad on the outer bor-
der, and 7 mm long. The line of union of the
two plates is raised into a rounded erest. The
inner border at the mouth edge is everted and
curved, and the outer borders are somewhat
concave. The everted inner border of each
mouth plate bears 4 large spines, beyond
which are 5 much smaller spines. There are no
spines on the actinal surface. The mouth
plates recall those of some of the Pterasteridae,
as for instance Hymenaster perissonotus.
The mouth is circular, 23 mm in diameter.
The very large stomach is empty. The tube
feet, in two series, are large and stout and end
in a large sucking disk.
On the arms beyond the swollen basal por-
tion the ambulacral plates are long and slender.
The sides of the lower half diverge gradually
so that the end adjoining the adambulacrals is
Fes. 15, 1948 CLARK: SOME INTERESTING STARFISHES AND BRITTLE-STARS 77
- about 2 mm broad, the central portion of the
plate being only 0.5 mm wide. The upper third
of the ambulacrals is abruptly broadened in
the form of a broad Y with very thick arms.
When viewed from the exterior the distal arm
of the Y is entirely concealed by the proximal
arm of the Y of the ambulacral following, which
imbricates over it. This causes the ambulacrals
when viewed from the exterior, to appear ab-
ruptly bent proximally, but when viewed from
the interior they are seen to be straight with
both arms of the Y about equal.
The adambulacrals as viewed from the ac-
tinal edge are seen to be narrowly rhombic,
about 3 mm long and 0.75 mm wide. The inner
side of the lower angle of the rhombic figure is
abruptly swollen, appearing as if a rather thick
flat pad had been soldered to it. The distal edge
of this pad is evenly curved and bears the spines
that form the adambulacral comb. The stout
adambulacral spine is situated at about the
middle, and widest part, of the adambulacral
plate at some distance from the comb-bearing
pad and entirely out of line with it. The adam-
bulacral plates are strongly imbricated so that
the large spine is in line with the spines of the
comb of the plate following, to which it appears
to belong unless the arm is cleaned, when its
true relationship becomes apparent.
Just above each adambulacral and parallel
to its long axis, lying practically on its surface,
there is a long, slender and delicate plate 4 or
5 times as long as broad, and a little over half
as long as the adambulacral; in some cases
_ there are two of these lying closely side by side.
These plates appear to be vestigial marginals.
In a line from these vestigial marginals to
the midradial line, as viewed from the inner
surface of the skin, there is a regular row of
elongate sharply carinate plates 2 or 3 times as
long as broad closely placed with their long
axes parallel. Between these regular columns
of elongate plates (from the center of which on
the outer side spines arise) there are very
numerous and closely packed minute concre-
tions.
Distally the plates in these columns become
smaller, fewer, and more widely spaced, and the
concretions become more widely scattered.
Locality Atlantis station 15; mid-Atlantic
west of Gibraltar (lat. 35° 37’ N., long. 30° 51’
W.); 3,200 meters; August 16, 1947. One speci-
men (type, U.S.N.M. No. E. 7175).
Notes—The genus Pythonaster, the sole
genus in the family Pythonasteridae, includes
only the type species Pythonaster murrayti
Sladen described from a single specimen
dredged by the Challenger at station 323 east
of Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1,900 fathoms,
on February 28, 1876.
The type specimen of P. murrayz is slightly
smaller than the type specimen of P. atlan-
tidis, and the bases of the rays are much less
swollen; but this difference may be due to the
occurrence of large masses of eggs in the type
of B. atlantidis.
According to Sladen’s description and figure
the actinolateral areas of P. murray? are tra-
versed by regular rows of isolated skin sacks,
whereas in P. atlantidis these skin sacks are
coalesced into continuous lines. The skin sacks
on the abactinal surface of P. murray are much
smaller and more widely separated than those
of P. atlantidis in which they are almost or
quite in contact.
In P. murray: the adambulacral combs are
composed of about 6 spines the number be-
coming reduced to 5 distally. In P. atlantidis
there are 8-10 proximally, 5 distally. In P. mur-
rayi the outermost and largest spine on the
adambulacrals is counted as one of the comb,
being united to the next by a web. In P. at-
lantidis the outermost spine on the adambulac-
rals is abruptly larger than the others and rela-
tively much larger than in P. murray and is
joined to the outermost spines on each side by
a web, all the spines together and the web
forming a continuous broad actinolateral web
or fin which appears to be absent in P. mur-
ray.
The mouth plates of P. murrayi as figured
are not of the same shape as those of P. at-
lantidis. They bear 3 or 4 large inner mouth
spines and 3 small outer ones instead of 4 large
and 5 small as in P. atlantidis. Furthermore,
there are in P. murrayi spines on the actinal
surface of the mouth plates which are not pres-
ent in P. atlantidis; however, in the latter these
may have been rubbed off during capture.
With only a single specimen of each species
it is impossible to form any idea of the limits
of variation. It is possible, though not probable,
that P. atlantidis is a more fully developed ex-
ample of the species represented by P. mur-
rayt. It is also possible, though not probable,
that P. atlantidis is a female of the species of
which the type of P. murray is the male; but
Sladen did not give the sex of his specimen.
78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Asteroschema inornatum Koehler
Locality.—Altlantis station 6; mid-Atlantic
east of Bermuda (lat. 30° 06’ N., long. 42° 08’
W.), 1,554 meters; August 8, 1947. One speci-
men.
Notes.——As the original description of this
species was brief and lacking in detail the fol-
lowing supplementary information derived
from the present specimen may be of interest:
The disk is 6 mm in diameter, stellate with
truncated angles and regularly incurved inter-
radial borders; the outer ends of the radial
shields are raised about 0.75 mm above the
arm bases. The arms are about 60 mm long,
slender, 1.3 mm broad at the base and tapering
gradually to a delicate tip; they are only
slightly higher than broad.
The disk is covered rather thickly with mi-
nute granules of coarse and spongy structure.
The radial shields are rather broad, widest in
the middle, the outer border having a broadly
obtuse median angle, and those of each pair are
almost in contact. They extend inward for
about two-thirds distance to center of disk.
The first two tentacle pores have no scales.
The next five have a single tentacle scale. Those
following have two scales of which the large
inner scale is about a segment and a half in
length. At the arm tip the outer scale is only
slightly longer than the inner, but neither as-
sumes a hooklike shape. The larger inner scale
is cylindrical in the basal third or fourth, from
that point being less dense and tapering to the
tip. The distal three-fourths bears on the outer
side numerous long and slender sharp spine-
lets, longest near the tip, which through the
dried skin appear as small conical points. There
are similar but smaller spinelets on the inner
side. The small outer scale is similarly armed.
There are 5 stout triangular teeth.
On the sides of the jaw plates within the
mouth there are about 8 rather large and well
separated granules; these are irregularly scat-
tered, the group as a whole running upward and
outward, the outermost being a pair, one on
each side of the uppermost tooth.
The skin of the arms contains large delicate
filmy plates that appear to form an almost
continuous pavement.
The color in alcohol is pale dull pinkish, be-
coming dark purple on the outer half or more
of the tentacle scales.
This species was described by Prof. René
Koehler (1907) on the basis of two specimens —
dredged by the Talisman in the Gulf of Gas-
cony (the inner part of the Bay of Biscay) (lat.
45° 59’ N., long. 6° 29’ W.) in 1,480 meters,
coral bottom, on August 30, 1883. Sanderson |
Smith (1888) gives this station as No. 156. —
Koehler gave the color in alcohol as white.
A single specimen was subsequently dredged
by the Princesse-Alice at station 2248, in lat.
37° 02’ 30” N., long. 27° 35’ W., in 1,478 meters,
on September 6, 1905 (Koehler, 1909). In his
report on the Princesse-Alice echinoderms
Koehler did not amplify his original descrip-
tion, but he gave a colored figure showing the
animal as deep pink, lighter on the radial
shields and becoming lighter on the arms after
the basal 20 mm.
Ophiura inornata (Lyman)
Locality— Atlantis station 15; mid-Atlantic
west of Gibraltar (lat. 35° 37’ N., long. 30° 51’
W.); 3,200 meters; August 16, 1947. Seven
specimens.
Notes.—In these specimens the oral shields
are in most divided into two elongate plates —
meeting in the median line as an angle of about
90°. The jaw plates, the adoral shields, and the ©
two sections of the oral shields are similar, and
of about the same size, appearing as three
similar chevrons.
In a small specimen one of the oral shields
is undivided. In other cases it appears as if the
third or outer chevron was composed in reality
of a pair of supplementary plates intercalated
between the oral shield, much reduced in size,
and the adoral shields.
Opiomusium armigerum Lyman
Locality.—Atlantis station 15; mid-Atlantie
west of Gibraltar (lat. 35° 37’ N., long. 30° 51’
W.); 3,200 meters; August 16, 1947. Two spec- |
imens.
REFERENCES
KoEHLER, RENE. Descriptions des ophiures nou-
velles recuetllies par le Travailleur et le Talis- |
man pendant les campagnes de 1880, 1881,
1882, & 1883. Mém. Soe. Zool. France 19:
(for 1906): 30, pl. 3, figs. 46, 47. 1907.
. Résultats des campagnes scientifique ac-
complies sur son yacht par Albert 1¢°, Prince |
souverain de Monaco, fase. 34: 205, pl. 7,
fig. 1. 1909.
SmitH, SANDERSON. Lists of dredging stations in |
North American waters from 1867 to 1887.
Ann. Rep. Commissioner Fish and Fisheries
for 1886: 871-1016 (p. 984). 1888.
: |
VOL. 38, NO. 2 “
Rae Te
Fup. 15, 1948
PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY
79
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY
414th MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS
The 414th meeting of the Board of Man-
agers, held in the Cosmos Club, January 12,
1948, was called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the
_ President, Dr. Watpo L. Scumirtr. Others
present were: H. 8. Rappieys, N. R. Smiru,
H. A. Renver, M. A. McCatt, H. B. Cotuins,
JR., J. S. Wann, A. Wetmore, W. W. RuBEY,
L. E. Yocum, W. A. Dayton, C. A. BeErTts,
A. O. Foster, C. L. Gazin, and, by invitation,
G. P. Watton, J. I. Horrman, E. A. CHaPin,
and A. T. McPHERSoN.
The Chairman of the Committee on Mono-
graphs, Dr. E. A. CHAPIN, announced that
estimates had been obtained from several
printers for the publication of Dr. HerBert
FRIEDMANN’S monograph The Parasitic Birds
of Africa. These ranged from about $1,500 to
$2,500 for 1,000 paper-bound copies. Buckram
Jinding increased the estimates $450 to $460.
From the record of the sale of Dr. Friedmann’s
earlier monograph of the cowbirds, Dr. Chapin
considered that the present volume, published
possibly as a supplement to the JouRNAL,
_ would in all probability pay its way and
- recommended that the Academy accept it.
The monograph was referred to the Board of
Editors for further review and recommenda-
tions.
Ten persons were elected to membership.
The Chairman of the Committee on Science
Legislation, Dr. A. T. McPusrson, briefly
summarized current activity in science legisla-
tion, on which he would report more fully
at the annual meeting. His talk was concerned
principally with the progress of the Foreign
Scholarships program and on H. R. 3342. Dr.
McPherson proposed that serious considera-
tion be given to the formation of a study group
on science legislation. By an informal showing
of hands the outgoing Board recommended to
the incoming Board that a Science Legislation
Committee or Study Group be reappointed for
the coming year.
The Acting Chairman of the Committee on
Academy Awards for Scientific Achievement in
1947, Dr. Henry B. Co.tins, JR., presented
the following recommendations for the three
subcommittees:
Biological Sciences: None.
Engineering Sciences: HARRY WARREN WELLS,
of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of
the Carnegie Institution of Washington, in
recognition of his distinguished upper-air re-
search and organization of a world-wide network
of ionospheric stations.
Physical Sciences: Dr. RopERT D. Huntoon, of
the National Bureau of Standards, in recognition
of his distinguished service in the advancement
of electronics and its applications to other sci-
ences and to modern ordnance.
The Board accepted the recommendations,
but during the discussion it developed that
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age limit of award winners. The Board voted
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during the year for which the award was made.
The Chairman of the Committee on the
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SEEGER, reported as follows:
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and published for the first 40 volumes
and for each succeeding 10 volumes.
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(standing and special) of the Academy be
80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
published on the third cover page (inside
back) of each issue of the JouRNAL.
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reference to occasion of delivery), and
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The Board voted that the recommendations
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The Secretary, Dr. C. L. Gazin, announced
the death of Maj. Gen. Grorcrs PERRIER,
honorary member, formerly of Paris, France,
on February 16, 1946; Harprr CHAMBLISS,
formerly of Catholic University of America, on
June 1, 1947; and Ropertr H. LomsBarp, for-
merly of the Norton Company, Research
Laboratories, Worcester, Mass., on October 11,
1947.
Dr. Harvey IJ. Curtis was transferred to the
list of retired members, effective December 31,
1946.
The following letter to the Secretary from
Dr. P. W. BripG@Man was read to the Board:
It is a great pleasure to learn that I have been
transferred from regular membership to honorary
membership in the Washington Academy of Sci-
ences. Will you please express my appreciation to
the Board of Managers.
The Treasurer, H. 8S. RappLeye, announced
that the auditing committee had met that
morning, examined his books and the Academy
securities, and gave him a “clean bill of
health.’”? He announced also that the transfer
of investment certificates to an account book
form in the First Federal Savings and Loan
Association, as authorized at the 413th meet-
ing, had been made.
The President, Dr. W. L. Scumrrt, stated
that expenses of the Meetings Committee had
exceeded the amount of the budget for this
purpose and that in order to secure outstanding
speakers he had paid out $100.30 more than
allowed. It was his hope that, at the close of
the Academy Year 1947, the unexpended
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committees might be transferred to that of the
Meetings Committee, up to the amount of
$100.30, but without increasing the budget for
the year. The Board authorized that Dr.
Schmitt be so reimbursed for the expenditures
made by him on behalf of the Meetings Com-
mittee.
The meeting was adjourned at 9:45 P.M.
C. L. Gazin, Secretary
VOL. 38, NO. 2
| a President ae FPS FTO ',Freperick D. Reka, National Bureau of Weandaris
Secretary. . Pee ry Wear sane We ee .C. Lewis Gazin, U. S. National Museum
Treasurer. . Paes fis sets dinigie «sale Howarp S. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey
Archivist. ..... .NatHan R. Smitu, Plant Industry Station
Custodian and iBibaaipiion Ma anager of Publican ee Ma aca
Ee? See ares. ais vera a its eee at H. A. Renper, U.S. National Museum —
" Vice-Presidents Representing the A filiated Socteties:
_ Philosophical wociety 64, Washington: os. eee ... WALTER RAMBERG
Anthropological Society of Washington........... Nae eek ae T. Date STEWART
_ Biological Society of Washington.......... a RAS Joun W. ALDRICH
_ Chemical Society of Washington.............. ccf AD Ca Oe, Cuarues E. WHITE
_ Entomological Society of Washington... pk ureigtae ya Maa C. F. W. Mursepeck
National Geographic Society........... eae Baa Be S: ALEXANDER WETMORE
(a aaa _ Geological Society of Washington... ...2..05..... Ma ... Wintiam W. Rupey
i a : _Medieal Society of the District of Columbia......... ee eerie FREDERICK O. CoE
a Columbia Historical Society. . ae RRR ae ere a crate hy GILBERT GROSVENOR
br gtadicnl Society of. Washington a eee See PSA ee Mom RONALD BAMFORD
Wa ineton Section, Society of American Foresters........ WriiiamM A, Dayton
_ Washington Society i TaPeINGCIR « 61) che On heen ee he ak Cuirrorp A. BreTTs
_ Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical TMM ECRS Jitoa 5. ipa as ae ee
aa tae hyo: d outa ete EL at let sev tar Ng me Francts B. SILsBEE
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical POMUMIC OPS ier a5 8h nk
N.S rere ge Sei Si Mia te ature Raa gos basin Martin A. Mason
eaiaathological Society of Washington. SB ice ea Ahi CRMC Noe Reg AUREL QO. FostTER
a Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists spd Lore A. RoGERs |
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMenT L. GARNER
. Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY
-_* Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OweEN B. FRENCH
2 Elected Members of the Board of M Hc ak ‘
% oupeaary 1949. he ..Max A. McCatit, Wautpo L. Scamittr
A Morennuary 1950)...0. 6... 5056. 8 ...F. G. Brickwreppz, WiLuiaAM W. Dinau
awe ed aminsey CMOS ae aia iw gs Francis M. Deranporr, WILLIAM N. FENTON
Board POT cia ck le Ps nie es ..All the above officers plus the Senior Editor
| i. Board of Editors and Assotiate Editors..... SRC Cae DS eiotatic ek iasens . (See front cover]
: Executive Committee. -...s...FREDERICK D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG,
Pe peas eso .. Waupo L. Scumitr, Howarp 8. Rappieyn, C. Lewis G-AzIN
-Commiitee TROT MTOR IE ogre kal «ei iia ERS WON Eis ss ale oliatatiel SIG Soha lg son etal a ra! cake ;
HaRoLb E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Burz, C. WytTHE Cooxz, WinuiaM
t oeeeees-sW. Drent, Fioyp D. FELTON, REGINA FLANNERY, Grorce G. Manoy
Committee TOLER OR 2 me ey re ulna ews . RAYMOND J. SEGEER (chairman),
mE ctw RANK P, CULLINAN, Frep L. Mouter, Francis O. Riczt, FRANK THONE
way Committee on M ee:
To January 1949........,..Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), Enwarp A. CHAPIN
To January POTN ee os Ly os. SROBAND. Wi Brown, Haratp A. REHDER
To January 1951..... a oe kd lees 8 WOE IN FENTON, Emmett W. PRIcE
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HErzre.p, general chairman):
For the Biological Sciences... .. AR a NG NET: a ict aan ees Cate
C, F. W. MursesBreck (chairman), Harry §. ‘BERNTON, Cuestar W. Emmons,
_ Exmer Hicerns, Marto Mouuari, GorrHoLp STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum
_ For the Engineering Riker ts OUR Le. ad hantce tarp meee Bn
Harry Diamonp (chairman), Luoyp V. ‘BERKNER, ‘Rosert C. Duncan,
Herpert N. Eaton, ARNo C. FIs.tpNiER, FRANK B. Scuzuetz, W. D. SUTCLIFFE
For the Physical Rdtonmes er oe att ek es BS? Oita th RSM) Salen kn
Kart F. Herzrevp (chairman), Natuan L. DRakE, LLoYD D. FELTon,
ws | Herspert Insupy, Witt1am J. Roongy, Rosert Simua, Micuag. X. SULLIVAN
Commiitice on Grant-in-aid for TERS eS Ge et ateaa as Beit aimee eS hi,
' ..F. H. H. Roperts, Jr. (chairman), “Anna E, ‘JENKINS, a aes SHERESHEVSKY
Representative on Council of FY a: Goals Ao MER eI EE MD eR Oa tts . FRANK THONE
Committee of Auditors. Tet rae UNS AC ee CR Le LN at LURE, SARI oa Me datcl Deer as og
_ WriuriraM G. BROMBACHER (chairman), Haro.p F. STIMSON, HERBERT L. HALLER
Sy NR ecru Ree UC Wov Nine ovine ola a wae hac oie weeaa® aes
Ppt ee SOHN W. McBurney (chairman), Rocmr C. BATES, Wituam A. WinpHAck
CONTENTS
Prysics.—The measurement of high voltage. F. M. Deranporr....
CHEMISTRY.—Standardization of the pH scale. Roger G. Bares and —
EpGar REYNOLDS SMITH >
ANTHROPOLOGY.—The true form of the cranial deformity originally de-
scribed under the name ‘‘téte trilobée.” T. D. Srewart........
Borany.—Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, III: Humbold-
tiella and Callistylon. FREepERIcK J. HERMANN
e\ e's eV ele, 000 5) se 8 (eee ae
Zoo.ocy.—Some interesting starfishes and brittle-stars dredged by the
Atlantis in the mid-Atlantic. Austin H. CLark
PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY
» © 0 ee) 6) ® he. wee we @ ae 8 @ es 6 ee « Sie > » e518 ps ee ee
;
This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals
OF THE
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BURHAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY
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- ASSOCIATE EDITORS 5
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ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
: JAMES S. WILLIAMS
nICAL SOCIETY . GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY .
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 38
Marcu 15, 1948
No. 3
PHILOLOGY.—English-language surnames of biological origin.! PErEz SIMMONS,
Fresno, Calif.
In the normal course of events every per-
son born in the United States possesses im-
mediately two permanent designations, his
family name and his national citizenship.
To most people these are perhaps equally
precious, but the first is of course the more
personal. Family names are treasured inher-
- itances, and even those that may seem, to
the other fellow, to be trivial, amusing, or
absurd are likely to be continued for scores
of generations. Surnames are our handholds
on the family tree, and most of us refuse to
let go.
The surnames of biological origin listed in
this report I have found in telephone direc-
_ tories. Included are plant and animal names
_ and terms referring to the parts of plants
and animals (Daisy, Moose, Seed, Antler).
Associations of plants and of animals (Or-
chard, Herd, Covey) are left out, as are
also descriptive-anatomical names (Bare-
foot, Smallback) and physical abnormali-
ties. Not too strictly, I have omitted va-
rieties of domesticated plants and animals
(Pippin, Beagle), some products made from
and most constituents of plants and ani-
mals (Cream, Hay, Leather, Pickles, Pitch),
and obsolete words (Poe and Coe for pea-
cock and jackdaw). Most compounds such
as those of big, bird, berry, corn, crow, gold,
long, short, silver, small, wood, and the
names of colors are left out (Birdseye,
Greenleaf, Redapple). No attempt has been
made to trace derivations. One advantage
of making my own rules has been freedom
_ to appropriate names of dual or multiple
meanings.
Books and other references on the subject
point out that in Biblical times, and until
' Received August 22, 1947.
(Communicated by JosEPH 8. WADE.)
after the Norman Conquest in 1066, or-
dinary people had only one name, such as
Joseph. As populations increased, the con-
venience of having another name was recog-
nized, and surnames began to be adopted.
That was some 700 years before Linnaeus
established the binomial system for the
science of biology.
In Great Britain the cities were ahead of
the countryside in making the change.
Whether the surnames established there
were allotted to families or were chosen by
them without official guidance is not on
record in the sources that I have examined.
It seems likely that both methods were
used. From the wide coverage of the names
that I shall list farther on, one would sur-
mise that some system was involved, at one
time or another.
Surnames have been grouped under four
classifications: locality names derived from
the home of the bearer (Kent); patronym-
ics, those referring to the father’s Chris-
tian name (Robertson); names taken from
occupations (Weaver); and nicknames
(Fox, House, Longfellow, Stone).
On the whole, the family names that I
have found in my hunting through tele-
phone directories have a homespun dignity,
an earthy quality that reflects what was
prominent and important in day-by-day
living on the island of Great Britain 25 or
more generations ago. In those days men,
women, and children lived closer to their
farm animals, their vegetable gardens, and
to wild nature than most people do now.
As my collection has grown, and with the
use of the Oxford Dictionary and other
dictionaries, it has become clear to me that
there is no need to seek obscure explana-
tions for the greater number of the biologi-
81
mnR D4 1948
82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
cal surnames found. Nearly all of them,
quite evidently, were taken directly from
the names of living things of interest in
everyday life in Britain before the discovery
of America. Doubled consonants, final e’s
added, and some other departures from
modern spellings are for the most part
straightforward legacies from olden times.
My first adventure into the vast assem-
blage of American family names was by way
of the Fresno, Calif., Telephone Directory.
Since this modest book involved scanning
only some 200 linear feet of columns—about
25,000 names—the entire list was searched.
There were 15 tree names listed in the
Fresno book:
Ash Elder Maple
Bay Elms Palm
Cherry Haw Peach
Coffee Holly Pistacchio
Crabtree Lemon Thorn
And 22 varieties of plants which attract
attention because of their beauty or utility:
Bean Ivy Rice
Bluett Lilly Rose
Chess Mellon Rue
Cotton Moss Rush
Daisy Nutgrass Sage
Dill Pease Stocks
Furze Radish
Grass Reed
General plant terms found were Bush and
Herb, and plant parts were well represented
among Fresno surnames, as follows:
Berry Cobb Root
Bloom Cone Shuck
Branch Flower Stump
Budd Fruit Trunk
Burr Hull Turnipseed
As might be expected, nearly all of the
animal names referred to vertebrates.
Fishes, so important to the island-dwelling
British, were well represented. All refer to
European species but all of their names
have been transplanted for use in North
America.
Bass Pickerel Salmon
Bream Pike Sturgeon
Darter Pollack Trout
Herring Ray - Whiting
Perch Roach
Farther up the scale are the reptiles, rep-
resented by one name only: Asp.
VOL. 38, NO. 3
Birds, being conspicuous and abundant
as to species, were of frequent occurrence.
There were 19 of them, and the majority
are of rather large size:
Brant Heron Ruff
Coote Kite Sprigg
Crow Knott Swan
Duck Martin Swift
Eagle Parrott Wren
Finch Peacock
Hawk Quail
Excluding domesticated forms there were
only 11 mammals, if Fisher is considered to
be an occupational surname:
Badger Fitch Lion
Batt Fox Puma
Bear Hare Wolf
Fawns Hart
Among miscellaneous terms were the
following:
Bird Fish Maiden
Child
Anatomical terms were plentiful:
Beard Hand Pate
Brain Head Scales
Chin Horn Shank
Elbow Joint Venter
Furr Lips Wing
Gill Lung
Names of domestic animals, including
poultry, number more than 50. There usu-
ally are separate designations for mature
males and females, newborn young, juve-
niles of both sexes, and unsexed males. In
addition, call-names and pet names have
been used for centuries. Surnames based on
these terms probably are nearly all pre-
Columbian, since the only domesticated
animals native to the Western Hemisphere
that have been put to general use by the
settlers of North America are the turkey
and the muscovy duck. The dog was com-
mon to both the New World and the Old at
the time of the discovery of the New.
In the Fresno Telephone Directory there
were four surnames that refer to the names
of farm animals:
Barrows Lamb
Bullock
Following the page-by-page scanning of |
the Fresno directory it seemed necessary to
change the method of hunting for surnames
of biological origin. A detailed examination
Pigg
Mar. 15, 1948 SIMMONS: ENGLISH-LANGUAGE SURNAMES OF BIOLOGICAL ORIGIN 83
of the 455 pages from Aabel to Zzylch in the
San Francisco book and of the 1,032 pages
of Los Angeles namesfrom Aaen to Zylstra
seemed too much of a project. Therefore,
lists of terms that probably had been
adopted as surnames were compiled. The
chief sources of these were the indexes of
reference books on botany, horticulture,
and zoology. All the findings from both
cities were combined and are listed here
under several classifications.
Forage plants, small grains, fiber plants,
etc.:
Bramble Darnel Milo
Bracken Flax Rye
Clover Hemp Timothy
Corn Millet Wheat
Vegetables, flavoring plants, etc.:
Carrott Garlick Mustard
Chard Hops Onions
Citron Kale Parsley
Clove Leek Pepper
Collard Lettice
Cress Mangel
Garden ornamentals, perfume plants:
Aster Fern Marigold
Balsam Flagg Pink
Broom Heather Poppy
Cosmos Lavender Primrose
Fruit and ornamental trees were:
Aspen Hawthorne Pine
Beech Laurel Plane
» Box Limes Privett
Cedar Linden Shaddock
Figg Medlar
Other botanical terms in the San Fran-
cisco and Los Angeles telephone books were
Nut, Plant, Posey, Spore, Stem, and Vine.
As was the case in the Fresno directory,
the two leading Pacific coast cities revealed
an extensive list of fishes:
Bleak Eeles Sauger
Carp Fluke Skates
Char Haddock Sole
Chubb Ling Spratt
Codd Loach Tench
Conger Pilchard Tunney
Dace Puffer
Drum Rudd
There was a single form of amphibian,
Frogge, and one reptile, Turtle. The birds
were even more abundant; 27 were found,
not including Loon, a Chinese name:
Bunting Jay Rook
Bustard Lark Sparrow
Buzzard Nightingale Starling
Diver Ostrich Stilts
Dove Partridge Stork
Finch Petrell Swallow
Grebe Rail Thrush
Gull Raven Titmus
Hobby Roller Woodcock
Domestic animals were represented by
the following useful inhabitants of the
farmstead:
Boss Dobbin Jack
Bull Dogge Jenny
Burro Donk Kidde
Capon Drake Malkin
Catt Filley Mare
Cattell Gander Nanny
Chick Gilt Rabbitt
Cocke Gosling Shoat
Cockrell Hogg Steer
Colt Hoggett
Sixteen more mammals were trophies of
the hunt:
Boy Hind Otter
Deer Lemming Panther
Elefant Leopard Sable
Elk Mink Tiger
Gibbon Mole
Grison Moose
The directories of San Francisco and Los
Angeles provided the following additions to
the list of anatomical terms:
Ankle Finger Nail
Arch Fist Ribbe
Arms Gut Sides
Back Hair Skinn
Bone Hock Teat
Bowell Hoof Thumb
Brow Kidney Thye
Cheek Knee Tongue
Eggs Legge Tooth
Kye Maw
Having had good hunting on the Pacific
coast, I prepared for larger fields by adding
to my list of unfound possibilities until it
numbered about 625. Of much help were
the many plants and animals illustrated in
a dictionary, and I included in the list about
50 biological surnames encountered in gen-
eral reading. All the latter were found sub-
sequently in telephone directories of cities
in the eastern part of the United States.
Giant among telephone directories is the
Chicago book, because New York City sub-
84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
scribers are grouped in several separate
volumes based on the boroughs, and the
third telephone city of the world, London,
divides its directory into .two volumes.
From Aabad to Zyzik in the Chicago direc-
tory the distance was 1,741 four-column
pages, a total column length of 6,021 feet.
From a systematic standpoint the most
lowly among the surnames of plant origin in
Chicago was Kelp, followed by Brake.
Wild and cultivated plants, except trees,
were as follows:
Aloe Dock Nettles
Anis Ginger Oats
Begonia Gourd Orris
Burdock Honeysuckle Thistle
Brier Mallow Tulip
Columbine Marguerite Violet
Caraway Millet Yarrow
There were 17 trees and shrubs, as well as
the name Tree.
Alder Filbert Oak
Almond Hazel Olive
Birch Hemlock Quince
Cinnamon Magnolia Spruce
Cypress Myrtle Willow
Elm Orange
Names that refer to plant anatomy were:
Cedarleaf Seed Tuber
Peel Straw
Although lists already given include
many fishes, there were still others in the
Chicago directory:
Dolphin Guppy Shark
Goby Hake Snook
Gudgeon Mullet Wrasse
And still more birds:
Cardinal Grouse Robin
Crane Merlin Sora
Dipper Owl Snipe
Falcon Pheasant Teal
Flicker Plover Willet
Gannett Pellican
Among the following mammals were
several additions to the list of domestic
animals:
Baby Lady Ram
Buffalo Lass Stripling
Beaver Man Seal
Camel Marten Stag
Foale Mule Virgin
Ferret Muskrat Whale
Lad Puss
VOL. 38, NO. 3
Chicago furnished additions, also, to the
group of anatomical terms:
Belly Gum Pastern
Clawes Heart Quill
Fang Heel Rump
Feather Kneebone Talon
Flank Liver Wattles
Foot Mane Wool
Fin Nape
Following the expedition through the
Chicago directory, the list of possibilities
were checked through the ’phone books of
Boston, Brooklyn, and Detroit. From
Aaberg to Zynsky, in Boston, was a dis-
tance of 804 pages and 2,780 linear feet of
columns; there were 784 pages in the Brook-
lyn book, from Aa to Zytynski; and the
Detroit directory, from Aaberg to Zzzpt,
was 910 pages in length. Trophies from all
three hunts are combined in the lists which
follow.
In Detroit I found Winston Churchill’s
famous trio of Blood, Sweat, and Tears.
Other materials found in the three books
were Butter, Milk, Ivory, and Breath.
The botanical names were these:
Awn Larch Saffron
Basil Leaf Savory
Belladonna Lilac - Shamrock
Calla Maize Stock
Cassia Poplar Tea
Chicory Raisin Teasel
There were more fishes:
Dabbs Goldfish Shad
Elver Grunt Thresher
Gar Lamprey
One reptile, Blackadder, occurred.
In addition to the many species of birds
recorded from directories previously exam-
ined, there were 10 in Boston, Brooklyn,
and Detroit, with Brood for good measure.
Auk Goose Sheldrake
Bittern Hen Terns
Eider Oriole
Erne Pullett
A few more mammals:
Bunny Goat Squirrel
Ewe Ratte Weasel
And further anatomical names:
Antler
Neck
Ramus
Shoulder
Vein
Whisker
Mar. 15, 1948 SIMMONS: ENGLISH-LANGUAGE SURNAMES OF BIOLOGICAL ORIGIN 85
After having explored seven telephone
directories I began to get the feel of the
undertaking. A sense of the kind of words
likely to be found as biological surnames
had developed, so I went back over some of
the indexes of botanical and zoological
books.
More possibilities were obtained by
scanning references on the botany and zo-
ology of the British Isles. This was a pleas-
ant experience because so many of the
common names used in the mother country
have been adopted here. On the other hand,
many were wholly strange. If an American,
reading about rural England, should find
this statement: ‘‘Then I glimpsed an effet
as it dashed from a patch of squitch and
gobbled a mawk beneath a paigle,”’ he
would be confused. Having translated, he
would find that a lizard had left its hiding
place in couch grass (Agropyron repens) and
eaten a maggot under a cowslip (Primula
veris). We need to understand our neigh-
bor’s language better!
Several hundred possibilities resulted
from this more effective approach.
Equipped with the new list I hunted again
through the telephone directories of Los
Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, Detroit,
Boston, and Brooklyn. Using both lists, I
then examined the Philadelphia Telephone
Directory. The plants found in the seven
books, omitting a number of unfamiliar
ones, were as follows:
Arum Cornel Redwood
Balm Crowfoot Rosemary
Barley Currant Rust
Bent Fennell Senna
Bunt Gale Sorrel
Burnet Gorse Speedwell
Cabbage Grape Spelt
Calamus Heather Spice
Camphor Hop Thyme
Campion Leatherwood Tansy
Cane Mayberry Walnut
Caper Mints Woodbine
Celandine Osier Woodruff
Chives Pear Wormwood
Colliflower Ramson Yew
There were more plant parts:
Acorn Cork Spike
Bark Gall Twigg
Blossom Pod
Fishes were represented by:
Barbel Grindle Pogge
Brill Gunnell Ruffe
Burbot Mackerell Smolt
Cisco Minnow Sparling
Dace Molla Shiner
Flounders Parr
Fry Pilchard
Two of the surnames found were trans-
fers from the names of amphibians: Asker,
Eft. Three reptiles, Boa, Luth, and Ser-
pente, were discovered.
Birds and their parts were as follows:
Biddy Combs Pinnock
Bill Down Pippitt
Bulfinch Hummer Spurr
Canary Macaw Tit |
Chaffinch Ortolan Web
Chat Peregrin
Mammals and their structures were:
Body Gazelle Pore
Bruin Goa Roebuck
Chest Hock “Tabby
Craw Kitt Wethers
Ermine Knuckles Withers
Farrow Leverett Wrinkle
Fleece
Every collector at length awakens from
his self-induced trance to admit a need for
setting a limit to his enterprise. So, after
Philadelphia, I decided to use the two long
lists only once more, in London. But I
couldn’t drop certain unfound probabilities.
Therefore I made a list of about 50 choice
ones and set out to find them in the direc-
tories for Baltimore, Bronx, Cleveland,
Houston, Long Beach, Manhattan, Milwau-
kee, Minneapolis, Newark, New Orleans,
Portland (Oregon), Queens, St. Louis, San
Diego, Seattle, and Washington. There
were satisfactions in this search, since most
of the surnames that turned up may be
considered to be rarities. First, the plants,
the last one being more recent than most
biological surnames:
Bellrose Seallion Tobacco
Parsnip
There was one fish, Girling (a young sal-
mon), as well as several other vertebrates:
Chicken Mouse Pups
And some interesting anatomy:
Flesh
Hips
Nipple
Tissue
Breast
Face
86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Examination of the London Telephone
Directory, of 2,209 three-column pages,
from Aaggard to Zyrot, followed. I was in
effect searching the ‘‘mother lode,” the orig-
inal source from which family names of
English-speaking people have been scat-
tered over the world. None of the following
had been found in American lists.
Botanical surnames were:
Daphne Majoram Spurge
Iris Madder Sycamore
Lupine Mold Vetch
And, as always, a few additions to the
long list of fishes:
Gargett Flaice Smelt
Grayling Pout Sucker
One amphibian, Newte, and three birds:
Condor Gooney Phoebe
The list of mammals included several of
the few names of domesticated animals that
had not been located before:
Boar Girle Stallion
Calf Lynx Stoat
Cow Marmot Voles
Gelding Ox
Anatomical terms were Beak, Chine,
Hide, Skinn, Skull, Toe, and Wrist.
Invertebrates found in all directories are.
combined in a single list, which includes a
few surnames associated with parts or prod-
ucts of backboneless animals.
Ant Grubbs Pupa
Barnacle Honey Scallop
Bee Hornett Shell
Beetle Leach Silk
Bot Locust Slug
Bug Looper Spider
' Clam Maddock Sting
Cockle Mantis Tick
Coral Moths Warble
Crabb Mussel Wasps
Cricket Oyster Wax
Drill Pearl Winkle
Goldflies Piddock Worm
In the course of the investigation I re-
corded a number of surnames which have
their origin in mythological persons and
beasts:
Angel Fairy Indra
Atlas Faun Merman
Cherubin Fay Phoenix
Dragon Genius Satyr
Griffin
VOL. 38, NO. 3
Not so much mythological as fictional,
Doe (John) and Roe (Richard), long prom-
inent in the symbolism of the law, both
refer to names of deer. Other imaginary
persons were Punch and Judy.
Even after the good returns from my
hunt through the London books, I was not
satisfied. Missing were many surnames that
could have escaped transfer from the names
of common living things only by some im-
probable accident. I had located more than
300 fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals, but where were Donkey, Heifer,
Hinny, Horse, Sheep, Toad, and Woman?
About 100 family names were based on
animal structures, but why had Jowl,
Stomach, and Tail eluded search? Plant
surnames to the number of about 200, not
to mention some 35 terms for plant parts,
had turned up, but not Lentil and Turnip.
A fair representation of the small but useful
invertebrates did not include the super-
latively toothsome Lobster.
Are some of the “‘lost”’ families still oceu-
pying the same English farms where their
family trees became established hundreds
of years ago? Perhaps certain of the male
lines have run out, or other names have
been chosen. Possibly some are living in the
United States outside of large cities. They
may have no telephones. Some of them may
be living in other countries.
According to an analysis of surnames re-
corded during the first United States Cen-
sus,” the following families which I have
been unable to find in telephone books were
living in this country in 1790:
Horse
Bantam Sealion
Heifer
It is of interest to record that surnames
found in the course of the First Census
were 83.5 percent English and 91.8 percent
from the British Isles.
In a final effort to find Horse, Sheep, and
Turnip I looked in the telephone direc-
tories of Atlanta, Buffalo, Cincinnati,
Columbus, Dallas, Dayton, Denver, Fort
Wayne, Fort Worth, Indianapolis, and
Pittsburgh; Montreal, Toronto, and Van-
2 A century of population growth. From the First
Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790—
1900. U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor,
Bureau of the Census. 303 pp., 1909.
Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 87
couver, Canada; Melbourne and Sidney,
Australia. Although the Turnipseed family
is well distributed, Turnip still eluded me. I
could get no closer to Horse than Horsey,
which occurs plentifully. But I found Sheep.
That is my rara avis; or, more accurately,
rara ovis!
Those who write reports of the results of
their research seldom mention one influence
that helps to shape the course of their en-
deavors. I refer to the comments of wives.
In my case attention was called to the
possibility of sometime bringing the search
to a close by a gentle remark, “‘I’m getting a
little tired of seeing piles of telephone books
around the house.”’
BOTAN Y.—WNew species of trees from western Ecuador! ELBERT L. LiTrue, JR.,
Forest Service, U. 8. Department of Agriculture.
The 19 new species here described and il-
lustrated are from the author’s collection of
tree specimens made in 1943 in western
Ecuador with the Latin American Forest
Resources Project of the U. 8. Forest Serv-
ice. Genera represented are: Hezsteria, Hir-
tella (2), Brownea (3), Humiria, Erythro-
chiton, Tetragastris, Guarea, Trichilia, Be-
lotia, Matisia (2), Clusia (2), Neosprucea,
Symplocos, and Aspidosperma. Twelve spe-
cies are from the province of Esmeraldas,
and others from the provinces of Pichincha,
Chimborazo, Los Rios, and El Oro. Addi-
tional new species from this collection are
being published elsewhere by specialists,
and others must remain undescribed at
present because of incomplete material.
Type specimens have been deposited in
the U.S. National Herbarium, Washington,
D.C., and a set of isotypes in the herbarium
of the U. 8. Forest Service, Washington,
D. C. Additional isotypes of most species
are in the following herbaria: Tropical
Forest Experiment Station, U. 8S. Forest
Service, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico; Yale
University School of Forestry, New Haven,
Conn.; Chicago Natural History Museum,
Chicago, Ill.; and Instituto BotAnica, Uni-
versidad Central, Quito, Ecuador.
Acknowledgment is due C. V. Morton,
of the U. 8. National Museum, for assist-
ance in checking the Latin diagnoses, to
Ellsworth P. Killip, also of the National
Museum, for suggestions, to Miss Leta
Hughey, botanical artist, Forest Service,
for making the drawings of the new species,
and the late Dean Samuel J. Record, Yale
University School of Forestry, for making
generic determinations of wood samples of
1 Received October 3, 1947.
four of these new species. The Forest Serv-
ice project in Ecuador is described in the
following report: HoupripGE, L. R., et al.,
The forests of western and central Ecuador.
134 pp., illus. Forest Service, U. S. Dept.
Agr., Washington, D. C. 1947. (Processed.)
Heisteria cyathiformis Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 7
Sec. Euheisteria Engl. Frutex vel arbor parva
4 m alta, trunco 3 cm diametro, glabra, ramulis
gracilibus teretibus viridulis, novellis subangu-
latis, internodiis brevibus 0.5-3 em longis. Folia
petiolata, petiolis 4-11 mm longis, supra leviter
canaliculatis; laminae anguste ellipticae vel
oblanceolatae, (5) 8-15 em longae, 3—5.5 cm
latae, basi acutae vel acuminatae, apice sub-
abrupte acuminatae, acumine 4-9 mm longo,
membranaceae, margine integrae, costa supra
plana subtus elevata, nervis lateralibus utrin-
que 5-9, prope marginem arcuato-conjunctis,
subtus prominulis. Flores fasciculares in axillis
2 vel 3; pedicellus 3 mm longus, apicem versus
crassus; albastrum ca. 1.5 mm longum; calyx
1 mm longus ad medium 5-lobus, lobis triangu-
laribus acutis; corolla in alabastro globoso-
ellipsoidalis, 1.3 mm longa, viridulo-albida, 5-
lobata, intus minute puberulenta; stamina 10,
5 longiora et 5 alternatim breviora; ovarium tri-
angulare, apicem versus acuminatum, 1 mm
longum, 1 mm diametro, 3-loculare ovulis 8,
stigmate minuto sessili 3-lobato. Fructus soli-
tarius, pedicello in stato fructifero 12-15 mm
longo, calyce fructifero accrescente cyathi-
formi, 4-5 mm longo et 7 mm lato, truncato,
subintegro vel minute 5-dentato, rubro; drupa
ellipsoidalis, 11 mm long, 7 mm diametro,
nigra.
Shrub or small tree 4 m tall and 3 cm in
trunk diameter, said to become larger. Speci-
88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
mens collected from two plants in wet tropical
forest at Quinindé. ‘‘Aji.”
ESMERALDAS: Quinindé, altitude 65 m, April
15, 1943, Little 6263A (Forest Service no.
96832; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1854915, Typs).
Little 6263 (Forest Service no. 96833).
Heisteria Jacq. has more than 40 species in
South and Central America and 3 in western
Africa. Most species have the enlarged calyx
of the fruit lobed and rotate, reflexed, or loosely
enclosed the drupe. In H. cyathiformis the red,
cup-shaped or hemispherical calyx is about one-
third the length of the black, ellipsoidal drupe
(red when immature) and closely adheres to
the lower part of the drupe. This enlarged
fruiting calyx is truncate and subentire or
minutely 5-toothed. Superficially the fruit,
with its elongated drupe and cuplike calyx,
resembles that of some members of the Laura-.
ceae, though the other characters are unlike
that family. Caroline K. Allen and I. W. Bailey
kindly have suggested that this material prob-
ably belongs in Heisteria, where it apparently is
undescribed.
Heisteria cyathiformis is related to H. cyano-
carpa Poepp. & Endl., of the Amazonian region
of Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador, which has larger
and thicker leaves, more flowers in a fascicle,
and the fruiting calyx broad, orbicular, usually
reflexed. The collection contains material of
another species of this genus, doubtfully re-
ferred to the Central American species H. mac-
rophylla Oerst.
Hirtella carbonaria Little, sp. nov.
Je
Arbor mediocris 12 m alta, trunco 25 em
diametro. Cortex laevis, griseus. Ramuli parce
hirsutuli mox glabrescentes. Folia petiolata
cum stipulis linearibus, ca. 3 mm longis, in-
volutis, strigosis; petiolis ca. 2mm longis, parce
hirsutulis; laminae ellipticae, 5-9 em longae et
2.5-4 cm latae, basi rotundatae, apice abrupte
acuminatae, integrae, inflexae, coriaceae, re-
ticulatae, supra glabrae, subtus in costa et
venis pilis paucis subappressis praeditae, venis
primariis 5—8-jJugis, arcuatis et margine anasta-
mosantibus, his cum costa utrinque paullo ele-
vatis. Inflorescentiae terminales atque axillares,
thyrsiformes, multiflorae, cum floribus multis
abortivis, 6-9 cm longae et 2-4 cm latae, pe-
dunculo 2-5 cm longo, rhachibus pilos paucos
appressos gerentibus; bracteae triangulares,
VOL. 38, No. 3
acutae, 1-2 mm. longae; pedicelli 3 mm longi;
hypanthium campanulatum, 3 mm longum et
2 mm latum, externe sparse pubescens, intus
glabrum; sepala 5, elliptica, obtusa, 3 mm longa
et 2.5 mm lata, externe strigillosa, intus densius
strigillosa; petala 5, alba, elliptica, 4 mm longa
et 2.5 mm lata, retusa, glabra; stamina 3, 8—
12 mm longa, filamentis glabris, basi connatis;
staminodia 2, 1.5 mm longa; ovarium fere 2
mm longum, dense pilosum; stylus deorsum
sparse pilosus, 10-15 mm longus. Drupa ob-
ovoidea, 15 mm longa, 8 mm lata, 3.5 mm
crassa, compressa, atra, glabrescens, intus
dense pilosa; semen ellipsoideum, compres-
sum, fuscum, ca. 10 mm longum, 5 mm latum,
2.5 mm crassum.
Medium-sized tree to 12 m tall and 25 cm
in trunk diameter. Bark smooth, gray. Wood
used for charcoal, as the common and specific
names indicate. Common in moist soil, flood
plain forest near Rio Nadadero, wet tropical
forest zone at San Lorenzo. ‘Carbonero,”’
“earboncillo.”
ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude near
tidewater, April 19, 1943, Little 6275 (Forest
Service no. 96790; U. S. Nat. Herb. no.
1858838, TYPE).
Besides Hirtella triandra Sw., this collection
contains two undescribed species of Hirtella L.
Hirtella carbonaria has elliptic, coriaceous,
glabrescent leaves that are turned inward
slightly at the midrib. The pubescence of twigs,
leaves, and inflorescence is rather sparse, con-
sisting generally of a few appressed hairs, which
are lost as the parts become nearly glabrous
with age. The thyrsiform inflorescence contains
many abortive flowers.
Hirtella pauciflora Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 2
Arbor magna 25 m alta, trunco 50 cm diame-
tro. Cortex laevis, leviter fissilis, fuseus. Ramuli
dense hirtelli. Folia petiolata cum _ stipulis
linearibus, ca. 3 mm longis, dense hirtellis;
petiolis 3-4 mm longis, dense hirtellis; laminae
ellipticae, 7-13 cm longae et 3-5 em latae,
basi acutae, apice acuminatae, integrae, mem-
branaceae, pallide virides, supra costis his-
pidae, pilis paucis rigidis in venis et venulis
ferentes, mox glabratae, subtus in venis et
venulis hispidae, nervis primariis 6—9-jugis,
ascendentibus, his cum costa supra leviter im-
pressis, subtus prominentibus. Inflorescentiae
LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 89
Mar. 15, 1948
SS
i/
\
oe
yy
fl
AN
M
\Y
TQ
\
SS
His
Fic. 2.—Hirtella pauciflora, 3X; flower,
Fic. 1.—Belotia australis, 4 X; flower, 2 X; fruits, 3X.
Fig. 4.—Guarea polymera,
2X. Fig. 3.—Hirtella carbonaria, 3 X; flower, about 3 X; fruit, $ X.
oe; lower, | ><; fruit, 1x.
er
90) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
racemosae terminales in ramulis brevibus, in-
conspicuae, 2- vel 3-florae, 3-6 cm longae,
pedunculo hirtello, 1-4 em longo; pedicelli
crassi, inflati, lignei, 10-12 mm longi, basi fere
1 mm diametro, medio et apice 1.5-2 mm di-
ametro, dense hirtelli; flores viridulo-fusci, ca.
5 mm longi et 5 mm diametro; hypanthium ca.
2 mm longum et 2 mm latum, externe hir-
tellum, intus fauce dense retrorse pilosum, alibi
glabrum; sepala 5, late elliptica, obtusa, 3 mm
longa et 2-3 mm lata, externe dense hirtella,
intus dense puberula; petala 5, elliptica, obtusa
vel retusa, 3 mm longa et fere 2 mm lata;
stamina 3, filamentis glabris, basi connatis,
5-7 mm longis; staminodia 2, minuta, 0.2 mm
longa; ovarium fere 2 mm longum, dense pi-
losum; stylus basin versus sparse pilosus, alibi
glaber, 4 mm longus. Fructus deest.
Large tree 25 m tall and 50 cm in trunk di-
ameter. Bark smooth, slightly cracked, brown.
Virgin wet tropical forest and old cacao planta-
tion at Pichilingue. ‘“‘Coquito.” -
Los Rfos: Pichilingue, altitude 45 m, May
21, 1948, Litile 6475 (Forest Service no. 95855;
U.S. Nat. Herb. No. 1876218, Typx).
The inconspicuous, small racemes terminal
on short branches and bearing only 2 or 3
flowers distinguish H. pauciflora.
Brownea disepala Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 9
Arbor magna 30 m alta; trunco 35 cm di-
ametro, florifero, cum tumoribus ellipsoidalibus
magnis et conspicuis, 3-5 cm crassis, 3-5 cm
longis, et 3-10 cm latis, cicatricibus inflores-
centiarum ferentibus. Cortex griseus, fere
laevis; ramuli glabri. Folia paripinnata; petioli
crassi, subglabrati, 6-15 mm longi et 3-4 mm
diametro; rhaches 20—40 cm longi, fere glabri;
petioluli crassi, corrugati, 3-5 mm longi, sub-
glabri; foliolae (4) 6—9-jugae, oppositae, ob-
longo-ellipticae, (5) 9-12 em longae, (2) 3-4
cm latae, basi inaequales, apice longe caudato-
acuminatae, subcoriaceae, nitidae, reticulatae,
glabrae, costae basi glande uno minuto
gerentes. Inflorescentia caulina capitata, stro-
biliformis, globosa, sessilis, pallide incarnata,
5 em diametro; bracteae multae, subrotundae
vel ovatae vel oblongae, valde concavae, 1-7
em longae, externe dense tomentosae, intus
glabrae vel leviter pilosae, exteriores satis
crassae et coriaceae, interlores membranaceae;
rhachis 2.5-3 cm longa et 8-10 mm diametro, ad
VOL. 38, NO. 3
% longitudinis bracteata, apicem versus flori-
fera. Flores multi (ca. 30-40), albidi; pedicelli
10-18 mm longi, pilosuli; vagina nulla; hy-
panthium campanulatum, subtetragonum, 8
mm longum, 5-6 mm latum, pilosulum; sepala
2, oblanceolata vel oblonga, apice bidentata
dentibus 3-5 mm longis, pilosula vel glabrata,
nervis parallelis, 30-50 mm longa et 10-15
mm lata; petala 4, longe angusteque unguicu-
lata, glabrata, pinninervia, 2 majora oblance-
olata, obtusa, 37-43 mm longa et 10 mm lata,
2 minora lineari-spathulata, acuta, 25-27 mm
longa et 3 mm lata; vagina staminalis 3 cm
longa, pilosula; stamina 17 vel 18, filamentis
25-50 mm longis, antheris 5-6 mm longis;
ovarium stipitatum (6 mm), 15 mm longum,
2.5 mm latum, compressum, dense tomento-
sum; stylus glaber, 50-60 mm longus; stigma
capitellatum. Legumen paucum, ca. 15 cm
longum, 4 cm latum, plano-compressum, rufo-
puberulum, valvis post dehiscentiam tortuosis.
Large tree 30 m tall and 35 cm in trunk diam-
eter, distinguished by cauliflory. Bark gray,
smoothish. Trunk easily recognized by the en-
larged elliptical swellings at scars of former in-
florescences. The large whitish flowers are borne
in a headlike cluster from a spherical pink,
bracteate, strobiliform bud about 5 em in di-
ameter which is sessile on the trunk. From the
flower cluster a few large flat pods develop.
Mountain (wet tropical) forest in southwestern
Ecuador. ‘‘Palo de vaina.”’
Ex Oro: Near Piedras, altitude about 800 m,
June 21, 1943, Little 6677 (Forest Service no.
98587; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1857106 and
1857107, Typ). Guayas: Near Pedro Carbo,
altitude about 300 m, Jan. 13, 1943, Oscar
Haught 3131 (U. S. Nat. Herb.).
Haught 3131 has flowers similar to those of
the type but differs in having the leaflets
slightly smaller (5-7 cm long and 2-2.5 cm
broad). It is described by the collector as a
moderate-sized tree, strictly cauliflorous, with
white flowers, in a forest on calcareous soil.
The genus Brownea Jacq. contains more than
25 known species, principally from Venezuela,
Colombia, and Peru, with more from Venezu-
ela than any other country. Some species occur
also in Panama, the Guianas, and Brazil.
Many of these are of restricted distribution.
Only one new species, B. herthae Harms, has
heretofore been described from Ecuador. In
addition to that species, this collection contains
Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 91
Fic. 6.—Tetragastris varians. +X; flower,
x. Fic. 8.—Brownea puberula, 3X.
Fic. 5.—Brownea angustiflora, 4 X; flowers, about
4X. Fic. 7.—Heisteria cyathiformis,
cole Ico
x
92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
three new species of Brownea. Most species of
Brownea have very showy, brilliant red flowers
borne in terminal inflorescences. Very few spe-
cies have white flowers and very few have cauli-
flory. Brownea disepala is odd in both ways in
having white flowers borne in clusters on the
trunks.
The segregate genus Browneopsis Huber
(Bol. Mus. Goeldi 4: 565. 1906) was proposed
for the species with sheath absent, larger num-
ber of stamens, and lesser development of
petals (lacking, rudimentary, or 4). However,
Ducke, Record and Hess, and Macbride have
reduced the segregate to synonymy. Besides
Brownea disepala, other species in this group
are: Brownea ucayalina (Huber) Ducke, Brown-
ea cauliflora Poepp. & Endl., Brownea excelsa
(Pittier) Macbr., and Brownea peruviana
Macbr. Of these, the new species is like the
last in its calyx. Macbride (Field Mus. Bot. 13,
pt. 3, no. 1: 184-135, 132. 1943) in the original
description noted that B. peruviana was aber-
rant in having 4 petals and 2 colored, petaloid
bractlets or sepals. After examining a specimen
of one of the two collections cited by Macbride
(Klug 3810), I interpret as sepals the two paral-
lel nerved structures of both species attached in
the usual position of the calyx, at the summit of
the hypanthium and outside the four clawed,
pinnately nerved petals. These sepals, which
in both species are slightly 2-toothed or 2-lobed
at the apex, may represent a reduction from 4
sepals to 2 connate ones. This interpretation is
simpler than the alternate one also mentioned
by Macbride of regarding the petals as absent,
the 4 clawed petaloid structures as bractlets.
In Brownea the bractlets or sheath, when
present, are attached at the base of the hypan-
thium, not at the summit.
Brownea puberula Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 8
Arbor 6 m alta vel major, trunco 10 em di-
ametro. Ramuli, petioli, rhaches, et petioluli
dense et minute fusco-puberuli vel demum
glabrati. Folia paripinnata; petioli basi crassi,
5-40 mm longi; rhaches’ (3) 7-25 em longae;
petioluli 3-7 mm longi; foliolae (1) 3—7-jugae,
oppositae, oblongo-ellipticae vel ovatae, (4)
7-12 cm longae, (2) 3-6 cm latae, basi inae-
quales, obtusae vel rotundatae, apice longe
caudato-acuminatae (1.5-2.5 cm longa), cori-
VOL. 38, No. 3
aceae, supra glabrae, subtus minute puberulae,
reticulatae, costae basi glande uno gerentes.
Inflorescentiae terminales vel laterales, inter-
dum ex rhachibus inflorescentiarum priorium;
racemi breves, umbelliformes, rhache 2 em
longa, bracteis caducis; flores 15-25, rubri vel
coccinei, spectabiles; pedicelli tenues, puberuli,
10-20 mm longi; vagina petaloidea tubulosa,
bilabiata, 30-32 mm longa, externe appresso-
puberula, intus glabra, lobis acutis 10-12 mm
longis; hypanthium anguste tubulosum, 12-14
mm longum, 3 mm diametro, puberulentum vel
glabratum; sepala 4, petaloidea, glabra, 24-27
mm longa, anterius obovatum, acutum, 8-11
mm latum, alia oblanceolata, obtusa, 4-6 mm
lata; petala 5, fere aequalia, 37-46 mm longa,
9-13 mm lata, longe angusteque unguiculata,
glabra, obovata, obtusa; stamina 11, 38-45
mm longa, ad 4 vel 3 longitudinis connata;
vagina staminalis externe glabra, intus basi
pilosa; filamentis glabris, 10-18 mm _ longis;
antheris 2 mm longis; ovarium 7—8 mm long-
um, dense tomentosum; stylus tenuis, deorsum
tomentosus, 27-35 mm longus; stigma capitel-
latum. Legumen 20 cm longum, 4.5 cm latum,
planocompressum, minute fusco-tomentosum,
valvis post dehiscentiam tortuosis.
Tree 6 m tall and 10 cm in trunk diameter.
Uncommon in understory of wet, swampy
tropical forests at sea level, including flood
plain at edge of river and higher level of man-
grove swamp forest at San Lorenzo.
ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, sea level, April
22, 1943, Little 6338 (Forest Service no. 98230;
U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1909574, TypE); April 22,
1943, Little 6338A (Forest Service no. 98231);
April 19, 1948, Little 6291 (Forest Service no.
96719). PROVINCE NoT KNOWN: Moist forest at
foot of Western Cordillera, altitude 200 m,
Rimbach 183 (U. 8. Nat. Herb.).
Rimbach 183, from an inland locality, was
described by the collector as a tree 20 m high
and 25 cm in trunk diameter, with red flowers
in dense umbels, mostly from old wood, some-
times near base of trunk, and more rarely from
the branches.
This species is unusual in the dense, minute,
dark brown pubescence of the young branches,
petioles, rachises, and petiolules. However, in
age the pubescence may be nearly absent. The
inforescences are fewer flowered and the flowers
more nearly glabrous than in most species of
Brownea. Though it has the bilabiate floral
Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 93
sheath found in most species of the genus,
Brownea puberula is distinct in the size, shape,
and pubsecence of the floral parts. It resembles
B. birschellii Hook. f., of Venezuela, which is
glabrous and has much larger clusters of larger
flowers. In publishing that species, J. D.
Hooker (Bot. Mag. 98: pl. 5998. 1872) men-
tioned that “it closely resembles a species from
the Pacific sea-coast of New Granada, at Es-
meraldas, collected by Colonel Hall, and pre-
served in the Hookerian Herbarium.” Hall’s
specimen, collected near the type locality of
B. puberula, upon examination may prove to
be a much earlier collection of this species.
Brownea angustiflora Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 5
Arbor parva 10 m alta, trunco 15 cm diame-
tro. Ramuli glabri. Folia paripinnata, glabra;
petioli basi crassi, 4-25 mm longi; rhaches 3-15
em longae; petioluli 3-5 mm long); foliolae 2—
vel 3-jugae, oppositae, oblongo-ellipticae, (7)
10-23 cm longae, (3) 4-7 cm latae, basi inae-
quales, obtusae vel acutae, apice caudatoacumi-
natae (1-8 cm longo), coriaceae, reticulatae,
costae basi glande uno gerentes. Inflorescentiae
terminales et laterales vel caulines; racemi
breves, umbelliformes, rhache 1.5—2 cm longa,
bracteis caducis; flores ca. 15-20, rubrae vel
coccineae, spectabiles; pedicelli tenues, pu-
beruli, 9-12 mm longi; vagina petaloidea,
anguste tubulosa, 35-52 mm longa, 6 mm
diametro, uno latere ad 15-20 mm fissa, externe
puberula, intus glabra; hypanthium anguste
tubulosum, 11-15 mm longum, 2-2.5 mm
diametro, glabrum; sepala 4, petaloidea, glabra,
anterius oblanceolatum, acutum, 35 mm lon-
gum et 6-7 mm latum, alia linearia, acuta, 28—
30 mm longa et 2-3 mm lata; petala 5, longe
angusteque unguiculata, glabra, maximum ob-
lanceolatum, retusum vel apiculatum, 42 mm
longum, 6-8 mm latum, duo oblanceolata,
retusa, 35-38 mm longa, 4-6 mm lata, duo
linearia, obtusa, 20-22 mm longa, 1—2 mm lata;
vagina staminalis 25-29 mm longa, glabra vel
leviter pilosa; stamina 9 vel 10, filamentis 10-
20 mm longis, antheris 2 mm longis; ovarium
9-10 mm longum, 2 mm latum, dense tomento-
sum; stylus tenuis, inferne tomentosus, 35-40
mm longus; stigma capitellatum. Legumen
paucum, 20 cm longum, 4 cm latum, plano-
compressum, minute puberulum; valvis post
dehiscentiam tortuosis; semina orbiculata,
plana, 2.5 cm diametro.
Small tree 10 m tall and 15 cm in trunk
diameter, in understory of wet tropical forest
and in clearing. ‘‘Flor de mayo.”
ESMERALDAS: Borbén, elevation 15 m, May
3, 1948, Little 6418 (Forest Service no. 98232;
U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1879851, Typ); April 26,
1943, Little 6382 (Forest Service no. 98225).
Two collections of this species were made,
both at the same locality. In the type collec-
tion, Little 6418, the inflorescences are terminal
or lateral on the leafy branches. Little 6382
has the flowers borne on the trunk and slightly
larger and more mature.
This species is characterized by long, narrow,
slender, nearly glabrous flowers in few flowered
clusters. The narrowly tubular flower sheath,
which is cleft on one side, is unusually long, 35-
52 mm long, and nearly encloses the perianth,
though the three larger petals are exserted. The
sheath generally varies from 12 to 32 mm long
in other species of Brownea. Only a few others,
such as B. coccinea Jacq. and B. aroensis Pit-
tier, have the sheath cleft on only one side
instead of bilabiate.
Humiria procera Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 12
Arbor magna recta, 30-34 m alta vel major.
Ramuli glabri, 4-alati ex foliis et costis decur-
rentibus, alis 1-2 mm latis. Folia disticha, de-
currentia, sessilia, coriacea, vivo atroviridia,
nitida, late elliptica, 8-13 cm longa et 5-7 cm
lata, basi obtusa, apice abrupte et breviter
acuminata (5-10 mm), margine remote glandu-
loso-crenulata, supra glabra, subtus minute
rugulosa, costa subtus carinata, carina angusta,
basi 1 mm alta, decurrente. Inflorescentia axil-
laris, corymbosa multiflora, 4-6 ecm longa et
3-5 cm lata, puberula, ca. 5 vel 6 dichotoma
vel trichotoma; bracteae triangulares, acutae,
1-2 mm longae; pedunculus alatus anceps, 2-
2.5 ecm longus; pedicelli 1 mm longi; flores
minuti, viriduli, ca. 2 mm longi et 1.5 mm lati;
sepala 5, rotundata, ciliata, leviter puberula,
1 mm longa; petala 5, oblonga, externe leviter
puberula, 1.5-2 mm longa et 0.5 mm. lata;
stamina 20, glabra, ca. 1.5 mm longa; fila-
menta basi connata; cupula hypogyna e
Ssquamis plus minus connatis composita; pistil-
lum ca. 1.5 mm longum; ovarium ovoideum,
parce puberulum, 5-loculare, ovulis 2 in loculo;
94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
stylus crassus; stigma 5-radiatum. Drupa
ovoidea vel ellipsoidea, base obtusa, apice
acuta vel obtusa, tomentosa, 25-35 mm longa,
17-20 mm lata; endocarpium osseum, sub
apice 5-foveolatum.
Large erect tree of forest canopy in wet
tropical forest, 30 to 34 m tall and 40 cm in
diameter, according to measurements from
trees felled for wood samples, but becoming
larger. The fruits resemble pecans (Carya il-
linoensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch) in size and
shape. It is said that the oily seeds are edible.
“Chanul.”
EsSMERALDAS: Playa de Oro, altitude about
65 m, May 1, 1948, Little 6412 (Forest Service
no. 95906; U. 8. Nat. Herb. no. 1876214, TYPE;
with wood sample). Little 6413 (Forest Service
no. 95907; with wood sample). San Lorenzo,
altitude about 10 m, April 21, 19438, Little
6320 (Forest Service no. 96880; with wood
sample). Quinindé, altitude 65 m, April 9,
1943, Little 6233 (old fruits only).
Common and probably widely distributed in
the wet tropical forest of Esmeraldas. In some
locations near San Lorenzo it comprises a large
part of the big timber. Very common also along
the banks of Rio Santiago above Selva Alegre,
where Chanuzal, a group of houses, apparently
derives its name from the many trees of
‘“chanul.” After partial cutting of other tree
species, ‘‘chanul” occurs in nearly pure stands.
It exists in quantities along the main rivers and
trails. ;
The South American genus Humiria Jaume
St.-Hil. is distributed in Brazil, the Guianas,
Venezuela, and Colombia and apparently has
not been reported previously from Ecuador.
Though the characteristic size is that of shrubs
and small trees, two species are described as
becoming large trees under favorable condi-
tions. Selling (Svensk Bot. Tidskr. 39: 257-269,
illus. 1945) distinguished 6 living species and 3
fossil ones. The latter, based upon fruits from
Brazil, Colombia, and Peru (Piura), indicated
a broader distribution of the genus in the Ter-
tiary than at present.
Wood samples of the Ecuadorian material
were first determined by 8S. J. Record as
Humiria sp. near H. floribunda Mart., which
occurs in the Guianas, Amazonian Brazil,
Venezuela, and Colombia. Subsequent study
of herbarium specimens confirmed this deter-
mination and showed that an undescribed spe-
VOL. 38, No. 3
cies was represented. Humiria procera is readily
separated from other species of the genus by
the numerous minute flowers only about 2 mm
long, while the others have fewer, larger flowers
usually about 4-5 mm long. In H. procera
the twigs are prominently 4-winged and the
leaves are distichous, abruptly acuminate, and
crenulate, while in H. floribunda the twigs are
only slightly winged, the leaves spirally ar-
ranged, smaller, usually obtuse at apex, and
entire or nearly so. The distichous leaves dis-
tinguish H. procera from most species of the
genus also.
The following notes on the wood of Humiria
procera were made by J. Edson Myer, of the
Forest Service field party. Sapwood grayish
white, about 5 cm thick. Heartwood dull red,
becoming brownish on exposure, hard and
heavy, having a specific gravity of 0.68 based
upon volume when green or 0.82 based upon
volume when oven dry. Texture fine and uni-
form. Growth rings are indistinct due to fewer
pores in denser zones; the pores are minute,
thin walled, and numerous. The rays are very
fine, not visible on cross section and low and
inconspicuous on radial section. Wood fairly
difficult to cut, rather harsh, readily polished,
strong but brittle, and of medium durability.
Not used much because of alleged silica content
which dulls saws. Might be used for construc-
tion where not exposed to the weather.
Waterman (Trop. Woods 88: 1-11. 1946
(1947)) included wood samples of the collec-
tions cited above in tests of decay resistance of
water-soluble extractives of several tropical
American woods to growth of wood-decay
fungi. This species, listed as Humiria sp., was
found to be nontoxic or not resistant to decay.
Erythrochiton carinatus Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 14
Sect. Toxosiphon (Baill.) Engl. Frutex vel
arbor parva 2—5 m alta, trunco 5 em diametro.
Cortex griseus, leviter asper et fissilis, decorti-
eans. Folia solitaria, unifoliata; petioli (2)
4.5-7 cm longi, 1.5 mm diametro, glabri,
tenues, semiteretes, apice tumido-articulati;
laminae oblongo-ellipticae, 11-20 cm longae et
5-8 cm latae, basi cuneatae, apice abrupte
acuminatae, integrae, papyraceae, glabrae, in-
conspicue glanduloso-punctatae, venis lateral-
ibus primariis ca. 12-14, angulo obtuso egredi-
entibus, arcuatis, venulis reticulatis. Inflores-
Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 95
Fic. 9.—Brownea disepala, + X; axis of old inflorescence, 4 X; young globose, unopened inflorescence,
3X; flower, +X. Fic. 10.—Trichilia floribunda, + X; bud, 6 X; flower, 6X.
96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
centia terminalis, 17-19 ecm longa, longepedun-
culata; pedunculus 11-15 em longus, sulcatus,
strigillosus, apice furcatus, ca. 3-florus; flores
desunt. Sepala libera, persistentia, bractei-
formia, viridia, lanceolata, acuminata, reticu-
lata, inconspicue glanduloso-punctata, externe
fere glabra, intus dense tomentulosa, in fructu
30-37 mm longa et 4-8 mm lata, capsulis sub-
duplo longiora; capsula fere ad medium 5-
lobata, pallide viridis, 15 mm alta et ca. 20 mm
lata, coccis 5, reticulatis, inconspicue glandulo-
so-punctatis, puberulis, ca. 15 mm altis et 9
mm latis, carina prominente 1-2 mm lata,
mucrone 1 mm longo; semina 2, superposita,
fusea, fere laeve, 5 mm longa et 4 mm lata et
crassa.
Shrub or small tree 2 to 5 m tall and 5 cm
in diameter. Bark gray, slightly rough and fis-
sured, shredding. Common locally in under-
story of mountain (wet tropical) forest.
“Chiumr?
Eu Oro: Piedras, altitude about 500 m,
June 18, 1943, Little 6632 (Forest Service no.
98509; U. 8. Nat. Herb. no. 1909573, TYPE).
The genus Erythrochiton Nees & Mart. con-
tains seven previously described species of
shrubs or small trees widely but sparingly dis-
tributed in tropical America from southern
Mexico to Colombia, Brazil, and Peru. Engler
(in Engler and Prantl, Natiirl. Pflanzenfam. ed.
2, 19a: 288. 1931) listed five species, and two
others have been added. Apparently this genus
‘ has not heretofore been reported from Ecua-
dor. Specimens of both Erythrochiton brasilien-
sis Nees & Mart. and this new species were
collected near Piedras, El Oro.
Erythrochiton carinatus belongs to Section
Toxositphon (Baill.) Engl., in which the 5
sepals are free, and is distinguished in fruit
from the other four species of this section by the
elongate, acuminate sepals about twice the
length of the capsule and by the deeply lobed
capsule, with a prominent keel on each seg-
ment.
Tetragastris varians Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 6
Arbor 25 m alta, truneo 50 cm diametro.
Ramuli crassi, subteretes, brunnescentes, glab-
ri, lenticellis elevatis. Folia alterna, pinnata,
apicem ramulorum versus trifoliolata vel uni-
foliolata, petioli 4-9 (21) cm. longi, evidenter
VOL. 38, NO. 3
suleati, subancipites, glabri, supra _plani;
rhaches foliorum trifoliolatorum 2—4 em longae,
suleatae, glabrae, supra planae; petioluli 2—4
mm longi; laminae foliolarum late ellipticae ad
obovatae, 9-20 cm longae et 5-10 cm latae,
basi obtusae vel cuneatae, apice abrupte
acuminatae (5-10 mm), chartaceae, integrae,
venis primariis utrinque latere ca. 9-12, angulo
lato divergentibus, arcuatis et prope marginem
anastomosantibus, utrinque venis et venulis
elevatis et prominente reticulatis, supra
glabrae, subtus glabratae, minute papillosae,
ad costam pilis paucissimis appressis praeditae.
Paniculae laterales apicem ramulorum versus,
7-12 cm longae, multiflorae; rhaches leviter
compressae, minute strigillosae, bracteatae;
bracteae triangulares, acutae, 1 mm longae;
pedicelli 0.5-1 mm longi; flores 4-meri (raro 5-
meri), 4.5-5 mm longi; calyx 2.5 mm longus et
3mm latus, glaber, lobis 3 vel 4, triangularibus,
acutiusculis, 1-1.5 mm longis, corolla anguste
campanulata, 4.5-5 mm longa, externe minute
strigillosa, intus glabra, ad medium in lobis 4
(raro 5) divisa, lobis lanceolatis, 2.56 mm longis
et 1 mm latis, acutis, valvatis, carinatis, cras-
sis, marginibus apiculoque inflexis; stamina 8
(raro 10), sub disco inserta, 1.5 mm longa,
glabra, antheribus 1 mm longis; discus annu-
laris, 0.7 mm longus, 2 mm diametro, glaber,
margine crenatus; ovarium ovoideum, 1.5 mm
longum et 1.3 mm diametro, sparse pilosum, 4-
loculare (raro 5-loculare) ovulis in loculis 2;
stylus brevis; stigma capitatum, 4-lobulatum
(raro 5-lobulatum). Fructus deest.
Large tree 25 m tall and 50 em in trunk diam-
eter, in wet tropical forest. Wood used for
lumber. ‘‘Quemapecho.”
ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude about
10 m, April 20, 1943, Little 6292 (Forest Serv-
ice no. 96876; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1877653,
TYPE).
Six species of Tetragastris Gaertn. are recog-
nized in the recent monograph by Swart (Ree.
Trav. Bot. Neerland. 39: 403-419, illus. 1942),
and another was published in 1939. This generic
name is retained here over the technically valid,
older generic name Hedwigia Sw. (1788), which
is not in use. Hedwigia [Ehrh. 1781] Beauv.
(1805) should be made a nomen conservandum
for a monotypic genus of mosses (LITTLE,
Bryologist 46: 114-115. 1943). The genus is
distributed from Brazil and British Guiana to
the West Indies and Central America and now
Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR
Fie. 11.—Symplocos ecuadorensis, 4X; flowers, PP OGeirulteel yc: Fic. 12.—Humiria procera, in-
cluding fruit and two old fruits showing bony endocarp, all4X. Fic. 138.—Neosprucea pedicellata,
4 X; flower 3X. Fic. 14.—Erythrochiton carinatus, 4 X; carpels of fruit, 1X.
97
98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
is reported for the first time from Ecuador and
the Pacific slope of South America.
Tetragastris varians is easily distinguished by
the broadly elliptic leaflets, which vary in
number. Leaves at the ends of twigs have only
3 leaflets or 1, but apparently some leaves have
more leaflets. Other species of the genus have
narrower leaflets, 5 (rarely 3) to 11 in number.
In the new species the calyx is glabrous, the
corolla is minutely strigillose outside and
glabrous inside, and the ovary is sparsely pilose.
Specimens of the type collection in the U. 58.
National Herbarium and Forest Service
Herbarium are terminal portions of twigs with
both trifoliolate and unifoliolate leaves. How-
ever, the type bears, at a distance of 30cm
from the apex of the twig, the base of a much
longer pinnate leaf with petiole 21 cm long and
with a single leaflet attached.
Guarea polymera Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 4
Sect. Huguarea C. DC. Arbor 12 m alta,
myrmecophila, trunco 15 cm diametro. Ramuli
minute et dense brunneo-glanduloso-tomentu-
losi. Folia pinnata; petioli 6-7 cm longi, supra
canaliculati; rhaches ca. 26 cm longi; foliolae
6- vel 7-jugae, breviter (4-5 mm) petiolulatae;
laminae oblongo-lanceolatae, base acutae, apice
acuminatae, membranaceae, 20-23 cm longae,
6-7 cm latae, supra glabrae, subtus incon-
spicue et minute cinereo-puberulae, nervis
lateralibus utrinque 12-15, ascendentibus et
margine curvatis, his cum costa supra fere
planibus, subtus prominentibus. Paniculae
axillares 6-12 cm longae, 3-6 cm latae, ramulis
minute glanduloso-tomentulosis, bracteae tri-
angulares, acutae, 2-3 mm longae; pedicelli
clavellati 5-15 cm longi. Flores albidi, fra-
grantes, (5) 6- vel 7-meri, calyx late cupu-
latus, 3 mm longus, 7 mm latus, leviter 10—16-
lobatus, lobulis 0.5 mm longis, mox 3—4-fissus
fere ad basin, externe brunneo-tomentulosis,
intus glaber. Petala 5-7, valvata, lanceolata,
acuta, leviter involuta, 10 mm longa, 3 mm
lata, externe dense albido-sericeo-tomentulosa,
intus glabra; tubus stamineus cylindricus, mar-
gine crenulatus, 7 mm longus, 4 mm diametro,
glaber; antherae 10-14, inclusae, sub margine
sessiles, 1.5 mm longae; gynophorum 1 mm
altum, glabrum, apice annulum glandulosum
gerens, 4 mm diametro; ovarlum ovoideum,
VOL. 38, NO. 3
suleatum, dense sericeo-tomentulosum, 3 mm
longum, 2.5 mm diametro, 6—8-loculare, locu-
lis 2-ovulatis, ovulis superpositis; stylus cras-
sus, strigillosus, 3 mm longus, 1 mm diametro;
stigma crassum discoideum, glabrum, 2 mm
diametro. Capsula fere matura globosa, rugu-
losa, brunnea, 11 mm diametro, 6—8-loculare;
semina in loculo 2 superposita, atra, ca. 3 mm
longa.
Tree 12°m tall and 15cm in diameter, said to
become larger. Twigs hollow and inhabited by
ants. Wet tropical forest. ‘‘Pialde macho.”
EsMERALDAS: Playa de Oro, altitude 65 m,
April 30, 1943, Little 6404 (Forest Service no.
98254; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1877588, TYPE;
with wood sample).
This specimen is readily associated with the
group of a few species in the large genus
Guarea Allem. ex. L. and Sect. Huguarea C.
DC. having ovaries and capsules with more
than 5 cells (6 to 12). The flowers are 6- or 7-
merous, rarely 5-merous, and the ovaries are
6-8-celled. Petals are 5 to 7, instead of the usual
number in this genus, 4 or 5. The wood sample
was identified by 8S. J. Record as Guarea. Other
species with approximately the same number of
carpels are G. purusana C. DC., of Amazonian
Brazil, with 6—9-celled ovary but much larger
fruit and dense brownish pubescence, and G.
grandifolia DC., of Guiana, 7-celled but other-
wise 4-merous. This Ecuadoran collection con-
tains also specimens of G. syringoides C. H.
Wright (?) and G. trichilioides L.
Perhaps Guarea Allem. ex L. (Mant. Pl. 2:
150. 1771) should be made a nomen conservan-
dum over Elutheria P. Br. (Civ. Nat. Hist.
Jamaica 369. 1756). The latter was referred to
Guarea by Fawcett and Rendle (Fl. Jam. 4:
215. 1920) and cited by Harms (in Engler and
Prantl, Natiirl. Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 19bI: 129.
1940). Rendle (Journ. Bot. 50: 129. 1912) con-
tended that it was unnecessary to conserve
names against earlier names by Patrick Browne
observing that Browne published descriptions
of species only, not genera. Whether Browne’s
descriptions in monotypic genera, such as
Elutheria, would be valid as combined generic
and specific descriptions (art. 43) is uncertain
because binomial nomenclature was not
adopted. Nevertheless, several generic names
of Browne having priority have formally been
made nomina rejicienda.
Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR 99
Trichilia floribunda Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 10
Sect. Moschoxrylum (A. Juss.) C. DC. Arbor
10-20 m alta vel major, tr&nco 20 em diametro.
Ramuli minute strigillosi. Folia alterna, magna,
imparipinnata; petioli 8-11 cm longi; rhaches
30-35 cm longae; foliolae 11-14, alternae;
petioluli 5-12 mm longi; petioli, rhaches, et
petioluli minute strigillosi; laminae foliolarum
oblanceolatae, (11) 25-33 cm longae et (5) 7-10
em latae, infimae minores, basi acutae, apice
acutae, integrae, subcoriaceae, supra glabres-
centes, subtus minute et sparse puberulentae
vel glabrescentes, nervis lateralibus utrinque
(9) 20-25, ascendentibus, marginem versus
curvatis, his cum costa supra fere planibus vel
leviter impressis, subtus prominentibus. Pani-
culae axillares, corymbiformes, multiflorae,
20-30 cm longae, fere 20 cm latae, ramulis
strigillosis; pedicelli tenues, 1-2 mm longi;
flores flavo-albidi, fragrantes; alabastrum
oblongo-ovoideum, 6 mm. longum et 2-2.5 mm
latum; calyx patelliformis, brevissimus, sub-
integer vel leviter 4- vel 5-lobulatus, 0.6 mm
longus et 2.5 mm latus, externe strigillosus,
intus glaber; corolla in alabastro 6 mm longa
et 2-2.5 mm diametro, externe dense cinereo-
strigillosa, intus glabra; tubus cylindricus, 4-
lobatus (raro 3-lobatus) fere ad medium, lobis
lanceolatis, obtusis, cucullatis, valvatis, leviter
involutis; tubus stamineus urceolatus, 4 mm.
longus, apice 6-8 denticulatus (denticulis 1
mm longis), externe glabrescens vel parce ap-
presso-pilosus, intus hirtellus; antherae 6-8,
vulgo 7, inter denticulos insertae, exsertae, 1
mm longae; ovarium ovoideum, cum gyno-
phoro 1.5 mm longum et 1 mm latum, dense
strigillosum, 2- vel 3-loculare, loculis 2-ovu-
latis; stylus tenuis, inferne strigillosus, 1.5 mm
longus; stigma clavatum. Fructus deest.
Tree 10—20 m tall and 20 cm in diameter, re-
ported to become a large tree of forest canopy.
Wood said to be used for axe handles. Possibly
of ornamental value because of the abundant
small, yellowish-white, fragrant flowers. Wet
tropical forest of northwestern Esmeraldas.
“Pialde.” |
ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude 10 m,
April 21, 1943, Little 6323 (Forest Service no.
96852; U. 8. Nat. Herb. no. 1877646, Type);
Borbén, altitude 15 m, April 26, 1943, Little 6372
(Forest Service no. 98283; with wood sample).
The very numerous flowers in this species of
Trichilia P. Br. have a saucerlike calyx very
slightly 4- or 5-lobed, and the 4-lobed corolla
united more than half its length. This species
has relatively large leaves and leaflets for the
genus. 8. J. Record named the wood sample as
Trichilia. Also represented in this collection
are J’. hirta Land T. macrophylla Benth.
Belotia australis Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 1
Arbor 18 m alta vel major; trunco 35 cm.
diametro. Cortex glaber, albidus. Ramuli et
petioli minute dense stellato-puberuli, grisei.
Petioli 8-15 mm longi. Laminae ellipticae vel
lanceolatae, 9-14 cm longae, 3-6 cm latae,
basi obtusae vel acutae, apice acuminatae,
acumine 1—1.5 cm longo, glanduloso-serrulatae,
d-nervatae, chartaceae, discolores, supra viri-
des, minute sparse stellato-puberulae, subtus
griseae, minute dense stellato-puberulae, pilis
paucis stellatis majoribus praeditae. Inflores-
centia cymosa axillaris, 3-6 cm longa, ca. 10-
flora; pedicelli 3-6 mm longi; bracteae lanceo-
latae, 2-4 mm longae, interdum 2- vel 3-den-
tatae; pedunculus et pedicelli bracteaeque
minute dense stellato-puberulae, griseae; ala-
bastra ca. 8 mm longa; flores 10-11 mm longi;
sepala 5, rubella, lanceolata, 9-11 mm longa,
2.5 mm lata, margine involuta, apice obtusa,
cucullata, 5-nervata, externe minute dense
stellato-puberula, intus fere glabra, pilis paucis
stellatis praedita; petala 5, ligulata, 8-9 mm
longa, 1.5 mm lata, apice 2—4-dentata, 5-ner-
vata, externe sparse pubescentia, intus basi et
circum nectarium stellato-pilosa, ceterum gla-
bra; androgynophorum 1 mm altum, apice
discum dense stellato-pilosum 3 mm diametro
ferens; stamina 15, 2-3 mm longa; filamenta
deorsum stellato-pilosa; antherae suboribcu-
lares, 0.8 mm longae; ovarium ovoideum, 3 mm
longum, 2.5 mm diametro, dense pilosum, 2-
loculare, ovulis paucis; stylus 3-4 mm longus,
basi stellato-pilosus; stigma 4-lobatum, lobis
laciniatis, 0.6 mm longis. Capsula bilocularis,
valde obcompressa, loculicida, brunnea, 15
inm longa, 20 mm lata, 4 mm crassa, basi ro-
tundata, apice truncata, sparse puberula,
pilis minutis stellatis et pilis stellatis multo
longioribus interspersis, stylo persistente cus-
pidato 3 mm. longo coronata. Semina desunt.
Tree 18 m tall or larger, and 35 cm in diame-
100
ter. Bark smooth, whitish. The light-weight
wood is sometimes mixed with that of balsa
(Ochroma lagopus Sw.) and substituted for the
latter. Scattered in cutover wet tropical forest
and fields at San Lorenzo but not common.
“Chillarde.’? Also improperly called “balsa.”
ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude about
10 m, April 19, 1943, Little 6273 (Forest Service
no. 96826; U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1858843, Typn;
with wood sample).
In the genus Belotia A. Rich., T. A. Sprague
(Kew Bull. 1921: 270-278. 1921) distinguished
11 species, including 6 new, distributed from
southern Mexico through Central America to
Panama and in Cuba and Santa Lucia in the
West Indies. A. A. Bullock (Kew Bull. 1939:
517-521. 1939) later examined additional ma-
terial and reduced the number of species to 9.
Sprague predicted that this genus might be
found later in the Pacific coast forests of Co-
lombia, and this collection represents a further
southward extension of Belotia to Ecuador.
Belotia australis is related to B. panamensis
Pittier (B. macrantha Sprague) of Panama.
Pubescence in the former is finer, more minute,
and gray, while the latter has the twigs and
branches of inflorescence coarsely ferrugineous
tomentose. The leaves of B. panamensis usu-
ally are larger, rounded or obtuse at base, and
with teeth more prominent. The under surface
of the leaves in B. australis has finer pubescence
with the larger hairs of the upper tier scattered
and fewer. The flowers of B. panamensis are
slightly larger. Capsules in both species are
similar in size and shape, but those of B. pana-
mensis are much more densely stellate pubes-
cent and have shorter styles less than 3 mm
long.
Sprague noted that the common name
“‘balsa,”’ which is applied to B. australis, is used
also in British Honduras for B. campbellii
Sprague.
Matisia alata Little, sp nov.
Fig. 16
Arbor 20 m. alta, trunco 20-30 ecm diametro.
Ramuli et petioli minute stellato-tomentosi,
pilis flavis, radiis numerosis, brevissimis,
glandulosis, demum glabrescentes. Folia magna
petiolata, petiolis 2-5 cm longis; laminae
oblongo-obovatae, 15-38 cm longae, 8-18 cm
latae, basi subrotundatae vel leviter cordatae,
apice acutae, margine integrae vel obscure un-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 3
dulatae, penninervis, nervis lateralibus 9-12
utrinque latere, prope marginem arcuatis et
anastomosantibus, subtus elevatis, venulis
prominente reticulatis, supra glabratae, subtus
sparse et minute stellato-puberulae. Flores
solitarii, oppositifolii, 2 vel 3 apice ramulorum,
magni, 7 cm longi; pedicellus crassus, curvatus,
fulvus, 4-7 cm longus, 3 mm diametro; calyx
anguste campanulatus, 45 mm longus, 22 mm
diametro cum alis, basi attenuatus, crassus,
plus minusve succulentus, ochraceus, dense et
minute stellato-tomentosus, pilis glandulosis,
intus dense sericeus, lobis 5 brevibus, acutis,
3-5 mm longis, alis 10, longis, angustis, usque
ad 6 mm latis; petala 5, ochracea, 70 mm longa,
basi connata tubo 2 mm, limbo spatulato vel
obovato, obtuso, ca. 32 mm longo et 15-18 mm
lato, externe dense stellato-tomentoso, intus
glabro; columna staminea longe exserta, leviter
curvata, 5 cm longa, 5-lobata, lobulis leviter
pubescentibus, 10-16 mm longis, antherarum
loculis 4-6 linearibus; ovarium 5-lobatum, 5-
loculare, 3 mm longum, stellato-tomentosum;
stylus 60 mm longus, 10 mm exsertus, curva-
tus, stellato-tomentosus; stigma capitatum, 2
mm longum. Fructus globosus, succulentus,
ochraceus, magnus, 8-10 cm diametro, calyce
accrescente 6-7 cm longo, cum alis 4-10 mm
latis, suffultus.
Tree 20 m tall and 20-30 cm in trunk diam-
eter. It is said that the large, fleshy fruits are
edible. Observed also at San Lorenzo, Esmeral-
das. Wet tropical forest of Esmeraldas and
Pichincha, northwestern Ecuador. ‘‘Sapote,”’
“‘sapotillo.”’
ESMERALDAS: Quinindé, altitude 65 m, April
12, 1943, Little 6244 (Forest Service no. 96751;
U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1858828, TypE). PiIncH-
INCHA: between Santo Domingo de los Colora-
dos and Quinindé, April 7, 19438, Little 6197
(Forest Service no. 96867); April 8, 19438,
Little 6200 (Forest Service no. 96785; in fruit).
More than 20 species of the genus Matisia
H. B. K. have been described, a third of these
in 1945-1946. This genus of small to medium-
sized trees ranges from. Brazil to Colombia and
Keuador and north to Panama and Costa Rica.
Some of the species apparently are of local
range. In this Ecuadorian collection are M.
cordata Humb. & Bonpl., a cultivated species,
M. coloradorum R. Benoist, an Ecuadorian
species found again at the type locality, and
two species proposed here as new.
Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN BCUADOR 101
AY
Ae
Cc
ING / \
<7)
Yypy «\\" a
Ze,
TZ ny
Fic. 15.—Clusia polystigma, including bud and immature fruit, all 4X. Fic. 16.—Matisia alata,
1X; flower, 3X. Fig. 17.—Clusia plurivalvis, including separate staminate flowers and fruits,
all 3 X. Fic. 18.—Matisia grandifolia, § X; flower, about 1X.
102
Matisia alata, one of the few species with
pinnately veined leaves, is distinguished from
other species of the genus by the prominent
wings on the calyx, to which the specific name
refers, and by the large flowers, which are
orange or brownish in color. The 10 conspicu-
ous wings of the calyx tube are longitudinal,
narrow, slightly curled projecting ridges, start-
ing at the base of the calyx and reaching a
maximum width of 6 mm. near their rounded
ends of the apex of the calyx. The 5 wings oppo-
site the calyx lobes are larger, while the alter-
nate wings are smaller and shorter or may be
almost absent.
Matisia grandifolia Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 18
Arbor parva, 5 m alta, trunco 5 cm diametro.
Ramuli et petioli dense et minute stellato-to-
mentosi, pilis multiradiatis, glandulosis. Folia
magna, petiolata, petiolis 1-1.5 cm longis, 4
min diametro; laminae late ellipticae, 50-60 em
longae, ca. 28 cm latae, basi rotundatae, apice
acuminatae, margine integrae vel obscure un-
dulatae, penninervis, nervis lateralibus 12-14
utrinque latere, prope marginem arcuatis et
anastamosantibus, subtus elevatis, venulis
prominente reticulatis, supra glabrae, subtus
minute stellato-puberulae. Flores pauci, soli-
taril, oppositifolii, 3-3.5 em longi; pedicellus
brevis, leviter curvatus, 5-7 mm longus; brac-
teis 3, basi floris, subulatis, 3-6 mm longis;
calyx anguste campanulatus, fulvus, 22-25 mm
longus, 8 mm diametro, uno latere 10-12 mm
fissus, lobis plerumque cohaerentibus, saepe
2-4, sinubus 2-7 mm longis, alis 10 longis,
angustis, 1 mm latis, dense et minute stellato-
tomentosus, pilis glandulosis, intus dense seri-
ceus, petala 5, in sicco rubida, anguste oblan-
ceolata, apice obtusa, 30-34 mm longa, 4-5 mm
lata, externe apice appresso-stellato-tomentosa;
columna staminea 17-20 mm longa, apice le-
viter pubescens, 4- vel 5-lobata, lobulis 3-9 mm
longis, antherarum loculis ellipticis usque ad 8;
ovarium conicum, 5-loculare, 3-4 mm longum,
stellato-tomentosum; stylus 24 mm longus, 3
mm exsertus, stellato-tomentosus; stigma 5-
lobatum, lobulis obtusis, fere 2 mm longis.
Fructus deest.
Small tree 5 m tall and 5 cm in diameter,
said to become larger. One tree seen in cacao
plantation, wet tropical forest area. ‘‘Peni-
mon.”
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 3
PicuincHa: Santo Domingo de los Colora-
dos, altitude 560 m, April 7, 1943, Little 6146
(Forest Service no. 96782; U. 8. Nat. Herb. no.
1858834, TYPE).
This species is characterized by unusually
large, pinnately veined leaves, by the short
pedicels, and by the calyx split on one side,
with 10 narrow wings or ridges.
Clusia plurivalvis Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 17
Arbor dioica, recta, extensa, 15 m alta,
trunco 30 cm diametro. Cortex fuscus, leviter
asper, fissus, latice alba. Ramuli crassi, teretes.
Folia petiolata; petioli 1.5-4 em longi, 4-7 mm
lati, leviter alati; laminae ovales vel obovatae,
(8) 12-24 cm longae, (5) 8-14 em latae, basi
obtusae vel acutae, apice rotundatae, valde
coriaceae, nervis lateralibus numerosis, paral-
lelis, sub angulo ca. 60—-70° adscendentibus.
Inflorescentia terminalis, capitata, pauciflora
pedunculo crasso, 2.5-4 em longo, 6 mm dia-
metro, floribus sessilibus. Flores masculi magni,
5 em diametro; bracteae calycinae rotundae,
4-9 mm longae, 8-13 mm latae, obtusae,
carinatae; sepala 4—6, biseriata, late rotundata,
obtusa, concava, coriacea, 2 inferiora minora
6-10 mm longa et 15 mm lata, superiora 10-15
mm longa et 12-20 mm lata; petala 5, obovata,
28-32 mm longa, 20-25 mm lata, obtusa, in
vivo alba, basi incarnata vel ochracea; stamina
in disco convexo 5-6 mm alto et 10-13 mm dia-
metro inserta, numerosissima, spissa, fere
sessilia, antheris 1.5 mm longis, longitudina-
liter dehiscentibus; staminodia in globo re-
sinoso 5 mm diametro apice disci aggregata.
Flores feminei desunt; sepala in fructu per-
sistentia, similia sepalis florium masculorum;
staminodia nulla. Capsula succulenta depresso-
globosa, 17 mm alta et 21 mm diametro, 13-
16-locularis et 13—16-valvatis; stigmata 13-16,
peltata, radiata, sessilia, triangularia, plana,
8 mm longa et 2-3 mm lata, atra, in disco 17
mm diametro; semina in loculis 2.
Large, erect, widely spreading tree 15 m tall
and 30 cm in trunk diameter. Bark dark brown,
slightly rough, with white latex. Common and
with another, probably undescribed species
of Clusia (Little 6769) a dominant tree species
of the dry mountain forest in ravines at Huigra.
Common name “lamai,” according to Rose.
CHIMBORAZO: Huigra, altitude 1300 m, July
17, 1943, Little 6768A (Forest Service no.
ero
Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR
98525; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1857089, TyPE;
with fruits). Little 6768 (Forest Service no.
95852; with staminate flowers). Little 6768B
(Forest Service no. 98526; with staminate
flowers). Huigra, Aug. 19, 1918, J. N’. Rose and
George Rose 2223 (U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1021907;
with fruits and staminate flowers but also
containing larger, detached, sectioned fruits
of a different species).
Rose and Rose 2223 bears the note, ‘‘ ‘Not
at Kew’ N. L. Blritton]. Sept. 1920.’ Clusia
plurivalvis is not readily placed in the proper
section in the latest summary of Clusia L.
by Engler (Natiirl. Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 42:
103
199-204. 1925). It seems to be in subgenus
Thysanoclusia Vesque and related to section
Euclusia Planch. & Triana, which differs in
having the connectives elongate and pointed.
In this species the numerous stamens are
crowded and almost sessile in a convex disc,
which bears a central resinous mass of stami-
nodia. The number of carpels in the ovary in
this species, 13-16, is very high. Of the species
in which the number of carpels is known, only
afew, such as C. flava Jacq. with 12-14 car-
pels, C. cuneata Benth. with 16, and the new
species described below have more than 12
carpels.
os
Fic. 19.—Aspidosperma elatum, +X; fruit, 3X.
104
Clusia polystigma Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 15
Epiphyta magna, scandens, arborea, dioica,
10 m alta, trunco 10 em diametro. Ramuli
crassi, teretes. Folia subsessilia, obovata, 15-20
em longa, 8-11 em lata, basi angustata et sub-
petioliformes, apice obtusae, valde coriaceae,
nervis lateralibus numerosis, parallelis, sub
angulo ca. 50° adscendentibus. Flores masculi
desunt. Inflorescentia feminea terminalis, race-
mosa, pauciflora, rhache 6 cm longa, bracteata,
bracteis oppositis, late ovatis, 5-8 mm longis
et 6-10 mm latis; pedicelli 3-6 mm longi;
bracteae calycinae 2 late rotundatae, 3 mm
longae et 5-6 mm latae, obtusae, crassae;
sepala 4-6, biseriata, late rotundata, obtusa,
coriacea, minora 2 inferiora, 7-11 mm longa et
9-12 mm lata, 2-4 superiora 15-16 mm longa
et 12-18 mm lata; petala 6 vel 7, obovata,
32-34 mm longa et 22-24 mm lata, obtusa, in
vivo albida, leviter incarnato-tincta; cupula
staminodialis 3-4 mm longa, 12 mm diametro,
apice leviter lobata; ovarium cylindricum, 4
mm longum, 6 mm diametro, sulcis longitudi-
nalibus et loculis 16-19, loculis multiovulatis;
stigmata 16-19, radiata, sessilia, anguste tri-
angularia, 5-6 mm longa et 1.5 mm lata, atra,
connata in annulo 4-5 mm longo et 8-9 mm
diametro. Capsula succulenta immatura sub-
globosa, 18 mm longa et 16 mm diametro, sul-
cata, stigmatibus sessilibus coronata.
Large woody vine 10 m tall and 10 cm in
trunk diameter, epiphytic on a tree of Ficus sp.
nov. (Little 6356) left in a clearing, wet tropical
forest. ‘‘Matapalo.”’
ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude about
10 m, April 28, 1948, Little 6355 (Forest Service
no. 98245; U.S. Nat. Herb. no. 1857080, TyPs).
In the absence of staminate flowers, this
species of Clusia L. cannot be definitely placed
as to section. When more material is available,
this species perhaps may be included in sub-
genus Thysanoclusia Vesque, section Huclusia
Planch. & Triana, according to the summary
by A. Engler (Natiirl. Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 21:
199-204. 1925). The large, 6- or 7-petaled
flowers suggest affinities with this section. This
species is readily distinguished by the very high
number of carpels, 16-19, apparently more
than have been recorded previously in this
genus.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 3
Neosprucea pedicellata Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 13
Arbor parva, 10 m alta, trunco 20 em dia-
metro, ramulis teretibus griseis, minute ap-
presso-pubescentibus. Folia petiolata, pe-
tiolis appresso pubescentibus, 12-16 mm longis;
laminae ellipticae, 10-20 cm longae, 6-10
cm latae, membranaceae, basi subrotundatae,
apice attenuatae, margine remote obtuseque
glanduloso-serratae, e basi distincte tripli-
nerviae, glabrae nervis subtus minute paullo
appresso-pubescentibus exceptis. Racemus la-
teralis laxus divergens, pauciflorus (2 vel 3),
5-6 em longus; rachis et pedicelli subangulati,
minute denseque tomentosi; pedicelli 25-30
mm longi; flores magni, albidi, sepala et petala
similia, valvata, persistentia, utrinque breviter
denseque appresso-tomentosa; sepala 4, basi
leviter connata, ovata, 16-17 mm _ longa,
5-7 mm lata, acuminata, 5—-8-nervata; petala
4, ovata, acuta, carinata, 15-17 mm longa;
stamina numerosa; filamenta filiformia, 2 mm
longa; antherae linearae, hirsutae, 5 mm
longae; receptaculum dense hirtum; ovarium
globosum, fere glabrum, 5 mm diametro,
semi-5—7-loculare, placentis parietalibus pro-
minentibus; stylus crasse filiformis, 9 mm lon-
gus; stigmate truncato. Fructus deest.
Small tree about 10 m. tall and 20 cm. in
diameter, wet tropical forest.
PICHINCHA: Santo Domingo de los Colorados
altitude about 560 m, April 2, 1943, Little 6152
(Forest Service no. 96909; U. S. Nat. Herb. no.
1858861, TYPE).
Neosprucea Sleumer (Notizbl. Berl. 14: 47.
1938), a monotypic genus of the Flacourtiaceae,
was based upon WN. grandiflora (Spruce) Sleu-
mer (Notizbl. Berl. 44: 47. 1938), originally
described as Banara grandiflora Spruce (Journ.
Linn. Soc. Bot. 5. Suppl. 2: 93. 1861). The type
was collected at Tarapoto, Peru, by Spruce,
and the species now is known from the Atlantic
slope in Brazil, Colombia, and Peru. The sec-
ond species, N. pedicellata, represents an ex-
tension of range of the genus to Ecuador and
possibly the first record on the Pacific slope.
N. pedicellata is a distinct species readily
separated from the type species by the follow-
ing characters: leaves membranaceous (instead
of chartaceous); leaves mostly larger, broader,
and rounded at base; petioles slightly longer;
Mar. 15, 1948 LITTLE: NEW SPECIES OF TREES FROM WESTERN ECUADOR
greatly elongated pedicels 25-30 mm iong;
and larger flowers. Though N. grandiflora was
described by Sleumer with a spikelike raceme
and pedicels only 2 mm. long, Mutis’ specimens
from Colombia have pedicels 10 to 20 mm.
long.
Symplocos ecuadorensis Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 11
Subgenus EHusymplocos Brand, sect. Symplo-
castrum Brand, subsect. Ciponimastrum Brand.
Arbor 15 m alta, trunco 20 cm diametro. Ra-
muli leviter hirsuti. Folia petiolata, petiolis
hirsutis, 5-8 mm longis; laminae oblanceolatae,
5-10 cm longae, 2.5—-4 cm latae, basi cuneatae,
apice abrupte acuminatae, remote crenulatae,
subcoriaceae, lucidae, supra glabrae, subtus
parce hirsutulae, costa et venis primariis subtus
prominentibus. Paniculae axillares, 1-2 cm.
longae, rachibus hirsutis, bracteis ovatis, hir-
sutis, ciliatis, 1 mm longis; flores 7-8 mm longi,
subsessiles; calyx 2—2.5 mm longus, hypanthio
campanulato ca. 1 mm longo, glabro, lobis 5,
late ovatis, ciliatis, 1-1.5 mm. longis; corolla
alba, 6-7 mm longa, tubo ca. 3 mm longo, lobis
5, ellipticis, obtusis, apice ciliolatis, 3-4 mm
longis et 2 mm latis; tubus stamineus tubo
corollae adnatus, 1 mm longus; stamina 28-32
triserialia; filamenta complanata, 0.2-2.5 mm
longa; ovarium fere omnino inferum, 1.5 cm.
altum, apice pilosum, 3- vel 4-lobulatum. Fruc-
tus baccatus, cylindricus, lobis calycinis et
basi styl coronatus, 10 mm. longus, 5 mm
diametro, 3- vel 4-locularis.
Tree 15 m tall and 20 cm in diameter. Two
trees were seen in a pasture, cleared wet trop-
ical forest.
ESMERALDAS: San Lorenzo, altitude about
10 m, April 22, 19438, Little 6349 (Forest Serv-
ice no. 98370; U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1858685,
TYPE).
Though the genus Symplocos Jacq. is widely
distributed with about 300 species in tropical
and subtropical America, Asia, and Australia,
most species have restricted ranges. This ma-
terial from the poorly explored Ecuadorian
province of Esmeraldas could not be assigned
105
to any of the species from northwestern South
America.
Aspidosperma elatum Little, sp. nov.
Fig. 19
Arbor magna, 35 m alta; trunco 1 m dia-
metro, profunde suleato et angulato. Cortex
fere laevis, leviter fissus, albido-griseus. Ra-
muli subteretes, puberuli. Folia alterna, non
congesta, internodiis 4-7 cm longis, petiolata,
petiolis fusco-puberulis, 1 cm longis; laminae
magnae, oblongo-oblanceolatae, chartaceae,
22-26 cm longae, 7-9 cm latae, basi subrotun-
datae, apice acutae vel obtusae, fere glabrae,
supra virides, subtus glaucescentes, costa
leviter puberula, supra canaliculata, subtus
elevata, nervis lateralibus utrinque 13-16, fere
rectis, prope marginem leviter arcuatis, subtus
elevatis, secundariis inconspicuis. Inflorescen-
tiae desunt. Mericarpia magna, compressa,
suborbicularia, 10-12 em longa, 9-10 ecm lata,
2 cm crassa, externe dense fusco-tomentosa,
pericarpio lignoso, 5-8 mm crasso; semina
plano-compressa, suborbicularia, 9 em longa,
7 cm lata, alis latis, papyraceis.
Large tree of forest canopy, to 35 m tall and
1 m in trunk diameter. Easily recognized in the
field by the odd, fluted trunk with deep,
branching, vertical grooves. Bark smoothish,
slightly cracked, whitish-gray. Wet tropical
forest at Pichilingue. ‘‘Naranjo de monte.”
Los Rios: Pichilingue, altitude about 45 m,
May 25, 1948. Little 6517 (Forest Service no.
98223; U.S. Nat. Herb., Typr).
The genus Aspidosperma Mart. & Zuce. is
widely distributed in tropical America from
Mexico and the West Indies to Brazil and Ar-
gentina, centering in Brazil and represented in
northwestern South America by only a few
species. Four species were recorded from Col-
ombia by Standley (Trop. Woods 36: 13-20.
1933). The herbarium material of Aspido-
sperma elatum, which consists of foliage and
detached fruits, seems sufficiently distinctive,
as the leaves and fruits are larger than in most
species. Apparently this is the second species of
Aspidosperma recorded from Ecuador.
106
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 3
HERPETOLOGY.—A collection of salamanders from Mount Rogers, Virginia.’
RicHarp L. Horrman and Husertr |. Kirrnrerer. (Communicated by
HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)
Although White Top Mountain, Va., is
well known to students of salamander dis-
tribution, and is subjected to periodic dep-
redation by different collectors; its ad-
jacent neighbor to the northeast, Mount
Rogers, has apparently escaped the atten-
tion of most herpetologists. The absence of
any particular road to the summit of Mount
Rogers may be partly responsible for this
neglect.
When, in the summer of 1947, we had
the opportunity to be in southwestern Vir-
ginia, we avoided White Top believing that
we could make no particular contribution
by further depleting its already well-known
herpetological fauna. Instead a period of
three days was spent on Mount Rogers.
Our station was located on the eastern slope,
in Grayson County, at an elevation of about
4,500 feet, from which one all-day journey
was made to the top, as well as many short
trips in the general region about the camp.
The lower slopes of the mountain are
thickly forested with a mesophytic flora
which might be characterized as a maple-
hemlock-dogwood association, with com-
paratively little undergrowth of herbaceous
plants. Although fir and spruce trees are
widely scattered, the extensive stands are
restricted to the uppermost 500 or 600 feet
of the knob. Here red spruce, Picea rubra
(DuRoi) Dietr., and southern fir, Abies
fraserz (Pursh) Poir., seem to comprise the
entire evergreen forest, the latter being by
far the more abundant. The ground is com-
pletely covered by mosses and thick car-
pets of the wood sorrel, Oxalis acetosella L.
A striking feature of the evergreen stands
is the large number of logs and stumps, all
in approximately the same stage of de-
composition. The more level parts of the
top are covered by heavy growths of vari-
ous ferns.
From a physiographic standpoint, the
Balsam Mountains (of which White Top
and Mount Rogers form the bulk) are char-
1 Received October 20, 1947.
acteristic of the Southern Section of the
Blue Ridge Province. White Top has previ-
ously been designated part of the Iron
Mountains, but the recent Mount Rogers
Quadrangle (q.v.) of the U. 8. Geological
Survey ranks the Iron and Balsam
Mountains as separate units.
Although a rather large number of sala-
manders was encountered, they represented
but a few species. The contrast between the
salamander fauna of White Top and Mount
Rogers is interesting in that the following
species reported from the former were not
found by us on Mount Rogers: Triturus v.
viridescens, Desmognathus monticola, Ple-
thodon c. cinereus, P. g. glutinosus, P.
yonahlossee, and Pseudotriton ruber nitidus.
It is difficult to account for the apparent
absence of several of these species, whereas
at least one other form which is scarce on
White Top (Plethodon wellerz), is extremely
common on Rogers. In the case of P. yonah-
lossee, it is not inconceivable that we col-
lected above its maximum elevation prefer-
ences. The lower slopes seemed very favor-
able for P. glutinosus, but the only Pletho-
don found there was metcalfi, which was
present in considerable numbers.
In addition to the salamanders which
(with the exception of a small series of a
strange Desmognathus reserved by the jun-
ior author for further examination) have
been donated to the United States National
Museum, the following amphibians and rep-
tiles were found on Mount Rogers: Bufo ter-
restris americanus, Lampropeltis t. triangu-
lum, and Thamnophis s. sirtalis. One speci-
men of the last named was seen sunning
itself on a rock at approximately 5,500 feet;
the others were all seen near our station at
4,500 feet. |
We take pleasure in indicating our grati-
tude to Drs. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., and
Arnold B. Grobman for help in preparation
of this paper, and to Dr. Doris M. Cochran
for courtesies attendant upon our visits to
the National Museum.
Mar. 15, 1948 HOFFMAN & KLEINPETER: SALAMANDERS FROM MOUNT ROGERS, VA.
LIST OF SPECIES
Desmognathus fuscus fuscus (Rafinesque)
Six specimens, which were not presented to
the Museum, were collected in a large seepage
area located in a cleared saddle on the northeast
side of Mount Rogers. This species was not
represented farther down in the stream em-
anating from the spring.
Desmognathus ochrophaeus carolinensis Dunn
Sixteen individuals, U.S.N.M. nos. 124455-
70, were collected at elevations from 4,500 to
5,700 feet. The species seemed to be equally
common in evergreen and deciduous forests.
Desmognathus quadramaculatus quadra-
maculatus (Holbrook)
Nine specimens, mostly large adults,
U.S.N.M. nos. 124471-79. On July 2 we col-
lected in a small but cold and swift stream on
the eastern slope of the mountain at an eleva-
tion of about 4,300 feet. This species was es-
pecially common; most of the specimens found
being under submerged rocks in rapids. The
largest specimen included in our series meas-
ures 78 mm from snout to vent, a size not ap-
proached by specimens from farther north in
Virginia.
Desmognathus wrighti King
Two adults, U.S.N.M. nos. 124480 and
124634, were collected at an elevation of ap-
proximately 5,600 feet. They were found in
rotting logs in company with Plethodon wel-
lertx. Mount Rogers is the northernmost locality
at which this diminutive salamander has been
found.
Plethodon metcalfi Brimley
Hight specimens, U.S.N.M. nos. 124412-18,
124631. This species shares with D. o. carolinen-
sis the distinction of being one of the two most
abundant salamanders on Mount Rogers, and
the size of our series is in no way indicative of
the abundance of the animal. In the evergreen
forests, metcalfi occurred all the way to the very
summit of the mountain, although less common
on the top; in and under logs but notinstumps.
Plethodon welleri Walker
Eleven specimens, U.S.N.M. nos. 124442-
49, 124632-33. The size of the series serves to
107
indicate the relative abundance of this hereto-
fore supposedly rare species. Far more were
collected than were retained. It was not until
we were several hundred yards within the
evergreen forest that we found the first wellerz,
but thereafter almost every log or stump ex-
amined contained one and occasionally two
specimens. Most frequently, welleri was found
in decaying, moss-covered stumps, usually in
the upper portion. Individuals found in logs
were usually lying with the body in a ‘‘U’”’—the
end of the tail near the head. Many of them
remained still and were easily caught.
One log, nearly at the top, was found to con-
tain two females with their eggs. This log, seem-
ingly identical with many others investigated,
was supported about 18 inches above the
ground. The females were discovered in small
crevices in the damp wood, about 6 inches
apart, an inch under the surface of a layer of
moss. Both were curled around the eggs, and
showed some reluctance to leave them. In fact,
one, on being dislodged, moved back after a
short time. The larger clutch contained nine
eggs, which were slightly pear-shaped and
averaged 4.2 (3.6—5.0) mm in the largest diame-
ter. We could detect no particular pedicles, and
the eggs clung together by the adhesive nature
of the outer envelopes. The smaller clutch in-
cluded seven eggs, which are arranged in a ring
of five with one above and below at the center.
In color, the eggs were a light creamy yellow,
and no trace of embryos could be discerned
within. The mothers differed in size in accord-
ance with the number of eggs, the larger meas-
uring 47 mm snout to vent (87.5 mm total
length) and the smaller 43.5 mm snout to vent
(79.1 mm total length). It is interesting that of
the many wellert seen, the only two with egg
masses were in the same log. We wonder if it
was due to coincidence or to a tendency of the
females to congregate at a sort of Wochenstube
where conditions for hatching and growth (not
apparent to humans) are optimum.
Mount Rogers is the fourth locality reported
for this form, and it is probably more abundant
there than at any other place. Only a dozen or
So specimens have been taken altogether on
White Top, thus its abundance on Mount
Rogers is the more interesting, particularly in
view of the fact that we covered such a small
area.
108
Gyrinophilus sp.
One larval specimen, U.S.N.M. no. 124487.
This individual was found in the stream noted
above under D. q. quadramaculatus and was but
one of several seen in this and the rivulet
where D. f. fuscus was secured. We expended
several hours in a particular attempt to ob-
tain adults, which seem to have escaped the
efforts of White Top collectors as well. One
would expect the adults, from geographic prob-
ability, to be Gyrinophilus danielst. An attempt
which was made to raise the larva to trans-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 3
formation was unsuccessful. Collectors who
visit the Balsams in the future should make
special efforts to obtain adult specimens.
Eurycea bislineata wilderae Dunn
Two adults, U.S.N.M. nos. 124484, 124629,
were taken, of which one was found under a
rock in a marshy area at about 4,900 feet on the
east side of the top. The second example was
discovered in a thick leaf pile along the side of
the creek mentioned above under D. q. quadra-
maculatus.
ORNITHOLOGY .—The races of the silver-breasted broadbill, Serilophus lunatus
(Gould).
Through the kindness of the authorities
of the Chicago Natural History Museum
(C.N.H.M.), the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia (A.N.S.P.), and
the American Museum of Natural History
(A.M.N.H.), I have been enabled to add to
the series of the silver-breasted broadbill in
the United States National Museum
(U.S.N.M.) to make a total of 93 specimens.
From the taxonomic point of view, this
has proved to be a highly unsatisfactory
species. While the races may be immedi-
ately broken into three main groups, in
accordance with the color of the lores
(black, rusty, or ashy), further subdivision
hinges upon such subtle factors as the
extent and intensity of tones of gray and
brown and is complicated by a certain
degree of individual variation in almost any
given character. Thus, while subspeciation
appears in all the zoogeographic areas where
such might be expected, yet it is a matter of
the greatest difficulty to set forth intelli-
gible diagnoses, even when these apply, not
to individuals, but to series. In the diag-
noses given below, only characters that
possess subspecific importance will be
noted; it may be said at once that no con-
sequential variation has been found in
measurements or in the complicated pat-
terns of wing and tail.
With the understanding that Serzlophus
rubropygius (Hodgson) represents a closely
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received July 18,
1947.
H. G. Derenan, U. 8. National Museum.
allied but independent species, I find the
following populations of S. lunatus ap-
parently worthy of nomenclatorial recog-
nition:
1. Serilophus lunatus polionotus Rothschild
Sertlophus lunatus polionotus Rothschild, Bull.
Brit. Orn. Club 14: 7. Oct. 30, 1903 (Mount
Wuchi, Hainan).
Diagnosis ——The lores black; the sides of the
head and the ear coverts pale ashy ferruginous;
the forehead pale ashy gray, this color changing
insensibly to the pale ashy ferruginous of the
crown and nape; the scapulars and upper back
ashy gray; the lower back rufous, this color
changing to rufous-chestnut on the rump and
upper tail coverts; the innermost secondaries
chestnut-rufous.
Range.—Hainan.
Specimens examined.mHAINan:
Wuchi (10 males, 3 females).
Mount
2. Serilophus lunatus elisabethae La Touche
Serilophus lunatus elisabethe La Touche, Bull.
Brit. Orn. Club 42: 14. Oct. 29, 1921 (Hokow,
elev. 300 feet, southeastern Yunnan Province,
China).
Diagnosis——The lores blackish; the sides of
the head and the ear coverts pale ferruginous;
the forehead pale ashy, this color changing
insensibly to the ferruginous of the crown
and nape; the scapulars and upper back deep
ashy brown; the lower back chestnut-rufous,
this color changing to rufous-chestnut on the
rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost
secondaries chestnut-rufous.
Mar. 15, 1948 DEIGNAN: THE RACES OF THE SILVER-BREASTED BROADBILL
Range—The valley of the Red River from
the Chinese frontier to its mouths and thence
southward into northern Annam.
Specimens examined.—YUNNAN: Southeast:
Hokow (1 female); ANNAm: Thanhoa Province:
Lunglunh (2 males); Vinh Province: Phuqui
(1 female).
3. Serilophus lunatus impavidus, n. subsp.
Type—C.N.H.M. no. 90275, adult male,
collected at Thateng (lat. 15°31’ N., long.
106°22’ E.), Saravane Province, Bas-Laos, on
December 6, 1931, by Jean Delacour (original
number 743).
Diagnosis.—The lores black or blackish; the
sides of the head and the ear coverts pale
ferruginous; the forehead pale ashy, this color
changing insensibly to the light ferruginous of
the crown and nape; the scapulars and upper
back brownish ashy; the lower back chestnut-
rufous, this color changing to rufous-chestnut
on the rump and upper tail coverts; the inner-
most secondaries chestnut-rufous.
Range.—Bas-Laos (Boloven region).
Specimens examined.—Bas-Laos: Saravane
Province: ‘‘Boloven Plateau” (1 male), Tha-
teng (4 males, 4 females), Ban Kok (1 male),
Pakse (1 male, 1 female).
Remarks—This race is very near to S. l.
elisabethae, with which it has been heretofore
confused, but is easily distinguishable, es-
pecially in series, by the predominantly ashy
hue of the scapulars and upper back. Certain
examples of true elisabethae seem to approach
it in this respect but prove to be less well-
made skins, in which the grayish bases of the
feathers are exposed to view. In series also the
reds of crown, nape, lower back, rump, upper
tail coverts, and innermost secondaries average
slightly paler in zmpavidus than in elisabethae.
4. Serilophus lunatus aphobus, n. subsp.
Type—U.S.N.M. no. 330375, adult male,
collected on Khao Laem ( a mountain of the
San Kamphaeng Range at lat. 14°25’ N.,
long. 101°30’ E.), at the southwestern corner
of the eastern Siamese Plateau, on December
28, 1930, by Hugh M. Smith (original number
4432).
Diagnosis.—The lores blackish rusty; the
sides of the head and the ear coverts ferrugi-
nous; the forehead pale ashy, this color changing
insensibly to the light ferruginous of the crown
109
and nape; the scapulars and upper back ashy
brown; the lower back chestnut-rufous, this
color changing to rufous-chestnut on the rump
and upper tail coverts; the innermost second-
aries chestnut-rufous.
Range.—Eastern Siam.
Specimens examined.—St1am: East: Ban Lam
Thong Lang (1 male), Khao Laem (1 male, 1
female).
Remarks.—The present form is similar to
both S. l. elisabethae and S. 1. impavidus, but
separable from either by having the lores
blackish rusty instead of black, and the sides
of the head and ear coverts a rather more
vivid ferruginous. The color of the scapulars
and upper back is intermediate between those
of elisabethae and impavidus.
A male from Khao Soi Dao and another from
Ban Bang Phra, localities in extreme south-
eastern Siam, are near aphobus but have the
reds slightly deeper in tone. For the present
they must be left unnamed.
5. Serilophus lunatus atrestus, n. subsp. .
Type-—A.M.N.H. no. 143346, adult male,
collected at Mengting (lat. 23°33’ N., long.
99°05’ E.), western Yunnan Province, China,
on February 19, 1917, by Roy C. Andrews and
Edmund Heller (original number 492).
Diagnosis —The lores blackish rusty; the
sides of the head and the ear coverts bright
ferruginous; the forehead pale ashy, this color
changing insensibly to the bright ferruginous
of the crown and nape; the scapulars and
upper back ashy brown; the lower back chest-
nut-rufous, this color changing to rufous-
chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts;
the innermost secondaries chestnut-rufous.
Range.—Northeastern Burma; Northern
and Southern Shan States; western Yunnan;
Haut-Laos; Tongking (west of the Black
River-Red River divide); northern Siam
(eastern provinces. )
Specimens examined—YUNNAN: West:
Mengting (1 male); SourHERN SHAN STATES:
Kengtung State: Mong Len (1 male); Siam:
Northeast: Muang Lom Sak (1 male); Havut-
LAOS: 5° Territoire Militaire: Muong Yo (2
males, 2 females); Tonexine: Laichau Proy-
ince: Muong Mo (1 male).
Remarks——This race is distinguishable in
series from S. 1. aphobus by the more vivid
110
tones of the reds of the sides of the head, ear
coverts, and upper parts.
From S. l. elisabethae it may be separated by
having the lores blackish rusty instead of black,
and by having the reds of the sides of the head,
ear coverts, and upper parts distinctly lighter
and brighter.
6. Serilophus lunatus lunatus (Gould)
Eurylaimus lunatus Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon-
don 1 (12): 133. Apr. 16, 1834 (‘‘apud Ran-
goon’’; type locality here restricted to the hills
of the Pegu District, Pegu Division, Burma).
Eurylaimus lunatus Gould, Trans. Zool. Soc. Lon-
don 1 (2): 176, pl. 25. Apr. 23-25, 1834 (‘“‘apud
Rangoon, Peninsule Indie ulterioris’’).
Diagnosis——The lores rusty or blackish
rusty; the sides of the head and the ear coverts
ferruginous; the forehead pale ashy, this color
changing insensibly to the light ferruginous of
the crown and nape; the scapulars and upper
back ashy brown; the lower back rufescent,
this color changing to chestnut-rufous on the
rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost
secondaries rufous-buff.
Range.—Pegu Yomas; Karenni; Tenasserim
(south to the Amherst District); northwestern
Siam (including Chiang Rai Province).
Specimens examined.—Siam: Northwest:
Chiang Saen Kao (1 male, 2 females), Wiang
Khae (1 female), Ban Muang Sum (1 male),
Doi Pha Hom Pok (1 male, 1 female), Doi Hua
Mot (1 male, 2 females), Doi Chiang Dao
(1 male, 2 females), Doi Suthep (1 male, 2
females), Doi Khun Tan (1 male, 2 females);
TENASSERIM: Salween District: Papun (1
male).
Remarks.—The population I have taken to
represent S. /. lunatus is immediately separable
from all except the next following by the pale
coloration of its innermost secondaries.
It must be said, however, that no topo-
typical material has been available to me, and
the assumption that the bird of Pegu is the
same as that of northwestern Siam rests only
upon zoogeographical probability. The colored
portrait of ‘‘lunatus’’ in Gould’s Birds of Asia
is, as observed by Hume (Stray Feathers 3:
53. 1875), altogether too brightly colored; that
given in the Trans. Zool. Soc. London could
as easily picture the race described below from
southwestern Siam.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 3
7. Serilophus lunatus intrepidus, n. subsp.
Type.—A.M.N.H. no. 203342, adult female,
collected 28 miles southeast of Ban Um Phang
(a village at lat. 15°47’ N., long. 98°50’ E.),
southwestern Siam, on February 2, 1924, by
Arthur S. Vernay (original number 611).
Diagnosis—The lores rusty or blackish
rusty; the sides of the head and the ear coverts
ferruginous; the forehead pale ashy, this color
changing insensibly to the light ferruginous of
the crown and nape; the scapulars and upper
back ashy brown; the lower back chestnut-
rufous, this color changing to rufous-chestnut
on the rump and upper tail coverts; the inner-
most secondaries rufous-buff.
Range.—Southwestern Siam and the adja-
cent parts of Tenasserim (Amherst and Tavoy
Districts).
Specimens examined.—TENASSERIM: Am-
herst District: ‘“Thaungyin valley” (1 male),
“Thoungyin” (1 male), Moulmein (1 male),
headwaters of the Mepale Chaung (1 female),
Mitan (1 male); Sram: Southwest: 17 miles
east of Lakya, Tenasserim (1 female), 28 miles
southeast of Ban Um Phang (1 male, 1 female),
20 miles west of Muang Kamphaeng Phet (1
female).
Remarks.—S. l. intrepidus is distinguished
from all races except lunatus by the light-
colored innermost secondaries. From lunatus
itself it is separable only by the richer colora-
tion of the posterior upper parts, in this show-
ing normal intergradation between the more
northern form and S. 1. stolidus.
It is probable that the differentiating charac-
ter of the race would appear more strongly in
specimens from more southerly localities; in
default of such material, I have selected as type
locality the most southern provenience repre-
sented in my series.
8. Serilophus lunatus stolidus Robinson
and Boden Kloss
Serilophus lunatus stolidus Robinson and Boden
Kloss, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 40: 16. Dec. 8, 1919
(Khao Nong, a mountain in peninsular Siam at
lat. $°55’ N., long. 99°38’ E.).
Diagnosis —The lores ashy rusty; the sides
of the head and the ear coverts ashy ferrugi-
nous; the forehead and forecrown pale ashy,
this color changing insensibly to the pale ashy
ferruginous of the hindcrown and nape; the
Mar. 15, 1948 DEIGNAN: THE RACES OF THE SILVER-BREASTED BROADBILL
scapulars and upper back ashy brown; the
lower back chestnut-rufous, this color changing
to rufous-chestnut on the rump and upper tail
coverts; the innermost secondaries chestnut-
rufous.
Range.—Peninsular Siam (south of lat.
11°40’ N.); Tenasserim (Mergui District).
Specimens examined.—Si1am: Peninsula:
Khao Luang, at lat. 11°40’ N., long. 99°35’ E.
(1 female), Khao Luang, at lat. 8°30’ N., long.
99°45’ BE. (3 males). “1
Remarks—Compared with “lunatus’’ from
the Isthmus of Kra, Robinson and Boden
Kloss found that stolidus had “‘deeper-coloured
inner secondaries and tertiaries”’ and “‘slightly
more drab, less fulvous ear coverts.’’ One would
not ordinarily expect isthmian examples (lat.
10° N.) to differ in any important way from
those of Khao Nong (lat. 8°55’ N.), and the
fact that the single specimen from lat. 11°40’
N. is indistinguishable from those of lat. 8°30’
N. seems to show that only one race occurs in
the Siamese portion of the Peninsula.
9. Serilophus lunatus rothschildi Hartert
and Butler
Serilophus rothschildt Hartert and Butler, Bull.
Brit. Orn. Club 7: 50. May 25, 1898 (Gunong
Ijau, elev. 3,000 feet, Perak State, Malaya).
Diagnosis——The lores pale ashy; the sides
of the head and the ear coverts ashy or brown-
ish ashy; the forehead and forecrown pale
ashy, this color changing insensibly to the
brownish ashy or ashy brown of the hindcrown
and nape; the scapulars and upper back deep
ashy brown; the lower back chestnut-rufous,
this color changing to rufous-chestnut on the
rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost
secondaries chestnut-rufous.
Range—Malaya (northern Perak to south-
ern Selangor).
Specimens examined—Mataya: Perak
State: Gunong ITjau (2 females); Selangor
State: Ginting Bidei (2 females).
10. Serilophus lunatus moderatus Chasen
Serilophus lunatus moderatus Chasen, Treubia 17
(2): 187. July 1939 (Palok, near Mount Leuser,
elev. ca. 1,000 meters, Achin, northern Su-
matra).
Pit
Diagnosis—The lores blackish ashy; the
sides of the head and the ear coverts ashy or
brownish ashy; the forehead and forecrown
pale ashy, this color changing insensibly to the
brownish ashy or ashy brown of the hindcrown
and nape; the scapulars and upper back deep
ashy brown; the lower back chestnut-rufous,
this color changing to rufous-chestnut on the
rump and upper tail coverts; the innermost
secondaries chestnut-rufous.
Range.—Northern Sumatra (Achin).
Specimens examined.—Sumatra: North:
Bandar Bahru (1 male), Blangnanga (2 males,
2 females), Blangbeke (1 male, 1 female),
Kungke (1 female).
Remarks.—This form seems to be separable
from rothschildi only by its darker lores.
11. Serilophus lunatus intensus Robinson
and Boden Kloss
Serilophus lunatus intensus Robinson and Boden
Kloss, Journ. Straits Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc.
73: 276. July 1916 (Siolak Dras, Korinchi Valley
at elev. 3,100 feet, southwestern Sumatra).
Diagnosis—The lores blackish ashy; the
sides of the head and the ear coverts brownish
ashy; the forehead and forecrown pale ashy,
this color changing insensibly to the brownish
ashy or ashy brown of the hindcrown and nape;
the scapulars and upper back deep ashy brown,
lightly suffused with rufous; the lower back
chestnut-rufous, this color changing to rufous-
chestnut on the rump and upper tail coverts;
the innermost secondaries chestnut-rufous.
Range.—Sumatra (excepting Achin).
Specimens examined.—SuMatTRa: Southwest:
Siolak Dras (2 males, 1 female).
Remarks.—Meyer de Schauensee and Ripley
(Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 91: 336.
1940) have combined moderatus with rothschildi
but have kept intensus as a “thin” race, barely
separable from their rothschildi-moderatus. All
Sumatran birds seen by me, however, are
easily distinguishable from true rothschildi by
the color of the lores. To my-eyes, the real
problem is to divide moderatus from intensus,
and this seems to be just possible in series by
the tone of the brown of the scapulars and
upper back.
112
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 3
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY
MEETING OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
The Executive Committee met in the Cos-
mos Club at 8:10 p.m. on February 2, 1948, to
consider the budget submitted by the Treas-
urer. The President, F. D. Rossin1, presided;
others present were: H.S. RapPpLEYE, WALTER
RaMBERG, W. L. Scumitrt, and C. L. Gazin.
After careful consideration of the separate
items, the Committee unanimously approved
the following budget for 1948:
Item Amount
Operating Expenses:
Meetings Committee..... $ 500
SECKEUCATY?. cnc oe nl ole cae 400
ELKEASUTET {Oe ek Stet ee 250
Sa Nid (Ceol Pubs: 50 $1,200
Journal:
Printing, mailing, illustra-
tions, & reprints....... $4,776
Editorial Assistant....... 300
Miscellaneous...) -/aen.e 50 85,126
Total expenditures. ... $6 , 326
Estimated receipts......... 6,144
Dehenties: {25k Nes $ 182
In view of the evident deficit the Committee
turned its attention to ways and means of in-
creasing the Academy income so that running
expenses in the future might be met from yearly
income without depleting the invested assets.
Discussion was centered about two means: in-
creasing the number of paying members and
initiating a drive for JouURNAL subscriptions.
About 18 vacancies exist in the Academy
membership, and an informal discussion the
Committee showed agreement in favor of rais-
ing the limit of membership to permit a greater
income from this source.
With regard to the possibility of obtaining
additional funds from new subscriptions, the
Secretary was instructed to inform the Custod-
ian and Subscription Manager of Publications
that the Executive Committee is desirous of
having the Subscription Manager attempt to
secure these subscriptions through distribution
of approximately 100 copies of an appropriate
issue of the JouRNAL, each with a reprint of the
index of the JouRNAL for 1947 and a covering
letter to various university and scientific insti-
tution libraries in this country and abroad not
now subscribing to the JoURNAL.
The meeting was adjourned at 9:55 p.m.
C. L. Gazin, Secretary.
Obituary
Rosert HamiItTon LOMBARD was born in
Ashburnham, Mass., on December 3, 1887, and
died on October 11, 1947. He was graduated
from Cushing Academy in Ashburnham in
1906, and from Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in 1910 with the 8.B. degree. While
at M.I.T. he was research assistant in physical
chemistry. He published papers with Prof. M.
DeKay Thompson and Prof. A. A. Noyes, un-
der whom he worked. He obtained his Ph.D.
degree at Columbia University in 1915 in
chemistry and was an instructor there. He pub-
lished two papers with Prof. Alexander Smith,
one dealing with phosphorus pentachloride and
the other with ammonium halides.
From 1915 to 1927 Dr. Lombard was em-
ployed as a chemist in the Geophysical Labo-
ratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washing-
ton, where he conducted research on the sys-
tem copper-iron-sulphur. He published three
papers on this work, with E. T. Allen and
H. KE. Merwin as co-authors.
For the last 20 years Lombard was a research
chemist in the Norton Company, Research
Laboratories, at Worcester, Mass. He made
important contributions to the abrasive in-
dustry, and a number of patents, both domestic
and foreign, have been granted covering his
developments. Most of his researches were
connected with the vitrified bonding of grind-
ing wheels and other abrasive products. The
most important new product resulting from his
work is a grinding wheel having diamonds as
the abrasive grains and a new-type vitrified
bond. This product is superior to resinoid
bonded and metal bonded diamond wheels in
that the diamonds are held more firmly and
efficiently while, at the same time, a freer cut-
ting action is obtained. .
Dr. Lombard was a member of the honorary
scientific societies Sigma Xi and Phi Lambda
Upsilon. He was a member of the American
Chemical Society, the Washington Academy
of Sciences, the American Fern Society, and the
Worcester Chemists’ Club and was a fellow of
the American Association for the Advancement
of Science. His hobbies included botany and
photography, and he had a collection of fine
cameras. He was a member of the First Baptist
Church of Worcester.
He is survived by his wife, Hazel Soule Lom-
bard, and a 12-year old daughter, Anne.
L. H. MILLIGAN.
- Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences
Rete. wee eeeeeeeeseeseeLREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards
| Seoretary eee & Lewis Gazin, U. S. National Museum
Treasurer. Sa REE ate ae ne See em -Howarp S. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey
RR PeNIUIS. 2 hae 8 e ; .NATHAN R. SMirH, Plant Industry Station
_ Custodian and Subscription Mo anager of Peiblepgignte 2 fis: eee
Toe Gade co ee eer, CA ARALD AL REHDER, U. S. National Museum
View Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies:
Philosophical Society of Washington...... SA. ree aK Sos WaLTER RAMBERG
Anthropological Society of Washington.................... T. Date STEWART
Paolosieal Society of Washington. 2.02. 6 ee JOHN W. ALDRICH
Chemical Society of Washington.......... Bees Soap ete CHARLES E, WHITE
Entomological Society of Washington................... C. F. W. MursEBECK
_ National Geographic Society..... A Te eS, EN GRE ak SRR HEU ALEXANDER WETMORE
w(seolopical Society of Washington... 0. 602252. es Winuiam W. Rusey
‘Medical Society of the District of Columbia................ FREDERICK O. CoE
aoe Wolumbia Historical Society... 2.2... ....6. kat GILBERT GROSVENOR
- = tovanical society of Washinfton........2 006. ee ek RoNALD BAMFORD
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.. ... Wintr1amM A. Dayton
Washington Society Ol Mee iner Esa So OSs ous sms be alee we CLIFFORD A. BETTS
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers..........
RY het Meer ne Bal Se ce Se Sp ai oars 6a Nee ee FRANCIS. B. SILSBEE
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers..............5
RE epee fo katie pce 3 Seal oe SE ere & aes a a> abe tus oS Wore y we MartTIn A. Eason:
Helminthological Society of Washington nk pe tate tee OR cee AUREL O. FosTER
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists ies Lore A. ROGERS
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY
Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OwEN B. FRENcH
Elected Members of the Board of M sagen
To January 1949...:........ cegeee ap at Max A. McCati, Watpo L. Scumitt
weeuannary 19505 SoS o . ..........F. G, BrRICKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DIEHL
Timwantary 1951 23.55 5.....% ....-.FRANCIS M. DEFANDORF, WILLIAM N. FENTON
PMTM OPE ONOUCTS ..0 35.0 0s bos tek Se 0s All the above officers plus the Senior Editor
Board of Editors and Associate Editors............000eeeees fare ee [See front cover]
_ Executive Committee......... FrREepErRIcK D. Rosstn1 (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG,
2 OS ais ....Watpo L. Scumirr, Howarp S. Rappieye, C. LEwis GazINn
Committee on M embership yards SNR Lae ee Mantis Sereno w peuk ea Cl ‘a-atale ie «ie es?
Harotp E. McComs (chairman), Lewis Ww. Butz, ©. “WYTHE Cooxs, WILLIAM
+-+-.--.. W. Direut, Liuoyp D. FEtToN, REGINA FLANNERY, Grorcr G. Manov
Committee MIR GOTO OE Po i BT Ss sic wade a RayMonpD J. SEEGER (chairman),
tenes acd RANK P, CULLINAN, _Frep L. Monuer, Francis O. Ricz, FRANK THONE
~ Committee on M ae
To January 1949........... Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN
To January 1 aera es more nas Roitanp W. Brown, Haratp A. REHDER
To January 1951..... Se eee eget ls WiuuiAM N. Fenton, Emmett W. Price
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HERzrELp, general chairman):
Mame BIOIDP IGN! OLENGES 5 eS ica altos ha wale esis vee be beads EEN
. F. W. Mvusseseck (chairman), Harry 8. BERNTON, CHESTER W. Emmons,
ELMER Hiecins, Mario Motuarl, GOTTHOLD STEINER, ‘L. Epwin Yocum
Por the Engineering SM NS 5 SRE Re Tig ee gaa a en eae
Harry Dramonp (chairman), Luoyp V. BERKNER, Rosert C. Donean,
HERBERT N. Eaton, Arno C. FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScHEETZ, W. D. SurcuFrE
For eee CRMC SIMONE 20 or katie, te la Pi ask in Ee ca we Cates. we se kat
«Kart F,. Herzreip (chairman), NATHAN L. DRAKE, Luoyp D. FELTON,
- HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. Rooney, ROBERT SIMBA, MicHaE. X. SULLIVAN
‘Garmitiee MeL Uraticeu-utd. gor Wiseartn Be i a ln ce ek dels ce oki wece
..F. H. H. Roserrts, Jr. ri tae Anna E., Jenkins, J. LEON SHERESHEVSKY
_ Representative on Council of eee, PA cee Sets he eae cs Ace ar eae FRANK THONE
Rommitce.0; Auditors). 5. cen ee See pee cone as Sats ei hate Weg See ONS ae
Writam G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), H AROLD F. Stimson, HERBERT L. HALLER
Commitee of Tellers............ Ee pee Csi ss Rorwaie wa eke Sens oe
aot - JOHN iw McBurney (chairman), Rocer G. BATES, Witutam A. WiLpHAcK
PurLoLoy.—English-language surnames of biological origin. 1
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BOARD OF EDITORS ee
ALAN SronE | Frank C. Kracex a
, BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY
aN _ PLANT QUARANTINE |
t . a ah PN a 4 . a . : aN
aes _ ASSOCIATE EDITORS Sen hss
Ae eer op: Ricuarp E, BLACKWELDER ae
Uae : Mae - ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY , ua. Ml
Gay ien Nie James 8. Wittiams | Pane)
re wp ig ys et GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY SE as
ah Waxpo R. WEDEL
Ce hes ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Irt ©. Schoonover Wi
| CHEMICAL SOCIETY —
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 38
APRIL 15, 1948
No. 4
BIOCHEMISTRY .—The chemical nature of enzymes.! JAMES BATCHELLER SUM-
NER, Cornell University.
Why was it difficult to isolate an enzyme?
Here I employ the word “‘isolate’”’ as mean-
ing preparing in pure condition. It does not
seem difficult to isolate and crystallize an
enzyme now, but it was difficult 20 years
ago. The reasons were several. One was the
inertia of men’s ideas. Another reason was
the influence exerted by Willstatter and
his school, who held that enzymes were
neither lipids, carbohydrates, nor proteins
and who believed enzymes to exist in ex-
cessively low concentrations in plants and
animals. The misconception that colloidal
substances had a chemistry different from
that of crystalloids was another stumbling
block. A yet more important reason why
enzymes could not be isolated readily was
because work with these substances requires
a special technique. The enzyme is present
in relatively low concentration in the raw
material. It often is highly unstable. The
raw material nearly always contains natural
protectors which are left behind during the
purification processes. In the absence of
these natural protectors, the enzyme may
become destroyed by traces of heavy metals,
by oxidation, by unfavorable pH, or even
by autolysis.
I wish to tell next why I decided in 1917
to attempt to isolate an enzyme. At that
time I had little time for research, not much
apparatus, research money, or assistance.
I desired to accomplish something of real
importance. In other words, I decided to
take a “ong shot.’”’ A number of persons
advised me that my attempt to isolate an
1 Nobel Laureate Lecture delivered at Stock-
holm, Sweden, December 12, 1946. Previously
published by the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Stockholm.
113
} >
P.
ig
,
A »
(Communicated by Waxpo L. Scumirt.)
enzyme was foolish, but this advice made
me feel all the more certain that if success-
ful the quest would be worth while.
The reasons why I chose to work with
urease were several. I had been working
with urease as a reagent for the estimation
of urea in muscle, blood, and urine. This
urease was prepared from soy bean meal.
In 1916, Mateer and Marshall found that
the jack bean, Canavalia ensiformis, con-
tained about 16-fold more urease than the
soy bean. The jack bean appeared to me
to be extraordinarily rich in urease and I
could see no reason why this enzyme could
not be isolated in pure form and charac-
terized chemically. Claude Bernard has said
that success or failure may depend upon
the lucky choice of some reagent or raw
material. Willstatter was unfortunate in
his choice of saccharase as an enzyme to
isolate. I was fortunate in choosing urease.
I hoped that urease would turn out to be
a globulin, since globulins usually, if not
always, are present in beans and seeds, and
since globulins are easy to precipitate by
dialysis. Other reasons for choosing urease
as the enzyme to isolate were that this
enzyme can be estimated quantitatively
very accurately and readily, and that
urease could be expected to be one enzyme,
rather than a mixture of enzymes, acting
as it does on such a simple substrate as urea.
I started trying to isolate urease in the
fall of 1917, having been occupied previ-
ously with analytical methods. At this
time, our laboratory contained no adequate
apparatus for grinding jack beans. We first
used a coffee mill and then ground the
coarse material with a mortar and pestle.
Years later, we constructed a mill which
was run by an electric motor and which
BPR 2 3 194E
114
employed a bolting device, However, in the
meanwhile we usually used commercial
jack bean meal. This commercial meal was
not always satisfactory.
The jack bean is a miniature world in
itself and contains all of the elements re-
quired for life, growth, and reproduction. I
decided to isolate and characterize as many
as possible of the chemical compounds pres-
ent in the bean. I found various minerals,
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, extractives,
pigments, and enzymes to be present. Par-
ticular attention was paid to the proteins
of the jack bean, since I expected to find
that urease was one of these. I isolated two
globulins in crystalline form and named
these concanavalin A and concanavalin B.
A third globulin which I called “‘canavilin”’
separated as spheroids upon dialysis. Years
later Howell and I were able to crystallize
this, after a preliminary digestion with
trypsin. Many years later we discovered
that concanavalin A is a hemagglutinin for
the red cells of certain animal species as
well as an excellent precipitant for certain
polysaccharides. A lipid fraction of the
jack bean was observed to function as a
thromboplastic agent.
In attempting to concentrate and purify
urease, I employed fractional precipitation
with alcohol, acetone, and other organic
solvents. Fractional precipitation with am-
monium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and
other neutral salts was tried. I tested a large
number of salts of heavy metals or precipi-
tants. I employed a very large number of
reagents as absorbents. This work covered
many years. At times I grew discouraged
and temporarily abandoned the quest, but
always returned to it again.
At first we used to extract urease from
jack bean meal with water. These aqueous
extracts were viscous and therefore very
difficult to filter. Glycerol extracts were
even more bothersome. I learned that
Folin used 30 percent alcoholic extracts of
jack bean meal as a source of urease for
analytical purposes. It was found that ex-
traction with 30 percent alcohol was of
distinct advantage, inasmuch as this sol-
vent dissolved most of the urease but
failed to dissolve a rather large quantity of
the other proteins. Hence, a considerable
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 4
purification was achieved through the use
of this solvent. The alcoholic extracts
filtered very rapidly, leaving the undis-
solved material behind on the filter paper.
The only disadvantage of 30 percent alco-
hol lay in the slow inactivating action of
this solvent upon the urease. However, if
kept at low temperatures, there was no
inactivation of the enzyme.
When kept at low temperatures, 30 per-
cent alcoholic extracts of jack bean meal
formed precipitates. These precipitates con-
tained practically all of the urease, together
with concanavalin A, concanavalin B, and
other proteins. At this time we had no ice
chest in our laboratory and we used to place
cylinders of 30 percent alcoholic extracts on
our window ledges and pray for cold
weather.
It seemed to me of interest to employ
dilute acetone instead of 30 percent alcohol
and to see whether this substitution would
result in any improvement in the method of
purification. Accordingly I diluted 316 ce
of pure acetone to 1,000 cc and used this as
the means of extracting the urease. I rou-
tinely employed this dilution of acetone,
since I had been preparing 30 percent alco-
hol through diluting 95 percent alcohol in
this manner. The acetone extract was
chilled in our newly acquired ice chest over-
night. The next morning I examined the
filtrate. It contained practically no precipi-
tate, thus differing from alcoholic filtrates.
However, upon observing a drop of the
liquid under the microscope, it was seen to
contain many tiny crystals. These were of a
shape that I had never observed previously.
I centrifuged off some of the crystals and
observed that they dissolved readily in
water. I then tested this water solution.
It gave tests for protein and possessed a
very high urease activity. I then telephoned
to my wife, ‘‘I have crystallized the first
enzyme.”’ }
Now I should like to tell this audience
what enzyme crystals look like. This de-
scription applies also to proteins, since
enzymes are proteins. Enzyme crystals are
nearly always microscopic, since these
compounds, being of high molecular weight,
diffuse relatively slowly and_ therefore
crystallize slowly. Enzyme crystals belong
Apr. 15, 1948
nearly always to the isometric or hexagonal
systems. Sometimes enzymes separate from
solution as spheroids. This formation indi-
cates a tendency to crystallize, as Dr.
Northrop can tell you from his experience.
Spheroids are nearer the crystalline state
than purely amorphous material, such, for
example, as casein which has been precipi-
tated from milk by the addition of acetic
acid. Spheroids have sometimes been found
by us to be aggregations of many needles
either in parallel or concentrically arranged.
Having convinced myself that I really
had isolated urease in crystalline form, I
read a paper on this matter at Clifton
Springs, N. Y., and published an article
in the August number of the Journal of
Biological Chemistry for the year 1926. But
now a difficulty arose. The commercial jack
bean meal which we had been using suffered
a decline in quality and we could obtain no
urease crystals from it unless we added a
small amount of acetic acid to the alcoholic
filtrates. Even then, the yield of crystals
was low. Analyses showed that the recent
samples of jack bean meal contained only
about one-half as much urease as the ear-
lier samples. Accordingly, attempts were
made to obtain satisfactory meal, or satis-
factory jack beans. We grew jack beans in
one of the Cornell greenhouses. The beans
grew poorly and the yield was less than the
number of beans planted. We obtained
jack beans from Texas, Guatemala, and
Honduras, but these were low in urease. I
happened to meet a plant physiologist, Dr.
Albert Muller, who said he would grow me
some jack beans at Mayagiiez, Puerto Rico.
I gave him about a kilo of jack beans rich in
urease, the last I had left. Some seven
months later about a bushel of beans ar-
rived from Puerto Rico. These beans were
rich in urease. The finely ground meal gave
a high yield of urease crystals. Later we
were able to obtain excellent jack beans
from an Arkansas farmer. He has supplied
us with jack beans ever since.
I wish to speak now about. proofs of the
identity of the crystals with urease. In
cases of this sort, one piece of experimental
evidence is not sufficient to constitute a
valid and satisfactory proof; one must sub-
mit many pieces of evidence. At this time
SUMNER: THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF ENZYMES
115
I had no access to the ultracentrifuge of
Svedberg nor to the electrophoresis appara-
tus of Tiselius. However, I was able to offer
evidence of another sort, as is shown below:
1. When the crystals separated there
occurred a great increase in purity, namely
from 700 to 1,400-fold. Using other methods
the increase in purity observed was very
much less than this and at times there even
occurred a decrease in purity.
2. When the distribution of urease was
followed quantitatively it was found that
of the urease passing into the filtrate as
much as 40 percent or more separated with
the crystals.
3. Recrystallization increased the purity
of the urease.
4. Adding traces of poisons, such as
mercuric chloride or formaldehyde, to jack
bean meal inactivated the urease and, at
the same time, prevented the appearance of
the crystals.
In obtaining the crystals, I felt much the
same as a person does who is trying vainly
to place in position a piece of a machine.
Suddenly the piece slides in as if covered
with butter. One knows that it is now where
it belongs.
During later work on crystalline urease,
I was fortunate to have a number of excel-
lent men in our laboratory. These were
Doctors Hand, Kirk, Poland, and Dounce.
We found that trypsin neither digested
nor inactivated urease. Since trypsin is a
proteolytic enzyme of second attack, it
does not digest certain native proteins
readily. Some proteins that are digested
with great difficulty are hemoglobin, oval-
bumin, and the serum proteins. After urease
had been denatured by acid or by heating,
it was found to be very readily digested by
trypsin.
Pepsin acts best in a strongly acid me-
dium and strong acid rapidly destroys ure-
ase. However, at pH 4.3 we found that
urease was so slowly destroyed that it was
possible to demonstrate a parallel digestion
and inactivation by pepsin. In place of
pepsin it was possible to use papaincysteine.
In our laboratory Dr. J. Stanley Kirk
was able to immunize rabbits to crystalline
urease. Kirk started by giving rabbits as
little as 0.03 mg of crystalline urease intra-
116
peritoneally. This dose was given twice
weekly and was finally increased to 1,000
lethal doses. The immunized rabbits con-
tained antiurease in their blood serum. This
antiurease could be purified by precipitat-
ing it by adding urease, washing the urease-
antiurease precipitate, decomposing the
complex with 0.05 N hydrochloric acid,
bringing to pH 5.0, and centrifuging down
the denatured urease. The antiurease was
not harmed by this treatment and could
be employed as an excellent precipitant in
testing for urease. It gave a visible precipi-
tate with solutions of urease diluted 1 to
500,000. However, urease allowed to stand
for a few seconds with 0.05 N hydrochloric
acid and then neutralized gave no precipi-
tate with antiurease; neither did it possess
any urease activity. ‘
Northrop has made good use of physical
methods to demonstrate the identity of
pepsin with his pepsin crystals. While we
have not employed such methods, Kubo-
witzand Haas, working in Warburg’s labora-
tory, have demonstrated that ultraviolet
light is absorbed by highly dilute solutions
of crystalline urease and that exactly the
same wavelengths that are absorbed are
those which destroy urease.
In 1930, Northrop of the Rockefeller
Institute obtained pepsin in crystalline
form. A short time later, Northrop and
Kunitz obtained crystalline trypsin, crys-
talline chymotrypsin, and also the zymo-
gens oi these enzymes in crystalline form.
Their monumental work was of very great
help in bringing the scientific world to ad-
mit that enzymes can be isolated in pure
and crystalline condition. In this connec-
tion I wish to note that Professor von Euler
aided me greatly when I worked on urease
in his laboratory at Stockholm’s Hégskule
in 1929 and that I received valuable help
in 1987 while working in the laboratory of
Prof. Thé Svedberg at the University of
Upsala.
The announcement of the crystallization
of urease and pepsin was not accepted by
some biological chemists. In Germany stu-
dents of Willstatter attempted to show that
our crystalline proteins were merely carriers
of the enzymes. It suffices to say that these
attempts to disprove our work failed, as
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 4
they were bound to fail, since Northrop and
I were right and since our evidence was
unassailable.
To date about thirty enzymes have been
obtained in crystalline and in presumably
pure condition. Certain enzymes are col-
ored, being combinations of specific pro-
teins with such prosthetic groups as ribo-
flavin, phosphate, or hematin. Theorell
has crystallized the yellow enzyme of War-
burg and Christian and, remarkably enough,
has been able to split the protein from the
riboflavin phosphate and later to reunite
these two components. He has shown con-
clusively that the union of these compo-
nents proceeds stoichiometrically.
The enzymes catalase and peroxidase
are compounds of protein with hematin and
these two enzymes possess characteristic
absorption bands. This property has greatly
facilitated the crystallization of these two
enzymes. In addition, it should be noted
that these two enzymes have been shown
to form compounds with hydrogen sulfide,
sodium fluoride, sodium azide, etc.
All enzymes are proteins but not all pro-
teins are enzymes. Many, if not all enzymes
can be crystallized. The oxidizing enzymes
all appear to be conjugated, or compound,
proteins, while the hydrolytic enzymes are,
as far as we can tell, without prosthetic
groups. However, even hydrolytic enzymes
must have reactive groups. Every enzyme
requires a specific method for its purifica-
tion. Our present methods of purifying
both enzymes and proteins are crude and
unsatisfactory for the most part. It is fairly
certain that better methods will be dis-
covered in the near future. One can purify
an enzyme either by precipitating the im-
purities or else by precipitating the enzyme.
The latter procedure is to be preferred, but
the former procedure often is necessary at
the beginning. When I speak of precipitat-
ing the enzyme I mean, of course, a more or
less specific precipitation and not a general
precipitation of everything, much as occurs
on adding a great excess of alcohol or ace-
tone.
Some day every enzyme in living matter
will have been discovered and described.
Every chemical reaction which goes on will
have been recorded. We probably can ex-
Apr. 15, 1948
pect to find some enzymes which are glyco-
proteins, others which are lipoproteins, and
others which are nucleoproteins.
In 1917, the role played by enzymes was
only partially understood. Digestive en-
zymes were well known, autolytic and oxi-
dative enzymes were somewhat known, but
not well understood. At present we realize
the tremendous complexity of the cell. In
muscle alone, some 60 enzymes are known
to occur. Thanks to relatively recent in-
vestigation, practically all of the compli-
cated reactions involved in the breaking
down of glycogen to carbon dioxide and
water have been made clear.
The organic chemist has never been able
to synthesize cane sugar, but, by using en-
zymes, the biological chemist can synthesize
not only cane sugar, but also gum dextran,
gum levan, starch, and glycogen.
We know now of the existence of enzymes
which employ phosphoric acid instead of
water and which might be given the general
_ term ‘‘phosphorases.’”’ There are the phos-
phorylases, transphosphorylases, phospho-
BEEBE: BRUNAUER’S CONTRIBUTIONS IN ADSORPTION
117
isomerases, phosphomutases, and phospho-
dismutases.
From the work of Cori and his associates,
we now have evidence that hormones func-
tion through their effect on enzymes. Thus,
glucose is transformed into glucose-6-phos-
phate when it reacts with ATP in the pres-
ence of the enzyme known as hexokinase.
This reaction, essential for utilization of
glucose, is inhibited by the diabetogenic
hormone coming from the anterior pitui-
tary. This inhibiting action is abolished by
insulin.
We can sum up by saying that, as the re-
sult of discoveries in the field of enzyme
chemistry, some questions have been an-
swered and many new questions have
arisen. We live in an expanding universe in
more senses than that of the astronomers.
In conclusion, I wish to pay tribute te my
former teacher, Otto Folin, who emigrated
as a boy of 17 from SmAaland to America and
who, as professor of biochemistry at Har-
vard, inspired me as he did many other
young men.
CHEMISTRY.—Dr. Stephen Brunauer’s contributions in the field of adsorption.
Raupu A. BEEBE, Amherst College.
At the outset I think it is desirable to
distinguish clearly between physical ad-
sorption and chemisorption, and with that
in view I have tabulated below a number of
characteristics of each type of process:
Physical Adsorption Chemisor ption
1. Rapid Rapid or slow
2. Reversible Often irreversible
3. Low heat High heat
4. Non-specific Specific
5. Multilayer Monolayer only
Since this comparison should perhaps be
discussed in some more detail, attention is
called to the following:
1. Physical adsorption is generally a
rapid process whenever the surface is read-
ily accessible to the gas or vapor being ad-
sorbed, although one may encounter a slow
1 Address delivered before the Chemical Society
of Washington, March 1946, on the occasion of
the awarding of the Society’s Hillebrand Prize to
Dr. Stephen Brunauer. Dr. Beebe’s preliminary
congratulatory remarks are here omitted. Re-
ceived September 24, 1947.
(Communicated by JAMzs I. HorrMan.)
adsorption when it is necessary for the ad-
sorbate to diffuse into cracks or capillaries
to reach the adsorbing surface. Chemisorp-
tion, on the other hand, like chemical reac-
tions in general, may be rapid or slow, and
frequently displays a temperature coeffi-
cient requiring an activation energy of the
order of magnitude found in chemical reac-
tions.
2. Physical adsorption is in general re-
versible, and it is possible to remove the
adsorbate from the surface by outgassing
at the temperature of adsorption or at
slightly elevated temperatures. Chemisorp-
tion, on the other hand, may be truly ir-
reversible, indeed to such an extent that
the adsorbate can be removed only by
chemical action at elevated temperatures.
For instance, oxygen chemisorbed on tung-
sten can be removed only by heating to
about 2000°C. Other chemisorbed layers,
however, can be removed by less drastic
treatment, let us say by outgassing at
118
temperatures of a few hundred degrees
above that at which the adsorption process
takes place.
3. In general, the heat of adsorption
which indicates the energy of binding of the
adsorbate molecules to the solid surface is
of a low order of magnitude in the case of
physical adsorption, usually two to three
times the heat of vaporization for the first
portions of adsorbate added to the surface.
This means that for such gases as nitrogen,
oxygen, argon, or carbon monoxide, all of
which boil at temperatures approximately
that of liquid air, the heat of adsorption
will not exceed 5 kcals per mole. With
larger molecules, such as butane, we en-
counter higher heats of physical adsorption,
which, however, do not exceed 15 to 16
keals per mole. Again one finds a marked
difference in chemisorption, the heats of
this process, like those of ordinary chemical
reactions, running as high as 100 kcals per
mole in certain instances.
4. Although, as is pointed out in Dr.
Brunauer’s book (1), there has never been
given an exact definition of the term spe-
cificity as applied to adsorption, yet this
term is of some use in a qualitative sense.
It may be said that in the case of physical
adsorption the heats evolved tend to be
nonspecific to the chemical nature of the
gases or vapors involved if these adsorbates
have molecular weights, and therefore heats
of vaporization, of the same order of mag-
nitude. For instance, one finds that the four
substances mentioned above have heats of
adsorption of the same order of magnitude.
However, we shall see in a later portion of
this paper that we must not generalize too
far about this nonspecificity of physical
adsorption, and that, indeed, significant
differences become apparent’ especially
when we study the physical adsorption of
the same adsorbate on different surfaces. As
might be expected, the heat of adsorption
in chemical processes is highly specific and
may vary all the way from, let us say, 15
keals to 100 keals in different instances. In
this respect, of course, chemisorption again
resembles chemical reactions in general.
5. It has been well established by the
work of Dr. Brunauer and others that the
forces which give rise to chemisorption ex-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
~ vou. 38, NO. 4
tend to a negligible extent beyond the
monolayer of adsorbed molecules. On the
other hand the work of the group with
which Dr. Brunauer has been associated
seems to establish beyond reasonable
doubt that we are concerned in physical
adsorption with the formation of multi-
layers of adsorbate on the solid surface (2).
With this background, we are now pre-
pared to turn to a discussion and review of
of some of the significant work to which Dr.
Brunauer has contributed. In making a
selection from Dr. Brunauer’s experiments,
I have chosen the work that has been es-
pecially helpful to my own investigations.
In Fig. 1 are shown the isotherms ob-
tained by Emmett and Brunauer (3) for the
adsorption of carbon monoxide on two iron
catalysts at the temperature of liquid oxy-
gen. Looking first at the isotherms for the
pure iron catalyst, it is evident that the
curve labeled ‘‘total adsorption” lies very
much above the “physical adsorption”
curve. For reasons which have been abun-
dantly established by the group with which
Dr. Brunauer has been associated, the
points labeled B on each curve represent
approximately the completion of the sta-
tistical monolayer of physically adsorbed
gas. Thus the volume indicated by Point B
in the “physical adsorption” curve is the
volume of gas required to complete a layer
of carbon monoxide molecules in direct con-
tact with the solid surface. The curve la-
beled ‘‘total adsorption”? was obtained by
outgassing the sample at 400°C and then
admitting carbon monoxide to the system
at —183°C. After this experiment, the sur-
face was outgassed at —78°, or indeed
within the range from —78° to 0°, the tem-
perature of outgassing not being very criti-
cal within this range. Following the out-
gassing process, the adsorption of carbon
monoxide was again measured and was
found to follow the curve labeled ‘“‘physical
adsorption.’”’ Emmett and Brunauer inter-
preted these experiments to indicate that in
the initial experiment the carbon monoxide
was adsorbed first as a chemisorbed layer
with the carbon monoxide molecules held
by relatively strong chemical bonds to the
underlying atoms, and next as a physically
adsorbed layer on top of the chemisorbed
Apr. 15, 1948
molecules. On outgassing in the tempera-
ture range from — 78° to 0°C, the physically
adsorbed molecules were removed, but the
thermal energy was insufficient for the re-
moval of the chemisorbed layer, with the
result that the extent of physical adsorption
could be determined by a subsequent ad-
sorption measurement. It is obvious then
that the difference in heights of the two
curves represents chemisorption.
From the isotherms for the promoted iron
catalyst given in Fig. 1, it is evident again
that the two types of adsorption process
can be separated. In this case, the relatively
large physical adsorption appears to indi-
cate that the small percentage of promoter
material present in the catalyst must cover
a relatively large fraction of the surface
since it is assumed that carbon monoxide is
chemisorbed only on that fraction of the
surface in which the iron atoms are exposed,
but is physically adsorbed on the whole sur-
face. This deduction comprises an impor-
tant contribution by Emmett and Brunau-
er to the understanding of promoter action.
Following the completion of these experi-
ments, Dr. Emmett suggested to me that it
would be worth while to apply to this prob-
lem the technique developed at Amherst
for the calorimetric measurement of heats
of adsorption. In Fig. 2 are shown the re-
sults of these calorimetric experiments (4).
Emmett and Brunauer, from an interpreta-
tion of their curves, would have predicted
that the chemisorption process would be
superseded by physical adsorption after
0.24 ce and 0.21 cc of carbon monoxide at
—78 and —183° respectively had been ad-
sorbed per gram of catalyst. The initial
high values in the differential heats of ad-
sorption, of course, indicate chemisorption
at 0°, —78°, and even at —183°, although
the heat values are lower at the latter tem-
perature. The sharp drop in the heats of
adsorption at —78° to the region of 4 kcals
per mole at 0.25 cc per g, the point pre-
dicted by Emmett and Brunauer as a result
of the analysis of their isotherms, supplies
experimental confirmation of the validity
of their interpretations. This confirmation
from the heat data at — 183°, while not so
strikingly apparent, is nevertheless seen to
be present.
BEEBE: BRUNAUER’S CONTRIBUTIONS IN ADSORPTION
119
Next we shall turn our attention to an-
other important facet of the work to which
Dr. Brunauer has contributed heavily. I
refer to the experimental and theoretical
development of the theory of multimolecu-
lar adsorption, known as the Brunauer,
Emmett, and Teller theory (2). In the early
development of the experimental work,
Emmett and Brunauer came to the tenta-
tive conclusion that the monolayer is com-
plete at the Point B of the characteristic
isotherms obtained in many adsorption sys-
tems and illustrated in Fig. 1. This conclu-
sion was found to be consistent with the
theoretical considerations developed by
Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller. The funda-
mental equation most generally used is
given below:
Iv( If it C-1
p/v(po— P) Oe p/Po-
In this equation, v represents volume of
vapor adsorbed, p the equilibrium pressure,
ADSORPTION IN CC AT S.T.P.
Gy
PRESSURE
Fic. 1.—Isotherms for CO on iron catalysts at
—183°: Pure iron catalyst, 973; promoted iron
catalyst (K:O, 1.59 percent, and Al:O;3, 1.3 per-
cent), 931.
120
and po the saturation pressure of the vapor
at the temperature of the experiment, v»
the volume of gas necessary to fill the mono-
layer, and C a constant which is approxi-
mately defined as C=e1-£)/RT jn which
EH, is the heat of adsorption in the first
layer, and Hy, is the heat of vaporization,
and R and 7 have their usual meaning,
Ey, E,, and R being expressed in calories
and 7’ as the absolute temperature. It is
apparent that a straight line should be ob-
tained if the function (p/v(po—p)) is plotted
against p/po, and indeed literally scores if
not hundreds of cases provide experimental
data which conform to this condition. From
such a plot, known as the B.E.T. plot, it is
possible to obtain the slope and intercept
of the straight line, and from these to calcu-
late the values of v,, and of C. Knowing vm
and making an estimate of the area occu-
pied by the adsorbate molecule on the sur-
face, we can calculate the surface area.
Obviously such an estimate of surface area,
especially on finely divided or porous solids,
is a welcome additional technique in the
field of adsorption, and as a result has come
into very wide use. It will become apparent,
Diff. heats, heal. /mole
: 03 0.6 0.9
Vol. ads. c/a.
Fia. 2.—Heats of adsorption of CO on catalyst
931; —1835,0O7 @; —12 pee OF":
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 4
I think, in the experiments to be described
below, that our ability to estimate the sur-
face area has added greatly to the signifi-
cance of the interpretation of the experi-
mental results.
Now I want to tell you about some work
we have been doing in Amherst on the heats
of adsorption of vapors on carbon black
(5). This work was initiated about a year
ago as a result of a series of conversations
between the writer and Dr. Walter R.
Smith of Godfrey L. Cabot, Inc. At that
time Dr. Smith was especially interested in
getting at the fundamental reasons for the
effectiveness of carbon blacks in reinforcing
rubber. The investigations in his laboratory
had indicated that different carbon blacks
presented a very high degree of specificity
in their reinforcing ability, especially as de-
termined by the modulus of elasticity. It is
apparent, since the carbon black is dis-
persed through the rubber as particles of
the order of several hundred Angstroms di-
ameter, that the binding forces between the
particles of black and the rubber must be
adsorption forces between the surface of
the blacks and the adjacent sections of the
rubber molecules. Following this line of
reasoning, one would be tempted te predict
that a close correlation might be found be- ©
tween the extent of surface of a carbon
black pigment and its reinforcing ability.
That the above prediction is not borne
out by the experimental facts is shown in
Table 1, which contains data on two sam-
ples selected from the several blacks which
have been studied; these are labeled Spher-
on Grade 6 and Graphon respectively. More
TABLE 1
2 Modulus,
Sample Diameter | Area 300% elone.
- eet ES
A sq. m./g. | lb. sq. in.
Spheron Grade 6........ 285 110 1,720
Graphons.is eee 300 85 230
complete data on these blacks especially as
regards the chemical composition of their
surfaces and their underlying crystal struc-
ture have been published elsewhere (4).
Spheron Grade 6 is a channel black having
good rubber reinforcing ability. The Graph-
on has been prepared from the Spheron
Apr. 15, 1948
pause
7
Dee Mears.
Fic. 3.—Heats of adsorption on carbon blacks
at —195°C: Ne on Spheron Grade 6, O; Ne on
Graphon ©@.
Grade 6 by electrical heating to tempera-
tures of 2,800 to 3,000°C (6). As is seen in
Table 1, this heating process had relatively
little effect on the particle diameters as de-
termined by the electron microscope and on
the specific surface areas as determined by
the B.E.T. nitrogen adsorption method, al-
though there was a profound effect on the
rubber reinforcing ability as indicated by
the modulus of rubber samples reinforced
by the two pigments.
Although there appeared to be no definite
correlation between the extent of surface
and the rubber reinforcing ability, it seemed
possible that there might be a significant
difference in state of surface if the two
blacks were compared. Since a convenient
means of testing the quality or state of sur-
face of these carbon black samples seemed
to be offered by data on heats of adsorption,
calorimetric measurements have been un-
dertaken using the elementary gases nitro-
gen, oxygen, and argon at —195°C (7). The
results of the experiments with nitrogen are
shown in Fig. 3 in which the differential
heats of adsorption are plotted against the
BEEBE: BRUNAUER’S CONTRIBUTIONS IN ADSORPTION
121
number of layers adsorbed (v/v,,=1 repre-
sents a monolayer).
In relation to the rubber reinforcing prob-
lem, the difference in behavior of the Graph-
on and the Grade 6 black is of great interest.
It is apparent that although the high tem-
perature treatment, by which the Graphon
was made from the Grade 6 carbon black,
resulted in a relatively small change in the
total surface of the black, this treatment
nevertheless produced a profound change in
the energy state of the surface, with the re-
sult that approximately the first third of the
surface would hold adsorbate molecules
considerably less firmly than the original
Spheron Grade 6. Thus there appears to be
a correlation between the rubber reinforcing
abilities of the two blacks and the energy
states of their surfaces as indicated by the
heats of adsorption.
Apart from the problem of rubber rein-
forcement several other conclusions of con-
siderable general interest may be drawn
from the data of Fig. 3. (1) The order of
magnitude of the heats indicates that the
process is exclusively physical adsorption.
(2) The rapid decrease in the differential
keal. /mole
Diff. heats,
Fic. 4.—Heats of adsorption of Spheron Grade
6 carbon black at 0°C: n-butane, O; 1-butene, @;
cis-2-butene, @; trans-2-butene, &.
122
heats of adsorption for the first parts of the
surface covered on the Grade 6 carbon
black suggests a considerable heterogeneity
of the surface with the fractions first cov-
ered exhibiting excessively high binding
energies. (3) The rapid approach in the
vicinity of v/vm=1 of the differential heats
for nitrogen on all the carbon surfaces
studied to values only slightly greater than
H,, the heat of vaporization of nitrogen,
provides experimental confirmation of the
B.E.T. theory since the value of v,, is deter-
mined from the experimental data by a
method which is entirely dependent upon
this theory.
Calorimetric studies with the elementary
gases oxygen and argon produced results
entirely analogous to those for nitrogen, the
adsorption of both these gases being ex-
clusively of the physical type.
Although the experiments with nitrogen
already described have served to bring out
differences among the various carbon blacks
used, it is obvious that heats of adsorption
using hydrocarbons as adsorbates would
provide data which would be more closely
related to the problem of rubber reinforce-
ment, in which there must be forces in op-
eration between the carbon black surface
and adjacent portions of the large hydro-
carbon molecule, rubber. For this reason,
the next phase of the work to be described
involves calorimetric measurements with
butane and the butenes as adsorbates at the
convenient temperature 0°C. Because each
of these substances boils within a few de-
grees of 0°C, the po value for each is in the
vicinity of one atmosphere pressure, and it
is convenient to work over the relative pres-
sure range in which the monolayer is com-
pletely filled. The results of these experi-
ments are summarized in Fig. 4. In this
figure are given the differential heat curves
for butane, 1-butene, cis-2-butene, and
trans-2-butene on Grade 6 carbon black.
It is to be noted that the general shape of
the heat curves is similar to that of nitrogen
at —195° with the differential heats ap-
proaching H; after the completion of the
statistical monolayer. It is noteworthy that
there is no great difference in the heats of
adsorption of the butane and the unsat-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 4
urated hydrocarbons. This evidence ap-
pears to indicate that the unsaturated sec-
tions of the rubber molecule are not neces-
sarily the points at which the rubber is
bonded to the carbon surface, and that the
adsorption process and possibly also rubber
reinforcement involve forces which are pri-
marily physical in nature.
As this talk has progressed, I think it
must have become abundantly evident that
those of us who have done the heats of ad-
sorption work at Amherst are very greatly
indebted to Dr. Brunauer and his co-
workers for the pioneer work they have done
in the field of adsorption, work which has
made our experimental results considerably
easier to interpret as a contribution to the
fundamental problems of adsorption as well
as to the application to rubber reinforce-
ment.
REFERENCES
(1) BrunavEeR. The adserption of gases and
Vapors, Vol. 1: Physical adsorption.
Princeton, 1943.
(2) BRUNAUER, EMMETT, and TELLER.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 60: 309. 1938.
(3) EmmMetr and Brunaver. Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 59: 310. 1937; 59: 1553.
1937; 62: 1732. 1940.
(4) BrEEBE and STEVENS. Journ.
Chem. Soc. 62: 2134. 1940.
(5) Bersr, Biscon, SmirH, and WENDELL.
Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 69: 96.
1947; Breese, PoLtey, Smiru, and Wen-
DELL. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., forth-
coming.
(6) This high temperature treatment would of
course have the effect of removing any
volatile matter from the surface of the
Grade 6 carbon as well as changing the
degree of crystallinity of the underlying
solid. Our calorimetric experiments on a
sample of Grade 6 black ‘‘devolatilized” at
927°C make it more plausible to conclude
that the marked difference in the energy
states of surface between the Grade 6
black and the Graphon is due to an al-
teration in the underlying solid by the
high temperature treatment rather than
to any chemical change in the super-
ficial layers of the pigment (see reference
Journ.
Amer.
5).
(7) Details of the experimental method, as
well as data on several other blacks and
a more extensive discussion are to be
found in the publications cited in refer-
ence 5.
Apr. 15, 1948
METEOROLOGY .—Loose usage of weather words."
Fog, haze, visibility, cyclone, blizzard,
sleet, drought—what are they? There is no
excuse for so using words that they convey
no idea whatever or, at most, only vague
suggestions of an idea. But frequently they
are so used, and for several reasons. The
usual reason is the ignorance of the speaker
or writer, and the next most common, per-
haps, the fact that few indeed practice that
best of all courses in rhetoric: ‘‘Have some-
thing to say; say it; quit talking about it.”
Of course, an unwilling witness may be
consciously vague, and sometimes justly so,
but most of us do a lot of talking in our
sleep, as it were. And the subject we discuss
in vaguest terms is that which concerns us
most, and about which we have talked the
most since that time when certain things
happened in the Garden of Eden “‘in the
cool of the day’—the weather. Even the
term ‘‘weather’’ itself is used in the vaguest
sort of way, as anyone will realize as soon
as he tries to define it accurately.
Not only are we nearly always vague
when speaking about weather as a whole,
but also, as a rule, we are equally inexact
when speaking of any of its elements, or
of other phenomena dependent upon or
associated with it. For example, fog and
haze: are mixed up in a scandalous way
despite the great and growing importance
of each to the aviator. They often are used
as synonymous terms, and again as though
a fog were just a dense haze and a haze
merely a light fog. Now, they are not the
same thing at all and need not often be con-
fused with one another. A true fog is a cloud
of water droplets in the space immediately
above the surface of the earth—a cloud on
the earth. A haze, on the other hand, is a
cloud of dust particles of whatever origin,
such as impalpable sand caught up by
desert winds, the smoke of forest fires,
pollen from pine clad mountains, and the
like. It may, and commonly does, extend
down to the surface of the earth, but it does
not always do so. Sometimes, too, its upper
surface is as sharply limited and: as clearly
visible in the direction of the horizon (not
vertically) as is that of a waveless ocean.
! Received October 10, 1947.
HUMPHREYS: LOOSE USAGE OF WEATHER WORDS
123
W.J. HUMPHREYS.
Each decreases visibility. That is why the
aviator is so concerned with them. Perhaps,
too, as they bother him in much the same
way he may feel justified in calling either or
both of them by whichever bad name hap-
pens to come to his mind first. Indeed they
often are so confused, but they do not need
to be, for it is quite easy to distinguish
between them. The fog droplets are so large
that they reflect equally, or nearly so,
lights of all colors. It therefore appears
white. A large portion of the haze particles,
on the other hand, are so small that they
scarcely reflect light at all, but just diffuse
or scatter it. Furthermore, they scatter the
blue, or short-wavelength light, to a far
greater extent than they do the longer
wavelength, or red light. This being so, the
glare that results from the scattered light,
and which so greatly reduces visibility, can
largely be prevented from reaching the eye
by the use of amber, or red, glasses. Clearly,
then, the cloudlike obstruction is a dust
haze whenever it has a bluish color, and
whenever visibility through it is improved
by the use of a red or amber screen. Simi-
larly, it almost certainly is a fog when it is
white and equally opaque to all colors.
Not only is it generally easy to make this
distinction, but frequently it is important.
to do so, because a fog is likely soon to dis-
appear by evaporation, while a haze hangs
on until washed out by rain, thinned by
convection, or blown away by clear air.
Visibility—We have just been glibly
using a rather new weather term, visibility,
that needs some explanation. It seems to
have an obvious enough meaning until we
try so to define it that one visibility can be ©
numerically compared with another. Then
the trouble begins, for it is hard to say how
many times one object is more visible than
another. In fact for practical purposes we
never define visibility that way, but just
say that it is the distance to which objects
can be seen, or, better, the greatest distance
to which objects of appropriate size can be
recognized by a person of average but un-
aided vision. Evidently visibility is not a
distance at all, though dependent on it.
Nevertheless, this term with its forced
definition is very useful and seems destined
124
to hold indefinitely an honorable place
among the innumerable and growing host
of weather words.
It is worth while also to note that there
are two quite differently caused visibilities,
night visibility and day visibility. The
former may be defined as the greatest dis-
tance at which a standard light can be seen
by a normal, unaided eye. This distance ob-
viously is fixed by the rate of depletion of
the light on its way to the observer, since
perception fails in this case owing to the
feebleness of the light received. Day visibil-
ity, on the other hand, is limited mainly by
an entirely different cause—not chiefly by
depletion of light but by addition of light.
When the fog or haze between the observer
and distant objects reflects or scatters so
much light from the sun, or other sources,
as to appear luminous the contrasts of
light, by which outlines are perceived and
things recognized, soon are lost in the gen-
eral glare. To repeat, for it is an important
distinction, the brighter the light the farther
it can be seen. The brighter the day the
worse the visibility—the greater the blind-
ing glare.
Fog and cloud.—Not only is fog often
confused with haze, to our occasional an-
noyance, but frequently, too, it is con-
founded with cloud, and the second of these
confusions is the more difficult of the two to
disentangle. We may say, and it is quite
true, that a fog is a surface cloud formed by
surface conditions. But what then shall we
call what is left of it when the under portion
is burned off, as so commonly happens to
sea fog when it drifts in over land? Shall we
call it high fog, lifted fog, veillo cloud (the
name given to it in southern California),
or stratus cloud? All these terms are in good
and constant usage, but “stratus cloud”’ is
the best, for that is what the erstwhile fog
has now become. Wherever, though, it con-
tacts with the surface, whether water, hill
or mountain, it should still be, and generally
is, called fog. That is, the same sheet of
water droplets is called cloud at one place,
where it does not extend to the surface, and
fog at another, where it does.
Name of cloud.—And then when we are
sure the thing we observe and want to talk
about, or record, really is a cloud and not a
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 4
fog, what sort of a cloud shall we call it,
for there are several kinds to which distinct
names are given? Way back in the year
1803 an English chemist, or apothecary, as
we would say in America, Luke Howard,
gave Latin names to several distinct kinds
of clouds, names so apt that they soon
came into general use in all countries. Later
on a few other names were added to the
original list until all the more common varie-
ties of clouds had each a distinct designa-
tion that seemed entirely appropriate and
was Clearly defined. But new cloud pictures
soon were needed, the old charts being out
of print, and this offered an opportunity to
revise names and definitions as well. So a
committee was appointed for that purpose,
a committee that at once began ‘‘throwing
monkey-wrenches,”’ or so some think, into
the erstwhile smoothly running cloud ma-
chine. We used to be quite sure, for in-
stance, that a nimbus cloud was one from
which rain or snow was falling in quantity,
or looked as though precipitation from it
was imminent. This was pretty satisfactory,
and many of us want to keep the good we
have. But no, we are told by this committee
that those who feel that they really must
retain this life-long name may be graciously
permitted to do so provided they pledge
to mean thereby only that insignificant
little cloud that drifts along in the rain
somewhere between the surface of the earth
and the base of the heavy cloud out of which
the rain is falling. That is, this ancient and
honorable name must go out of use alto-
gether, or else be given to that little, unim-
portant ragamuffin the sailor calls ‘‘scud.”
This is not clarification. It is needless con-
fusion.
Then, too, we felt as certain as one could
about anything that the good and appropri-
ate name ‘‘cumulo-nimbus” had come to
stay and to mean a cumulus (wool-pack or
heaped-up) cloud from which rain was fall-
ing, and in which thunder and lightning
nearly always occur. No. We now are asked
to restrict this name to the cumulus cloud
whose top has been, or is in the process of
being, drawn out into a thin, fibrous sheet.
And this in spite of the fact that often a
thunderstorm cloud, a cumulo-nimbus as
heretofore known, may give much rain and
Apr. 15, 1948
yet produce no fibrous sheet at all; and in
face, of the further fact that occasionally a
cumulus cloud may produce no rain, but,
for all that, a high sheet of fibrous cloud.
For generations we have been accustomed
to consider the falling of rain from the base
of a cumulus cloud the necessary and suf-
ficient condition for calling it a cumulo-
nimbus. Now we are asked to note whether
or not a fibrous cloud is developing out of its
top—certainly a radical change of meaning,
and a wholly unnecessary one.
It would be well, however, for the aviator
to remember that, in middle latitudes, a
cumulus cloud that is developing a high
fibrous sheet very probably, though not cer-
tainly, is also, and at the same time, giving
rain below with thunder and lightning; and
that the region under a cumulus that has
not yet begun to display such a sheet, pre-
sumably, but not surely, still is free from
rain or other disturbance. To him it is a
very real warning flag. Nevertheless, this
fact does not in the least justify this change
of name, a change that is only confusion
confounded—or the other way around.
The next monkey-wrench disarranged the
alto-stratus cloud. This term used to mean
just what it says—a high layer cloud; that
and nothing more. Now we are asked to use
this term only when portions of the cloud
show some fibrous structure. Here, too, is
only confusion, for those who insist on this
definition insist, too, that this is the rain-
producing cloud. That is, we must call that
wide-spread, lightning-free cloud, from
which rain is falling abundantly, alto-stra-
tus, and at the same time we must not call
it alto-stratus unless we can see in it one or
more fibrous patches—thread-bare por-
tions, consisting, we believe, of snow parti-
cles. Truly, this puts us in much the same
puzzled frame of mind as was Pat when the
doctor told him to take one pill three times
a day!
The cirro-cumulus cloud is another vari-
ety that many of us will insist that we
know when we see it, since it is just a field
of many little cloudlet balls and ripples (a
“mackerel sky” if in orderly rows, a ‘‘cur-
dle sky” if the cloudlets are numerous and
without order) very high and too tenuous to
show evidence of shading, or hide the sun.
HUMPHREYS: LOOSE USAGE OF WEATHER WORDS
125
No, again says our authority, this thing
that is a cirro-cumulus cloud must not be
called cirro-cumulus unless it has been seen
to be formed from a cirrus cloud or cirro-
stratus, that is, from a thin or relatively
dense cloud, respectively, of fibrous form.
Said the yeoman to a yokel: ‘That is a
fine hog of mine over there in the barn
lot.” “‘I. am not so sure it is a hog,” said the
yokel. ‘““Why not?” ‘“‘Oh, I didn’t see him
grow up from a pig.”’ ““Damned fool.”’
Humidity, a term that comes to mind
when we are talking about clouds, is one of
the most vaguely used of all weather words.
Most of us realize that water is somehow
or other involved in its meaning, but just
how, when we speak of the air as being
humid, is not always clear. Certainly the
air is not wet in the sense that our hands
become wet when we wash them. Perhaps
we can run the trouble down this way:
Water can and does exist in the gaseous
state as well as in the liquid and solid
states. Furthermore, the amount of water
that can occupy a given space in the form
of a gas, for instance the amount that is in
a cubic inch of the “‘empty” space in a
tightly closed bottle containing some water,
rapidly increases with increase of tempera-
ture. Strange as it may seem, too, this
amount is not appreciably affected by the
presence of other gases, whether added
singly or in whatever combination.
From these facts it is evident that the
expression “humidity of the air,” or ‘hu-
midity,’’ for short, can mean any one of at
least three different things. To be under-
stood, therefore, one must specify which
particular humidity he is talking about. If
he just says “‘humidity”’ he will be nearly
as badly off as the fellow who called for
Jones at a Welsh college. ‘“‘Ah Jones’”—
most of the windows went up. ‘‘Tom
Jones’’—half of the windows stayed up.
“JT mean the Tom Jones that has a tooth-
brush.”
If one means, as often is meant, the
amount or weight of the water vapor in the
air per unit volume he must say “absolute
humidity.” If, however, as is more often
the case, one means the ratio of the amount
of water vapor actually present per unit
volume to the greatest amount that could
126
exist in the same volume at the same tem-
perature—the ratio, in brief, of the actual
quantity to the saturation quantity—it is
necessary to say “relative humidity.”
Finally, we sometimes mean the weight of
the water vapor per unit weight of the moist
air, in which case the proper expression is
“specific humidity.” The term “humidity,”
as qualified in any one of the above three
ways, has a definite and useful meaning;
but as commonly used in weather talk it
seldom conveys a clear idea to the hearer,
and rarely contains a definite concept when
it leaves the speaker. Generally, such idea
as is associated with this term starts mud-
dled and ends fuddled.
Wind direction.—Here is another source
of confusion, one from which force of mem-
ory alone can protect us, the naming and
charting of wind directions. The weather
man’s wind vane generally is in the form of
an arrow of some sort, and so constructed
that the point of the arrow always turns to
face the wind. In other words it flies against
the wind. On his maps and charts, however,
he gets all his little wind arrows turned the
other way around, for here they fly not
against the wind but with the wind. What,
then, does he mean when he says “north
wind,”’ for instance? That is a toss-up until
he tells us that he always means a wind from
the north. Similarly, by ‘‘east wind” he
means a wind from the east, by ‘‘south
wind” a wind from the south, and so on for
every point of the compass. It is all simple
enough—if you don’t forget.
Veering and backing.— Not only the word
used to designate the direction of a wind
can be confusing, as just explained, but
also, and to an even greater extent, those
commonly employed to specify the order of
its change of direction. Whenever the wind
at a particular place so shifts, or changes in
direction, as to cause the wind vane to
turn clockwise we say that it is veering,
and when it so changes as to cause the vane
to turn counter clockwise we say it is
backing. This, too, is very plain and easy,
if only we could remember it—if we could
keep from getting like the old lady who said
she knew that good eggs sank or swam,
but had forgotten which. Indeed it is even
worse than that, for while, as used by most
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 4
writers, backing is backing, and veering is
veering, the world over, others reverse the
terms with change of hemisphere, calling
that shifting of direction veering, in the
southern hemisphere, which, in the northern
they call backing; and in the southern
backing, that which, in the northern, they
call veering. Surely the way some words
are used is perplexing.
Surface wind is another of the vague
terms often used in discussions of the move-
ments of the air. The trouble comes from
the uncertainty as to where and what the
“‘surface’’ is. In the case of calm water there
is not much doubt about where the surface
is, at least in the every day practical use of
the term surface. Over land, however, we
usually find a greater and greater entangle-
ment of grass and other vegetation before
reaching the soil, and therefore are quite ©
unable to say just where the “surface”’ is.
But in any case where there is a definite sur-
face, as over a lake, for example, the air
exactly at the surface we believe to be calm,
whatever the wind at appreciable heights
above that surface. It would seem then that
by the expression “surface wind” we
should always mean no wind—no horizon-
tal movement of the air. However, this
strictly face value of the expression is not
at all what we do mean when we use it. We
mean the wind, not at the surface, as the
expression implies, but at some appreciable
height above it, namely at the level at
which the velocity of the air is measured—
a level that in practice may be anything
from a few feet to twice as many hundred
feet above the ground. Clearly then, since
the velocity of the wind increases rapidly
with increase of height, and since hills and
hollows, trees, buildings, and every other ir-
regularity of, and on, the ground affect the
velocity of the lower air, the term “surface
wind,” like the expression ‘‘quarter of a
lot,” has the semblance of meaning some-
thing definite but only the semblance.
Fair.—Certainly everyone should know
the exact meaning of this term, but many
do not and refuse to learn. We may use as
vague terms as we like when merely making
talk about the weather, but the few terse
sentences used by the forecaster certainly
should be clearly and correctly understood
Apr. 15, 1948
by all who read or hear them. Indeed they
are clearly understood for they are very
carefully constructed to that end, but un-
fortunately they are by no means always
correctly understood. The chief confusion
arises from a single one of the forecaster’s
terms, ‘‘fair’—his favorite word (formerly,
at least) if one might judge from the fre-
quency of its occurrence. The trouble here
comes from the fact that the forecaster and
a large portion of his audience, that is, the
general public, attach entirely different
meanings to this familiar word. He means
fair weather; they mean fair skies. To him
it is the antonym of foul, and means
weather suitable for outdoor occupation;
to them it is the antonym of clouds and im-
plies abundant sunshine.
What to do about it is the question. It is
precisely the word to use, or certainly
would be if rightly understood, but unfor-
tunately there are many who do not know
what it means in this connection, and who
even are unwilling to learn—who resent
being told, who insist that they know what
words mean without looking them up in a
dictionary or having some smart Aleck tell
them. It is too bad, this confusion of mean-
ings, and the worst of it is, there is no ob-
vious and simple way to make the matter
any better.
Cyclone.—This is another weather term
that often fails to carry the meaning in-
tended. Many people call the “twister” a
cyclone, that smallest but most violent,
freakish and destructive of all storms. The
meteorologist calls this madly whirling devil
a tornado, but the man from Missouri, or a
neighboring State, comes back with em-
phasis: ‘‘What are you talking about? If
my cyclone cellar isn’t a place for dodging
cyclones, then you will have to show me.”
This much of the confusion comes mainly
from giving the same name, ‘‘cyclone,’’ to
two entirely different kinds of storms, and
two different names, “cyclone” and “‘tor-
nado,” to the same sort of disturbance—
the same name to two things, and two
names to the same thing.
But this is not all the confusion. If you
turn to the word ‘‘cyclone”’ in some large
dictionary, or even a meteorological vo-
cabulary prepared by experts, you are likely
HUMPHREYS: LOOSE USAGE OF WEATHER WORDS
127
to find its definition to be: ‘“‘An area of low
atmospheric pressure,’’ or some similar ex-
pression. Now, this is inexcusable confusion.
A cyclone is not an area at all, any more
than a house is an area. It is first and fore-
most a system of winds, and secondly,
characterized by such and such particulars
(extensive and about a center of low pres-
sure, accompanied by clouds and wide-
spread precipitation, et cetera) as suffice to
distinguish it from all other systems of
winds; just as ‘‘man”’’ is first of all an ani-
mal, and, secondly, possessed of certain
qualities, such as rationality, risibility, or
whatnot, that belong to no other animal.
This is Just a fine example of the innumer-
able cases in which we neither say what we
mean nor mean what we say.
Anticyclone—By its very name one
would expect the anticyclone to be some-
thing quite the reverse of the cyclone. And
so it is in several respects. It occupies a
region of relatively high atmospheric pres-
sure, not low, as does the cyclone; its winds, |
like those of the cyclone, are directed
spirally about its center, but outward, not
inward, and in the opposite sense; it is at-
tended, usually, by clear skies, not over-
cast, and fair weather not foul. Meteoro-
logically the cyclone and the anticyclone
are distinctly antithetical. Lexicologically,
however, they usually have one important
feature in common, for generally each is er-
roneously defined as an area, and not cor-
rectly defined as a particular system of
winds.
Secondary.—lIf one were in a teasing
frame of mind and wanted some fun with
a meteorologist, he hardly could find a bet-
ter way to succeed than by asking him what
a secondary is. He uses this term a lot, and
by it he always means a cyclonic storm.
Likely as not he will tell you that a second-
ary cyclone is any one that is not a pri-
mary; and that a primary cyclone is any
one that is not a secondary. Often, and es-
pecially in certain regions, there develops on
or near the outer border of a system of cy-
clonic winds, and doubtless incident to
them, a similar system, at first of relatively
small extent and strength, but which later
grows in size and intensity until, in many
cases it itself becomes the main storm, and
128
occasionally even the only one. This storm,
at least in its earlier stages, is often called a
secondary cyclone, or secondary, for short,
But other storms of less certain history also
have been called secondaries for reasons
that sometimes seem to be known only to
the perpetrator—and he never tells. Yes,
ask a meteorologist about secondaries and
pretty soon you will have him in a corner,
if not up a tree.
Blizzard, a good example of things con-
fused, is a fine word, even if its pedigree 1s
unknown, so long as it means a cold, driving
wind filled with blinding snow—a sure-to-
goodness storm of the Plains. But how un-
worthy of itself, how fallen, how decrepit
and addled it is when made to mean only a
little snow flurry that even a baby scarce
would notice. A real blizzard commands re-
spect and deserves a strong name all its
own, but the little parlor things that in the
Eastern States we so often braggingly call
blizzards are not worthy, in comparison,
even to be called ‘“‘blizzetts.” A blizzard
used to be a blizzard with no doubt about it;
now it is anything that has a little snow in
it, but one never knows exactly what.
Hail.—Here is a mix-up, too. As used by
the U. S. Weather Bureau, and by many
people all over the country, only lumps of
ice that fall in thunder storms are called
hail. Lots of others, though, will not hear of
this restriction, but insist that the little ice
pellets that fall only in the winter shall also
be called hail. That is what they call them,
as of course they have a perfect right to do,
despite the confusion it causes, and there is
no help for it, swear as you may.
Sleet.—Hail is bad enough in its confu-
sion, but sleet is worse, for it has three en-
tirely distinct and much-used meanings. As
sung by the poets, and as recorded by the
U.S. Weather Bureau, sleet is that which
rattles against the windowpane and nothing
else. It is frozen raindrops and occurs only
in winter and when the temperature of the
lower air is below the freezing point while
that of the air at around 500 to 1,000 feet
elevation is distinctly above it. The rain
that falls from the warmer air is frozen by
the colder layer below, and reaches the sur-
face in the form of Small roundish pellets—
ice shot. This is sleet, according to one defi-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 4
nition and extensive usage. According to
British usage, though, and the custom of
many in America also, sleet is a mixture of
rain and snow. They call the frozen rain-
drops hail, or winter hail. This is confusion
enough, but by no means the whole of it,
for the engineer, ignoring both the above
definitions, restricts the name sleet to the
smoothish coats of ice that sometimes form
on wires, street-car rails and other exposed
objects. This sleet, in the engineer’s sense
of the term, the U. 8. Weather Bureau calls
glaze. It is the characteristic feature of an
ice storm.
And nothing can be done about it. Even
if we could get the engineer to call glaze
(an excellent word) that which he now calls
sleet and restrict this term, as so many of us
do, to the stuff that rattles, there still would
remain the mixture of snow and rain to re-
christen. Of course, a word-telescoping
genius like Lewis Carroll might call it
“snane,”’ but then some one would be sure
to laugh at it, if he did not even make a face.
Ice-flower.—lIf sleet is a vague term owing
to its three definitions, what shall we say
about ‘‘ice-flower’’ that means any one of
five distinct things? Two or three genera-
tions ago Tyndall tried the happy experi-
ment of putting a sheet of ice in the usual
position of a lantern slide, and was rejoiced
to see blossom on the screen a beautiful
bed of six petaled flowers—images of course,
of internal melted ice crystals. These 6-
rayed cavities Tyndall, in his poetic way,
and very appropriately, called ice-flowers.
Pretty soon some one else, also with a poetic
fancy, gave the same name to the beautiful
fernlike figures Jack Frost traces on your
windowpane. Then some nature lover, en-
thusiastically describing the tufts of frost
that sometimes in bitterly cold weather
grow up numerously on a sheet of ice, called
them also ‘‘ice-flowers.”’ Even the little
columns. of ice that spring up from damp
soil, and resemble in a measure the familiar
Indian pipe, have been called ice-flowers.
Finally, at least finally up to the present,
the exquisite, curling and satiny ice ribbons,
as thin and broad as the blade of a case
knife, and often fully as long, that in early
winter grow out from the dead stems of rock
mint, likewise have been called ice-flowers.
Apr. 15, 1948
And no wonder, for among the brown leaves
of the woods these ice formations look for
all the world like a field of beautiful white
lilies.
In every one of these five cases the name
ice-flowers seems appropriate, yet its use
for more than one, preferably the first, is
to be deprecated, for it leads only to con-
fusion.
Climate.—It is a long call in one sense
from ice-flowers to climate, but the terms
have one bad feature, muddle meaning, in
common. Perhaps climate is most often de-
fined as “average weather.” That would
seem to justify defining weather as irregular
climate. However, both these snap defini-
tions are hopelessly inadequate. The aver-
age annual temperature of a place, average
rainfall, and average all-the-other-things do
not tell the story of its climate. We need
for this purpose to know also the extremes,
frequencies of such and such values, normal
run of the weather elements through the
year, and a lot of other matters as well. In
short, the climate of a place is neither its
average weather nor the average of its
weather, but the history of its past weather.
Drought.—This much used term also is a
term confused. Most of us use it glibly as
though we knew exactly what it meant
until, perchance, we need to define it pre-
cisely whereupon our concept of it begins to
fade away. We ask ourselves whether it is
a number of consecutive days without rain
or snow, and, if so, how many. Then we
wonder whether the amount of the immedi-
ately preceding precipitation should be con-
sidered in our definition, and whether the
time of the year matters. And if we take a
certain number of consecutive days without
rain as our definition of drought for one
region will that also hold for every other re-
gion? Would such a drought for New Eng-
land be also a drought for New Mexico?
If not, then what is a drought? Most of us
will agree that one one-hundredth of an
inch of rain will not break a drought, and if
it will not then certainly we can not define
a drought as so many consecutive days
without any rain at all, though sometimes,
and for statistical purposes, such a rainless
spell has been called an absolute drought.
Perhaps we might better define a drought
HUMPHREYS: LOOSE USAGE OF WEATHER WORDS
129
as SO many consecutive days without more
than a specified small amount of rain. But
this does not avoid the difficulties as to
season and place.
Really, drought is a hard term to deal
with. Possibly the best thing to do when-
ever accuracy is essential is to give it an
arbitrary, but reasonably exact, definition
appropriate to the needs of the occasion.
Spring.—Who knows when spring begins,
or any of the other seasons, for that mat-
ter? If we take Tennyson’s dictum that it is
“when a young man’s fancy turns to
thoughts of love,’’ we must conclude that
it is a perpetual season! If, on the other
hand, we take the word at its primitive
meaning, signifying the season when plants
spring up, we will be forced to conclude that
the beginning of spring varies from place to
place and year to year, and also that it de-
pends on the kind of plant selected as the
criterion. We will even conclude that it has
no beginning in ice covered regions, and
that it goes on forever in tropical lands.
This indefiniteness led to the more or less
general adoption of fixed dates for the be-
ginning and end of each season. In so doing
the spice of life was amply preserved for
surely in the dates of these beginnings there
is abundant variety. According to popular
English usage spring begins with the first
of February. In America we put it a month
later, first of March. Astronomers, though,
say 1t begins with the vernal equinox, which
may be at any instant through the day,
usually, but not always, on the twenty-first
of March, and lasts until the coming sum-
mer solstice, also a slightly variable date.
Here are three widely used but distinctly
different dates for the beginning of spring.
February 1, March 1, and March 21 or 22,
spread over a period of seven weeks. And
so it is with the other seasons, for they follow
each other at approximately equal intervals
of time. Clearly, then, ‘‘first day of spring,”
“last day of summer,”’ and all others of
their kind are confusing expressions for to
equally well informed people they convey
the concept of distinctly different dates.
End of twilight—When the end of twi-
light comes is another point about which the
astronomer and the general public have oc-
casion to differ, though confusion in this
130
case is not nearly so bad as it is in regard to
the beginning of spring. The astronomer
who, for most of his work, prefers the clear-
est skies and the darkest hours, says twi-
light ends only with the last trace of scat-
tered sunlight in the western heavens. On
clear nights, the only kind in which he is
interested, this last glimmer disappears
when the center of the sun is about 18 de-
grees below the horizon. This does not suit
the average person who considers twilight
to end as soon as it gets too dark for people
to go about their ordinary outdoor occupa-
tions. On clear evenings this occurs when
the center of the sun is about 6° below the
horizon, or in about one-third the time from
sundown to the end of astronomical twi-
light. On cloudy evenings twilight, in this
work-a-day sense, ends much sooner, but
there is no fixed time for it—the term is
vague and often confusing.
Light and dark of the moon.—Whoever
follows the foolish occupation of moon-
farming, of planting things that fruit above
the ground in the light of the moon, and
tubers that grow under the soil in the dark
of the moon, is confronted with the puzzling
necessity of knowing just when it is light of
the moon and when dark. And the more he
tries to be certain of the matter the more
confused he is likely to become. Some will
tell him that dark of the moon is that brief
time, three or four days, before new moon
when it is not seen at all owing to its near-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 4
ness to the sun, and light of the moon the
three or four days centered about full
moon. Others, while agreeing with this
definition of dark of the moon, will insist
that all the rest of the time is light of the
moon. Still others, with equal assurance,
will insist that the time the moon is waxing,
that is, the time of the first and second
quarters, is light of the moon, and that the
time of its waning, the duration of the third
and fourth quarters, is dark of the moon.
Finally, there are many who recognize light
of the moon to be all the days when the
moon is above the horizon most of the fore
part of the might, and all the rest of the
time dark of the moon.
Here are three distinct and widely recog-
nized definitions of dark of the moon, and
four of the light of the moon. What then
can the poor moon farmer do when up
against such conflicting definitions as these?
Nobody knows, though it is quite certain
what he should do—forget the moon fool-
ishness and plant when the ground is ready
and the season right, as all sensible farmers
do.
And these listed above are not the only
weather words loosely used by the general
public, whose omnibus excuse is the fact
that, if restricted to correct understanding
and clear expression, the pleasant glibness
of its tongue would be lost in many a dreary
silence—an honest enough excuse but a
mighty poor one.
PALEONTOLOGY .—An interesting occurrence of fossil tracks in West Virginia.*
Davip H. DunxKtgE, U. 8. National Museum.
GAZIN.)
Recently, through the generosity of
Harold T. Stowell, of Westmoreland Hills,
Md., the U. S. National Museum received
a small slab of rock exhibiting two distinctly
impressed tracks. The following brief report
on the specimen is prompted by the proba-
ble tetrapod nature of the prints and by the
geologic details of its occurrence.
The prints are impressed upon the upper
undulating surface of a thin block of dense,
finely grained sandstone, composed of many
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received December
5, 1947.
(Communicated by C. L.
small cross-bedded laminae of variegated
red and buff color. As found by Mr. Stowell
in 1939, the slab lay loose at the base of a
cliff on the East Bank of the Greenbrier
River, about 1 mile south of the mouth of
Island Lick Run, in the Watoga State Park,
Pocahontas County, W. Va.
The physical expression of fossil track-
ways is dependent on a number of variable
conditions. Seldom are the remains of the
causative agent found associated with the
prints. The structure of the contributing
organ, therefore, must be inferred. This
latter is very often difficult because the
Apr. 15, 1948 DUNKLE: AN OCCURRENCE OF FOSSIL TRACKS IN WEST VIRGINIA
completeness of the impression is subject,
at the time the tracks were made, to the
composition and the consistency of the sub-
stratum and, subsequently, to all the mul-
tiple, special factors for their preservation.
The interpretation of the present examples
is not exempted from these general difficul-
ties.
The two tracks, oriented parallel to each
other, are each composed of the depressions
made by three, stout, distally tapering dig-
its. When the block is placed with the di-
vergent extremities of the impressions di-
rected away from the observer (Fig. 1), it
may be seen that the track on the left is
more deeply impressed and is situated
slightly above the one on the right.
From the similar lengths and practically
identical angles of divergence of the corre-
sponding digital impressions in each of the
131
two tracks, it is conceivable that the prints
could have been made by one and the same
appendage of an animal crossing the photo-
graph transversely. In this latter event,
however, the limb would seem necessarily
to have extended out at a right angle to the
longitudinal axis of the body with little or
no anterior flexure. The literature on fossil
trackways fails to reveal the occurrence of
such a structural condition in the Late
‘Paleozoic. Further in opposition to such an
interpretation is the fact that the distance
between the two prints would represent an
extremely short stride, especially when the
slab is large enough transversely to exhibit
both preceding and succeeding impressions.
During the tetrapod propulsive cycle
(Schaeffer, 1941; Evans, 1946), the body
weight, first distributed over the entire sur-
face of either the hand or foot, progressively
Fig. 1.—Photograph of fossil tracks (U.S.N.M. no. 17656) obtained in the Watoga State Park,
Pocahontas County, W. Va. Reproduction approx. X3/5.
132
shifts to a final concentration on the medial
digits. While variable (Colbert and Schaef-
fer, 1947), this action ideally results in a
deeper impression of the inner side of the
organ than any other of its parts. The sides
of the present fossil footprints, which are
adjacent to each other, are clearly more
deeply impressed than their distant sides.
Thus, while the evidences are conflicting, it
is here assumed that these tracks were made
by a limb and its complement from the
opposite side. Whether that pair of append-
ages was anterior or posterior can not be
ascertained.
Markings of the pads of either heel or
palm are not discernible. Impression of the
digits alone indicates that the tracks were
made on a fairly firm substratum. As
pointed out by Colbert and Schaeffer (1947),
the lateral digits are structurally the most
divergent and under the least optimum of
conditions are the most poorly defined in
trackways. Thus, while 3-toed impressions
have been encountered in practically every
known geologic occurrence of tetrapod
tracks, it remains uncertain whether com-
plete impressions are being dealt with in
the present case. No attempt here is made
to assign these prints to any of the scientific
names available because of the above men-
tioned uncertainties of interpretation and
because of the questionable advisability of
such practice. The specimen is no less in-
teresting for this failure, however, because
an early and unknown animal of considera-
ble dimensions is indicated. The better pre-
served left imprint measures roughly 35.
mm across the proximal base of the digits.
The distance between parallel lines pro-
jected through the medial borders of the
prints approaches 62 mm.
The block of sandstone bearing the im-
pressions may be assumed to have been de-
rived at or very near the site of its discovery.
No evidences of transportation can be ob-
served. The edges of the slab remain sharply
angular. Fragments of soft red shale still
adhere in the concavities on both its upper
and lower surfaces. Furthermore, its lithol-
ogy is identical with that of the bedrock
exposed in the immediate vicinity as well as
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 4
for many miles upstream. Price (1929) iden-
tifies this rock as the Pocono formation. As
summarized by Branson (1910) and Colbert
and Schaeffer (1947), the oldest previous re-
ports of definitive tetrapod tracks in the
United States are restricted to the upper
Mississippian Chester Series. The literature
(Butts, 1940; Chadwick, 1935; Willard,
1936) suggests a transgressive character to
the Pocono sediments and a consequent
variation in age from place to place. Not-
withstanding, the Pocono is well below the
Chester equivalent, the Mauch Chunk, in
the West Virginia section. The present oc-
currence, therefore, seems to be the earliest
yet known from our country and approaches
in age the oldest authenticated tetrapod
tracks from the Horton Series of Nova
Scotia (Dawson, 1894; Sternberg, 1933).
REFERENCES
Branson, E. B. Amphibian footprints from
the Mississippian of Virginia. Journ.
Geol. 18(4): 356-358, 1 fig. 1910.
Butts, CHARLES. Geology of the Appalachian
Valley in Virginia. Pt. 1: Geologic text and
illustrations. Virginia Geol. Surv. Bull.
52: i-xxxil, 1-568, 10 figs. incl. index and
geol. sketch maps, 10 tables, 63 pls. 1940.
CHapwick,G.H. Whatis “Pocono”? Amer.
Journ. Sci., ser. 5, 29(170): 1383-143, map.
1935.
CoLtBerT, E. H., and ScHarrrer, B. Some
Mississippian footprints from Indiana.
Amer. Journ. Sci. 245(10): 614-623, 1 fig.,
1 plo ay.
Dawson, W. Synopsis of the air-breathing ani-
mals of the Paleozoic in Canada, up to 1894.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada 12(4): 71-88.
1894.
Evans, F. G. The anatomy and function of the
foreleg in salamander locomotion. Anat.
Ree. 95: 257-281, 6 figs. 1946.
Price, P. H. Pocahontas County. West Vir-
ginia Geol. Surv. County Repts.: 531, 21
figs., 71 pls., 2 maps. 1929.
ScHAEFFER, B. The morphological and func-
tional evolution of the tarsus in amphibians
and reptiles. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.
78(6): 395-472, 21 figs. 1941.
STERNBERG, C. M. Carboniferous tracks from
Nova Scotia. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 44:
951-964, 1 fig., 3 pls. 1938.
WILLARD, B. Continental upper Devonian of
northeastern Pennsylvania. Geol. Soe.
Amer. Bull. 47(4): 597-599, 3 figs., 3 pls.
1936.
Apr. 15, 1948
MYCOLOGY.—The swarm-cells of Myxomycetes.'
(Communicated by G. W. Martin.)
University of Iowa.
Biflagellate swarm-cells have been ob-
~served as occurring occasionally in Myxo-
mycetes by many observers, but it has been
generally held that the swarm-cells in this
group are normally uniflagellate. DeBary
(7) in 1884 and Vouk (20) in 1911 reported
bifiagellate forms in exceptional cases only.
Gilbert (6) found one-fourth of the swarm-
cells of Stemonztis fusca biflagellate. Von
Stosch (19) saw biflagellate cells in many
other species, but none in the single species
of Stemonitis that he studied. Gilbert (7)
reported Dictydiaethalium plumbeum to be
uniflagellate, but E. C. Smith (17, 18) twice
within the following year published photo-
micrographs showing biflagellate swarm-
cells in the same species. Howard (10)
termed biflagellate swarm-cells in Physarum
polycephalum ‘‘common.”’ Sinoto and Yuasa
(16) studied Cerattomyzxa and four species of
Myxogastres, finding only one flagellum in
Cerattomyxa but occasional bi- and even tri-
flagellate forms in all the others. Yuasa (2/)
likewise found bi- and triflagellate cells in
Fuligo septica. Jahn (11) in 1928 ignored the
previous reports of biflagellate swarm-cells;
and in 1936 (12) he criticized the work of
Von Stosch, insisting that swarm-cells are
normally uniflagellate and that all biflagel-
late swarm-cells are anomalies. Karling
(73) in his general summary of the literature
pertinent to the relationships between the
Plasmodiophorales and the Myxomycetes,
says that “although the majority are uni-
flagellate, zoospores with two flagella are
not uncommon....” In 1945 Ellison (5)
reported biflagellate swarm-cells in propor-
tions varying from 2 to 26 percent for a
number of species of Myxomycetes but re-
tained the assumption that the majority are
uniflagellate.
It is not inconceivable that an occasional
biflagellate swarm-cell could occur as an ab-
normality in an otherwise uniflagellate
group. But biflagellation has already been
reported too frequently in the Myxomycetes
to represent mere abnormality. And on the
basis of flagellation as reported in other
groups it is very unlikely that both uni-
1 Received December 15, 1947.
ELLIOTT: THE SWARM-CELLS OF MYXOMYCETES
133
EucEeNE W. E.uiott, State
flagellate and biflagellate forms would nor-
mally exist in the same life stage of the
Myxomycetes. It seems more probable that
the second, shorter flagellum is difficult to
see and is frequently hidden. This study was
undertaken to determine whether this latter
assumption is not the case.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Spores of 21 collections representing 11
species were germinated for these tests. Fol-
lowing is a list of the collections, with the
State and year of collection:
1. Arcyria denudata lowa 1947
2. Dictydiaethalium plumbeum Iowa 1947
3. Dictydiaethalium plumbeum Iowa 1947
4, Enteridium rozeanum lowa 1946
5. Enteridium rozeanum Iowa 1946
6. Enteridium rozeanum Iowa 1947
7. Fuligo septica Indiana 1944
8. Fuligo septica Michigan 1947
9. Lycogala epidendrum Indiana 1944
10. Lycogala epidendrum lowa 1946
11. Lycogala epidendrum lowa 1947
12. Oligonema schweinitzit Iowa 1947
13. Oligonema schweinttziz lowa 1947
14. Physarum polycephalum lowa 1947
15. Reticularia lycoperdon Iowa 1929
16. Reticularia lycoperdon lowa 1942
17. Reticularia lycoperdon New York 1947
18. Reticularia lycoperdon lowa 1947
19. Stemonitis flavogenita West Vir-
ginia 1947
20. Stemonitis splendens lowa 1947
21. Trichia affinis lowa 1946
The first cultures were prepared in Sep-
tember 1946, using Reticularza lycoperdon
(Coll. no. 15, above), Lycogala epidendrum
(no. 10), and Trichza affints (no. 21). Abun-
dant germination was obtained in the first
attempts with R. lycoperdon and T. affinis,
but only one of several cultures of L.
epidendrum was observed to germinate.
Repeated attempts to germinate cultures of
the two oldest collections of Enterzdiwm
rozeanum (nos. 4 and 5) resulted in the ob-
servation of occasional swarm-cells in no. 4,
but only very low percentages of germina-
tion. Other species gave similar results.
Cultures were made in Syracuse watch
glasses using distilled water from which the
traces of toxic minerals were removed with
powdered charcoal. It was observed fre-
134
quently that most of the spores placed in
the culture dish continued to float on the
surface of the water, never becoming wet.
This was especially true of those forms hav-
ing very small spores, such as Hnteridiwm
and Lycogala. Various wetting agents were
tried in an attempt to accelerate the wetting
and increase the germination of these spores.
Alcohol was the first wetting agent tested.
Cayley(4) used 20 percent alcohol for wet-
ting spores of Didymium sp., securing ap-
proximately 50 percent germination
whether the spores were in the alcohol “a
few minutes” or a full hour. Also she used a
solution of 0.2 percent mercuric chloride in
a mixture of equal parts of 95 percent alco-
hol and water, as a combined wetting agent
and bactericide. The resulting cultures were
not bacteria-free and germination was poor.
In the tests here reported a number of
different dilutions of alcohol were tried, 95
percent being the strongest and 20 percent
the weakest concentration used. Lower con-
centrations had negligible wetting effect.
After wetting, spores were washed three
times with centrifuging and cultured as be-
fore. No germination was obtained from
spores wetted with-alcohol, even in Reticu-
laria lycoperdon, in which nearly 100 per-
cent germination had been secured without
the use of a wetting agent.
Trisodium phosphate was tried next. By
experimentation it was found that spores of
Enteridium rozeanum, which has the smal-
lest spores of any species used up to the time
of these tests, would sink immediately in a
0.5 percent solution and slowly in a 0.2 per-
cent solution. In preparing cultures using
trisodium phosphate as a detergent, wash-
ing was done as when alcohol was the wet-
ting agent. Cultures of E. rozeanum (no. 5),
prepared with the use of trisodium phos-
phate in either 0.5 percent or 0.2 percent
solution, germinated nearly 100 percent
within one hour. Swarm-cells had not been
seen in cultures of this collection before.
Trisodium phosphate in 0.5 percent solu-
tion was used as a detergent in preparation
of cultures of a number of other collections.
Abundant germination was produced occa-
sionally in Lycogala epidendrum (no. 10),
but no consistent germination was secured
with any species except H. rozeanum, hence
toxic effects were suspected.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 4
In the search for an active detergent
without toxic effects, two commercial de-
tergents, “Soilax’’ and “‘Dreft,’’ were tried,
both in 0.5 percent solution. Both acted as
effective wetting agents, but many spores
were caught in the foam on the ‘‘Dreft’’ so-
lution and could not be reclaimed by centri-
fuging. Germination in cultures thus pre-
pared was similar to, and no more satisfac-
tory than, that obtained with trisodium
phosphate. |
The fact that bile salts greatly lower the
surface tension of solutions, as exemplified
in the Hay test for bile in urine (9), inspired
the testing of solutions of sodium glyco-
cholate and sodium taurocholate as wetting
agents for preparation of cultures. It was
found that either the glycocholate or the
taurocholate will wet the spores satisfac-
torily in 1 percent solution, but lower con-
centrations act so slowly as to be inade-
quate. In equal concentrations, these two
salts, or a mixture of them, are equally effec-
tive as wetting agents.
Spores of many species of Myxomycetes
that did not germinate at all when prepared
directly in water or with other detergents,
germinated when previously wetted with
either of the bile salts. And all those callec-
tions which germinated directly in water
germinated more quickly and in greater per-
centage when previously wetted with the
bile salts. Of course, the spores of two dif-
ferent collections of the same species fre-
quently show greatly different percentages
of germination. Similar differences are ap-
parent when the bile salts are used, other
conditions being equal; but the differences
are substantially reduced.
Germination of spores directly in 1 per-
cent solution of the bile salts was tried.
Protoplasts emerged from the spore cases,
but developed no further. However, a
technique was developed in which only one
washing with water is necessary to free
wetted spores of the detergent. Approxi-
mately 1 cc of the wetting agent is placed in
a centrifuge tube and the spores to be cul-.
tured are added and stirred until wetted, a
process which usually takes one-half minute.
Then the solution is diluted to 5 or 6 ce with
water and promptly centrifuged. The spores
are then washed once with distilled water
by centrifuging and are finally cultured in
Apr. 15, 1948
distilled water prepared with charcoal as
described above.
It was found that in order to preserve the
flagella of swarm-cells for observation, the
killing agent used in preparation of material
for microscopic examination must act very
quickly. Smears prepared by air-drying, or
even by drying as quickly as possible over
mild heat, as is done in the preparation of
bacterial mounts, showed recognizable
swarm-cells, all of which, however, com-
pletely lacked flagella.
The most satisfactory results for tem-
porary mounts were obtained by killing and
staining on the slide with a drop of iodine-
potassium iodide solution. For this purpose
Gram’s iodine is used without dilution, den-
sity of staining being controlled by varying
the proportions of culture solution and io-
dine solution which are mixed on the slide.
Whatever proportions are used, mixing
must be accomplished quickly and thor-
oughly if the flagella are to be preserved for
observation.
Permanent slides were prepared for obser-
vation of flagella by use of a modification of
the Loeffler stain for bacterial flagella (3).
The mordant and stain were prepared as
directed, but the times of application of
both mordant and stain were reduced from
five minutes to one-half minute. Smears
were prepared by various means. Slides were
thinly coated with albumin fixative, on
which a drop of culture solution was placed
and inverted over osmic acid fumes. This
was then allowed to dry in air. Other
smears, killed over osmic acid, were fixed by
heating gently after drying. Still others
were killed with iodine, as was done in the
preparation of temporary mounts, and al-
lowed to stand until the iodine had sub-
limed. These slides were fixed over heat. The
crystals of potassium iodide were dissolved
off in distilled water before staining.
Equally satisfactory results were obtained
with all these methods. The iodine method,
being the simplest, was used.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Some biflagellate swarm-cells were ob-
served in every culture prepared of every
species studied. In some species, notably
Lycogala epidendrum, Oligonema schweinit-
ELLIOTT: THE SWARM-CELLS OF MYXOMYCETES
135
zi, and Fuligo septica, the proportion
of swarm-cells obviously biflagellate was
nearly 100 percent. In one culture of Dicty-
diaethalium plumbeum, many zygotes with
four flagella, in two pairs of two each, were
found.
In all species except Stemonitis splendens,
the two flagella were of greatly different
length, the shorter one being sometimes
scarcely more than lu long. The length of
the shorter flagellum is quite constant for a
given species. The flagella of Stemonitis
splendens averaged 16yu for the longer flagel-
10
MICRONS
Figs. 1—8.—Outlines of representative swarm-
cells: 1, Dectydiaethalium plumbeum (a—b, swarm-
cells; c, zygote) (all others are swarm-cells); 2,
Enteridium rozeanum; 3, a—b, Fuligo septica; 4,
Lycogala epidendrum; 5, Oligonema schweinitzii:
6, Physarum polycephalum; 7, Reticularia ly-
coperdon; 8, Stemonitis splendens,
136
lum and 14, for the shorter. Ellison drew
swarm-cells of Stemonitis fusca and
S. ferruginea with two flagella approxi-
mately equal in length, though the other
biflagellate forms he records have one flagel-
lum much shorter than the other. Similarly,
Gilbert (6) shows S. fusca with two nearly
equal flagella, but all other forms definitely
heterocont.
The second flagellum, in addition to being
very short, is usually recurved so as to be
almost indistinguishable from the outline of
the cell itself. Even in Slemonitis splendens,
in which both flagella are relatively long,
one is usually trailing, so that it is easily
overlooked. The significance of this point is
borne out in the following observation: A
temporary mount was prepared from a cul-
ture of swarm cells of Duzctydiaethalhum
plumbeum. The mount was killed and stained
with Gram’s iodine. Using the 90X oil im-
mersion objective, the microscope was fo-
cused upon a swarm-cell in which both
flagella were easily seen. Then, by touching
the edge of the cover slip with a dissecting
needle, the mount was disturbed while the
original swarm-cell was kept in view. This
swarm-cell was observed to roll over and
again come to rest. In its new position, the
shorter flagellum could not be seen with any
manipulation of the microscope. A second
swarm-cell which presented only the longer
flagellum to view was found, and by simu-
larly disturbing the cover slip the swarm-
cell was maneuvered until the shorter flagel-
lum could also be seen. This same demon-
stration of the fact that the shorter flagel-
lum may be—and frequently is—hidden by
the body of the cell, was also performed on
mounts of Fultgo septica and Arcyria de-
nudata.
The second flagellum is clearly visible on
only a very few swarm-cells in most mounts.
Some mounts stained with Loeffler’s tech-
nique were destained to transparency with
acid alcohol. On swarm-cells thus prepared
the flagella remained clearly stained, but the
body of the cell was sufficiently destained so
that the nucleus and other cellular details
were visible. When swarm-cells are properly
stained by this method, careful focusing on
the anterior portion of the body of the cell
will reveal a dark line reaching backward
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 4
from the apex to the base of the conical
anterior portion. Occasionally this dark line
will be found lying across the conical por-
tion, either on or underneath the body of
the cell, but most frequently it is barely dis-
tinguishable from the outline of the cell. It is
not found on those swarm-cells on which the
second flagellum is clearly visible apart from
the body of the cell. It is believed that this
is the shorter flagellum which ordinarily is
closely appressed to the anterior portion of
the cell.
CONCLUSIONS
Spores of 21 collections representing 11
species of Myxomycetes were germinated.
The flagellation of the swarm-cells of these
species was observed in temporary and
permanent preparations. In three species,
Fuligo septica, Lycogala epidendrum, and
Oligonema schweinitzi, it was possible to
see two flagella on nearly every swarm-cell
observed. In all other species, two flagella
were Clearly visible on some swarm-cells,
and it was demonstrated by manipulation
of fluid mounts that the second flagellum
could be brought into view even though not
originally visible. From this it is inferred
that if adequate technique were used, the
second flagellum would be found on all
myxomycete swarm-cells.
All of the biflagellate swarm-cells ob-
served in this study were heterocont. In all
species except Stemonztis splendens the two
flagella differ greatly in length. In S.
splendens the difference is slight, but is
nevertheless constant.
The Myxomycetes and the Plasmodio-
phorales have long been considered related
groups by may investigators. Formerly,
the reported existence of anteriorly uni-
flagellate zoospores in the reproductive cy-
cle of both groups was regarded as strong
evidence of this relationship. However, Led-
ingham (14, 15) showed that the zoospores
of the Plasmodiophorales are anteriorly bi-
flagellate, the second flagellum being very
short and, hence, easily obscured. As a re-
sult of Ledingham’s finding, the supposed
difference in flagellation was thought by
many to emphasize a separation between the
two groups.
The existence of two blepharoplasts has
been reported in several species of Myxomy-
Apr. 15, 1948
cetes (5, 8, 19). Bessey (2) regards the
second blepharoplast as a vestige of the
biflagellate condition, indicating that the
Myxomycetes and the Plasmodiophorales
have arisen from a common ancestor. He
considers the loss of the second flagellum as
evidence that the Myxomycetes are of
higher phylogenetic position.
Insofar as flagellation is of phylogenetic
significance, the existence of the second
flagellum in the swarm-cells of Myxomy-
cetes as demonstrated by this study, may
indicate a closer relationship with the Plas-
modiophorales than has recently been sup-
posed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) Bary, A. pr. Vergleichende Morphologie
und Biologie der Pilze, Mycetozoen, und
Bacterien. Leipzig, 1884.
(2) Bessny, E. A. Some problems in fungus
phylogeny. Mycologia 34: 355-397.
1942
(3) Bucwanan, E. D., and Bucuanany, R. E.
Bacteriology, ed. 2. New York, 1931.
(Pp. 153-154.)
(4) CayLtey, Dororay M. Some observa-
tions on Mycetozoa of the genus Didym-
ium. Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 14: 227-
248. 1929.
(5) Extison, Bernarp R. Flagellar studies
on zoospores of some members of the
Mycetozoa, Plasmodiophorales, and Chu-
tridales. Mycologia 37: 444-454.
1945.
(6) GizBEerT, F. A. On the occurrence of bi-
flagellate swarm cells in certain Myxo-
mycetes. Mycologia 19: 277-283.
1927.
(7)
Feeding habits of the swarm cells
of the Myxomycete, Dictydiaethalium
plumbeum. Amer. Journ. Bot. 15:
123-132: 1928.
(8) GILBERT, Henry C. Critical events in the
ORNITHOLOGY.—A small collection of birds from Eritrea.'
MANN, U.S. National Museum.
During the early stages of World War II
when North Africa was an important battle-
field, numbers of American troops were sta-
tioned in Eritrea, a rather neglected and
little-known part of eastern Africa. Two of
the men who were destined to spend some
time in that former Italian colony collected
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
ae ae conian Institution. Received October
, 1947.
FRIEDMANN: A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM ERITREA
137
life history of Ceratiomyxa. Amer.
Journ. Bot. 22: 52-74. 1935.
(9) Hawk, Puitie B., and Bercerm, Oar.
Practical physiological chemistry, ed. 11.
Philadelphia, 1937. (P. 653.)
(10) Howarp, Frank L. The life history of
Physarum polycephalum. Amer.
Journ. Bot. 18: 116-133. 1931.
(11) Jann, E. Myzxomycetes. In Engler &
Prantl, Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamil-
ven, ed. 2, 2: 304. Leipzig, 1928.
Myxomycetenstudien 16. Dre
Kernphase und die Zahl der Chromo-
somen. Ber. Deutsche Bot. Ges. 54:
517-528. 1936.
(13) Karuinc, JoHn 8S. Plasmodiophorales.
New York, 1942.
(14) LepincHam, G. A. Zoospore ciliation in
the Plasmodiophorales. Nature 133:
(12)
534. 1934.
(15) Occurrence of zoosporangia in
Spongospora subterranea (Wallroth)
Lagerheim. Nature 135: 394-895.
1935.
(16) Stnoto, Y., and Yuasa, A. Studies on
the cytology of reproductive cells. I. On
the planocytes in five forms of Myxomy-
cetes. Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 48: 720-729.
1934.
(17) Smita, E. C.
spores. Mycologia 21: 321-323.
The longevity of myxomycete
1929.
(18) Some phases of spore germina-
tion of Myxomycetes. Amer. Journ.
Bot. 16: 645-650. 1929.
(19) Stoscu, H. A. von. Untersuchungen iiber
die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Myxo-
mycetes. Sexualitie und Apogamie ber
Didymiaceen. Planta 23: 623-656.
1934
(20) Voux, V. Uber den Generationswechsel
ber Myxomyceten. Oe¢csterr. Bot.
Zeitsch. 61: 131-139. 1911. [Cited in
Karling (13).]
(21) Yuasa, Akira. Studies in cytology of re-
productive cells. III. The genesis of the
flagellum in the planocyte of Fuligo sep-
tica Gmelin. Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 49:
538-545, 1935.
HERBERT FRIED-
birds as time and opportunity permitted.
Col. L. R. Wolfe sent in to the U. 8. Na-
tional Museum a small box containing eight
birds. A second and larger shipment com-
prising about 300 specimens was most un-
fortunately lost in transit. Thane Riney
similarly suffered the loss of the bulk of his
collection, but was able to bring back some
37 birds, which he forwarded to the Mu-
seum of Vertebrate Zoology of the Univer-
138
sity of California, where most of them are
now. A small number, chiefly duplicates,
were generously presented by that insti-
tution to the National Museum, where they
together with Wolfe’s handful of specimens,
are incorporated with the large East African
material previously brought together by
Mearns and others.
Because of the paucity of published data
concerning Eritrean birds I thought it ad-
visable to put on record the contents of the
Wolfe and Riney collections, small though
they be, and, thanks to the cooperation of
Dr. Alden H. Miller and Dr. Frank A. Pi-
telka, I have been able to examine all the
specimens and to combine them in this re-
port. A collection containing only 34 species
could hardly be expected to yield many new
facts, but as may be seen from the subjoined
annotated list, a few items of interest have
been found to be contained in it.
Family AccIPIrRIpAE: Hawks, Eagles,
and Kites
Elanus coeruleus coeruleus
(Desfontains)
Falco coeruleus Desfontains, Hist. (i.e., Mém.)
Acad. Roy. Paris, for 1787: 503. 1789 (near
Algiers).
One specimen, in somewhat abraded plu-
mage, was collected at Ghinda, altitude 962
meters, on February 2, 1943, by Thane Riney.
Melierax metabates metabates Heuglin
Melierax metabates Heuglin, Ibis 1861: 78 (White
Nile between 6° and 7° lat. N.).
During August (16-26), 1942, Wolfe col-
lected an adult male, adult female, and a juve-
nal male 15-20 miles south of Gura. Riney
obtained an adult (unsexed) between Cheren
and Agordat, on December 12, 1942. The very
extensive white freckling on the secondaries
and inner primaries of the adults suggests that
they may be somewhat intermediate between
neumanni and true metabates, but nearer to the
latter. They have the barred upper tail coverts
of the nominate race.
Seclater and Mackworth Praed (Ibis 1919:
702) consider all Sudanese birds south of Khar-
toum and north of Lake No as intermediate
between the two races. Moltoni and Rusconi
(Gli Uccelli dell’ Africa Orientale Italiana 2:
240. 1942) record newmanni from Eritrea near
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 4
the border of the Red Sea Province of the Su-
dan, and metabates from the rest of Eritrea.
The birds are rather small, the adult male
having a wing length of 300, the female of 307
mm. In this respect they approach the south-
west Arabian race ignoscens.
The August birds show evidences of molting.
The juvenal female is slightly more rufescent
on the breast and darker on the upperparts
than comparable birds from extreme north-
western Uganda.
Buteo rofofuscus augur (Riippell)
Falco (Buteo) augur Riippell, Neue Wirbelth.,
Vdg.: 38, pl. 16. 1836 (Abyssinia).
A female was taken by Riney about 20 km
from Decamera, on January 1, 1943, at an ele-
vation of 2,000 meters. A second specimen is
unfortunately without data of any kind. Both
are in the light phase.
Lophaetus occipitalis (Daudin)
Falco occipitalis Daudin, Traité 2: 40. 1800 (the
Anteniquoi country, i.e., Knysna district, Cape |
Province).
Wolfe eollected a male and an unsexed bird,
both adults, 15-20 miles south of Gura, August
16, 1942. He found the crested eagle not un-
common at elevations of about 5,000 feet.
Aquila rapax raptor Brehm
Aquila raptor Brehm, Naumannia 1855: 13 (Blue
and White Nile).
An adult female in worn plumage was taken
by Riney-on a nest in a baobab tree, south of
Barentu, January 17, 1943. The date is in agree-
ment with Blanford’s observation (Geol. and
Zool. Abyss.: 295-296. 1870) that in Ethiopia
the birds breed in January.
Circus pygargus (Linnaeus)
Falco pygargus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1:
89. 1758 (Europe).
Riney collected an unsexed bird (female by
plumage) 5 km west of Asmara at an elevation
of 2,409 meters, on January 4, 1943, when he
saw it foraging over open fields. The bird is in
rather poor plumage and is molting its remiges,
making definite identification somewhat diffi-
cult. The third primary, from the outside, is
only partly grown in, while the remainder of
the remiges is considerably abraded.
Montagu’s harrier is a Palearctic bird and
Pigs k 8
Apr. 15, 1948
comes into Africa only during the northern
winter. In eastern Africa it has been recorded
all the way to South Africa.
Family FaLconipasz: Falcons
Falco naumanni pekinensis Swinhoe
Falco cenchris var. pekinensis Swinhoe, Proc.
Zool. Soc. London 1870: 442 (Shihshanling
(Ming Tombs) near Peking).
An adult male, taken near Asmara, 2,371
- meters, on January 31, 1943, by Thane Riney,
is in somewhat worn plumage and differs from
the nominate race in its darker rufescent back.
Archer and Godman (Birds of British Somali-
land and the Gulf of Aden 1: 180-183. 1937.)
consider this race a rare straggler to their area
and suggest that it may follow down the Nile
Valley to the west. If we were to apply this
suggestion to Eritrea we should have to con-
sider the bird a rare visitor to that country as
well, which actually seems to be the case; in
fact, Riney’s specimen is the first record for
Eritrea, at least as far as published data indi-
cate. The bird is known to reach South Africa
during the northern winter and is probably
commoner along the eastern part of the conti-
nent than the few records would indicate.
Falco alopex (Heuglin)
Tinnunculus alopex Heuglin, Ibis 1861: 69, pl. 3
(Gallabat, Egyptian Sudan).
A male, collected by Wolfe, 15 miles south of
Gura, August 16, 1942, is noticeably darker
than a female from Talodi, Kordofan, Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan, the only other example of the
species available for comparison. Our male also
differs from this female in having the black
bars on the median rectrices more complete,
less marginal in character, and in having those
on the lateral rectrices less broadened. There
is a tendency in the female to have these bars
dilated marginally on all the tail feathers, but
this is most highly developed on the outer ones.
Bannerman (Birds Tropical West Africa 1:
216-219. 1930) has given more extensive com-
ments on this species than any other recent
writer. He states that the wing measurement of
the males varies from 266 to 293 (our example
measures 276 mm). His account is unfortu-
nately garbled by some misprinting of his orig-
inal intention as he then goes on to state that
the “largest birds are those from N. Nigeria
with wings ~ 212 9 210....”
FRIEDMANN: A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM ERITREA
139
The intensity (darkness or paleness) of the
coloration appears to vary individually in this
kestrel. Bannerman had 23 specimens for study
and found the darkest birds came from such
widely separated areas as Kulikoro on the Niger
River, Jebel Marra in Darfur Province, Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan, and Ethiopia. On the basis of
this spotty occurrence of dark birds (among
which the present Eritrean example appears to
belong) it seems impracticable to recognize
Oberholser’s race eremica from Togoland, which
is based entirely on its paler tone. Bannerman
(loc. cit.) has placed eremica in the synonymy
of alopex, but, probably by oversight, he uses
a trinomial for the latter.
Our specimen shows signs of molt in the
remiges and rectrices. This suggests the possi-
bility that its darker tone may be due to the
freshness of its plumage and that paler birds
may show the results of fading under the hot
sun in the dry open country it inhabits.
Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus
Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10,-1:
90. 1758, (Europe; restricted type locality,
Sweden apud Hartert).
Riney shot a female 10 km from Decamera,
at 2,050 meters, on January 1, 1943. The bird
has a wing length of 258 mm and is therefore
too large to be F. t. archeri Hartert and Neu-
mann from the Waghar Mountains, and also
too large to be F. t. carla (Hartert and Neu-
mann) of the mountains of East Africa. In
coloration it is slightly darker than typical
tinnunculus but not as dark as carlo. It seems
best treated as a darkish example of the nomi-
nate race.
Family PHASIANIDAE: Pheasants,
Francolins, and Quails
Francolinus erckelii erckelii (Riippell)
Perdiz erckelii Riippell, Neue Wirbelth. Vog.: 12,
pl. 6. 1835 (Taranta Mountains, Abyssinia).
Erckel’s francolin is a poorly known bird,
and any additional material of it is still of inter-
est. Riney collected a female, 40 km north of
Asmara, 2,390 meters altitude, on January 9,
1943. It is smaller than any mentioned by Mol-
toni and Rusconi (Gli Uccelli dell’ Africa Orien-
tale Italiana 3: 22-25. 1944.) having a wing
length of only 202.6 (their series ranges from
205 to 230), and a tail length of 91 (as against
110-140 mm in Moltoni’s series).
140
Moltoni and Rusconi write that the race pen-
toni ranges from the Red Sea Province of the
Sudan into the adjacent parts of Eritrea, but
as far as I can learn no actual specimens of this
paler, grayer race have been taken in Eritrea.
Family CoLuMBIDAE: Pigeons and Doves
Oena capensis capensis (Linnaeus)
Columba capensis Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1:
286. 1766. (Cape of Good Hope).
Riney collected a male in low bush near the
Decamera turn off on the Adi-Ugri Road, 45 km
south-southwest of Asmara, on January 1,
1948. The bird is in abraded plumage.
Family APopiDAB: Swifts
Apus aequatorialis aequatorialis
(Miller)
Cypselus aequatorialis Miller, Naumannia 1: 27.
1851 (Abyssinia).
A female mottled swift was taken by Riney
on the Citao compound at Asmara on February
2, 1943. It is a bird in rather worn feathering.
Family Conimpaz: Colies, or Mousebirds
Colius striatus leucotis Riippell
Colius leucotis Riippell, Mus. Senck. 3: 42, pl. 2.
1839 (Temben Province, Abyssinia).
Two unsexed examples of this common spe-
cies were obtained by Riney, one on the Adi-
Ugri Road at the base of the Asmara Plateau,
on November 14, 1942, and one near Cheren,
on March 15, 1943. This race inhabits Eritrea,
Bogosland, northern Ethiopia, and adjacent
portions of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
Family Coracrmpaz: Rollers
Coracias naevius naevius Daudin
Coracias naevia Daudin, Traité 2: 258. 1800 (Sen-
egal).
Wolfe obtained one specimen, unsexed, south
of Gura, on July 26, 1942. It has the white
stripes on the anterior underparts unusually
broad and has the purplish brown of the top of
the head and the greenish of the back slightly
darker than in Ethiopian specimens. It has an
unusually large bill, the culmen measuring 47
mm from the base; the largest billed birds from
Ethiopia and Kenya Colony seen having cul-
men lengths of 43 mm or less. The specimen
was molting when collected, the outer remiges
still showing their sheaths basally.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 4
Family Upupimpan: Hoopoes
Upupa epops somaliensis Salvin
Upupa somaliensis Salvin, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus.
16: 13. 1902 (Somaliland).
On February 2, 1943, Riney obtained an
adult female on the acacia plain between Ne-
fasit and Decamara, altitude 1,825 meters. It
matches Ethiopian and East Africa examples
very well. This is the resident race, the nomi-
nate one being only a winter visitor from Eur-
ope.
Family Bucrrotipar: Hornbills
Tockus nasutus nasutus (Linnaeus)
Buceros nasutus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1:
154. 1766 (Senegal).
The gray hornbill is represented by a head
collected south of Gura, in August 1942, by
Colonel Wolfe.
Tockus erythrorhynchus erythrorhynchus
(Temminck)
Buceros erythrorhynchus Temminck, Pl. Col., livr.
36: sp. 19. 1823 (Senegal).
Riney collected a male red-billed hornbill on
the plains west of Agadat, 700 meters altitude,
on December 13, 1942, and Wolfe shot another
individual south of Gura, July 26, 1942.
Riney’s bird shows active molt in the tail.
Family Tima.impAE: Babblers
Turdoides leucopygia leucopygia
(Riippell)
Ixos leucopygius Riippell, Neue Wirbelth., Vég.:
82, pl. 30, fig. 1. 1840 (coast of Abyssinia).
Riney met with this northern race of the
white-rumped babbler 40 km north of Asmara,
2,390 meters altitude, on January 9, 1943, when
he collected a male and an unsexed specimen.
This race has the whole forehead and fore-
crown white, while the four more southern sub-
species have the white reduced or absent.
The male shows signs of active molt in the
wings.
Family Turpipazg: Thrushes, Chats, and
Wheatears
Monticola solitaria solitaria (Linnaeus)
Turdus solitarius Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10:1:
170. 1758 (Italy, apud Hartert).
The blue rock-thrush of central and southern
Europe winters in northeastern Africa, along
Apr. 15, 1948
with the race longirostris of western Asia. Riney
collected a female 20 km south-southwest of
Asmara, 1,930 meters altitude, on January 1,
1943, which agrees with the nominate form in
its dark and brownish color (the western Asiatic
form is paler and more grayish).
Oenanthe hispanica melanoleuca
(Gildenstadt)
Muscicapa melanoleuca Giildenstadt, Nov, Com,
Petrop. 19: 468. 1775 (Georgia; Caucasus).
An unsexed specimen of the eastern black-
eared wheatear was obtained by Riney 20 km-
south-southwest of Asmara, 1,930 meters alti-
tude, on January 1, 1943. The race is known
to winter from Egypt to Darfur Province in the
Angol-Egyptian Sudan and to Eritrea and to
southwestern Arabia (Aden Protectorate).
Oenanthe lugubris (Riippell)
Sazxicola lugubris Riippell, Neue Wirbelth., Vog.:
77, pl. 28, fig. 1. 1837 (Simen, Abyssinia).
The Abyssinian black chat was met with by
Riney on January 1, 1943, when he collected an
adult male and female 20 km south-southwest
of Asmara, at an altitude of 1,930 meters. These
_ two specimens are definite evidence that Zed-
litz (Journ. fiir Orn. 1911: 85) was wrong when
he suggested that this species was migratory in
Eritrea, leaving for the south after breeding,
and returning in the latter part of March. To-
gether with December and January birds pre-
viously recorded from Ethiopia (Friedmann,
U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 153, pt. 2: 135. 1937.)
these examples indicate that the migration, if
any, 1s very limited in geographical extent.
Both specimens are in fairly fresh plumage;
the female has pale tips on the outer rectrices
(curiously enough, only on the left side of the
tail, but not on the right), the male has none
at all.
Oenanthe isabellina (Temminck)
Sazxicola isabellina Temminck, Pl. Col., livr. 79:
pl. 472, fig. 1. 1829 (Nubia).
Riney obtained a female isabelline chat in
the low brushland of the Asmara Plateau, 2,040
meters elevation, near Asmara, on January 1,
1943. The species breeds in Europe and east to
Mongolia and winters in northeastern Africa,
Arabia, and India.
FRIEDMANN: A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM ERITREA
141
Cossypha semirufa semirufa (Riippell)
Petrocincla semirufa Rippell, Neue Wirbelth.,
Vog.: 81. 1840 (Abyssinia).
In the dense forest of Monte Marara, 2,340
meters altitude, about 40 km north of Asmara,
on January 9, 1943, Riney shot an example (un-
sexed) of this robin-chat. This must be about as
far north as it is known to occur; I know of no
published records north of Bogosland.
Family MusctcapipagE: Old
World Flycatchers
Bradornis pallidus bowdleri Collin
and Hartert
Bradornis pallidus bowdleri Collin and Hartert,
Nov. Zool. 34: 52. 1927 (new name for B. p.
sharpet Rothschild, 1913, not B. sharper Bo-
cage, 1894: Abyssinia).
One female was collected by Riney near De-
camera, 2,000 meters altitude, on January 1,
1943. This race of the pale flycatcher inhabits
northern Ethiopia (south to the vicinity of Adis
Ababa) and Eritrea, where it lives on open
bushy areas.
Batis minor erlangeri Neumann
Batis minor erlangert Neumann, Journ. fiir Orn.
1907: 352 (Gara Mulata, near Harrar, Ethio-
pia).
Riney obtained an unsexed specimen (male
by plumage characters) near Decamera, 2,000
meters altitude, on January 1, 1943. Inasmuch
as this example agrees with Ethiopian speci-
mens of erlangeri and shows no approach to the
characters ascribed to chadensis, I have no
hesitancy in so classifying it, although it ex-
tends the known range of erlangeri northward
a very considerable distance. It was known pre-
viously from the Harrar area in central eastern
Ethiopia, southwest to southern Shoa, and to
Lake Stefanie.
Family Moracttuipar: Wagtails and Pipits
Anthus richardi cinnamomeus Riippell
Anthus cinnamomeus Riippell, Neue Wirbelth.,
Vog., 103. 1840 (Simien Province, Abyssinia).
On January 1, 1943, Riney collected a female
of this pipit about 15 km south-southwest of
Asmara, at 2,040 meters altitude. The bird was
seen on the ground in low brushlands. The
specimen, which is in somewhat frayed plumage
agrees well with others from Ethiopia.
142
Family LanipaAg: Shrikes
Lanius collaris humeralis Stanley
Lanius humeralis Stanley, in Salt, Travels in
Abyssinia... , Appendix, li, no. 4. 1814 (Cheli-
cut, Abyssinia).
One female, collected by Riney 15 km south
southwest of Asmara, 2,040 meters, January 1,
1943, is of this subspecies, which occurs from
Eritrea and Ethiopia, south through eastern
Africa (west to central Uganda), to Zululand
and Natal.
Family PrionoprpArE: Wood-shrikes
Prionops cristata cristata Riippell
Prionops (Lanius) cristatus Rippell, N. Wir-
belth., Vég., lief. 183: 30, pl. 12, fig. 2. 1837
(coast at Massawa).
Riney obtained an unsexed bird at Ghinda,
962 meters altitude, on February 2, 1943. The
specimen is in very worn feathering.
Family SturNIDAE: Starlings
Lamprocolius chalybeus chalybeus
(Hemprich and Ehrenberg)
Lamprotornis chalybeus Hemprich and Ehrenberg,
Symbolae physicae, folio y: pl. 10. 1828 (Am-
bukol, Dongola).
A female, showing evidence of active molting
in the wings, was collected by Riney 30 km
from Asmara, 1,930 meters altitude, on Janu-
ary 1, 1948.
Family PLoceipar: Weaverbirds
Sporopipes frontalis abyssinicus Mearns
Sporopipes frontalis abyssinicus Mearns, Smith-
sonian Misc. Coll. 56(14): 7. 1910 (Abyssinia).
Three examples of the speckle-fronted
weaver were collected by Riney, 2 males and
1 female, on the acacia plain between Nefasit
and Decamera, elevation 1,852 meters, Feb-
ruary 7, 1943. One of the males shows evidence
of molting in the tail.
These specimens are somewhat darker on the
upper surface of the wings than is the type,
but this may be due to the fact that the latter
is in very fresh plumage and has more exten-
sive pale margins to these feathers.
Ploceus baglafecht baglafecht (Daudin)
Loxia baglafecht Daudin, in Buffon, Hist. Nat.
~ (Didot’s ed.), Quadrupeds 14: 245. 1799 (ac-
tually 1802) (Abyssinia).
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 4
Riney collected a male, 40 km north of As-
mara, 2,390 meters elevation, on January 9,
1943. This weaver is known to occur at alti-
tudes of from 5,000 to 12,000 feet in Bogosland
and Ethiopia.
Uraeginthus bengalus bengalus
(Linnaeus)
Fringilla bengala Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1:
323. 1766 (‘‘Bengal’; Senegal substituted by
Sclater, Syst. Avium Ethiop. 2: 804. 1930).
One male and one female were taken by
Riney on January 1, 1943 in low acacia-dotted
open grassy country between Decamera and the
Adi-Ugri Road, 2,000 meters elevation. The
male had the testes enlarged. Both birds are in
worn plumage.
I can see little advantage in accepting the
recent suggestion that bengalus and its races
are conspecific with the angolensis group. There
is more to be said for Delacour’s action in
‘lumping’? Uraeginthus in the genus Estrilda,
but even in this I hesitate to follow him as the
cordon-bleus are a very distinctive section, at
least, of the waxbill aggregate.
Family FRINGILLIDAE: Finches, Sparrows,
and Buntings
Poliospiza tristriata tristriata
(Riippell)
Serinus tristriatus Riippell, Neue Wirbelth., Vog.:
97, pl. 35, fig. 2. 1840 (Taranta Pass, Abys-
sinia).
Riney collected a female in the Bermuda
grass at the base of the Asmara Plateau, at
1,930 meters elevation 20 km south-southwest
of Asmara, January 1, 1943. This seedeater ap-
pears to range from altitudes of from 4,000 to
11,000 feet, and is reported (in literature) to be
common in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.
Fringillaria tahapisi septemstriata
(Riippell)
Emberiza septemstriata Riippell, Neue Wirbelth.,
Vog.: 86, pl. 30. 1840 (Gondar, Abyssinia).
A male in fairly worn plumage was taken by
Riney on January 1, 1943, 45 km from Asmara,
1,930 meters elevation.
This race of this rock bunting is characterized
by the extensive rufescent area on the basal
portion of the inner web of the outermost pri-
mary.
_ Apr. 15, 1948
ZOOLOGY .—Some echinoderms from Brak, Schouten Islands.'
CLARK AND BAYER: ECHINODERMS FROM BIAK
143
AustTIN H. CLARK
and FREDERICK M. Baysgr, U. 8. National Museum.
Biak (or Wiak) is the largest and most
easterly of the Schouten Islands, a small
group of islands just north of Geelvink Bay,
New Guinea, in approximately latitude 1°S.
It is 45 miles long and 23 miles wide. It is a
low island, not rising more than 50 feet
above sea level except at the southern end
where there is a hill 800 feet in height.
Until the late war Biak was regarded as
of little importance. It was remote from the
Netherlands East Indies capital of Batavia,
and the natives, addicted to headhunting
and other unpleasant practices, were hostile
to strangers. Few collections of any kind
had ever been made there, and no echino-
derms have ever been recorded from the
island.
During the war the junior author, then a
member of a 5th Airforce Photo Recon-
naisance Squadron, was fortunate enough
to spend four months at Sarido village
within a stone’s throw of a luxuriant coral
reef. This reef is a fringing reef of rather in-
significant proportions. It is perhaps 200
yards wide at the most and approaches
quite close to the shore, which is sandy in
the small embayment in which Sarido
stands, and rocky southward toward the
point on which the airstrip is located. In the
little bay the actively growing reef is some-
what farther from shore than elsewhere and
is separated from it by a strip of slightly
deeper water, from 3 to 5 or 6 feet deep at
low tide, with a sandy bottom on which are
scattered living and dead clumps of coral
and patches of eelgrass and algae. This is a
rather restricted zone, grading rapidly into
the active reef zone.
The reef itself is covered with water at all
but the very lowest tides when a few of the
highest coral prominences are exposed. It is
made up of great masses of living coral,
huge rounded heads of massive species
many feet thick and submarine “brier
patches” of branched madrepores in which
reef fishes of indescribable colors hide by
day. It is not an algal reef of the type found
* Published by permission of the Secretary of
oe omen Institution. Received November
in the Marshall Islands and generally
throughout the Pacific. There is no promi-
nent ridge of Lithothamnion, nor are these
plants even present in noticeable numbers.
The coral masses afford precarious foot-
holds, for the delicate Acroporas and other
branched species are liable to give way,
plunging one’s foot into 4 or 5 feet of water
and raking one’s legs with razor-sharp edges
in the descent. Among these coral masses
are pools of deep water with sandy bottoms,
providing a fine habitat for marine ani-
mals.
Two invertebrates especially force them-
selves on the attention of the collector, the
giant clam, T'ridacna, with its mantle rich
shades of blue, green, and purple, and a
starfish, Linckia laevigata, with a very small
disk and long, rigid, cylindrical arms of the
most outlandish blue imaginable. These
two creatures are everywhere. Coral masses
are studded with the multicolored zigzags
formed by the clams, and the entire reef is
dotted here and there on sand and coral
alike with the brilliant blue 5-pointed stars.
The most interesting animals were less
evident, and it required poking into dark
crevices, turning over coral blocks, and stir-
ring up sand pockets to find them. Occa-
sionally one of the giant slate-pencil urchins,
Heterocentrotus mammillatus, would be
found in the open, though usually they were
tucked away in remote nooks and cran-
nies, their presence betrayed only by a stray
spine or two projecting from a small open-
ing, apparently much too small to allow the
creature free passage. Cidarids could be
found in similiar situations, though they
were much less common.
Turning over coral heads was a simple
way of finding interesting things. Brittle-
stars were, of course, under every one, and
those with large enough recesses often con-
tained comatulids of unusual beauty. The
less conspicuous starfishes also were often
found in such situations. The little sand
pockets under the rocks produced very in-
teresting mollusks, such as the venomous
cone shells, Conus textile, C. striatus, and C.
geographus, not to mention dozens of less
conspicuous things such as abalones (Halto-
144
tis), several species of Trochus, Mitra,
Cymatium, and many other genera.
The large starfishes Culcita novaeguineae
and Acanthaster planci were found crawling
about in the open, but because of their pro-
tective coloration were more often over-
looked than seen. The latter is adorned with
the most vicious 3-cornered spines imagin-
able. In collecting one of these the spines
drew blood through a pair of heavy leather
oloves.
Toward the outer reef the water deepens,
the coral heads become more widely spaced,
and, reaching the brink, one can look down
the almost vertical wall into fathomless
blue. Sharks were sometimes seen cruising
along in the hazy middle distance, and al-
ways myriads of reeffishes, moorish idols,
parrotfishes, pomacentrids, wrasses, scor-
pionfishes, and many others. To the right
and left on almost every coral pinnacle
could be seen a huge black or deep red
comatulid, gently swaying in the aquatic
breezes. These seemed never to stray from
their own chosen perch, for on several visits
to the same spot we found them unchanged.
The occurrence of Heterocentrotus mam-
mullatus at Biak is especially interesting, for
only H. trigonartus has been definitely re-
corded from nearby New Guinea. Hetero-
centrotus trigonarius occurs in the Philip-
pines and generally throughout the Pacific
islands. It is replaced by H. mammillatus in
the Hawaiian, Bonin, and Riu Kiu islands,
which is also found at Lord Howe Island,
in the Murray Islands at the northern end
of the Great Barrier reef, and at Cape Jau-
bert, Western Australia.
The specimens listed below are in the U.S.
National Museum, and the numbers follow-
ing the names are those in the catalogue of
the Division of Echinoderms.
CRINOIDEA
Comantheria briareus (Bell), 4, E.6935, E.6937,
E.6939, E.6961.
Comanthus bennettt (J. Miller), 4, E.6963,
E.6970, E.6972, E.6976.
Comanthus timorensis (J. Miiller), 5, E.6936,
E.6954, E.6962, E.6874.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 4
Comanthus parvicirra (J. Miller), 5, E.6841,
E.6842, £.6966, E.6971.
Himerometra magnipinna (A. H. Clark), 7,
E.6957, E.6958, E.6964, E.6965, E.6973.
Stephanometra spicata (P. H. Carpenter), 1,
E.6939.
Stephanometra protectus (Liitken), 1, E.6843.
Lamprometra palmata palmata (J. Miiller), 4,
E.6959, E.6960, E.6969, E.6987.
ECHINOIDEA
Plococidaris verticillata (Lamarck), 1, E.6967.
Eucidaris metularia (Lamarck), 3, E.6968.
Mespilia globulus (Linné), 1, E.6951.
Heterocentrotus mammillatus (Linné), 1, E.6977.
ASTEROIDEA
Archaster typicus Miller and Troschel, 1,
E.6980.
Protoreaster nodosus (Linné), 1, E.6830.
Culcita novaeguineae Miiller and Troschel, 3,
E.6979.
Gomophia aegyptica Gray, 1, E.6828.
Nardoa mollis de Loriol, 2, E.6981.
Linckia laevigata (Linné), 4, E.6982—E.6984.
Linckia multifora (Lamarck), 3, E.6986.
Linckia guildingu Gray, 1, E.6985.
Asterope carinifera (Gray), 1, E.6827.
Asterina cepheus (Miller and Troschel), 1,
E.6831.
Othilia luzonica Gray, 1, E.6978.
Acanthaster planci (Linné), 2, E.6955, E.6956.
OPHIUROIDEA
Ophiodera brevispina (von Martens), 1, E.6950.
Ophiothrix longipeda (Lamarck), 1, E.6944.
Ophiocema erinaceus (Miller and Troschel), 1,
E.6952.
Ophiocoma scolopendrina (Lamarck), 2, E.6953.
Ophiomastix annulosa (Lamarck), 2, E.6949.
Ophiomastix litkenii Pfeffer, 2, E.6948.
Ophiarthrum pictum (Miller and Troschel), 5,
E.6946, E.6947.
Ophiarachna incrassata (Lamarck), 1, E.6943.
Ophiarachnella septemspinosa (Miller and Tro-
schel), 1, E.6945.
Ophiolepis superba H. L. Clark, 5, E.6940.
Ophiolepis cincta Miller and Troschel, 2,
E.6942.
Ophioplocus imbricatus (Miller and Troschel),
5, E.6941.
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‘Officers of the Washington Read my of Sciences
President........+sese0e- ... FREDERICK D. Rossint, National Bureau of Standards
| a aS SOG EE A Sees ....C, Lewis "Gazin, U. S. National Museum
Treasurer... = DEE Ree i ag a ae ge ge .-- HOWARD 8S. RApplEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey
ESO Rs Sele ina eH eaiee Samalae ary NatTHan R. Smiru, Plant Industry Station
Custodian as Subscription Manager of Publications. ac... 0. e ec cee cto eee
eR le Wee C cinienie'e wtals bie wie bre HarRaup A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum
Vice-Presidents Representing the A fiiliated Societies:
Philosophical Society of Washington..............0c cc econ WALTER RAMBERG
Anthropological Society of Washington... ...........20008: T. Date STEWART
Biological Society of Washington. 3.0... ee ee eee es JoHN W. ALDRICH
Chemical Society of Washington... ........ cece ccc cece ees CHarR.Les E. WHITE
Entomological Society of Washington Pec Steet pie eek eeu SON C. F. W. MuESEBECK
National Georraphic Society... 2.2.2 eee cee ce ewe canes ALEXANDER WETMORE
Geological Society of Washington........... let ek niin ee we aien Wi.tiiaAM W. RuBEY
Medical Society of the District of Columbia................ FREDERICK QO. CoE
ruins Tistorical Society. a. 0. si es we ck ce cewnes GILBERT GROSVENOR
Botanica! Society of Washington... cw cee ee cee ees RONALD BAMFORD
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters........ Witu1am A. Dayton
Washington Society of Engineers.............0 cee eee eees CuIFFORD A. BETTS
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...............
Marae crore a caster dy Pk Gis wo lin''e: sie Tatas a Jako tere och o's bien e's Francis B. SILSBEE
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers...............
ME ee ep od ie ahs PE lve cp Gon! Segitinte wie Eatecee wey Fuse me ounce Martin A, Mason
Helminthological Society of Washington: 2.3... foes 0 oa AUREL O. FostTER
Washington, Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RoGERs
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... H®RBERT GROVE DoRSEY
Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OweEN B. FRENCH
Elected Members of the Board of Managers:
mer enroery L940) ek ds ee bees wee Max A. McCatrt, Watpo L. Scumitt
Re A Ey. LOGO. 5c sulealc ee cae oe F. G. BRIcKWEDDE, WiLLIAM W. DIEHL
eaamusary BOS) Oe ee ea). es Francis M. DeranporFr, WiLu1aM N. FENTON
MMPI IP ICADIETS ig cin 6k Udine ee etet All the above officers plus the Senior Editor
Board of Editors and Associate Editors..... 0... cece eee eee cee eens {See front cover]
Executive Commitiee......... FREDERICK D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERQ,
eta hitless 9s we Waupo L. Scumitt, Howarp §. Rappers, C. Lewis Gazin
RINE PROUT ARE Belt ds OL Wethts Petia ies U Sig v/Gim wee Mk ae vib Sicko e Sra & woemlele wlataleree
Haroitp E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Butz, C. WyTHE Cooxs, WiLi1aM
ee ee W. Disx., Luoyp D. Fre.itron, Recina FLANNERY, GrorGE G. Manov
Committee OE LE TI ORES SERS OR nl ae eS ARS Pe RayYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman),
~»e+-- FRANK P, CULLINAN, Frep L. Moutsr, Francis O. Rict, Frank THONE
Committee on Monographs:
To January 1949........... Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN
earetiieey 1950. 2S ssa bse 'nle #6 teaeie RoLanpD W. Brown, Haratp A. REHDER
Beer TERE POD, sing wn baw gsh a piace ewe WiuiiaM N. Fenton, EMMETT W. Price
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HERzFELD, general chairman):
Hor Meee MIEN HRSA SURESTRCEIN 7G Np Ana's in Pk Sis Cans See's bate Uw Wii ela 3 Uwe 6 arate eee are
_C. F. W. Muesesescx (chairman), Harry §S. BERNToN, CHEsTER W. Emmons,
ELMER Hiceins, Mario Mo.uuari, GoTTHoLp STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum
For the Engineering ORCS FC By Sai VEE ke, OR Sa AAC ae ane a
_ Harry Diamonp (chairman), Luoyp V. BERKNER, Ropert C. Duncan,
HERBERT N. Eaton, ARNO C, FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScHEeEtz, W. D. Sutcuirrs
eee MSE POCORN GG 11, bite ais wih Vita aig cw’ ven ores ance aelb whe ded ce UAee ad
Karu F. Herzrevp (chairman), NatHan L. Drakes, Luoyp D. FEtron,
HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. Rooney, RoBERtT SIMHA, MicHaEL X. SULLIVAN
Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research. ...... 1... cece eee c cece ccc ee ete neneacs
2a H. Roperts, JR. Se rare Anna E. JEnxt1ns, J. LEoN SHERESHEVSKY
Representative Ly LE SES Ue rE RAN SSR Re a ee Dene MEE FRANK THONE
MM RARTELOR ES Jol) A potas eC Fate olor A ein Sida bales wee We a4 ok S ae kee 8%
Wiuiiam G. BromBacuer (chairman), Harotp F, Stimson, HERBERT L. Hatter
tamer OE EOE CS REAR 1 TING ey MERI Dt ah 0s a ag DO A OE RC ER SL Ae
.. JOHN W. McBurney amie Rocer G. Bates, Wititiam A. WILDHACE
CONTENTS
BIOCHEMISTRY.—The chemical nature of enzymes. JAMES BATCHEL-
LER SUMNER |) 9°60 Goer hs aes. Bag ad Wr oe eh eth eee oe
CHEMISTRY.—Dr. Stephen Brunauer’s contributions in the field of
adsorption: “ RAbpH A!) BEMBe. 3 2202 ela). 6 oo ee
MeErEorROLOGY.—Loose usage of weather words. W. J. HUMPHREYS. .
PaLEONTOLOGY.—An interesting occurrence of fossil tracks in West
Virginia. ‘Davin FS DUNKEE i. ide soe tea ee ee
Mycotocy.—The swarm-cells of Myxomycetes. EUGENE W. ELuiorr
ORNITHOLOGY.—A small collection of birds from Eritrea. HERBERT
FRED MAIN eR NG PD ere a Pk te oe ee ae Oe
ZOOLOGY.—Some echinoderms from Biak, Schouten Islands. Austin
H. CnarkK and Freprrick)M: BAYER... eee ae io
This Journal is Indexed in the Internationa] Index to Periodicals
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JOURNAL
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_ ASSOCIATE EDITORS eg
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ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes:
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 38
May 15, 1948
No. 5
PHYSICS.—General survey of certain results in the field of high pressure physics.'
Percy W. BripGMan, Harvard University.
In this lecture I shall attempt to present
a general survey of those parts of the field
of high pressure physics with which I have
had direct contact, dealing first with tech-
nical matters of producing and measuring
high pressure, and secondly with the physi-
cal phenomena which occur under. high
pressure.
With regard to technique, several differ-
ent ranges of pressure are to be recognized.
The first step was to devise a method of
packing which should be without leak,
since leak had limited the range of previous
experiments. A packing was devised, shown
in Fig. 1, which automatically becomes
tighter the higher the pressure, so that any
pressure is accessible up to the strength of
the containing vessels. If the vessels are
made of one-piece construction, from the
best heat treated alloy steels, it is possible
to reach pressures of 12,000 kg/cm? as a
routine matter and on occasion for short
intervals of time as high as 20,000. For
many years my work was confined to this
range, and in this range it proved feasible
to measure nearly all the ordinary physical
properties of substances. The next step was
to give the pressure vessel external support
which increases in magnitude at the same
time the internal pressure increases. A sim-
ple method of doing this is to make the ex-
ternal surface of the pressure vessel conical
in shape, and to push it into a heavy collar
with a force which increases as the internal
pressure increases, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
With apparatus of this kind it is possible to
make routine experiments up to 30,000
1 Nobel Laureate Lecture delivered at Stock-
holm, Sweden, December 11, 1946. Reprinted by
permission from the proof of the article for Les
Prix Nobel en 1946.
kg/cm? with volumes of the order of 15 cm‘',
to get electrically insulated leads into the
apparatus, and practically to repeat all the
former work in the range to 12,000. I am
still engaged in carrying out this program.
An extension of the same technique on a,
Fig. 1.—The general scheme of the packing by
which pressure in the soft packing materials is
automatically maintained a fixed percentage
higher than in the liquid.
smaller scale with capacities of the order of
0.5 cm? can be made up to 50,000 kg/cm?.
In this range all ordinary liquids freeze
solid, electrically insulated leads cannot be
got into the apparatus, and the phenomena
which can be studied are limited to various
volume effects, such as compressibilities and
phase changes, including fusions and poly-
morphic transitions.
145
146
The external support of the vessel is only
one of the factors that make possible the
extension of range from 12,000 to 50,000.
No steel piston will support as much as
50,000; carboloy, however, the recently de-
veloped substance for tools formed by
cementing a fine powder of tungsten carbide
with cobalt, fortunately proves to have a
compressive strength high enough for the
purpose.
Fie. 2.—TIllustrating the general principle of the
method for giving external support to the pressure
vessel in such a way that support increases auto-
matically with the increase of internal pressure.
The next step in extension of range, from
50,000 to 100,000 kg/cm?, demands still
more effective support of the pressure ves-
sel. This is done by immersing the entire
pressure vessel in a fluid under pressures
ranging up to 30,000 kg/cm?. The pressure
apparatus has to be made still smaller, the
pistons are only 1.6 mm in diameter, and
the capacity is only a few cubic millimeters.
The pressure cylinder itself, as well as the
pistons, is now made of carboloy with an
external jacket of shrunk-on steel to give it
greater strength. The piezometer is illus-
trated in Fig. 3. Even with this type of con-
struction so great an extension of range as
from 50,000 to 160,000 would not have been
possible if it were not for a fortunate change
in the properties of metals under pressure.
At pressures of 25,000 kg/cm? ordinary
grades of steel become capable of almost
indefinite deformation without fracture, so
greatly has their ductility been increased,
as shown in Fig. 4. Even carboloy loses its
normal brittleness and becomes capable of
supporting higher tensile stresses without
fracture than steel.
Up to the present, the compressibilities
and polymorphic transitions of some 30 ele-
ments and simple compounds have been
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
studied in the range to 100,000 kg/cm.
Much higher pressures than 100,000 can
be reached in very small regions by con-
structing the apparatus entirely of carboloy,
but up to the present no particularly im-
portant physical results have been attained
in this range.
In addition to the problem of attaining
the pressures, there is the problem of meas-
uring them and measuring the effects which
they produce. This demands in the first
place the establishment of various fixed
points. In the range up to 30,000 a sufficient
number of such points has been established
to permit measurements to an accuracy of
about 0.1 percent. A transition of bismuth
in the neighborhood of 25,000 gives one
convenient such point. An essential part of
the measuring technique is the utilization of
the change of resistance of manganin under
pressure, first suggested by Lisell at
Uppsala. Above 30,000 the territory is not
so well marked out; it is probable that the
measurements to 100,000 have an accuracy
of about 2 percent.
Fig. 3.—The miniature apparatus
for reaching 100,000 kg/cm.
It is natural to think of volume compres-
sion as the simplest and most fundamental
of all the effects of hydrostatic pressure, and
for that reason it will be discussed first here.
It is not, however, the simplest to measure
experimentally, because the measurements
immediately obtained are relative to the
containing vessel, which is itself distorted.
May 15, 1948
Elaborate procedures may be necessary to
eliminate the effect of such distortion.
The compression of gases is outside the
range of this work; at pressures of 1,000
kg/cm” or more the densities of gases be-
come of the same order of magnitude as
those of their liquid phase, and there ceases
to be any essential difference between gas
and liquid. If the volume of any ordinary
liquid is plotted as a function of pressure at
constant temperature, a curve will be ob-
tained which at low pressures has a high
degree of curvature and a steep tangent,
meaning a high compressibility, but as pres-
sure increases the curvature rapidly be-
comes less and the curve flattens off. In
Fig. 5 the volume of a typical liquid, ether,
is shown as a function of pressure. For com-
parison, the curve of the most compressible
solid, caesium, is also shown. Two different
physical mechanisms are primarily responsi-
ble for the different behavior in the low and
high pressure ranges. The low range of high
compressibility is the range in which the
chief effect of pressure is to push the mole-
BRIDGMAN: THE FIELD OF HIGH PRESSURE PHYSICS
147
cules into closer contact, eliminating the
free spaces between them. In this range
individual substances may show large and
characteristic individual differences. In the
higher range..the molecules have been
pushed into effective contact, and the com-
pressibility now arises from the decrease of
volume of the molecules themselves. This
effect persists with comparatively little
decrease over a wide range of pressure. This
effect is of course present also in the lower
range of pressure, but there it is masked by
the much larger effect arising from squeez-
ing out the free spaces between the mole-
cules. If one attempts to set up a formula
for the effect of pressure on volume on the
basis of measurements in the low range only,
one will be likely to neglect too much the
contribution from the compressibility of the
molecules, with the result that the actual
volumes at high pressures will be found to
be materially smaller than the volumes
which would be extrapolated from the low
pressure formulas. This, as a matter of fact,
has been a property of practically all the
Fig. 4.—Illustrating the effect of pressure in increasing the ductility of steel. On the left, a piece
of mild steel broken in tension at atmospheric pressure. On the right, the same steel pulled to a much
greater reduction of area without fracture in a liquid at 25,000 kg/cm?.
148
formulas that have been derived from low
pressure data.
At high pressures, the volumes of ordi-
nary organic liquids become surprisingly
alike in spite of initial differences. To illus-
trate the rapid falling off of compressibility
with pressure, the volume change in the
first 5,000 kg/cm? is roughly the same on the
average as the volume change between
5,000 and 50,000; the effect is accentuated
by the fact that the volume decrement in
the latter range often includes the volume
discontinuity on freezing.
In the low pressure range, in which the
molecules are being pushed into effective
contact, one might expect effects depending
on the shapes of the molecules, and that
these effects would be highly specific with
the liquid. This is the case. In the low pres-
sure range a great variety of small-scale ab-
normalities are superposed on the larger
scale uniformities, and these small-scale
effects vary greatly from liquid to liquid.
Thus there may be sub-ranges of an extent
of a few thousand kg/cm? in which the com-
pressibility increases with increasing pres-
sure instead of decreasing as is normal, or
VOLUME
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
the thermal expansion may also increase
with increasing pressure instead of decreas-
ing. Any satisfactory theory of liquids must
ultimately give an account of these small-
scale effects but for the present the large-
scale effects must have first attention. When
the theory of liquids does come to be writ-
ten, the first step may well be to set up an
idealized ‘‘perfect liquid” in analogy to the
perfect gas which has played so important a
role in the theory of gases. The-experimen-
tal results at high pressures show sufficient
uniformity in the behavior of all ordinary
organic liquids to indicate that such an
idealized perfect liquid is not too far from
the actuality.
The compressibility of solids varies over
a much wider range than does that of the
ordinary liquids; caesium, for example, is
350 times more compressible than diamond.
The highest compressibilities among solids,
judging from indirect evidence, are probably
to be found in solid hydrogen and helium.
As in the case of liquids, the compressibility
of solids normally drops off with increasing
pressure. This would be expected in general
because of the operation of a law of “di-
PRESSURE IN THOUSANDS OF Kg/em2
Fig. 5.—Volume as a function of pressure for a typical liquid, ether. The corresponding curve is also
shown for caesium, the most compressible solic. The liquid is initially much more compressible than
the solid, but at higher pressures is less compressible.
May 15, 1948
minishing returns,” and is obviously neces-
sary when pressure is raised indefinitely
because if volume continued to decrease at
its initial rate it would eventually become
negative. For instance, the volume of
caesium would become negative at a pres-
sure of only 14,000 kg/cm? if it contin-
ued to decrease with pressure at the ini-
tial rate. In spite of the fact that the
compressibility of solids on the average
must decrease with increasing pressure,
there is a very marked qualitative dif-
ference as compared with liquids. The
initial phase of very rapid decrease is ab-
sent, and the decrease is spread more uni-
formly over the entire pressure range. The
difference is to be accounted for by the lat-
tice structure of solids; with increasing
pressure the atoms retain their position in
the lattice with the result that a smaller
part of the free space between the atoms is
available for occupancy as the centers of
the atoms are forced closer together.
The volume decrements of a number of
the more compressible solids are shown as a
function of pressure up to 100,000 kg/cm?
in Fig. 6. The curvature is in general very
marked.
There is no thermodynamic necessity
that the compressibility should decrease
with increasing pressure, although this
opinion has sometimes been expressed. Solid
substances are known in which the com-
pressibility may increase with increasing
pressure over a comparatively wide range of
pressure. The most striking example is
quartz glass. The compressibility not only
increases with pressure, but increases at an
accelerating rate. This continues up to
35,000 kg/cm? and then abruptly stops. At
this pressure there is a discontinuity in the
derivative, a transition of the ‘‘second kind”’
in the nomenclature of Ehrenfest, and from
here on compressibility decreases with rising
pressure as is normal. The mechanism
which is responsible for the low pressure
effect abruptly ceases to act. Fig. 7 shows
the relations.
So far we have been considering the effect
of pressure on the volume of isotropic sub-
stances; this includes substances like glass
and all cubic crystals. If the material crys-
tallizes in some non-cubic system, the ef-
BRIDGMAN: THE FIELD OF HIGH PRESSURE PHYSICS
149
fects are more complicated. The compressi-
bility is not the same in all directions, so
that the shape of bodies composed of such
crystals may change under pressure. The
differences of compressibility in different di-
rections may be large; thus zinc is eight
times as compressible in the direction of the
hexagonal axis as at right angles to it. Some
difference in this direction might be ex-
pected, because the atomic spacing is
greater along the axis than at right angles,
but no simple consideration would lead to
the expectation of differences as large as
this. There is even one substance, tellurium,
which has a negative compressibility along
the axis. That is, when a single crystal of
tellurium is subjected to hydrostatic pres-
sure by a fluid in which it is completely im-
mersed, it expands along the axis.
Considerable success has been achieved
in calculating theoretically the effect of
o7
06
os
PN
\
PE er eee eee er,
12)
EN i oe a
Sess
. Pie Nace NS
0.2
Gea
oes
=u
ES
Teck ho
Pr he
°.
ee
NS
eee el.
rer hs es
° 60900 100,000
PRESSURE, Kg/em"
Fig. 6.—The volume compression of several
elements up to 100,000 kg/cm?. The breaks in
some of the curves indicate polymorphic tran-
sitions.
150
pressure on the volume of simple solids. The
first success was with simple ionic lattices of
the type of NaCl by Max Born, who was
able to get acceptable values for the lattice
spacing and for the initial compressibility.
He was not at first successful, however, in
reproducing the change of compressibility
with pressure, and even today complete
success has not been attained in this regard.
More complete results have recently been
obtained for the alkali metals by applying
the methods of wave mechanics. Bardeen
has had surprising success in reproducing
the entire volume curve over the experi-
mental pressure range for the alkali metals.
The calculations are particularly simple
here because there is only one free electron
per atom, and it turns out that the major
part of the effect arises from the increase of
kinetic energy of the free electrons arising
from their decrease in effective wave length
when the volume is decreased. Other metals,
with more free electrons, are more difficult
to compute, but it is pp eves ted that the
difficulties are merely difficulties of the com-
plexity of the calculation.
Theory is apparently not yet in a position
to attack with much success the problem of
non-cubic crystals.
We now consider the discontinuous vol-
ume effects arising from phase changes of
various sorts. The simplest of these is the
effect of pressure on melting. Historically
the study of the effect of pressure on melt-
Deviations
20000
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
ing was approached with the anticipation
that the effects would be found to be similar
to the effect of pressure on vaporization,
and in particular that there would be criti-
cal phenomena, so that above a certain
pressure and temperature continuous pas-
sage would be possible between liquid and
solid. It soon appeared, however, that the
pressure scale of any such effects must be
much more extensive than the scale of the
critical effects between liquid and vapor,
and that whereas pressures of a few hun-
dred kg/cm? were adequate in the latter
case, pressures of thousands of kg/cm?
would be required to produce analogous ef-
fects for solid and liquid, if indeed they
could be produced at all. With every exten-
sion of pressure range the probability of the
existence of any such critical phenomena
has become increasingly remote. Melting
curves have now been followed up to 40,000
kg/cem?; a number of these are shown in
Fig. 8. The melting curves of all substances
have certain qualitative features in com-
mon, so that it is appropriate to speak of
“the” melting curve just as one may speak
of ‘‘the’’ vaporization curve. In other re-
spects, however, the situation with regard
to melting is qualitatively different from
that with regard to vaporization. In par-
ticular, all melting curves, that is, the curve
of melting temperature against pressure,
are concave toward the pressure axis with a.
curvature becoming less at higher pressures,
$0000
30,000 40000
Pressure Kg/cm*
SiOz Glass
Fig. 7.—The deviations from linearity of the volume decrements of quartz glass for pressure in-
crements of 5,000 kg/cm? plotted against pressure. The cusp in the curve marks the change from_ab-
normal to normal behavior.
May 15, 1948
and the curve of difference of volume be-
tween liquid and solid as a function of
pressure is convex toward the pressure axis
with a curvature decreasing with increasing
pressure. No critical point has ever been ob-
served in the experimental range. If there
were such a point outside the range, the
latent heats and the volume difference be-
tween liquid and solid would have to vanish
at a common pressure and temperature.
Extrapolation of the curves for latent heat
and volume difference indicates that neither
of them will vanish at any finite pressure or
temperature, to say nothing of both vanish-
ing at the same pressure and temperature.
The probability at present seems over-
whelming that there can be no critical point
between liquid and solid, at least for the
type of substance investigated up to now,
which includes organic substances of vari-
ous types and a few metals. The same line
-of argument rules out the existence of other
such features on the melting curve as a
maximum temperature or an asymptotic
temperature. In general, the melting curve
rises to indefinitely high temperatures with
indefinitely increasing pressure but at a
diminishing rate, the curve becoming more
nearly linear.
It is possible to show thermodynamically
that if a substance expands when it melts,
its melting temperature must rise with in-
creasing pressure, and, conversely, it falls.
There are only three substances which be-
long to the latter category in the ordinary
range, water, bismuth, and gallium. Con-
sistent with thermodynamics the melting
curves of these three substances are found
to fall. Furthermore, the curvature in-
creases and the curves drop more and more
rapidly as pressure increases. Such a state
of affairs apparently cannot continue in-
definitely. Nature extricates itself from the
dilemma by the “liquidating” of such ab-
normal substances. Above a certain pres-
sure the lattices in which these substances
initially crystallize become unstable, and
the lattice collapses into another lattice.
The new lattice has a volume so much less
than the former lattice that the solid phase
is now more dense than the liquid, and from
here on the melting curve rises as for other
substances. The collapse of the lattice oc-
BRIDGMAN: THE FIELD OF HIGH PRESSURE PHYSICS
151
Tem perature
20.000
Pressure, Kglem?
30.000
40.000
Fig. 8.—Melting temperature against pressure
for a number of substances. At 15,000 kg/cm?
the order of substances, reading from top down,
is chloroform, chlorobenzene, chlorobenzene
(second modification), water (ice VI), n-butyl
alcohol, carbon bisulphide, methylene chloride,
n-propyl bromide, ethyl bromide, and ethyl] alco-
hol.
curs at a pressure of about 2,000 kg/cm? for
water, at 12,000 for gallium, and at 25,000
for bismuth.
The phase changes of these three sub-
stances afford a particular example of poly-
-morphism. The phase diagram of bismuth
is shown in Fig. 9. Under pressure, poly-
morphism is a very common phenomenon;
the number of instances increases with in-
crease in the experimental pressure range
and with increasing sensitiveness in the
methods for detecting small discontinuities
of volume. In the range from room tempera-
ture to 200° C and up to pressures of 50,000
kg/cm?, roughly one-third of the substances
examined have proved to be polymorphic.
In the much greater range of conditions en-
countered in the crust of the earth, the pre-
sumption seems to be that no substance
exists in the lattice with which we are fa-
miliar under laboratory conditions, unless
perhaps the lattice is of a particularly sim-
ple type. The importance of such a con-
clusion for geophysics is obvious.
The thermodynamics of a polymorphic
phase change is the same as the thermody-
namics of melting, but beyond that there is
little resemblance between the two phe-
nomena; there is no such thing as “‘a’”’ poly-
152
morphic transition curve as there is ‘‘a”
melting curve. There are only three falling
melting curves, and these disappear at
higher pressures; there are many falling
transition curves, and they become increas-
ingly numerous at higher pressures. Be-
tween 12,000 and 50,000, 41 percent of the
new transition curves are of the falling type.
Transition curves may have horizontal or
vertical tangents; melting curves have
neither. Transition curves may have up-
ward or downward curvature; melting
curves are always concave downward. The
difference of volume of two polymorphic
phases may increase or decrease in the direc-
tion of increasing temperature along the
transition line; the difference of volume be-
tween liquid and solid always decreases.
The compressibility of the high pressure
phase may be greater or less than that of
the low pressure phase; the compressibility
of the liquid is always greater than that of
the solid. Substances are capable of existing
in a number of polymorphic forms, and the
complete mapping of the transition tem-
peratures and pressures for all the forms
may result in phase diagrams of great com-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
plication. Thus bismuth has six different
phases; water, which has some striking
analogies to bismuth, has seven phases. The
most complicated phase diagram investi-
gated to date is that of camphor, which has
eleven phases.
There are only two generalizations with
regard to polymorphic transitions that
stand to date. The first is that critical points
and continuous transitions between differ-
ent polymorphic forms do not occur. If
there were such points this would demand a
continuous transition from one type of lat-
tice to another, and this seems highly im-
probable, although perhaps not logically
inconceivable. The second generalization is
that transitions in the simple CsCl type of
lattice in the direction of smaller volumes
are not produced by pressure; this lattice
seems to be of such a simplicity that it is not
likely to be disturbed. This second generali-
zation naturally rests on a much smaller
number of examples than the first, and is
correspondingly less secure.
We have so far been discussing transi-
tions which are thermodynamically re-
versible; when pressure is released the origi-
10,000 20,000
30,000 40,000
50,000
Bismvth
Fig. 9.—The phase diagram of bismuth. The arrows on the transition line III-IV indicate the
pressure limits within which the transition runs with increasing or decreasing pressure.
May 15, 1948
nal form is resumed. In addition to these
reversible transitions, the existence of irre-
versible transitions is to be recognized, that
is, of changes effected by pressure which re-
main permanent when they have once taken
place. Two well-marked examples of this
have been found. The first was phosphorus.
If ordinary yellow phosphorus is exposed to
pressures above 12,000 kg/cm? at tempera-
tures above 200° C, it is permanently
changed into a black solid much like graph-
ite in appearance and like it a conductor of
electricity, although yellow phosphorus is a
good insulator. This remained the only ex-
ample for many years. Recently I have
found that ordinary liquid CS, may simi-
larly be changed permanently into a black
solid at temperatures in the neighborhood
of 200° C and by pressures of the order of
40,000 kg/cm?. This black substance is defi-
nitely not a mixture of sulphur and carbon,
which one might at first expect, but is ap-
parently a unitary substance, truly a black
solid form of carbon bisulphide. It has been
suggested that the structure may be that of
a single giant molecule like the known struc-
ture of SiO2, which from the atomic point of
view is very similar. It is fascinating to
speculate that there may be many other
common substances which may be pushed
by sufficiently high pressures over a po-
tential hill of some kind permanently into
some hitherto unknown form. Until we
have theoretical understanding of these two
known permanent transitions, we can not
help attaching a certain reasonableness to
the assumption of the possible existence of
other such substances. In fact, there is
experimental evidence that many other
such transformations may be effected. In
experiments in which I combined high
shearing stresses with high hydrostatic
pressure I have observed some cases of ir-
reversible transitions to forms already
known, and have also observed a large
number of color changes, which are the indi-
cation of some sort of permanent change. It
was not possible to establish whether new
substances were formed under these con-
ditions because the quantities of material
involved were too small to permit satisfac-
tory analysis.
We pass now to other sorts of pressure
BRIDGMAN: THE FIELD OF HIGH PRESSURE PHYSICS
153
effects. Perhaps the simplest of these to
measure are the effects of pressure on elec-
trical resistance. Measurements have been
made at room temperature or higher up to
30,000 kg/cm? and at the temperature of
liquid air to 7,000. At low temperatures
there is a natural limit to the pressure range
imposed by the freezing of the medium
transmitting pressure, which in this case
was gaseous nitrogen. Fig. 10 shows the ef-
fect of pressure on the alkali metals at room
temperature up to 30,000 kg/cm’.
In the first place, there is a specific effect
of pressure on resistance; the pressure co-
efficient of resistance is in general of the
order of magnitude of ten times greater than
the volume compressibility. This would in-
volve as a corollary that the effect of pres-
sure on the resistance of a highly compres-
sible metal is greater than on a metal of low
compressibility. This is indeed true in
general, but exceptions are common. The
resistance of perhaps three-quarters of the
metals decreases with increasing pressure;
as is to be expected, the rate of decrease
itself decreases with increasing pressure,
that is, the curve of resistance against pres-
sure is convex toward the pressure axis. On
the other hand, there are several metals, of
which lithium, strontium, and bismuth are
examples, whose resistance increases under
pressure. For these metals, surprisingly,
there is a law of increasing returns, that is,
the rate of increase of resistance itself in-
creases with increasing pressure. This means
that for these metals also the curve of re-
sistance against pressure is concave up-
ward. Finally, there are a few metals which
combine both types of behavior, that is,
the resistance initially decreases, then
passes through a minimum, and then turns
upward. Examples are caesium, rubidium,
potassium, and barium. It would appear,
therefore, that the upward curvature is
common to all metals, and that all resist-
ance curves may be regarded as pieces of
one single curve, the only difference for
different metals being that what might be
called the intrinsic zero of pressure is dif-
ferently situated with respect to atmos-
pheric pressure for different metals.
Considerable success has been achieved
by theoretical physicists in explaining theo-
154
retically the effect of pressure on resistance.
As might be expected when effects depart-
ing so largely from linearity are concerned,
we can recognize the presence of at least two
different mechanisms working in opposite
directions. There is in the first place an
effect of pressure on what is the analogue of
the electron free path in the old electron gas
theory of metallic conduction. This is con-
nected with the change of dimensions, and
in general works in the direction of an in-
crease of free path, that is, a decrease of
resistance, with increasing pressure. In the
second place, there is a rearrangement of
the energy levels, and this may, when the
energy bands are nearly completely occu-
pied, work in the direction of a change in
the effective number of free electrons. De-
eonding on the details of the atomic rela-
tions, this effect may be either an increase
or a decrease. The calculations have been
carried through approximately in a few
35
30
25
20
RELATIVE RESISTANCE AT 30°
ARRANGE
XS
OSs
bi
an
5000 10,000
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
simple cases. It turns out that the increase
of resistance of lithium with pressure is due
to the preponderating effect of a decrease in
the effective number of free electrons.
The effect of pressure on the electrical re-
sistance of single crystals is sometimes very
complicated. If the crystal system is cubic,
the material behaves electrically like an
isotropic body, but if the system has lower
symmetry, there may be differences in dif-
ferent directions. In antimony, for example,
the sign of the pressure effect is different in
different directions. There are directions in
the crystal for which the resistance passes
through a maximum with increasing pres-
sure, whereas for other directions the re-
sistance decreases with normal curvature.
The resistance of some semi-conductors
may be decreased by such large amounts
that they approach the absolute resistances
characteristic of the metals. An early in-
vestigation in this field was made on
PRESSURE Ka/ern2
Hie; 10: —The relative resistances of the alkali metals up to 30,000 kg/cm?, The break in the curve
for caesium is due to a polymorphic transition. Potassium has a very flat minimum near 23,000.
May 15, 1948
selenium and silver sulphide by Montén in
Uppsala. At higher pressures, tellurium
approaches the properties of a metallic con-
ductor under 30,000 kg/cm”. Not only does
the absolute value of the resistance drop to
a characteristically low figure, but the tem-
perature coefficient, which initially is nega-
tive, reverses sign under high pressure and
becomes positive like that of the metals
proper. Theory is as yet hardly in a position
to explain these complicated effects, either
in single crystals or in semi-conductors.
Closely related to the electrical conduc-
tivity of metals is their thermal conductiv-
ity; the relationship is expressed by the
approximate equality of the Wiedemann-
Franz ratio of electrical to thermal con-
ductivity for all metals. Under pressure,
thermal conductivity changes as well as
electrical conductivity. It is much more dif-
ficult to measure than electrical conductiv-
ity, and satisfactory measurements have
been made only for a few metals and those
up to only 12,000 kg/cm’. It appears that
for these metals the Wiedemann-Franz ratio
is approximately independent of pressure.
The effect of pressure on the thermal con-
ductivity of liquids is much larger than on
that of metals, and is much easier to meas-
ure. In general, the thermal conductivity
increases for ordinary liquids under a pres-
sure of 12,000 kg/cm? by a factor varying
between 2 and 3. The effect on water is
smaller; at 12,000 the increase for it is only
50 percent. There is a close connection be-
tween the effect of pressure on thermal con-
ductivity of normal liquids and the effect of
pressure on the velocity of sound in the
liquid. That is, thermal conductivity in a
liquid is primarily a mechanical affair; heat
is transferred by microscopic mechanical
waves travelling with the velocity deter-
mined in the conventional way by the com-
pressibility. The small effect in water is
associated with the small change in the
compressibility of water brought about by
pressure.
Another property of metals obviously re-
lated to electrical and thermal conductivity
is the thermo-electric characteristics. These
properties are also affected by pressure. In
general, a metal under pressure behaves
thermoelectrically differently from the same
metal not under pressure, so that a thermo-
BRIDGMAN: THE FIELD OF HIGH PRESSURE PHYSICS
155
Relative Viacosity
Pressure, Kg/cn®
Fig. 11.—The effect of pressure on the
viscosity of i-butyl alcohol.
couple may be made with one branch of any
ordinary metal and the other branch of the
same metal exposed to hydrostatic pressure.
Under a pressure of 12,000 kg/cm? the
thermoelectric power of such couples may
be as large as that of ordinary couples com-
posed of two entirely different metals. A
number of such “pressure couples’ have
been investigated. The effects are compli-
cated; there is not any universal rule with
regard to the sign of the effect. There may
be reversals of sign and large departures
from linearity. No satisfactory theory of
these effects has been formulated. At pres-
ent one can only draw the conclusion that
the interplay of several different mecha-
nisms must be involved.
The largest of all the pressure effects
studied to date is on the viscosity of liquids.
In general, viscosity increases under pres-
sure at a rate increasing rapidly with in-
creasing pressure. The curve of viscosity
against pressure usually rises exponentially
with pressure and sometimes more rapidly
than exponentially. In Fig. 11 is shown
156
the viscosity of i-butyl alcohol at 30° and
75° at pressures up to 12,000 kg/cm?. The
total rise may be by as much as a factor of
10’ for a pressure increase of 10,000 kg/cm?
(for eugenol). The rate of rise is definitely
linked with the complication of the mole-
cule, and is greater the more complicated
the molecule. For the comparatively simple
liquid water the rise of viscosity under
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
10,000 kg/cm? is by a factor of only 2 or 3
and for monatomic mercury by only 30 per-
cent. For methyl alcohol the increase is by
a factor of 10, for propyl alcohol by a factor
of 100, and for amyl alcohol by a factor of
1,000. In the last few years the theoretical
physicists have had considerable success in
accounting for the effect of pressure on the
viscosity of liquids.
EDITOR’S NOTE
Readers of Professor Bridgman’s Nobel
Lecture may be interested also in his re-
marks on the subject ‘‘Science and Free-
dom”’ that he made on January 11, 1947, at
a dinner given in his honor by the Dean of
the Faculty of Arts and Sciences of Harvard
University at the Harvard Club of Boston.
The address is here reprinted from the Isis
37: 128-131. 1947, by the kind permission
of Dr. George Sarton, editor of that journal.
In introducing Professor Bridgman’s re-
marks in the Isis, Dr. Sarton wrote: “They
are of great interest to historians of science
because they reveal the afterthoughts which
do not appear in [his] scientific papers, nor
even in the philosophical ones, yet which
are essential for the understanding of a
man’s personality. The document .. . is of
great value for the ‘new humanists,’ who
wish to understand not only the technical
aspects, but also the human factors, with-
out which there would be no science, or
without which science would lose its mean-
ing and its grace.”
SCIENCE AND FREEDOM: REFLECTIONS OF A PHYSICIST
By Percy W. BripGMAN 7
This will not attempt to reproduce exactly
what J said at the dinner on January 11, 1947,
but I shall avail myself of the suggestion of
Dr. Sarton to make a partly imaginary speech,
composed of parts of what I actually said, and
of what, in the light of afterthought, I wish I
had said. I shall not attempt to reproduce a
number of the more or less personal and in-
formal details, but shall confine myself to mat-
ters of more general interest.
Of all the conditions of my work which in
retrospect appears most important, and of
which at the time also I was keenly conscious,
freedom of investigation is outstanding. There
has never been any suggestion from any out-
side source as to the nature of my investiga-
tions. Even in the early days, when I sought
and obtained the maximum relief from teach-
ing and administrative duties for the ostensible
purpose of more complete devotion to my re-
search, no attempt was made by the University
authorities to impose as a condition that I
continue to devote myself to high pressure in-
vestigation or even to investigation itself. The
apparent attitude of the authorities was that
if you are going to gamble that you have found
a good man, a gamble without strings attached
is the most likely to succeed. Any consistency
which my experimental program may have
shown has been a consistency imposed entirely
from within; this I believe to be the proper
source of consistency. In spite of the fact that
I have in the main followed one guiding experi-
mental idea, I have nevertheless at all times
felt free to pursue other lines of interest, wheth-
er experiment, or theory, or fundamental
criticism.
Another outstanding characteristic of my
work has been the smallness of its scale. Not
only is the apparatus itself small, in fact be-
coming smaller the higher the pressure, because
of inherent physical limitations on strength,
May 15, 1948
but I have never had more than two or three
students at a time or a couple of assistants.
The result has been that I have been able at all
times to maintain the closest contact with the
details of the work, and also have been able to
conserve the requisite amount of leisure. Both
of these features have been of the highest im-
portance. In advancing into new territory, as
in this high pressure work, the necessity is con-
tinuous for the development of new methods
and new ideas. For me, at least, new ideas
germinate only in an atmosphere of leisure. I
have to immerse myself in a problem and then
let it gestate in my brain, without the distrac-
tion of other interests, if I am to expect the
solution to come sauntering into my mind
when I wake up two or three mornings later.
In this process manual cooperation plays a
great part. Adjoining my laboratory is my
machine shop; in fact, it is an integral part of
the laboratory to which I can repair and stimu-
late inspiration by working out half-formed
ideas with my own hands. Not only do I have
enough leisure so that I can work in the shop
with my own hands on occasion, but I am also
able to carry through my own experiment, in-
cluding making all the readings, myself. I find
this necessary if I am to have confidence in the
results of some method not hitherto tried.
There are too many pitfalls of unanticipated
sources of error, which often require ingenuity
for their elimination, and which may take
much time to discover if one is only watching
from the side lines. I have been able to make
it an invariable practice to stay with each new
method long enough to get material for a com-
plete paper, before turning the method over to
an assistant for more or less routine application
to a large number of substances. Not only this,
but even when an assistant makes the experi-
ment and the readings, I have always made the
computations and written the paper myself.
This gives me a confidence in the results not
possible when working on a larger scale. An-
other great advantage of working on a small
scale is that one gives no hostages to one’s
own past. If I wake up in the morning with a
new idea, the utilization of which involves
scrapping elaborate preparations already made,
I am free to scrap what I have done and start
off on the new and better line. This would not
be possible without crippling loss of morale if
one were working on a large scale with a com-
plex organization under one.
BRIDGMAN: SCIENCE AND FREEDOM 157
Another characteristic of the field in which I
have been working is that it is not a particularly
popular field, so that there have been com-
paratively few workers in it and corresponding-
ly little competition. This has both advantages
and disadvantages. It is an advantage that one
can do his work with no sense of hurry, so that
there is little temptation to make premature
announcements, and should questions arise
one can take the time to repeat the experiment
or make other modifications that will clear up
the matter. Also, the order in which the prob-
lems are attacked can be the order of greatest
scientific economy, rather than the order of a
competitive politics. On the other hand, the
principal disadvantage, obvious enough to
everyone, is that the investigator loses the
stimulation of conversation with his colleagues
on mutual problems. Just how important this
stimulus is will depend in considerable measure
on the individual investigator; some may find it
well nigh indispensable, whereas others may be
much less dependent on it. I myself have been
able to get along in considerable measure with-
out it. Even at scientific meetings, which every
physicist seems to have to attend at intervals
for rehabilitation of his inner man, the stimulus
which I have received has not been detailed
and specific, but rather general, in suggestions
of trends and areas of coming interest. It has,
I think, been a happy circumstance that my
field, although obviously narrow in the sense
that pressure is a highly specialized physical
parameter, nevertheless from another point of
view has been exceedingly broad. For the gen-
eral problem has been no less than to deter-
mine the effect of pressure on all physical prop-
erties, and it therefore covers the entire reach
of physical phenomena with the exception of
such things as vacuum tube phenomena.
Mention of the stimulus of conversation with
one’s colleagues naturally prompts one to con-
sider the increasing trend during the last few
years to large-scale cooperative enterprises
among physicists. The reasons for this are
obvious in the enormously increasing size and
expense of the apparatus necessary for modern
physical research, such as the cyclotrons and
the piles of nuclear physics. Although we may
recognize that such instruments are necessary,
we may nevertheless deplore some of the conse-
quences. Up to now ideas have been in such a
rapid state of flux that the instrument itself
has been continually evolving, with the result
158
that most physicists in this field have been
spending an increasingly large fraction of their
time on the purely engineering job of the design
and construction of new and better instruments
and correspondingly an increasingly small pro-
portion of time on the calculation of results
and rumination on their significance. The
competition in this field is intense; rivalry
between different groups at different universi-
ties can offer little opportunity for leisure or the
scholarly digestion of results before publication.
Within the last year there has been one glaring
example of hasty publication of a spectacular
result of such presumptive importance as to
start a rush of other investigators into the field,
only later to be withdrawn as erroneous be-
cause of inadequate consideration of factors
which obviously were crying for evaluation in
the beginning. Not only is there haste because
of competition, but there is haste because of
financial considerations. The apparatus is so
expensive that consideration of the overhead
demands that the apparatus be kept in opera-
tion for twenty-four hours a day, and this is
not conducive to a feeling of leisure. Each of
the teams which is the slave of one of these in-
struments has to be driven by some one at the
head who has the ideas. There is danger here
that all the rest of the team will pick the brains
of one man, with an ultimate decrease in the
number of physicists in the community capable
of independent and critical thought. Still worse,
the physicist who should be directing his team
by his creative ideas is likely to be so swamped
by the administrative details of the large en-
terprise under him that he is overwhelmed and
his purely scientific activity destroyed. This is
well known to have happened, at least tem-
porarily, in the case of one of the new mammoth
calculating machines, machines whose osten-
sible purpose is to free the scientist from drud-
gery and make possible the creative use of his
time. Doubtless some physicists have the nat-
ural knack of being able to work together
harmoniously and perhaps even efficiently in
teams, and perhaps others can acquire it, but
I believe there are many who are permanently
unfitted for effective cooperation in this way,
and it will be a major loss if they are not able
to find a niche in which they may function.
During the war practically all the physicists
in this country were diverted to war work of
one sort or another, and a large part of them
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
were engaged in large-scale enterprises which
involved team work developed to its maximum
efficiency, with the consequent and necessary
submergence of the individual. The older men,
who had previously worked on their own prob-
lems in their own laboratories, put up with this
as a patriotic necessity, to be tolerated only
while they must, and to be escaped from as soon
as decent. But the younger men, who had been
drawn into the maelstrom before starting work
for their Ph.D. degree, had never experienced
independent work and did not know what it is
like. Some of these younger men will continue
in government work; others who return to
academic circles will there join in the teams
serving the mammoth instruments. The result
is that a generation of physicists is growing up
who have never exercised any particular degree
of individual initiative, who have had no op-
portunity to experience its satisfactions or its
possibilities, and who regard cooperative work
in large teams as the normal thing. It is a
natural corollary for them to feel that the ob-
jectives of these large teams must be something
of large social significance. The temper of the
rising generation is recognizably different from
that of the older. I may mention one example
with which I have had personal acquaintance.
The Association of Cambridge Scientists was
one of many similar associations formed soon
after the dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiro-
shima to consider all the implications of the
situation thus created. In the early days of the
Association the May-Johnson bill was a matter
of much concern. With regard to this there was
in the ranks of the Association a cleavage of
attitude almost exclusively along lines of age.
The older men were troubled and concerned
by the threats to scientific freedom contained
in the bill, whereas the younger men were not
at all concerned about this, but took the oppo-
site view that it was on the whole a rather base
and self-indulgent thing for the individual not
to be willing to sacrifice his scientific freedom
on the altar of the good of society. The young
men, never having experienced scientific free-
dom, did and could not see that the question of .
self-indulgence does not enter at all into the
situation, but the existence of science itself,
which I think all conceded to be a social good,
is impossible without scientific freedom.
The increasing amount of administrative
work falling on some of the scientists compos-
May 15, 1948
ing the large teams has a parallel in the ever
increasing amount of routine administrative
work expected from the members of a Univer-
sity faculty. As I look back on the forty years
of my work there can be no question but that
the fraction of the time of the average faculty
member spent in routine of administrative or
other sorts has increased unconscionably.
There seems to be a natural law operating here;
the larger an institution becomes, the more
cumbersome and less efficient it becomes. One
might think that when the institution becomes
ten times as large it would have ten times as
much business and ten times as many people
to do it, so that each individual would need to
give only the same amount of time. But it does
not work this way; it is more like the develop-
ment of a telephone exchange, which when it
increases by a factor of n has to provide for the
handling of factorial n as many combinations.
Each new functionary in a University has to
justify himself, which he does by exacting at-
tention from every member of the faculty.
When, for example, the office of archivist is
created, every member of the faculty is asked to
provide material for the archives. Ten times as
many officials tend to demand ten times as
much attention from each member of the
faculty. In a recent number of the Scientific
Monthly there was an amusing and satirical
article depicting the eventual extinction of the
FURMAN ET AL.: DETERMINATION OF CERTAIN METALS
159
human race by suffocation in its own intel-
lectual effluvia. It is well known that every
large library tends to increase in size geometri-
cally with the simple arithmetical passage of
time. Why this should have to be true does not
seem to have been explained, but it is an un-
doubted description of the observed behavior
of the human animal. Unless some way can be
discovered of breaking the cycle, the logical
final result is catastrophic. In the past the cycle
has been broken by wars and the collapse of
civilizations. In the hoped-for brighter future
in which war has been eliminated, some specific
means will have to be devised to cope with the
situation. The satirical article portrayed the
consequences of the inability of the human race
to devise an adequate means. It is no less a
problem to devise a means by which the time
of the members of university faculties may be
saved for creative effort. Otherwise creative
science will be driven to other asylums, if in-
deed it is not destroyed.
As I look to the future I am therefore trou-
bled by two misgivings: that there will be less
and less place for the small individual experi-
menter, and that the time of all of us will be
increasingly commandeered by administrative
mechanical details. In view of these misgivings
I cannot help wondering as I look back on the
past whether, if I were to start over again now,
I would be able to do again what I have done.
CHEMISTRY.—A method for the determination of certain metals present in minor
concentration in various substances.
and Bruck McDurriz, Princeton University.
I. HorrMan.)
This paper presents an account of a
systematic scheme for the determination
of certain metals in a variety of substances.
The scheme at first was directed toward the
estimation of minor amounts of a few other
metals that were found to occur in uranium
1 Lecture delivered March 13, 1947, on the oc-
casion of the award of the Hillebrand Prize in
Chemistry by the Chemical Society of Washing-
ton to Dr. James I, Hoffman in recognition of his
contributions on the extraction of alumina from
clay and the purification of uranium for atomic
energy. Received December 31, 1947.
Parts of the work briefly reported on herein
were done under O.S.R.D. contracts NDRC-121
and OEM-sr-649 and Manhattan Project Con-
tract W-7405-eng.-81, and this support is grate-
fully acknowledged.
N. HoweEuu Furman, C. E. BRICKER,
(Communicated by JAMES
or its compounds and salts. The method
was gradually modified and extended in
scope from 1942 to 1945 with the aid of
G. P. Haight, Jr., J. A. Nyitrai, and others.
The proved applications of the process, in
addition to those already mentioned, in-
clude the estimation of minor amounts of
various metals in the salts, alloys, or nearly
pure metallic specimens of Ba, Be, Ca, Mg,
and Na. From the experience thus far ob-
tained it appears probable that the method
could be applied to the testing of many
other pure metals, their alloys, or com-
pounds. The method is also applicable to
the collection of the traces of metals that
may occur in organic compounds or in
160
materials of biological and pharmaceutical
interest.
The original problem had to do with the
detection or the determination of certain
metals of the hydrogen sulphide group,
notably copper, cadmium, lead, and molyb-
denum, or the detection of copper, cadmium,
iron, ete., in lead and its salts, or in bismuth
and its compounds. It was therefore natural
to explore the possibilities of mercury cath-
ode electrolysis as a preliminary to polarog-
raphy and colorimetry. The pioneer work
of EK. F. Smith on mercury cathode separa-
tions was at once utilized (1942) in connec-
tion with the estimation of minor amounts
of cadmium in lead or bismuth or in lead
compounds.
USE OF A SMALL MERCURY CATHODE TO
COLLECT SMALL AMOUNTS OF METALS
The majority of the procedures that were
later developed in detail centered around
the use of a small mercury cathode as a
collector for minor amounts of metals which
were electrolyzed into the cathode under
the conditions chosen. The mercury cath-
ode was then drained into a weighed silica
combustion boat without interrupting the
current, and after removal of the mercury
by distillation in a current of nitrogen the
residues were weighed and dissolved and
the conditions were adjusted for the ap-
plication of polarography. After the polaro-
graphic estimations the residual solution
was further utilized for certain spectro-
photometric determinations. The solution,
from which the electrodeposited metals
had been removed by electrolysis, was ex-
amined systematically by extractions and
colorimetric procedures for minor amounts
of other metals, e.g. Mo, Fe, Ti, and V (2).
This method of concentration has very
decided advantages prior to polarography
because the supporting electrolyte can be
controlled very simply for the estimation of
minor amounts of metals recovered froma
great variety of samples. The method has
been found useful for the concentration of
materials prior to spectrophotometric or
spectrographic estimations. For routine ap-
plication to a given material the weight of
the residue from the mercury distillation
gives an idea of the gross contamination
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
of the material by the electrolyzable metals.
Chance contamination of some part of a
sample can be detected by virtue of the
fact that a very large sample may be
examined.
The general facts of electrolysis into a
mercury cathode have been summarized
as follows (2): The following metals singly
or in association are quantitatively de-
posited in a mercury cathode: Cu, Ag, Au,
Zn, Cd, Hg, Ga, In, Tl, Ge, Sn, Bi, Po, Cr,
Mo, Re, Fe, Co, Ni, Rh, Pd, Ir, Pt. Further
Pb, As, Se, Te, and Os are quantitatively
separated from the solution, but are not
necessarily deposited in the mercury. Mn,
Ru, and Sb are partially separated from the
solution.
The foregoing general facts had not been
studied exhaustively in the minor concen-
tration ranges in which we were interested,
nor had the recovery of various metals by
electrolysis into mercury and distillation of
the latter been studied, although the re-
covery of gold after amalgamation is a
well-known process.
Oxidation-reduction buffers.—In the elec-
trolysis of specimens of which the major
constituents may form oxidation-reduction
systems such as the U'Y—U™, TiVY—Ti!,
Vilt_yt etc., the list of metals that are
completely deposited in the mercury is cur-
tailed because the cathode potential is not
depressed far enough to reach the level
necessary to deposit some of the metals. For
example, from rather concentrated solu-
tions of uranium sulphate no Mo, Cr, and
-Mn are deposited under conventional con-
ditions of electrolysis. A further point that
we have noted is that the level which the
cathode reaches is affected by the deposition
of traces of platinum, iron, copper, etc., on
the mercury. These and other metals tend
to lower the overvoltage of hydrogen depo-
sition and to make the removal of certain
metals less complete. Iron under some con-
ditions is completely removed from a solu-
tion containing uranium but from concen-
trated solutions the removal is uncertain
and it is necessary to test for iron both in
the mercury deposit and in the aqueous
solution after electrolysis.
The details of electrolysis, distillation,
and colorimetry can best be described in the
May 15, 1948
following outline of the experimental de-
velopment:
EXPERIMENTS AND PROCEDURES
The scale of operation was set up prima-
rily for the analysis of micro-amounts of
metals. The apparatus was so chosen that
distillation residues in the range from 10
micrograms up to 5 mg of material could be
handled. The sample size is adjusted so that
the material electrolyzed and left after dis-
tillation will be in this range. This scale of
operation is well suited to polarography. In
general residues between a few tenths of a
mg and 1.5 mg were handled so that the
process is a true microprocedure from this
point.
Apparatus and materials.—Silica dishes
of 250 ml capacity or smaller were used in
the preparation of solutions except for
fluorides: which were treated in platinum
dishes.
The reagents used to dissolve the samples
were at first redistilled from a silica still for
acids or from Pyrex for distilled water. Re-
distilled mercury was used. Later it was
found feasible to use analytical reagent
acids and to run frequent reagent blanks
through the whole process.
Electrolysis cells of special design as
shown in Fig. 1 were used. It is important to
have the wire leading to the cathode termi-
nate as near the stop-cock as possible.
Anodes of platinum alloyed with 10 percent
of iridium are satisfactory. The mercury
cathode is drained into a silica combustion
boat 14 by 75 mm and 10 mm deep, with
handle. Silica beakers of 150 ml capacity
are used for dissolving the deposit.
A 12-inch split tube furnace of conven-
tional design is used for the distillation.
The nitrogen that is used to sweep out the
mercury is not freed from air.
A recording polarograph, preferably of
the Heyrovsky type is desirable. The instru-
ment that was used in the development of
the method has been described in the litera-
ture (3).
DEVELOPMENT OF PROCEDURES
The initial experiments were made by
electrolyzing exhaustively a solution con-
taining a large amount of the substance to
FURMAN ET AL.: DETERMINATION OF CERTAIN METALS
161
be tested. The first mercury cathode was
drained out and washed out with a little
mercury. Then with a fresh mercury cath-
ode a known addition of any metal to be
tested was made, and the electrolysis was
repeated and the mercury was drained out,
distilled, and the residue tested. Since cad-
mium did not occur in the reagents, as
proved by frequent blank tests, the extent
of recovery of varying amounts of cadmium
may be used as an illustration of the effec-
tiveness of the method, Table 1.
TaBLE 1.—TypicaL RECOVERIES BY THE PROCEDURE
Cadmium Cadmium Percent
added | recovered recovered
mg mg
0.010 0.0095—0.010 95-100*
0.100 0.095 —0.100 95-100*
0.50 0.45 -0.50 90-100*
1.00 | 0.935 93.5
2.00 | 1.94 97
2.50 2.56 102
3.00 2.94 98
4.00 3.89 97
5.00
4.79 96
* Where a range is given several individual determinations
were made.
A number of similar experiments were
made with small amounts of various sub-
w2G
“> OI
Platinum
Wire
Fig. 1.—Cell for electrolysis. The cell is pro-
vided with a lip not shown. The anode is inserted
over the lip and a cover glass is used.
162
stances added to uranyl solutions that had
been purified by electrolytic or other meth-
ods. The results are corrected for blank
values, and typical data are given in
Table 2
TABLE 2.—RECOVERIES OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS
BY THE PROCEDURE
Method of
analysis
Amount} Percent |
added | recovered |
Ele-
ment
mg.
Co 0.05 95-100* Colorimetric
0.10 95-100* =
5.00 97°75 #
Cu 0.05 95-100* Ealaoenan bic
5. 00 103
Pb 0.02 | about 100* s
Ni 0.02 95-100* .
0.10 95 =
5.00 98 s
Zn 0.05 95-100* 2
1.00 98-100* | -
Mo 0.20 None deposited, owing to oxidation-reduc-
; 1.00 tion buffering action.
Cr 1.00 | Doubtful. Probably none deposited.
Mn tO00) ih 0-2 Colorimetric. In general no
Mn is electrolyzed into the
ce eee ee ee oe PL mercury.
* Several individual determinations were made.
A superficial investigation was made of
the behavior of Bi, In, Tl, Ir, Ru, Ga, Au,
Pd, Re, Se, and Te. The first three are
quantitatively taken into the mercury. It
was not definitely established that the re-
maining substances can be deposited in the
mercury, although Ga, Au, Pd, and Re gave
distillation residues that indicated sub-
stantial recoveries.
Blanks on reagents.—In routine opera-
tion, blanks are run each time a new bottle
or other supply of any reagent is introduced.
A number of sealed containers of reagents
of the same lot are set aside for the work
that is planned. A typical set of reagents for
handling many types of samples is as fol-
lows:
Mercury, 2.5 ml.
Water, distilled, 160-165 ml.
Nitric acid, conc. 6 ml.
Maximum supressor, 0.1 ml.
Sulphuric acid, conc. 5.35 ml.
Hydrochloric acid, cone. 2.1 ml.
Potassium chloride, 25 mg.
Pyridine 0.15 ml.
Successive blanks obtained over a period
of several weeks had the following range, in
milligrams, Cu, 0.011 to 0.026; Fe, 0.023 to
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
0.039; Ni, 0.001 to 0.002; and Pb, 0.002 to
0.004.
Cadmium, cobalt, and zinc were not en-
countered in these reagents. Fluctuations in
copper blanks were in one instance traced
to a copper pin in an atomizer bulb that was
used with a stock bottle of nitric acid. A
series of erratic results for cadmium was due
to cadmium contained in methanol that
was used to wash metallic specimens that
were greasy. The cadmium content of the
methanol was 2 parts per million. It proved
to be unwise to use the polarographic cells
and the silica beakers for experiments with
major amounts of any of the metals that
were being estimated. The iron blank in-
cludes additional iron introduced by a suc-
cession of reagents that were used in con-
nection with the recovery of iron from the
solution that had been electrolyzed.
Calibrations.—Although it was possible
to control the composition of the solution
that was subjected to polarographic analy-
sis rather rigorously, it was considered de-
sirable to calibrate with mixtures of ele-
ments in the normal ranges that were
encountered in applying the method. Cer-
tain calibrations were made with materials
put through the complete process and with
proper blank deductions. Other calibrations
were made with mixtures of elements taken
from standard solutions of their chlorides or
nitrates. The solutions were handled in
exactly the same fashion as the residues
from the distillation of mercury. Perhaps
the best evidence that the calibrations were
consistent is to be found in the data of
Tables 1 and 2. Some of the determinations
there reported were on single substances
and others were for mixtures of Cd, Cu, Co,
Ni, Zn, and Fe in varying ratios.
Reproducibility of the procedure.—A few
typical results on the recovery of minor
amounts of elements from solutions are
shown in Table 3.
Approximately the same degree of re-
producibility was obtained in check deter-
minations on numerous samples of various
types. A typical example of the polaro-
graphic findings is shown in Fig. 2, which
presents the polarograms taken from solu-
tions of two equal samples of a slightly
alloyed light metal.
May 15, 1948 FURMAN ET AL.: DETERMINATION OF CERTAIN METALS 163
a
t
_F-
é .
RUN] 2
| 0.001
Ss
Ebi
= °o
Zn oO
: f
Fig. 2.—Duplicate analyses. Curves 1 and 2 are taken before adding pyridine; curves 3 and 4
after the addition of pyridine. The zinc wave in curve 4 is used for the qualitative estimation of this
metal.
164
OUTLINE OF THE PROCEDURE
A sample is taken of suitable size to give
a residue in the range of tenths of a milli-
gram to 2 mg after electrolysis and distilla-
tion. The samples may range from a few
tenths of a gram up to 20 g or more with
the equipment specified. If the material will
dissolve in sulphuric acid, an amount calcu-
lated to leave 0.5 ml of the free concentrated
acid in excess is used. If nitric acid is
needed, a measured minimal amount is
used. With samples containing much cal-
cium, it is desirable to use hydrochloric acid
followed by sulphuric acid and evaporation
and fuming to convert to sulphates. Alter-
natively for samples containing calcium
perchloric acid may be used during the solu-
tion and electrolysis.
Uranium and its compounds are con-
verted to sulphates, usually after prior
treatment such as burning the metal to
oxide and treatment with sulphuric acid. It
is important to fume off the free sulphuric
acid and then to add prior to the electroly-
sis an amount of free sulphuric acid equiva-
lent to 1 mole of H2SO, per gram atom of
uranium because there is an average con-
sumption of 1 mole of acid during the con-
version of one gram atom of UY! to UM.
Two moles of acid are used up in the reduc-
tion from state VI to state IV and one mole
of acid is regenerated in the reduction of
UY to Ul. If the acidity is not regulated,
the recovery of the desired metals may be
incomplete. If too little acid is present, hy-
drolysis may occur during the electrolysis.
A reagent blank has to be carried through
with any type of process.
If there is an insoluble residue, it may be
TABLE 3.—DUPLICATE ANALYSES OF SOLUTIONS FOR SMALL
AMOUNTS OF METALS, IN MILLIGRAMS OF ELEMENTS FouND
cas oe Cue Tron Lead | Nickel
mium balt per
1s 25 0.004 | 0.023 | 0.029 | 0.367 | 0.029 | 0.005
b. 0.004 | 0.025 | 0.026 | 0.373 | 0.029 | 0.005
2,4. 0.001 | 0.025 | 0.026 | 0.620 | 0.012 | 0.005
b. 0.000;| 0.014 | 0.022 | 0.615 | 0.012 | 0.006
Shy, a — 0.018 | 0.043 | 0.923 | 0.009 | 00.33
b. — 0.020 | 0.038 | 0.918 — 00.30
Ania: — 0.022 | 0.059 | 0.888 | 0.016 | 0.015
b. — 0.023 | 0.058 | 0.863 | 0.010 | 0.011
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
filtered and if silica is present, its weight is
determined by hydrofluoric acid treatment
and the residual oxides are dissolved and
added to the filtrate.
Electrolysis —A 2.5 ml mercury cathode
is placed in the cell, Fig. 1, and the solution
is added and diluted to 100 ml. A platinum-
iridium (10 percent) anode is inserted to a
depth of 1.5 cm. A wire of B. and 8. gauge
15 (0.058 inch diameter) is satisfactory.
The cell is covered with a watch glass. With
an applied voltage of 10 volts the series re-
sistance is regulated so that 0.8 ampere
flows. This corresponds to an initial cathode
current density of about 0:08 ampere per
cm?. At the end of the electrolysis the
current has usually dropped to about half
the initial value. In order to remove the
more active metals such as zine it is desira-
ble that the cathode potential shall go down
well into the region of the lowest soluble
oxidation-reduction system that may be
present. In the case of uranium it is desira-
ble to have as much trivalent uranium
present as possible. Mechanical stirring
causes much of the U!™ to be oxidized to
UY at the anode or at the exposed sur-
face. Such stirring does not interfere with
the complete removal of iron. Lead if pres-
ent in minor amounts goes completely into
the cathode when an oxidation-reduction
buffer is present. Iron is completely electro-
lyzed out of solutions that have no oxida-
tion-reduction buffering action. With many
types of samples the small mercury cathode
is observed to rotate spontaneously at a
slow rate that gives a certain desirable
amount of agitation near the cathode.
Distillation—After the electrolysis,
which is normally allowed to proceed from
late afternoon to the next morning, or from
early morning to late afternoon, the mer-
cury cathode is drained into a weighed silica
boat, without interrupting the current. The
last drop of mercury is caught on a dry
filter paper to free it from any trace of solu-
tion, and then added to the boat. The
aqueous solution is quickly washed into a
beaker and the cell is inverted and tapped
over a filter paper to recover the last glob-
ules of mercury which are blotted dry and
added to the boat. If there is as much as a
few tenths of a milligram of other metals
May 15, 1948
present, the mercury has a visible surface
scum.
The temperature of the boat is observed
during the distillation with the aid of a
thermometer inserted through the inlet
stopper of the tube furnace. A current of
nitrogen, not freed from oxygen, is passed
through the furnace during the distillation,
and the mercury is condensed in a beaker of
water into which the outlet tube dips. As
many as three boats at a time are handled
in a 12-inch furnace. After distillation the
temperature is lowered and when the boat is
nearly at room temperature a cylinder of
clean paper is inserted in order to avoid
contact of the boat with condensed mer-
cury droplets. There is a characteristic
change from a golden brown color to bluish
with amalgams rich in cadmium and the
temperature is lowered as soon as this
change becomes evident. If little or no zine
is present and the residue is largely iron it
will be distributed in small specks on the
bottom of the boat. Zine and indium form
amalgams which are decomposed only at a
much higher temperature. The zinc amal-
gam forms a continuous layer. The weight
of the residue is of little significance when
zinc 1S a major component of the residue.
Indium was only encountered in synthetic
samples.
In residues that contain primarily iron
plus very minor amounts of copper, lead,
etc.,.the weight of the residue less the Fe2Qs3,
that is equivalent to the iron, agrees fairly
closely with the sum of the metals other
than iron in about 65-75 percent of the
cases. The weight is therefore only a rough
index of over-all content of electrolyzable
metals. The average ratio of weight of de-
posit to weight recovered polarographically
and colorimetrically in the residue is about
1.88 for a given class of material. The ratio
Fe.03;/2Fe is 1.48. The discrepancy is in
part due to the presence of minor amounts
of mercury or platinum and to the fact that
the elements other than iron probably are
converted more or less completely to oxides.
Solution of the deposit. Polarography.—
The boat is placed handle end up in a silica
beaker of 150 ml capacity, and the residue
is treated with 2 ml of concentrated hydro-
chloric acid and 1 ml of concentrated ni-
FURMAN ET AL.: DETERMINATION OF CERTAIN METALS
165
tric acid. The acids are caused to come
into contact with all the residue and
the covered beaker is heated until solu-
tion is complete. The boat is then washed
with a minimum amount of water and re-
moved. The solution is evaporated to dry-
ness. Then 0.5 ml of concentrated hydro-
chloric acid and an aliquot of a potassium
chloride solution containing 25 mg of KCl
are added and the evaporation is repeated.
If mercury is known or suspected to be
present, it is volatilized by heating on a hot
plate at medium heat. The residue is finally
evaporated after the addition of another
0.5 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid
and a little water, at 100°C. The heating is
stopped while the odor of HCl is faint but
present in the dry residue. This step is very
important because sufficient acid remains in
the residue to prevent loss of iron or other
metals. The residue is dissolved in 2.9 ml of
water, and 0.1 ml of 0.1 percent methy] cel-
lulose is added as a maximum supressor.
The solution is made homogeneous and: as
much as possible is transferred to a polaro-
graphic cell of the type devised in this labo-
ratory (10). The solution is deaerated with
nitrogen for 10 minutes, the nitrogen being
passed through a purifying train and a wash
bottle containing water.
A polarogram is taken at the highest
feasible sensitivity, recording that portion
of the current voltage curve immediately
following the spontaneous initial wave due
to iron, etc. In this medium only the cad-
mium and lead waves are useful. A second
polarogram is taken after adding one drop
of hydrochloric acid and three drops of
pyridine and deaerating for a few minutes;
the pH of the solution is about 5.2. Lingane
and Kerlinger (4) proved that the precipi-
tate of hydrated ferric oxide does not carry
Cd, Cu, Co, Ni, or Zn. In this second
polarogram the copper is determined from
the Cu'to Cu° wave and a check is ob-
tained as to the amount of cadmium. The
nickel and cobalt waves are well separated,
but the cobalt and zinc waves are merged.
Iron and cobalt are estimated colorimetri-
cally. If there is a large amount of zinc a
third partial polarogram at lower sensitivity
has to be taken to get the sum of the zinc
and cobalt.
166
Platinum, if present in the residue from
the mercury distillation, is sometimes re-
vealed in the polarogram by a spontaneous
rise at the start and an anomalous dip or
decrease in current after the lead wave. The
dip usually begins to be evident at —0.9
volt applied and reaches a minimum at
—1.10 volt applied. The addition of a drop
or two of hydrochloric acid eliminates this
dip but causes a catalytic hydrogen wave to
start at —0.8 volt applied. Platinum may
make it difficult or impossible to determine
the amount of zine from the polarogram
taken after adding pyridine. The terminal
wave is shifted from —1.48 volts to —1.28
volts by 0.01 mg of Pt in3 ml. With 10 times
as much platinum the terminal wave begins
at —1.13 volts.
Under the conditions chosen 10 micro-
grams per 3 ml of any of the common
metals Cu, Cd, Pb, Co, Ni, or Zn cause a
wave of the order of 1 em. Under the most
favorable conditions 1 microgram of a metal
may be detected, provided the metal does
not occur in the reagents. If iron is the
dominant component of the solution the
sensitivity of the detection of lead may be
greatly diminished because lead can be de-
tected only in the most acid medium where
the sensitivity that may be used is governed
by the height of the initial iron wave.
Other determinations.—Systematic pro-
cedures have been adapted from colori-
metric determinations in the literature for
the estimation of iron and cobalt in the
solution that has been polarographed. The
solution after electrolysis and separation of
ETHNOLOGY
U. S. National Museum.
When George Catlin, the artist and
Indian enthusiast, published (1841) the
first graphic account of the practice of
self-torture in a Plains Indian ceremony,
which he had witnessed in 1832, his de-
scription was termed fantastic by D. D.
Mitchell, Superintendent of Indian Affairs.
Apparently shocked by Catlin’s vivid por-
trayal of coolly premeditated self-sacrifice
of human flesh and blood by participants
in the Okipa ceremony of the Mandan,
1 Received January 30, 1948.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
.—Self-torture in the Blood Indian sun dance.
VOL. 38, No. 5
the electrolyzable metals may be tested
systematically for such elements as molyb-
denum by thiocyanate extraction, after
which iron, titanium, and vanadium may
be extracted as cupferrates and determined
by separate colorimetric tests.
SUMMARY
The possibility of using a small mercury
cathode as a collector for minor amounts of
electrolyzable metals has been explored and
the procedure has been tested for a variety
of applications.
A novel combination of techniques based
on the distillation of the mercury from the
cathode and the polarographic and colori-
metric examination of the residue has been
devised and studied extensively in a rather
limited range of applications. The pro-
cedure appears to be capable of many
further applications to a great variety of
organic or inorganic substances.
REFERENCES
(1) Haicnr, G. P., Jn; McDernz ire
Spasyrx, G. W., and Furman, N. ise
Madison Square Area Inf. Rep. ’ A-1033,
sect. 2, p. 1, Mar. 29, 1944. Revised
Procedures. Ci. also Reports A-1045,
2E, p. 1, July 4, 1944; A-1054, 2E, p. 1,
Aug. 12, 1944; A-1076, Mar. 20, 1945.
(2) Lunpet., G, E. F., and Horrman, J. L
Outlines of methods of chemical analysis.
J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1938.
(3) Furman, N. H.; Bricker, C. E.; and
WHITESELL, E. B. Ind. Eng. Chem.,
Anal. Ed. 14: 333. 1942.
(4) Lineane, J. J., and Keriincer, H. Ind.
Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed. 13: 77. 1941.
JoHN C. EweErs,
Mitchell declared, ““The scenes described
by Catlin, existed almost entirely in the
fertile imagination of that gentleman”
(Schoolcraft, vol. 3, p. 254; Catlin, vol. 1.
pp. 157-177).
Catlin’s deena was substantiated,
however, some years before Mitchell’s
Pes sh were made, by the Independent
Mandan investigations of Prince Maximilian
in 1833-34, (Maximilian, vol. 23, pp. 324—
334). Catlin was defended strongly by the
intelligent fur trader James Kipp, who had
been with Catlin when he witnessed the
_ ceremony (Kipp, pp. 436-438).
Smee the days of that historic contro-
versy, the practice of self-torture in tribal
sun-dance ceremonies has been reported, on
_Teliable authority, as once characteristic
_ of the Arapaho, Arikara, Assiniboin, Cana-
dian Dakota, Cheyenne, Crow, Gros Ven-
_ tres, Hidatsa, Oglala Dakota, Plains Cree,
_ Plams Ojibway, Sarcee, Sisseton Dakoia,
and the three Blackfoot tribes (Spier, pp.
473-475). Furthermore, brief accounts have
been published of ceremonial self-torture,
witnessed as early as 1805, among the
Arikara and Hidatsa by the fur traders
Pierre-Antoine Tabeau and Charles Mac-
kenzie (Tabeau, pp. 191-193; Mackenzie,
pp. 354-357).
lt seems most probable that some Plains
tribes practiced forms of seli-torture in the
period before first white contact.
_~__ Among the Plains Indian tribes of the
United States the- practice of self-torture
was prohibited more than 60 years ago.
This ban resulted from the combined op-
position of missionaries and the civil and
military branches of the Federal Govern-
ment to such seli-imposed cruelties, which
tended to excite the Indians, to perpetuate
_ both Indian-white and intertribal hostili-
ties, and to make difficult the process of
civilization and Christianization of the
Indians.
Published descriptions of seli-torture
among these tribes have been primarily of
two kinds. Some were eye-witness accounts
_of interested but untrained white observers
who not infrequently misinterpreted the
purpose of the torture as a ceremony for
“making braves.” Others were based on the
testimony of older Indians who had wit-
nessed the tortures some years earlier but
had not experienced torture themselves.
Detailed case histories from the mouths of
men who had submitied themselves to
torture are few and fragmentary in the
extensive literature on the sun dance.
Self-torture survived in the sun dances of
the Blood and North Blackfoot Indians of
- southern Alberta for a few years aiter its
discontinuance among the Plains tribes of
this country. In the course of field work on
© the Blood Reserve in September, 1947, the
_ May 15, 1948 EWERS: SELF-TORTURE IN BLOOD INDIAN SUN DANCE 167
writer met two elderly full-bloods who had
been tortured in the sun dance oi their
tribe. They were the last survivors of men
of that trnbe who had experienced this
ordeal, and they were particularly desirous
that their torture experiences should be
recorded accurately. These narratives by
Scraping White (now 81 years old) and
Heavy Head (now 78), related to the writer
through the miterpreter Percy Creighton,
provide new and significant information
on the procedure of seli-torture in the
Blood sun dance ceremony and its meaning
to those who submitted to it. They help to
round out the only published description
oi the Blood self-torture, that of the mis-
sionary John McLean, who witnessed the
ceremony prior to 1889.
In the summer of 1889 the Blood medicine
lodge was erected on the north bank of the
Kootenay River, in southern Alberia.
Three young men, Scraping White (then
23 years of age), Tough Bread (now de-
ceased), and Heavy Head (then 20 years
old), presented themselves to be tortured.
Scraping White described his experience
thus:
Three of us tortured ourselves in the sun
dance that year—Tough Bread, Heavy Head,
and I. I was the oldest of the three.
I was on a war party to take horses from the
Assiniboine when I made my vow to be tor-
tured. Shortly before the sun went down, when
we were in sight of the enemy camp, I turned
to the sun and said, “I want good luck. Now I
zo to the enemy. I want to capture a good horse
and go ee safely. I'll be tortured this coming
sun dance.” As soon as it was dark I went into
the enemy camp and took two fast horses out
of their corral without any of them knowing
it. I had good luck and reached home safely.
Then I told my relatives of the vow I had
made. Yellow Horn, an older relative, who had
been through the torture before, told me, “Put
up a sweat lodge for me and I shall look after
you.” I made the sweat lodge the very next
day.
Not long after that the sun dance was held.
The torture took place the day after the center
pole was raised for the medieme lodge. I was
the first one to be tortured. The torture began
about noon. Old Yellow Horn cut my breasts
with an iron arrowhead and imserted a skewer
through the cuts at each breast. These skewers
were of serviceberry wood, flattened on both
168
sides, thinned toward the ends but not sharp-
ened, and about this long. [Scraping White
indicated a distance of about 2 inches between
his thumb and forefinger.| Then sinew was
wrapped around the ends of the skewers and
they “were tied, each skewer to a 4-strand
plaited rawhide rope. The two ropes were
fastened at their far ends to the center pole at
its forks.
I stood up and Yellow Horn told me, ‘““Now
you walk up, put your arms around the center
pole and pray. Tell Sun, now your vow is being
fulfilled.’”’ I did just as he told me. Then I
stepped back. Yellow Horn pulled hard on the
rawhide ropes attached to the skewers. Then I
danced. I didn’t dance long before my flesh
gave way and the skewers pulled out. Yellow
Horn came to me and cut the skin that had
broken. He trimmed it off even. Then he gave
me the pieces of skin he had cut away and told
me to take them and stick them in the ground
at the base of the center pole, saying, ‘“Now
sun, I have completed my vow.”
Heavy Head’s narrative of his torture
experience was still more detailed:
There were only two of us, Buffalo Teeth,
my partner, and I. We went to war together to
take horses. At Medicine Hat we found a small
camp of Cree half-breeds. It was night when
we saw their camp. It was moonlight. I looked
up at the moon and prayed to it, “I shall be
tortured at the sun dance if I have good luck
and get home safely.”’ Then I stole up to the
camp and got one bay that was tied in front of
a lodge without any of the enemy waking or
seeing me. Buffalo Teeth took a roan. We
started back to the Blood camp, traveled three
days and three nights with no food other than
a black rabbit. We got awfully weak and
hungry.
When I reached home I told my story to my
father, Water Bull. The old man got up and
sang his encouraging song. Then he told me,
“My son, you have done something worth
doing. You have made a vow that you will be
tortured at the sun dance. You must do it this
coming sun dance.”’
A few days later I went out to the east point
of Belly Butte to fast. While I fasted I dreamed
that a sacred person came to me and gave mea
drum and certain herbs to use for doctoring.
Then I returned home.
A short time after that the bands began to
come together for the sun dance encampment.
I prepared myself to go to an old man named
Little Bear, a relative of mine, who had been
through the torture himself, years before. I
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
filled my pipe and took it to him. I gave him the
pipe and a buckskin horse, and said, “Here is a
horse for you. Keep this pipe too. I want you to
look after me in the torture.”’ When I gave him
the pipe he put it down and went over to the
next lodge. There were two old men there, Green
Grass Bull and Red Bead. These men were not
related to me, but they were both older than
Little Bear, and both had been through the
torture. Little Bear asked them to come to his
lodge, to take my pipe and pray for me. After
they prayed, they told me not to take any food
or water the day I was to be tortured.
The day before the torture I ate or drank
nothing. Next day I ate or drank nothing until
after the torture. However, the three old men
gave me some sagebrush to chew.
I was the last of the three Blood Indians to
undergo the torture that day. Scraping White,
who was the oldest, was first. Then Tough
Bread, then I. I was the youngest. Inside the
medicine lodge, on. the west side of the center
pole and north of the weather dancer’s arbor, a
shelter was built of sticks like a sweat lodge,
covered with willow leaves. I went in there be-
fore noon of the day of the torture. I was laid on
my back with my head pointed north. I was
barefoot, and wore only a breechcloth made
from a small, red, trade shawl purchased from
the Hudson’s Bay Company. There was a little
bowl of white paint and another of black paint
nearby. The three old men painted four black
dots, one below the other, under each of my
eyes. This was called “tear paint.” If I cried
the tears would run down there. Then they
painted a double row of six black dots on each
arm. They painted the symbol of the moon,
points up, on my forehead in black. On the out-
side of each of my legs they painted a double
row of six black dots. The rest of my body was
painted white, also my face. They took some of
the broad-leafed sagebrush from the ground
inside the sweat lodge and bound it together,
placed a wreath of it around my head, and
bands of it around each wrist and ankle.
I was taken from the sweat lodge and laid
upon a blanket on the ground at the north side
of the center pole with my head to the north,
my feet toward the center pole. Other people
were told to keep back away from me. Then an
old man named Low Horn was brought for-
ward. He counted four of his coups. The three
old men, Little Bear, Red Bead, and Green
Grass Bull, held me—one at each arm, and one
at my head. Red Bead took a sharp, iron ar-
rowhead in his hand, and asked me, “‘How do
you want me‘to cut them? Thick or thin?” I
said, ‘‘Thin.’’ (I learned later that this question
May 15, 1948 EWERS: SELF-TORTURE IN BLOOD INDIAN SUN DANCE 169
Fig. 1.—Scraping White (left) and Heavy Head (right), two men who were
tortured in the Blood sun dance of 1889.
Fig. 2.—An act of self-torture in the Blood sun dance of 1891. Photograph by R. N. Wilson.
170
was always asked of the man undergoing the
torture before his breasts were pierced, and the
one doing the cutting always did just the
opposite of the young man’s request. So when
I said ‘‘thin,’? Red Bead knew to make his in-
cisions deep).2 Red Bead gave four of his own
war coups. He made no prayer. Then he pierced
my breasts with the sharp arrowhead and in-
serted a serviceberry stick through each breast.
The sticks were not sharp but flattened at the
ends. The other two men held my arms as he
cut and inserted the sticks. Blood flowed down
my chest and legs over the white paint. Then
Red Bead pressed the sticks against my body
with his hands. They turned me around to face
the sun and pierced my back. To the skewers
on my back they hung an imitation shield, not
so heavy as a war shield. The shield had
feathers on it, but I don’t remember how it was
painted. It belonged to a man named Peninsula.
The ropes were brought out from the center
pole and tied to the skewers in my breasts—
right side first, then left side. Red Bead then
grabbed the ropes and jerked them hard twice.
Then he told me, ‘‘Now you go to the center
pole and pray that your vow will come true.”
I walked up there. I knew I was supposed to
pretend to cry. But oh! I really cried. It hurt
so much. Coming back from the center pole I
was shouting. Then, before I started to dance,
I jerked the shield off my back.
I leaned back and began dancing, facing the
center pole. It felt just like the center pole was
pulling me toward it. I began to dance from the
west toward the doorway of the sun lodge and
back. Then, when the skewers did not break
loose, the old men realized that the incisions
had been made too deep. Red Bead came up
and cut the outside of the incisions again so
they would break loose. As I started dancing
again the left side gave way and I had to con-
tinue dancing with only my right side holding.
An old man named Strangling Wolf jumped up
from the crowd and came toward me shouting.
He called out four coups he had counted and
jumped on me. The last rope gave way and I
fell to the ground.
The three old men came to me and cut the
rough pieces of flesh hanging from my breasts
off even. They told me to take this flesh that
had been trimmed off, and the sagebrush from
my head, wrists, and ankles, and place them at
the base of the center pole. I did as they told
me.
* Jenness, pp. 54-5, reported the same con-
trariness of action on the part of the Sarcee
surgeon when the suppliant pleaded for a ‘‘thin”
cutting.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
Then I took my robe and walked out of the
medicine lodge alone. I went to a lonely place
and fasted for a night. I wanted to dream. But
I couldn’t sleep at all because of the pain. At
sunrise I prayed to the sun.
Some time after that I saw a man approach-
ing on horseback. He said, “I’m going to take
you home right away.”’ He took me up behind
him on his horse and rode me slowly back to
camp. My breasts were swollen and hurt. The
rider’s name was Red Crane. He told me of a
mix-up that took place at the sun dance over
horses stolen from the Gros Ventres.
When I got to my lodge, my mother gave me
something to eat. She and my father told me
what had happened at the sun dance gathering
—a mix-up between the Mounted Police and
Indians.* I had to stay in the lodge several
days. My breasts were so swollen I could
hardly move. Indian doctors used herb medi-
cines to take the swelling away and cure my
wounds.4
The common elements in these two ac-
counts reveal the pattern of the self-torture
experience among the Blood Indians more
clearly and completely than the brief de-
scription of the ordeal previously published
by McLean. This experience was initiated
by a warrior through a vow to the celestial
deities, sun or moon (the latter in Blackfoot
belief was sun’s wife), very shortly before
the man exposed himself to danger. The
vow was a simple, direct appeal to the
deity for protection and success in the im-
mediate, hazardous undertaking. In return
for such aid the petitioner promised to make
the self-torture sacrifice in the sun dance
lodge of his people. On return home after
the successful exploit the pledger made
known his vow to his relatives. They helped
him to obtain the services of one or more
older men who had been through the ordeal
and were qualified, therefore, to instruct and
care for the young man in the ceremonial
fulfillment of his vow. The public cere-
3 In the summer of 1889, the Mounted Police
sought to apprehend Calf Robe, a Blood horse
thief, who sought sanctuary in the medicine lodge
of his people. The Indians overpowered the police
and set Calf Robe free, but there was no blood-
shed (Steele, pp. 262-265). This incident serves
to verify the year of Scraping White’s and Heavy
Head’s torture.
4 These narratives follow as closely as possible
the words of the interpreter. In a few places de-
tails obtained during further questioning of the
informants have been inserted.
May 15, 1948
mony took place in the sun-dance lodge,
about midday of the day following the
erection of the center pole. One man was
tortured at a time. Each young man’s
experienced helper or helpers prepared him
for the ordeal, pierced his breasts, inserted
the wooden skewers, and attached the
thongs leading from the crotch of the center
pole. They guided his actions by telling him
first to embrace the center pole and pray
for successful fulfillment of his vow, watched
him closely until he freed himself from the
ropes, trimmed off the ragged edges of
flesh from his breasts and instructed him
to place them at the base of the center
pole as an offering to the sun. With this
act the vow was fulfilled.
Both informants stated that the helpers
were always men well advanced in years,
rather than men who had been through the
torture only a few years earlier. The num-
ber of helpers depended primarily on the
age of the victim and his relative’s confi-
dence in his ability to take the punishment.
Younger men generally had more helpers
to hold them as the incisions were made.
Fasting was not considered obligatory.
Scraping White said he was not required
to abstain from food on the day prior to the
torture. Scraping White’s narrative omits
mention of the painting of his body in prep-
aration for the torture. However, Heavy
Head asserted that all who underwent the
torture were painted just as he had been.
Neither Scraping White nor Heavy Head
took any active part in the tortures at the
sun dance of 1891, the last occurrence of
self-torture in the Blood ceremony. They
said that four men, Calf Tail, Buckskin
Tom, Old Man Owl, and Takes Paint, all
now deceased, were tortured in that year.
R. N. Wilson, a trader on the Blood Re-
serve, photographed these torture cere-
monies. One of his photographs is repro-
duced here, through the courtesy of Arch-
deacon S. H. Middleton, principal of St.
Paul’s Residential School, on the Blood
Reserve, owner of a print from the original
glass plate negative. Percy Creighton be-
lieved that the Indian shown in the act
of torture was Takes Paint.
The Blood Indians were the last Black-
foot tribe, and probably the last tribe of
EWERS: SELF-TORTURE IN BLOOD INDIAN SUN DANCE
171
Plains Indians to observe the self-torture
ceremony. After their 1891 performance of
the torture it was prohibited by the Indian
Department and the Mounted Police. A
year earlier the North Blackfoot had been
persuaded to abandon torture (Ann. Rept.,
pp. 83-84). The Piegan eliminated torture
from their sun dances at least 20 years
earlier. Weasel Head (born about 1860), for
many years a prominent weather dancer in
the South Piegan sun dance, told the writer
before his death in 1943, that he had never
seen the torture performed in the sun dance
of his tribe, although he recalled that as a
youth he had seen older men who bore the
scars of torture. Red Plume (born ante
1850), informed Curtis that he had seen the
torture rites in the Piegan sun dance only
four times, thrice when a small boy and
once when a young man. Each time a
single man had submitted to the torture.
Red Plume attributed the discontinuance
of self-torture in the Piegan sun dance.to
the warning of a North Piegan weather
dancer that ‘‘they would die if they gave
their bodies to the sun” (Curtis, vol. 6, p.
55). Clark Wissler (p. 262) and Walter
MeClintock (p. 320) reported the persist-
ence of this belief among the Piegan in the
first decade of the present century.
Wissler (p. 263) believed that self-torture
had not become thoroughly adjusted to its
place in the Piegan sun-dance ceremony at
the time it was abandoned. On the other
hand, the torture appears to have found
much more favor among the neighboring
Blood Indians. McLean (p. 236), stated
that from two to five men underwent this
torture every year in the Blood sun dance.
Whereas the Piegan seem to have aban-
doned torture as a result of native fear and
distaste for the ceremony, the Blood con-
tinued to practice it until they were com-
pelled by Government authorities to give it
up.
Wissler (pp. 263-264) was inclined to
credit a Piegan tradition that the Blackfoot
tribes borrowed the torture ceremony from
the Arapaho. There still exist among the
Piegan vague but persistent traditions of a
group of Blood Indians who sojourned for a
number of years with the Arapaho in the
early part of the nineteenth century. Chey-
172
enne traditions, obtained from elderly men
of the Southern Cheyenne nearly half a
century ago by George Bird Grinnell and
George E. Hyde, tell of a group of Gros
Ventres and “Blackfeet”? (division not in-
dicated), who joined the Cheyenne and
Arapaho in the Black Hills or on the Platte
about the year 1826. According to one ver-
sion of this tradition the ‘‘Blackfeet’’
returned north a few years later (Grinnell,
vol. 1, pp. 39-40). Major Culbertson, who
was married to a Blood woman, is reported
to have found ten lodges of Blood Indians
living with the Arapaho, when he attended
the Fort Laramie Treaty Council in 1851.
“They were unknown to him, and he did
not learn how long they had been there
or whether they ever returned” (Bradley,
Book A, p. 184). These data, and the fact
that the Piegan were relatively indifferent
to the torture in later years, suggest the
possibility that the torture feature was
introduced among the Blackfoot tribes by
Blood Indians, who may have borrowed it
from the Arapaho no earlier than the second
quarter of the nineteenth century.
Spier (p. 491) regarded the self-torture as
a nonessential element in the sun-dance
ceremony of most Plains tribes. Our evi-
dence certainly supports this conclusion in-
sofar as the Blood sun dance is concerned.
Both the torture pledger and his helpers
played no necessary part in the sun-dance
ceremony. They entered the medicine lodge
for the sole purpose of fulfilling the pledg-
er’s vow. The Blackfoot tribes have con-
tinued their annual sun dances to the pres-
ent day, with no apparent sense of loss of
any essential feature. Now as formerly the
sun dance centers about the elaborate ritual
prescribed for the fulfillment of the vow of
the medicine woman who pledged the cere-
mony. Her objective was reached with the
completion of the medicine lodge, the day
before the tortures took place.
The Blackfoot tribes regarded the tor-
ture, such as was endured by Scraping
White and Heavy Head, as the most dan-
gerous and severe form of physical sacrifice
to the sun. The mutilation of the body by
offerings of a finger or bits of flesh from the
arms and legs were considered lesser ordeals
(Wissler, pp. 263-265). Scraping White
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
showed the writer scars on his legs resulting
from the sacrifice of pieces of flesh to the
sun prior to the year of his torture experi-
ence. Nevertheless, the belief of the Piegan
that men who submitted to the torture
would not live long after they had given
their bodies to the sun, appears to have
been based upon religious fear rather than
the life histories of men who had been tor-
tured. Several of our elderly South Piegan
informants recalled having seen older men
of the tribe who bore the scars of the torture.
The severity of the torture varied with
the depth of the incisions. Older men
watched the suppliant carefully, and did
not permit the torture to be prolonged in-
definitely. Even in the case of Heavy Head,
whose experience was described by other
elderly Blood Indians as the most severe
punishment they had witnessed in sun-
dance tortures, the performance lasted
only a few minutes. His narrative indicates
the pain and nervous shock must have been
intense. But in the majority of cases it
probably did no permanent damage to the
individual. Although Scraping White and
Heavy Head still bear the scars of their
torture, these men appear to be in fair
health, active of mind and body, nearly
six decades after they expiated their
vows to the sun in the Blood medicine lodge
in the summer of 1889.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNUAL Report of Department of Indian Af-
fairs for 1891. Ottawa, Canada, 1892.
BRADLEY MANUSCRIPT, In Montana Historical
Society Library, Helena.
CaTLIN, GEORGE. Letters and notes of the man-
ners, customs and condition of the North
American Indians, 2 vols. London, 1841.
Curtis, Epwarp 8. The North American
Indian, 6. Norwood, Mass., 1911.
GRINNELL, GEORGE Birp. The Cheyenne In-
dians, 2 vols. New Haven, 1923.
JENNESS, DiamMonp. The Sarcee Indians of
Alberta. Canada Dept. Mines and Re-
sources. Bull. 98, Anthropological Series
23. Ottawa, 1938.
Kipp, JAMES. On the accuracy of Catlin’s ac-
count of the Mandan ceremonies. Ann.
Rept. Board Regents Smithsonian Insti-
tution for 1872. Washington, 1878.
McCuintock, WatTEeR. The Old North Trail.
London, 1910.
McLean, Joun. The Blackfoot sun dance.
Proc. Can. Inst., ser. 3,6. Toronto, 1888.
May 15, 1948
MaAcKENZIE, CHARLES. The Missouri In-
dians, a narrative of four trading expedi-
tions to the Missouri, 1804-1806. In L.
R. Masson, “Les Bourgeois de la Com-
pagnie du Nord-Ouest.” Quebec, 1889.
Maximiuian (Prince of Wied-Neuwied).
Travels in the interior of North America.
Early Western Travels Edition, edited by
Reuben Gold Thwaites, vols. 22-24.
Cleveland, 1906.
ScHooLcRaFT, HENRY R. Information respect-
ing the history, condition and prospects of
the Indian tribes of the United States, 6 vols.
Philadelphia, 1851-7.
DUNKLE: UPPER CRETACEOUS SELACHIANS
173
SpreR, Lesuiz. The sun dance of the Plains
Indians. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. An-
throp. Papers, 16 (pt. 7). 1921.
STEELE, 8. B. Forty years in Canada.
don, 1915.
TaBEAU’s Narrative of Loisel’s Expedition to
the Upper Missouri. Edited by Annie H.
Abel. Norman, Okla., 1939.
WIssLER, CLarK. The sun dance of the Black-
foot Indians. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.
Anthrop. Papers, 16 (pt. 3). 1918.
Lon-
PALEONTOLOGY .—On two previously unreported selachians from the Upper Cre-
taceous of North America.
Davin H. Dunxtez, U. 8S. National Museum.
(Communicated by C. Lewis Gazin.)
Recently, the U. 8S. Geological Survey
transferred to the National Museum two
interesting toothlike fossils obtained by Dr.
_L. W. Stephenson during the course of his
prolonged geological investigations on the
Cretaceous formations of Texas. These
specimens have proved to be examples of
the structures currently interpreted as
rostral teeth of pristid sharks. They are as-
signable to the genera Onchopristis Stromer
and Schizorhiza Weiler, both of which were
founded on materials from various upper
Cretaceous horizons and localities in North
Africa. In the Western Hemisphere, Oncho-
pristis has not heretofore been known and
Schizorhiza only from a single, doubtful re-
port from the upper Senonian of Chile
(Wetzel, 1930; and Weiler, 1930).
The definitive record of the fossil Pristi-
dae in North America is confined to the iso-
lated rostral armament of Pristis from the
Cretaceous and a number of Tertiary hori-
zons. In addition, during recent years the
problematical genus Ischyrhiza has been in-
cluded here. In the Eastern Hemisphere no
less than 12 genera of fossil pristids are
recognized. The majority of these are
founded on isolated rostral teeth and their
assignment to the family Pristidae, often-
times doubtfully, has been based on the na-
ture of their insertion onto the rostral carti-
lages as shown by gross morphological
features and by histological considerations.
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received January
30, 1948.
The present two specimens can not lend
themselves to histological preparation with-
out destruction, and little of general mor-
phological and systematic information can
be deduced from them. However, the new
occurrences in essential stratigraphic con-
temporaneity with their North African
genotypes seems of sufficient interest to
warrant the following brief description.
The illustrations accompanying this note
have been prepared by Mrs. Elinor Strom-
berg, scientific illustrator of the U. 8. Geo-
logical Survey.
Onchopristis cf. numidus (Haug)
A single unassociated tooth (U.S.N.M. no.
17088), although with only one side exposed
and lacking the distal extremity, exhibits well
the characteristics of the genus as defined by
Stromer (1917).
The structure is strongly compressed, dorso-
ventrally, and is composed of a short inserted
base and an exposed, enamel-covered crown.
The line of demarcation between these two
parts is prominent, being remarked by a con-
striction of the base adjacent to the proximal
limit of the enamel. This latter shows a border
arched in gentle convexity toward the base and
extended obliquely across the long axis of the
element. The preserved portion of the crown
possesses one posterior barb. Both anterior
and posterior margins of the crown form sharp
cutting edges except at the proximal reen-
trance of the barb where the edge is bluntly
rounded. The enamel on the slightly convex,
exposed surface of the tooth is checked both
174
/\
ee .
y
-
y
}
/
Fic. 1.—Onchopristis cf. numidus (Haug)
(U.S.N.M. no. 17088). Rostral tooth from the
Woodbine formation of Texas. Approx. x4.
longitudinally and transversely as a result of
weathering but exhibits no observable orna-
mentation. The base, in dorsoventral aspect, is
expanded and is marked by a few regularly
spaced furrows, which are extended in the
direction of the longest axis of the tooth.
Measured in relation to the longest axis, the
specimen has the following dimensions: Total
preserved length, 13.7 mm; greatest length of
base, 4.56 mm; maximum width of base, 8.4
mm; width of crown immediately below barb,
6.0 mm; and greatest thickness of crown on
fractured distal exposure, 2.4 mm.
Fic. 2.—Schizorhiza cf. weilerit Serra (U.S.N.M. no. 17087). Rostral tooth from the Escondido for-
mation of Texas in (A) dorsoventral aspect as restored from a cast of the preserved impression and
in (B) ideal transverse section. Approx. X4.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
Remarks.—The systematic history of On-
chopristis numidus (Haug) has been completely
summarized by Stromer (1917). The present
example from Texas differs from the North
African specimens in the shortness of that
portion of the enameled crown proximal to the
barb. Stromer (1917, 1925, and 1927), however, |
in his discussions on this sawfish, has demon-
strated wide variation between individual ros-
tral teeth and has described examples with
multiple posterior barbs. In consequence there
seems to be no immediate basis for erecting
additional species within the genus.
Geological horizon and _ locality Collected
from the Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian) in
the Lewisville member of the Woodbine for-
mation, approximately 2.4 miles southwest of
Lewisville, Denton County, Tex., by L. W.
Stephenson, October 25, 1945.
Distribution —All the North African occur-
rences of Onchopristis are considered by
Stromer to be of Cenomanian Age.
Schizorhiza cf. weileri Serra
To this form is assigned a small imperfectly
preserved tooth (U.S.N.M. no. 17087). The
complete outline of one side of the specimen is
clearly impressed in the limy sandstone matrix,
although almost all the tooth tissue from that
side has been lost. The opposite side of the
tooth is deeply imbedded in the matrix of the
counterpart. As thus incompletely exposed it
was necessary to crack the counterpart in two
and examine the cross section of the imbedded
part before any structural interpretation could
be made.
May 15, 1948
It is assumed that this tooth projected later-
ally from firm attachment along the edge of a
rostrum. In orientation, therefore, the long
axis of the tooth is a transverse dimension, and
this breadth exceeds the shorter length by
about three times. The element is moderately
compressed, dorsoventrally, and the top and
bottom halves are apparently symmetrical.
The crown. occupies approximately one-third
the longest axial dimension, and from the
shiny smoothness of its impression is indicated
to have been enamelled. It projects directly out
in the frontal plane of the tooth without dorsad
or ventrad flexure; is arched very slightly to-
ward the rear; and is basally emarginated at
the anterior and posterior edges. The free lateral
margins are sharp, straight, and converge to an
obtuse distal point. The root, viewed either
dorsally or ventrally, is seen to expand proxi-
mally from a narrow distal neck. The part is
divided into flat upper and lower lips by a
frontal groove which extends outward nearly
to the base of the crown. Three furrows trav-
erse the outer surfaces of both upper and lower
lips, parallel to the long axis of the element.
These grooves are continued proximally as
deep notches in the inner edges of the root
lips. Thus, mesially, the lips are each produced
into four acutely conical projections, of which
the central two are the longest.
Measured in relation to the longest axis, the
tooth possesses the following dimensions: Total
length 15.0 mm; length of crown, 4.0 mm; maxi-
mum width of crown, 5.0 mm; maximum width
of root, 6.0 mm; length of longer proximal
rays, 5.5 mm; and depth of proximal divergence
of root lips, 6 mm.
Remarks.—The genus Schizorhiza is known
only from isolated teeth and the genotype is
the species stromeri (Weiler, 1930). In addition
to some Egyptian specimens, Weiler included
in his original description a number of frag-
mentary teeth from several widely scattered
localities (Di Stephano, 1919; Quaas, 1902; and
Wetzel, 1930). This type series presented a
range of structural variation from teeth as
here described to examples which in gross
features appear similar to Ischyrhiza, with long
tapering, scimiterlike crowns and robust roots
exhibiting only a shallow frontal groove. Ap-
parently no one specimen among those was
designated the type. Subsequently, Serra
(1933) abandoned the name stromeri for all of
DUNKLE: UPPER CRETACEOUS SELACHIANS
175
the teeth of the type series except that pic-
tured by Weiler in his Fig. 1a, Pl. II. In return,
the specific name weileri was proposed for the
tooth illustrated as Fig. 3a, Pl. II, and a col-
lection of identical specimens from Sofeggin,
Tripolitania.
Of these two species, the present Texas speci-
men is more closely comparable with wezvlert. It
differs from it only in the more pronounced
asymmetry of the crown profile in dorsoven-
tral aspect and in exhibiting a greater size than
reported by Serra. Provisional assignment to
the latter species is therefore made. While
possibly representing a new species, it does not
seem advisable to establish a type on this, an
incomplete tooth heretofore unrecorded from
North America. A more critical evaluation will
depend upon the acquisition of a series of the
Texas specimens which permit qualitative
studies and histological examination.
Geological horizon and locality —Collected
from the Upper Cretaceous (Maestrichtian) in
the Escondido formation, 2 miles east of Eagle
Pass, Maverick County, Tex., by L. W. Ste-
phenson, October 30, 1912.
Distribution —Weiler (1930) gave a Senonian
Age to all the teeth from North Africa, Arabia,
and Chile on which he based his definition of
Schizorhiza stromeri (sensu lato). Serra (1933)
considered the occurrence of S. weileri as
Maestrichtian.
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. Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof.
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Weiter, W. (In Stromer, E., and W. Weiler).
Beschreibung von Wirbeltierresten aus dem
nubischen Sandsteine Oberdgyptens und aus
agyptischen Phosphaten nebst Bemerkungen
liber die Geologie der Umgegend von Ma-
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Akad. Wiss., math.-nat. Abt., new ser., 7:
1-42, 4 pls. 1930.
WerzeL, W. Die Quiriquina-Schichten als
Sediment und paldontologisches Archiv.
Palaeontographica 73 (Fishes) : 94-97. 1930.
ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the sub-
family Dynastinae, No. 4: Tribes Oryctini (part), Dynastini, and Phileurini.*
LAWRENCE W. Saytor, California Academy of Sciences.
This paper is the fourth in the series of
my United States dynastine scarab beetle
studies and completes the specific listings
and notes. The fifth, and last, part will in-
clude a complete classification of the tribes
and genera, from the Nearctic standpoint.
Genus Aphonus LeConte
Aphonus LeConte, 1856, p. 21; Horn, 1882, p.
122; LeConte and Horn, 1883, p. 259; Casey,
1915, pp. 178, 210; Ritcher, 1944, p. 28, Cart-
wright, 1944, p. 36.
Podalgus (part) Burmeister, 1847, p. 117; Lacor-
daire, 1856, p. 408.
Aphonus (as now constituted) is limited to
the Eastern United States and contains four
valid species; the farthest west I have knowl-
edge of the genus occurring is Texas, where
brevicruris Cartwright was collected.
The only character separating the adults of
Aphonus from United States species of Chevro-
platys Hope is the trilobed (varying to sub-
tridentate to even simply carinate in worn ex-
amples) preapical carina of the clypeus. In the
larvae, Ritcher has pointed out (1944) the very
close similarity between Cheiroplatys pyriformis
LeConte and Aphonus castaneus (Melsheimer),
the only real difference being that the first
antennal segment in the latter is bare of setae,
and the other two key characters being those
of degree only (relative distance between lobes
of the thoracic spiracle, respiratory plate, and
width of the head capsule). In the adults, the
peculiar preapical carina and the rather odd
apical, front tibial tooth, as well as external
facies and proportions in general, immedi-
ately disclose the close affinity of the two
groups at present called Aphonus and Cheiro-
1 Received September 3, 1947.
platys. Indeed, I have relatively fresh speci-
mens of A. castaneus (from Massachusetts and
New Hampshire) in which the preapical clypeal
carina is distinctly bidentate, so that the only
character for the retention of the name
Aphonus as a valid genus is gone.
However, even though I feel that Aphonus
must eventually be considered a synonym of
the earlier described Cheiroplatys I am unable
definitely to synonymize the two genera until
I can review the genotypes; I desire also to
dissect carefully the mouthparts of many of
the Neotropical and Australian forms of the
genus.
The sexes of Aphonus are rather similar in
most characters, but in the male the last ab-
dominal sternite is shorter and is feebly but
distinctly emarginate apically, whereas the last
abdominal in the female is longer and the apex
is evenly rounded.
I have been unable to construct a satisfac-
tory key to the species based on nonvariable
external differences, so that to place the species
properly it is necessary to make genital dissec-
tions. The only general statement that can be
made as to the external facies is that castaneus
is most frequently rufous, averages 10 to 11
mm in length, and is more robust; whereas
densicauda and tridentata are both more
elongate, and the former averages 13 mm in
length and the latter 15 mm. Obviously, such
generalities are interesting but of little assist-
ance in actually separating closely allied and
variable species. According to Cartwright’s
description of brevicruris (the unique type of
which I have not seen) the proportions of the
heavy, short tibia and femora will readily sep-
arate this species from all other described
forms.
May 15, 1948
Aphonus castaneus (Melsheimer)
Fig. 1, k, m
Bothynus castaneus Melsheimer, 1856, p. 138;
LeConte, 1856, p. 22.
Podalgus obesus Burmeister, 1847, p. 119; Arrow,
1909, p. 341.
Aphonus castaneus (Melsheimer) Casey, 1915, p.
220; Sims, 1934, p. 334 (larvae); Johnson,
1942, p. 79; Ritcher, 1944, p. 30, pls. 2-5
(larvae).
Aphonus cubiformis Casey, 1915, p. 221.
Aphonus saginatus Casey, 1915, p. 220.
Aphonus trapezicollis Casey, 1915, p. 219.
All examples of this small species that I have
examined vary from rufocastaneous to piceo-
castaneous in color, and from 8 to 13 mm in
length. The species ranges generally along the
East Coast from Maine south through the
Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama. Johnson
mentions finding numerous larvae on the sur-
face of a Connecticut golf course during a gen-
tle July rain, and these larvae retreated into
the sod when the sun reappeared. Sims records
the larvae as common in the turf of the coastal
plains golf courses and in sandy soil generally.
Aphonus densicauda Casey
Fig. 1, h, 1
Aphonus densicauda Casey, 1915, p. 216; Ritcher,
p. 31 (larvae).
Described from Pennsylvania, and seen also
from New Hampshire, south to Georgia and
Kentucky and west to Iowa; will probably be
found to have a much wider distribution than
indicated by available specimens. Ritcher re-
cords it as fairly common in Kentucky where
full-grown larvae may be found in pastureland,
in or just beneath the sod, from November to
May, and pupation occurs late in May or
early in June; he found adults in the soil
throughout the year. |
The color is usually piceous or piceocastane-
ous, varying to rufous, as do all species of the
genus, and the length averages 13 mm. The
adults are hard to separate from typically
black tridentatus other than on genital charac-
ters and the slightly larger average size of the
latter (15 mm.); the larvae are also very similar
but distinct according to Ritcher (1944).
Aphonus tridentatus (Say)
Fig. 1, f, 2, j,
Scarabaeus tridentatus Say, 1823, p. 209.
Bothynus variolosus LeConte, 1848, p. 88 (new
synonymy).
SAYLOR: SYNOPTIC REVISION OF SUBFAMILY DYNASTINAE
177
Aphonus tridentatus (Say) Horn, 1882, p. 122;
Casey, 1915, p. 215; Ritcher 1944, p. 33 (lar-
vae); Arrow, 1937, p. 42 (additional refs.).
Aphonus aterrimus Casey, 1915, p. 216.
Aphonus congestus Casey, 1915, p. 218.
Aphonus elongatus Casey, 1915, p. 215.
Aphonus frater LeConte, 1856, p. 22.
Aphonus hydropicus LeConte, 1856, p. 22.
Aphonus ingens Casey, 1924, p. 334.
Aphonus modulatus Casey, 1915, p. 219.
Aphonus politus Casey, 1915, p. 218.
Aphonus scutellaris Casey, 1924, p. 335. ~
Usually piceous, this largest United States
species of the genus varies to entirely rufous,
especially in specimens from Florida, and these
latter are the variolosus of LeConte; the Florida
specimens are often 2-3 mm smaller than the
more northern specimens and superficially look
different, but the genitalia and all essential di-
agnostic characters are identical and I have no
doubt of the correctness of the synonymy. I
have seen specimens from Michigan, Indiana,
Illinois, south through Georgia, South Caro-
lina, and Florida; also recorded from New
York and Wisconsin. Cartwright has taken
numbers at Clemson, 8S. C., from March
through July. Ritcher says that the larvae are
found in woodland loam; collected by Yeager
from “forest duff’ in Michigan.
Aphonus brevicruris Cartwright
Rigs 1. -¢
Aphonus brevicruris Cartwright, 1944, p. 36, pl. 1.
fig. 5.
Described from a unique male collected at
Austwell, Tex., May 20, 1941 (Goodpaster
collector), and not taken since to my knowl-
edge. I have not seen the type, and the informa-
tion here is reworded and taken from Cart-
wright’s paper: Easily separable from all other
United States species by the proportions of
the hind legs: the femur is three-fifths as wide
as it is long, the tibia is shorter than the femur,
and the tibial apex is widely flared and more
than half as wide at apex as the full tibial
length; in all other United States species the
hind femur is only half as wide as long, the hind
tibia and femur are subequal in length and the
hind tibial apex is flared but at most is one-
third as wide at apex as the length.
Tribe DYNASTINI
Some of the largest and heaviest insects
in the world occur in this tribe, including
178
the well-known Dynastes hercules of the
American Tropics. Arrow (1937) lists only
21 genera in the tribe from the world, many
of these genera being monobasic. The essen-
tial character of the enlarged male forelegs
is not too well shown in our United States
species, but in our relatively common Golofa
Hope and such Megasoma as elephas the
character is strongly indicated. In the
Colombian Golofa porteri Hope the front
legs in the male are as long as the entire
body and exactly twice as long as the fore-
legs of the females. Bates (1889) reports the
immense Megasoma elephas (Fabricius) as
feeding in numbers on ripe mangoes in
Panama, and my father has collected num-
bers around street lights in central Panama,
where the large lumbering insects often fly
into the faces of passersby and occasionally
badly scratch or at least scare them! Since a
large male specimen weighs nearly half a
pound, the bruises and abrasions that could
be occasioned by such a specimen flying
into a person’s face is easily imaginable.
We have only two genera in the United
States.
KEY TO UNITED STATES GENERA
First segment of hind tarsus sharp on outer side
but not really extended into a long spine (length
of segment on outer side exclusive of apical
movable setae only one-third to one-fifth
longer than length on inner side); prosternal
spine high between front coxae (as ‘“‘tall’”’ as its
own width across base) and always either
densely hairy or at least hairy or setose api-
cally on posterior side; surface glabrous and
usually gray, speckled with piceous spots
(rarely unicolorous in some females); male with
front thoracic angles normal, that is, not sinu-
ous (southeast and southern United States and
IMiexic@)): Sais Becta geen tare tan Dynastes Kirby
First segment of hind tarsus with a long distinct
apical spine (length of segment on outside, in-
cluding spine, one-half to three-fourths times
longer than length on inner side); prosternal
spine much shorter than coxal length (two-
thirds as “‘tall’’ as its own width across base)
and always quite glabrous on external face;
surface always hairy (velvety) and unicolorous
piceous; male with each front thoracic horn
strongly sinuous (Arizona and Mexico)......
Data: wren aes toes Re .....-Megasoma Kirby
Genus Dynastes Kirby
Dynastes Kirby, 1825, p. 568; Burmeister, 1847,
p. 256; Lacordaire, 1856, p. 444; Casey, 1915,
p. 258; Arrow, 1937 (many references given),
p. 95; Ritcher, 1944, p. 39 (larvae).
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 38, NO. 5
Our species have been variously listed or de-
scribed in the genera Scarabaeus, Geotrupes,
X ylotrupes, and others by the older authors and
such references are readily available in Arrow
(1937) and Burmeister (1847).
Arrow lists 13 species of these so-called
“rhinoceros beetles’ as valid in his 1937 cata-
logue, these occurring in India, the Philippines,
Java, Burma, Borneo, Nigeria, the Congo, and
the Americas. I seriously doubt that all these
could possibly be congeneric. At any rate, six
species are listed from the Americas, and two
of these are supposed to occur in the United
States. The large and well-known hercules ap-
parently has not been taken yet north of Gua-
temala, except possibly in quarantine intercep-
tions, and it appears to be replaced in Mexico
by the much smaller so-called hyllus of Chevro-
lat. I have seen specimens of the latter species
from central and southern Mexico and am
entirely unable to separate them either on
genital or external characters from our common
tityus (Linnaeus).
Our Arizona Dynastes are usually called
grantt Horn; the male genital characters are
identical with those of tityus and the only dif-
ferences can be summed up in the following
(the thoracic horn is measured with a microme-
ter scale in a direct line between the laterobasal
denticles at each side of the horn base, and the
horn apex):
Male thoracic horn distinctly 6-8 times longer
than scutellar length (19-23 mm/3 mm); this
horn also much broader basally through the
denticles; horn on head long, with a very dis-
tinct and large, preapical tooth on the dorsal
side; CAniZ0Na >... 82a 50 terrae grantt Horn
Male thoracic horn 3—5 times longer than scutel-
lar length (7-12 mm/2.5 mm); horn of head
usually faintly notched dorsally or entirely
smocth, never with a dorsal preapical tooth.
Eastern United States and Mexico..........
Ae eet trae een ee. tityus (Linnaeus)
As anyone who has worked to any extent in
the Dynastini knows, these characters as listed
above are highly variable in a group where ex-
ceptionally dimorphic forms are the rule rather
than the exception, and I am not at all sure of
the validity of grantz. We have an exact coun-
terpart of this in the related and well-known
Golofa imperialis Thomson and pizarro Hope
where the males are unusually variable and the
thoracic horn in male majors is unusually long
and toothed within, varying through all de-
grees to the male minors, in which the horn is
May 15, 1948 SAYLOR: SYNOPTIC REVISION OF SUBFAMILY DYNASTINAE 179
the merest sort of a knob with a smooth inner andthe more typically eastern tityus, it appears
surface. Until such time as exact intermediate best to retain the name granti as a weak sub-
specimens can be collected between Arizona species of tityus.
Fic. 1.—a, Phileurus truncatus (Beauvois): Male genitalia; b, Archophileurus cribrosus (LeConte):
Male genitalia; c, Phzleurus illatus LeConte: Male genitalia; d, Phileurus castaneus Haldeman: Male
genitalia; e, Aphonus brevicruris Cartwright: Male genitalia; f, Aphonus tridentatus (Say): Head of female,
front view; g, Dynastes tityus (Linnaeus): Male genitalia; h, Aphonus densicauda Casey: Male genitalia;
1, Aphonus tridentatus (Say): Male genitalia, from Jacksonville, Fla.; 7, Aphonus tridentatus (Say): Male
genitalia, from South Carolina; k, Aphonus castaneus (Melsheimer); Male genitalia; from Rhode Island;
l, Aphonus densicauda Casey: Female genitalia; m, Aphonus castaneus (Melsheimer): Female genitalia; n,
Aphonus tridentatus (Say): Female genitalia.
180
‘Dynastes tityus (Linnaeus)
Fig. 1, g
Scarabaeus tityus Linnaeus, 1763, p. 391.
Scarabaeus marianus Linnaeus, 1767, p. 549.
Scarabaeus pennsylvanicus DeGeer, 1774, p. 308.
Scarabaeus hyllus Chevrolat, 18438, p. 33 (new
synonymy); Bates, 1888 (as Dynastes), p. 336;
Dugés, 1887 (as Dynastes), p. 137 (biology).
Scarabaeus iphiclus (Panzer) Burmeister, 1847,
p. 259.
Dynastes tityus (Linnaeus) Burmeister, 1847, p.
260; Lacordaire, 1856, p. 444; Arrow, 1937,
p. 98 (many references); Casey, 1915, p. 260;
Hamilton, 1886, p. 112 (biology); Manee, 1915,
p. 266 (biology); Ritcher, 1944, p. 39 (larvae).
Dynastes corniger Sternberg, 1910, p. 26 (new
synonomy).
Subspecies: Dynastes grantt Horn, 1870, p. 78;
Casey, 1915, p. 261; Arrow, 1937, p. 97.
This large and familiar species is widespread
throughout the eastern United States from
New York and Pennsylvania south through
Florida, west to Arizona and south into Mexi-
co, and possibly Guatemala. Varies greatly in
size and color, especially in the females. The
smallest specimen I have seen was 37 mm and
the largest 74 mm; with the average about 55
mm. The often asymmetrical (bilateral) colora-
tion has been frequently noted, especially in
the females, and a good description is given by
Ritcher (1944) of this variation in adults he
collected in a single stump and very probably
from a single parent: in 14 pupal cells (7 males,
7 females), 8 individuals were spotted, 5 had
one elytron spotted and the other of a solid
dark mahogany color, and 1 was of a uniform
dark mahogany color. The larvae are recorded
as feeding in decaying wood of oaks, pines,
chestnut, willows, wild cherries, black locust,
and fruit trees such as peaches and apples.
The adults feed on the sap of wounded trees as
well as decaying fruit of peaches, plums, pears,
and apples, and Casey claims that the adults
have a characteristic odor that can be smelled
for some distance, if the observer is downwind
of a considerable number of individuals.
D. granti Horn was described from Arizona,
though tityus has also been recorded from this
State. As stated above, Iam not at all sure that
the form is sufficiently distinct to warrant its
retention.
Genus Megasoma Kirby
Megasoma Kirby, 1825, p. 566; LeConte and
Horn, 1883, p. 260; Casey, 1915, p. 261; Arrow,
1937, p. 98 (other references).
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 9
Megasominus Casey, 1915, p. 261; Arrow, 1937,
p. 35.
Megalosoma Burmeister, 1847, p. 273.
Lycophontes Bruch, 1910, p. 73.
Arrow lists eight species of this American
genus, five of them from South America. Our
only species in the United States is the ther-
sites of LeConte, which occurs in Arizona and
Lower California. Casey erected the genus
Megasominus for this species, the essential dif-
ferences between it and the very much larger
Neotropical elephas (Fabricius) being the pres-
ence of a large basal horn dorsally on the base
of the male cephalic horn in the latter, and also
the marked sexual dimorphism in the front
legs of the two sexes of elephas (fore tibia of
male noticeably elongated and curved, and not
so in female); in thersites there is no trace of a
dorsal tooth on the base of the large cephalic
horn, nor is there any difference between the
length of the front legs in the two sexes. At
first glance, there is a marked difference be-
tween male elephas and thersites: the former is
very large (34 to 43 inches) and with a dense
uniform clothing of short velvety pile, and a
very large forward-projecting tooth on the base
of the cephalic horn, and the mid-dise of the
thorax is evenly convex without a central horn;
whereas in thersites the male is small (14 to 14
inches long), the cephalic horn has no basal
tooth, the dorsal clothing of pile is slightly
longer, less velvety, and much less uniformly
placed, and the mid-dise of the thorax hasa
narrow, semierect horn, which is slightly bi-
furcate apically. However, in the females of the
two species, the only essential difference be-
sides size is that the thorax base in elephas is
strongly margined, as opposed to the non-
margined base of thersites, but all other essen-
tial characters are so closely similar that it is
necessary to treat the two species as congeneric.
Megasoma thersites LeConte
Megasoma thersites LeConte, p. 336.
Megasominus thersites (LeConte) Casey, 1915, p.
259. a
This uncommon species is usually confined
to Lower California, but I have a specimen
taken in the ‘‘Coyote Mts., Arizona, August,
3,500 ft. elevation.’”’ Ross and Bohart collected
the species at San Venancio in Lower Cali-
fornia on October 8, 1941. Easily separable in
the male from all other United States Dynas-
May 15, 1948
tini by the combination of the strongly bi-
fureate clypeal horn, and the sharp tooth of
each front thoracic angle, as well as the mod-
erate to short, narrow, erect, weakly bifurcate
horn of the mid-dise of the thorax. The female
is readily separable from female Strategus by
the widely separated front teeth on the apex
of the clypeus (one at each side angle) as well
as the sharp, bidentate mandibles and the non-
margined center base of the thorax. The female
thersites somewhat resembles a female A pho-
nides dunnianus, but the clypeus there is uni-
dentate at apex and the mandibles are equally
rounded and not at all toothed. The life his-
tory is apparently unknown.
It is very surprising to me that the male
aedeagus of this species is inseparable in form
from that of male Dynastes tityus, but such ap-
pears to be the case, based on my own careful
dissections; throughout dynastines generally,
the characters of the male genitalia appear to
be specific within narrow boundaries of varia-
tion.
Tribe PHILEURINI
This tribe is the most aberrant of the sub-
family Dynastinae, as the labial palpi are
inserted on the wnderside of the ligular
plate instead of at the sides, and the gener-
ally black color and the depressed (majority
of species) dorsal surface is suggestive of the
Passalidae. Numerous genera and species
are described and the tribe is world-wide;
our American (Neotropical) species and
genera are very poorly and inadequately
known.
The two sexes are not well differentiated
externally in this tribe. The only obvious
external sexual difference is that the male
sixth abdominal sternite (instead of being
emarginate apically aS in most other
dynastine tribes) is subtruncate at apex,
whereas the same sternite in the female is
somewhat narrowly rounded, though at
times it is practically impossible for even an
experienced student of the group to be cer-
tain of the sex unless he dissects the speci-
men. This condition, however, does not hold
good throughout the tribe, since males of
the Neotropical Amblyodus Westwood show
the typical emargination of the last sternite.
KEY TO UNITED STATES GENERA AND SPECIES
1. Completely lacking any tubercles or horns on
SAYLOR: SYNOPTIC REVISION OF SUBFAMILY DYNASTINAE
181
either head or thorax; clypeal base consisting
of a wide carina which is obsolescent lat-
erally; front not at all concave, but coarsely
punctate; side of thorax exceptionally hairy
(hairs really extend from beneath thoracic
margin); elytra short and very coarsely crib-
rate; apex of hind tibia slightly irregular
but not really toothed; all tarsal segments
short and subrectangular in shape; elytra
“‘soldered’”’ at sutures and wings reduced to
IMETET VESRIE ESET os ee, See Sos Sa
..Archophileurus cribrosus (LeConte)
With tubercles or horns on either head or
thorax or both, without transverse clypeal
carina; front always strongly concave; elytra
longer, depressed; hind tibial apex distinctly
spinose, at least at sides; tarsal segments
longer, basal segment of mid and hind legs
with strong apical spine; elytra not soldered
at suture and wings of normal length.
UMMC UIES a oes Re hone a a 3
2. Size large (29-34 mm); clypeal horn very large,
as long as exposed dorsal portion of head,
each horn situated right at and on lateral
margin of head; small canthus in front of
eye (dorsal view) very obsolescent, not at all
conspicuous. . Phileurus truncatus (Beauvois)
Size much smaller (16-23 mm); clypeal horn
small or represented by a tubercle, always
much shorter than head length; clypeal horn
situated znside each lateral margin, and not
at it; eye canthus moderate to strong..... 3
3. Front tibia distinctly 4-dentate, the subapical
and apical external teeth very narrowly sep-
arated by a distinctly U-shaped incision;
the sides of the ‘“‘incision”’ parallel........
ee eS Phileurus castaneus Haldeman
Front tibia tridentate, at most with the merest
suggestion of a fourth tooth (near base if
present) apical and subapical external tooth
separated by a wide non-parallel-sided emar-
eG Ss . . Phileurus illatus LeConte
Genus Archophileurus Kolbe
Archophileurus Kolbe, 1910, p. 334; Casey, 1915,
p. 271; Arrow, 1937, p. 38; Cazier, 1399, p. 170.
Arrow in his 1937 catalogue lists a number of
American species in this genus, some of these
however actually being synonyms, but the
group is not well enough known to definitely
list them as such at the present time. Our
single United States species also occurs in
northern Mexico:
Archophileurus cribrosus (LeConte)
Fig. 1, 6
Phileurus cribrosus LeConte, 1854, p. 80; Bates,
1887, p. 338.
Archophileurus cribrosus (LeConte) Casey, 1915,
p. 264; Arrow, 1937, p. 87; Cazier, 1939, p. 170.
Judged from collected specimens apparently
the center of distribution of this species is in
182
northern Mexico (Durango, Coahuila, and
Tamaulipas), with further distribution in the
southwestern United States (Texas, Arizona,
and New Mexico). Nothing is known regarding
its habits. The slender vestigial wings are inter-
esting, and owing to this flightless condition we
might expect to find local races in such a wide-
ranging form.
Genus Phileurus Latreille
Phileurus Latrielle, 1807, p. 103; Burmeister,
1947, p. 148; Lacordaire, 1856, p. 456; Kolbe,
1910, p. 336; Casey, 1915, p. 264; Arrow, 1937,
p. 89; Cazier, 1939, p. 170.
In his 1937 catalogue Arrow lists 27 species,
at least 10 of which are known to me to be
synonyms. The species range generally through-
out the Americas and the West Indies. The
larvae live in decaying wood. Because of the
flattened dorsal surface and the black color,
these Phileurus are often mistaken for passalid
beetles, which they do indeed superficially re-
semble.
Phileurus truncatus (Beauvois)
Fig. 1, a
Scarabaeus truncatus Palisot de Beauvois, 1807,
p. 41.
Phileurus truncatus (Beauvois) Casey, 1915, p.
265; Bates, 1889, p. 340; Arrow, 1937, p. 90;
Cazier, 1939, p. 170.
Phaleurus recurvatus Casey, 1915, p. 266.
Recorded by Bates and Casey from Mexico
and ranging also rather commonly throughout
our southeastern United States. Has been re-
corded as mistaking chimneys for hollow trees
and thus falling into fireplaces. The large size
and strong cephalic horns readily place the
species.
Phileurus illatus LeConte
Hig Se
Phileurus illatus LeConte, 1854, p. 80; Casey,
1915, p. 267; Ritcher, 1944, p. 47 (larvae).
Phileurus vitulus LeConte, 1866, p. 80; Cazier,
1939, p. 170.
Phileurus phoenicis Casey, 1915, p. 267; Cazier,
1939, p. 170.
Phileurus puncticollis Casey, 1915, p. 268; Cazier,
1939, p. 170.
Goniophileurus femoratus (Burmeister) Kolbe,
1910, p. 149, p. 344 (pars); Arrow, 1937, p.
86, 90; Blackwelder, 1944, pp. 257-258; Ca-
zier, 1939, p. 170.
There has been a great deal of controversy
about and incorrect citations for this species
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
since Kolbe erected the genus Goniophileurus
for femoratus Burmeister and placed illatus
LeConte and vitulus LeConte as synonyms of
it. Burmeister’s types of femoratus were from
French Guiana and this name (the species is
unknown to me) should apply to that locality,
and vitulus and illatus should be removed from
the synonymy of that species. Kolbe’s main
character for the genus Goniophileurus was the
2- or 3-toothed mandible, whereas my dissec-
tions show without doubt that the mandibles
of our U.S. species are quite simple. Thus in
the catalogues of Arrow (1937) and of Black-
welder (1944) following Arrow, vitulus and
illatus are listed both as synonyms of Gonio-
phileurus femoratus (Burmeister) and also as
valid species of Phileurus; actually, they have
nothing to do with femoratus, and vitulus is a
synonym of our common tllatus.
Ritcher has studied larvae taken in the
trunks of trees (Dasylirion) in Arizona. The
species occurs fairly commonly in Arizona, very
rarely in southern California and in northern
Mexico and Lower California (Triunfo, July 7,
Ross and Michelbacher). I have also seen a
specimen some time ago, apparently of this
species, taken from the La Brea tar pits in
southern California, probably representing a
specimen of the (?) Pleistocene period.
Phileurus castaneus Haldeman
Fig. 1, d
Phileurus castaneus Haldeman, 1843, p. 304;
Casey, 1915, p. 270; Arrow, 1937, p. 89; Ca-
zier, 1939, p. 170; Ritcher, 1944, p. 42 (larvae).
Phileurus valgus Olivier (nec Linnaeus), 1789,
p. 48; Arrow, 1937, p. 89.
Phileurus texensis Casey, 1915, p. 268; Cazier,
1939, p. 170.
Phileurus sulcifer Casey, 1915, p. 269; Cazier
1939, p. 170.
Phileurus floridanus Casey, 1915, p. 270; Cazier,
1939, p. 170.
Phileurus carolinae Casey, 1915, p. 269; Cazier,
1939, p. 170.
Arrow in his 1937 catalogue lists four varie-
ties of this species from the West Indies and
South America. It is a fairly common species in
the United States, ranging from Virginia
through the Southern States and Florida and
Texas into Mexico, and supposedly also Gua-
temala. Ritcher has reared the larva from a
specimen collected in a cavity of a dead Bass-
wood tree.
May 15, 1948
LITERATURE CITED
Arrow, G. J. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 1909:
341.
. Coleop. Catalogus, pars 156: 89. 1937.
. Trans. Ent. Soc. London (A) 86: 38.
1937.
Bates, H. W. Biologia Centrali-Americana,
Coleoptera 2(2): 338. 1889.
Beavuvois, A. M. J. Patisor pr. Insectes
recuerllis en Afrique et en Amerique: 41.
1807.
BLACKWELDER, R. E. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull.
185, part 2: 257-258. 1944.
Brucu, Cartos. Rev. Mus. La Plata 4(2):
erect O10, -
BurRMEIsTER, H. Handbuch der Entomologie
5: 148. 1847.
Cartwricut, O. L. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer.
37(1): 36. 1944.
Casny, T. L. Memoirs on the Coleoptera 6:
178. 1915; 11: 334. 1924.
Cazier, M. A. Bull. Southern California
Acad. Sci. 38(3): 170. 1939.
CuHEVROLAT, L. A. A. Jn Guerin, Mag. Zool.,
Coléoptéres du Mexique, 13: 33. 1842.
DeGsEeER, Cart. Mémoires pour servir a Vhis-
toure des insectes 4: 322. 1774.
Ducks, HEucenge. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique 31:
137. 1887.
HatpEMAN,S.S. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-
delphia 1: 304. 18438.
Hamiuton, J. Can. Ent. 18: 112. 1886.
Horn, G. H. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 2: 78.
1870; 10: 122. 1882.
DELACOUR: NOTE ON AETHOPYGA SATURATA (BLYTH)
183
JOHNSON, R. Connecticut Agr. Exp. Stat.
Bull. 461: 79-86. 1942.
Kirpy, W. ‘Trans. Linn. Soc. London 14:
566-568. 1825.
Kose, T. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique 54: 334.
1910.
LacoRDAIRE, J. T. Genera des coléopteres 3:
456. 1856.
LATREILLE, P. A. Genera crustaceorum et in-
sectorum 2: 103. 1807.
LeConts, J. L. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-
delphia (2), 1:88. 1848.
. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 6:
80. 1854; 8: 21. 1856; 13: 336. 1861.
LreConte, J. L., and Horn, G. Classification
of the Coleoptera of North America 259.
1883.
LinnakEus, C. Amoen. Academy 6: 391. 1763.
. Systema naturae (ed. 12) 1(2): 549.
1767.
Maneg, A. H. Ent. News 26: 266. 1915.
MELSHEIMER, F. E. V. Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia 2: 138. 1856.
OxuivieR, A. G. Entomologie ou histovre na-
turelle des insectes 1 (pars 5): 48. 1789.
Ritcuer, P. O. Kentucky Agr. Exp. Stat.
Bull. No. 467: 48. 1944.
Say, Tuomas. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
delphia 3: 209. 1823.
Sartor, L. W. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci.
35(12): 378-386. 1945; 36(1): 16-22.
1946; 36(2): 41-46. 1946.
Sims, Ropert. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cire. 334.1934.
STERNBERG, R. Stett. Ent. Zeitung 71: 26.
1910 (1909).
Phila-
ORNITHOLOGY .—WNote on the races of the black-throated sunbird, Aethopyga
saturata (Hodgson).1 J. DELAcour, American Museum of Natural History.
(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)
While I was in Europe in the summer of
1947, I made a complete examination of the
specimens of Aethopyga saturata preserved
in the Museums of Paris and London at the
instance of H. G. Deignan, who has re-
cently revised the races of the species, using
the material available in the United States.
I found that the races stand as he has indi-
cated in his recent paper (This JoURNAL 38:
21-23. 1948) with one addition. Also new
indications are supplied by the specimens in
the Paris and London collections, many of
which have been collected by me in Indo-
china. The metallic blue, or dull black,
coloration of the middle of the throat of the
males is an important characteristic, but it
is not quite stable, and specimens varying
1 Received January 30, 1948.
in that way may be found apparently in
several populations. I have listed the fol-
lowing ratios of metallic and dull throats in
two subspecies from the specimens de-
posited in Paris and London.
Subspecies and locality Metallic throat Dull throat
sanguinipectus:
Karenni 3 1
(including type)
Tenasserim 9 0
petersi:
Southern Shan
States 0 14
Haut Laos 2 9
Tongking 2 6
Even in specimens with a completely
metallic blue throat the center is always
somewhat duller than the sides, so that in
some cases it is a question of degree and
there is a gradation between the two ex-
184
tremes. Also there is a good deal of variation
in the intensity and extent of the yellow of
the underparts among specimens from
Tongking and Haut Laos. Two males from
Dakto, Central Annam, are similar to speci-
mens from the Boloven Plateau and should
be referred to ochra.
Mr. Deignan was unable to examine ma-
terial from Bokor, southwestern Cambodia.
This population is isolated on the Chaines
des Eléphants et des Cardamomes and has
special characteristics. I propose to call it:
Aethopyga saturata cambodiana, n. subsp.
Type.—Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. no. 1578,
adult male, collected at Bokor, Cambodia, on
December 12, 1927, by J. Delacour (original
number 798).
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
Diagnosis.—Nearest to ochra Deignan (Bas
Laos and Central Annam), differing in having
the middle of throat usually metallic blue, not
dull black, the mantle of a darker maroon red
color and the abdomen grayer. Resembles
sanguinipectus Walden (South Burma), but
darker red on the mantle. In its dark mantle
and metallic throat it approaches johnsi Robin-
son and Kloss (South Annam), which, how-
ever, is very distinct from all other races in the
almost plain red color of the breast. Iris dark
brown; bill black; legs blackish brown. Female
similar to petersi, very yellow underneath.
Range.—The mountains of southwestern
Cambodia and probably the border of Siam.
Specimens examined.—8 males, 3 females.
Remarks.—One of the males (Paris) has the
center of throat dull black.
ORNITHOLOGY .—Some races of the babbling thrush, Malacocincla abbotti Blyth.!
H. G. Deienan, U. 8. National Museum.
Despite the fact that this common bab-
bler is generally admitted to show normal
subspecific variation in the Malaysian Sub-
region, ornithological writers have con-
sistently held that the nominate race
ranges, without the least geographical
change, from the eastern Himalayan foot-
hills to Malaya and Indochine. Inasmuch as
the rich material before me shows unde-
niable subspeciation, it must be supposed
that lack of specimens from Arakan, the
type locality of the species, has inhibited its
proper study in the past.
It may be said at once that I have not
myself seen a single topotype of Malaco-
cincla abbott: and that all remarks to follow
are based upon the premise that specimens
from southwestern Siam and _ northern
Tenasserim represent the Arakanese form
—an assumption supported by careful com-
parison of these birds with the original de-
scription of Blyth (Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal
14, pt. 2: 601. Aug. 1845).
In my diagnoses of new subspecies, only
fresh-plumaged adult examples have been
employed, and ‘‘foxing’”’ has been taken into
account by comparison of birds of approxi-
mately the same date of collection. After
these precautions, I still find it necessary
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received January
16, 1948.
to name three races from Siam alone. Their
descriptions follow.
1. Malacocincla abbotti rufescentior, n. subsp.
Type.—U. 8. N. M. no. 330572, adult female,
collected at Ban Tha Lo, southwest of Surat
Thani or Ban Don (ca. lat. 9°05’ N., long.
99°15’ E.), peninsular Siam, on September 20,
1931, by Hugh M. Smith (original number
4982).
Diagnosis.—Separable in series from M. a.
abbottt (as exemplified by birds from south-
western Siam and northern Tenasserim) by
having the upperparts slightly more rufescent,
and especially by having the underparts (ex-
cept the white throat and abdomen) more
strongly washed with a much brighter ferrugi-
nous.
Range.—Peninsular Siam (except Pattani
Province) and southern Tenasserim.
Remarks.—M. a. rufescentior is distinguish-
able from olivacea of Pattani Province and
Malaya by the same characters as separate it
from abbotti. The material before me does not
show any very obvious difference between
abbottt and olwacea, although the latter seems
to have the upperparts the least bit darker in
tone; larger series would probably show this
better.
Twenty-four winter-taken adults of rufes-
centior have been examined.
May 15, 1948
2. Malacocincla abbotti obscurior, n. subsp.
Type.—U. 5S. N. M. no. 333912, adult male,
collected at Khao Sa Bap (lat. 12°35’ N., long.
102°15’ E.), Chanthaburi Province, southeast-
ern Siam, on October 25, 1933, by Hugh M.
Smith (original number 6545).
Diagnosis——Separable in series from M. a.
rufescentior by having the coloration of the
crown, especially anteriorly, darker and more
olivaceous; by having the remaining upper-
parts equally rufescent, but decidedly deeper
in tone; and by having the rufescent of the
underparts (excepting the white throat and
abdomen) slightly brighter and deeper.
Range.—Southeastern Siam.
Remarks.—Twenty-five winter-taken adults
of obscurior have been examined.
3. Malacocincla abbotti williamsoni, 1. subsp.
Type.—uvU.S. N. M. no. 324357, adult male,
collected at Sathani Pak Chong, eastern Siam
LOOMIS: TWO NEW MILLIPEDS OF JAMAICA =
185
at lat. 14°40’ N., long. 101°25’ E., on November
16, 1929, by Hugh M. Smith (original number
3457).
Diagnosis.—Like M, a. obscurior in the dark
coloration of the crown but easily distinguish-
able from it in series by having the remaining
upperparts olivaceous brown, but slightly suf-
fused with rufescent, and by having the under-
parts (except the white throat and abdomen)
more lightly washed with a paler ferruginous.
From M. a. abbottr, which it resembles be-
neath, williamsoni is separable by the deeper
tone of the more olivaceous-brown upperparts
and the darker coloration of the crown.
Range.—Eastern Siam and Laos (Vientiane).
Remarks.—This race is named in honor of Sir
Walter J. F. Williamson, C.M.G., the well-
known student of Siamese ornithology.
Eleven winter-taken adults of williamsoni
have been examined.
ZOOLOGY .—Two new millipeds of Jamaica.! H. F. Loomis, Coconut Grove, Fla.
Late in January and early in February,
1937, Dr. E. A. Chapin, curator of insects,
United States National Museum, collected
insects and members of lower groups in
Jamaica. The millipeds included in this
collection were sent to me for identification,
there being eight species of which two ap-
pear to be undescribed, one representing a
new generic type. These two new millipeds
are here described and the previously known
species in the collection listed. All speci-
mens have been deposited in the National
Museum.
Glomeridesmus angulosus, n. sp.
One male (type) and six other specimens in
bottle labeled only “Sifting fern gully, Feb.
2,’ but probably collected at Moneague, where
other collecting was done the same day.
Diagnosis.—This is the smallest West Indian
species of the genus and has the posterior cor-
ners of more of the caudal segments produced
into acute angles than any other species. The
last male legs also are distinctive.
Description — Length of largest specimen, a
female, with 21 segments, 4 mm, width 1 mm;
1 Received January 16, 1948.
largest male, with 20 segments, 3 mm long. The
generally dark color of living animals probably
is almost entirely derived from the internal
organs showing through the quite transparent
and colorless body wall noticeable in preserved
specimens.
The pit behind each antenna is circular and
not opened on any side, nor is the antennal
socket opened behind or below although there
is a depression below it as in the Haitian G.
jenkinsi Loomis.
From segment 12 or 13 to segment 19 in-
clusive the posterior corners are increasingly
produced into acute angles as shown in Fig. 1.
Basal joint of the legs with posterior margin
minutely serrate. Pleurae with about three
transverse ridges in front, the back margin
smooth but with 6 to 8 minute, short, pro-
jecting setae; inner posterior corner acute.
Penultimate legs of male with basal joints di-
rected outward, the three terminal ones bent
caudad. Last male legs with only the two ter-
minal joints projecting beyond the penultimate
legs, modified as shown in Fig. 2.
Siphonophora robusta Chamberlin
A female, apparently of this species from
Moneague, station 370, February 2.
186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5
Rhinocricus sabulosus Pocock Rhinocricus sp.
A female from Moneague, station 370, A young specimen from near White Horses,
February 2, and several specimens from ‘‘under _ station 386, February 6.
dung” at Mocho, February 16. Spirostrophus naresi (Pocock)
Rhinocricus solitarius Pocock
Numerous specimens from Bath St. Thomas,
A male collected with R. sabulosus above. February 6 and 8.
——_——
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Fiaes. 1-2.—Glomeridesmus angulosus, n. sp.: 1, Segments 16 to 20, lateral view; 2, two apical joints’
of last male leg on left side, ventral view over penultimate leg.
Fies. 3-6.—Xaymacia granulata, n. sp.: 3, Antenna and part of opposite socket; 4, head and first
penultimate three segments, the nonsetiferous tubercles not shown; 5, segment 9 of male showing
typieal dorsal sculpture; 6, gonopods, ventral view.
\
May 15, 1948
Xaymacia, n. gen.
Genoty pe.-—X aymacia granulata, n. sp.
Diagnosis.—From the shape of the gonopods
it does not appear that this genus has any close
relatives in the known chelodesmid fauna of
the West Indies or the mainland surrounding
the Caribbean area. The ornamentation of the
dorsum is not duplicated in other members of
the family in the region.
Description.—Body of the size and propor-
tions of the common Orthomorpha coarctata
(Saussure) with which species specimens were
collected in several localities. Males more
slender and with the dorsum flatter than fe-
males. Dorsum thickly granulate in addition
to three transverse series of slightly larger
setose tubercles on segments 1 to 19, inclusive.
Head large, as wide as segment 1; a strong
sulcus on the vertex; antennae separated by
little more than the diameter of one of the
sockets, geniculate at joint 4; joints 5 and 6
with a group of sensory hairs on the outer side
near apex.
Produced posterior corners of lateral keels,
from segment 2 to 18 inclusive, subequal in
size. Pore formula normal, the pores opening
outward from the margin of the carinae. Sterna
sparsely hispid.
Gonopods with the apical half of the poste-
rior division slender, pointed, and curving be-
hind and partly obscured by the anterior divi-
sion which is biramose and with its apical half
in a sigmoid curve.
The generic name is in reference to the old
name ‘‘Xaymaca”’ from which the modern
name of Jamaica was derived.
Xaymacia granulata, n. sp.
From January 28 to February 8, 1937,
numerous specimens were collected at the fol-
lowing localities: Caymanas, along Rio Cobre,
(male type); Annotto Bay; Half Way Tree;
Hope Gardens; Bath St. Thomas.
Description.—Length 16 to 18 mm; body
parallel-sided from segment 1 to 16; males
definitely more slender than females and the
dorsum flatter, nearly horizontal; general size
and color very similar to Orthomorpha coarctata
(Saussure)
Living color dark brown except for the cor-
ners of segment 1 and the lateral carinae of
succeeding segments which are light yellow,
LOOMIS: TWO NEW MILLIPEDS OF JAMAICA
187
the color being restricted to the outer margin
of the carina at the front of each segment but
broadening to include the entire posterior cor-
ner; last segment wholly brown; sterna, legs,
preanal scale, and the anal valves colorless.
Head almost as wide as remainder of body;
strongly and evenly inflated, subglobose, with
a very definite sulcus extending across the
vertex to between the antennae; the vertex
shining, glabrous behind, sparsely and finely
hispid in front, the remainder of the head much
more densely hispid with erect hairs varying in
length from very short to others several times
as long. Antennae close together near the front
of the head, separated by little more than the
diameter of one socket, shaped as shown in
Fig. 3; joints 5 and 6 each with a small area of
sensory hairs near apex on the outer side.
First segment semicircular, strongly convex,
with the posterior corners depressed, thin,
horizontal, rather acute but not produced
backward; surface densely scattered with
small vesiclelike granules as high as broad, and
three transverse rows of slightly larger setifer-
ous granules, 12 of which are along the anterior
margin,10 in the median row and 8 to 10 some-
what in advance of the posterior margin; a
single seta projects outward from the margin
just in advance of the posterior corner.
Ensuing segments with granules and trans-
verse rows of setiferous tubercles similar to
those of segment 1; a pronounced transverse
sulcus crosses the middle of each segment and
the lateral carinae have one or two setae pro-
jecting outward from the outer margin (Fig.
4). Second segment with the outer margin of
the keels slightly longer than on ensuing ones,
the posterior corners produced backward in
the same degree which remains uniform to
segment 18, corners of segment 19 reduced to
half size; from segment 5 backward the outer
margin of the keels thickened and containing
an elongate impressed area opening outward,
this being much broader in the poriferous keels
(Fig. 5). Pore formula normal.
Last segment short, conical, abruptly nar-
rower at apex, the dorsal surface lacking gran-
ules except those bearing the setae, there being
an anterior row of six of these and a posterior,
subapical, row of four, the outermost actually
being on the lateral surface.
Preanal scale large, triangular, the posterior
margin of segment 19 just in front of it with 6 to
188
10 marginal setae. Anal valves moderately in-
flated, the margins thinly elevated.
Sterna sparsely hispid with long erect hairs.
Sterna of fourth male legs with two rather
large conical tubercles, other sterna and legs
normal. Gonopods as shown in Fig. 6.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
Orthomorpha coarctata (Saussure)
Numerous specimens collected at Annotto
Bay, January 30; Half Way Tree, January 28
and 31; Caymanas, on sandy beach along Rio
Cobre, February 3.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
THE ACADEMY
416TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS
The 416th meeting of the Board of Man-
agers, held in the Cosmos Club, March 15,
1948, was called to order at 8 p.m. by the
President, Dr. F. D. Rossini. Others present
were: H. 8. Rappleye, W. L, Scumirt, W. W.
Diex., F. M. Dreranporr, C. F. W. Muzss-
BECK, R. Bamrorp, W. A. Dayron, F. B.
SILSBEE, M. A. Mason, A. O. Fostsr, L. A.
Rogers, C. L. Garner, C. L. Gazin, and, by
invitation, H. E. McComps, R. J. Sescer, and
L. V. JUDSON.
The President announced the appointment
of a Committee on Science Legislation: J. E.
GraF, Chairman, A. T. McPHEerson, W. W.
RUBEY.
It was reported that the Executive Commit-
tee had agreed to accept an invitation to join
with the Library of Congress, the American
Council of Learned Societies, and the Founda-
tion for Integrated Education in cosponsoring
a memorial meeting in honor of the late Alfred
North Whitehead at the Library of Congress on
Sunday, March 21, 1948.
The Executive Committee recommended to
the Board that an allotment of $20 be made
to the Membership Committee to cover ex-
penses of office, including the preparation of
mimeographed summaries of the new-member
qualifications for presentation to the Board.
The Chairman of the Committee on Meet-
ings, Dr. R. J. SEEGER, announced that the
March meeting would be given over to the
Academy Award winners for 1947.
The secretary read the following report sub-
mitted by a committee appointed to consider
the creation of an office of President-Elect,
increase in the permitted number of members,
and the addition of two standing committees:
The Committee met on 25 February 1948 in
the office of Dr. Gazin at the National Museum to
consider the questions referred to it by the Board
of Managers, namely, the questions of creating
the office of ‘“‘President-Elect”’ of the Washington
Academy of Sciences, of increasing the permitted
number of members, and of adding the Committee
on Awards for Scientific Achievement and the
Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Research to the
standing committees of the Board of Managers.
The Committee recommends the creation of the
office of President-Elect to promote continuity of
policies and objectives of the Academy by ae-
quainting the income president with the current
business and the administrative routine of the
Academy.
The Committee regards with favor the proposal
to raise the permitted number of members of the
Academy since this would make possible an ex-
pansion of the Academy more nearly in propor-
tion to the growth of Washington as a center of
science, and would at the same time provide addi-
tional income for the Academy. However, the
Committee feels that the increase in number
should be a modest one. A large increase would
create so many vacancies that there might be a
danger of lowering the standards of admission of
the Academy. The Committee suggests that the
permitted number of active members be raised
from 650 to 700 and the number of resident active
members from 500 to 550. The Committee feels
that such action would provide ample room for
suitable candidates for several years to come,
especially since there are at present about 20
vacancies in the Academy.
The Committee recommends increasing the
number of standing committees of the Board of
Managers from four to six to include the Commit-
tee on Awards for Scientific Achievement and the
Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Research. Both
of these committees have been standing commit-
tees in effect for the past several years.
[There followed a list of suggested changes in
the Bylaws and Standing Rules to carry out these
recommendations. |
The Board accepted the report and in-
structed the Secretary to submit to a vote of
the membership the recommended changes in
May 15, 1948
the Bylaws, with the emendation that the
increase in the number of members permitted in
the Academy be changed from 50 to 100.
Changes in the Standing Rules were accepted
with one amendment. These changes are re-
quired to be presented at the next meeting of
the Board for final approval.
Upon further discussion of the composition
and duties of the various standing committees,
it was voted that the present Special Commit-
tee that recommended the changes in the By-
laws look into the matter of the tenure of
membership in the standing committees to
consider the suggestion that some arrangement
be made to permit a rotation or carry-over of a
certain number of each committee to the suc-
ceeding year, in order to facilitate functioning
of the committee and continuity in plans.
The Secretary reported the request by Dr.
O. E. Meinzer that H. FREEBoRN JOHNSTON
be reinstated as a member of the Academy. Mr.
Johnston resigned in 1939 as a result of ill
health. The Board voted to reinstate him to
membership.
The Secretary reported the death of Dr.
Neuson Horatio Darton, formerly with the
Geological Survey, an original member of the
Academy, on February 28, 1948; and of Dr.
Wiuu1am Rautpu Maxon, formerly curator of
the U. S. National Herbarium, Smithsonian
Institution, on February 25, 1948.
The Board approved the request of Dr.
Oscar Ripp.eE to be placed on the retired list,
effective December 31, 1946.
The Senior Editor, Dr. J. I. HorrMan, re-
ported that he had read the monograph re-
ferred to the Board of Editors for comment
and had found it to be in good order and
worthy of publication. The monograph, The
Parasitic Birds of Africa, by Dr. HERBERT
FRIEDMANN, was then referred to the new
Committee on Monographs for its recommen-
dations. Dr. Horrman then brought up the
question of the proposed index to the first 40
volumes of the JouRNAL, and after some dis-
cussion the President was authorized to ap-
point a committee to consider the index and
make recommendations on its publication.
The Board accepted the nomination of Dr.
T. Date STEWaRT as a Vice-President of the
Academy representing the Anthropological So-
ciety, replacing Dr. W. N. Fenton who with-
drew from this office because of his election to
PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY
189
the Board of Managers.
Item 9 of the recommendations of the Com-
mittee to consider ‘“‘various matters pertaining
to the JouRNAL and its improvement,” carried
over from the unfinished business of the previ-
ous meeting of the Board, was again discussed.
The President was authorized to appoint the
committee recommended, i.e., to study the
functions of the Academy and to formulate a
program that will integrate these functions, in-
cluding the JournaL. The Board requested
that this committee make its report by Janu-
ary 1949.
The meeting was adjourned at 10:15 p.m.
C. L. Gazin, Secretary
NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY
There follows a list of persons elected to
membership in the Academy, by vote of its
Board of Managers, since January 13, 1947,
who have since qualified as members in accord-
ance with the bylaws. (See also previous list
in January 15, 1948, issue of the JouRNAL.) The
bases for election are stated with the names of
the new members.
RESIDENT
Elected January 13, 1947
JosEPH P. E. Morrison, zoologist, U. S.
National Museum, in recognition of his scien-
tific attainments in the field of malacology, es-
pecially for his studies on the taxonomy,
anatomy, and biology of the fresh-water mol-
lusks.
Elected October 6, 1947
Ear_Le K. PLyYuer, physicist, National Bu-
reau of Standards, in recognition of his work on
the structure of molecules from infrared spec-
tra, chemical analysis by infrared absorption
measurements, and properties of matter as ex-
hibited by characteristic absorption spectra.
Elected December 15, 1947
RoseErt C. Cook, biologist, managing editor
of the Journal of Heredity, in recognition of his
services to biology, in particular his long-time
distinguished editorship of the Journal of
Heredity.
Ira A. Goutp, Jr., chemist, University of
Maryland, in recognition of his studies on the
chemistry of milk, especially of the chemical
190
changes brought about by the application of
heat.
Tirrey F. Forp, chemist, Bureau of Dairy
Industry, in recognition of his contributions to
the ultracentrifugal measurement of micellar
sizes and in particular his researches on the
particle size of the proteins of milk.
Harotp H. SHEPARD, entomologist, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, in recognition of
his contributions to entomology, particularly
the action of insecticides, the biology of stored
products, insects, and the bibliography of the
Hesperiidae.
PauL R. Miuuer, plant pathologist, Bureau
of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural En-
gineering, in recognition of his contributions to
the science of plant pathology and in particular
his researches on apple rusts and on plant-
disease survey methods, including spore load
studies, development of new techniques, epi-
demiological studies, etc.
W. GARDNER Lynv, biologist, Catholic Uni-
versity of America, in recognition of his studies
in embryology and herpetology.
Hueu T. O'NEILL, botanist, Catholic Uni-
versity of America, in recognition of his contri-
bution to systematic botany, especially the
Cyperaceae and Arctic plants.
Lex Line, plant pathologist, Food and Agri-
cultural Division, United Nations Organiza-
tion, in recognition of his contributions to the
mycology and plant pathology of China.
_Grorce D. Rock, physicist, Catholic Uni-
versity of America, in recognition of his contri-
butions to ultrasonics.
Francis EK. Fox, physicist, Catholic Uni-
versity of America, in recognition of his work in
ultrasonics, particularly on the absorption of
ultrasonic waves in liquids.
JOSEPH S. CALDWELL, physiologist, U.S. De-
partment of Agriculture, in recognition of his
studies in the physiology of fruit and vegetable
processing.
FRANK L. CAMPBELL, entomologist, editor of
the Scientific Monthly, in recognition of his
researches in entomology, in particular the
physiology of insects in relation to toxicology.
RicHarp 8. DIu, engineer, Heating and Air
Conditioning Section, National Bureau of
Standards, in recognition of his outstanding re-
-search in the fields of heating, insulation, and
air-conditioning of structures.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 5
Joun K. Taytor, chemist, National Bureau
of Standards, in recognition of his work on
electrode potentials, refractive index, and
polarography.
J. Brookes Knicur, paleontologist, U. S.
National Museum, in recognition of his contri-
butions to the knowledge of Paleozoic Gastro-
poda.
Doris M. Cocuran, zoologist, U. 8S. Na-
tional Museum, in recognition of her scientific
work in taxonomic herpetology, especially for
the Herpetology of Hispaniola, U. S. National
Museum Bulletin 177, 1941.
Elected January 12, 1948
JoHun C. Ewsrs, ethnologist, U. S. National
Museum, in recognition of his research on the
material culture and arts and crafts of the
Plains Indians in historic times.
WattrerR §. Dieux, engineer, Bureau of
Aeronautics, Department of the Navy, in
recognition of his contributions to aerody-
namics and to aeronautics.
ASHLEY B. GuRNeEY, entomologist, Bureau
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recog-
nition of his contributions to the taxonomy of
the Orthoptera, SEB Neuroptera, and
Zoraptera.
Harry A. Bortuwick, botanist, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, in recognition of his work in plant
physiology and in particular his researches on
photoperiodism in relation to plant morphology.
Marion W. Parker, botanist, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, in recognition of his work in plant
physiology and especially on the relation of
light and temperature to plant growth.
Puitip BRIERLEY, plant pathologist, Bureau
of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, in recognition of his contributions to
plant pathology, particularly in clearing up the
nature and complexity of the virus diseases of
Inlium longiflorum.
Wiitpur D. McCuietuan, plant pathologist,
Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul-
tural Engineering, in recognition of his work on
use of fungicides and interaction of nutritives
and fungicides in the pathogenicity of certain
organisms.
Paut C. Marta, botanist, Bursar of Plant
Industry, Soils, at Agricultural Engineering,
May 15, 1948
in recognition of his work in plant physiology,
in particular his pioneering research on the ef-
fects of growth regulators on plants and fruits.
Fioyp F. Smiru, entomologist, Bureau of
Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recog-
nition of his investigations of insects as vectors
of viruses and the application of aerosols to in-
sect enemies of ornamental plants.
NONRESIDENT
Elected January 13, 1947
Acssitau A. Brrancourt, biologist, Insti-
tuto Biolégico Sao Paulo, Brazil, in recognition
of his contributions to tropical researches in
plant pathology, particularly in citrus diseases.
Elected December 15, 1947
JuLIAN H. MiuieEr, plant pathologist, Uni-
versity of Georgia, Athens, Ga., in recognition
of his researches in mycology, in particular his
contributions on the comparative morphology
and taxonomy of the Sphaeriales.
Ernest H. VouLwiLer, chemist, Abbott
Laboratories, North Chicago, IIl., inrecognition
of his contributions to organic chemistry, par-
ticularly the synthesis of organic medicinals.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
The Anthropological Society of Washington
at its annual meeting held on January 7, 1948,
elected the following officers: President, WIL-
LIAM N. Fenton; Vice-President, W. Monta-
GuE Coss: Secretary, MarsHatu T. Newman:
Treasurer, JoHN C. Ewers: Councilors to the
Board of Managers, E. Wytitys ANpREws IV,
STELLA L. Deicnan, Grorce M. Foster,
Wiuu1aM H. GILBert, Jr., Gorpon R. WILLEY;
Representative to the Washington Academy
of Sciences, T. D. Stewart.
A report of the membership and activities
of the Society since the last annual meeting
follows:
Life members, 1; Active members, 62; Asso-
ciate members, 20; Total, 83. This represents
a decrease of six since last year.
The members elected during the year were:
Active members: Dr. E. W. ANpREws, Comdr.
SYDNEY Connor, J. R. CaLtpwrELu, Dr. N.
Datra-MasumpER, Dr. Pxtuip Drucker,
Miss E. C. Davis, Dr. C. E. Hurcuinson,
Dr. D. W. Locxarp, Dr. W. O. NEGHERBON,
PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
191
Dr. PuitteEo Nasu, Dr. M. H. Warkxins,
Associate member: Dr. GEorcrE M. Foster.
The Society records its deep sense of loss at
the death of Dr. BratTricze BicKEL, member
since 1933.
Except for the joint meeting with the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences at the Cosmos
Club on January 16, 1947, all regular meetings
were held at the U. 8. National Museum. The
Program Committee for the year comprised
Dr. MarsHatt T. Newman, chairman, and
Dr. MarGareT LANTIs.
Titles of papers presented before the regular
meetings of the Society were:
January 16, 1947, 739th meeting, WaLpo R.
WEDEL, Archeology and the Missouri River
development program (slides; refreshments
served by Washington Academy of Sciences).
February 18, 1947, 740th meeting, R. Ruc-
GLES GaTES, Human ancestry from a geneticist’s
viewpoint (slides).
March 18, 1947, 741st meeting, PRESTON
HoupEer, The Motion Indians, an untouched
tropical forest group in northwestern South
America. (Published in this JouRNAL 37: 417-
427, 1947).
April 15, 1947, 742d meeting, W. Montacur
Coss, The American Negro in the light of
modern physical anthropology (slides).
May 23, 1947, 743d meeting (joint meeting
with the Medico-Chirurgical Society of the
District of Columbia), Witton M. Kroaman,
Anthropology and race relations.
October 21, 1947, 744th meeting, Father
Ernst Worms, The natives of northwestern
Australia—a contemporary picture of their
language and culture (sound color film).
November 5, 1947, 745th meeting, GEORGE
M. Foster, The People of Tzintzuntzan—a con-
temporary study of social and economic adjust-
ment in Mexico (color films).
December 3, 1947, 746th meeting, EUGENE
C. Worman, Jr., The neolithic period in
India—new evidence on early cultural move-
ments in Asia.
The Society voted to freeze the Perpetual
Building fund at $2,000 and to subsequently
add the interest to dues and other income for
running expenses. In this way the scope of activ-
ities can be enlarged. It was decided also to
govern annual expenditures by a budget esti-
mate made at the start of each year.
192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 5
The report of the Treasurer follows:
Income:
A.B.W. dues. collepted...... «- . x est<tuay 34.0 26 Glee bine cae aan eee $ 112.
Back dues (A.A.A.) collected to reimburse A.S.W. for carrying delinquents. . 5.
Interest, Perpetual Building Association... 7.0i2<. : 2.702 0. oben ae 57.
Dividends, Washington Sanitary Improvement Co...............-...204.. 33.
Dividends, Washington Sanitary Housing Co................-.000-eeeee 12.
Interest, U.S. Savings..Bond.s.< 4.025 nes ioe eis et eee ee ee eee 12.
Sale of Old Series. Anthrapalogists ....... -0%.. asrunn- 22 a Ob ee oe ee eee hs
Expenditures:
A.A.A. dues paid for Secretary and one life member..................... 10.
Expenses,: speakers...) isoevnn exxgey. eel. i a eee eae 60.
Dues, Inter-American Society of Anthropology and Geography........... 3.
Printing and. mailing notiGes.s: + 5. fis a « ees 2 ee ee ee a he
Incidental -méeting expenses... . 020, . . oc bes 3 oe ee Oe 24.
Miscellaneous expenses, Secretary and Treasurer.............. BP BE ia 9.
Balance. ¢ ....)23 sz 0.0% os % See 6 el ekye pn ee a ee eee
Assets:
Funds invested in Perpetual Building Association (with interest to Dec. 31,
VG4Y) seid. a eed este ES BS ER et SS ee ee a ee $1,956.
21 Shares Washington Sanitary Improvement Co. (par value $10 per share) 210.
2 Shares Washington Sanitary Housing Co. (par value $100 per share)..... 200.
U. S. Savings Bond, Series G.- - So. ce te os ee ee eee 500.
Cash'in bank... 2.402 S272. 2 ee ee oo eee eee 261.
Totalas of December 311947. oe > ce h.s e eeeeeee
Total as.of December. 31; 1946. c4 2.3: 2... =. ee ee ee ee
Wncrease. SOS COS Re ee ee ee
Less bills outstanding:
To A.A.A. (Subscriptions to American Anthropologist):
For~l member, 3: years, 1948-50 yA. =o. 5 oh) oo oe ee $ 15
Net: increase econ eck CE aes Se ee ee eee
.00
For.l member, 1 year, 1948). 0.02 o. coen sks 2 eee ee eee 5.
$ 240.08
183.67
$ 56.41
$3,128.15
3,071.74
$ 56.41
20 .00
$ 36.41
MarsHALu T. Newman, Secretary.
TE EEE
Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences
President...........+.++++++FREDERICK D. Ross1in1, National Bureau of Standards
DEMME hic AS a cage bm bo epi bist «nel binds C. Lewis "Gazin, U. 8. National Museum
CE PUT ER oo wae’ sa ieee Wate .»- HOWARD S. RApPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey
UME shen icy Ste A ds oes, w ahallel aie NaTHAN R. Situ, Plant Industry Station
Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications.......... 00.0 c cc cee eee eee
PEE I o)2 war's! Nai Gie ig els (ale lied Haraup A, Renper, U. 8. National Museum
Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies:
Philosophical Society of Washington............0c cece eee. WALTER RAMBERG
Anthropological Society of Washington...............0008: T. DaLe STEWART
Pananioa pociety OF Washington . oc. 0 os cee die wk eb eee JOHN W. ALDRICH
ipaeeuens society of Washington. . 2... 662 ae ice eee ce mess CHARLES E. WHITE
Entomological Society of Washington...............202: C. F. W. MuESEBECK
Namonal Geographic Society. ..3 05 ce. ee wee eae ALEXANDER WETMORE
Geological Society of Washington..:..5......c.cccceccee WiuuiamM W. RuseEy
Medical Society of the District of Columbia................ FREDERICK QO. CoE
Saumdiioi Hastorical Society... oo. Cos acces mec ceeavwe GILBERT GROSVENOR
Botanies! Society of Washington... 0.2.5... ees cee cece cece: RoNALD BAMFORD
- Washington Section, Society of American Foresters........ WiiuiaM A. Dayton
Washington Society of Engineers.............00c0e ee eeees CuirrorD A. BETTS
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...............
IMD eS ae VER Se D Bra wid cl Phd wy ts ele RIGS Te wie Soh ears Francis B, SILSBEE
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers...............
TE Mees Bh Eas See) Cire. okays sce lufave oe aiieiel pine egha ke a. 3 Martin A. Mason
_ Helminthological Society of Washington.................0-: AUREL O. FosTER
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RoGERS
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY
Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OwEN RB. FRENCH
Elected Members of the Board of Managers:
eAEY 1949 ce a me ew wae Max A. McCautu, Watpo L. ScumittT
MPIMARYT VIGO hin os viele a et ove aSieeu F. G. BricKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DIEHL
Proremmnry, 1950S oe. is chee es Francis M. Deranporr, WILLIAM N. FENTON
MaMMRRPOT IE ILTURGETE 2. s,s ae cae «sve d's bie All the above officers plus the Senior Editor
Board of Editors and Associate Editors.......... ccc cece ccc ccecenes [See front cover]
Executive Commitiee......... FREDERICK D. Rosstnr (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG,
1 AS Wa.po L. Scumitt, Howarp §S. RappLeye, C. Lewis GAziIn
ESTES ICES) 08. US aon G's Sah g Sw ha 0 Sis Pataca’ a oelgrw wtkye. Sia wie 86 8 Sow Wb s Glee OW mi
Haroutp E. McComs (chairman), LEwis W. Butz, C. WytHE CooKE, WILLIAM
a W. Dieu, Luoyp D. Fetron, Reeina FLANNERY, GEoRGE G. Manov
meemamimtee OF6 IM celings 2... ug Fe et ele ecneees RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman),
......FRANK P, CULLINAN, Frep L. Mouter, Francis O. Ricz, FRANK THONB
Committee on Monographs:
To January 1949...... rote th Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN
SO CMMMEAT TE ODO iS a o's de wb o wees we RoLanD W. Brown, Haratp A. REHDER
ERD VOR Ps Sle aa s ke ee ic Wiuu1aM N. Fenton, EMmMett W. Price
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HeEnrzFeE xp, general chairman):
INPUT Betray Wf ir 60. Se dia ok eas bea Ue ave bie en 8 biel wo he weirs
C. F. W. Murseseck (chairman), Harry S. BERNTON, CHESTER W. Emmons,
Eimer Hicerns, Marto Mouuari, GorrHoLpD STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum
For the Engineering Mert alee eet aah, hae Mtg eee Oke, ec Uae
Harry Dramonp (chairman), Luoyp V. BERKNER, Ropert C. Duncan,
HERBERT N. Eaton, ARNo C. FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScuHzetz, W. D. SutTciirre
For the Physical Srp WEARS JABS SSO agai FH Sa oa
Kart F. Herzrevp (chairman), Natsan L. Draxsz, Luoyp D. FEtron,
HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. ROONEY, ROBERT SIMBA, Mrcnar. X. SuLLIvAN
Committee on Grants-in-aid Pep RE ROMEMND AS 02 Ota). raise aia ia Riiah odcgh wade ie die o, wiaenis ete ew
.F. H. H. Rossrts, Jr. - Raat Anna E. Jenxins, J. LEON SHERESHEVSKY
Representative MU OUGEL Dh eile EE, OO go as e's BR Ate nse BMA ab og a wee FRANK THONE
ER Cr PURSE A rat cdg Mia bo fois cig ta a sAURULETE Ci Go alee o hie dined wie'm ewmyeie eine vie
Wit1i1amM G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), Haroup F. Stimson, Hersert L. HALLER
MEE ROT EMR TE crac Sia ee ALES Coke 6 AG ace Ae Us sc dele ed Wee es
.JoHN W. McBurney (chairman), Roger G. Bates, Wituiam A. WILDHACK
CONTENTS
~
7
Puysics.—General survey of certain results in the field of high pressure
physics. .-Percy W. BRIDGMAN. Wc. J howdon ee aan ee
SCIENCE AND FreeEpom: Reflections of a physicist. Prrcy W. Brine-
CuEMistRY.—A method for the determination of certain metals pres-
ent in minor concentration in various substances N. HoweE.u
Furman, C. E. Bricker, and Bruck McDvurffiz...,.... Bey
ETHNOLOGY.—Self-torture in the Blood Indian sun dance. Joun C.
PALEONTOLOGY.—On two previously unreported selachians from the
Upper Cretaceous of North America. Davin H. DunKLE......
ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles
of the ‘subfamily Dynastinae, No. 4: Tribes Oryctini (part),
Dynastini, and Phileurini. LAwrRENCE W. SAYLOR............
ORNITHOLOGY.—Note on the races of the black-throated sunbird,
Aethopyga saturata (Hodgson). J. DELACOUR.................
ORNITHOLOGY.—Some races of the babbling thrush, Malacocincla
abbotit: (Blyth) ::; HG. DEIGNAN. 35.3 fee eee
ZooLocy.—Two new millipeds of Jamaica. H. F. Loomis..........
PROOREDINGS: “THE ACADEMWi: 00 es Re ee ee ees
PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY...........-200cccecuecee
~
This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals
Page
145
Vot. 38 JuNE 15, 1948 No. 6
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
James I. HorrMan ALAN STONE FRANK C. Kracrex
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY
PLANT QUARANTINE
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
LAWRENCE A. Woop RicHarRD E. BLACKWELDER
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
J. P. E. Morrison JAMES S. WILLIAMS
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Evsert L. Litre, Jr. Watpo R. WEDEL
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Int C. ScHOONOVER
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
PUBLISHED MONTHLY
BY THE
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Authorized January 21, 1933.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
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(1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2)
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 38
PHYSICS.—Mass spectra of hydrocarbons.'
of Standards.
Mass spectra were first observed by J. J.
Thompson by passing canal rays through
transverse electric and magnetic fields. His
discovery in 1913 (1) that there appeared
to be two isotopes of neon led Aston (2)
to much more elaborate experiments. For
many years interest centered in discovery
of new isotopes and precision atomic-weight
measurements. Studies of molecular mass
spectra were largely an American develop-
ment. (3) The purpose was to study the
mechanism of ionization of polyatomic mole-
cules. Later Hipple (4) at Westinghouse
and Washburn (5) of the Consolidated
Engineering Corporation developed this
type of mass spectrometer into an instru-
ment suitable for chemical analysis of gas
mixtures. The requirements for such an
instrument are accurate automatic elec-
trical recording and reliable reproducibility.
An important feature intioduced by
Bleakney was the ionization chamber in
which the ions were produced. A beam of
univelocity electrons traverses the ioniza-
tion chamber and a magnetic field parallel
to the beam keeps this beam centered while
a small transverse electric field draws the
ions produced out of the ionization cham-
ber. The ions are then accelerated by a
large electric field and bent by a magnetic
field to give a mass spectrum.
The gas to be ionized enters the ioniza-
tion chamber in a jet at very low pressure
(about 10-* mm), and fast pumps maintain
a pressure of about 10-* mm outside the
ionization chamber. This insures ideally
simple conditions. There is no appreciable
accumulation of ionization products in the
1 Address of the retiring President of the Philo-
sophical Society of Washington, January 17,
1948. Received March 17, 1948.
JUNE 15, 1948
No. 6
Frep L. Montusr, National Bureau
ionization chamber and there are no colli-
sions between ions and gas molecules. As
the applied voltage of the electron beam is
increased, molecule ions first appear at
about 10 to 12 volts. Then with increasing
voltage, ions of various dissociation prod-
ucts are formed. Twenty-five or 30 volts
are sufficient to produce almost every pos-
sible dissociation product of a hydrocarbon
and, in the range 50 to 100 volts, the rela-
tive intensities of the molecule ion and the
various dissociation products remain nearly
independent of voltage. The resulting mass
spectrum is a property of the molecule modi-
fied only slightly by instrumental factors.
In the Consolidated mass spectrometer
the ions from the ionization chamber are
accelerated by a variable electric field and
bent through an arc of 180° by the field of
a large magnet to reach a collecting elec-
trode. After passing through the electric
field V all the singly charged ions will have
the same kinetic energy 1/2 mv?=eV and
light ions will have a high velocity and
heavy ions a small velocity. The magnetic
field exerts a force proportional to the veloc-
ity at right angles to the field and to the
velocity. Ions of mass m and charge e
will move on the arc of a circle of radius
R defined by the relation m/e=CH? R?/V
where C is a constant, H is the magnetic
field, and V the ion accelerating voltage.
If V is gradually changed from high to low
values, ions of different masses will succes-
sively reach the ion collector. The current
reaching the collector is amplified and re-
corded by galvanometers on a moving
sheet while 1/V changes at a uniform rate.
Thus, the resulting record shows a series of
peaks at the values of 1/V or m/e corre-
sponding to the molecular weights of the
compound and its dissociation products.
193 SN Q ~ 1G i
194
Fig. 1 is part of the mass spectrum record
obtained with a Consolidated mass spec-
trometer of n butane, CH;:CH»2-CH2-CHs3.
Four galvanometers with four ranges of
sensitivity record the ion current. The
upper trace records the galvanometer of
highest sensitivity. Deflections of the other
galvanometer traces are to be multiplied
by 3, 10, and 30 to give deflections in terms
of the upper trace. The parent peak, the
undissociated molecule ion, is at mass 58
and a peak at 59 comes from molecules
containing one C' isotope. Then there are
molecules which have lost from 1 to 10
hydrogen atoms. It is a remarkable fact
that in a single ionization process all ten
hydrogen atoms can be removed to give
C,*. The most probable ionization process is
losing CH; to give mass 48. Losing an ad-
ditional CHe to give 29 is also probable.
One finds indeed every possible dissocia-
tion plocess consistent with the structural
formula. Peaks at 2553 and 2653 come from
doubly charged ions of mass 51 and 58.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
The small broad peaks are metastable ion
transitions resulting from ions which dis-
sociate after traversing the electric field.
Hipple, Fox, and Condon (6) have studied
and explained these metastable transition
peaks.
The use of mass spectra for chemical
analysis involves the direct comparison
of the mass spectrum of an unknown with
the spectra of pure compounds and an im-
portant project of the Mass Spectrometry
Section is compiling mass spectra of pure
compounds.
To show characteristics of the mass
‘spectra of hydrocarbons it is convenient
to use a greatly simplified picture in which
only peaks greater than 2 percent of the
maximum peak are included. The maximum
peak is uniformly given a height vf 100.
First are shown spectra of saturated hydro-
carbons of formula C, Hoy. Fig. 2 shows
some of these.
In methane the most probable process is
ionization without dissociation. Ionization
i
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28 0 2 GD | 2 | GE Gs “Se GG 0 eee ee eee SE ees 6 0 ee ee GS OS aie
BE 2 ee 6 i 2 oo, SS GS © a * a Se 2), Ge eee ee. ~ Se 2 es | Gee SS SS aS =
_. SEE GG as es EEE, GE Sn WE ee ee Se eee eee 6S | SESS ES GES SS STS SS I
@ GSS © Gi © SE Bi 7 2 GEE GES Si Sas
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SS EE 2 | RE SIG DE Sa SS Geis Enel GEE GM | EE 1S EES
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i BSS © 6 GS © WE a EE GW. 2 Bas BA SSO
Lo~*a@awaoens a 88 ~—s 2 ~ .. “4. a." 1 EE es 2 eee ed. eee SF
Beis 5 Ges HS Gees BEES i US" © Gees Ee ES |
Oo GEES GS GEES © TE Oo SSE = 6 SS SS 0 Es es Ss ae
eee ee ee 2 b. “ee = aa _ ea! =|
= = Wie 8 Wes EE) Cli .. Ge) SSS oo GEESE eee EA ee
aE ee See a se as = Ee =
Fig. 1.—Part of the mass spectrum record of n-butane as obtained
by a Consolidated mass spectrometer.
JUNE 15, 1948
with removal of one hydrogen atom is prob-
able but removal of H* is improbable and
this is true in all hydrocarbons. In ethane
the most probable ionization process in-
volves removal of two hydrogen atoms.
Production of CH3;* is relatively improbable
here and in all hydrocarbons except meth-
ane. In propane and the two butanes loss
of CH; is the most probable ionization
process.
It is a useful property of the structure of
saturated hydrocarbons that the parent
peak of each hydrocarbon is characteristic
of that hydrocarbon and can not be pro-
duced as a dissociation product of other
compounds. The other mass peaks recur
in spectra of heavier compounds. This is
very convenient for the purpose of chemical
analysis.
There are two isomers of butane and the
different structures give markedly different
spectra. One difference between n-butane
mass “/e
30 40
CH,CH,CH,CH,
CH3GHCH,
CH,
Fie. 2.— Mass spectra of methane, ethane,
propane, and two butanes.
MOHLER: MASS SPECTRA OF HYDROCARBONS
195
My,
10 20 30 40 50 60 790 80.
CH,CH,CH,CH,CH,
40
CH,CHCH,CH,
CH
40 :
40
Fig. 3.—Mass spectra of pentanes.
and iso-butane is that one can not break
iso-butane in half without first rearranging
the hydrogen atoms. A peak at mass 29
is found so this rearrangement must occur
before dissociation. Such rearrangements
are common in more complicated molecules.
The parent peak is much smaller in iso-
butane and it is a general rule that mole-
cules with side chains have smaller parent
peaks than the normal molecule.
Fig. 3 shows spectra of the three isomers
of pentane. In normal and iso-pentane losing
CH:+CH; is the most probable process. In
neopentane losing CH; is most probable
and the parent peak is only a fewhundredths
of a percent. Losing two CH; radicals is
quite improbable and the loss of CH3;+CH,
involving breaking of three bonds is quite
probable. The peak at C2H;* is large al-
though this requires a rearrangement of
hydrogen atoms before dissociation, as in
iso-butane. Here the spectrum gives little
clue as to the structure of the molecule.
There are five hexanes shown in Fig. 4
and these give five very different mass
spectra. Many of the features of these
spectra can be described qualitatively by
the statement that there is a tendency to
dissociate at either side of each side chain.
Normal hexane like normal pentane loses
C.2H; most readily. In 2-methyl-pentane,
loss of one or three carbon groups is pre-
ferred, while in 3-methyl-pentane, loss of
CH,CHCH,CH,CH,
3
CH,CHCHCH,
1 4
CHCH,
ie
CH G CH,CH,
CH,
Fira. 4.—Mass spectra of hexanes.
CoH; is again preferred. In 2,3-dimethyl-
butane, loss of one and three are preferred
while in 2,2-dimethyl-butane, one and two
are preferred. In the last case, however,
the most probable ionization process is
breaking in half to give 43* although this
involves a rearrangement of hydrogen
atoms. Peaks involving rearrangement are
also noted at 43 in 3-methyl-pentane and
at 29 in 2,3-dimethyl-butane. We know
that these cases involve rearrangement be-
cause the original structure does not yield
such masses but obviously rearrangement
may occur in other cases where it is indis-
tinguishable from simple dissociation.
Our measurements include the nine iso-
mers of the heptanes and the 18 octanes.
All these show a great variety of mass spec-
tra depending on the structure of the mole-
cules. The tendency to dissociate on either
side of a side chain is again found except
in cases where rearrangements give ions
which would not be expected on the basis
of the molecular structure.
Fig. 5 shows some unsaturated molecules
with double or triple bonds. In ethylene the
parent peak is the maximum peak, while in
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
ethane it is about 25 percent of the maxi-
mum. In acetylene the parent peak is by
far the largest peak. In propylene the parent
peak is not the largest, but the whole C
three group of ions is much larger than in
propane. Propylene always loses CH; rather
than CHe and this is true of most of the
unsaturated molecules. There are two iso-
mers of C3H,, propadiene and methyl-acety-
lene, and their mass spectia are almost
exactly alike in spite of the difference in
structure. It seems very probable that in
this case first a molecule ion is formed and
then the hydrogen atoms are redistributed
to give identical ions from both isomers.
Fig. 6 shows some unsaturated C four
molecules. There are four butene isomers
and they all give mass spectra similar to
CH,CH=CH,
Fig. 5.—Mass spectra of ethylene, acetylene,
propylene, propadiene, and methyl acetylene.
Frep L. Mouser, president of the Philosophical Society of Washington, 1947
a ~
ae
Belg
JUNE 15, 1948
the 1-butene spectrum shown in the figure.
2-butene, CH; -CH=CH—CHs, has a cis
and a trans form depending on whether the
two central hydrogens are on the same side
or opposite sides of the chain. The mass
spectra are nearly identical, the most con-
spicuous difference being that the mass 29
peak is 15.5 percent of the maximum in the
cis compound and 19.8 percent in the trans
compound. These two molecules cannot
give a 29* ion without a rearrangement of
hydrogen atoms.
There are four isomers of C,H, and the
mass spectra show differences of a rather
unexpected nature. The most probable
-jonization process in CH2.:CH-CH:CHs is
loss of mass 15 which involves a double
dissociation while in the other isomers
which can lose 15 in a simple dissociation
this transition is less probable. Also, the
mass 28 peak is largest in 1,3-butadiene
where production of 28* involves a rear-
rangement of hydrogen atoms.
The unsaturated hydrocarbons show
several characteristics as a class. The parent
peaks are larger than for saturated com-
pounds and larger for doubly unsaturated
compounds than for mono-olefins. Ioniza-
tion by loss of CH, is very improbable even
where both terminal radicals are CH». Both
_ properties reflect the fact that the unsatu-
rated bonds are stronger than the saturated
bonds. Mass spectra of unsaturated mole-
cules are also much less sensitive to struc-
tural differences among different isomers
than is the case with saturated molecules.
This indicates that rearrangements of hy-
drogen atoms in the molecule ion occur more
readily in the unsaturated molecules. It
may seem surprising that there are any
rearrangements in saturated hydrocarbons
and it will be of interest to study mass
spectra with deuterium substituted at one
position in the molecule and see where it
appears in the mass spectrum.
On the basis of momentum considerations
it must be assumed that electron collisions
always produce molecule ions and that
these ions may be left in a highly excited
state and subsequently dissociate spon-
taneously to give the great variety of ions
observed in the mass spectrum. I have re-
ferred before to small wide peaks in the
MOHLER: MASS SPECTRA OF HYDROCARBONS
CH,CH,CH=CH,
CH,=C=CHCH, —
CH,= CHCH® CH,
CHECCH,CH,
CH,CECCHs.
Fig. 6.— Mass spectra of butene-l,
butadienes, and butynes.
mass spectrum that arise from ions which
dissociate after they have traversed the
electric field. Because of this phenomenon
of delayed dissociation we can obtain direct
experimental evidence as to some of the
dissociation processes which occur.
The apparent mass m, of an ion which
dissociates immediately after traversing the
electric field is
Ma=m;/m;
where m; is the initial mass and my, the
final mass of the ion (6). Because the ions
dissociate over a range of positions the
peaks are wide. The dissociating ions are
presumably metastable ions with a life of
the order of 10-* seconds (7). As m; and m;
are integers equal to or less then the molec-
ular weight the numerical value of m,
is sufficient to determine both m; and m,. An
important aid in finding my; and m; is a
qualitative intensity rule that the mass
peaks corresponding to m; and m; are always
fairly large peaks in the mass spectrum.
198
To return to Fig. 1, there are seven me-
tastable transitions in the range of this
record but some are very hard to see. The
one at mass 32 comes from the parent ion
of mass 58 losing mass 15, a CH; radical.
The one near mass 30 comes from 58 losing
CH,. These two transitions only occur in
n-butane. A large peak near 39 comes from
43+ losing two hydrogen atoms and near
25 is a peak from 29 losing two hydrogens.
These last two recur in many hydrocarbons.
Mrs. Bloom of our Section has made a
careful compilation of mass spectra of 56
hydrocarbons and has found 362 cases of
metastable transition peaks and has identi-
fied the transitions involved (8). The com-
pounds include saturated hydrocarbons
through C eights, mono-olefins through C
fives, and four CH, isomers. The data have
been published in the American Petroleum .
Institute Catalogue of Mass Spectral Data
(9).
The transitions frequently recur in dif-
ferent hydrocarbons and 32 different tran-
sitions are found. These involve loss of
masses ranging from 2 to 44. Table 1
summarizes the metastable transitions.
Loss of mass 2 is by far the most common
type of metastable transition and it appears
in nearly all cases where there are two large
peaks differing by two mass units. Losses
of masses 1 or 3 are never observed.
It is also significant that there are no
metastable transitions involving loss of
CHe as this is a structural unit in most hy-
drocarbons and large peaks often fall at
intervals of 14.
Loss of CH; is only observed from parent
ions and is a comparatively infrequent
phenomenon. CH, is not a structural unit
and loss of 16 involves a double dissociation.
The loss from the ion 57+ recurs in 30 of
the 40 saturated hydrocarbons.
Loss of C2H»2 seems to be a unique prop-
erty of the 55+ ion and recurs in most of
the hydrocarbons. The loss of C.H3 occurs
only when the butadienes and butyne-2
split in half. It is of interest that the un-
symmetrical molecule CH,=C=CH—CH;
splits in half although this requires a re-
arrangement before splitting. C2H, in the
form CH2:CHe or CH: CH; is a structural
unit of many saturated molecules and the
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
2 metastable transitions recur in many of
them. In this case, the terminal CH; radical
must first be removed from the initial ion.
The loss of mass 29 comes from loss of
the structural unit CH.-CH; and includes
the terminal radical as is shown by the fact
that it comes from parent ions. Loss of
mass 30 comes from losing two CH; radicals
from the parent ion and necessarily involves
a double dissociation. |
The mass C:H, can be CH2:CHe-CHz or
can involve methyl side chains, but like
CH, it will never come from parent ions.
Of course, it can only come from rather
large molecules. Loss of mass 44 from the
parent mass of 3 heptanes is perhaps doubt-
ful. We are not certain that there is not an
alternative explanation. It involves a double
dissociation, removal of mass 43 and one
hydrogen. .
This looks very complicated, and I have
given it in detail to show that dissociation
of ions does indeed involve many alterna-
tive processes. If the initial metastable ion
is the parent ion this means that the mole-
cule ion traverses the electric field and then
dissociates. When the initial ion is not the
parent ion then the dissociation takes place
in at least two stages. The initial metastable
TaBLE 1.—SUMMARY OF METASTABLE TRANSITIONS
Mass lost |
Occurrence
2 2H 8 transitions in all hydrocarbons except
methane.
15 CH; 7 transitions from parent ions of 13 unsatu-
rated and 5 saturated hydrocarbons.
16 CH, 55+ 39+ +16 in pentenes.
57* >41* +16 in 30 saturates.
5842 +16 in n-butane.
26 C:H: | 55*—29*+26 in 41 hydrocarbons.
27 C:H; | 54¢—27+-+27 in 3 isomers of C.He.
28 C:H, | 71*--43++28 in 21 saturates.
85' 357 +28 in 14 saturates.
29 C.H;s | 3 transitions from parent ions of pentenes,
n-hexane, and 3 octanes.
30 C:H.e | 4 transitions from parent ions of 12 satu-
rated hydrocarbons.
42 C:H. | 85'—-43* +42 in 19 heptanes and octanes.
99* 57* +42 in 17 octanes.
44 C:H: | 100‘—56++44 in 3 heptanes.
JUNE 15, 1948 LARSEN: NEW SPECIES OF ACHAETOGERON FROM MEXICO
ion is formed by dissociation within the
ionization chamber, then it passes through
the electric field and dissociates again.
- Sometimes large structural units are broken
off in a single dissociation; in other cases at
least two bonds must be broken in the de-
layed dissociation as in losing two CH; radi-
cals or CHa.
The metastable transitions account for
only a small fraction of all the dissociations.
Hipple (7) has made quantitative estimates
in the case of n-butane. The parent ion
gives rise to two metastable transitions
with loss of masses 15 and 16. The life of
each excited state is about 2X10-° sec
and initially at time zero not over 10 per-
cent of the 58* ions are in the excited state
or states which give rise to these transitions.
Now the 58+ ions account for only about
4 percent of all the n-butane ions. Ninety-
six percent of all the ions dissociate im-
mediately or very quickly, about 3.6 per-
cent become stable 58* ions and 0.4 per cent
fall into the metastable states. This is prob-
‘ably a typical case as far as orders of magni-
tude are concerned.
What I have said has been largely de-
scriptive and probably seems like little more
than a catalog of empirical facts. However,
this is largely a matter of viewpoint. As I
pointed out in the introduction, these mass
spectra are a molecular property and are
BOTANY.—New species of Achaetogeron (Compositae) from Mexico."
L. Larsen, Crown Point, Indiana.
The new species here described were
discovered some years ago when the genus
Achaetogeron was being studied together
- with several related genera of the tribe
Astereae. The work was done at the Mis-
sour! Botanical Garden. The following ab-
breviations are used for herbaria cited:
M= Missouri Botanical Garden; N Y = New
York Botanical Garden; Phil= Academy of
Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; US=U. S.
National Herbarium.
Achaetogeron filiformis Larsen, sp. nov.
Annuus 15-45 cm altus; caules tenues juven-
tate simplices maturitate diffuse ramosi foliosi
patenti-hirsuti; folia obovata ad obovato-
1 Received March 23, 1948.
199
somewhat analogous to intensities in molec-
ular absorption spectra but in absorption
spectra there is a theoretical basis for the
interpretation of results. In spite of all the
work on mass spectra we still lack this
theoretical background. This is not onlya
challenging problem but it is of considerable
practical importance. Chemical analysis
now depends on comparing unknowns with
pure samples of the various components.
It would be very useful if we could deduce
the structure of pure compounds of un-
known structure. Beyond C sevens the
possibilities become so many that empirical
methods can never give the complete an-
swer.
REFERENCES
(1) J. J. THompson in an address to the Royal
Institution, 1913.
(2) Astron. Mass spectra and isotopes. Lon-
don, 1942
(3) SmyrH. Rev. Mod. Phys. 3: 347. 1931.
(4) Hreppte. Journ. Applied Phys. 13: 551.
1942.
(5) WasHpuRN, WILEY, and Rock. Ind.
Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed. 15: 541. 1948.
(6) Hippie, Fox, and Conpon. Phys. Rev.
69: 347. 1946.
(7) Hippie. Phys. Rev. 71: 594. 1947.
(8) Broom, Mouter, LENGEL, and Wise. (In
press Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards).
(9) AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE, Re-
search Project 44.
ESTHER
(Communicated by 8. F. Buake.)
spathulata pinnatifida 0.5-4 cm longa, lobis
obtusis apiculatis strigosis; folia suprema brac-
teiformia oblonga integra; pedunculi filiformes
1.5-2.5 em longi infra capitulum dense patenti-
hirsuti; capitula 0.7—1 cm diam.; phyllaria 2—-3-
seriata lineari-lanceolata acuminata glandulari-
puberula basi hirsuta; radii albi vel caerulei
supra discum arcte circinnati; pappus incon-
spicuus coroniformis laceratus, in floribus radii
interdum etiam setis paucis donatus; achenia
pubescentia pilis apice rectis vel obscure biden-
tatis.
TAMAULIPAS: Vicinity of Tampico, alt. 15
m, March 10—April 19, 1910, #. Palmer 249
(type, M, also US); vicinity of La Barra, 8
km east of Tampico, at sea level, February
1-8, 1910, H. Palmer 281 (M, US); en route
200
from San Luis Potosi to Tampico, December
1878 to February 1879, HE. Palmer 1089 (US).
Veracruz: Vicinity of Panuco, April 20-25,
1910, E. Palmer 356 (US).
The filiform peduneles, small heads, and
circinate rays which scarcely exceed the disc
distinguish this species.
Achaetogeron fisheri Larsen, sp. nov.
Herbaceus 20-45 cm altus ubique strigosus,
ramis adscendentibus e caule decumbente sub-
lignoso; folia caulina sessilia alte pinnatisecta
1-3 em longa lobis 3-7 lineari-lanceolatis
obtusis, folia suprema saepius integra linearia;
pedunculi 2-4 em longi strigosi; capitula 2—2.5
em diam. (radiis inclusis); involucri 2-seriati
0.5 em alti phyllaria lineari-lanceolata acumi-
nata glanduloso-puberula et strigosa, margine
secariosa; pappus annularis laceratus incon-
spicuus cum setis caducis interioribus; achenia
basi callosa pubescentia; pilis bidentatis.
STaTE oF Mexico: Amecameca, alt. 2,648
m, July 29, 1924, Fisher (M, No. 914802 type);
Amecameca, alt. 2,676 m, July 29, 1924, Fisher
220 (US). Pursia; Teutla, October 1913,
Salazar (US); Manzanilla, vicinity of Puebla,
November 24, 1908, Arséne 10184 (US).
The subpinnatifid leaves and a pappus crown
so reduced as to be nearly lacking are charac-
teristic.
Achaetogeron sophiaefolius Larsen, sp. nov.
Perennis 30—60 cm altus; caules plures e basi
sublignoso ramosi striati patenti-hirsuti et
subglandulari-puberuli; folia elliptica ad ovata,
pinnatisecta vel bipinnatisecta inferiora petio-
lata usque ad 9 em longa pilis longis multicel-
lularibus appressis pubescentia et minute glan-
dulari-puberula, segmentis ultimis obtusis,
superiora sensim reducta sessilia, suprema
bracteiformia; pedunculi 1.5-3 em longi dense
appresse pubescentes; capitula terminalia soli-
taria 2—2.5 cm diam. (radiis inclusis); involucri
1—1.2 em diam. phyllaria 2-seriata 4 mm longa
lineari-lanceolata acuminata glandulosa et parce
hirsuta pilis multicellularibus, margine mem-
branacea; pappus minutus coroniformis lace-
ratus cum setis paucis caducis interioribus;
achenia basi callosa pubescentia pilis apice
rectis vel dentatis.
Duranco: City of Durango and vicinity,
April—November 1896, E. Palmer 158 (M, No.
123017 type, NY, US).
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
A relatively coarse plant with conspicuously
bipinnatisect leaves, which are pubescent with
long appressed multicellular hairs.
Achaetogeron pringlei Larsen, sp. nov.
Herbaceus erectus ca. 65 cm altus ubique
glandulari-puberulus et patenti-hirsutus; folia
caulina sessilia alte pinnatisecta lobis ca. 5-9
linearibus vel lineari-spathulatis obtusis utrim-
que sparse villosa margine ciliata; folia in-
florescentiae lineari-lanceolata integra vel inter-
dum lobata sensim reducta, suprema ca. 1 em
longa; pedunculi 1.5—2.5 em longi dense glandu-
Jari-puberuli pilis sparsis intermixtis; capitula
1.5-2.5 em diam.; involucri 2-seriati phyllaria
lineari-lanceolata acuminata anguste mem-
branaceo-marginata glandulari-puberula et
sparse pilosa; radii numerosi albi saepe reflexi;
flores disci numerosi; pappus minutus coroni-
formis laceratus cum setis paucis interioribus
caducis; achenia anguste obovata basi minute
callosa pubescentia pilis apice rectis vel biden-
tities. fe
CHIHUAHUA: Cool slopes, Sierra Madre,
October 10, 1888, Pringle 1625 (M, type);
cool slopes, foothills of the Sierra Madre,
October 11, 1887 Pringle 1272 (Phil). PuzBLA:
Santa Maria de Zacatepec, vicinity of Puebla
December 1908, Arséne (US).
Distinguished by deeply pinnatisect, spar-
ingly villous leaves and a relatively finer habit
than A. sophiaefolius.
Achaetogeron polycephalus Larsen, sp. nov.
Herbaceus Im altus et ultra (basi inviso)
ubique strigosus et minute glandulari-puber-
ulus; caulis supra valde ramosus aetate glabra-
tus; folia caulina majora oblanceolata sessilia
prope apicem serrata usque ad 5 em longa 1.5
em lata, minora valde reducta integra; pedun-
culi 1-4 cm longi striati strigosi et minute —
glandulari-puberuli; capitula 2-3 em diam.
(radiis inclusis); involueri 2-seriati phyllaria
lineari-lanceolata acuminata anguste mem-
branaceo-marginata minute glandulari-puber-
ula basi patentipilosa margine angusto mem-
branaceo leviter lacerato; radii numerosi albi;
pappus minutus annularis laceratus cum paucis
setis interioribus; achenia basi callosa dense
pubescentia pilis apice rectis vel bidentatis.
DuraAnGo: San Ramon, April 21—May 18,
1906, E. Palmer 52 (M, type).
A profusely branching, strigose-pubescent
JUNE 15, 1948
plant with serrate leaves and many scattered
heads.
Achaetogeron corymbosus Larsen, sp. nov.
Herbaceus 20—40 cm altus dense breviterque
einereo-hirsutus et minute glandulari-puberulus;
caules erecti ramosi ramis apice corymboso-
ramosis; folia caulina oblanceolata sessilia
supra serrata 5 cm longa 1.5 cm lata, superiora
ad bracteas sensim reducta; folia infima non
visa; pedunculi 0.5—1 cm longi; capitula 1-1.5 ©
em diam. (radlis inclusis); involucri 2-seriati
phyllaria lineari-lanceolata acuminata minute
glandulari-pubescentia et sparsissime hirsuta,
margine angusto scarioso leviter lacerato;
radii albi; pappus minutus coroniformis vel
ROSS: DESCRIPTIONS OF NEARCTIC HYDROPTILIDAE
201
annularis laceratus cum setis paucis caducis
interioribus; achenia basi late callosa dense
pubescentia pilis longis apice rectis.
JALIScO: Canyons, moist rocks, Tuxpan,
February 1904, Purpus 527 (G, type).
The serrate leaves, crowded corymbs, and
cinereous aspect are characteristic.
Achaetogeron garciae (Blake)
Larsen, comb. nov.
Bellis garciae Blake, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb.
22: 593. 1924.
Still known only from the type, P. [bana
Garcia 310 (U. S. Nat. Herb. 1032782) from
the State of Durango, alt. 100 m.
ENTOMOLOGY .—Notes and descriptions of Nearctic Hydroptilidae (Trichoptera)
Herpert H. Ross, Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, III.
In the caddisflies of the family Hydroptil-
idae there undoubtedly exists a number of
genera that bear their closest relationship
with forms known from other regions and
with which they have not yet been associ-
ated. Two such cases are outlined in this
paper, and in each the geographic limits of
the genera involved are extended into
another continent. During the investigation
of these cases some interesting morpho-
logical considerations have arisen, and as a
result a few suggestions regarding termi-
nology are made in this paper.
Tam greatly indebted to Dr. G. T. Riegel,
University of Illinois, and to Dr. H. K.
Gloyd, Chicago Academy of Sciences, for
making material available to me for study,
and to Dr. D. G. Denning for the loan of
type material of some of the species studied.
Types of new species described in this paper
are deposited in the collection of the Illinois
Natural History Survey.
TERMINOLOGY
In reviewing the terminology I have used
for parts of the male genitalia of Hydroptili-
dae, one change and one addition seem indi-
cated in the interests of clarity and struc-
tural identification.
Subgenital plate—In most genera of Hy-
droptilidae there is a variously shaped,
1 Received March 8, 1948.
mesal structure usually occurring above or
between the claspers. In Hydroptila, Fig. 6,
sp, and Neotrichia this structure is platelike
and bears at its apex a pair of setae. In
Oxyethira and Stactobiella what appears to
be this same structure is heavily sclerotized,
frequently arched, and assumes a variety of
shapes in different species; in these two
genera I have heretofore called this struc-
ture the tenth tergite (Ross, 1938, 1944).
The tenth tergite, however, must be above
the aedeagus, whereas in the structure in
question, Fig. 1A, sp, it is situated below the
aedeagus. It may be a sort of guide for the
aedeagus or it may assist in the coupling
action during copulation. Because it lies
below the aedeagus and because its exact
homology is obscure, I am proposing that
this plate be called the subgenital plate.
Bracteole—In quite a number of Hy-
droptilidae, especially in Stactobiella, there
occurs a structure associated with the area
dorsad of the base of each clasper. In some
cases, Fig. 1, br, this appears as a small
structure at the base of each clasper, in
others, Fig. 2, br, the structure is larger and
more conspicuous than, the clasper and
probably usurps its function. For this I
propose the term bracteole. Here again the
homology is difficult to determine, but I
believe that the term will be a useful one for
purposes of taxonomic description.
202
Genus Stactobiella Martynov
Stactobiella Martynov, Pract. Ent. 5: 58. 1924.
(Genotype, monobasic, Stactobia ulmeri Sil-
tala.)
Tascobia Ross, Bull. Illinois Nat. Hist. Surv. 23:
124. 1944. (Genotype, by original designation,
Stactobia palmata Ross.) New synonymy.
Comparing Nearctic species of this genus
with illustrations of Palearctic species shows
that not only are the two genera synonymous
but also that two Nearctic forms each have
their closest known relative in the Palearctic
fauna. S. palmata (Ross) is very similar to
Martynov’s illustrations of biramosa Marty-
nov, the former having the claspers short and
ovate, coustricted at base, and the stalked
process tridentate, the latter having the clasp-
ers slightly longer and parallel-sided, and the
stalked process bidentate. In each the aedeagus
is simple and tubular. The Nearctic species
delira (Ross) is similar to the Palearctic ulmeri
(Siltala) and risi (Felber), especially in regard
to the curved, fingerlike subgenital plate, but
exhibits marked differences in the shape of each
structure. The Nearctic brustia Ross is not
allied closely to any of the other species and
forms a species complex of its own. Thus, not
only is Stactobiella as a genus Holarctic in dis-
tribution, but two of its three component
phylogenetic units are truly Holarctic also.
To assist in identifying these species, a key
is given to the males of these six species, which
comprise the known world fauna of the genus.
I have taken characters of the Palearctic forms
from illustrations in the literature, cited in the
key.
KEY TO SPECIES OF STACTOBIELLA MALES
1. Claspers apparently fused to form a ventral
plate. bearing three whiskerlike brushes of
setae; aedeagus with apex curved and bent
into shape of a crook (Ross, 1938, p. 115, fig.
22). Nearctic (Wyoming)... .brustia (Ross)
Claspers not fused, either elongate or biscuit-
shaped) 2. freee one wi sce he ogee ees oe even 2
2. A curved process, the bracteole, arising above
each clasper, longer than the clasper and di-
vided at apex into two or three fingerlike
branches, Fig. 2; subgenital plate short and
WIC. so Ly ones. cic Rs, © eee Ae ee 3
Bracteole represented by only a small process
associated with a lateral clump of setae,
clasper long, parallel-sided or tapering to
apex; subgenital plate long and fingerlike,
often curved orangled, Pigsle 2 hae 4
3. Bracteole having apex divided into two
“fingers’”’ (Martynov, 1934, p. 159, fig. 105).
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
Palearctic (Russia)..... biramosa Martynow
Bracteole having apex divided into three
“fingers,” Fig. 2. Nearctic (central U.S. A.)
Rr te eee MENT MgTy palmata (Ross)
4, Apical portion of aedeagus divided into one
mesal and two Jateral lobes, Fig. 1A. Nearc-
tic (northcentral U.S. A.).....delira (Ross)
Apical] portion of aedeagus tubular, much as in
Pg. 2... sre senses es ou 2 bin ei a » 2 5
5. Apical margin of clasper truncate and slightly
oblique (Felber, 1908, p. 721, fig. 2). Paleare-
tic (Switzerland). :):: . .:\nnee rist (Felber)
Apical margin of clasper rounded, the clasper
tip narrow (Martynov, 1934, p. 159, fig.
103). Palearctic (northern Europe).........
Sip ate Mee 2 ea ee ee ee ulmeri (Siltala)
Genus Oxyethira Eaton
Argyrobothrus Barnard, Trans. Roy. Soc. South
Africa 21: 392. 1934. (Genotype, monobasic, A.
velocipes Barnard.) New synonymy.
Barnard’s illustrations of pupal case, vena-
tion, and genitalia of both sexes leave no
doubt that Argyrobothrus velocipes is a typical
member of Oxyethira. The genus as such has
not been recorded previously from central or
southern Africa.
Oxyethira arizona, new species
The wide, curved lateral process of the aede-
agus and the long, ventral internal projection
of the base of the ninth segment show a rela-
tionship of this species with pallida (Banks)
and maya Denning, but arizona differs from
both of these in the straight apical portion of
the aedeagus (this part is angled and twisted
in pallida and maya) and the elongate lateral
processes of the eighth tergite.
Male.—Length from front of head to tip of
wings, 2.5 mm. Color entirely pallid or straw
color, with an annulation of a darker shade on
some segments of the antennae and some darker
areas on the front wings. General structure
typical for genus. Seventh sternite with a sharp
curved apical process. Genitalia as in Fig. 4..
HKighth tergite divided into a pair of lateral
lobes, the lower margin of each produced into
a long, smooth, sharp process, the left one
curved dorsad at tip, as shown, the right one
curved slightly ventrad; the base of each lobe
bears abundant long setae, but the projecting
portion is without vestiture. Eighth sternite
forming the lateral and ventral part of a ring,
trapezoidal from lateral view, the apical mar-
gin gently curved on the meson. Ninth tergite
membranous. Subgenital plate moderately
\
S. PALMATA
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om
5 ole
d
He
Za
{:
i
I
i
HT
ery
6A
Fic. 1.—Stactobiella delira, male genitalia, ventral aspect; 1A, same, lateral aspect. Fie. 2.—
Stactobiella palmata, male genitalia, ventral aspect. Fic. 3.—Ozxyethira lumosa, male genitalia, lateral
aspect; 3A, apical portion of male genitalia, ventral aspect. Fic. 4.—Ozyethira arizona, male genitalia,
lateral aspect; 4A, claspers and associated structures, ventral aspect; 4B aedeagus; 4C, aedeagus as
seen at right angles to long axis of 4B. Fic. 5.—WNeotrichia numiz, male genitalia, lateral aspect; 5A,
aedeagus, 5B, claspers and associated structures, ventral aspect; 5C, bracteole. Fic. 6.—Hydroptila
denza, male genitalia, ventral aspect; 6A, aedeagus. Abbreviations: br, bracteole; cl, clasper; sp,
subgenital plate.
204
heavily sclerotized, lateral aspect evenly curved
to form about a quarter of a circle, ventral
aspect, Fig. 4A, incised at apex to form a mesal
arcuate area on each side of which is a short
fingerlike process. Claspers fused on meson,
very deep dorsoventrad, the ventral apical
margin bearing a fingerlike projection on each
side with a truncate edge between them. Style
sinuate, membranous, and tipped with a long
seta. Aedeagus, Figs. 4B and C, with base only
a little longer than apex; neck only indistinctly
set off: and apex divided at base into a taper-
ing, slightly twisted central portion bearing
the penis, and a wide, ribbonlike twisted pro-
cess which makes a complete circle around the
central portion, and which is concave on its
inside surface.
Female.—Size, color, and general structure
similar to male. Genitalia simple; tenth tergite
fairly wide at base, tapering to a round apex;
ninth tergite with a narrow, spiculate, dorso-
apical hump and with straight internal apo-
demes. Spermatheca and its associated struc-
tures similar in most respects to pallida, but
differing in having the ventral bar of the sperma-
theca arcuate but only moderately wide.
Holotype, male—Superior, Pinal County,
Ariz., taken at light in Boyce Thompson
Arboretum, May 17-24, 1946.
Allotype, female—Same data as for holotype.
Paratypes—Same data as for holotype, 2,
Tors
Oxyethira pallida (Banks)
Ozxyethira cibola Denning, Can. Ent. 79: 12. 1947.
New synonymy.
The most outstanding character of this
species is the more slender of the two curved
lateral processes of the aedeagus. This is ab-
sent in maya Denning; the other apical struc-
tures of the aedeagus are subject to twisting in
both species and, in comparably twisted speci-
mens, are remarkably similar in both.
Collecting generously afforded by Dr. Swingle
around artificial fish ponds near Auburn, Ala.,
brought in several catches of this species. It is
probable that it is the first species of caddisfly
to invade these ponds after they are filled.
Oxyethira lumosa, new species
This species is most closely related to grisea
Betten and novasota Ross on the basis of simple
eighth segment and the long, curled spiral
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
process of the aedeagus. From both species and
others in the genus it differs markedly in the
small, compact, ovate ventral aspect of claspers
and subgenital plate, Fig. 3A.
Male.—Length from front of head to tip of
wings, 2.5 mm. Color a salt and pepper mixture
of cream and brown. General structure typical
for genus. Seventh sternite with a sharp apico-
mesal spur. Genitalia as in Fig. 3. Eighth
segment almost cylindrical, the apical margin
slightly roughened and its ventral aspect U-
shaped. Ninth segment with ventral portion
forming only a rounded internal lobe extending
only slightly into the seventh segment. Ninth
segment also having no prominent marginal
structures, the dorsal portion membranous and
the ventral portion membranous and emargi-
nate to form a deep V around the base of the
claspers. Subgenital plate with lateral aspect
forming a stout, hook-shaped structure with a
wide base and stout, curved apex with a sharp
tip, and with ventral aspect ovate and slightly
incised on meson. Claspers fused to form an
ovate plate deeply incised on meson from apex
to over half the distance to base, Fig. 3A.
Aedeagus not very long, base only about as
long as apex, and the neck indicated by a shal-
low constriction and the origin of the spiral
process. This structure is stout and long, and
encircles the aedeagus one and a half times,
the first circle making almost a ring and the
other half circle made while extending pos-
teriad to the apex of the aedeagus. Apex of
aedeagus cylindrical, semimembranous, and
with a sclerotized, sharp, triangular sclerite
placed transversely across the structure near
the tip.
Holotype, male—Daytona
August 27, 1945, G. T. Riegel.
Beach, Fla.,
Genus Hydroptila Dalman
This is the most abundant and widespread
genus of Hydroptilidae, with species known
from every part of the globe. It is interesting
that the Nearctic fauna contains many species
whose closest relatives are in the Palearctic
fauna, and other species which have apparently
arisen from Neotropical nuclei of evolving forms.
The species described below is of this latter
category.
Hydroptila denza, new species
Among some material from Mexico a speci-
JUNE 15, 1948
men was encountered that is of the general
type of meralda Mosely, but differs from it in a
variety of characters: The claspers are little
longer than the subgenital plate, the apex of the
tenth tergite is deeply incised, and the apical
blades of the aedeagus are wide and swordlike,
Fig. 6A.
Male.—Length from front of head to tip of
wings, 3 mm. Color moderately dark brown,
the wings mottled with gray and brown.
General structure typical for genus and scent
cap ovate. Seventh sternite with a short, sharp
apicomesal process. Genitalia as in Fig. 6.
Ninth segment projecting freely from eighth
segment, its internal portion rounded and only
moderately produced, the apicolateral margin
bearing a fingerlike lobe which appears sharp
and spurlike from ventral view. Tenth tergite
with lateral margins sclerotized, mesal portion
membranous and deeply incised. Clasper of
moderate length, ventral aspect with apex
slightly widened, lateral aspect with apex
much widened and trianguloid; apicolateral
corner projecting as a small sharp point, apico-
mesal corner slightly angulate and a small
sclerotized point just within it. Subgenital
plate triangular, over two-thirds as long as
clasper, and bearin’g a pair of setae near apex.
Aedeagus, Fig. 6A, with base extremely long,
extending internally through three full seg-
ments of a completely extended specimen; neck
bearing a rufflike collar of membranous folds
and a slender spiral process which encircles
the aedeagus one and a half times; base of apex
swollen, the apex beyond this divided into two
parts, a long, bladelike, flattened, sclerotized
process, and a tapering, straight style which
bears the penis tube and which is membranous
and corrugated at its base.
Holotype, male——Hacienda Santa Engracia,
Tamaulipas, Mexico, March 9, 1939.
Genus Neotrichia Morton
As is true of Ochrotrichia, Mayatrichia, and a
few other genera, additional United States
species of Neotrichia continue to follow patterns
of general structure found in Central American
forms. To date these genera are known only
from the New World, and their distribution
seems to indicate clearly that these genera
originated in the Neotropics, and various spe-
cies are spreading horthward following the
retreat of the glacial area.
ROSS: DESCRIPTIONS OF NEARCTIC HYDROPTILIDAE
205
Neotrichia numii, new species
The elongate and triangular claspers and the
structure of the aedeagus indicate definite
affinities between this species and digitata .
Mosely on the one hand and collata Morton
on the other. From both this species differs in
the extremely long, beaklike process of the
subgenital plate, and the very dissimilar sclero-
tized processes at the apex of the aedeagus.
Male.——Length from front of head to tip of
wings, 2.5 mm. Color entirely dark brown, the
legs paler. General structure typical for genus.
Genitalia as in Fig. 5. Ninth segment having
an angulate internal portion, each side ending
in a spurlike process; the dorsal portion is
fused with the tenth tergite, the lateral portion
is large and its apical margin is produced into
a low, wide angle. Tenth tergite moderately
narrow, rounded at apex and forming a simple,
undivided mesal structure projecting above the
other apical parts of the genitalia. Clasper
elongate, lateral aspect tapering and curved at
apex, ventral aspect having a broad, parallel-
sided base narrowing suddenly to a short,
pointed apex, heavily sclerotized and bearing
only a few short setae. Bracteole, Fig. 5C,
spatulate, pale, and bearing a series of long
hairs.on its ventral and apical margin, the
base of the bracteole short and narrow, the
apical portion broad and slightly curved dor-
sad. Subgenital plate unusually complex; the
mesal portion, Fig. 5B, ends in a long beak
which in lateral view is narrow and sharp, and
in ventral view is expanded at apex into a
platelike area bearing a hooked lateral process
and a pair of mesal setae; this mesal part is
joined ventrad with a large, convex lateral
sclerite which narrows dorsad and appears to
fuse with the inner margin of the tenth tergite.
Aedeagus, Fig. 5A, elongate, the base tubular
and narrowing to a long neck from the apex
of which arises a stout spiral process encircling
the aedeagus a little more than a complete
turn; apex swollen at base, and divided at
apex into a sharp spur bearing the penis and a
lateral plate that is broad at base, slightly
narrower at apex, and almost truncate at tip.
Holotype, male—Lake George, Colo., in 11-
mile canyon of the South Platte River, August
8, 1943, J. A. and H. H. Ross.
Neotrichia vibrans Ross
Neotrichia ranea Denning, Can. Ent. 79: 20. 1947.
New synonymy.
206
Further study of this species indicates that
there is considerable lateral movement of
several parts of the genital capsule, and that
this may result in considerable difference of
appearance between one specimen and another.
The widely expanded condition is shown in
my own drawing (Ross, 1938, p. 120, Fig. 29),
and a more contracted condition is illustrated
by Denning in the description of ranea. Dr.
Denning has kindly loaned me his type ma-
terial for study.
LITERATURE CITED
BaRNARD, K. H. South African caddis-flies
(Trichoptera). Trans. Roy. Soc. South
Africa 21: 20-394, illus. 1934.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
-
VOL. 38, NO. 6
DenninG, Donautp G. Hydroptilidae (Tri-
choptera) from southern United States.
Can. Ent. 79: 12-20, illus. 1947.
FELBER, JAcQuES. Microptila risi nov. sp.
Zool. Anz. 32: 720-722, illus. 1908.
Martynov, ANDREAS B. Trichoptera. Prac-
tical Entomology 5: 67 and 388 pp., illus.
1924. Leningrad.
— Trichoptera Annulipalpia. Tabl.
Analyt. Faune U.R.S.S. 13: 1-343, illus.
1934.
Ross, Herpert H. Descriptions of Nearctic
caddis flies (Trichoptera) with special refer-
ence torthe Illinois species. Bull. Illinois
Nat. Hist. Surv. 21 (4): 101-183, illus.
1938.
. The caddis flies, or Trichoptera, of
Illinois. Illinois Nat. Hist. Survey 23
(1): 1-326, illus. 1944.
ZOOLOGY.—An analysis of specific homonyms in zoological nomenclature.’
RicHARD E. BLACKWELDER, U. 8. National Museum.
In the systematic study of animals,
which is the science known as systematics
or taxonomy, the scientific names of the
animals are at once an essential tool and a
source of much confusion and discussion
because of their vast number and the com-
plexity of our system of using them. A
branch of systematics has grown up which
concerns itself entirely with these names
and the principles to be used in applying
them; this is nomenclature. Its principal
aims are to formulate and establish systems
under which each species can be given
a distinetive name and to provide machin-
ery to insure as great stability or perma-
nence as possible to each of these names.
One of the difficulties which plague the
taxonomist in his use of scientific names is
the situation that arises when the same
name is inadvertently given to two different
species of animals. If a name is to be useful
in exact science it must always refer to but
one species, and always to the same species.
Therefore, we cannot permit the use of one
name for two or more species, and when
duplicate names are found we must provide
another name for one of the species. Identi-
cal names used for two or more species are
called homonyms. They may be further
classified by calling the older of the two
usages the senior homonym and the younger
one the junior homonym.
1 Received April 2, 1948.
The discovery of homonyms very often
results in a change of name for one of the
species, and this type of change accounts
for a large proportion of the annoying al-
terations of names that have given taxon-
omy a bad reputation among biologists. It
is thus of special importance to taxono-
mists to study the problem of homonymy
and find a way to protect names from this
major source of instability.
The treatment of homonymy of specific
names in zoological nomenclature is one of
the oldest problems with which the writers
of rules of nomenclature have had to deal,
and it is one that has not been solved on
any universal basis even after 75 years of
code-building. It is therefore not unreason-
able to reexamine the problem to present a
possible new approach.
In the various nomenclatural codes that
have been proposed, the treatment of the
problem of homonymy differs widely. The
reason for this divergent treatment is not
clear, except on the assumption that none
of them have given real satisfaction. It is
therefore believed useful to examine the
procedures that have been proposed here-
tofore and to analyze the requirements of a
satisfactory system.
(1) The first method we will examine for
dealing with homonyms is that prescribed
by the International Rules of Zoological
Nomenclature in articles 35 and 36. It is
JUNE 15, 1948 BLACKWELDER: SPECIFIC HOMONYMS IN ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE 207
the most direct and the simplest approach
but may not be the one giving the most
desirable results. This treatment is based on
two principles: (1) ‘‘A specific name is to be
rejected as a homonym when it has pre-
viously been used for some other species or
subspecies of the same genus”’ (from article
35), and (2) “rejected homonyms can never
be used again” (from article 36).? This is a
2 The term specific name is here used in its cur-
rently official meaning, in which the combination
of the generic and the trivial names is a specific
name. Article 2 holds that the scientific designa-
tion of a species is binomial, and it is therefore
only the binomial combination that can be a
homonym.
simple and direct solution, and it has been
reinforced by Opinion 83. Unfortunately
the ramifications of nomenclature are not
as simple as this rule, and names do not
conform to a pattern of being irrevocably
either “homonyms” or “not homonyms”
at any given time.
This can be illustrated by diagrams of the
eight major types of homonyms (Fig. 1).
You may recognize in these diagrams your
old friends X-ws albus and Y-us albus. In
these diagrams two genera are represented
in parallel vertical columns. The passage
of time as one reads down each diagram is
indicatéd by the dates at the left, and the
X-US Y-US X-US Y-US X-US Y-US
‘yao ALBUS ras. «00 ALBUS ras 1300 ALBUS ras.
exo ALBUS darn sa
i900 ALBUS sari 1900 i390 ALBUS sw
X-US Y-US X-US Y-US
1800 Sp Six ees ALBUS «are.
1850 nace Wh isso ALBUS swt
|
|
1900 ALBUS SMITH 1900
| |
X-US Y-US X-US Y-US X-US Y7USe
1800 ALBUS une | i800 ALBUS tare i800 ALBUS ur
850 ALBUS SMITH 1850
1880 1880 ALBUS SMITH
1800 900
G
Fic.
1
208
subsequent history of each specific name is
indicated by the solid line beneath it. The
heavy horizontal line at the bottom repre-
sents the time at which the homonymy is
discovered. In A, albus was proposed twice
in X-us, producing unequivocal homonymy
from 1900 on. B is just like A except for the
later removal of one of the species to Y-us.
It would be just the same if it had been the
other name that was removed. In C the
older name has been removed before the
proposal of the second name. In D the two
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
were originally proposed in separate genera,
but by the time the second was proposed
in X-us, the older name had been trans-
ferred to X-us, producing unquestiona-
ble homonymy. E is similar except that
the transfer of the older name is later
than the proposal by Smith. And F, G, H
are the same as D and E except that the
transfer of the older name to X-us was
temporary—in F entirely prior to Smith, in
G entirely subsequent to Smith, and in H
partly before and partly after Smith.
X-US Y-US X-US Y-US X-US Y-US
i300 ALBUS ras. i300 ALBUS ras. i300 ALBUS rae.
co ALBUS svn ae
i900 ALBUS satu 1900 i390 ALBUS sam
X-US Y-US X-US Y-US X-US Y-US
1800 ALBUS usr tev ALBUS usr _i00 ALBUS ur
1850 1850 1850
1880 is80 ALBUS sam
i900 ALBUS swtu i900 ALBUS sum 1900
D F
Y-US
1800 ALBUS tare
i850 ALBUS sw
H
X-US Y-US
1800 ALBUS tare
50 ALBUS swrn
1880
1900
G
Ete. 2
JUNE 15, 1948 BLACKWELDER: SPECIFIC HOMONYMS IN ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE 209
Under the International Rules every one
of these eight types of homonyms requires
a change of name, because in every case
there has been combined with X-us a name
albus that is older than X-us albus Smith
1900. This is the rigid interpretation of the
present wording of the Rules, which has
been followed by many taxonomists but by
no means by all.
Many taxonomists have felt that in some
of these cases, such as diagram F in which
- the homonymy was of a tempoiary histori-
cal nature, it is not really necessary to re-
place the 1900 name. They have argued that
a distinction of some sort should be made to
prevent the change of such names.
(II) The question of whether all homo-
nyms should be treated alike has led to wide
discussion of a possible distinction between ©
two types called primary and secondary
homonyms, so that different treatment might
be accorded them after revision of this part
of the Rules. There have been at least two
_ definitions of primary and secondary homo-
nyms, but the one most commonly known
is this. A homonym is primary if the
names were originally proposed in the
same genus; it is secondary if the two names
occur in the same genus only through trans-
fer of one from another genus. It is argued
that all primary homonyms must be re-
placed, but that secondary homonyms
should require replacing only if the names
are still in the same genus. The examples in
the top row of Fig. 1 (A, B, C) are primary,
since the names were originally in the same
genus; all the rest are secondary, under this
definition, because the names were origi-
nally in different genera. A, B, C require
replacing of the younger name, since these
are primary homonyms, but D and E also
require replacing, because both names are
currently in use in X-us. Only F, G, and H
can be saved by this procedure. Stability
of the names is indicated by a tabulation,
thus:
Method Change Keep
I. International Rules 8 6
II. Primary-Secondary (original
genus) 5 3
(III) A third school employs primary and
secondary in a very different sense. Here, a
homonym is primary if it was a homonym
at the time of its proposal, whether this
fact was recognized or not; it is secondary
if it was valid when proposed and became
a homonym later by other action.
Again, the primary homonyms are treated
as in the International Rules—they must
be replaced. And secondary homonyms are
considered to be such only as long as the
two names remain in the same genus. In
Fig. 2 we find the top two rows representing
the primary homonyms under this defini-
tion. A, B, C, D, F, and H are primary,
since the later name was already preoccu-
pied by an older combination with X-us.
But E, which is secondary, must also be
replaced, since the names are both in cur-
rent use in X-us. This would appear in the
stability tabulation, thus:
Method Change Keep
I. International Rules 8 0
II. Pri-Sec (original genus) 5 3
III. Pri-Sec (validity when pro-
posed) c 1
(IIIa) A variant of the third procedure
might be required by those persons who
believe that temporary transfer of a name
into X-uws does not preoccupy the name for
later use in X-us. In this case, A, B, C, D,
and E would be primary. This would give
results in the stability table of Change 5,
Keep 3.
The first of these procedures for separat-
ing homonyms into primary and secondary
(our second system) is based on two new
principles (see Fig. 1): (1) The fact that the
identical names were originally proposed
in the same genus is held to be of first im-
portance, making the top row primary. In
this manner, in Fig. 3, diagram A is set
apart from diagram D, although they are
identical except for the original assignment
of the names, yet we must take the same
action in the two cases because there is
actual homonymy in each. They must be
treated alike even though one is primary
and one secondary. In diagrams B and H,
which also are identical except for the orig-
inal genus of the names, we should be re-
quired to change a name in B and not in H
because B is primary and H is secondary.
This time we do not treat them alike, al-
though they differ in exactly the same way.
There appears to be no justification for
210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 4
X-US Y-US X-US Y-uUS later removed from X-us (H and G, in
soo ALBUS rs 1 oe As ea Fn which H is called primary and G secondary)
we would be required under this third pro-
cedure to replace the newer name in H
(because it was a primary homonym) and
would not be required to replace it in G
(where it is secondary). Again we find that
D (primary) and E (secondary) must be
treated alike, whereas H (primary) and G
(secondary) must be treated differently.
There appears to be no reason for such a
A D distinction.
In summarizing these last two proce-
dures, it is apparent that there has appeared
KoUS._ ous ais KM Hs the new principle that a name may not be
woo ALBUS rs ind ALBUS ur replaced unless the older name is still in the
same genus when the homonymy is dis-
1850 covered, as in D and E of Fig. 4. But this
weo ALBUS sum principle is applied only to the class of
ALBUS sen secondary homonyms as variously defined.
1300 B00 It would require a change in D and in E,
and it would require a change in H but not
G. There does not seem to be any reason
why all types of homonyms should not be
B - treated in this way. In other words, if there
is no real justification for the distinction
Fie. 3
X-US Y-US X-US Y-US
these distinctions, and there also appears to geo ALBUS ca ae ALBUS ure
be no basis for the principle of segregating
homonyms on the basis of their original = = me
assignment. (2) Asecondary homonym must
be replaced only if the older name is still in
the same genus at the time the homonymis _,,,. ALBUS sum ia
discovered. There can be no question that ;
the younger name in diagram D must be
replaced, because there is active homonymy
E:
at the present time, but if in diagram H it is D
not necessary to rename the younger name,
why must we do so in diagram B? Merely
because of the accident of the original gen- X-US Y-US X-US Y-US
eric assignment of the older name? There “ aiBuSun SD
appears to be no justification for the use of
this principle either. a
The second procedure for separating “™ wso ALBUS sun
homonyms into primary and secondary uses *% ALBUS om =
another new principle (see Fig. 4). It places
first importance upon the fact that Smith in ks sa
1850 (in E) was correct in believing that
the name albus had never been used before
in the genus X-us, whereas in D he failed
in 1900 to recognize the older name. D is H G
therefore called primary and E secondary. |
But in these cases if the older name had been Fie. 4
JUNE 15, 1948 BLACKWELDER: SPECIFIC HOMONYMS IN ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE 211
X-US _Y-US X-US _Y-US X-US Y-US
1800 ALBUS FAB. | 1800 ALBUS LATR. 1800 ALBUS LATR.
1850 1880 ALBUS sax
i300 ALBUS sanx i900 ALBUS sax 1900
|
|
| ee eee aawaeua“aesa—a—
X-US Y-US X-US Y-US
soo ALBUS ras is00 ALBUS as.
1880
seo ALBUS own
& ce co ALBUS sun
X-US _Y-US X-US _Y-US X-US Y-US
1800 ALBUS ur i800 ALBUS ure i800 ALBUS ure
1850 al
isso ALBUS sum
between primary and secondary, why not
judge both types on the same ground?
(IV) Now if we apply this new plan uni-
formly to all types of homonyms, we need
new terms for the ones that are to be re-
placed and those that are not, to avoid con-
fusion with primary and secondary. We are
now interested, in the first place, in the situ-
ation as we find it at the time of discovery
of the homonymy. (This time is represented
by the heavy line across the bottom of each
diagram.) The question to be asked is, Is
there concurrent use of two names of iden-
tical spelling? —
aes
La
Fig. 5
In Fig. 5, in A, D, and E two identical
names are in use in the genus X-us at the
present time—they occur together and are
therefore coincident homonyms. In B, C, F,
G, and H the names are not now in the
same genus and are therefore homonyms
only in an historical sense—only because
of their antecedents. We may therefore
term them antecedent homonyms.?
3 Other terms may be thought more readily
understood in these uses, such as concurrent and
historical or present and past, but the need for
any such terms would be eliminated in a new rule
by calling only the first group “homonyms,”’
eliminating the need for any term for the second
group.
212
By replacing only the coincident homo-
hnyms, we obtain a rating on the stability
tabulation thus:
Method Change Keep
I. International Rules 8 0
II. Pri-Sec (original genus) 5 3
III. Pri-See (validity when pro-
posed) Uf 1
IIIa. 5 3
IV. Coincident-Antecedent 3 5)
I should point out here that in this table
a very false impression can be made. These
figures are the number of types of homo-
nyms that require change. One of these
types might be much more common than
another, completely overshadowing it in
importance. But it appears that in number
IV, changes are required only in cases which
would have had to be changed under all of
the other systems as-well (A, D, E in Fig.
5), and the remaining cases are an improve-
ment in stability over the other procedures.
A summary of this distinction between
coincident and antecedent homonyms can
be made by defining them and the treat-
ment of them. Any name that 1s discovered
to be of the same spelling as an older name
currently assigned to the same genus is a
COINCIDENT JUNIOR HOMONYM
and is to be replaced. Any name that is dis-
covered to be of the same spelling as an older
name that was at one time in the same genus
but 1s not now so assigned 1s an ANTE-
CEDENT JUNIOR HOMONYM and is
not to be replaced.
Obviously, an antecedent homonym can
become coincident, as would be the case in
diagram Cif after 1900 the older name was
brought back into X-us. It is the actual
state of affairs at the time of discovery of
the homonymy that determines the type of
homonymy and the action to be taken.
In some discussions of primary and second-
ary homonymy there has been proposed
another new principle, which is a radical
departure from the International Rules in
that it requires the revival of a name pre-
viously suppressed as a homonym.
In Fig. 6, which represents a case of
secondary homonymy in procedure II,
X-us albus Smith, 1900, required replacing,
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
even though it was a secondary homonym.
It was renamed in 1910 by Jones as X-us
novus. This is an action that would have
been necessary under any of the four pro-
cedures we have examined. Then in 1920
albus of Latreille, the older name, was re-
moved by Brown from X-us; the new pro-
cedure would then require that X-us albus
Smith 1900 be reinstated with novus Jones
as a Synonym.
This appears to be completely contrary
to the primary aim of the Rules, which is
stability in nomenclature, since it produces
an extra name change that is not absolutely
necessary. If it stopped here, it would be
fairly reasonable, but there is nothing to
prevent, some other worker from claiming
(in 1925 for example) that albus of Latreille
was correctly transferred to X-us, and
therefore novus must be used for albus
Smith once again. And in 1926 Brown reit-
erates his belief that albus Latreille does not
belong in X-us, and therefore novus is only
a synonym of X-us albus Smith.
It is more than possible that such a con-
troversy should continue for years, since
there are many cases in which two authors
X-US Y-US
1800 ALBUS ‘ure
1850 on
woo ALBUS sum
10 NOVUS ones
ALBUS
|
s ee
Novus :
|
1028 NOVUS Jones
tes
|
NOVUS
Fia. 6
JUNE 15, 1948
have consistently used different generic
assignments for a given species.
Again, when two workers disagree on the
correct generic assignment of a species, as
has occurred many times over long periods
of years, the first worker, calling the genus
X-us, finds that X-us albus is a secondary
homonym, as in D, requiring a new name;
whereas simultaneously and equally cor-
rectly the second worker, who believes the
genus should be called Z-us, finds that the
name Z-us albus is not preoccupied at 1900
and is therefore the correct name for the
species. On the basis of their beliefs concern-
ing the generic name, both are correct in
their use of the specific names, so that we
have two apparently correct names in use
for one species.
The possibility of this result from a dif-
ference of opinion on generic assignment of
another species, or of the correct name for
a@ genus, can not occur under our present
Rules. In procedure II as generally stated
it can occur in five of the examples. In
procedure III it can occur in two of the
examples. If the conclusions of this discus-
sion are made part of procedure IV, such a
situation could not arise in any case.
PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY
213
The only point that I have seen raised
against this principle of accepting a valid
renaming in spite of later actions is that
malicious transfer could provide the means
for some one to rename any species desired,
on a small or large scale. I have not found
any one who knows of such a case of mali-
cious misappropriation of a rule, and I con-
sider it at best as a possibility of importance
insufficient to warrant action designed to
prevent it. If a case should occur, the
International Commission has ample au-
thority to take action against the offender,
without adding to the complexity of our
nomenclatural system.
There appears to be no other reasonable
course than to accept the valid renaming
of a homonym as final. There are other
cases in which we find that strict priority
gives less stability to names than a care-
fully controlled departure from priority.
And this appears to be an opportunity to
prevent the possible (or rather certain) con-
fusion of having two valid trivial names in
current use for one species, merely through
a difference of opinion concerning the status
of some other species which happens. to
have an identical name.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY
50TH ANNUAL MEETING
The 50th annual meeting, concurrently with
the 353d meeting of the Academy, held in the
Auditorium of the Cosmos Club, January: 15,
1948, was called to order at 8:15 p.m. by the
President, WaLpo L. Scumitt, with 55 persons
in attendance.
The minutes of the 49th annual meeting were
approved as published in the JoURNAL 37: 436—
444, 1947.
The reports of several officers and of the
Committees of Auditors and Tellers were read
and accepted. These reports are recorded at the
end of the minutes.
After the acceptance of the report of the
Committee of Tellers, the President declared
the following duly elected to the given offices:
FREDERICK D. Rosstnt, President,
C. Lewis Gazin, Secretary,
Howarp S. RapPpLEYE, Treasurer,
Franeigs M. DrFANDORF and WILLIAM N.
FENTON, Board of Managers to January 1951.
The Secretary presented for the Affiliated
Societies their nominations for Vice-Presidents
of the Academy as follows:
Philosophical Society of Washington— WALTER
RAMBERG
Anthropological Society of Washington—WIL-
LIAM N. FENTON
Biological Society of Washington—Joun W.
ALDRICH
Chemical Society of Washington—CHaARLES
E. WHITE
Entomological Society of Washington—CarL
F. W. MursEBECK
National Geographic Society—-ALEXANDER
WETMORE
Geological Society of Washington—WILLIAM
W. RuBEY
Medical Society of the District of Columbia—
FREDERICK O. Con
Columbia Historical Society—GILBERT GrRos-
VENOR
Botanical Society
BAMFORD
Washington Section of the Society of American
Foresters—WIiLiLiaM A. Dayton .
of Washington—RoNaLpD
214
Washington Society of Engineers—C.uirrorp
A. BEerts
Washington Section of the American Institute
of Electrical Engineers—FRaAncis B. SILSBEE
Washington Section of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers—Marrin A. Mason
Helminthological Society of Washington—
AUREL O. FOSTER
Washington Branch of the Society of American
Bacteriologists—Lorr A. RoGERsS
Washington Post of the Society of American
Military Engineers—CLEMENT L. GARNER
Washington Section of the Institute of Radio
Engineers—HERBERT GROVE DORSEY
Washington Section of the American Society of
Civil Engineers—OweEn B. FRENCH
The Secretary was instructed by the mem-
bers present to cast a unanimous ballot for
these nominees.
The President announced the recipients of
the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve-
ment for 1947 as follows:
In the Biological Sciences, no award made.
In the Engineering Sciences, Harry W.
WELLs, of the Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washing-
ton, in recognition of his distinguished upper-
air research and organization of a world-wide
network of ionospheric stations.
In the Physical Sciences, Ropert D. Hun-
TOON, of the National Bureau of Standards, in
recognition of his distinguished service in the
- advancement of electronics and its applications
to other sciences and to modern ordnance.
The reports of three special committees were
_ presented as a part of the program as follows:
~The Journal, by the Chairman of the Commit-
tee, Raymonp J. SrxcerR; National Science
Legislation, by the Chairman of the Commit-
tee, A. T. McPurrson; A Junior Academy of
Sciences, by the Vice-Chairman of the Com-
mittee, EaprrT H. WALKER.
The retiring President, Wautpo L. ScumirTT,
presented his address, The Academy in Retro-
spect and Prospect, then appointed Past Presi-
dents EUGENE C. CRITTENDEN and Oscar E.
MEINzER to escort the incoming President,
FREDERICK D. Rossini, to the chair. Dr.
Rossini adjourned the meeting at 10:20 P.M.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY
During the Academy year, January 16, 1947,
to January 15, 1948, one person was elected to
honorary membership and 45 persons were
elected to regular membership, including 42
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
resident and 3 nonresident. Of these, 26 resi-
dent and 2 nonresident qualified for member-
ship. Ten resident members, elected to mem-
bership January 12, 1948, were notified on
January 13, but insufficient time has elapsed for
their reply. Sixteen resident members and 4
nonresident members elected to membership in
the preceding Academy year qualified during
the present Academy year just ending. The >
new members were distributed among the vari-
ous sciences as follows: 9 in botany, 8 in
physics, 5 each in zoology and entomology, 4
each in chemistry and engineering, 2 each in pa-
leontology, geology, anthropology, and plant
pathology, and 1 each in biology, bacteriology,
genetics, physiology, and ceramics.
Twelve resident and 3 nonresident members,
having retired from the gainful practice of their
professions, were placed on the retired list of
members to enjoy all the privileges of active
membership without further payment of dues.
The deaths of the following members were
reported to the Secretary:
CHARLES 8. BuTiER, Bristol, Tenn., on October
7, 1944.
GEORGES PERRIER, Paris, France, on February
16, 1946. ?
Epwarp A. GOLDMAN, Washington, D. C., on
September 2, 1946.
Sir JAMES Harwoop Jeans, Dorking, Surrey,
England, on September 16, 1946.
Wits L. Jepson, Berkeley, Calif., on Novem-
ber 7, 1946.
Henry G. Avers, Washington, D. C., on Janu-
ary 19, 1947. |
Howarp S. Roperts, 2d, Washington, D. C.,
on January 30, 1947.
CHARLES A. Browne, Washington, D. C., on
February 3, 1947.
W. P. Hay, Bradenton, Fla., on May 26, 1947.
HARDEE CHAMBLISS, Washington, D. C., on
June 1, 1947.
Rupour W. GuasezR, Princeton, N. J., on Sep-
tember 4, 1947.
Ropert H. Lomparp, Worcester, Mass., on
October 11, 1947.
Dwiaut W. WINDENBURG, Washington, D. C.,
on November 14, 1947.
Sir JamMEs Harwoop JEANs and General
GEORGES PERRIER were honorary members.
On January 15, 1947, the status of member-
ship was as follows:
Boe oe Ts Patron Total
lar tired ary
Resident....... 457 52 2 0 511
Nonresident.... 161 26 15 0 202
Wotal@us cece: 618 78 17 0 713
_ JuNE 15, 1948
~The net changes in membership during the
past year are as follows:
Regu- Re- Honor-
: Patron Toal
lar tired ary
Resident....... + 8 +12 - 0 0 20
Nonresident.... 9 —2 —1 0 + 6
Motalon. s+ +17 +10 —1 0 +26
During the Academy year 1947 the Board of
Managers held 9 meetings, with an average at-
tendance of 18 persons. The following impor-
tant matters were considered by the Board:
1. Observance of the 50th Anniversary of the
Academy.—The President appointed a commit-
tee to look into the various ways in which the
50th Anniversary of the Academy might be ob-
served and make recommendations to assist
the incoming 1948 Board in its selection and
carrying out of the observance. It was antici-
pated that this committee might render timely
services inasmuch as the anniversary date,
February 18, 1948, falls such a short time after
the induction of the new Board of Managers.
2. Preparation of an Illustrated Anniversary
Edition of the ‘‘Red Book’’ or Directory.—The
Board of Managers authorized the publication
of an Anniversary Edition of the Red Book,
which is to include photographs of members of
the Academy together with as complete a list
as possible of the membership of the various
scientific societies affiliated with the Academy,
and to include the constitutions, bylaws and
current lists of officers of the Academy and
affiliated societies. The Board authorized the
expenditure of $3,000 for the publication of the
directory, with a leeway of $600 to cover un-
expected charges, such as proofreading, ete.
3. Consideration of a Monograph.—A mono-
graph on The parasitic birds of Africa, by
Herbert Friedmann, was presented to the
Board of Managers and recommended for pub-
lication by the chairman of the Monograph
Committee. Estimates for the cost of publica-
tion were secured and the Board referred the
manuscript to the Board of Editors for review
and recommendation.
PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY
215
During the Academy year, seven meetings of
the Academy were held as follows:
On February 20, 1947, Huecu L. DrypEn, as
retiring President, offered an address entitled
Exploring the fundamentals of aerodynamics.
Owing to unusually inclement weather the
paper was read by title only.
On March 20, 1947, the 1946 Academy
Awards for Scientific Achievement were pre-
sented to WaLpo R. WeEpEL, U. S. National
Museum, for work in the biological sciences; to
Martin A. Mason, Beach Erosion Board, for
work in the engineering sciences; and GEORGE
W. Irvine, Jr., Bureau of Agricultural and
Industrial Chemistry, for work in the physical
sciences.
On April 17, 1947, His Excellency, Mr.
HerMan Eriksson, Minister from Sweden,
contributed a few remarks on Alfred Nobel and
the Nobel prizes, introducing P. W. Bripaman,
of Harvard University, who addressed the
Academy on High pressures and their effects.
On May 15, 1947, JAmzs B. SuMNER, Cornell
University, addressed the Academy on The
chemical nature of enzymes.
On October 16, 1947, Epwarp A. Dotsy, St.
Louis University School of Medicine, addressed
the Academy on Vitamin K.
On November 20, 1947, I. I. Rasr, Columbia
University, addressed the Academy on The
hyperfine structure of the hydrogens and other
atoms.
On January 15, 1948, the meeting of the
Academy was devoted to the business of the
50th Annual Meeting and included the address
of the retiring President, Waupo L. ScumirT,
entitled The Academy in retrospect and prospect.
The meetings were all held in the Assembly
Hall of the Cosmos Club.
C. L. Gazin, Secretary
REPORT OF THE TREASURER
Your Treasurer submits the following re-
port concerning the finances of the Washington
Academy of Sciences for the year ended De-
cember 31, 1947:
RECEIPTS
MM OAD we PRS ts, Fe ce 2 ae AEN 5 $ 30.00
Neer re PE eke. os Seg pM iO Neo ong ela Waters alia eb 75 .00
aor eae, A ee eN eee ye an oes 3,167.00
EA eS on LVN! 3.015 Roe Sead Gens 70.00 $ 3,342.00
Sohne, <a auller steele) leitelys’ «:' «ene ice) ale
216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 6
JOURNAL: ,
Subseriptions, 1044, ; «innate ars vile bh ak alee: canes eee eee $ 6.00
TOTS. cn 2.0 > siphon.» etna’ Beis Moves roe ao tae et Nah eee 6.00
TOAG 2 OPN UR Ga On ee, Monee ties bead tae San. ee nS 6 .00
1OAT, 2 hei, Sb Rae. aE, ie ea ee eee 735 .09
LOLS oi sin gts valet ts bveah ty fe-ard een ws a) tye a gape Ue es 557 . 84
TOAD: 2 cu lle dud tujhe abled bse reaakae ste eo ee peas Manne eels 3.38
Reprints; 19465 00 Aiken os breyten Fok vp ipa Re SezteN eI Oe nee es $ 515.41
ht: Y Ce ee Ree tre A A SR la SMe ot tye 672.73
Sales, LOAF 225 stsusnnah Bas Mt <yenpiltee states ep dubai ewelase..c. hash, Ce etl te hepa tay cai Deiat = Ae ee Ae
Interest: & Dividendse.. ops, sik eon sys cide sun CRE cana © custo dene deed) ae
DIPGGDORY i555 got ag che: ca enh gh am, erate tee TS GLA pce A gee ie ann eee, tae
Cash received in connection with the transfer from the 6 percent to the 3.6 percent pref.
stock of the Potomac Electric/Power Cos. 220.202 PI ee ee
Payment of balance of principal on the Chicago Railways Bond....................
Received, from Amer, Assoc.:for Ady.\of Sete ss: : 2 da bi: heen cls b wig erace aan ae
Photostats and postage: a. come eaee eters es ee oe cite ee es oh aaa
Overpaymentiof dues i. oa fia dec cee Sots ee eee WE eee ie ten on
Total receipts; alQ47y>: . eee eo eee: RR) 2 1 A Wea Yee A: BP AS
Cash<balance, Jamal, U947 (05 2 tik, oad Seas » eee ai edet odd ce
Total-to: be accounted forse «ssn ocd tke ahve’ eine ak tea Waseca he ee
DISBURSEMENTS
1946 1947
Secretary's OMicew ec: en ee ea ea nae go eee $ 82.80 $ 224.95
MPreasurer s+ Olnces, 5. ss: 5-Sie woes aaa ea ee ee eee 72S) 236.78
Subsers Mer @Custodian es oi 7 ae ee en en Sees ee eae 48 .36
Meetings: Committee:..2) 2.5. a eek hee eee ee eae 40 .25 327.10
JOURNAL:
Printing! & Mianlinie. (5c See ter gee 2 Nes ye Se We ee eee 333.83 3,451.27
TW MStRAtIONS « ciese Sek cer gn eee heesas Coe SCAT ears hot eh ee 50 .90 516.44
Reprints... thee caw te os eee ete oP eae eee eee ices «ae 108.59 399.88
Office
EditAsstis se hesitate Sees er ae 20 .00 270 .00
Mise., postage ete wx Jitaae steno atime Sees eee rem 5.34 33.08
2—$1,000 Series G bonds................ a eR Ge eT 2,000 .00
Grrantisorny- Bhd seco TN Bee ep ce toa Ee oe ee ee 479.00
1948 Red} Books) 2 Figs. ee Sy See Gate Cece eee eta a 292.00
SetioP JOURNALS 97.1) OF; SAINT ARCS Aare. See gee 100 .00
Share in projector for Cosmos Clib-i..22 te ee eee: 27 .85
IPHOLGSEB US: Sieh So Ree a A ea aan re ret mI "18 oi ae 2.23
Refund, overpayment of dues........ PRR ERR Sean kets! 1.00
Povals ire WOE AI eR AR Ee ey ete, oF RBC age. ie $663.01 $8,409.94
Cash book balance, Dec31) 1O4%en. ie Tiel. eo Se ae ee Eice: Sie
Total. accounted: for... sey eae or ea oe Seg ke ee es a ee
RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE
Balanceéas per cash book} Deesail,alGar; aan. 2 ed eee ce eee
Balance as per Amer. Sec. & Trust Co.
Statementof Dees 12.194 7s fic) ian eae aera ee aie yi hs ere de Cee $4 ,972 .67
Receipts: deposited: since Deco 425 O47 pa nee aay eee 397 .69
10) 1:)) Mag gone ORM ta oe Ae eR opie a Acys SEE ches ob 2. Wl en eamere ce = $5 ,370 .36
Checks outstanding, as of Dec. 31, 1947
No. TORS 832 ee RaOoD, eae: 2a ee geen eee ar $ 5.41
i) 15 Page eRe ee NG Sg. tis temNB ee ee Sy) cae oy Sai. ae 5.00
) 17-4 0 Wie Be A ie Soe oe Unie ig ent sme 4 SE MS oe acne 25.73
i 1) pan ROR ct RAN ae ar cae RRO ae, 1 ORR Sa 518.36
D QOS Cece eke 2 se Rig anon WW. Racha ee 292 .00
1204 onc ce a RE eee eae ee tr 168.55
TOD i er ees ibe? er PT ne “Ge a ear ces 10.81
j 10 ay etait ange Pant tc Mi RE pRB sig. eee eer Shs cen 1.00 1,026.86
1,314.31
$ 8,632.20
4,784 .25
$13,416.45
Total
$:.. BOs .7e
258 .08
48.36
367 .35
3,785.10
567.34
508 .47
290 .00
38 .42
$ 9,072.95
~ 4,343.50
$13,416.45
$ 4,343.50
$ 4,343.50
|
JUNE 15, 1948 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY
INVESTMENTS
Washington Sanitary Improvement Co.
SertimcaienNo.,434—100 shares at: $10200....:..-.-.0.2..0-0...00.--4. $1,000.
Semtieatcuno. +49—100 shares at $10.00........0. 02.00.05 ce I 1,000.
Mekwucite Nory2,—— . & Shares at $10.00... 25.02 2.4 ec ee 80.
Semiaeste Noro ~"l share at $1000... 4... eee ee 10%
Weraicate Ne. 5952—200 shares at $10.00. 5 0/2 oo. i ee ee 2,000.
Potomac Electric Power Co.
Certificate No. TAO 1977—40 shares 3.6 percent pref. at $50.00.......
City of New York—3 percent (Transit Unification) Due—June 1, 1980
puberty CURSO 2 hese ee SE. ej oben. oe wee $ 500.
Sern Cre ATO eS Ri ee I, ook as gn See ee dee. 100.
Deemer Mere tO 39.8. oe bog. ages ek ee lke cote oe be os 100.
Meeameirrmne@ GINA tr eles cg ee ee OO 100.
First Federal Savings & Loan Ass’n.
Suen MICMERVECORME WOOK: 2o. 5.2 3 oe SP... SLL eed ete se Ab, See Bore
Northwestern Fed. Savings & Loan Ass’n.
pale BV ays LSC Oia Paired ee een i ear gn i ane are ae aa er ee $4 ,500.
ae a OPEN CLANG o e cn ie eti sev sos wu Oa eR eee es 500.
United States Government
pee seebends No: MS32990 Gee elie ok. bss ce ele ens $1,000.
Giese att oes el aS 1,000.
[UL BB DGS RSE G Sete Te Roe eI a rh SR ang See coe 1,000.
BW aesey a enh frsg te Se tare Soret ha ee Rae, eee ee 1,000.
EL TA Ufo BI (2 sea gt tea lg ie ae ee eC ce ap Ea 1,000.
DBZ AZGU Geers tts eee Soe aa IC I ass 1,000.
INA OAS Sr Ea ip See 2 eon § ee a ed ge aN oa So 1 ,000.
PATA GO AG owe gee le.. 5 2s inner ga Mbey ae Sars 1 ,000.
IMA SET RENE R Gal Ss set eg ee SRR 2M Ay ie aE i ea 1 ,000.
Toll Bile alle-2y fl & sash ie oS ren me 1,000.
American Security and Trust Co.
SST TUES BSTC Se Se dole ae a cee a rare eee
De tis sos ef ie Peels Ae os bgin ssf Gk a i wwe
SS Rots LZ SiG 57 Ue RR Si a en
Sieger NCSI S820: APS eS ER. og eee oo we eR Re Oe
Sa NET POT Gyo NN Eel conc va hd nde bile a ums aldose) Ue mw ee Hee $30,718.
RR fet oe he aS ete aw 0 bp pd cud. ok wi ejertbese bine eee 31,280.
$ 65561
75
$ 4,090
2,000
800
5 ,000
5,000
10,000.
46.
4 343
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
00
87
$26 ,936.
50
87
37
$31 ,280.:
At the close of business on December 31, 1947, there were 50 members of the Academy who were
in arrears, as follows:
No. of members In arrears for
25 1 year
10! 2 years
5 3 years
2 4 years
6 5 years
1 6 years
Total 50
Probably at least half of these will regain the status of ‘“‘“member in good standing”’ eventually.
However, the above tabulation shows plainly that a “house cleaning”’ is in order, and it is hoped that
this work can be attended to early in 1948.
Howarp 8. RappiEYE, Treasurer.
218
REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE
The accounts of the Treasurer of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences for the year 1947
were examined by your auditing committee on
January 12, 1948.
The Treasurer’s report was checked and
found to be in agreement with the records. All
disbursements had been authorized and were
found to be supported by vouchers and can-
celled checks. The securities of the Society were
inspected and found to be in agreement with
the list given in the report and to have all
coupons attached that are not yet due.
Your Committee highly commends the
Treasurer of the Academy upon the orderly and
businesslike manner in which he has main-
tained the fiscal records. The Academy con-
tinues to be indebted to Mr. Rappleye for his
conscientious and efficient performance of the
arduous duties of his office.
FREDERICK D. Rossini, Chairman
Austin H. CLark
Haroutp EK. McComs
REPORT OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS
Volume 37 of the JouRNAL, for the year 1947,
contained 448 pages in 12 issues, a gain of 16
pages over Volume 36 of the previous year, in
this respect more nearly approximating the
ideal of 500 pages recommended by previous
editors. There were 59 papers distributed
among the various sciences as shown in the
table below.
These figures show an even poorer balance
between the physical sciences and the biological
sciences than the previous year. In 1946 about
one-fourth of the pages of the JOURNAL were
devoted to physical sciences including geology,
whereas in 1947 the papers in the physical
sciences used only about one-tenth of the pages
of the JouRNAL. The disproportion reflects the
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
production of the biologists and the activity of
the freshman editor, Dr. Sronr, who has been
successful in procuring good papers. In 1947,
moreover, the members of the Academy sub-
mitted over 50 percent of the papers published,
an improvement over 1946 when less than half
of the papers were submitted by our own mem-
bers. A considerably larger number of papers
was received than the editors felt merited pub-
lication in the JouRNAL. A slight decline in the
number of papers published this year is offset
by the space given to several papers, of which
at least one has been widely noticed in this
country and abroad. Anthropology continues
to contribute a fair share of papers, and papers
from its constituent disciplines may be expected
to be a substantial part of the JouRNAL. Owing
to the vigilance of Dr. Horrman, who assumed
responsibility for necrology, the number of
obituaries procured was double that of 1946.
The JouRNAL and the new Board of Editors
face the new year with confidence. Instead of
the customary dearth of papers, the supply on
hand will carry the JouRNAL through the first
quarter of the year. Among the papers on hand
and at the printer’s are several in the physical
sciences which the editors gathered during 1947
or which came to them through the activities of
the Meetings Committee.
The JourNnat faced a financial crisis in
September, when the George Banta Publishing
Co., through its representative, informed the
Senior Editor, Dr. W. N. Fenton, that the
costs of printing had increased to the extent
that they had found it necessary to submit a
new contract which, in effect, would increase
the cost of printing the JouRNAL by about 31
percent. Dr. Fenton reported the matter to the
Board of Managers, who referred the question
to the Executive Committee, who, meeting
October 13, 1947, recommended action, which
the Board of Managers voted, October 20, to
Number
Sciences of papers,
1947
Biological eae ee ee ea esas See ee 41
Physical ts scien se ces reat ae eae oe es 3
Anthropological.) = 1. ..ok oe ye cee 11
Geologicals2e oak Paes eee eee 2
Other (History of Science)................... 2
Obituaries, Proceedings, etc.................. ces
Nid OX 22h sec iaciee thea ec ee =
Totals 59
Number Percentage Number Percentage
of pages, by pages, of pages, of pages,
1947 1947 1946 _ 1946
241 53.8 178.8 41.4
37 8.3 78.8 18.2
90 20.1 114.0 26.4
12 Prsil 24.2 5.6
19 4.2 9.5 22
45 10.0 23.0 5.3.
4 0.9 4.0 0.9
448 100.0 432.0 100.0
JUNE 15, 1948
increase the budget for the JouRNAL by $225 to
meet the increase in cost of publication for the
remainder of the year, and authorized Dr.
Fenton to sign the new contract with the
George Banta Publishing Co. for printing the
JOURNAL. .
The original 1947 budget provided $4,000 for
printing and mailing, to which was added $225
(mentioned above), $300 for editorial assist-
ance, and $50 for miscellaneous office supplies
and postage, bringing the total to $4,575. To
this is to be added the charges to authors, which
amounted to $936.38, making a grand total of
$5,511.38.
The disbursements for the JouRNAL have
been:
Printmpand mailing: 20.2626. ee $3,831.14
PRIN RNO Sees Ge clo as ak ae de wee oa 532.95
FRIED. oe Eide Senet oe ee 473 .64
PiniPOUIAASSISLANCE >. 2-4. cee yee ee es 295.00
Gimecomiscelianecous. ) 205.5 62 42.31
PRG lero ide ocaces me a. 8 $5,175.04
To recapitulate, the total cost of the printing
bills was $4,837.73. From this may be sub-
tracted $936.38, the amount charged to authors
for reprints, excess illustrations, and excess
typesetting charges. Thus the net cost to the
Academy of printing the JoURNAL was
$3,901.35.
It should be noted that on several items the
Editors are well within their appropriation and
that, despite the rise in printing costs at the
end of the year, they were able to get by with-
out the supplemental appropriation.
The Board of Editors wishes to acknowledge
the cooperation of the Board of Managers and
the officers of the Academy. The Associate
Editors met with the Board of Editors early in
the year and worked out a procedure for han-
dling manuscripts in special fields, for reading
galley proofs, and for consultation, in all of
which the Associate Editors have supported the
Board of Editors ably and willingly. Dr. R. E.
BLACKWELDER supplied for Dr. Stone during
the latter’s field work in Alaska, and special
thanks are due to Mr. Pau. H. O§&HSER, our
editorial assistant, for taking over administra-
tive duties during the summer months while
Dr. FENTON was away teaching. Mr. OEHSER’sS
very considerable specialized knowledge and his
genuine interest in the continual improvement
of the JouRNAL far exceed the implication of his
title.
PROCEEDINGS:
THE ACADEMY 219
The Editors also wish to cite Mr. Irwin H.
WENSINK, Washington representative of the
George Banta Publishing Co., for his help in
maintaining the continuity and high standard
of the JouRNAL and for the courteous way that
he conducted negotiations for a new contract
for his company. We do not think it entirely
flattery when he tells us that the Academy’s
editorial set-up has come to be a model which
his company recommends to other learned
bodies.
WILLIAM N. FENTON
JAMES I. HorrMAN
ALAN STONE
REPORT OF THE CUSTODIAN AND SUBSCRIPTION
MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS
SUBSCRIPTIONS:
Nonmember subscriptions in the United States...... 131
Nonmember subscriptions in foreign countries......: 75
WON Dae Rn Pe a RD oh Re Ac eee MRT Shor 206
INVENTORY OF STOCK AS OF DECEMBER 31, 1947:
Reserve Sets of the JoURNAL:
Bound Volumes 1-29 and unbound Volumes
31 SS -7 he Sey Ca Tee ih Nee ee ene ee ee 1 set
Unbound Volumes 1-372). 3235-0. wy 3 sets
Unbound Volumes 11-37) .>.2 2255 3 42 one 6 sets
Unbound Volumes 16-37................--. 11 sets
Miscellaneous numbers of the JOURNAL........- 18,911
Total numbers in the Reserve Sets............ 8,070
Grand total of back numbers.........-...-- 26,981
The only important change that has taken
place during the year 1947 was the resignation
of Frank M. Serzuer as Custodian and Sub-
scription Manager of Publications. Mr. SETZLER
was forced to hand in his resignation toward the
end of this year because of his leaving the
country for an extended field trip. To fill this
vacancy, I was appointed at the 411th meeting
of the Board of Managers held on October 20,
1747. Mr. SetTzuer has admirably filled this
position for five years, and during this tenure
of office he has organized the operations and
records in a most efficient manner, so that when
I took over this position I found everything in
perfect order and all information readily acces-
sible. I feel that Mr. SrrzLer deserves to be
highly commended for the excellent way in
which he has run this office.
SALES AND EXPENDITURES:
During the year no complete sets were sold,
but the sale of individual volumes and numbers
220
has continued, 24 volumes and 115 numbers
having been sold. One complete set (Vol. 1-36)
was purchased from one of the members of the
Academy.
Income from Sales
Miscellaneous mumbers...........0:.-2..565 $178.07
Expenditures
Set ioiidTourRNAmV ol. 1=36. ie" es ek oar... Pee $100.00*
Postage and office expenses................. 48 .36
1947 Budgetary allotment//34% sarsse sae «oak $ 50.00T
Hnexpenditures tor (O47. oe er oe ene 48.36
Wnexpended! balancesen. » fna es ees oe $ 1.64
* Deducted from special fund earmarked for purchase of
volumes and numbers needed to form complete reserve sets.
+ This does not include the additional $50 that was added
to the budget allotment by vote of the Executive Committee
for the purpose of carrying out a campaign to increase the
present subscription list. This money was not expended in
1947.
Haraup A. REHDER, Custodian and
Subscription Manager of Publications
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TELLERS
A total of 325 envelopes were delivered to
the Secretary. The count of valid ballots
showed the following officers were elected:
President, FREDERICK D. Rossini
Secretary, C. LEw1s GazIn
Treasurer, Howarp 8S. RAPPLEYE
Board of Managers to January 1951, FRANcIS
M. DEFANDORF and WriLiiaAM N. FENTON
ANNA E. JENKINS, Chairman
Miriam L. BomMHARD
REGINA FLANNERY
REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE
ON LEGISLATION
(ABSTRACT)
The Committee on Legislation, composed of
J. E. Grar, W. W. Rupery, and A. T. Mc-
PHERSON, reported on recent and pending
legislation in three phases of Government ac-
tivity, each of especial interest and importance
to science. Unusual possibilities for the ad-
vancement of science were seen in the inter-
national exchange of scholars and information
provided by the Fulbright Foreign Scholarship
Act (Public Law 584, 79th Congress) and by
the proposed Information and Educational
Exchange Act of 1948 (HR 3342, January 7,
1948). Funds for the program under the former
act are in foreign currencies derived from the
sale of surplus war property abroad. The latter
bill which was expected to be passed at an early
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
date contains provision for the dollars needed
to send American scholars abroad and will ex-
tend the international exchange of scholars to
countries in which there was no surplus prop-
erty.
The second phase of legislative action re-
ported on was that concerned with the future
of the synthetic rubber industry. The Com-
mittee felt that the most important considera-
tion for future national security regarding
rubber lay in establishing an adequate research
and development program, entirely apart from
any production program. The cost of sucha
program would be less even than the cost of
maintaining the unused plants in standby con-
dition.
_ The third subject dealt with by the Commit-
tee was that of the National Science Founda-
tion. At the time of the report, it was thought
that a compromise bill acceptable to both the
Congress and the Administration would be in-
troduced soon.
The recent report of the President’s Scien-
tific Research Board was reviewed and was
compared with a similar study made by Rosa
after World War I.* The fact that many of the
recommendations regarding the scientific pro-
gram of the Government made in the Rosa re-
port are similar to those in the current report
was cited by the Committee in support of their
recommendation that the Academy give serious
and sustained attention to legislation relating
to science. 7
A. T. McPHERson, Chairman
REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON A
JUNIOR WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES
Dr. Waupo L. Scumitt, President of the
Washington Academy of Sciences in 1947, ap-
pointed a committee on junior academies of
science consisting of Austin H. Clark, Chair-
man, E. H. Walker, Vice Chairman, and Frank
Thone, and requested it to study the subject
and make recommendations to the Washington
Academy of Sciences. The following is the re-
port of the vice chairman based upon the results
of the study as given in his talk at the 50th
* Expenditures and revenues of the Federal Gov-
ernment, by Epwarp B. Rosa. Publication No.
1518. Reprinted from “Taxation and Public Ex-
penditures,’’ Vol. 95 of the Annals of the Ameri-
can Academy of Political and Social Science,
Philadelphia, May 1921.
JUNE 15, 1948
annual meeting of the Washington Academy on
January 15, 1948.
The growing interest in the early recognition
and encouragement of potential scientists has
found expression in the development of organi-
zations working with and for these young scien-
tists. Their activities are centered largely on
the approximately 15,000 science clubs in the
secondary schools throughout the country.
Assisting in the coordinating of these clubs is
Science Clubs of America, administered by
Science Service, Inc., Washington, D. C. An
important activity of this coordinating organi-
zation is the conducting of the annual Science
Talent Search for the Westinghouse Science
Scholarships. Scholarships totaling $11,000 are
distributed among the 40 winners on the basis
of a nation-wide examination. In 11 states
additional awards are granted to local winners
in this same examination, this usually under
the auspices of the state junior or senior acade-
mies of science.
Junior academies of science exist in more
than 30 states. The first one was formed in II-
linois in 1919. These organizations provide to
the young scientists and their sponsors, mostly
organized into school science clubs, (1) valuable
training through cooperative endeavors; (2)
association with other young scientists and
with adult scientists; (3) incentives to the stu-
dents through exhibits, fairs, and congresses, to
engage in creative activities; (4) incentives and
assistance to the adult sponsors; (5) insight
into senior scientific organizations and their ac-
tivities; and (6) opportunities to take an active
part in adult scientific projects.
Membership in these junior academies usu-
ally consists of the science clubs as chapters and
their members as individuals. They are vari-
ously financed, the funds coming from dues
paid by the chapters or by the members, or
both, and subsidies by senior academies,
teacher organizations, sponsors, friends, com-
mercial organizations, etc. Sums run from
about $20 to $400 annually. Additional services
and facilities are often provided by associated
and sponsoring organizations.
The Junior academies of science are usually
governed by committees of the senior acade-
mies and of the school sponsors of the clubs.
They function best where there is an experi-
enced and active adult leader on both commit-
tees or at least actively supported by them.
PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY
221
These junior academies, besides assisting in
the conduct of the science clubs’ activities,
provide stimulating and coordinating publica-
tions, sectional meetings, an annual state con-
gress, usually in connection with the annual
state academy meeting, with exhibits, fairs,
trips, talks, etc., and awards of various kinds.
They often enlist the aid of juniors in various
senior scientific projects where such is appro-
priate. j
The organization of a Junior Washington
Academy of Science is favored by local indi-
viduals and organizations engaged in junior
scientific work. The head of the science work in
the public schools and the teacher-sponsors of
the science clubs believe it would be a spur to
their efforts and could provide valuable facili-
ties they are otherwise unable to obtain. Sci-
ence Clubs of America would be glad for such
an Academy to take over its responsibilities in
the annual science fair, an activity which it has
previously assumed in the absence of other
suitable organizations to do so. It would be glad
to assist in the selection of the best science
talent in this area for awards in addition to the
national Westinghouse Science Scholarships.
This committee’s investigation of the local
organizations and individuals who might be in-
terested in this project is incomplete. More
work should be done in this field before a final
plan of organization is prepared. There should
be careful investigation of the activities of the
Virginia Junior Academy of Science, centered
in Charlottesville, in order to coordinate the
considered activities of a Junior Washington
Academy of Sciences with those of this nearby
organization working within the greater Wash-
ington area. We have had a preliminary meet-
ing with officers of the Maryland Academy of
Sciences in Baltimore and find that our activi-
ties would supplement theirs in the adjacent
portion of Maryland, with which we might be
concerned, and that cooperation with that or-
ganization would be highly desirable and wel-
comed. Their junior academy is temporarily
suspended for lack of a director, but much
junior work is being carried on along with their
program of interpretation of science. The dif-
ferent emphases and perspectives of the Mary-
land and of the Washington Academies of Sci-
ence would find common ground through this
proposed Junior Washington Academy of Sci-
ences.
222
We, therefore, recommend that the Board in
control of the Washington Academy of Sciences
continue this committee with new or aug-
mented personnel and instruct it to report at
the April meeting of the Academy definite and
detailed plans for organizing a Junior Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences with proposals for
implementing this plan.
Eapert H. Waker, Vice Chairman
REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE TO CONSIDER
VARIOUS MATTERS PERTAINING TO THE
JOURNAL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT
The report of this committee was included in
the published Proceedings of the Academy,
414th Meeting of the Board of Managers: This
JOURNAL 38 (2): 79-80. Feb. 15, 1948.
Submitted by C. Lewis Gazin, Secretary
417TH MEETING OF BOARD OF
MANAGERS
The 417th meeting of the Board of Mana-
gers, held in the Cosmos Club, April 12, 1948,
was called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the Presi-
dent, Dr. F. D. Rossini. Others present were:
H.S. Rappers, N. R. Smiru, H. A. REHDER,
W. W. Disut, W. RamBere, T. D. STEWART,
C. E. Wuitrt, A. Wetmore, W. A. Dayton,
C. A. Berts, M. A. Mason, L. A. Roasrs,
C. L. Gazin, and, by invitation, H. E. Mc-
Comps, R. J. Srecer, A. Stonn, J. E. Grar,
and F. H. H. Rossrts, Jr.
The following appointments were announced
by the President: Committee on the Index of
the Journal: W. N. Fenton, Chairman, J. I.
Horrman, M. C. Merriti, H. A. REHDER,
PauL H. OxrHseER (consultant). Committee on
Functions and Policies of the Academy: E. C.
CRITTENDEN, Chairman, A. H. Cuark, W. A.
Dayton, M. A. Mason, L. W. Parr, F. B.
SILSBEE.
The Chairman of the Meetings Committee
announced that Prof. PHinipp Frank, of Har-
vard University, would speak at the April
meeting of the Academy.
The Chairman of the Special Committee to
consider certain revisions of the Bylaws of the
Academy and Standing Rules of the Board of
Managers, Dr. WaLTER RAMBERG, read the
following report:
The Committee has considered means of revis-
ing the Standing Rules of the Board of Managers
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 6
in order to provide greater continuity in the
Standing Committees of the Board, The Commit-
tee recommends the following revisions for this
purpose:
Standing Rules
Section 3, third sentence, replace by: “The Com-
mittee on Membership, Meetings, Grants-in-
Aid for Research, and each of the Subcommittees
of the Committee on Awards for Scientific
Achievement shall include, if possible, at least two
members reappointed from the preceding year.
The Committee on Monographs shall have six
members, each appointed for 3 years at the rate
of two each year. At least three members of the
Committee on Monographs shall be past editors
of the JOURNAL, if possible.’
In addition the Committee recommends the
following revision in the Standing Rules in order
to describe more accurately the duties of the Com-
mittee on Awards for Scientific Achievement:
New Section 8, second sentence, replace by: “A
candidate must be a member of the Washington
Academy of Sciences or a resident member of one
of the affiliated societies, and shall not have
passed the 40th anniversary of the date of his
birth by the end of the calendar year for which
the award is made; recommendations by the
Committee must reach the Board of Managers
not later than the meeting preceding the Annual
Meeting of the Academy in January.”
The Chairman of the Committee on Science
Legislation, JoHn E. Grar, reported that
Senate Bill 526 had been vetoed by President
Truman but that Senator Smith of New Jersey
was sponsoring $3285, introduced March 25,
which would overcome some of the objections
raised to the previous bill.
The president announced that the results of
the study to be made by the Special Commit-
tee appointed to consider the policy and func-
tions of the Academy were to be available by
the end of the calendar year and to be pub-
lished in the JOURNAL as a matter of permanent
record and in order to bring them to the atten-
tion of the membership of the Academy.
Changes in the Standing Rules of the Board
of Managers introduced at the 416th meeting
were approved as follows:
Section 2
After c. iv., insert: -
‘““~ Committee on Awards for Scientific
Achievement.”’
“vi. Committee on Grants-in-aid for Re-
search.”’
Section 3
Replace first sentence by: ‘“There shall be six
STANDING COMMITTEES, as follows: Executive
|
|
JUNE 15, 1948
Committee, Committee on Meetings, Commit-
tee on Membership, Committee on Mono-
graphs, Committee on Awards for Scientific
Achievement, Committee on Grants-in-Aid for
Research.”
Section 4, first sentence:
In place of ‘‘or acting President,”’ insert ‘‘Presi-
dent-Elect”’ (providing the Academy approves
of the new office of President-Elect).
Following Section 6, insert:
7. The CoMMITTEE ON Monocrapus shall re-
ceive for review and recommendation regard-
ing publication such monographs as may be
submitted to the Academy, preference being
given to members of the Academy.
8. It shall be the duty of the COMMITTEE ON
AWARDS FOR SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENT of
recommending one candidate each for the Bio-
logical Sciences, the Engineering Sciences, and
the Physical Sciences. A candidate shall. not
have passed the 40th anniversary of the date of
his birth by the end of the calendar year for
which the Award is made; recommendations
OBITUARY
223
by the Committee must reach the Board of
Managers not later than the meeting immedi-
ately preceding the annual meeting of the
Academy in January. Each recommendation
to the Board must be accompanied by a written
- supporting statement giving the necessary in-
formation concerning the candidate, together
with a citation covering not over 80 spaces, as
‘in recognition of his distinguished service in
(80 spaces) ng
9. The COMMITTEE ON GRANTS-IN-AID FOR
RESEARCH shall review applications for grants-
in-aid from such funds as may be at the dis-
posal of the Board of Managers for this purpose.
Renumber:
present Section 7 as new Section 10
present Section 8 as new Section 11
present Section 9 as new Section 12
present Section 10 as new Section 13
present Section 11 as new Section 14
present Section 12 as new Section 15.
The meeting was adjourned at 9:35 p.m.
C. Lewis Gazin, Secretary.
é
@Obituary
GrorGE Rocers MANSFIELD, retired geolo-
gist of the U. S. Geological Survey, member of
the Geological Society of Washington, and its
39th President in 1930, died at the home of one
of his daughters, Mrs. John W. Carroll, at
Swarthmore, Pa., on Sunday, July 11, 1947. He
was born August 30, 1875, in Gloucester, Mass.
At Amherst College he received the B.S. degree
and membership in Phi Beta Kappa in 1897,
and the M.A. degree in 1901. From 1897 to
1903 he was science teacher at Central High
School in Cleveland, Ohio. At Harvard Uni-
versity he received the Ph.D. degree in 1906
and was instructor in geology from 1906 to
1909. At Northwestern University he was as-
sistant professor in geology from 1909 to 1912.
He worked during the summers of 1910 to 1912
for the U. S. Geological Survey in Idaho. In
1913 he joined the permanent staff as geologist
and was placed in charge of phosphate investi-
gations, which he carried on for many years. In
1922 he was made chief of the Section of Non-
metalliferous Deposits, in 1921 editor of geolog-
ic maps, and in 1927 chief of the Section of
Areal and Nonmetalliferous Geology. He re-
tired in 1943.
Dr. Mansfield’s contributions to geology
over a period of 36 years (1906-42), include 109
titles, of which Professional Paper 152: Geog-
raphy, geology, and mineral resources of a part of
southeastern Idaho, published in 1927, may be
cited as an example of his outstanding com-
petence in investigation, description, discussion
and solution of the areal, physiographic, strati-
graphic, structural, and economic problems en-
countered in the detailed study of an area (in
this case of some 2,200 square miles). Other
publications of the Survey of which he was
either author or joint author described the
phosphates of Florida, the greensands of New
Jersey, the nitrates of California, Texas, Idaho,
and Oregon, and the potash deposits of Texas
and New Mexico. His other contributions ap-
peared in many publications, mainly those of
the Geological Society of America, American
Association of Geographers, the American
Journal of Science (of which he was associate
editor from 1938 to 1945), the Journal of Ge-
ology, Washington Academy of Sciences,
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Kco-
nomic Geology, Science, Proceedings of Section
E of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science.
He was a member of the National Research
Council 1925 to 1934 and chairman of the com-
mittee on tectonics from 1924 to 1934, a fellow
of the Geological Society of America, and a
member of the American Institute of Mining
224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — VOL. 38, NO. 6
and Metallurgical Engineers, the Society of versity, Dr. James 8. Mansfield, of Cambridge,
Economic Geologists, the American Geophysi- Mass., and Robert H. Mansfield, of Caracas,
cal Union, the Washington Academy of Sci- Venezuela; two daughters, Mrs. George W.
ences (vice president 1931), and the Cosmos Patterson, of Morton, Pa., and Mrs. John W.
Club. Carroll, of Swarthmore, Pa.; and twelve grand-
He is survived by his wife, Adelaide Clafi children.
Mansfield; three sons, Harvey C. Mansfield, a Raupu W. RicHAarps
professor of political science at Ohio State Uni-
Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences
; President..............++++.FREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards
x Secretary....... ge x gto pie eetw SG Me Maem Gees ata t: C. Lewis ‘Gazin, U. 8. National Museum
; Treasurer....... Weir clarerele | ..- HOWARD S. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey
Pea IOI onc eas os oe wie «alae bs NATHAN R. SmirH, Plant Industry Station
= ce Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications. .........0c ccc cece uence encees
: nL ee ene Haraup A. Rewper, U. 8. National Museum
: Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies:
Philosophical Society of Washington............ Loe Sapien WALTER RAMBERG
i Anthropological Society of bc meee SN Se Pay aa Beate T. DALE STEWART
% . Biological Society of Washington......... 0. ccc cece cece eee JoHN W. ALDRICH
im Chemical Society of Washington....... Pew aeons CHARLES E. WHITE
. Entomological Society of Washington...... gist Gis oabias erat wd C. F. W. MuErSEBECK
i ; National Geographic Society...............00008 ee es ALEXANDER WETMORE
7 Geological Society of Washington.............. pa fee Wituiam W. Rusey
4 Medical Society of the District of Columbia....... Sages ees FREDERICK O. CoE
Ponts Historical Society. . so. cs cE alec che ou veees GILBERT GROSVENOR
. Botanical Society of Washington................2. GO ees RONALD BAMFORD
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters........ Wiiiiam A. Dayton
i Washington Society’ Of MnMineers oe ee as Ss ee ok awe CuIFFOoRD A. BETTS
ie _ Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...............
nena 8S oto ecg gi bon ab c' atacd oS ei A wid Selec ee cwesiccwans FRANCIS B. SILSBEE
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers...............
Er Se fa ala ae cs Ga aw < ala aia @ s s's'n esis n ga oles ewe avae scent wanes Martin A. Mason
' : Helminthological Society of Washington................005. AUREL O. FosTER
pee - Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RoGERS
| Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER
; . Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY
ae Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OwEN B. FRENCH
i Elected Members of the Board of M fonagers:
aoe Mergomuany OA on. tie eee oe se Max A. McCautt, Watpo L. Scumirtr
24 CIR ER LOGO: on grave Sev aiuje cacy ao. F. G. BricKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DIEHL
ES OES @ Ge 05) er ...FRANcIS M. Deranporr, WILLIAM N. FENTON
Boord of Managers... 2 :..... 02... cccees All the above officers plus the Senior Editor
Board of Editors and Associate Editors............0 cece cece e ence [See front cover]
Executive Committee......... FrEDERIcK D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG,
MRS. 5's oa = oS Wa.po L. Scumitt, Howarp §S. Rappieyse, C. Lewis GaAZIN
Cocrinitites STARE! MOEA oe eee uC cra. Wi teense bm alla ews Pee eee
Harotp E. McComp (chairman), Lewis W. Butz, C. WyTHE CooKkE, WiiiaM
. ...-..-W. Dirat, Luoyp D. Fe.itron, Recina FLANNERY, Grorce G. Manov
Committee on M BOMGS Fre oleh WE a, cin hd bees nies RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman),
...... FRANK P. CULLINAN, FRED L. Mounter, Francis O. Rice, FRANK THOND
Committee on M ante
To January 1949. ....LEwis V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN
To January 1950..... Pes Sisk eer ou a i a Rotanp W. Brown, HARALD A. REHDER
ce Oy SSS gE! St EP eo nn ae Wiuuiam N. Fenton, Emmett W. Price
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HeRzFELD, general chairman):
NNR IORMERA SELL SESE 55 yardage Sd aa ans w echoe wid plik we Oe wake OKC woe, @
C. F. W. Murseseck (chairman), Harry S. Bernton, CHEesTER W. Emmons,
Etmer Higeins, Marto Mouuari, GotrHoLp STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum
For the Engineering Sciences. SP Se TE SAR a ea OCD ai eae ENS peas a
Harry Driamonp (chairman), Luoyp V. BeRKNER, Rosert C. DuNcaN,
HERBERT N. Eaton, ARNo C. FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScHEETz, W. D. Surcurre
For the Physical aE i ee Bath ee RS
Karu F. Herzretp (chairman), NarHan L. Drakes, Luoyp D. FELTON,
HERBERT Insiey, WiLLIAM J. RooNgEy, RoBeRtT Simua, Micnart X. SULLIVAN
muita OM = GTi s-01-Utd JOP ILOGeOTCh 62). o.oo kia lw else eu wae cess nisetvsenase
..F. H. H. Roserts, JR. oon Anna E, Jenkins, J. Leon SHERESHEVSKY
Representative on Council of RMN OR Ss ete ag ate sacle aod k Ge a8 FRANK THONE
aD TPR SEE OEIS S e ON. e Teee U Lsk oia s Bin) Wage ba aii we slate aN eee ewes
Wii1i1am G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), Haroup F. Stimson, HERBERT L. HALLER
oe ee RE a ee ePIC Sea ek oe SNS a Wad ee ea ee A wee eo
.. JOHN W. McBurney (chairman), Rocer G. Bates, Witutiam A. WILDHACK
f
CONTENTS
Page
Puystcs.—Mass spectra of hydrocarbons. Frep L. Mouumr........ 193 ©
Botany.—New species of Achaetogeron (Compositae) from Mexico.
Estner Gy. LABRBENG'S 2255s 22 oe A ee ee ee 199
ENTOMOLOGY.—Notes and descriptions of Nearctic Hydroptilidae
(Trichoptera). : Hunperr Ross: os) Sos. ae tee 201
Zootocy.—An analysis of specific homonyms in zoological nomen- -
clature. RicHarp E. BLACKWELDER.............-..-++.+-+--- 206
PROCEEDINGS: THe ACADEMY (2.240. 332. 252 ceoe talons eee ee 213.
OprTuary: George Rogers Mansfield... ............. 0.0.0 cee eeees 223
This Journal! is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals
VoL. 38 Jury 18, 1948 No. 7
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
JAMES I. HorFMAN ALAN STONE FRANK C. KRAcEK
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY
PLANT QUARANTINE
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
LAWRENCE A. Woop RicHARD E. BLACKWELDER
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
J. P. E. Morrison JAMES S. WILLIAMS
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Eusert L. Litt ez, JR. Wapo R. WEDEL
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Irt C. SCHOONOVER
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
PUBLISHED MONTHLY ”
BY THE | oe
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yD y j
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 38
ARCHEOLOGY .—Florida archeology and recent ecological changes.!
Goaein, Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University.
municated by W. R. WEDEL.)
American archeology in the past few
years has turned to several of the natural
sciences for aid in dating recent sites and
for a fuller understanding of the natural
environment in which primitive man played
his role. In the Southwest, for example,
archeologists have been able to obtain ca-
lendric or absolute dates from the study of
tree rings (Glock, 1937; Haury, 1935).
Pollen analysis, of considerable value in
European prehistory, also shows promise of
utility in the New World (Sears, 1937).
Other methods of dating and interpretation
are based upon work done by the geologist
and conchologist (Baker, 1937; Richards,
1937).
The best results are now being obtained
by cooperative research on the part of both
archeologists and natural scientists. Two
such studies can be briefly summarized:
One in Oregon gave a relative date for ar-
cheological material sealed in a cave deposit
under volcanic ash. The same ash layer was
found in peat deposits. By pollen analysis
the history of the peat deposit was worked
out, and the relative date of this ash layer
was determined, which in turn gave an
1 Data used in this paper were gathered as part
of the Yale Caribbean Program directed by Dr.
Cornelius Osgood. The 1947 summer’s work was
done under a fellowship from the Social Science
Research Council. Many persons have been very
helpful in offering me unpublished data, especially
Irving Rouse, Vera M. Masius, and John W.
Griffin. Others have generously read and criti-
cized the manuscript. For this special thanks are
due Frederick Johnson, R. 8. Peabody Founda-
tion, Philips Academy, Andover, Mass.; Irving
Rouse, Department of Anthropology, Yale Uni-
versity; Richard F. Flint, Department of Ge-
ology, Yale University; and Martin Burkenroad
Newport, North Carolina. Received March 22,
1948.
JuLY 15, 1948
No. 7
JoHn M.
(Com-
upper limit relative date for the archeo-
logical material in the cave.?
Another recent example of a combined
project of this type is the Boylston Street
fishweir. In the course of a construction
excavation in Boston the remains of a fish-
weir were found many feet below the pres-
ent surface of the land. The indications are
that man lived in the Charles River estuary
‘when the level of the sea in relation to
land, was about fifteen feet eight inches
lower than it is at the present time”’ (John-
son et al., 1942). A more recent joint prob-
lem of archeology and botany is the Grassy
Island site (Johnson and Raup, 1947).°
Approaches like these were originally
developed in the Old World where the usual
time span involved was much greater.* Al-
though American archeologists had been
aware of the European results, it was
thought until recently that the length of
time in which the greatest developments in
American cultures took place was too short
to have resulted in ecological changes of any
importance. It is now realized that while
the changes that have taken place in the
New World are not so sharp as those in
some parts of Europe, such as in Scandi-
navia, nevertheless they are present and
can be detected by more refined analysis.
2 Symposium on Early Man in Oregon: Cress-
man, 1946; Hansen, 1946; Allison, 1946. Han-
sen, 1947.
3 As a point of historical interest it can be noted
that E. 8. Morse was perhaps one of the first to
point out a series of ecological changes in vegeta-
tion, species of animals, and erosional factors in a
single Maine shell heap (1868; 1925: 430).
-4 A complete summary of the methods and re-
sults of archeological and geological dating will be
found in Zeuner, 1946.
225
fri (f. ‘ ; 2 fA 5
AUG LU pedis
226
The twofold problem facing the archeolo-
gist can be briefly summarized as follows:
The first phase will necessitate the prepara-
tion of a detailed ecological history of late
Pleistocene and Recent times covering the
climate, the composition and changes in
flora and fauna, and the changes in land
form, especially the coast line. These are
factors directly affecting primitive man on
a simple subsistence level. The second
problem, of special interest to the archeolo-
gist, is Whether any of these changes can be
used *for either absolute or comparative
dating. A hope for absolute dating possibly
lies in the analysis of some constant process
such as tree rings or the deposition of sedi-
ments like varves or peats, and less likely
in sea-level changes. But sea-level changes,
as well as ecological changes, do offer hope
of comparative correlations with other
regions where similar conditions can be
observed.
The analysis of climatic fluctuations with
the attendant floral and faunal changes also
offers much hope for comparative correla-
tions. This should be especially helpful in
Florida where a relatively sharp temperate
versus tropical physiographic line can now
be drawn. Minor climatic changes, only
scantily reflected in either more temperate
or tropical regions, probably resulted in
appreciable movements of the border line
in Florida.’ This meant that abrupt changes
often took place in Florida, which necessi-
tated adjustment of the biota to the new
conditions.
In the course of recent archeological work
in Florida the writer has noticed a number
of situations that may offer valuable infor-
mation if they can be considered in detail
by competent specialists. It is the object of
this paper to bring these situations to the
attention of the respective specialists in the
hope that they may be stimulated to follow
up some of the problems, or to instill an
5 It is probably no accident that the bulk of the
comparable data for ecological changes in Eastern
United States, mentioned in later sections of this
paper, comes from Maine. This too is a physio-
graphic boundary area and climatic variances
would make appreciable changes here as in
Florida. An area in the middle of a large physio-
graphic region, Virginia for example, would not be
affected by variances which would result in pro-
nounced changes in Florida or Maine.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
awareness of the problems in event that
similar situations arise in routine biological
or geological research. Some of the following
situations have been directly observed in
the field and others are taken from existing
literature. In most cases there is not enough
information to formulate concrete conclu-
sions. They must be thought of as inter-
esting leads offering promise with future
detailed work.
No attempt has been made to gather
similar data from purely natural-history
sources or to evaluate the material pre-
sented here in terms of other ecological
data. To repeat, it is the purpose of this
“paper to present evidence of ecological
changes that can be related to human ac-
tivity in this region for dating purposes. An
explanation of the various archeological
cultures referred to in this article will be
found in a recent paper (Goggin, 1947). A
chronological chart from that paper is re-
produced here (Fig. 1).
Changes in sea level—Careful measure-
ments in recent years have brought forth
data on the rise of sea level relative to a
stable coast line (Flint, 1947: 426-428). In
south Florida this rise has been demon-
strated by Davis (1940: 402-405; 1946: 180—
181) in his study of the mangrove swamp.
It is of interest therefore to be able to
correlate this rise in sea level with sites oc-
cupied by man. Numerous midden sites in
southern Florida, particularly those on the
lower east coast, in the Ten Thousand Is-
lands, and in the Cape Sable region, which
are now small islands in the mangroves,
were probably on dry land when first oc-
cupied. A good example is one located in
the present village of Surfside north of
Miami Beach. This site consists of a black
dirt and shell midden with an adjacent
burial mound made of beach sand. The mid-
den site was first occupied in Glades II
times, but the burial mound is believed to
date from Glades III times (Fig. 1). Pre-
vious to the filling operations the site was
a small dry, hammock-covered island in
the mangrove swamp.
Excavation in the burial mound has re-
vealed the lowermost group of human bones
to be completely below low tide level. No
mangrove peat underlies the mound. It is
JuLY 15, 1948 GOGGIN: FLORIDA ARCHEOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL CHANGES
very unlikely that the burials were made
under water and then covered with sand;
therefore the sea level must have risen since
the burials were deposited. This postulation
is substantiated by trenches in the midden
part of the site, which show that deposit to
be resting on clean beach sand, not man-
grove peat.
A reconstruction of the history of the
site would be as follows: The first occupa-
tion here was on the dry inner shore of the
beach ridge. Subsequently the rise of sea
level inundated the low shoreline and iso-
lated the site, which by that time had been
built up enough to be above the rising sea.
Thus the site became an island which in
time was surrounded by a mangrove swamp.
Changes 1n ground-water level—In parts
of southern Florida there has been an ap-
preciable demonstrable rise in ground-water
level, which is in some places associated
with a deposition of sediments.
South Indian Field is a sand midden site
LOWER MISSISSIPPI
VALLEY RODIvEST one
COAS } cenraat cute |
Parone
FORT WALTON |SAFETY HARBOR
COLES CREEK WEEDEN ISLAND |WEEDEN ISLAND
Ir pas
es ISLAND | WEEDEN ISLAND
Pra COAST
TROYVILLE
SANTA ROSA— | PRE-WEEDEN
MARKSVILLE |owiFT GREEK ISLAND
DEPTFORD
PRE-DEPTFORD
(eR)
TCHEFUNCTE
COPELL
(NON- CERAMIC)
Fig. 1.—Archeological areas and periods in Florida. The term
MANATEE REGION (3)
SAFETY HARBOR
WEEDEN;
ISLAND!
WEEDEN ISLAND
at)
PRE-WEE DEN
ISLAND
227
in the valley of the St. Johns River near its
head, west of Malabar, Brevard County.
This little cabbage-palm hammock is a
mound composed of sand and refuse about
3 feet higher than the surrounding sawgrass
prairie (Rouse, MS.). Previous to modern
drainage water normally surrounded the
site, and often only the constricted highest
portions were above water.
Excavations in the site (Masius, MS.)
indicate that the first occupation began here
on a level approximately the same as the
present surface of the prairie. As refuse ac-
cumulated the site was built to its present
height. In terms of the archeological picture
this site was fairly early, its initial occupa-
tion in the Orange Period being about 700
A. D. or earlier (Fig. 1).
An interesting problem is posed here
(Rouse, MS.). In the light of recent con-
ditions, the earliest level of the site could
not have been a suitable camp site for the
Indians, for it was never dry enough. Even
GLADES AREA
(4)
c
GLADES
NORTHERN ST. JOHNS
MELBOURNE REGION(6) | pe cign (7)
ST. JOHNS
Ir
ST. JOHNS
Ir
' SERIES
GLADES
0
ST. JOHNS
ur
ST. JOHNS
GLADES
I
ORANGE TICK ISLAND
NON-CERAMIC(?)| NON-CERAMIC
as used
“Archaic Horizon,”’
- in the text, refers to the Orange, Tick Island, and Nonceramic periods.
228
a short seasonal dry spell or several years of
drought would not have given a sufficient
period of time for the beginnings of the
midden, as the deposit shows no signs of a
rapid accumulation which might have en-
abled its builders to get above the present
water level. Therefore, we have to postu-
late a different initial ecological condition,
one in which the prairie was completely dry.
Since that time the water table has risen
and the surrounding area become a marsh.
As corroborative evidence for the dry-
ness of the locality Rouse (MS8.) has noted
that the present surface material of the
prairie is sand, but until recently there was
a thin layer of muck or peat, which has
burned off since drainage. There is no muck
under the refuse deposit; so such material
must have formed since the development of
the site. In addition there are traces of a
large number of pits which were dug around
the site during the early period of occupa-
tion. They seem admirable wells, but other-
wise their presence is difficult to account,
for. Under present conditions (that is, be-
fore drainage) wells are not needed, but if
the prairie was once dry they would have
been very necessary.
Several possible theories to account for
the apparent history of this locality can be
given, but field study is necessary to deter-
mine the true cause. A rise in sea level
would result in a higher ground-water table,
but this could only account for part of the
rise. Increased precipitation would certainly
be important, and another possible factor
would be the damming up of the St. Johns
Valley farther down the river, by the de-
velopment of extensive peat beds.
Archeological sites in the northern Ever-
glades, on the south shore of Lake Okeecho-
bee, are found in conditions indicating con-
siderable rise in ground water level along
with sedimentation. The large midden site
at Chosen near Belle Glade has a foot of
muck over its edges, while the bottom was
two feet below the 1934 ground surface
(Stirling, 1935: 374; Willey, MS.). A con-
sideration of local muck subsidence prob-
ably would increase this depth figure. The
midden must have been begun at some
period of low water when the Everglades
were dry or nearly so, possibly at one of the
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
low water stages indicated by Dachnowski-
Stokes (1930).
At South Bay, to the west of Belle Glade,
even deeper archeological sites have been
reported.® These are small midden deposits
with animal bones and pottery which lay
about three feet below the present surface
of the muck. A number of these have been
noted in the sides of drainage ditches in this
region. All appear to be on the same strati-
graphic horizon. The reported two-foot
subsidence in this region gives an original
depth of five feet for these small sites. Like
the Belle Glade site, they could not have
been formed under anything similar to the
modern predrainage conditions, but must
have been begun at a relatively dry period.
Changes in local ecology.—There is some
archeological evidence that coastal lagoons
such as the Indian River and Halifax River
were once much fresher than in recent years.
The Florida Archaic peoples, using fiber-
tempered pottery, lived mainly along the
St. Johns River, where their large shell
middens indicate the use of almost all the
available forms of Mollusca and animals for
food. Evidence of their residence along the
Atlantic coast is scanty but two sites have
been examined and one more is reported.
These two sites, one near Malabar on the
beach ridge (Rouse, MS.) and the other on
the west shore of Halifax River north of
Ormond (Blatchley, 1902),7 are unique in
that they are mainly composed of coquina
shells (Donax sp.) with occasional moon
shells. Other shells are uncommon but in-
clude fresh-water forms and occasional oy-
sters. The latter site is an unusually large
deposit, being over 100 yards in length and
up to 12 feet in depth, while the former is
much shallower.
The composition of these sites is unusual
because other archeological sites on this
coast are predominantly formed of oyster
shells, with only occasional small pockets
of coquina shells. Moreover, the oyster
§ Personal communication from L. M. Hardy of
South Bay, a University of Florida student, July
10, 1947. Unfortunately, high water made it im-
possible to examine these sites in the 1947 sum-
mer season.
7 Excavations here in the summer of 1947 by
the Florida Park Service will give us much more
data when the results are studied.
JuLy 15, 1948 GOGGIN: FLORIDA ARCHEOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL CHANGES
shell heaps are all of the St. Johns I and II
periods dating from a.later time (Fig. 1).
Therefore, the difference in composition of
these sites has temporal significance.
It seems probable that if oysters were
available in quantity they would have been
eaten by the Archaic peoples. They cer-
tainly showed little selectivity for foods on
the St. Johns, and the occasional oyster
shell in the coastal middens indicates that
they were used when available. Under pres-
ent ecological conditions (before dredging)
and for some time previous, judging from
the St. Johns I and II shell heaps, oysters
were abundant in the coastal lagoons. By
inference from their absence in the early
sites, it seems probable that at the time
these middens were deposited oysters were
not available in quantity.
A successful oyster habitat is one that
has the proper concentration of brackish
water; therefore oysters usually grow in
large bays and estuaries where fresh water
constantly mingles with salt water. If this
proper habitat was not available in Archaic
times then the water must have been either.
too fresh or too salty. The possibility of its
being too salty is not so probable in view of
the lower sea level, unless there was a period
of drought which reduced the supply of
fresh water from the interior. It is more
probable that the level of the sea was
enough lower (perhaps no more than a
couple of feet) to allow fresh water or only
slightly brackish water to stand in these
shallow lagoons. A similar situation could
be the result of greater runoff, from in-
creased precipitation, in the feeding streams.
However, the shallowness of these coastal
lagoons favors the former theory. Rein-
forcing evidence for this is the fact that a
slightly lower sea level would be accom-
panied by a steeper gradient in the streams
emptying into the lagoons, which would
probably have resulted in a greater dis-
charge of fresh water. In this flat country
with the short streams such a change in
gradient would be of importance. _
Another possible explanation for the fresh-
ness of lagoon water takes into considera-
tion the alternate opening and closing of
inlets along the coast. This is an observed
situation noted from the late eighteenth
229
century (Romans, 1775: 287) to the present.
However, inlet closing would produce
purely local phenomena while we are deal-
ing with areas as far apart as Ormond and
Malabar, but which appear to share the
same ecological situations.
Another possibility, which seems least
probable to the writer, is that there was
little or no change in depth and salinity of
the coastal lagoons and that the absence of
oysters must be due to other causes. In
event of such a situation the possibility of
some catastrophe killing the oysters cannot
be ignored. Cold waves, salinity changes,
and micro-organisms are known to have
caused much damage among fish, although
the damage to invertebrates is not well
known (Gunter, 1947). Such disasters would
be much more severe in the coastal lagoons
than along the open Atlantic. Thus Mol-
lusca such as the coquina would be less
damaged.
It has been suggested (personal com-
munication, Martin Burkenroad, January
1948) that considerable time might have
been necessary after the water had reached
the proper salinity before oysters would
have been numerous. This would have de-
pended on the nature of the bottom;
neither a very sandy nor a very muddy
situation would have been conducive to a
rapid growth of oyster beds. Under such
conditions they would have developed
slowly until the dead shells finally produced
the proper base for an extensive growth.
In summary we can reconstruct the situ-
ation as follows: In late Archaic times—the
Orange and Tick Island periods (Fig. 1)—
there was little occupation of the north At-
lantic coast of Florida. The few people
there made shell middens of coquina shells
gathered on sandy beaches. Because the
coastal lagoons were too fresh, oysters were
not common. In a few localities, perhaps at
the mouths of inlets, some oysters were
available and these were eaten when found.
The freshness of the coastal lagoons may
have been due to a number of factors, but
the most probable is the lower sea level,
with the possibility of increased precipita-
tion being an additional factor.
The problem of local ecological changes
has been considered to some extent in
230
studies of the famous Vero and Melbourne
sites. Data on these finds are being reex-
amined and evaluated by Irving Rouse
(MS.) in terms of the newer ecological
studies. It is probable that the history of
these sites is closely tied to changes in the
Indian River.
In the northern Everglades around the
south shore of Lake Okeechobee, peat pro-
file studies have disclosed considerable local
ecological changes (Dachnowski-Stokes,
1930). Alternate low and high water stages
are indicated by the sediments. This is
mentioned here because of the evidence of
deep archeological sites in these sediments
(see the previous section). Unfortunately it
is not clear if these variances represent local
shoreline or other conditions or whether
they are an expression of a broader climatic
fluctuation. An examination of the biota of
these beds might be fruitful.
Changes in faunal composition.—The
West Indies top shell, Lzvona pica Linnaeus,
is an abundant shell in many middens along
the lower east coast of Florida. It has been
seen in almost every archeological site ex-
amined between Key Largo and Sugarloaf
Key in Monroe County and in numerous
sites from Hillsborough Inlet north to
Singers Island in Palm Beach County. This
distribution coincides with the range of
favorable habitat; that is, a rocky shore.
These sites were occupied by the Indians
in Glades II and III times, circa 1000-1500
AD (Ris 1)t
The presence of this shell is of consider-
able interest because, with the exception of
a couple of doubtful records, this mollusk
is not now found in Florida (Clench and
Abbott, 1943:9). The present range of the
species is the West Indies, and the nearest
modern occurrence is their reported pres-
ence on Dog Rocks, Cay Sal Bank, not far
southeast of the Florida Keys.
What is the significance of their presence?
The large quantity of shell found» in the
sites and the close correlation of their oc-
currence with their natural rock shore habi-
tat suggests that the shells were locally
collected, presumably for food, in the im-
mediate vicinity of the sites. It is of interest
to the archeologist whether their extinction
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
in Florida can be attributed to man, to
disease, or possibly to some environmental
change which caused the animal to contract
its range. If the last is the answer, was it
purely a local manifestation or was it an
expression of a broader change?
Examples of Anodonta imbecillis Say
(probably specimens of a local species
closely related to A. imbecillis), a fresh-
water shell, are described from the Ormond
Archaic midden. Blatchley (1902: 72-74)
cites Simpson to the effect that the present
range of this mollusk is not south of North
Carolina.
On the Florida Gulf Coast the Strombus
gigas Linnaeus, is not now present, although
there are records of dead shells or occasional
specimens.*® However, they are reported to
occur in shell mounds at Cedar Keys (Cal-
kins, 1878: 228; Ecker, 1878: 101). No shells
of this species were seen in shell middens
here in the course of a brief visit to this
region, but a more intensive study may con-
firm their presence. Most of these sites were
occupied subsequent to 1000 A.D.°
Vertebrate remains have not generally
been carefully identified in Florida arche-
ology, but one excellent study does point
out differences in faunal composition. At
South Indian Field, west of Malabar, a
wide variety of vertebrate bones were
8 Worn dead specimens have been noted at
Sanibel and Captiva Islands (Perry, 1940: 135).
Strombus costatus rarely occurs in the vicinity of
Tampa Bay (Simpson, 1887-89: 53).
9 Evidence from other regions in the New
World indicates that similar molluscan faunal
changes have taken place in recent times. Oysters
form a large part of Maine shell heaps, although
they are now uncommon in that area. The scallop
Pecten sp. is also found in these shell heaps al-
though it now lives from Cape Cod to the south-
ward, and the clam Mercenaria mercenaria is at
present rare north of Cape Cod although it is
abundant in Maine shell heaps (Morse, 1925: 430).
In shellheaps on the Pear] Islands, west of the
Isthmus of Darién, there were found three species
of shells, Strombus peruvianus, Ostrea chilensis,
and Solen (Tagelus) dombeyi, which do not have
that northern range at the present time. To com-
plicate things further there was found another
species, Venus (Ventricola) rugosa, whose present
habitat is the Antilles (Linné, 1929: 128-129).
On the Rio Preto, a tributary of the Rio
Grande da Conceicéo in Brazil, Azara sp. shells
were found (in middens) which are of a form not
now occurring in the surrounding region (Koenigs-
wald, 1905: 346; also see Serrano, 1946, Ihering,
1903, and Krone, 1914). -
JuLY 15, 1948 GOGGIN: FLORIDA ARCHEOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL CHANGES
identified (Houck, MS.). Among them was
an unworked jaw fragment of a beaver,
Castor sp., found in the early Orange period
(Fig. 1). This animal is not now found in
the vicinity of the site, although beavers
were reported in unspecified localities in
northern Florida in Colonial times.’
Remains of the great auk have been
found in a shell heap near Ormond (Hitch-
cock, 1902; Blatchley, 1902). Details of
the find are lacking, but the identification
is apparently well confirmed."! This is the
same site previously mentioned which was
recently excavated by the Florida Park
Service.
Changes in faunal size-—Jeffries Wyman
(1875: 14) first pointed out that Ampullaria
and Paludina shells (now known as Poma-
cea and Viwiparus respectively) much larger
than those now known, were to be found in
shell heaps on the St. Johns River. He gives
measurements which illustrate this clearly.
Clarence B. Moore substantiated Wyman’s
findings by discovering even larger ex-
amples. However, he went further, pointing
out that there has been considerable change
in shell size, with the oldest and most
modern being similar in size, while those
of an intermediate period were larger
(Moore, 1892: 921-922; 1893: 115).
It has not been possible to equate pre-
cisely Moore’s old, middle, and late periods
of shell change with the present chronology
(Fig. 1), but a rough approximation is pos-
sible. There is little question that the first
or oldest period with small size shells is the
equivalent of the preceramic horizon, for
he clearly states this. The period with the
largest shells certainly includes in part the
Orange and Tick Island horizons (see the
Orange Mound, Moore, 1893: 616). How-
ever, the other sites listed by Moore as
having large shells appear to have been oc-
cupied in part into St. Johns II times.
Whether these large shells occur in that
late horizon is not clear. But it does appear
from the data that at least by some time in
10 7¢ may be noted that an extinct form of
mink has been described from Maine shell heaps
(Prentiss, 1903; Loomis, 1911).
u Although the great auk has long been extinct
in New England, bones of the bird are very com-
ae Maine shell heaps (Loomis and Young,
12).
231
the St. Johns II horizon, the large size
shells disappeared and the mollusks re-
verted to a size comparable to that now
attained.
In association with the large size Viv7-
parus georgianus of the middle period was
a new form Viviparus georgianus var. altior
Pilsbry (1892: 142). Moore (1892: 922) notes
that the proportions of aperture to height
of the Viviparus changed, but it is not clear
whether this new variety represents the
change or whether it is within the regular
Vwiparus georgianus.'?
Data on mammals are limited, but deer
bones from South Indian Field appear to
represent individuals much larger and more
massive than the present range of Florida
deer. The remains of the round-tailed musk-
rat, Neofiber allent True, are also much
larger than contemporary forms, so much
so that Houck (MS.) has expressed the pos-
sibility that they may represent a new
variety.
Climatic change as evidenced by vegetation.
—The well-known royal palms on the St.
Johns River reported by Bartram (1940:
113) are a good example of what may be a
recent climatic change in the past 200
years. The modern (circa 1900) natural
range of the royal palm is twofold. One area
of scattered occurrences is from Little
River, Dade County, south and westward
beyond Royal Palm Park to the Cape
Sable region. In this spread of distribution
they are closely associated with tropical
vegetation. The other region is the southern
end of Fakahatchee Slough or Strand in
Collier County. Here the palms flourish in
great numbers, reaching 80 to 100 feet in
height, but in a temperate cypress and
water-oak association. Strangely enough, a
thatch palm is also found here. Between
these two areas is the small group of palms
on Lostmans River.
The most obvious explanation for the
presence of the royal palms on the St.
Johns would be that they made their
northern extension during a warm period
and then held on in favorable localities
12 Comparable changes in proportion have been
noted in Maine shell heaps and elsewhere in the
world in other species of shells (Morse, 1882;
1925).
232
until cold weather finally killed them off,
moving their range southward. It is pos-
sible that, once established, they can sur-
vive a long time in a nontropical environ-
ment (as in Collier County), and that the
climatic change that resulted in their ex-
tinction in north Florida actually was begun
sometime before Bartram’s visit in 1773.
CONCLUSIONS
A series of situations has been presented
showing changes in the Recent ecology of
Florida. These were either observations of
early travelers or are data derived from
archeological excavation. The changes in-
cluded differences in sea level, coastal
ecology, and in flora and fauna.
At best, much of the value of these data
is to awaken interest and to stimulate
further work. Because of the nonscientific
method of gathering, most of the changes
described can not be used for critical work.
However, many of these finds could be du-
plicated under controlled collecting con-
ditions.
The work at South Indian Field can serve
as a model for further work, especially when
biological and geological specialists are in-
cluded in the research program. At this site
every fragment of animal bone was saved
and when possible was identified (Masius,
MS8.; Houck, MS.). As a result, strati-
graphic data, which are tied to the cultural
sequence can be given for the animal re-
mains. The detailed survey and testing of
Rouse (MS.) clearly bring out the unusual
nature of the site in relation to the physical
environment.
The future of Recent ecological work in
Florida appears to be promising. The very
nature of the environment on the border
between tropical and temperate zones, plus
a long low coastline must have resulted in
many changes since the Pleistocene. It is
probable that this survey has pointed out
only a small amount of the information to
be derived in conjunction with archeologi-
cal work.
To gain the utmost ecological data from
archeological work will require real coopera-
tion. The archeologist whose interest is
usually only cultural history is loath to
collect all animal materials. He has found
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
‘GoaeiIn, JOHN M.
VOL. 38, NO. 7
from experience that few naturalists are
equipped to identify or even interested in
identifying zoological .material, which is
often in very fragmentary condition. How-
ever, if given any encouragement he will
probably be found eager to cooperate in col-
lecting non-cultural material, for the ar-
cheological awareness of their value is grow-
ing.
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investigations of an Indian site in the Taunton
River, Massachusetts. Papers Robert S.
Peabody Foundation for Archeology 1(2).
1947.
Die indianischen
Globus 87:
KOENIGSWALD, GUSTAV VON.
Muschelberge in Svidbrasilien.
341-347, 1905.
Krone, Ricarpo. Informacées ethnographicas
do valle do Rio Ribeira de Iguapé. Bol. Com.
Geogr.e Geol. Estado de Sao Paulo. 1914.
Linn, 8. © Darien in the past. Géteborgs Kungl.
Vet. Vitter-Samh. Handl. Femte Fdéljden,
ser. A, 1(3). 1929.
Loomis, F. B. New mink from the shell heaps of
Maine. Amer. Journ, Sci., ser. 4, 31: 227—
229. . 1911.
Loomis, F. B., and Youne, D. B. On the shell
heaps in Maine. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4,
34: 17-42. 1912.
Masius, VERA M. Chronology at South Indian
Field, Florida. MS., Yale Peabody Mu-
seum, New Haven Conn.
Moore, CLARENCE B. Certain shell heaps of the
St. John’s River, Florida, hitherto unex-
plored. Amer. Nat. 26: 912-922. 1892.
. Idem. Amer. Nat. 27: 8-13, 113-117,
605-624, 708-723. 1893.
Idem. Amer. Nat. 28: 15-26. 1894.
Morss, E. S. LHvidences of great antiquity in the
shell heaps at. Goose Island. Proc. Boston
CHEMISTRY.— Purification of uranium oxide.!
Bureau of Standards.
Early in the summer of 1941 Leo Szilard?
gave a sample of impure uranyl nitrate to
the author and requested that the uranium
be separated from everything else. It was
his desire to obtain the residue, after the
1 Received April 28, 1948. The information
covered in this paper will appear at a later date in
Division VIII of the Manhattan Project Techni-
cal Series.
2 Member of Power Production Subsection of
the Uranium Committee. See Atomic Energy, by
pewy D. Smyth, Princeton University Press,
1945.
HOFFMAN: PURIFICATION OF URANIUM OXIDE
233
Soc. Nat. Hist. 11: 301-302. 1868.
. Changes in Mya and Lunatia since the
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Shell-mounds and changes in the shell.
composing them. Sci. Monthly 21: 429-440.
1925.
Perry, Louise M.
west coast of Florida.
(95). 1940.
PiusBry, Henry A. Preliminary notices of new
forms of fresh water shells. Nautilus 3: 142-
143. 1892.
Prentiss, D. W. Description of an extinct mink
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RicHaRDs, Horace G. Marine Pleistocene mol-
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RoMaANSs, BERNARD. A concise natural history of
east and west Florida. New York, 1775.
Rousse, Irvine. An introduction to the archeol-
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SERRANO, ANTONIO. The Sambaquis of the Bra-
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WILLEY, GorRDON R. Excavations in southeast
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Bureau of American Ethnology, Smith-
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Marine shells of ihe south-
Bull. Amer. Pal. 26
ington.
WYMAN, JEFFRIES. Fresh-water shell mounds of
ithe St. John’s River, Florida. Peabody
Acad. Sci. Mem. 4. Salem, 1875.
ZEUNER, FREDERICK E. Dating the past, an in_
troduction to geochronology. London, 1946.
JAMES I. Horrman, National
removal of uranium, for measurements of
neutron absorption. During the same period
samples of impure uranium oxide were sent
to the National Bureau of Standards for
chemical analysis. For both purposes it was
desirable to use a solvent that would dis-
solve the bulk of the uranium without dis-
solving any of the other substances. The
solubility of uranyl nitrate in ethyl ether,
first reported by E. Peligot,*? suggested its
3 Ann. Chim. Phys. (3) 5: 5. 1842.
234
use for extraction of uranium as the nitrate,
somewhat as ether is used in steel analysis
for the extraction of ferric chloride. This
extraction had been successfully applied in
1939 for separating uranyl nitrate from
rhenium and certain rare earths in work on
the determination of rhenium and molyb-
denum,* but, because of the conflicting
statements concerning the solubility of the
rare earth nitrates in ether,® it was obvious
that experimental work was necessary, es-
pecially since Szilard stated that certain
members of the rare earth group are strong
neutron absorbers.
The work herein described is not intended
to give the procedure finally used in large-
scale production of uranium or the methods
used in the various laboratories of the Man-
hattan Area. Many improvements in pro-
cedure have been made since this prelimi-
nary work was done.
EXPERIMENTAL
The bulk of the uranium was extracted
with ether from 100 g of uranyl nitrate,
UO.(NO3)2.6H20, to which had been added
5 ml of water and “rare earth” nitrates
(equivalent to 0.0084 g of oxides) contain-
ing cerium, praseodymium, neodymium,
erbium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium,
-holmium, erbium, ytterbium, lutecium,
scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and tho-
rium. After removal of most of the uranium,
the combined “rare earths’? were deter-
mined in the residual water solution by pre-
cipitating them as fluorides, converting the
fluorides to sulphates, then precipitating as
oxalates, and igniting the oxalates to ‘‘rare
earth’’ oxides. These oxides weighed 0.0086
g. In this particular case the uranium ex-
tracted by the ether was not examined for
4 Kther extraction of uranyl nitrate actually
was first suggested to the author by the work of
W. F. Hillebrand, U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 78: 47.
1891, and such extractions were in use in our
laboratory during the 1930’s. Although the fact
that uranyl nitrate could be extracted with ethyl
ether was known for many years prior to the work
recorded in this paper (see references in footnotes
3 and 5), data on the neutron-absorbing elements
in atomic-energy work were of course not avail-
able.
5 R. C. Weuts, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci.
20: 146. 1930; F. Soppy and R. Prrret, Phil.
Mag. (6) 20: 345. 1910; W. F. HiLLEBRaANpD, U.S.
Geol."Surv. Bull) 78) 470 's9le (CW... Davis:
Amer. Journ. Sci. (5) 11: 20. 1926.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
impurities, but 1t was evident that extrac-
tion of uranyl nitrate with ether should be
a good starting point for the purification of
uranium.
To obtain a quick answer to the possi-
bility of using ether for the purification of
uranium a nitric-acid solution of the ele-
ments listed in mixture A® in nitric-acid
solution was evaporated as far as possible
on the steam bath. The dry residue was ex-
tracted with 100 ml of ether, the ether was
washed twice with 5 drops of water, and
then the uranium in the ether was con-
verted to oxide. .
Qualitative spectrochemical analysis
showed that this oxide contained only cal-
clum, magnesium, and silicon, besides ura-
nium. These encouraging results prompted
further experiments, which formed the basis
for the procedure given in the following
section.
PROCEDURE USED FOR THE PURIFICATION
OF URANIUM OXIDE
Fifty grams of U3;03 was transferred to a
600-ml beaker, 75 ml of diluted nitric acid
(1 volume of concentrated nitric acid, sp. gr.
1.42, diluted with 1 volume of water) was
added, and the beaker was placed on the
steambath until all action ceased. The in-
soluble matter was removed by filtration,
and the residue was washed four or five
times with diluted nitric acid (1 volume of
nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.42, diluted with 20
volumes of water). The filtrate and wash-
ings containing the uranyl nitrate were
evaporated to dryness on the steambath. To
the cooled and dried residue in the beaker 5
ml of water and 100 ml of ethyl ether were
added, and the beaker was swirled until the
uranyl nitrate was dissolved. The large
quantities of impurities caused the aqueous
phase in the bottom of the beaker to have
the appearance of an emulsion, but this did
not interfere in separating the layers be-
6 Mixture A consisted of 2.5 g of uranium metal
dissolved in an excess of nitric acid. To this was
added as nitrates 2.5 mg each of copper, anti-
mony, lead, aluminum, lithium, zirconium,
indium, gallium, bismuth, potassium, dysprosium,
cadmium, gadolinium, chromium, magnesium,
holmium, cobalt, tin, calcium, and 10 mg of a
mixture of ‘“‘rare earths’? known to contain
cerium, lanthanum, scandium, praseodymium,
thorium, and yttrium.
JuLy 15, 1948
cause it was possible to pour the ether into a
separatory funnel without mixing with the
water layer.
The beaker was washed three times with
5-ml portions of ether, which were likewise
transferred to the separatory funnel. The
HOFFMAN: PURIFICATION OF URANIUM OXIDE
235
funnel was stoppered and shaken vigorously
for 3 to 1 minute. After allowing the liquid
to stand 3 minutes, a few drops of water
appeared in the bottom of the separatory
funnel. This water was drained into the
beaker that originally contained the ether
TABLE 1.—SPECTROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS! OF PRODUCTS OBTAINED IN THE PURIFICATION OF URANIUM
OXIDE OR URANIUM FROM ORE CONCENTRATES BY THE PROCEDURE DESCRIBED HEREIN
Carnotite ore? Pitchblende ore?
U306 #155 U30s 7181 concentrate concentrate
Ele-
ge Original Water Purified Original Water Purified Oneal U303 On nae ee U;303
oxide extract oxide oxide extract oxide centrate | Obtained | centrate | obtained
aaa eee
Ag T W at VW WwW T it any ale T
Al VW W VW VW W VW N) — S) —
As WwW M — WwW WwW — = == Ne ane
Au = T — Vw VW — at — — =
B T VW = at W 7 — 1 a =
Ba — — — —— VS — M — W —
Be — — — — = = = = VW
a i VW W VW W — == — W —
Ca VS W — W M Lh VS ah Ss —
Cb — — —
Cd — — = = = = = — — —
Ce — W — — W —
Co — _. — W M — WwW — Vw me
ee — VW = — VS oa — — At _
Ss —— — — — — ——
Cu Vw M ae W M a aly 4h Th ae
Dy — Ss — — S —
Er — M — — M —
Eu — M — _ M —
Fe WwW M Vw W M Vw NS) M S —
Ga = — =
Gd — M — — M =
Ge — — — — ase = | = = = =
Hf — — — | = — — —
Hg — — — = a = — = —
Ho — M — — M — — — — —
In — — _ = Vw — —— — — —
Ir — — —
K ap W — Ww M —
La — aT — — Tr = — —
Li — a — — Vw —
Lu = Vw a= — VW —
Mg W WwW oT W W Vw M dk M 4h
Mn VW W — W W — WwW — y =
Mo W M W WwW M — — — Vw a
Na WwW M ap M S it
Nd — WwW — _ Ww —
Ni = Vw = Vw W a — — — —
Os — — — = — —
12
et VW W — WwW M — Vw — M —
Pr — W — W —
iby — — _. _ WwW —_ —
Ra
Rb — — — — = —
Re — — — — — —
Rh
Ru — — = = — —
Sb WwW M — W M — — — —
Se — W — _. WwW —
Si M M Vw M W Ww S VW Ww Vw
Sm — W oa — W —
Sn — VW — —= — — — — Vw —-
’ Sr — _—. — Vw — W — VW —
Ta — — — — —
Tb — M M —
Te
Th — — — — — — a Siat 4
Ti — — — — “
Tl — a — — — — — — Ww —
Tm — WwW — — WwW — — —
U VS VS VS VS VS VS VS VS VS VS
V Vw W — VS VS WwW —
WwW — — — WwW ——
Y — VS — — vs = M —
Yb _ M | — — M —
Notr.—The designations VS and S correspond to major constituents (greater than 1 percent); M and W to minor constituents
(1 to 0.01 percent); and VW, T, and FT to trace constituents (less than 0.01 percent). The absence of a designation indicates that
a test was not made for that element.
1 By V. F. Scribner and H. R. Mullin.
2 The water extracts contained rare earths, but no attempt was made to identify them individually.
236
solution. Five ml of water was now added
to the solution in the separatory funnel, the
mixture was shaken vigorously, and the
solution was again allowed to stand until
two layers formed. The aqueous phase was
drained into the beaker that originally con-
tained the ether solution. The washing with
another 5-ml portion of water was repeated
once more.
To convert the purified uranyl nitrate to
oxide a little water was added to the ether,
the ether was cautiously evaporated, and
the residue was ignited to U30s at 1000°C.
It was afterward found preferable to add
20 ml of water to the ether solution, shake
vigorously for 1 minute, and allow the liquid
to separate into two layers. The water
layer containing the uranium was drained
into a suitable dish, and the extraction with
20-m1 portions of water was repeated until
the ether above the water was colorless.
Three or four such extractions were suffi-
cient to remove the uranium. The combined
water extracts were evaporated to dryness,
and the uranyl nitrate in the residue was
ignited to U30, at 1000°C. The ether from
which the uranyl nitrate had been removed
was suitable for future extractions.
The procedure was also applied to the
extraction of uranium from pitchblende and
carnotite ore concentrates by digesting the
ore concentrate with nitric acid, evapo-
rating to dryness, and extracting the residue
with ether. The efficacy of this method of
purification is shown in Table 1. The table
shows that in many cases impurities that
were not detected in the original oxide were
concentrated and detected in the water ex-
tract. Note especially Ce, Co, Cr, Dy, Er,
Eu, Gd, Ho; la; bu, Nd, Pr Sey Sm,-lb;
Tm, and Y.
BOTAN Y.—Notes on North American
U.S. Department of Agriculture.
In the course of routine identification of
collections of Leguminosae sent to the U.S.
Department of Agriculture over a period of
several years the advisability of proposing
the following transfers and changes in status
has become apparent. Included also is a
1 Received March 25, 1948.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
DISCUSSION
It was evident that the purification of
crude uranium oxide and the removal of
uranium from ore concentrates by conver-
sion of the uranium to uranyl nitrate and
extraction with ether had possibilities be-
cause practically all impurities were re-
moved in a single operation. Tests by L. F.
Curtiss’ indicate that practically none of
the radium in the original ore was extracted
by the ether.
Under stress of wartime conditions not
all the possible confirmatory tests were
made, but, as a check on removal of the
rare earths, the purified oxides obtained
from no. 155 and no. 181, Table 1, were put
through a second purification by the same
procedure. The water extracts in this case
showed no rare earths. Tests by K. D.
Fleischer indicated that if 0.5 mg of ‘‘rare
earth” oxides had remained in the purified
oxide, a positive test would have been ob-
tained here. These tests showed also that
by this simple procedure the combined
‘“‘rare earths” in the purified oxide were
reduced to less than 5 parts per million.
The spectrochemical tests showed that not
more than 0.5 part of cadmium or boron
per million remained in the purified mate-
rial. .
SUMMARY
A procedure is given for the purification
of uranium oxide by converting the oxide
to the nitrate and partitioning the nitrate
between a large amount of ether and a rela-
tively small amount of water. In modified
form, the procedure was found to be appli-
cable to pitchblende and carnotite ore con-
centrates, as indicated in Table 1.
7 Chief of Section on Radioactivity at the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards.
Leguminosae.! FREDERICK J. HERMANN,
diagnosis for an apparently hitherto un-
described Phaseolus from Mexico.
Acacia schaffneri (S. Wats.), comb. nov.
Pithecolobium schaffnert S. Wats., Proc. Amer.
Acad. 17: 352. 1882; Samanea schaffneri Mac-
bride, Contr. Gray Herb. 59: 2. 1919; Poponaz
Juny 15, 1948
schaffnert Britton & Rose, N. Amer. Flora 23:
89. 1928.
Acacia pinetorum, nom. nov.
Vachellia peninsularis Small, Man. Southeastern
Flora 654. 1933; not Acacia peninsularis
(Britton & Rose) Standl., Field Mus. Publ. Bot.
11: 158. 1936, based on Senegalia peninsularis
Britton & Rose, N. Amer. Flora 23: 116. 1928.
Schrankia angustisiliqua (Britton & Rose),
comb. nov.
Leptoglottis angustisiliqua Britton & Rose, N.
Amer. Flora 23: 143. 1928.
Schrankia chapmani (Small ex Britton & Rose),
comb. nov.
Leptoglottis chapmani Small ex Britton & Rose,
N. Amer. Flora 23: 141. 1928.
Desmanthus pringlei (Britton & Rose),
comb. nov.
Acuan pringler Britton & Rose, N. Amer. Flora
23: 134. 1928.
Caesalpinia colimensis, nom. nov.
Brasilettia glabra Britton & Rose, N. Amer. Flora
23: 321. 1920, not Caesalpinia glabra (Mill.)
Merrill, Philipp. Journ. Sci. 5: 54. 1910.
Caesalpinia pumila (Britton & Rose),
comb. nov.
Guaymasia pumila Britton & Rose, N. Amer.
Flora 23: 322. 1930; Caesalpinia gracilis
Benth. ex Hemsi., Diag. PJ. Nov. 9. 1878, not
Migs) Bl, Ind. Bat, 1: 110. 1855.
Dalea tuberculina (Rydb.), comb. nov.
Parosela tuberculina Rydb., N. Amer. Flora 24:
89. 1920.
Petalostemum candidum Michx., var. oligo-
phyllum (Torr.), comb. nov.
Petalostemum gracile var. oligophyllum Torr. in
Emory, Notes Mil. Rec. 139. 1848; P. candidus
var. occidentalis Gray ex Heller in Britton &
Kearney, Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 14: 33. 1895;
Petalostemon oligophyllus ‘‘Torr.,’”’ Smyth,
Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci. 15: 61. 1898; P. oc-
cidentale (Gray) Fernald, Rhodora 39: 28. 1937.
Tephrosia virginiana (L.) Pers., var. leuco-
sericea (Rydb.), comb. nov.
Cracca leucosericea Rdyb., N. Amer. Flora 24:
163. 1923; Tephrosia leucosericea (Rydb.) Cory,
Rhodora 38: 406. 1936.
Tephrosia ambigua (M. A. Curtis) Chapm.,
var. intermedia (Small), comb. nov.
Cracca intermedia Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 21:
—- 3038. 1894.
HERMANN: NOTES ON NORTH AMERICAN LEGUMINOSAE
237
Astragalus tenellus Pursh, var. strigulosus
(Rydb.), comb. nov.
Homalobus strigulosus Rydb., Bull. Torr. Bot
Club 34: 420. 1907; Astragalus tenellus f.
strigulosus Macbr., Contr. Gray Herb. 65: 34.
1922.
Astralagus michauxii (Kunize).
comb. nov.
Tragacantha michauzii Kuntze, Rev. Gen. 941.
1891; A. glaber Michx. 1803, not Lam. 1783.
Astragalus ceramicus Sheld., var. filifolius
(Gray), comb. nov.
Astragalus pictus var. filifolius A. Gray, Proc.
Amer. Acad. 6: 215. 1864; Psoralea longifolia
-Pursh, F]. Amer. Sept. 741. 1841, not Astra-
galus longifolius Lam. 1783; Astragalus mito-
phyllus Kearney, Leafl. W. Bot. 4 (8): 216.
1945.
The above combination is necessitated by
the fact that Gray’s Astragalus pictus (Proc.
Amer. Acad. 6: 214. 1864) is a later homonym
of the validly published A. pictus Boiss..&
Guillardot in Boiss., Diagn. Pl. Orient. Ser. 2,
3 (6): 55. 1859, so that A. ceramicus Sheld.
must be taken up in its stead for our American
plant. Although Dr. Kearney’s epithet is avail-
able for Gray’s var. filifolius when treated in
specific rank, the proportion of specimens in-
termediate between it and A. ceramicus that
have come to the attention of the writer leads
to the conclusion that varietal status may be
more appropriate for it.
Centrosema arenicola (Small), comb. nov.
Bradburya arenicola Small, Fl. Southeastern U. S.
651. 1903. .
Desmodium arenicola (Vail), comb. nov.
Meibomia arenicola Vail, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club
23: 140. 1896; Hedysarum lineatum Michx., FI.
Bor. Amer. 2: 72. 1803, not L. 1759; Des-
modium lineatum (Michx.) DC., Prodr. 2: 330.
1825.
Although the name Desmodium lineatum
(Michx.) DC. has been in general use for this
plant it can be maintained only in spite of
Article 61. An unfortunate consequence of this
rule, as it now stands, is that a later homonym
is rendered permanently hors de combat, even
though the specific epithet upon transference
to another genus would not constitute a homo-
nym in its new context.
238
Rhynchosia simplicifolia (Walt.) Wood,
var. intermedia (T. & G.), comb. nov.
Rhynchosia tomentosa B intermedia T. & G., N.
Amer. F]. 1: 285. 1838; R. intermedia (T. & G.)
Small, Man. Southeastern Flora 715. 1933.
Phaseolus neglectus, sp. nov.
Herba volubilis; stipulis lineari-oblongis, 3—5
nervis, 5-6 mm longis, rigidis; stipellis lineari-
oblongis, 2-3 mm longis; foliolis deltoideo-
acuminatis vulgo plus minusve lobatis; pedun-
culis 5-11 cm longis: bracteis persistentibus,
rigidis, 6-9 mm longis, 5-nerviis, subtus ple-
rumque pilosis: pedicellis tenuibus glabratis;
bracteolis caducis, uninerviis; calyce campanu-
lato-cupuliformi; corolla 20 mm longa; vexillo
obovato, valde emarginato; alis orbiculari-
ovatis; ovario dense piloso.
Herbaceous vine; stems slender, sparsely
puberulous with reflexed hairs to glabrate;
stipules linear-oblong, 3-5 nerved, 5-6 mm
long, rigid; petioles puberulous to glabrate, 3-6
cm long; stipels linear-oblong, rigid, 2-3 mm
long; leaflets 3, membranaceous, deltoid-
acuminate, sparsely puberulent above, glabrous
to sparsely puberulent beneath, 2-6 cm long,
2-4.5 cm wide, lobed (often only shallowly so
or even entire), the median 3-lobed, the lateral
2-lobed, the lobes round-ovate and generally
shallow; peduncles slender, 5-11 cm long, 11—
25-flowered; bracts persistent, green, lanceo-
late-acuminate, firm, 5-nerved, generally more
or less pilose beneath, sparingly so to glabrate
above, 6-9 mm long, 1-1.5 mm wide at base;
MYCOLOGY.—Two new species of Physarum.!
of Iowa.
The two species of Physarum here noted
were included in the extensive collections of
Myxomycetes made by William Bridge
Cooke on Mount Shasta, Calif., and sub-
mitted by him for identification. One of
them proves to be identical with two old
collections from Mount Rainier, Wash.,
which have been in this laboratory for many
years awaiting determination. Both appear
to be clearly distinct from any recognized
species in this large genus.
1 Received November 5, 1947.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
pedicels slender, glabrate, 3.5-5 mm long;
bracteoles caducous, green, narrowly linear-
lanceolate, one-nerved, glabrous, 2—-2.5 mm
long; calyx campanulate-cupuliform, 2.5-3.5
(lower lip up to 5) mm long, very sparingly
ciliolate, the lower lip irregularly pilose, promi-
nently 3-lobed with median lobe 2.5 mm long,
acute, upper lip very shallowly 2-lobed;
corolla 20 mm long, pale salmon to light blue;
standard obovate, 16 mm long, 12 mm wide,
deeply emarginate, the upper half reflexed;
wings orbicular-ovate, abruptly contracted into
a broad claw, its lower half adnate to the keel;
keel tubular, with two complete coils; free
stamen with a reniform enlargement above the
base; style-beard extending around the first
coil; stigma lateral; ovary linear, densely
pilose.
Nuevo Leén, Mexico in oak woods along
trail up Sierra de la Cebolla from La Trinidad,
Municipio de Montemorelos, C. H. Muller
2881, Aug. 20, 1939 (Typr—U. S. National
Arboretum Herbarium).
Nearest allied to Phaseolus foliaceus Piper, of
the Sierra Madre. From this it differs in its
longer, linear-oblong, rather than triangular-
lanceolate stipules; its 5-nerved, linear-lanceo-
late bracts which are pilose below; its shallowly
lobed leaflets; longer peduncles bearing ra-
cemes with more numerous flowers; campanu-
late-cupuliform calyx which is almost imper-
ceptibly ciliolate; corolla 20, rather than 10,
mm long; obovate, deeply emarginate stand-
ard; and orbicular-ovate wings.
G. W. Martin, State University
Physarum rubronodum, sp. nov.
Sporangiate, globose to obovate or pulvi-
nate, sessile or borne on weak, strandlike stalks
produced as extensions of the hypothallus,
pinkish brown, or dark when lime is scanty in
peridium, 1-1.5 mm in diameter, densely
clustered on a common hypothallus; peridium
double, the outer layer cartilaginous, calcareous,
shining, crustose, smooth except for a coarse
overlying reticulation or, when lime is scanty,
dark and lacking the reticulation, the inner
layer membranous, closely applied, colorless,
JuLy 15, 1948
iridescent; hypothallus prominent, silvery to
yellow, venose, the veins often projecting as
_ stalk-like extensions on which sporangia are
borne; capillitium profuse, close-meshed, bear-
ing large fusiform or irregularly angular scarlet
or pinkish nodes, most of the junctions lime-
less; spores nearly black in mass, dark viola-
ceous brown by transmitted light, slightly
paler on one side, densely and somewhat ir-
Fie. 1.—Physarum rubronodum. Left, group of
sporangia (Cooke 15671a) on hypothallus, X12;
right, detail of capillitium with two spores (Cooke
18126), 520; above, spore of same, 1,000.
regularly verrucose, globose, 11—13y in dia-
meter, or oval and correspondingly longer and
narrower. Plasmodium scarlet or orange-red.
Sporangiis globosis vel obovatis vel pulvi-
natis, sessilis vel substipitatibus, miniato-brun-
neis, 1-1.5 mm diam., dense caespitosis sub
hypothallo commune; peridio duplici, extus
eartilagineo, calcareo, crustaceo, nitente, laeve
praeter crasso reticulato; intus membranaceo,
applicato, hyalino, iridescente; capillitio denso
e filamentis hyalinis reticulato-anastomosatis,
nodulis calcareis, magnis, fusiformibus vel
irregulariter angulafibus, coccineis vel miniatis
multis axillis ecalcareix; sporis globosis vel
subovoideis, atropurpureo-brunneis crebro
grosseque tuberculatis 11—13u diam. Plasmodio
coccineo vel aurantiaco.?
CALIFORNIA: Mount Shasta, 8,000 feet, elev.,
July 7, 1941, W. B. Cooke 15671a, Typr. Same
locality, June 29, 1947, W. B. Cooke 18126.
Physarum rubronodum is obviously close to
P. albescens Macbr. Like that species, it has a
crustose outer wall suggesting Leocarpus, and
many of the sporangia are borne on strandlike
extensions of the hypothallus. It differs in the
2 I am indebted to Sister Mary Cecelia Bodman
for assistance with the Latin diagnoses.
MARTIN: TWO NEW SPECIES OF PHYSARUM
239
pinkish-brown or dark peridium, in the striking
scarlet nodes, in the somewhat smaller, warted
rather than spiny spores, and in the scarlet or
deep orange-red plasmodium.
Physarum auripigmentum, sp. nov.
Sporangiate, stalked, gregarious; sporangium
globose, 0.4-0.6 mm in diameter, total height
0.6—1 mm., clear to opaque yellow (about lemon-
chrome of Ridgway); peridium membranous,
closely covered by subcircular limy scales;
dehiscence somewhat petaloid; columella none;
stalk short, about half the diameter of the
sporangium, cylindrical, expanded at the base,
orange-red, limeless, translucent; hypothallus
scarcely evident; capillitium dense, delicate,
persistent, the nodes small, rounded, bright
yellow, many of the junctions limeless and with
numerous free, ‘pointed ends; spores dark
brown in mass, clear violet-brown by trans-
mitted light, nearly smooth, (8.5-) 9.5-11
(-12.5)u in diameter, Plasmodium unknown.
Sporangiis stipitatibus, gregariis, globosis,
0.4-0.6 mm diam., totis 0.6—-1 mm altis, lucidis
haud pellucidis luteis; peridiis membranaceis,
squamis suborbiculatis calecareis applicatis;
subfloriforme dehiscentibus; columella nulla;
stipes brevis, attingens dimidium diametrosis
sporangii, cylindraceus, expansus basi, auran-
tiacus, ecalcareus, translucidus; hypothallo quo
Fig. 2.—Physarum auripigmentum (Cooke
20099). Left below, two sporangia, X60; right,
detail of capillitium, with two spores, X520; left,
above, three spores, 1,000.
=) |=
vix sentiri; capillitio denso, delicato, persis-
tente, nodulis parvulis rotundatis, luteis, mul-
tis axillis ecalcareis, apicibusque multiplicibus,
apertis, acutis; sporis atro-brunneis, violaceo-
brunneis pellucente, sublevibus, 9.5-lly diam.
Plasmodio ignoto.
CatrorniA: Mount Shasta, 8,000 feet elev.,
June 23, 1947, W. B. Cooke 20099, TYPE.
240
WASHINGTON: Longmire Springs, Mount
Rainier, August 10-17, 1928, D. B. Creager
S. U. I. 1722; Paradise Valley, Mount Rainier,
August, 10-17, 1928, D. B. Creager S. U. I.
1723.
Physarum auripigmentum suggests P. obla-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
tum Macbr. but differs in the scaly character
of the peridium, in the shorter and brighter
stalks without dark basal deposits, and espe-
cially in the dense capillitium, with its small,
regular nodes, numerous lime-free junctions
and conspicuous free ends.
ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the
subfamily Dynastinae, No. 5: Keys to tribes and genera.
LAWRENCE W.
SAYLOR, California Academy of Sciences.
This paper completes my studies covering
a synoptic review of the United States dy-
nastine scarab beetles, the preceding four
parts having been published in this same
JOURNAL.
A great deal of work, from a taxonomic
standpoint, remains to be done in the
American members of this tribe, especially
in the Neotropical genera. Generic limits of
such genera as Ligyrus and Stenocrates, as
well as many others, must be thoroughly
studied and the relative importance of such
characters as the front male claws (enlarged
or not), the dentition of the mandibles, and
the usual sexual dimorphism must be better
understood.
In the present studies I have had the
cooperation of many institutions and indi-
viduals in obtaining material, or submitting
material for identification: United States
National Museum, through the courtesy of
Drs. Wetmore and Chapin; the extensive
collections of the California Academy of
Sciences through its director Dr. Miller and
its entomological curators Drs. Ross and
Van Dyke; American Museum of Natural
History through its curator Dr. Cazier; and
many private individuals, among them
Drs. Cartwright, Ritcher, Reinhard, and
Sanderson, as well as Dr. Dampf of Mexico
City. I have also received material from the
Paris Museum through Dr. Paulian, and
from the British Museum through Dr.
Hinton and Mr. Arrow, to all of whom I am
indebted for numerous past favors.
SUBFAMILY DYNASTINAE
Diagnostic characters—Tarsal claws always
equal in size, or at least so on the middle legs
(one claw of the front pair is frequently en-
1 Received September 3, 1947.
larged in males of certain species); mandibles
entirely corneous, and usually exposed beyond
the clypeus (from dorsal view); mandibles fre-
quently large and dentate externally; labrum
hidden under the clypeus; clypeus more com-
monly acuminate apically, and dentate or
edentate; scutellum normal, never greatly en-
larged; sexes frequently dimorphic, the males
frequently with tubercles or horns on either
head or thorax or both, the females in many
species likewise equipped; coloration usually
some shade of black or brown, only very rarely
with any metallic lustre; antennal club always
relatively small and 3-segmented; ligula en-
tirely connate with the mentum; abdominal
spiracles diverging strongly behind; anterior
coxae transverse, not prominent; stridulating
organs frequently appear in many species, lo-
cated on propygidium or inside the elytra;
fifth ventral sternite and propygidium connate,
the last spiracle on the suture between them;
onychium between the tarsal claws commonly
bisetose, varying to multisetose in certain
genera.
KEY TO UNITED STATES TRIBES
1. Labial palpi inserted behind the mentum; body
always depressed above; frequently with
tubercles or horns on head or thorax; mid-
disc of thorax often longitudinally im-
pressed; hind tibia digitate or truncate at
apex but not noticeahly widened; first seg-
ment of hind tarsus with strong spine at
apex; sexual differences hardly apparent...
PRE SR SS te wee bes Sn ae) ene
Labial palpi inserted at the sides of the ligular
part of the mentum; body never strongly de-
pressed, usually evenly convex dorsally;
head and thorax horned or not; sexual char-
acters noticeable in last abdominal sternite
or front tarsal claw in all instances....... 2
2. Head and thorax in both sexes entirely un-
armed, without tubercles or carinae or horns,
and never depressed or foveate; claw with
the onychium always bisetose (never more
:
;
Juuty 15, 1948 SAYLOR: SYNOPTIC REVISION OF SUBFAMILY DYNASTINAE 241
cylindrical and usually elongate, never tri-
angular; prosternal spine prominent behind
thes fore). Coxaes az ies at )s 4. CYCLOCEPHALINI
Head and thorax (either or both) armed with
than two cilia); stridulating organs absent;
male front claws in many species either en-
larged or larger than in female; antenna
often larger in male than female; tarsi
Fic. 1.—a, Ligyrus relictus Say: Hind tibia of male; b, Euetheola subglabra Schaeffer: Hind tibia
of male; c, Aphonus densicauda Casey: Hind tibia of male; d, Cheiroplatys clunalis LeConte: Hind
tibia of male; e, Xyloryctes jamaicensts (Drury): Worn hind tibia of male; f, same as e, fresh tibia; g,
Strategus antaeus (Drury): Hind tibia of male; h, Strategus mormon Burmeister: Hind tibia of male.
242
horns or tubercles (on fore margin of thorax
if nowhere else) in both sexes, ard frequently
foveate (or with strong head carina and
large, well-rounded mandibles as in A phon-
ides); claw with onychium bisetose to multi-
setose; striduJating organs variable; other
characters:wariable cers «ssi ines o eee 3
3. Onychium between claws bisetose to pluri-
setose; tarsal segments, especially basally,
frequently triangular in shape; fore tibia and
tarsus of same length in both sexes; stridulat-
ing organs frequently present; dorsal surface
always wunicolorous; never spotted or with
Genser ek ee a ee ORYCTINI
Onychium between claws always with three or
more setae apically; tarsal segments elongate
smooth, never triangular, the basal segment
usually with a strong apical spine; front
tibia and tarsus a little longer in the male
than in the female (very distinct in neo-
tropical species, but must be carefully com-
pared in United States species); stridulating
organs absent; dorsal surface either clothed
with a fine velvety short hair, or spotted and
speckled, onl, rarely entirely unicolorous in
SOME TOMALES HI) sas Gen ait ue eee DYNASTINI
The genera of the tribes Phileurini and
Dynastini were covered in Part 4 of this
series, and the genera of the tribe Cycloce-
phalini in Part 1. ? The tribe Oryctini was
discussed in Part 2° and in Part 34 and was
completed in Part 45; these eight United
States genera of Oryctini may be separated
as follows:
KEY TO GENERA OF UNITED STATES ORYCTINI
1. Apex of hind tibia uneven, with sharp angula-
tions or teeth (see Fig. 1, g, f); head fre-
quently with horn (male) or large tubercle
(female) (this character will place those
specimens with worn tibia as in some Xy-
lonuctes asuin gio ol ce uaa. eee ee 2
Apex of hind tibia moderately to strongly ex-
panded, with very fine serrations (not sharp
teeth) or entirely smooth (see Fig. 1, a, d);
head never with horns, at most with a strong
to weak transverse carina or a small tubercle
2. Clypeal apex acute and unidentate; mandibles
large and exposed, and evenly rounded, never
toothed; thorax never foveate or tubercu-
late; base of clypeus with a strong transverse
carina (Texas and) Arizona)e > 4.5. = oan
Be £8 OP SMe nae: 28) 4d Aphonides Rivers
Glypeus acute, bidentate or bluntly rounded
(if acute, inen the mandibles always dis-
tinctly eémarginate or toothed externally,
2 Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 35 (12): 378-
386. 1945.
3 Ibid. 36 (1): 16-22. 1946.
4Tbid. 36 (2): 41-46. 1946.
5 Ibid. 38 (5): 176-183. 1948.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
and thorax always foveate and tuberculate)
3. Mandibles usually hidden beneath the clypeus,
or only edges exposed, and always unarmed
externally; usually with 5 to 9 small teeth
on outer apical margin of hind tibia.......
eae Acie Die ey ne X yloryctes Hope
Mandibles always large, always well exposed,
always armed externally with teeth or else
right-angled in outline (cessuws); apical mar-
gin of hind tibia usually with 1 or 2 sharp
angulations, or 3 or 4 teeth... cae euse
Wh See Te eh ee Strategus Hope
4. Clypeal apex acute, wnidentate; clypeal base
with an acute transverse carina; mandibles
large and tridentate; thorax with fovea at
midapex and a small tubercle in front of the
fovea; color usually rufous...............
Leet Se See ere kl Oxygrylius Casey
Clypeal apex distinctly bidentate, or evenly
truncate, or very bluntly rounded, never
with a single sharp point (or if somewhat
pointed, then the mandibles small and nearly
hidden under the clypeus); color variable. .5
5. Clypeus with a distinct carina just before (i.e.,
practically on) the apex, this carina entire,
or wide bidentate, or tridentate; front male
tibia frequently edentate, the tibia unusually
wide in both sexes and the emarginations
between the externa] teeth very shallowly
indicated, especially the two apical teeth. .6
Clypeus carinate or not; if carinate the carina
located quite a distance before the apex;
front tibia always strongly tridentate... .7
6. Preapical clypeal carina entire, or bidentate;
thorax and head tuberculate or not (South-
western United States). Cheiroplatys Hope
Preapical clypeal carina strongly to weakly
tridentate; thorax not tuberculate, head
rarely so (Eastern United States).........
il a ES yg Het ci Aphonus LeConte
7. Mandibles Aeanitcly tridentate externally, the
basal tooth often worn and barely visible;
thorax not more than two-thirds the ienein
of the elytra; color rufous to rufopiceous or
rufocastaneous........ Lagyrus Burmeister
Mandibles bidentate externally (do not count
lacinia tooth as mandibular!); thorax about
three-fourths length of elytra; color always
black? See os. ee Euetheola Bates
SUPPLEMENT
Euetheola subglabra Schaeffer
Since Part 2 of this series was published I have
received a male specimen from Tepic, Mexico,
from Dr. Chapin, of the U. S. National Museum;
this has very worn mandibles and clypeus, but
the genitalia are typical, and the thoracic punc-
turation is very minute and sparse but still visible
on the center disc in a good light. I have also just
recently mounted an additional pair (male and
female) from ‘‘Compostella, Tepic, Nayarit, col-
lected VI-24-40 at light by Morgan M. and L. W.
Saylor’; these were mixed in with some un-
JuLY 15, 1948 GAHAN: SOUTH AMERICAN CHALCIDOIDEA DESCRIBED BY ASHMEAD
mounted Dyscinetus material, which they greatly
resemble superficially. The female has not been
described before and I am designating this speci-
men as the Allotype: Very similar to male ex-
cept that it is a little larger (16 mm), the minute
thoracic punctures are entirely absent over most
of the center-disc, the apical half of the pygidium
is smooth and very sparsely punctate and the
243
apical half of the sixth sternite is entirely smooth
and impunctate. It is interesting that nearly the
entire abdomen (except for a single transverse
setigerous row on each sternite near sides) and
the metasternum (except at sides) are highly
polished and entirely impunctate in both sexes.
Both specimens remain in the Saylor Collection
at the California Academy of Sciences.
ENTOMOLOGY.—The Herbert H. Smith collection of South American Chalci-
doidea described by W. H. Ashmead.! A. B. Gauan, U. 8. Bureau of Ento-
mology and Plant Quarantine.
In his Classification of the chalcid flies or
the superfamily Chalcidoidea (Mem. Carne-
gie Mus. 1 (No. 4, pt. 2): 394-551. 1904)
W. H. Ashmead published results of his
study of the Herbert H. Smith collection of
South American chalcidoids, including a
bibliographic catalogue of all the known
South American species. Many new species
were described, most of them based upon
material in the Smith collection, but several
of the included new species were based upon
material in the United States National
Museum, collected by Albert Koebele. In
the bibliographic catalogue, citations were
given for a number of species previously
described by Ashmead from material in the
Smith collection, these descriptions appear-
ing in Insect Life 3: 456. 1891; Proc. Ent.
Soc. Washington 3: 233. 1895, and 4: 11-
14. 1896; and Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 22:
368-375. 1900. Also included were Ash-
mead’s identifications of a number of spe-
cies described by Walker, Westwood,
Fabricius, Perty, and other authors.
Holotypes of 8 species and duplicate par-
atypes of 36 additional species, as well as
duplicates of some of the determined spe-
cies, were retained by Ashmead from the
Smith collection. The remainder of the col-
lection was returned to the Carnegie Mu-
seum, which had acquired it by purchase
from the collector. There the collection re-
mained practically undisturbed until 1934,
when through the kind cooperation of the
late Dr. Hugo Kahl, then curator of the
section of entomology at Carnegie Museum,
and with the consent of the Museum direc-
tor, I was permitted to bring the whole
1 Received March 7, 1948.
(Communicated by E. A. CHAPIN.)
collection to the United States National
Museum for study. Though it still remained
the property of Carnegie Museum, it has
reposed in the National Museum since that
date and while being used for reference has
been kept, until very recently, in the orig-
inal boxes and arrangement in which Ash-
mead left it.
Early in 1947, through collaboration with
Dr. George E. Wallace, successor to Dr.
Kahl at the Carnegie Museum, and with
the approval of the authorities of both the
Carnegie Museum and the National Mu-
seum, arrangements were completed where-
by, in exchange for a representative collec-
tion of named North American chalcidoids,
the entire Smith collection covered by Ash-
mead’s paper, with the exceptions of one-
half the duplicates in any series of para-
types or of determined specimens of any
species, became the property of the National
Museum. With consummation of the ex-
change the Carnegie Museum received a
named collection of North American ma-
terial comprising 412 species represented by
1,222 specimens and also a return of 22
paratypes representing 16 species and 84
specimens representing 19 determined spe-
cies from the South American material.
The National Collection acquires named
representatives of 248 species made up of
192 holotypes, 79 paratypes (8 of which
represent species the holotypes of which
were already in the National Museum), and
156 determined specimens representing 48
species. Also included are 122 unidentified
specimens, making a total of 549 specimens.
Unfortunately, the unique types of Par-
encyrtus brasiliensis Ashmead, Pelorotelus
coeruleus Ashmead, Horismenus corumbae
244
Ashmead, Euplectrus brasiliensis Ashmead,
and Stenomesius dimidiatus Ashmead have
become dislodged from the mounting points
and lost. Since the first two species are gen-
otypes, their loss is doubly unfortunate.
Also missing from the collection is the speci-
men (or specimens) of [doleupelmus annuli-
cornis Ashmead recorded from Santarém,
Brazil. This species was originally described
(Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 4: 13. 1896)
from the Island of St. Vincent, West Indies,
and the holotype is presumably in the Brit-
ish Museum. ;
The material from the Smith collection
acquired by the National Museum has now
been removed from the original boxes and
placed in standard trays and drawers. While
making the transfer I made the following
notes regarding certain species:
Hemitorymus thoracicus Ashmead.—In my
opinion this is not a monodontomerine. The
type appears to be a typical Torymus and the
genus Hemitorymus, therefore, a synonym.
New synonymy.
Plesiostigmodes brasiliensis Ashmead.—The
unique type is a male, not a female as stated in
the description.
Spilochalcis tarsalis Ashmead.—The type is
from Corumba instead of Chapada.
Spilochalcis persimilis Ashmead.—Type lo-
cality Santarém instead of Chapada.
Spilochalecis bimaculata Ashmead.—De-
scribed only in the key to species. The type, a
female, is from Trinidad.
Sptlochalcis nigropleuralis Ashmead.—The
holotype female is from Trinidad. The only
male associated with this female in the collec-
tion is from Corumba (not Chapada), Brazil,
and does not entirely fit the description given
of the male. It does not bear a name label and
may or may not be the allotype.
Spilochalcis mayri Ashmead.—The type is
from Corumba, not Chapada.
Spilochalcis urichi Ashmead.—No male is
described, but included among the 12 speci-
mens in the type series is one male. This is
colored almost exactly like the females and not
easily distinguished.
Spilochalcis lineocoxalis Ashmead.—The
unique holotype is a male, not a female.
Spilochalcis chapadensis Ashmead.—In the
key to species (p. 427) and on the name label,
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
the name of this species is chapadensis, but
heading the formal description (p. 443) it is
given as chapadae. That the latter spelling is a
lapsus is obvious, since the name chapadae had
already been used for another species of Spilo-
chalcis (p. 432). The name chapadensis should
be retained for the species on p. 443.
Spilochalcis persimilis Ashmead.—The
unique holotype is a male instead of a female.
Octosmicra nigromaculata Ashmead.—The
locality is Corumba instead of Chapada.
Heptasmicra lineaticora Ashmead.—One
paratype is from Maruru, the type and 2 para-
types from Santarém.
Metadontia similis Ashmead.—The unique
holotype is a female instead of a male.
Pentasmicra brasiliensis Ashmead.—De-
scribed only in the key to genera. See article by
Hugo Kahl (Ann. Carnegie Mus. 13: 265.
1921).
Azima brevicornis Ashmead.—The male al-
lotype and 4 male paratypes of this species do
not appear to be the same species as the female
holotype and the female paratype. Instead,
these males all seem to me to be A. koebelei
Ashmead.
Azimopsis morio Ashmead.—The type local-
ity for this genotype species, not recorded by
Ashmead, is Santerém, Brazil.
Isomodes brasiliensis Ashmead.—Only 4 of
the 5 specimens recorded by Ashmead were
found, the specimen from Santarém being
missing.
Prodecatoma bruneiventris Ashmead.—The
type series consists of 3 females and 1 male. In
my opinion the 3 females represent 3 different
species. The male allotype is labeled “‘Prode-
catoma flavescens Ashmead. & Type,” but since
no male was described for flavescens and since
this male specimen agrees with the description
of the male as given for bruneiventris, it is ob-
vious that the labeling is a lapsus.
Neorilya flavipes AShmead.—The type series,
of which orly 9 specimens can be located, is a
composite made up of apparently 3 different
species.
Rileya orbitalis Ashmead.—The unique holo-
type female is from Chapada instead of San-
tarém. A male in the National Museum col-
lection from Chapada is labeled ‘‘Rileya orbi-
talis #, Type No. 8080.”’ Ashmead may have
originally associated this with the female holo-
type, but since no male is mentioned in the
JuLy 15, 1948
description it should not be considered a para-
type. This male is apparently not the same
species as the holotype but appears to be identi-
cal with Rileya insularis Ashmead.
Lelaps affinis Ashmead.—A paratype,
U.S.N.M. no. 8087, is not the same species as
the holotype but belongs instead to Lelaps
ferruginea Ashmead. —
Chalcedectes annulipes Ashmead.—Holotype
from Corumba in May. Paratype from Cha-
pada already in National Museum collection.
Macreupelmus brasiliensis Ashmead.—Only
3 of the 4 specimens mentioned by Ashmead
located. U.S.N.M. type, no. 8091.
Anastatus auriceps Ashmead.—Holotype
from Corumba. Paratype from Chapada miss-
ing from pin.
Trichencyrtus chapadae Ashmead (pp. 291,
392) (= robustus Ashmead, p. 495). See com-
ments by Gahan and Peck, Journ. Washington
Acad. Sci. 36: 317. 1946; also Gomes, Bol. Soc.
Brazil. Agronomia 5: 287. 1942.
Metopon brasiliensis Ashmead.—The holo-
type female is from Corumba. The 2 paratype
females are from Santarém and appear to be not
the same species as the type. The allotype male,
also from Santarém, is missing from the pin.
Horismenus brasiliensis Ashmead.—A speci-
men in the National Museum from Chapada
labeled ‘““Type No. 8094” is not the same spe-
cies as the holotype, which is from Rio de
DEIGNAN: CONTINENTAL RACES OF PYCNONOTUS DISPAR
245
Janeiro. This specimen from Chapada is not
mentioned in the description and hence is
neither type nor paratype.
Ametallon chapadae Ashmead.—The holo-
type from the Smith collection is in poor con-
dition. The paratype which was in the National
Museum and recorded in the type book under
no. 8097 is missing from the pin.
Trichoporus melleus Ashmead.—The holo-
type acquired with the Smith collection is a
female from Santarém. The alleged male de-
scribed by Ashmead and bearing U.S.N.M.
type, no. 8098 is a female from Chapada and
is not the same species as the holotype.
Trichoporus viridicyaneus Ashmead.—All 20
specimens of the type series located, 3 of them
in the National Museum under type no. 8099.
These 3 are the same species as the holotype,
but at least 5 of the paratypes in the Smith
collection appear to be a different species.
Alophus flavus Ashmead (p. 358, 365)
( =brasiliensis Ashmead, p. 520). See comments
by Gahan and Peck, Journ. Washington Acad.
Sci. 36: 314. 1946. Holotype and allotype from
Chapada and one paratype from Rio de Janeiro
in Smith collection. Holotype and paratype are
alike, but the allotype male is a different spe-
cies. Also two alleged paratypes in the National
Museum, type no. 8100, are not the same as
the holotype and represent two different
species.
ORNITHOLOGY .—Continental races of the bulbul Pycnonotus dispar (Horsfield).!
H. G. Drienan, U.S. National Museum.
Geographical variation in continental
populations of Pycnonotus dispar (‘‘Oto-
—compsa flaviventris” of the older authors)
appears in a tendency to darker coloration
of the upperparts, shortening of the crest,
and reduced wing length from north and
west to east and south. The effects of wear
on the plumage are so marked that only
fresh-plumaged specimens are suitable for
taxonomic study, and the change from one
form to another is so gradual that the dis-
tinctions between juxtaposed races can be
observed only in series. The difficulty of
establishing satisfactory limits of range for
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received January
16, 1948.
the several subspecies is complicated by the
appearance of winter-wandering examples
of one within the breeding territory of an-
other. Two hundred and one specimens from
the Asiatic mainland, brought together in
Washington with the kind cooperation of
the authorities of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia (A.N.S.P.) and of
the Chicago Natural History Museum
(C.N.H.M.), enable me to accept the fol-
lowing forms:
1. Pycnonotus dispar flaviventris (Tickell)
Vanga Flaviventris Tickell, Journ. Asiat. Soc.
Bengal 2: 573. Nov. 1833 (Dampara, ‘“‘in Dhol-
bhim’”’=Singhbhum District, Chota Nagpur
Division, Province of Bihar and Orissa, India).
246
Diagnosis.—Head and neck blue-black; up-
perparts golden olive-green, somewhat brighter
posteriorly; exposed portions of remiges and
rectrices blackish brown, edged with golden
olive-green; underparts rich yellow, somewhat
suffused with olive on the breast and along the
flanks.
Wing length—86-91 mm. (5 males), 85-89
mm. (4 females), 85-96 mm. (4 unsexed).
Specimens examined.—‘‘Inp1a’”’: No definite
locality (3 unsexed). BencGau: Darjiling Dis-
trict: Sivok (1 male, 2 females). Assam: No
definite locality (1 unsexed); Cachar District:
Rupachena (1 female); Lakhimpur District:
Margherita (1 male, 1 female). Burma: Myit-
kyina District: N’ Pon Village (1 male); Pakok-
ku District: Dudaw Taung (2 males).
2. Pycnonotus dispar vantynei,
n. subsp.
Type.-—C.N.H.M. no. 79247, adult male,
collected at Phongtho (lat. 22°32’ N., long.
103°20’ E.), Laokay or Laichau Province,
northwestern Tongking, on February 24, 1929,
by J. Van Tyne (original number 396).
Diagnosis.—As large as P. d. flaviventris, but
easily separable by having the upperparts a
darker and duller olive-green, almost without
golden suffusion.
Wing length—85-91 mm (20 males), 85-87
mm (4 females).
Specumens examined.mANNAM: No definite
locality (1 male); Thanhhoa Province: Hoixuan
(1 female), Lunglunh (1 male). Tonexine:
Laokay or Laichau Province: Phongtho (2
males); Laokay Province: Ba Nam Nhung
(1 male); Laichau Province: Muong Mo (1
male, 2 females), Muong Moun (1 male),
Paham (1 male), Laichau (1 male), 27 km
WSW. of Laichau (2 males). Laos: 5° Terri-
toire Militaire: Bountai (3 males), Muong Yo
(1 male, 1 female); Pakse Province: Pakse (1
male, winter). BurMA: Kengtung State: Loi
Mwe (3 males, 1 female), Mong Len (1 male);
Stam: North: Chiang Saen Kao (2 females),
Chiang Rai (1 male), Muang Fang (1 male),
Wiang Pa Pao (1 female), Doi Suthep (2 males,
winter); East: Ban Chanuman (1 male, winter).
Remarks.—Only one of these examples shows
the red-throated phase of plumage (discussed
below under P. d. johnsont).
This race is named in honor of Toeegn Van
Tyne, collector of the type specimen.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
3. Pycnonotus dispar xanthops, n. subsp’
Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 332362, adult male,
collected at ‘Khan River’’=Ban Mae (lat.
18°40’ N., long, 98°50’ E.), Chiang Mai Prov-
ince, northwestern Siam, on February 8, 1932,
by Hugh M. Smith (original number 5321).
Diagnosis.—Smaller than either of the two
precedent races and with the color of the upper-
parts darker, more greenish, less golden, than
in flaviventris, but much lighter and more
golden than in vantynet.
Wing length—83-87 mm. (16 males), 83-85
mm. (4 females).
Specimens examined.—S1am: Northwest: Doi
Chiang Dao (1 male), Muang Pai (1 male),
30 km N. of Chiang Mai (1 male), Doi Suthep
(5 males, 3 females), vicinity of Chiang Mai
(3 males, 1 female), Ban Mae (2 males), Doi
Khun Tan (6 males). Burma: Amherst District
Myawadi (1 male), Kawkareik (1 female).
Remarks.—This race presumably has a much
more extensive range than my material shows;
it should be the form of all southern Burma.
The few skins available from southwestern
Siam are smaller than zanthops; their plumage
is so badly worn that, for the present, they must
be left unnamed.
4, Pycnonotus dispar auratus, n. subsp.
Type.—A.N.S.P. no. 115110, adult male,
collected at Amphoe Wat Pa=Muang Lom
Sak, on the borders of central and eastern Siam
at lat. 16°45’ N., long 101°10’ E., on October
26, 1934, by collectors for R. Meyer de Schau-
ensee (original number 1705).
Diagnosis.—Smaller than either vantynei or
flaviventris and with the color of the upperparts
lighter, less greenish, more golden, than in the
former, but much darker and less golden than |
in the latter.
From P. d. xanthops, with which it agrees in
size, auratus is separable by having the upper
parts slightly darker and less golden.
Wing length—85-87 mm (4 males), 82-84
mm (5 females).
Specimens examined.—Laos: Vientiane Prov-
ince: Vientiane (1 female). Stam: Central or
East: Muang Lom Sak (4 males, 5 females).
ANNAM: Phanrang Province: Krongpha (1
female, winter).
Remarks.—P. d. auratus and P. d. xanthops
are equivalent ‘‘links’’ in the cline between
flaviventris and vantyner. The range of auratus
Juuy 15, 1948
may be expected to cover the more eastern
provinces of northern Siam, the northern half
of the eastern Siamese plateau, and portions of
Haut- and Moyen-Laos between the territories
of vantyner and johnson.
One of my specimens shows the red-throated
phase of plumage; another has an irregular
spot of red and yellow feathers at the left side
of the chin.
5. Pycnonotus dispar johnsoni (Gyldenstolpe)
Rubigula johnsoni Gyldenstolpe, Kungl. Svenska
Vet.-Akad. Handl. 50 (8): p. 25, col. pl. 1. July
19, 1913 (near Sathani Chakkrarat, Nakhon
Ratchasima Province, eastern Siam at lat.
15-00’ N> long. 102°25’ E.).
Diagnosis.—Near to P. d. auratus, but smaller
and with the upperparts slightly darker and
less suffused with golden.
Wing length—79-85 mm (33 males), 76-83
mim (34 females), 81-83 mm (3 unsexed).
Specimens examined.—S1am: East: Sathani
Pak Chong (7 males, 9 females), Sathani Hin
Lap (3 males), Sathani Lat Bua Khao (5 males,
3 females), Ban Tha Chang (1 unsexed), Ban
Khanong Phra (2 females), Ban Pang Sok (1
male), Nakhon Nayok (1 unsexed), Ban Chanu-
man (4 females), Ban Khulu (1 unsexed),
Ban Khemmarat (1 female); Southeast:
Khao Saming (2 males, 1 female), Ban Bang
Phra (1 male, 1 female), Ban Laem Ngop (1
male), Khao Sa Bap (3 males, 1 female), Khao
Soi Dao (1 male), Muang Rayong (2 females),
Siracha (1 male), Ban Nong Kho (3 males),
Ban Nong Yang (4 males); Laos: Pakse Prov-
ince: Pakse (2 males, 4 females), Paksong (1
female, 1 unsexed), Bassac (1 female). Cam-
BopiIA: Kampot Province: Ok Yam (1 female);
Siemreap Province: Banteai Srei (1 female);
Kompong Cham Province: Kompong Cham (1
female). ANNAM: Phanrang Province: Krong-
pha (1 female, 1 unsexed), between Bellevue
and Daban (1 male, 3 females), Fimnon (1 fe-
male), Ban Methuot (1 male).
Remarks.—A color phase in which the lower
throat is clothed in shining red feathers is fre-
quent in johnsoni; in the population of the
southwestern corner of the eastern Siamese
plateau (topotypical), all the specimens seen
show the character, which appears with dimin-
ishing frequency as one moves away from this
center and is then often indicated merely by a
few red feathers among the black. Since red-
throated individuals appear in any predomi-
DEIGNAN: CONTINENTAL RACES OF PYCNONOTUS DISPAR
247
nantly black-throated population of southeast-
ern Indo-China (and even in populations other-
wise representative of the races auratus and
vantyner), it is not possible to restrict the use of
Gyldenstolpe’s name to red-throated birds
without seeming to have two subspecies resi-
dent at the same localities, and there is, of
course, no question here of two sympatric
species. A case precisely similar to this is pre-
sented by the bulbul Pycnonotus atriceps (Tem-
minck), in which the several color phases ap-
pear with varying frequencies from one to an-
other part of the ranges of the different races.
The problem has been discussed at some
length by R. Meyer de Schauensee (Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 98: 53-56. 1946), whose
conclusions, however, do not wholly agree with
mine.
6. Pycnonotus dispar caecilii, n. subsp.
Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 160418, adult male,
collected in Trang Province, peninsular Siam
at ca. lat. 7°-8° N., on February 12, 1897,- by
William L. Abbott.
Diagnosis—Nearest P. d. johnsoni (black-
throated phase), but with the upperparts a
decidedly darker olive green, almost without
golden suffusion.
Wing length—78-82 mm (10 peninsular
males), 78-81 mm (6 peninsular females).
Specimens examined.—S1aM: Southeast: Ko
Kut (3 males, 1 female, 1 unsexed), Ko Chang
(8 males, 1 female, 1 unsexed); Southwest:
Prachuap Khiri Khan (1 female), Khao Luang
(1 male, 2 females), Khao Nok Wua (1 male, 1
female); Peninsula: Ban Tha Lo (1 female),
Nakhon Si Thammarat (1 male), Khao Pha-
nom Bencha (3 males, 1 female), Trang Prov-
ince (4 males, 2 females). Burma: Mergui
District: Victoria Point (1 male). Mavaya:
Selangor State: Ginting Bidei (1 male).
Remarks.—This race was named Otocompsa
flavwentris minor by Boden Kloss (Ibis, ser.
10, 6 (2): 200. Apr. 9, 1918), with the type
specimen from Ko lLak=Prachuap Khiri
Khan. With the submersion of ‘“‘Otecompsa”’ in
Pycnonotus, Kloss’s name becomes preoccupied
by Pycononotus nigricans Var. minor von
Heuglin (Ornithologie Nordost-Afrika’s 1: 398.
1869), and a new designation is required for the
bird of the Malay Peninsula.
Kloss’s type lies before me and seems to be
inseparable from more southern specimens.
248
Nevertheless, since Prachuap Khiri Khan is
situated just where numerous peninsular races
intergrade with distinct forms of southwestern
Siam, it has seemed to me desirable to fix the
new name on a much more southern population,
rather than simply to rename Kloss’s bird. The
word “caeciliz”’ derives, of course, from this
earlier worker’s given name.
That the 15 specimens from Ko Kut and Ko
Chang should be quite distinct from birds of
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
the neighboring mainland, but virtually insep-
arable from those of the Malay Peninsula, is
of considerable interest. Their wing length
ranges from 81 to 85 mm (11 males), 80 to 83
mm (2 females); they are thus a trifle larger
than topotypical caecilii, but hardly enough
to justify their separation at this time. One
example has a few red feathers on the lower
throat.
ICHTHYOLOGY.—Acanthurus triostegus marquesensis, a@ new subspecies of
surgeonfish, family Acanthuridae, with notes on related forms.
ScHULTzZ and LorEN P. Woops.
During our studies of tropical Pacific
Ocean fishes, we observed that in the vast
area from the East African coast to the
western shores of the Americas certain
species said by certain ichthyologists to be
the same throughout this entire region are
actually separate species, subspecies, or
distinct populations. Among these, the sur-
geonfish, Acanthurus triostegus (Linnaeus),
is one of the most abundant and widely
distributed species of the Indo-Pacific re-
gion. It ranges from the Red Sea and Natal
coast of South Africa eastward to Australia
and thence in Oceania to the offshore Amer-
ican islands—Clarion, Clipperton, and Co-
cos. In the Hawaiian chain of islands this
surgeonfish is represented by a distinct
species, Acanthurus sandvicensis Streets,
and by some means it has extended its
range to include Johnston Island, 520 miles
southward.
In order to clarify the status of the vari-
ous species and subspecies of surgeonfishes
closely related to A. triostegus we studied
specimens from the Pacific and Indian
Oceans and found that certain of the larger
island groups of the Pacific have popula-
tions of this surgeonfish morphologically
distinct from other island groups. There-
fore, we find it necessary to describe as
new a subspecies from the Marquesas and
to point out other distinct populations
without naming them at this time.
Throughout the entire range of this
surgeonfish the five narrow dark bars on
1 Published with the permission of the Secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received
March 23, 1948.
LEONARD P.
the sides show no significant variability.
The first body band ends in the axil of the
pectoral base. In contrast the dark bar
on caudal peduncle varies greatly from a
dorsally located spot to one completely
encircling the peduncle. Usually it is in the
form of a dorsal saddle with a spot ventrally
disconnected from the saddlelike dark
mark.
The larval stages of this surgeonfish are
unknown to us, but numerous examples of
postlarvae occur in the U. S. National
Museum collections. All have been taken
over reefs or near land; those from 21 to
25 mm in length have been collected from
tidal pools. The smallest specimen seen by
us was 20.5 mm. It was colorless when it
appeared at a light at night. This suggests
a pelagic habitat for the young.
Acanthurus sandvicensis Streets
Acanthurus triostegus sandvicensis Streets, U. 8S.
Nat. Mus. Bull. 7: 67. 1877. (Type locality,
Honolulu Harbor, Oahu, T. H.) Lectotype,
U.S.N.M. no. 15398, and paratypes, U.S.N.M.
no. 143446.
Acanthurus sandvicensis Streets is character-
ized by having a black streak running from the
upperpart of the pectoral base to near the ven-
tral surface (see Fig. 1, A), and by averaging
one or two more soft rays in the dorsal, anal,
and pectoral fins. (See Table 1.) The streak be-
low the pectoral was found in all specimens
examined (about 100) from the Hawaiian and
Johnston Islands and in no specimen from any
other locality.
The distinct character of the color pattern of —
Acanthurus sandvicensis and its complete lack
of intergradation with representatives of trio-
Juiy 15, 1948
stegus from other island groups reemphasize the
recognized long-time isolation of the Hawaiian
Chain. The average temperature of the water
around the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston
Island is a little lower than the average for most
parts of the equatorial western Pacific Ocean.
This may have caused the meristic differences
recorded for sandvicensis, but it does not ex-
plain the difference in color pattern.
Acanthurus triostegus triostegus (Linnaeus)
Chaetodon triostegus Linnaeus, Systema naturae,
ed. 10: 274. 1758. (Type locality, Indies.)
The normal color pattern of alcoholic speci-
mens is a light-gray to dark-brown background
on head and body with the dorsal parts darker,
and ventral region whitish; middorsal line of
interorbital space and of snout usually with a
brown streak; head and body with 5 narrow
transverse brownish or blackish bars, the first
from nape through eye across cheek to lower
margin of preopercle, the second from dorsal
origin to base of pectoral, the third from below
fifth dorsal spine nearly to anus, the fourth
from base of second dorsal soft ray to first soft
anal ray, and the fifth from about the seventh
to ninth dorsal rays to below the eighth soft
anal ray; caudal peduncle usually with a nar-
row black saddle across dorsal surface extend-
ing down to about middle of sides, lower part of
caudal peduncle usually with a small spot or
short dash (sometimes the dorsal saddle is con-
nected with this spot but this character has
been found to be too variable to consider here) ;
median fins dusky, the anal with a narrow
white margin; pectoral fin translucent.
The normal or typical color mark on the
upper part of pectoral fin base (Fig. 1, B) con-
sists of a single dark spot.
Specimens in breeding colors have a distinct
lengthwise line along lower sides, below this,
body abruptly white, anal fin black basally,
often with a broad white margin; the transverse
lines on females apparently narrower than
those of males.
Variability among island groups—The spe-
cific marks that show consistent variability
along certain lines center around the pectoral
fin base, such as (1) a dark spot below pectoral
fin base, or (2) the elongation of the usual
round dark spot into a short bar. These changes
usually occur along with an increase of about
one additional ray in the dorsal, anal, or pec-
toral fins.
SCHULTZ AND WOODS: A NEW SURGEONFISH
249
Among the specimens from the Indian Ocean
and western Pacific—Marianas, Marshall, and
Samoan Island groups—only an occasional
specimen differed from the normal color pattern
of triostegus. Four out of five specimens from
Tahiti had one more pectoral fin ray on both
sides, but no color variations. One specimen
each available from the isolated Baker, Christ-
mas, and Fanning Islands were normal ftrio-
stegus.
In one-third of the Phoenix Island specimens
there occurred either an extra spot, a bar (Fig.
1, D), or an elongate spot (Fig. 1, E), and about
one-third had one more pectoral fin ray than
the average for triostegus. This may indicate a
variation in the direction of sandvicensis.
Of the six small specimens examined from the
‘Tuamotus, four had a bar across the pectoral
base (Fig. 1, D) and two had one spot, and one
specimen had an additional pectoral fin ray.
<i) ~
Fig. 1.—Diagram showing different color pat-
terns on base of pectoral fin: A, Acanthurus sand-
vicensis; B, normal A. triostegus; C, A. triostegus
marquesensis (adult); D, bar; E, elongate spot
(Phoenix Islands); F, elongate spot (in juvenile
marquesensis).
No notable difference in color pattern was
observed for examples from the American off-
shore islands of Clarion, Clipperton, and Cocos,
but half of them have an extra ray in the
pectoral fin. Jordan and Evermann (Bull. U.S.
Bur. Fish. 23 (1): 395. 1905) state: ‘““To the
Hawaiian species, Hepatus sandvicensis, belong
the specimens recorded by Jordan and Ever-
mann (U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47, pt. 2: 1690.
1898), from Clarion and Socorro Islands.’’ Our
11 specimens from Clarion have a single spot
on the pectoral base with no indication of the
extension or streak below the pectoral char-
acteristic of sandvicensis. Heller and Snod-
grass (Proc. Washington Acad. Sci. 6: 403.
1900) list 37 specimens from Cocos Island and
say: ‘All of the Revillagigedo and Cocos speci-
mens differ from Hawaiian specimens of the
very closely related Hepatus sandvicensis
250
(Streets) in lacking the black band reaching
from the base of the pectoral to the base of the
ventral. There is a dark spot on the outer side
of the base of the pectoral and in some a similar
spot below this one.”’ This is in harmony with
our findings.
Acanthurus triostegus is one of the few tropi-
cal Indo-Pacific species that crosses the East
Pacific Barrier (Ekman, 1935, pp. 105-107).
One would suppose this Eastern Pacific-
American area to be more isolated than any of
the Central Pacific island groups, yet we can
detect no significant variation. —
Acanthurus triostegus marquesensis,
n. subsp.
Hepatus triostegus Fowler, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus.
80: 10. 1932.
Holotype.—U.S.N.M. no. 89771, Marquesas
Islands, Ua Huka, September 24, 1929, Gifford
Pinchot, 84.3 mm.
Paratypes.—U.8.N.M. no. 143447, same data
as holotypes, 13 specimens, 49 to 86 mm;
C.N.H.M. nos. 23065, 23066, Marquesas Is-
lands, Nuka Hiva Island, February 7, 1929,
Crane Pacific Expedition, 2 specimens, 31 and
38 mm; C.N.H.M., nos. 23062, 23063, 23064,
Marquesas Islands, Hiva Oa Island, February
6, 1929, Crane Pacific Expedition, 3 specimens,
25.7 to 28.5 mm.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Description—(The counts and measure-
ments of the holotype are given first, the range
of variation of paratypes in parentheses, meas-
urements expressed in thousandths of the
standard length.) Dorsal rays IX, 24 (1X, 22 to
24); anal rays III, 21 (III, 19 to 21); pectoral
rays I, i, 14 (13 or 14); pelvic rays I, 5 (I, 5);
branched caudal rays upper lobe 7, lower lobe
7; teeth on one side of jaws, upper 7 (7), lower
8 (7 or 8).
Depth of body 529 (510 to 605); length of
head (tip of snout to upper edge of gill open-
ing) 312 (315 to 331); length of snout 193 (176
to 198); diameter of eye 93 (93 to 136); least
depth of caudal peduncle 109 (110 to 127);
length of pectoral fin 173 (268 to 321); postor-
bital part of head (hind margin of eye to upper
edge of gill opening) 54 (51 to 78); lower lobe of
caudal fin 284 (268 to 315), upper lobe 285 (277
to 333); interorbital width 91 (94 to 125);
length of caudal spine 32 (29 to 47; angle of
snout profile 57 (54 to 56); snout profile slightly
concave convex in young; caudal fin slightly
forked.
Color—tIn alcohol, head and body dark
brown, with five transverse narrow dark lines,
the first from nape through eye to lower margin
of preopercle, the second from origin of spiny
dorsal to axil of pectoral fin, the remaining
three as described for triostegus; dark line form-
TABLE 1.—Counts AND CoLoR CHARACTERISTICS RECORDED FOR ACANTHURUS TRIOSTEGUS AND
A. SANDVICENSIS
Dorsal rays
Species and
Locality
VIED 5 | XS Xe e222, 12 3u 4 eoe
—_— | | | OO
Acanthurus triostegus trioste-
gus:
Indian Ocean, Mauritius;
Seychelles............. — | ll Tp 6 oe | ode
Sumatra; New Guinea;
Solomons; Philippines...| — | 10| —| 1] 3] 6] —|}—
Okinawa; Japan.......... — Ts ete a AE
Guam; Marshalls......... (>) (y(n |
Niuafu; Samoa........... — Sh eh alae) ee
Phoenix Islands.......... — |11};/—;—] 1] 8] 2] —
Tahitinte emg acetate: 1 3) —)}— 1 2 1); —
Tuamotus; Mangareva;
Takaroa staan ret : : — 6) — 1 5 | —
Eastern Pacific, Clarion,
Clipperton; Cocos Is-
Acanthurus triostegus marque-
sensis:
Marquesas... 52 ohn 2s — | 14) — 2/10} 2] —
Acanthurus sandvicensis:
Hawaiian and Johnston
Tslandsiiiss\ 2 oe wae — | 32) — UN TB nay &
Coloration of
Anal rays Pectoral rays pentomllvece
T, i, | Li, 114, | One aa Two
TIL | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 49! 43'| 14 lapot} 28") spots | Streaks
12 1 1 7 3}/—|—/12,—} 10 2
10'S) | sage pede he Aka ee eae
7|— 3 3 1|;—;|;— 7); — 5 1 1
Pt Ne se Lua Ay a ST Pa Pl etal Upc Saal)
8) —}]— 5 3/—)— 6 2 7 1
11; — | — 7 4} — 10 6 | 30 | 10 Sie
Ages antes eal |e een elle (fee
6/—]|— 4 2/;— alle alut Di 2 4
14 | — 2 6 5 | — 7 Ta WA
14 |} — 1 6 7)— 10 | 24 4 15
5 | 27 32
Soe el ao eae ee
VOL. 38, NO. 7
hing
JuLy 15, 1948
ing saddle over dorsal surface of caudal pe-
duncle extending down sides of caudal peduncle
and joining with spot on lower side on one side,
lower spot separate on other side (these are
joined on at least one side in 45 paratypes,
separate on both sides in 17); holotype and
paratypes 49 to 86 mm, with a large distinct
spot below the pectoral fin base (Fig. 1, C);
young specimens 25.7 mm have a faint dark
bar about twice as long as diameter of pectoral
base, narrowing and fading ventrally but not
as long asin A. sandvicensis; in the 31-mm speci-
men the pectoral spot is conspicuous and in the
form of an elongate bar, pinched in the middle
and tapering ventrally; on one 38-mm example
the bar has completely divided into a short bar
across the base of pectoral in one side and lower
half is more or less rounded into a spot as those
of 49 to 86 mm, but on the other side the di-
vision into two parts is not quite complete
ZOOLOGY .—The tardigrade fauna of the District of Columbia.
CurtTIN,” Catholic University of America.
HARD.)
The Tardigrada constitute a group of
microscopic animals usually included, as a
class, in the phylum Arthropoda. All are
hygrophilous, but some species are re-
stricted to marine and fresh-water habitats.
Their distribution is world-wide, the num-
ber of species being greater in the sub-Arctic
than in the tropical regions. No reference to
a study of the Tardigrada of the District of
Columbia was found in the literature, but
Marcus (1929, p. 576) and Mathews (1938,
pp. 624-626) listed one species, Macrobiotus
hufelandit C. Schultze, as an inhabitant of
this area. The results of a survey conducted
by the writer in this region are contained in
this paper.
Packard (1873, p. 740) was the first to
note the presence of a tardigrade in the
United States, but his description is unfor-
tunately inadequate. A tardigrade from
1 A contribution from the Department of Bi-
ology, the Catholic University of America, Wash-
ington, D. C. This paper, prepared under the
direction of Dr. E. G. Reinhard, is based on the
author’s dissertation submitted in partial fulfill-
ment of the requirements for the degree master of
science. Received January 16, 1948.
2 Now biology instructor at Mount St. Mary’s
College, Emmitsburg, Md.
CURTIN: TARDIGRADE FAUNA OF DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
251
(Fig. 1, F). A distinct spot on pectoral fin base;
a small faint spot near lower edge of gill open-
ing, and 3 faint spots in line along side of breast,
median fins dark, the anal witha narrow white
border; pelvics dark, their outer margin and tips
pale.
Remarks—On all the Marquesas Islands
specimens occurs a large dark spot below the
pectoral fin base except in very small specimens
as described above in addition to the usual spot
on the pectoral base. Only occasional specimens
of A. triostegus triostegus from other parts of the
Pacific and Indian Oceans have this additional
spot. In the Marquesas Islands this extra spot
occurs along with a consistently higher average
number of anal and pectoral fin rays, thus
separating the new subspecies from A. frio-
stegus triostegus. Named marquesensis after the
island group where this subspecies occurs.
CHARLES B.
(Communicated by E. G. REIN-
New Gloucester, Maine, was described by
Beal (1880, p. 593). The species, however,
can not be determined with accuracy.
Mathews (1938, p. 625) stated that it fits the
description of Hypsibius augustt Murray.
To date, 14 species of Tardigrada have been
reported for the United States. Of this num-
ber, two, Batillipes mirus Richters and
Bathyechiniscus tetronyx Steiner, are ma-
rine species. The two described by Packard
and Beal are incertae sedis. None of the
species reported for the United States are
peculiar to this country as they have been
previously noted as inhabitants of other
countries.
Terrestrial Tardigrada inhabit lichens
and mosses while aquatic species may be
found on water plants. Richters (1927, pp.
1-3) noted that the tropical mosses were
poor both in species and number. In his
survey, Murray (1907, p. 515, and 1913, p.
136) listed 25 species of Tardigrada from
South Africa. The exact localities of the col-
lections were not given, but from the
regional topography the average elevation
was 4,000 feet. Teunissen (1938, pp. 6—15)
listed 1,200 meters as the lowest elevation
252
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
TABLE 1.—List oF TARDIGRADA REPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES
(compiled from papers of Marcus, Mathews, and Packard)’
Species
1. Batillipes mirus Richters
(B. caudatus Hay)
. Bathyechiniscus tetronyx G. Steiner
. Echiniscus arctomys Ehrenberg
. Echiniscus merokensis Richters
. Pseudechiniscus suillus Ehrenberg
. Macrobiotus hufelandii C. Schultze
HD Or & co bo
7. Hypsibius schaudinni Richters
8. Hypsibius prosostomus Thulin
9. Hypsibius canadensis Murray
10. Hypstbius convergens Urbanpwicz
11. Hypsibius oberhdusert Doyére
12. Milnesium tardigradum (Schrank)
13. Hypsibius augustt Murray
Locality Authority
Beaufort, N. C. W._P. Bay
California coast Mathews
Brandon, Vt.; East Troy, Wis. Mathews
San Juan Island and Longmires Springs, Wash. Mathews
Brandon, Vt.; Catalina Island, Calif. Mathews
Ephraim and East Troy, Wis.; Washington, Mathews
D. C.; Isle Royal, Mich.; San Juan Island, Marcus
Wash. Mathews
Galveston, Tex. Mathews
Isle Royal, Mich. Mathews
Catalina Island, Calif. Mathews
Niagara Falls, N. Y. Marcus
East Troy, Wis.; Catalina Island, Calif. Mathews
East Troy Wis.; Techny, Ill.; Friday Harbor Neuhaus
and San Juan Island, Wash. Mathews
SPECIES INCERTAE SEDIS
New Gloucester, Maine Beal
New Gloucester, Maine Packard
14. Hypsibius americanus Packard
at which he found Tardigrada. These eleva-
tions approximated those of the subalpine
region, and environmental conditions would
favor the support of a tardigrade fauna. De-
spite the unfavorable physiography of the
District of Columbia, foliose lichens and
water samples collected from the Rock
Creek Park, Fort Dupont Park, and the
Catholic University campus yielded 39
specimens. Two were aquatic and 37 were
terrestrial forms. These represented three
definite species and two of uncertain nature.
Table 2 lists the species and location where
the Tardigrada were obtained.
Macrobiotus hufelandii C. Schultze
1834. Macrobiotus hufelandit Schultze, Macro-
biotus Hufelandii, animal e crustaceo-
rum classe novum reviviscendi post
diuturnam asphyxiam et ariditatem
potens ... Berolini.
1895. Macrobiotus eminens Ehrenberg, Abh.
Adad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 452, pl. 2, fig.
1, A-E.
1914. Macrobiotus interruptus Della Valle, Ann.
Mus. Zool. Napoli, Suppl. 1, no. 7: 29.
Twenty-one specimens of this species were
obtained. The average length of the larger
specimens was 500u. The eyespots were black
and prominent. The cuticle of the live animals
appeared annulated with wide bands of gray-
white color separated by a thin,’ clear con-
stricted area. Typical claws present with bas-
al lunulae. Lamellae surrounded the mouth.
The pharynx was ovoid with distinct commas.
The anterior macroplacoid touched the apoph-
yses.
Milnesium tardigradum (Schrank)
Fig. 2
1803. Arctiscon tardigradum ? Schrank, Fauna
Boica 3 (1): 195.
1840. Milnesium tardigradum Doyére, Ann. Sci.
Nat., Zool. ser. 2, 14: 283.
1859. Acrophanes schlagintweitii Ehrenberg, Abh.
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1858: 451, pl. 1, fig.
1, A-F.
Fifteen specimens were obtained which were
well pigmented and of the characteristic orange-
brown color. The largest was 416u long. The
eye spots were large and black. The cephalic
palps were prominent and the wide, short buccal
TABLE 2.—TARDIGRADA FOUND IN THE DISTRICT
oF COLUMBIA
Species Locality
1. Macrobiotus hufelandii Rock Creek Park
C. Schultze
2. Milnesium tardigradum Rock Creek Park
(Schrank)
3. Hypsibius dujardini Catholic University Campus
(Doyére)
Catholic University Campus
Fort Dupont Park
4. Hypsibius sp.
5. Hypsibius sp.
F
ol
=
*
—
_ JuLy 15, 1948 CURTIN: TARDIGRADE FAUNA OF DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
tube emptied into a saclike pharynx lacking
placoids. The claws were united at the base by
a cuticular band.
Tht
Fie. 1.—Macrobiotus hufelandii, lateral view:
a, eyespot; b, cuticular depression or pearl; c, peri-
buccal lamellae; d, macroplacoids. Fig. la.—
Pharynx of M. hufelandiz: a, buccal tube; b, sty-
let; c, tooth bearer; d, apophysis; e, macroplacoid;
f, microplacoid or comma; g, pharyngeal bulb.
Fie. 2.—Milnesium tardigradum, ventral view:
a, external palp; b, lateral palp; c, eye spot; d,
pharynx.
253
Hypsibius dujardini (Doyére)
Fig. 3, 3a
Macrobiotus dujardin Doyére, Ann. Sci.
Nat., Zool., ser. 2, 14: 288.
Macrobiotus lacustris Dujardin, Ann. Sci.
Nat., Zool., ser. 3, 15: 164.
Hypsibius dujardint Thulin, Arkiv Zool.
7 (16): 33.
Of this small, transparent, aquatic form,
only a single specimen was obtained. It meas-
ured 177u. The eyespots were black and the
claws dissimilar, the basal part being short.
In the short straight buccal tube, the anterior
macroplacoid was longer than the posterior.
The cuticle appeared to be a faint gray-green
color in the abdominal region.
1840.
1851.
YU
Hypsibius species
Fig. 4
The identification is based upon a molt
which contained four ovoid eggs. These meas-
ured 22u by 39u. The length of the animal
was 162u. The claws were partially concealed
but appeared to be the Hypsibius type. The
cuticleshowed some spiny protuberances leading
to the belief it might be Hypsibius ornatus
Richters.
Hypsibius species
Fig. 5
This identification is assigned to a skin with
13 eggs obtained in a water sample. The eggs
were slightly ovoid measuring 48u by 61u. The
molt measured 168u. The claws appeared to
be of the Hypsibius type and it approximated
the description of Hypsibius dujardini (Doy-
ére). It appeared very probable that it was the
molt of this species.
Thirty-nine specimens of Tardigrada were
obtained in the survey, and duplicates have
been deposited in the United States National
Museum. Three distinct species and two of a
dubious nature were represented. Mosses were
found to be poor habitations for Tardigrada,
while foliose lichens in the Rock Creek Park
area yielded the best results. Of the 10 good
terrestrial and aquatic species reported for the
United States, two, Macrobiotus hufelandii C.
Schultze and Milnesium tardigradum (Schrank)
are inhabitants of the District of Columbia.
The range of Milnesium tardigradum (Schrank)
can now be extended to include this region.
The presence of Hypsibius dujardini (Doyére)
is the first reported occurrence of this species
for the United States. The possibility of one
254
molt being Hypsibius ornatus Richters would
add another species to the list of those that
inhabit the United States. All specimens were
found to be smaller than the average of those
reported from colder regions.
LITERATURE CITED
Brat, F. E. Tardigrades and eggs.
Nat. 14 (8): 593-594. 1880.
Doyersg, P. L. M. Mémoire sur les tardigrades.
Ann. Sci. Nat.,.Zool., ser. 2, 14: 269-361,
pls. 12-19. 1840.
Hay, W. P. A new species of bear-animalcule
from the coast of North Carolina. Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 53: 251-254. 1917.
Marcus, E. Tardigraden. In: Bronn, Klas-
sen und Ordnungen des Tier-Reichs 5 (4):
608 pp. 1929.
Amer.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
Matuews. G. Tardigrada from North
America. Amer. Mid]. Nat. 19: 619-627.
1938.
Morray, J. Some South African Tardigrada.
Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc. 1907: 515-524.
African Tardigrada. Journ. Roy.
Mier. Soe. 1913: 136-140.
PackaRD, A. Discovery of a_ tardigrade.
Amer. Nat. 7 (12): 740-741. 1873.
Ricuters, F. Tardigrada. In: Kiikenthal
und Krumbach, ‘‘Handbuch der Zoologie”’
3: 1-68. 1927.
ScHRANK, F. Fauna Boica 3: viiit+272 pp.
1803.
TEUNISSEN, R. Tardigraden. Exploratie van
het Nationaal Albert Park, pt. 16: 1-21.
1938.
oie
Fic. 3.—Hypsibius dujardini, lateral view: a, mouth; b, eyespot; c, claws.
Fic. 3a.—Pharynx of H. dujardini: a, stylet; b, macroplacoid; c, microplacoid.
Fig. 4.—Hypsibius species. Molt containing 13 eggs: a, the cuticle; b, an egg; c, a claw.
Fig. 5.—Hypsibius species. Molt containing 4 eggs: a, the cuticle; b, an egg; c, a spine; d, a claw.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY
418TH MEETING oF BoaRpD oF MANAGERS
The 418th meeting of the Board of Managers
held in the Cosmos Club, May 17, 1948, was
called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the President,
Dr. F. D. Rossrni. Others present were: H. S.
Rappueye, N. R. Smita, J. I. Horrman, F. G.
BRICKWEDDE, W. N. Fenton, W. RAMBERG,
T. D. Stewart, J. W. Aupricu, C. E. WHITE,
W. W. Russy, W. A. Dayton, C. A. BETTs,
M.A. Mason, A. O. Fostsr, C. L. Gazin, and,
by invitation, H. E. McComp, F. C. Kracrx,
L. V. Jupson, and F. THonE.
The Chairman of the Committee on Mem-
bership, H. E. McComb, presented 27 nomina-
tions for resident membership.
The Chairman of the Committee on Mono-
graphs, Dr. L. V. Jupson, reported the com-
mittee’s favorable reaction to Dr. HERBERT
FRIEDMANN’S monograph on The parasitic
birds of Africa. Upon a motion by Dr. Judson,
the Board voted to accept the bid of the Lord
Baltimore Press to publish, in buckram bind-
ing, 1,000 copies of the monograph at a cost to”
the Academy of approximately $2,100. It was
agreed that the map of North Africa recom- |
Juty 15, 1948
mended to Dr. Friedmann should be included,
raising the printing cost about $30. Dr. Judson
recommended that the price the Academy is to
charge for copies of the monograph be fixed so
that the cost of publication is returned in the
sale of half of the edition.
Dr. FRANK THONE, the Academy representa-
tive on the Joint Committee on Press Relations,
presented a report on the financial standing of
the committee which the Board voted to refer
to the Executive Committee for consideration
and recomendation. _
The Chairman of the committee appointed
to consider and make recommendations regard-
ing an index to the JouRNAL, Dr. W. N. FEn-
TON, presented a report which was also referred
to the Executive Committee for consideration
and recommendation.
The Secretary reported the result of the bal-
lot submitted to the membership regarding the
change in the Bylaws proposed at the 417th
meeting of the Board: 1. Amendment to create
office of President-elect (Yes, 254; No. 10). 2.
Amendment to increase permitted number of
THE 1947 ACADEMY AWARDS
255
active members (Yes, 251; No. 13). Total bal-
lots cast, 264.
The Secretary announced the death of AL-
BERT FRED Woops, an original member, on
April 12, 1948.
The Board approved the following changes
in the Standing Rules proposed at the 417th
meeting:
Section 3, third sentence, replace by—
“The Committee on Membership, Meetings,
Grants-in-Aid for Research, and each of the Sub-
committees of the Committee on Awards for Sci-
entific Achievement shall include, if possible, at
least two members reappointed from the preced-
ing year. The Committee on Monographs shall
have six members, each appointed for three years
at the rate of two each year. At least three mem-
bers of the Committee on Monographs shall be
past editors of the JouRNAL, if possible.”
New Section S, second sentence, replace by—
‘“‘A candidate must be a member of the Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences or a resident member of
one of the Affiliated Societies and shall not have
passed the 40th anniversary, etc....”
The meeting was adjourned at 10:40 P.M.
C. L. Gazin, Secretary -
THE 1947 ACADEMY AWARDS FOR SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENT
As encouragement to younger scientists
the Washington Academy of Sciences makes
three annual Awards for Scientific Achieve-
ment to members of the Academy or resi-
dent members of the affiliated societies— ©
one in the Biological Sciences, one in the
Engineering Sciences, and one in the Physi-
cal Sciences.
Only two awards were made for 1947.
The winners were Robert DeWitt Huntoon,
of the National Bureau of Standards, in the
Physical Sciences; and Harry Warren Wells,
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
in the Engineering Sciences. The awards
were made at the regular meeting of the
Academy at the Cosmos Club on the eve-
ning of March 18, 1948. Dr. Huntoon’s
citation was “in recognition of his distin-
guished service in the advancement of
electronics and its applications to other
sciences and to modern ordnance.” Mr.
Wells’s was ‘“‘in recognition of his distin-
guished upper-air research and organization
of a world-wide network of ionospheric sta-
tions.”’
RoBertT DEW1tTT HUNTOON
Dr. Huntoon was born at Waterloo,
Iowa, on July 20, 1909. After obtaining his
B.A. degree from Iowa State Teachers Col-
lege in 1932, he began graduate work at the
State University of Iowa, receiving his
M.S. degree in 1935 and his Ph.D. in 1988.
During this time he also served as graduate
teaching assistant (1933-35) and research
assistant in the University’s department of
physics (1935-38). Leaving Iowa, he be-
came instructor in physics at New York
University (1938-40), then research physi-
cist with the Hygrade Sylvania Corporation
(Sylvania Electric Products, Inc.) at Em-
porium, Pa. (1940-41), and in 1941 joined
the staff of the National Bureau of Stand-
ards to work on electronic ordnance devices.
In 1944-45 he served as expert consultant
to the Office of the Secretary of War, but
256
returned to the Bureau to become chief of
the Basic Research Section, Ordnance De-
velopment Division, and later chief of the
Electronics Section. At present he is assist-
ant chief of the Atomic Physics Division.
RoBErRT DEW1TT HuNTOON
In addition to the Academy Award, Dr.
Huntoon is the recipient of two other dis-
tinguished recognitions of his abilities: A
Naval Ordnance Development Award and
a War Department Certificate of Apprecia-
tion, both in 1946. He is a member of the
American Physical Society, the Philosophi-
cal Society of Washington, the Institute of
Radio Engineers (senior member), Sigma
Xi, and Kappa Delta Pi.
Harry WARREN WELLS
Mr. Wells is a native of Washington,
D. C., where he was born on January 13,
1907. He received the B.S. degree in elec-
trical engineering in 1928 and the E.E. de-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 7
gree in 1937 from the University of Mary-
land. Between 1928 and 1932 he was associ-
ated with the Westinghouse Electric &
Manufacturing Co., the All-American Ma-
laysian Expedition to Borneo, Heintz &
Kaufman, Ltd., and the Army Air Forces.
He has been a member of the scientific staff
of the Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism, Carnegie Institution of Washing-
ton, since 1932. His investigations, both
here and abroad, have contributed mate-
rially to knowledge of the ionosphere, radio
wave propagation, and related geophysical
subjects.
Mr. Wells is a member of the Committee
on Wave Propagation and Utilization of the
Harry WARREN WELLS
Institute of Radio Engineers and is a senior
member of that Institute. His other profes-
sional affiliations include the Washington
Academy of Sciences, the American Geo-
physical Union, and the Philosophical Soci-
ety of Washington.
.
_ Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences
De eoat we eeeeesseceeeeees FREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards
ee Lewis Gazin, U. 8; National Museum
Se POGSUPEN 6 occ s koe eos e ch cess HOWARD ©. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey
RA TENMMUSGE 6 Sa. ce oe ect we ee eee ess NATHAN R, SmituH, Plant Industry. Station
Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications............2+00cceceeeeeecees
Beles «S Bee ree os oes Ses ook ae ss os ARALD A.’ Renper, U.S: National Museum
Bx Vice-Presidents Representing the A filiated Socteties:
Philosophical Society of Washington....................... WALTER RAMBERG
Anthropological Society of Washington....................1. Dae Stewart
% Biological Society of Washington...............++ee+.++++++-JOHN W. ALDRICH
-— Chemical Society of Washington.......................+.-+CHARLES E. WHITE
Entomological Society of Washington...................C. F. W. MussEesrecx
ae National Geographic Society.................++++++..+-ALEXANDER WETMORE
ie Geological Society of Washington..................+.+.+++ WILLIAM W. RuBEyY
ape Medical Society of the District of Columbia................FREDERICK O. Coz
ek Columbia Historical Society.............222+++e+22++e++ GILBERT GROSVENOR
Botanical Society of Washington. .............2.eeeeee0++++ RONALD BAMFORD
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters........ Wituram A. Dayton
Washington Society of Engineers................+..+...-+CLIFFORD A. BETTS
_ Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...............
=s See ee bat salon Mae te wie alate ck sine acu e dae 3 os sis «=f RANCIS B; SILSBEE
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers...............
oe ee eae ees isiii na etre hha s oe wk he pik uaa die ose Ca MARTIN A.: MASON
Helminthological Society of Washington....................AUREL O. Foster
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists......Lor=e A. RocErRs
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. Crmment L. GARNER
: - Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.....H=RBERT Grove DorsEyY
y Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers.....QwEN B. FRENcH
a Elected Members of the Board of Managers:
"~~ To January 1949...................-.- Max A. McCati, Watpo L. Scumirtr
- To January 1950....................-.F. G. BRICKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DIEHL
To January 1951...............FRANcIS M. DreFranporr, ‘Wituram N. Fenton
Board of Managers....................All the above officers plus the Senior Editor
Board of Editors and Associate Editors.............000+++++e+++...[pee front cover]
oe _ Executive Commitiee.........FREDERICK D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG,
nah veseeeeeesees.s.. WALDO L, Scumitr, Howarp 8. Raprieye, C. Lewis GazIN
ie re.
__ Haroutp E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Butz, C. WytHe Cooxn, WILLIAM
——— gaeeeees. W. Dient, Luoyp D, Fetton, REGINA FLANNERY, GEORGE G. MAnov
piieddikitee on Meetings..........2++0.2+0e000++++RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman),
sg es ee» FRANK P. CULLINAN, FRED L. Mounier, Francis O. Ricz, Frank THONS
Commitiee on Monographs:
To January 1949...........Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN
- To January 1950.................... ROLAND W. Brown, Harautp A. REHDER
Peo wandary 1951 : . ote. 5. 6. se WILLIAM N. FENTON, Emmett W. Price
ae on Awards for ‘Scioniific Achievement (Karu F. HERzFELD, general chairman):
TES Se Oe ae ee eee
C, F. W. Mursespeck (chairman), Harry 8S. BERNTON, CHESTER W. Emmons,
Eimer Hicerns, Marto Mouiari, GorrHoLp STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum
_ For the Engineering Sciences............... Se ee lara fastens uw Skea aaa aa disse os a
Sa. Harry Driamonpd (chairman), Luoyp V. BeRKNER, Rospert C. DuNcAN,
‘ Herpert N. Eaton, Arno C, FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScHEETZ, W. D. Surcuirrs
te rea ir tf ro ts ce wid bee ve oe a
Karu F. Herzretp (chairman), NatHan L. Drakes, Liuoyp D. FELTon,
HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. Rooney, Ropert Simu4, MIcHAEt X. SULLIVAN
“Committee on ce letERe eae ERI SEAN ek cite a we Fo So Wee SF dees tee
..F, H. H. Ropsrts, Jr. ee Anna E. JENKINS, J. Lton SHERESHEVSKY
__ Representative on Council of A. A. A. S. Pe een PN a aan TRON
SIRES. a SS ee ee an ee
_ Wii1am G. BromBacHEr (chairman), Haroup F. Stimson, Herpert L. HAuuer
_ Committee of Tellers... .. 2.6... see e esses eee e eet sen eee nese eee nes eae eae
_...JoHN W. McBournoy (chairman), Roger G. Bates, WitLiaM A. WILDHACK
CONTENTS
ARCHEOLOGY.—Florida archeology and recent ecological changes.
JOHN M. GOGGIN: 2 32 Fan aeons a) eee i Aa a aca aa
CHEMISTRY.—Purification of uranium oxide. JAMESI. HorFMAN ....
Borany.—Notes in North American Leguminosae. FRrEpeErRick J.
TIER MANN 30) Sh a ls Oe A ee ea
Myco.Logy.—T wo new species of Physarum. G. W. MaArTIN.......
ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles
of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 5: Keys to tribes and genera.
LAWRENCE Wo SASLOR Soo). Le ie en
EntTomo.Locy.—The Herbert H. Smith collection of South American
Chalcidoidea described by W. H. Ashmead. A.B. GAHAN......
ORNITHOLOGY.—Continental races of the bulbul Pycnonotus dispar
(Horsfield)..: Hi. G.’ DRIGNAN S25) hae te oe eee a
IcHTHYOLOGY.—Acanthurus triostegus marquesensis, a new subspecies
of surgeonfish, family Acanthuridae, with notes on related forms.
LEeonarD P. Scouttz and Loren P. Woops..................
ZooLtoGy.—The tardigrade fauna of the District of Columbia.
Ciarnces B: Cuntin, 260.500. Seiko, ae er
PROCEEDINGS: THE |ACADEMY oo.) ) OS aS Oe ee eee
- Tur 1947 AcADEMy AWARDS FOR SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENT........
Tus JOURNAL I8 INDEXED IN THE INTERNATIONAL INDEX TO PERIODICALS
Page
225
233
236
238
240
243
245
‘ ee eT
KS ee © 4. se ee err Pe ee
ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee
= “ad
i hel elite Bes sae
4
‘
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4
"BOARD OF EDITORS :
ee Srone ht - Franx C. Kracex
aes he ‘BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY 4
: hy haa PLANT QUARANTINE ©
Ran Fe geo ae
: si ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Woop 3 _- Riemarp E. BLACK WELDER
[ETY Le | ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
me it 5 ; e
iy be, nr) aie cl _ James S. WILLIAMS
poate. Plc) hs GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
ae . Waxpo R. WEDEL
Mae dor tee | ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
aoe ee Tr C. ScHooxover
Ph ae | CHEMICAL SOCIETY
~~
| PUBLISHED MONTHLY
: BYTEB Bes!
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
f,
450 AHNAIP Sr.
A Menasna, Wisconsin
; |
ae nS e = * Z Me
fy
.c under er the _ of August a 1912, at t Menasha, Wis.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JouURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes:
(1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; ‘3
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 38
Avaeust 15, 1948
No. 8
ETHNOLOGY .—Utilization of marine life by the Wampanoag Indians of Mas-
sachusetits.1\ FRANK G. SpEcK, University of Pennsylvania, and Ratpu W.
DeExtTeER, Kent State University.
Coastal Indians have always possessed a
unique advantage. Marine resources have
been at their disposal for use in many ways,
especially for food. Undoubtedly marine
foods played the most important part in the
diet of these aboriginals as indicated by
numerous prehistoric shell heaps, and_also
by the persistence to the present day of the
use of marine animals by the living descend-
ants of the shell-heap builders. The writers
have made a study of the use of marine life,
with special reference to the marine inverte-
brates, by the Wampanoag Indians living
at Mashpee on Cape Cod and at Gay Head
on Marthas Vineyard. Information ob-
tained from informants? portrays the use of
marine life from about 1850 to the present.
This is correlated with published records on
the contents of shell heaps which have been
excavated in the region.
A preliminary survey was made at
Mashpee and Gay Head in August 1940. In
1946 a concentrated study was made in the
Mashpee area (including Herring Pond).
In 1947 a brief revisit to this area and a
concentrated study with the Gay Head
group was undertaken. Table 1 summarizes
=
* Received April 20, 1948. To the Faculty Re-
search Fund (Grant no. 594), University of
Pennsylvania, the senior author is indebted for
financial support of this Wampanoag Ethnological
project.
2 We are grateful to the following informants:
From the Mashpee group: Mr. and Mrs. William
Sturgis, Marshall Jeffers, Edward Amos, Fred
Gardner, Mr. and Mrs. Ambrose Pells, and
Clinton Haynes. From the Herring Pond group:
Mrs. Josephine Webquish, Mrs. Ella Hirsh
Grover, and Howard Hirsh. From the Gay Head
group: Linus Jeffers, Mr. and Mrs. William Ryan,
Harry Vanderhoop, Mr. and Mrs. Jerry Diamond,
Grover Ryan, and Eva Ryan.
(Communicated by WILLIAM N. FENTON.)
the marine life known to have been used by
the Wampanoag, and compares marine
forms cited by living Indians with marine
life collected in the vicinity and with re-
mains recovered from local shell heaps.
Byers and Johnson (1940) characterize
the Wampanoag as “a rather undeveloped
fishing and hunting people” and say that
‘“‘shellfish were the principal part of their
diet.” Earlier, Chase (1885) stated that
they were “‘largely dependent for food upon
the fish and shellfish which they caught at
the mouth of streams and sheltered bays.”
In reporting an early journey of Edward
Winslow and Stephen MHopkins_. with
Squanto from Plymouth to Narragansett
Bay, Miller (1880) described the travelers
meeting Indians ‘“‘with baskets of roasted
crab fishes and other dried shell fish.’’ They
also encountered Indians fishing for bass at
a weir on the Taunton River, and “at
Mattapoiset they ate oysters and other
fish.’’ Miller also pointed out that ‘‘as soon
as the shores were clear of snow and ice, in
the spring, they would naturally flock to
them, for shellfish, and watch for the
coming of the early sea fish.”’ The abundant
shell heaps of coastal Massachusetts leave
no doubts as to the importance of marine
life, especially the mollusks, in the economy
of the aboriginals. There is also evidence
that the Indians of the interior journeyed
to the coast to obtain shellfish, which were
smoked or dried for winter use.
The salt-water ponds, inlets, and bays
along the shore have provided sea foods for
these people for many centuries. Squib-
nocket Pond at Marthas Vineyard is no
longer connected with the sea, but Guernsey
(1916) presented evidence that the Indians
257
258
had opened it to the sea with a channel way
for the purpose of introducing marine fish
and shellfish. Such ponds as Menemsha
Pond and Tisbury Pond still furnish them
with food. In August 1947, the junior writer
accompanied Linus Jeffers of the Gay Head
band on a trip into Menemsha Pond for the
collection of shellfish, and notes were taken
on the marine life available there for com-
parison with archeological records and re-
cent ethnological information on the use of
such marine organisms in past and recent
times by the inhabitants of Gay Head.
Fresh-water ponds such as Mashpee Pond,
and Herring Pond have long provided an
abundance of such fishes as the alewife or
fresh-water herring. While the sea foods
once formed the bulk of their diet, and ma-
rine animals were adapted for many uses in
their culture, the Wampanoag have gradu-
ally become less and less dependent upon
marine resources, although they are still
important as items of food. The ethnic
character of these people has been described
by Speck (1928).
Of all the marine invertebrates utilized
by the Wampanoag, the pelecypods or bi-
valve mollusks have been of the greatest
importance. Many species were common
items of food, some were used in tempering
clay for pottery, and some were used for
beads, scrapers, and ornaments. The oyster
(Ostrea virginica) was at one time a staple
food. This mollusk lived in Menemsha
Pond, and other salt-water ponds at Gay
Head, and probably in sheltered bays along
the southern shore of Cape Cod. In recent
times this species has become scarce in the
locality of this study. Efforts have been
made by present day Indians to reintroduce
the oyster into the salt-water ponds at Gay
Head without success, so that now it is ob-
tained only through commercial sources. In
former times, however, the oyster was un-
doubtedly fished in large quantities and
eaten frequently, as attested by the great
bulk of oyster shells found in many of the
excavated shell heaps. In modern times
they are stored by spreading them over a
basement floor with the deep shell down
and sprinkled with corn meal, or packed in
seaweed in a cool, dark place.
Equally important as the oyster was the
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
bay scallop (Pecten itrradians). This shell-
fish was also obtained from the salt-water
ponds and inlets, and today still ranks first
among local food mollusks. As in the case
of the oyster, shell heaps reveal a large con-
sumption of this bivalve. Some shell heaps
are largely oyster shells; others are largely
scallop shells. At times the two are mixed,
and at other times there are alternating
layers of the two species. The latter case
may indicate fluctuations of abundance of
these mollusks from one time to another, or
the greater availability of one over the
other at certain seasons. Besides food, scal-
lops were used in the manufacture of pot-
tery. Byers and Johnson (1940) found that
“By far the greatest number of sherds are
tempered with scallop shell.’”’ An interesting
superstition of recent times among the
Gay Head Indian people is the belief that
domestic cats, which eat the rim of the
scallop (edge of the mantle containing the
eyes), have their ears rot off in a short time.
The quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria)
ranks third in importance in the all-time
list, although in recent times it shares with
the scallop the honor of first place. Quahog
shells are abundant in the shell heaps, and
today it is the commonest clam consumed
in the area. They are obtained by treading
in shallow water and by the use of quahog
rakes in deeper water. They are stored by
spreading out on cool basement floors. In
addition to steaming and frying, they are
used in clam chowder, clam fritters, and
clam pie. They have also been used for bait
although less valuable shellfish are now
substituted for that purpose. In pre-historic
and proto-historic times purple wampum or
beads were cut from the purple nacre of the
quahog shells. Chase (1885) found quahog
shells perforated in such a manner as to
suggest they had been strung in the form
of a necklace.
The soft-shelled clam (Mya arenaria) is
another common bivalve that has been in
use over a long period of time, but this
species is no longer as important on the
south shore of Massachusetts as it is and
has long been along the coast north of Cape
Cod, where it is more abundant and where
the quahog or hard-shelled clam does not
live in any significant quantity. South of
TABLE 1.—MARINE ORGANISMS UTILIZED BY THE WAMPANOAG INDIANS
[Allinvertebrates are listed by Sumner, Osburn, and Cole (1913) and fishes by Bigelow and Welch (1925) for the region. 1, Collected
from Menemsha Bight by Lee (1944). 2, Collected from Menemsha Pond by Dexter and Jeffers. 3, Found in Marthas Vineyard shell-
heaps by Byers and Johnson. 4, Found in Nantucket shellheaps by Bullen and Brooks.
5, Reported by Wampanoag informants from Mashpee and Gay Head.]
ALGAE:
Fucus vesiculosis, rock seaweed
Ascophyllum nodosum, rock seaweed
Chondrus crispus, Irish moss
PELECYPODA:
Argina campechiensis pexata, combed ark
Ostrea virginica, oyster - +
Pecten irradians, bay scallop
P. grandis, deep sea scallop
Anomia simplex, jingle shell
Mytilus edulis, blue mussel
Volsella demissa, ribbed mussel
Mercenaria mercenaria, quahog
Ensis directus, razor clam
Spisula solidissima, sea clam
Tagelus gibbus
Mya arenaria, soit-shelled clam
GASTROPODA:
Polwnices heros, sand-collar snail
P.. duplicata, sand-collar snail
Crepidula fornicata, boatshell _
Iuttorina littorea, English periwinkle
Urosalpinx cinereus, oyster drill
Nassarius trivittata, sand snail +
N. obsoletus, mud snail
Buccinum undatum, English whelk
Busycon canaliculatum, pear conch
B. carica, pear conch
CEPHALOPODA:
Loligo pealii, squid
ARACHNOIDEA:
Limulus polyphemus, horseshoe crab =
CRUSTACEA:
Balanus balanoides, rock barnacle
B. eburneus (?), ivory barnacle +
Homarus americanus, lobster
Cancer irroratus, rock crab +
Callinectes sapidus, blue crab
Carcinides maenas, green crab
Uca spp., fiddler crabs
PIscEs:
Squalus acanthias, spiny dogfish =
Raja spp., skates
Acipenser sp., sturgeon
Anguilla bostoniensis, eel
Pomolobus pseudo-harengus, alewife
Osmerus mordax, smelt
Scomber scombrus, mackerel
Pomatomus saltatrizx, bluefish
Roccus sazxatilis, striped bass
Morone americana, white perch
Centropristes striatus, sea bass
Stenatomus chrysops, porgy
Tautogolabrus adspersus, cunner
Tautoga onitis, tautog a5
Opsanus tau, toadfish
Merluccius bilinearis, whiting
Gadus morhua, cod
Pseudopleuronectes americanus, flounder
REPTILIA:
Sea turtles
MAMMALIA:
Physeter catodon, sperm whale
Globicephala ventricosa blackfish
Porpoise
Phoca vitulina, harbor seal
Halichoerus grypus, gray seal
++
+++
+++
++
SPLG ape Sentence be ce
Se AP ueI ate A Sine Mame icon het er eat
++++++
+
++ +++ 44+ 44+ 4+ 4
+++
+ ot+ttteetteettt+ ++ Ft+t+e+ + + + +44
-+
++
++ 4+
260
Cape Cod the quahog is now the most valu-
able of the clams. The soft-shelled clam
has, however, been used for the same
general purpose as the quahog—steaming,
frying, chowder, fritters, pie—but in this
case the stomach of the soft-shelled clam is
usually removed because of its size and soft
texture. This species is not stored because
of its poor keeping qualities. It has also been
used for bait. After the hurricane and tidal
wave of 1938, the soft-shelled clams practi-
cally disappeared from the shores of
Menemsha Pond. It is believed that they
were buried and smothered. In any case
this recent and sudden disappearance sug-
gests that similar natural phenomena may
be the explanation for variations in the
composition of shells in the local kitchen
middens from one period of accumulation
to another. Byers ‘and Johnson (1940) ex-
plained in part the variations in the com-
position of shell heaps studied by them as
a function of the ease of obtaining certain
species at certain times. Molluscan popu-
lations are known to fluctuate in abundance
from time to time to a great degree, some-
times in a cyclical pattern. Some observa-
tions of this nature have been published by
Dexter (1944). Over long periods of time
the ecological balance may change dras-
tically. Thus, for example, in 1931-32 the.
eelgrass completely disappeared from Me-
nemsha Pond as it did in nearly all other
localities along the Eastern Seaboard as the
result of a wasting disease. There is evi-
dence that eelgrass decline has been peri-
odic. According to Linus Jeffers the eel-
grass returned to Menemsha Pond in 1945.
A note on the status of eelgrass in this pond
in the summer of 1947 and its relation to
the mollusks there has been published by
Dexter (1947). Such drastic changes in the
natural resources and the consequences of
an upset ecological balance are bound to be
reflected in the economy of a people who
depend wholly or largely on local resources
such as the Wampanoag did at one time.
Periodic failure of marine populations may
account for such conditions as reported by
Miller (1880) who wrote that “this lack
of food at Massasoit’s home indicates a pre-
carious state of subsistence with the
Indians.”
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 8
The sea clam or hen clam (Spisula solidis- |
sima) has been used for chowder and some-
times for clam pie, after being finely —
chopped up, but for little else because of
its tough texture. It has been used exten-
sively, however, for bait, especially for
taking codfish. These clams are dug at low
water during the perigee tides. The shells
were formerly used for hoes and scrapers.
Several other species of bivalves have also
been used occasionally for food, but pri-
marily for bait. These include the blue mus-
sel (Mytilus edulis), the razor clam (Ensis
directus), and the ribbed mussel (Volsella
demissa). The intertidal bivalves were dug
out of the muds and sands during times of
low tide. In places where the sediments
were unusually soft, making standing and |
walking difficult, the Indians sat down and
slid over the flats to obtain the shellfish.
Oysters, scallops, and quahogs are some-
times eaten raw. Possibly this practice was
more common in older times. In the past
century shellfish have been prepared by
steaming, frying, stewing, and baking. At
one time they were fried in skunk, ground-
hog, and bird grease. In recent times the
shells of bivalves have been burned and
used for liming the soil.
One bivalve, the common jingle shell
(Anomia simplex), played a part in local
(Gay Head) Wampanoag fables and myths,
in which the shells are referred to as
“Granny Squanit’s toe nails.” These were
doubtless used as toys for children because
of their bright golden and silver colors and
the jingle sounds which they make. On the
Chesapeake Bay region the modern Indians
string them to make necklaces for their
costumes.
Two species of bivalves were recovered
from the Vineyard Shell Heap by Byers and
Johnson (1940) for which no special use is
known. They are Tagelus gibbus and the
combed ark shell, Argina campechiensis
pexata. Not many have been recovered, and
since they are subtidal forms, they may
have been acquired only incidentally along
with the collection of common food mol-
lusks. One species which has been used only
in recent times is the deep-sea scallop (Pec-
ten grandis) which the aboriginal inhabi-
tants doubtless had no means of securing.
|
|
_ Aua. 15, 1948 spECK & DEXTER: MARINE LIFE AND WAMPANOAG INDIANS
It is interesting that fresh-water clams,
common in Mashpee Pond, and probably
in others as well, never seem to have been
utilized either in former or in recent times.
Many of the present-day Indians believe
them to be poisonous, and the easily avail-
able and more palatable marine clams left
the fresh-water forms without value.
The marine gastropods or snails also
played a leading part in the economy of the
Wampanoag. The winkles or pear conchs
(Busycon canaliculatum and B. carica) were
ground up, made into a paste, and eaten on
bread. A hash and a chowder were also pre-
pared by boiling the chopped snails with
vegetables. These snails were also used for
bait, and the largest of the shells were used
for trumpets. White wampum was manu-
factured from the columella of these shells.
The sand collar snails (Polinices heros and
P. duplicata) and, in recent times at least,
the whelk (Buccinum undatum), were like-
wise utilized for food and bait. Boatshells
(Crepidula fornicata) have long been eaten
and are commonly called ‘‘sweetmeats.”
Three species of snails, the sand snail (Nas-
sarius trivittata), the mud snail (NV. obsole-
tus), and the oyster drill (Urosalpinz
cinereus) have been found in shell heaps,
but there is no evidence as to the nature of
their use, if any. The last species named
probably reached the refuse piles acciden-
tally on the shells of oysters through which
it drills to obtain its food. The other two
species may also have been collected inci-
dentally when the food mollusks were
gathered.
It is not clear as to what species Chase
(1885) refers to by the name of ‘‘periwinkle”’
which he found in Wampanoag shell heaps.
Besides having found them in shell deposits,
some of the shells perforated for stringing,
he reported on a skeleton discovered in
South Wellfleet with a necklace consisting
of ‘‘a double row of common periwinkles.”
Chase (1885), Byers and Johnson (1940),
and Bullen and Brooks (1947) all reported
finding small clusters of land snails among
the marine shells. Some of these land shells
may have been eaten by the natives and
possibly some may have been strung for
ornaments. However, Ingram (1944) has
described the underground storage of land
261
snails by shrews, which behavior should not
be overlooked as a possible explanation for
the occurrence of such shells in kitchen
middens. The two species recovered by
Byers and Johnson (1940) and Bullen and
Brooks (1947) are among those cited by
Ingram in his study. Also, the notation by
Byers and Johnson (ibid.) that recent shells
of a third species of a land snail were found
in the heaps indicates without question
that they were deposited by some subter-
ranean animal, and very possibly by a
shrew.
Fig. 1.—Basket made from shells of the horse-
shoe crab by Grover Ryan of the Gay Head band.
Drawing made by Ernest 8S. Dodge. Specimen in
collection of Peabody Museum of Salem.
In recent times a new species has been
added to the fauna of the Eastern Seaboard
which has been utilized by the modern
Wampanoag. The English periwinkle (Lizt-
torina littorea), which was introduced into
North America at the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
spread southward very rapidly. According
to Morse (1880), this snail was collected at
Barnstable on Cape Cod Bay in large quan-
tities in 1875. That year it was rare at
Woods Hole on the southern shore of Cape
Cod, but by the following year it had be-
come a common species there. These were
eaten by the coastal Wampanoag as boiled
snails and, after being cooked with vege-
tables, in the form of hash.
Present-day Indians also eat the common
squid (Loligo pealzz), a cephalopod mollusk.
We have no information as to how far back
262
in time this practice extended. The internal
pen or skeleton of this animal would not
likely remain preserved in rubbish heaps.
Although the horseshoe crab (Limulus
polyphemus), one of the most primitive
forms of arthropods alive, goes untouched
today, it was used extensively in the nine-
teenth century, if not earlier. First of all it
was an item of food. It was boiled and the
ege’s or roe were eaten much as lobster eggs
were eaten at one time. Some also ate the
meat from the legs. Then too the shells were
used as boat bailers. Other shells, matched
for size, were tied together rim to rim
to make baskets (Fig. 1). The tails were
used as needles and awls. They were also
SSS
Fig. 2.—Spear made from tail of the horse-
shoe crab by Jerry Diamond of the Gay Head
band. Nearly natural size. Drawing made by Er-
nest 8. Dodge. Specimen in collection of Peabody
Museum of Salem.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
fastened on sticks and used as improvised
spears by hunters wading at low tide in
shoal water, for the capture of bottom
fishes, especially the flounder (Fig. 2).
Finally, the chelicerae of the males were
saved, polished with repeated rubbing, and
carried as good-luck charms. These were
commonly called “‘lucky bones” (Fig. 3).
Fie. 3.—‘‘Lucky bones,” or chelicerae of the
horseshoe crab. Natural size. Drawing made by
L. R. Tcherky. Specimens in collection of Pea-
body Museum of Salem.
One informant (Ambrose Pells) reported
that he has eaten rock barnacles (Balanus
balanoides). It is known that in certain areas
where large species of barnacles grow they
are used to prepare a stew, especially when
they are filled with eggs. Probably barnacles
were little used by the Massachusetts
Indians, however, except possibly as an
emergency food. Byers and Johnson (1940)
list what is believed to be the ivory bar-
nacle (Balanus eburneus) from a shell heap
excavated by them. This is a subtidal spe-
cies, and without question owes its presence
in the shell heap to the fact that 1t was at-
tached to a mollusk shell and hence was
collected only incidentally. Other crusta-
ceans, on the other hand, have been valu-
able items in the food of the Wampanoag.
The lobster (Homarus americanus) has long
been a choice sea food. It was reported by
Mrs. Bessie Sturgis that her husband’s
grandfather was known to capture lobsters
with an iron hook in the 1840’s and 1850’s.
These he placed in a back-basket of woven
ash while he continued to fish out more of
Ave. 15, 1948
them from the sand and among the rocks.
Later the Indians adopted the white man’s
method of using lobster pots. For the latter,
skate slash was used as bait, the skates
being taken by spearing them from a boat
with a single-barbed iron spear. Crabs were
also captured for food, usually by spearing.
The blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) has been
the most valuable one, but green crabs
(Carcinides maenas) and rock crabs (Cancer
irroratus) have been eaten somewhat as
well as being used for bait. The fiddler
crabs (Uca spp.) have been used for bait
only. ;
In spite of the large number of marine
invertebrates that have been utilized in one
form or another by the Wampanoag, no in-
dication has ever been made of using the
echinoderms, the only major group of
marine animals for which no information
on utility is available. While the white man
who settled and has lived on the coast of
North America has likewise neglected pos-
sible uses of the echinoderms, Europeans
have long relished the food value of the sea-
urchins, and the sea-cucumbers are eaten
in the Far East.
The marine vertebrates, especially the
fishes, have also been a very important
group in the economy of the Wampanoag
people. The most valuable one was the ale-
wife (Pomolobus pseudo-harengus), more
commonly called locally the fresh-water
herring. This should not be confused with
the true herring (Clupea harengus). The
fresh-water herring is an anadromous fish,
penetrating into fresh-water ponds from the
sea for spawning. It was at such times of
migration that the Indians caught them in
great quantities and preserved them for
future use. Smoked herring was a stable
winter food on Cape Cod for many years.
During the “run” of the herring, nets were
placed in the streams leading to the breed-
ing ponds. The nets were made of twine
with a mesh two fingers in width. Only the
fingers were and still are used in measuring
the mesh, not a wooden gauge. One type of
net was square with the corners and center
tied to a pole which served to lift the net
from the water. Stone sinkers were attached
to submerge the nets. Notched sinkers have
been recovered from a number of excava-
SPECK & DEXTER: MARINE LIFE AND WAMPANOAG INDIANS
263
tions, and Byers and Johnson (1940) re-
ported that such sinkers are still in use to-
day at Gay Head. The herring were salted
on the streambank at the time of collection
and placed in barrels for four days. They
were then dried for three days, after which
they were smoked in a smoke house. The
fish were suspended on a stick pushed
through the eyes, with a dozen or so spaced
on one stick. White oak, sugar maple, and
sweet fern were burned to produce the
smoke. At one time a thousand barrels were
taken each season from the Mashpee River.
A generation ago each family at Mashpee
consumed on the average 300 smoked her-
ring a year. Today the average is no more
than two or three dozen. In recent times
herring have been smoked by Edward
Amos, Tom and Russell Mingo, and George
Avant at Mashpee. The first named is the
only one continuing the practice today. As
far as can be learned, fresh-water herring
were never smoked at Gay Head.
The eel (Anguilla bostoniensis) was
speared in shallow water and salted for
preservation. Chase (1885) mentioned that
the Indians at Mashpee sought the eels at
night from a canoe with the aid of a torch.
The flatfish or flounder (Pseudopleuronectes
americanus) and the striped bass (Roccus
saxatilis) were speared with the tail of a
horseshoe crab attached to a stick as men-
tioned earlier, or with a stick having a
short, sharp side branch at the bottom
which served as a barb. Codfishing has been
pursued off No Man’s Land for many years
and continues to the present time, although
to a much less extent in recent years. In
addition to the flesh, the liver and the
sounds (air sacs) are boiled for food. When
fish chowder is made, the sounds are left in
the fish. The roe is fried. Lucky bones (prob-
ably otoliths) were formerly obtained from
the head of the cod and carried as a charm.
Mrs. Bessie Sturges of Mashpee recalls her
grandfather, George Oakley, carrying two
such lucky bones. The liver of the spiny
dogfish (Squalus acanthias) was collected
for extraction of oil for lamps. Fred Gardner
claims that toadfish or puffer (Opsanus tau)
was given to sick people to eat because it
was believed to be very easily digested.
Other fishes in the diet of the Wampanoag
264
include the following: Skates (Raja spp.);
smelt (Osmerus mordax); mackerel (Scomber
scombrus); bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) ;
white perch (Morone americana); sea bass
(Centropristes striatus); porgy (Stenatomus
chrysops); cunner, or choksi (tcdékse), as it
is called by the Wampanoag (T'autogolabrus
adspersus); tautog (Tautoga onitis); and
whiting (Merluccius bilinearis). Miscellane-
ous and unidentified fish bones have been
found in many of the shell heaps which have
been studied. Remains of one fish have been
found in these refuse piles which no longer
lives in the area—Byers and Johnson (1940)
uncovered scales of a sturgeon (Aczpenser
sp.). Fish weirs were built in shallow water
with nets having notched stone sinkers tied
to them for anchorage. Guernsey (1916)
quotes from the Massachusetts Historical
Collections which describe another method
of capturing fish by the Wampanoag as
follows. A passage was opened from the sea
to Great Pond (now called Squibnocket
Pond). Hurdles were sunk to the bottom of
the connecting channel in a horizontal posi-
tion. After the fish had entered the pond,
the hurdles were raised to prevent the es-
cape of the fish, which were then sought by
spearing from canoes in the shallow water
of the pond.
Rock seaweeds (Fucus vesiculosis, As-
cophyllum nodosum) have been used for
keeping the catch of marine animals cool
and moist until they were ready for use.
This practice is continued today at Glouces-
ter by the world’s largest distributor of
lobsters, who ships live lobsters all over
North America packed in barrels of rock
seaweeds. Also, these algae have long been
used as packing materials for the famous
New England clam bakes. Guernsey (1916)
discovered a bundle of seaweed at the bot-
tom of a pit which he believed may have
been used as a mattress. The red alga known
as Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) was used
as a source of gelatin.
While there is no archeological evidence
that sea turtles were ever captured, such
have been eaten in modern times at least.
The tooth of a sperm whale (Physeter cato-
don) found by Byers and Johnson (1940)
indicates that stranded whales were utilized
by the ancient Wampanoag. Remains of a
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
smaller whale, the blackfish (Globicephala
ventricosa) have also been recovered from
shell heaps, and there are historical records
which give further information. Chase
(1885) quotes an observation made by an
exploring party of Gov. John Carver which
discovered Wampanoag cutting up a black-
fish on the shore of what is now called
Blackfish Bay. Both the flesh and the oil
were used. When the whaling industry of
Massachusetts developed, Wampanoag
from Cape Cod and Marthas Vineyard were
among the whaling crews. On their trips,
porpoises, among other things, were cap-
tured for food. Bones of the harbor seal
(Phoca vitulina) and the gray seal (Hali-
choerus grypus) have been identified from
shell heaps, but these animals have not
been used for many years, and the gray
seal is no longer found in the region.
An ancient tribal festival of the Indians
at Gay Head has persisted to the present
day. The annual occasion, once a week-long
affair, is now referred to as Cranberry Day.
The Indians come to the town cranberry
bogs for harvesting the crop at the height
of the season and to have a social gathering
of the townspeople. The youths entertain
themselves with games, sports, and con-
tests, and a feast is prepared with shellfish
taken from Menemsha Pond nearby. Qua-
hogs, scallops, and clams have been the
main foods for some time, but formerly
oysters were gathered as well. Guernsey
(1916) found two small shell heaps in the
dunes close by the cranberry bogs and be-
lieved they contained the refuse from such
an occasion. In the old wigwam days the
inhabitants assembled after driving to the
bogs in ox carts. One of the tribal rites at
these affairs has come down to recent
times, within the memory of living Indians.
At the feast, a child was given a basket of
food to carry into the dunes to set down at
a lonely spot as a gift to old Granny Squa-
nit, and cautioned to hurry away without
ever looking back.
LITERATURE CITED
BieELow, H. B., and WetsH, W. W. Fishes of
the Gulf of Maine. Bull. U. 8. Bur. Fish. 40
(for 1924): part 1, 567 pp. 1925.
BuLuten, R. P., and Brooks, E. The Squam
Pond Indian site, Nantucket, Massachusetts.
Ave. 15, 1948
Bull. Massachusetts Arch. Soc. 8(4): 56-59.
1947.
Byers, D. §., and Jounson, F. Two sites on
Martha’s Vineyard. Papers Robert 8. Pea-
body Foundation for Archeology 1(1): 1-104.
1940. §
Cuast, H. E. Notes on the Wampanoag Indians.
Ann. Rept. Smithsonian Institution for 1883:
878-907. 1885.
DeExTER, RauepH W. Annual fluctuation of
abundance of some marine mollusks. Nautilus
58(1): 18-24. 1944.
. Status of eelgrass in the Annisquam tidal
river and Menemsha saltwater pond in Massa-
chusetts during the summer of 1947. Plant
Disease Reporter 31(11): 448-449. 1947.
GuERNSEY, S. J. Notes on explorations of
Martha’s Vineyard. Amer. Anthrop. 18(1):
81-97. 1916.
INGRAM, W1LLIAM M,
Snails hoarded by Blarina
VINAL: TRANSITION TO ABSOLUTE ELECTRICAL UNITS
265
at Ithaca, New York. Nautilus 57(4): 135-
137. 1944.
Lez, R. E. A quantitative survey of the inverte-
brate bottom fauna in Menemsha Bight. Biol.
Bull. 86(2): 83-97. 1944.
Mi.tuir, W. J. Notes concerning the Wampanoag
tribe of Indians, etc., 148 pp. 1880.
Morsze, Epwarp 8. The gradual dispersion of
certain mollusks in New England. Bull. Essex
Inst. 12: 3-8. 1880.
Speck, FRANK G. Territorial subdivisions and
boundaries of the Wampanoag, Massachusett,
and Nauset Indians. Indian Notes and
Monographs No. 44. Museum of the Ameri-
can Indian, Heye Foundation, 152 pp. 1928.
Sumner, F. B., Ospurn, R. C., and Cos, L. J.,
with Davis, B. M. A biological survey of the
waters of Woods Hole and vicinity. Bull. U.S.
Bur. Fish. 31 (for 1911): parts 1 and 2, 860
pp. 1913.
PHYSICS.—Transition from international to absolute electrical units as it affects
the physical chemist.
Revised values of the units of electricity
and light, effective January 1, 1948, have
been adopted pursuant to decisions of the
International Committee on Weights and
Measures. The definitions of the new ‘‘ab-
solute” units and the methods of fixing their
magnitudes are quite different from those
formerly employed for the practical system
of units in use from 1911 to 1947, but the
actual changes in magnitude are small and
affect only measurements of high precision.
The object of this paper is to indicate
briefly (1) what has been done; (2) why a
change was made at that time; (3) how
much the units are altered; and (4) how the
change does or does not affect calculations
of the physical chemist in such matters as
electrode potentials, activity coefficients,
pH, the calorie, free energy, conductivity,
and other items.
The absolute system of electrical units is
derived from fundamental mechanical units
of length, mass, and time by the use of ac-
cepted principles of electromagnetism, with
the permeability of space taken as unity in
the centimeter-gram-second units or as
10~7 in the corresponding meter-kilogram-
second units. Electrical measurements are
thus made concordant with measurements
1 This paper was presented on April 19, 1948,
at a symposium on batteries and galvanic cells,
American Chemical Society, Chicago, Ill. Re-
ceived June 10, 1948.
GEORGE W. ViINAL, National Bureau of Standards.
in other fields of science and engineering.
This is a guiding principle which has been
recognized as desirable since Weber pro-
posed it in 1851. Theoretically this principle
is most important, but practically the
difficulties in making precise electrical
measurements in terms of mechanical units
were very great.
An electrical congress, comprising official
delegates (Fig. 1) from various countries,
met at the World’s Fair in Chicago in 1893
and agreed upon definitions for electrical
units, recognizing in principle the absolute
system but providing concrete standards to
represent them. Public law No. 105, 53d
Congress, approved July 12, 1894, embodies
the decisions of this international body but
contains ambiguities which were not recog-
nized until many years later.
As time went on greater accuracy of the
standards was needed, and an International
Conference on Electrical Units and Stand-
ards, meeting in London in 1908, took
definitive action to recognize the absolute
system of units, but established for practical
purposes a separate and independent system
based on concrete standards, the mercury
ohm, the silver voltameter, and the stand-
ard cell.
The electromotive force of the Weston
Normal Cell was determined experimentally
by a committee, including representatives
from four countries who met at the National
Sievers
Scena Orn Dr ca Trovanse
LuMeEeR Vorr ViouLe
Fennanis Avatesn Vow HE. emourz
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 8
Airenis WENKMAN
Trury i /
Payas Hasmtauirn CARMABT
SP, Taomeson
E. Tomson
ROWLAND MES DE Nm ALE
Fic. 1.—Official delegates to the International Electrical Congress held at Chicago, 18938.
(Courtesy of ‘‘Weston Engineering Notes’’.)
Bureau of Standards in April 1910 (Fig. 2).
The international electrical units, in use
from 1911 to 1947, were based on these
standards. Subsequent measurements of
the ohm and ampere revealed differences
between the units as realized from these
concrete standards and the absolute units
based on length, mass and time. The
largest discrepancy was in the ohm,
amounting to about 1 part in 2,000. Precise
measurements of the present day make it
very desirable, therefore, that a readjust-
ment should be made.
This step has not been taken without
mature deliberation. The American In-
stitute of Electrical Engineers recom-
mended it 20 years ago. The National
Bureau of Standards, charged with main-
taining the units in this country, consulted
an advisory committee consisting of repre-
sentatives appointed by leading scientific
and engineering bodies. The Eighth General
Conference on Weights and Measures (an
international body) approved the change,
which was set for 1940, but for obvious
reasons postponed until the present time.
The relation of the fundamental units to
the measurement of power and energy in
both the new and former systems of units
is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3. The
left half represents functions of the National
Bureau of Standards, the right half the
units and certified standards as you use
them in the laboratory. Details of the steps
taken may be found in Circular C459 of
the National Bureau of Standards, issued
May 15, 1947.
MAGNITUDE OF THE CHANGE
Units of the new system will be main-
tained, as in the past, by standard resistors
and standard cells with reassigned values.
The relative magnitudes of the ohms and
volts in the two systems as accepted by the
International Committee on Weights and
Measures in October 1946 are as follows:
1 mean international ohm =1.00049 absolute ohms
1 mean international volt =1.00034 absolute volts
Ave. 15, 1948
These are averages of units maintained in
national laboratories of France, Germany,
Great Britain, Japan, U.S.S.R., and the
United States, which took part in the work
before the outbreak of the war.
Specifically, the units maintained in the
United States by the National Bureau of
Standards have differed from the above
averages by a few parts in a million, so that
the conversion factors for adjusting the
above and other values in this country are
as follows:
1 international ohm (US) =1.000495 absolute ohms
1 " volt (US) =1.00033 £ volts
1 « ampere (US) =0.99)835 . ampere
1 é coulomb (US) =0.999835 & coulomb
1 & henry (US) =1.000495 = henries
il farad (US) =0.999505 - farad
1 & watt (US) =1.000165 « watts
iL a joule (US) =1.000165 « joules
These factors should be used in con-
verting values in certificates of the NBS
VINAL: TRANSITION TO ABSOLUTE ELECTRICAL UNITS
267
issued previous to January 1, 1948, to the
present absolute units.
EFFECT ON CALCULATIONS OF THE
PHYSICAL CHEMIST
The calory and thermodynamic quantities.
—At various times, quantities of heat
energy have been measured in mechanical
units, in electrical units, and in thermal
units. Various calories, specifically defined,
as units of heat energy and based on the ab-
sorption of heat by water were measured
thermally until about 1910, when it became
more usual to measure them in international
joules. Difficulties were encountered in in-
troducing the joule as a substitute for the
traditional calory and this led to the adop-
tion of an artificial calory? for thermochemi-
cal purposes. It was defined without refer-
ence to water as—
2H. F. Muevuer and F. D. Rossint1, The calory
and the joule in thermodynamics and thermochem-
astry. Amer. Journ. Phys. 12: 1. 1944.
Fic. 2.—Members (*) of the International Technical Committee of 1910 and assistants at the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards. Left to right. F. Laporte* of France, Sir Frank Smith* of England, Dr.
F. A. Wolff*, Dr. W. Jaeger* of Germany, M. P. Shoemaker, Dr. S. W. Stratton*, Director N.B.S.,
Dr. F. Wenner, Dr. A. S. McDaniel, G. E. Post, Dr. F. W. Grover, Dr. E. B. Rosa*, Dr. G. W. Vinal.
268
1 calory =4.1833 international joules (NBS).
With the transition from international to
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
TABLE 1.—CorRECTION Facrors
‘ . | Unit of Correction
absolute units, the calory remains the same Caantats | corresponding Saiton int tet
but the above relation becomes |. dimensions abs. units
J calory = 4.1840 absolute joules. Activity coefficient | (dimensionless) no change
Likewise various thermodynamic quantities Gs constant R joule, deg™ mole | 1.000165
ja eee : £3 l : Cee Faraday F coulomb, g-equiv™! «0.999835
such as the increment of internal or intrinsic — yactor RT/nF oak 1.00033
energy, AH; increment of heat energy, Stand. elec. pot.E° | volt X1.00033
AH; the product of absolute temperature Redox potentials ) ver 1.00033
5 Tonization constant | (dimensionless) no change
by the change in entropy, TAS; the increase Energy & work | soule 1.000165
of free energy, AP: are unchanging physical Values of pH (dimensionless) no change
sy: : . Brit. Therm. unit joule 1.000165
quantities expressed numerically as joules Resistivere gees i ona
per mole. Old values in international joules Conductivity (elec) | ohm-}, em- +1.000495
can be converted to corresponding absolute Ampere-hour | coulomb X0. 999835
: l b Iti ina b th f t 1 000 Electric potential volt X1.00033
Joules by Multiplying by € factor I. F Electric field strength | volt, em7 1.00033
165. Ionic mobility | volt, em?, sec! +1.00033
Table of corrections. —A considerable Free energy change | volt, coulomb 1.000165
etre 5 Led é Electron charge (emu) | coulomb X0.999835
number of quantities with which the physi- Electron volt (emu) coulomb, volt 1.000165
cal chemist has to deal is listed in Table 1.
LENGTH
VOL. 38, No. 8
INT. OHM
Secondary Std.
rs
team INT. OHM INT. OHM
Mercury Ohm Wire Stondard
\\ INT. AMPERE
~~~ “Silver Ampere‘
THE FORMER
LENGTH
OHM
Wire Standard
THE PRESENT. ABSOEUTE
INT. VOLT
Saturated Cell
INTERNATIONAL ELECTRICAL
ELECTRICAL UNITS
OHM
Secondary Std.
IN USE
Fia. 3
INT. VOLT
Unsaturated Cell
UNETS . OF
(Stic @
SINCE JANUARY
INT. AMPERE INT. WATT
a a (Power)
eS INT. JOULE
(Energy)
1947
WATT
(Power)
JOULE
(Energy)
I948
| st
Ave. 15, 1948
The corrections given in the last column are
factors by which values in international
units are to be multiplied (X) or divided
(+) to give the corresponding value in ab-
solute units, provided that electrical meas-
urements are involved. Doubtless the list
might be considerably extended but enough
are reported to illustrate the principles in-
volved.
The international temperature scale.—
Measurements on the international temper-
BOTAN Y.—Heliopsis longipes, a Mexican insecticidal plant species."
LirtLe, Jr., U. S. Forest Service.
Heliopsis longipes (A. Gray) Blake
(family Compositae), common name ‘‘chil-
cuague,’ is a Mexican herbaceous plant
species of possible commercial value as a
source of insecticide. In testing various
wild plants for new insecticides during the
late war, the Bureau of Entomology and
Plant Quarantine, United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, found root extracts
from this species to have the same order of
paralyzing action and toxicity to house
flies as pyrethrins and to be toxic also to
other insects.
The dried roots without botanical mate-
rial for identification had been submitted
from a Mexican company under the name
Erigeron affinis DC. (family Compositae),
common names “pelitre del pais’ and
“chilcudn.’”’ Acree, Jacobson, and Haller
(1, 2, 5), of the bureau mentioned, isolated
from the roots the toxic principle, which
they identified as N-isobutyl-2, 6, 8-deca-
trienoamide and which they named
‘‘afinin,”’ from the reported scientific name,
Toxicity tests against house flies, mos-
quitoes, and other insects were made by
McGovran and others (6), of the same
bureau. On the basis of these investigations,
R. C. Roark (11a), also of this bureau, re-
cently included this species among promis-
ing insecticidal plants meriting further re-
search. It seems appropriate, therefore, to
report upon the botanical aspects of this
insecticide, especially since the scientific
1 This study was made while the author was
employed in Mexico in 1945 as production special-
ist (drugs), by the United States Commercial
Company, an agency of the United States Gov-
ernment. Received May 25, 1948,
LITTLE: HELIOPSIS LONGIPES
269
ature scale by the use of electric thermom-
eters are little, if at all, affected by the
change in units. Platinum resistance ther-
mometers involve a ratio of resistances.
This is obviously dimensionless and in-
dependent of the units. Thermocouple
measurements are affected only at high
temperatures. At the gold point the correc-
tion is 4 microvolts and from this correc-
tions at lower temperatures can be
estimated.
ELBERT L.
name has been confused and not previously
known.
The name Erigeron affinis for the samples
tested apparently was taken from the
reference books on Mexican plant names,
useful plants, and medicinal plants by
Martinez (7, 8, 9, 10), who also cited older
publications. The early physician Dr.
Francisco Hernandez (1514-1578), in a
work first published in 1615, described a
plant, ‘“‘chilmecatl” or “ychcha,”’ the slender
roots of which relieved the toothache and
other pains (4, pp. 383-384; 15, p..121).
His description, which Martinez referred to
Erigeron affinis, is not that of Heliopsis
longipes.
Erigeron affinis was mentioned in 1902 in
Noriega’s (117, p. 419) Mexican reference on
medicinal plants as a substitute for “‘peritre
de Africa,” Anacyclus pyrethrum DC. and
Anthemis pyrethrum L., used for rheuma-
tism, neuralgia, toothache, etc., in the fol-
lowing statement (translated from Spanish):
“Substituted for it is the root of “‘chileuam’
or ‘peritre del pais,’ Erygeron affinis, which
is abundant in the surroundings of Mexico
City and is probably the same root abun-
dant in the Sierra de Querétaro, known by
the name of ‘chilcudn’ and Spilanthes
leccabunga [beccabunga]| DC., found in
Tizapan; their properties appear to be iden-
tical.”
The following year a chemical analysis of
the root of chileuan (Erigeron affinis) by
Prof. D. Miguel Cordero (14, pp. 237-254)
was reported. Escobar (3, 1: 1015, 1194;
3: 93) in his encyclopedia on agriculture
mentioned Hrigeron affinis, with the com-
270
mon names “‘chileudn,” ‘‘chalehuan,”’ ‘‘pe-
litre,’ “pelitre del pais,” and ‘‘peritre del
pafs.”’ Santamaria (12, 1: 492-493; 2: 450;
3: 450) listed for this species the common
names ‘“chalchudn,” ‘‘chileagtie,” ‘‘chil-
cuague,” ‘‘chilcuahui,” ‘‘chilcudn,” ‘“‘pe-
litre,’ and ‘‘peritre,”’ and associated Spz-
lanthes beccabunga with some of these names
also.
Martinez’ .(7, pp. 152-155; 9; pp. 110—
112) description of ‘‘chileuan,”’ ‘‘chileuam,”’
or “chileuague,” Hrigeron affinis DC., as a
plant with alternate leaves and white or
violet flowers agrees with Erigeron and not
Heliopsis longipes. However, his drawing
shows a group of 10 small flower heads on a
peduncle, while Hrzgeron affinis has large,
solitary, long-peduncled heads. He men-
tioned various uses for the roots, including
stimulation of flow of saliva, relief from
toothache, as a dentrifrice, as an insec-
ticide (from the smoke produced: by burn-
ing), and as a spice substituted for chile
in flavoring foods. In San Luis Potosf an
alcoholic tincture was applied for pimples,
itch, and lice.
Apparently the roots of two or mere
genera of Compositae with similar prop-
erties and similar common names have been
confused in the absence of complete botani-
cal specimens. As Erigeron affinis was not
included in my study, there is no reason to
doubt the descriptions of its properties by
the authors cited. In May, June, and July,
1945, I made field studies of ‘“‘chileuague”’
in northeastern Guanajuato and collected
flowering material, which Dr. 8. F. Blake
kindly determined as Heliopsis longipes
(A. Gray) Blake. Earlier references of
“chilcuan” from Querétaro, Guanajuato,
and San Luis Potosi may apply in part to
the same species. A different kind of
“pelitre’’ or ‘“‘chileuague,” with weaker
properties, collected for me by Henry W.
Turner at Zamora, Michoacan, was identi-
fied by Dr. Blake as Spilanthes ocymifolia
(Lam.) A. H. Moore. A compound similar
to affinin, spilanthol, has been isolated from
flower heads of another species of Spilanthes.
The discovery of an _ insecticide in
Heliopsis longipes is of special interest, as
apparently there are no previous reports of
insecticidal or medicinal properties in this
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
genus. Heliopsis Pers., a genus closely re-
lated to Zinnia L., consists of about 10
species of American herbs, distributed from
Canada and the United States south
through Mexico and Central America to
Peru. Two of the four species native in the
United States, H. helianthoides (L.) Sweet
and H. scabra Dunal, are widely distributed
weeds with yellow flower heads resembling
sunflowers and have been cultivated as
hardy ornamentals. It would be desirable
to determine whether other species of this
genus have insecticidal properties.
DESCRIPTION OF HELIOPSIS LONGIPES
Heliopsis longipes (A. Gray) Blake, Contr. U. S.
Nat. Herb. 22: 608. 1924.
Philactis longipes A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad.
Arts and Sci. 15: 35. 1879.
Common names: ‘‘chilcuague,
‘‘pelitre.”’
9 66
chilicuague,”’
Perennial herb or with stems slightly woody
and shrubby at base, 2 to 5 dm tall, hirtellous,
with one or more stems, spreading and curved
to nearly erect, usually unbranched above base,
3 to 7 dm long. Leaves opposite, few, short-
petioled, the blades ovate, about 2 to 4 cm
long, dentate-serrate. Peduncles 1 to several,
terminal, elongate, 10 to 25 cm long, each with
a solitary flower head. Involucre of 7 to 9
green ovate or lance-ovate bracts 7 to 10 mm
long. Receptable columnar elongated, 10 to
20 mm long. Flowers yellow, rays fertile, about
10, the lamina sessile, about 15 to 18 mm long
and 6 mm broad, achenes trigonous—ob-
compressed, without pappus. Disk flowers
fertile, quadrangular and few ribbed, without
pappus or with 2 or 4 minute teeth. Bracts of
the receptacle 6 to 7 mm long, yellow or orange-
tipped, projecting beyond the disk flowers.
This description based upon my addi-
tional specimens is modified slightly from
that by 8. F. Blake (13, p. 1527) of the two
previous collections, in which the leaves
were smaller (to 2.5 em long) and the rays
shorter (about 1 cm long). Heliopsis
longipes is generally a perennial herb form-
ing new shoots each year from the perennial
root system but was properly included by
Blake as a “suffrutescent’’ species in the
Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Though most
stems die back to the ground each autumn,
a few of the lowest, purplish internodes, or
Ave. 15, 1948
sometimes more, may survive the winter
and dry spring. Old stems in protected
places beneath shrubs may be as long as 6
to 7 dm and only about 1.5 mm in diameter
throughout their length. There are also
horizontal stems, or rhizomes, near the sur-
face or in leaf litter.
The roots are distinctive, usually fascicled
or sometimes single, slightly fleshy, light
brown, about 1.5 to 3 dm long and 3 to 4
mm in diameter. These slightly fleshy roots
are unbranched, except for a few fibrous
lateral roots, and spread out and down at
angles in the soil. The leaves are variable,
from ovate to oval and from nearly entire to
conspicuously toothed. Small, young leaves
have relatively denser whitish pubescence.
Though usually there are only 1 or 2 flower
heads, large plants may have as many as 10
or more flower heads borne on separate
elongated peduncles, to which the speciic
name alludes.
Field recognition of chilcuague in the
dormant season is difficult because the
plants are low and inconspicuous, with
nearly dead stems. However, positive iden-
tification can be made by a taste of the
roots. In the spring small, immature leaves
less than 1 cm long appear on short axillary
branches. Growth of stems and leaves is
most active in the growing season of sum-
mer rains from June to September. Flowers
are produced from July to September.
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
Heliopsis longipes is known from southern
San Luis Potosi and northeastern Guana-
juato and has been reported from northern
Querétaro. It is so restricted in geographic
distribution and so infrequent that it was
known previously to botanists from only
two collections in San Luis Potosi, both
deposited in the United States National
Herbarium. These are the type, collected
by ©. C. Parry and Edward Palmer (No.
465) in 1878 “in valleys along the foot-
hills of the mountains near San Luis Potosi”
and the second, by J. G. Schaffner (No.
763/338) in 1879. Herb dealers in the city
of San Luis Potosi told me in October 1945
that chilcuague grows in the mountainous
area south and southeast towards Alvarez.
In the State of San Luis Potosi it is re-
LITTLE: HELIOPSIS LONGIPES
271
stricted apparently to the mountains in the
southern part, near the border of Guana-
juato, as most of the State is too low in
elevation and too arid for it.
In Guanajuato I located Heliopsis
longipes only in the mountainous area east
and north of San Luis de la Paz, about 40
kilometers (25 miles) square. Scattered
colonies occur near the highway from San
Luis de la Paz east to Xicht. Localities
near which this species occurs include:
Hacienda de la Mesa, Palmillas, Vergel,
Macuala, Ahorcados, La Cueva, Charco
Azul, and Santa Catarina. My specimens
from several localities have been deposited
in the United States National Herbarium
and Herbarium of the National Arboretum.
The altitudinal zone of chilcuague in
northeastern Guanajuato is from about
1,825 to 2,250 meters (about 6,000 to 7,400
feet). This mountainous area just east of
the Continental Divide in the headwaters of
the Atlantic drainages is exposed to the
easterly winds and receives a higher pre-
cipitation than the plateau area around
San Luis de la Paz and westward. San Luis
de la Paz, elevation 2,020 meters (6,626
feet), is in the semidesert zone and has an
annual rainfall of about 370 mm (15 inches).
The oak-forest zone, in which chilcuague
occurs, extends down the eastern slopes to
about 1,825 meters (6,000 feet) near Xichu,
elevation 1,400 meters (4,600 feet) and on
the western slope near San Luis de la Paz
to about 2,125 meters (7,000 feet).
HABITAT
“Chileuague”’ (Heliopsis longipes) is an
undergrowth species of the oak forest, or
oak-pine forest, though neither widely dis-
tributed nor characteristic. This forest,
generally open, is characterized by small
oaks (‘‘encinos’’) 5 to 12 meters or more in
height and about 10 to 40 cm. D. B. H.,
with small to large, thick, evergreen leaves.
In some areas the larger trees have been
cut for charcoal. The species represented
include Quercus rugulosa Mart. & Gal., Q.
lanceolata Humb. & Bonpl., and Q. macrc-
phylla Née. Occasionally pines (‘‘pinos’’;
Pinus teocote Schlecht. & Cham.) are as-
sociated with the oaks. “Tejocote”’ (Cra-
taegus sp.) is common in places, and
272
‘“madrono” (Arbutus ralapensis H. B. K.)
is relatively sparse. The undergrowth in-
cludes scattered herbs and low shrubs, and
grasses are characteristic of the open slopes.
A few widespread herbaceous species of
Compositae resemble chilcuague in having
similar yellow flowers and opposite leaves
but may be distinguished readily by their
smaller, fibrous roots without the peculiar,
burning and numbing taste.
Rare and scattered in the oak forests,
chileuague generally is found on the best
sites, where the trees are larger and denser,
such as gradual to steep, well-drained slopes
of mountain sides and canyons. In one area
chileuague plants were observed in open
pastures and shrub thickets where the oaks
had been cleared. Preliminary observations
indicate that plants in partial sunlight grow
more rapidly, become larger, flower earlier
in the season, and have better-developed
root systems than plants in dense shade.
This species has been found only in areas
with fertile top soil and adequate soil
moisture, usually with a litter of oak leaves,
humus, and organic loam soil 10 cm or
more in depth. The mineral soil varies from
sandy to clay and may be rocky. The entire
soil layer on these slopes is only about 30
cm deep, overlying purplish volcanic rock.
Chilcuague was not observed on the poorer
sites, such as eroded slopes with mineral
soil exposed and areas where the under-
growth had been damaged by recent fires.
Soil samples from five localities were
analyzed with the Lamotte field tests. The
soils were slightly acid, with pH of 6.4 to
6.8. The only serious deficiency was the low
nitrogen content of most samples. Phos-
phorus was average, potassium average to
high, sulphates low, and replaceable cal-
cium high.
Small black beetles about 3 mm long and
common on the flower heads were deter-
mined by H. 8. Barber, of the Bureau of
Entomology and Plant Quarantine, as
Pristocelis sp. (family Dasytidae).
ACTIVE PRINCIPLE
When a very small piece (1 or 2 mm long)
of fresh or dried chilcuague root is chewed,
there is a strong numbing, burning sensa-
tion, somewhat anesthetic or paralyzing,
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
in the adjacent parts of the mouth and
tongue, lasting for several minutes. Secre-
tion of saliva is stimulated also. In the roots
this peculiar, strong taste is nearly all in the
outer fleshy part, the pericycle, and very
slight in the smaller, fibrous, inner part,
mostly xylem. Cut fresh roots have a weak
odor similar to the taste. If it is associated
with this taste, the active insecticidal
principle is almost limited to the under-
ground parts, both the fleshy roots and
rhizomes.
Green stems of the current year show a
weak but characteristic taste test through-
out their length to the flowers. This taste
was not detected in old, woody stems of the
previous year nor in the leaves. However,
the leaves, green stems, and flowers do
have a slightly resinous taste common to
many composites. The flower heads, in-
cluding bracts and rays, have a stronger
taste than the green stems but weaker than
the roots.
It would be desirable to test the flowers
to determine whether the active principle is
present in significant quantities. It is not
known whether the active principle varies
significantly in different plants or with age
or season.
USES
Use of chilcuague roots is small and
mostly restricted to the localities where the
species is native. Persons living in the
mountains bring in a few bunches to town
on the weekly market day. The roots are
dug with a pointed steel bar about 0.6
meter long or a similar tool. In being air
dried, the roots lose in moisture about two-
thirds their weight.
Small bunches of nearly dried, bees
roots weighing about 25 bunches to a kilo
sold retail at local markets in 1945 for
about 20 to 30 centavos (about 5 or 6
cents U. S. currency) a bunch. This retail
price was about $6.25 (pesos) a kilo, or 59
cents (U.S. currency) a pound.
The main use is as a sort of spice, because
of the property of the root to make the
mouth and tongue numb and burn when
minute pieces are chewed. The roots are
used, like chile, to flavor beans and other
foods and to strengthen alcoholic drinks.
Aua. 15, 1948
It was reported that an extract of the root
is used for colds and pneumonia. The root
is chewed to relieve toothache. However,
there is danger of choking if too much is
eaten, and deaths have been reported from
this cause.
A small quantity of chilcuague roots is
shipped to Mexico City for use in making a
local insecticide. The ground root put in a
dish of milk has been employed also to kill
flies drinking the milk. It is said that
larvae of warble flies in the skin of cattle
may be killed by putting powdered root in
the wound. In the United States use of
chilcuague roots in insecticides has been
confined to experiments by the Bureau of
Entomology and Plant Quarantine.
Possibly medicinal or other uses may be
discovered. An alcoholic extract of the root
has been tested successfully by dentists as
an anesthetic in the extraction of teeth.
PROPAGATION
Preliminary tests of propagating
Heliopsis longipes were made in Mexico in
1945. If this species should become im-
portant commercially, cultivation would be
necessary because of the rather limited
and poorly accessible supply of the rare
wild plants. At four localities with eleva-
tions from about 1,800 to 2,400 meters,
wild plants were transplanted successfully
in rows and beds on a small scale. The
plants were dug with picks, most of the tops
were cut off, and the roots were trimmed.
However, where it was necessary to retain
the plants up to a week before transplant-
ing, even though kept moist, survival was
low. In spite of the succulent character of
the roots, ordinary care must be used in
transplanting. When exposed to the air
the succulent roots dry out rapidly and
shrivel within a week. In tests, cut fleshy
roots planted in the ground did not grow,
though they remained fleshy as long as a
month or more before dying. The marketed
dried roots with bases of stems attached will
not grow. As the rhizomes sprout readily
at the nodes, propagation by rhizome cut-
tings might be successful. Doubtless chil-
cuague could be propagated commercially by
seeds also, though there was no oppor-
tunity to test this method. Roots of suitable
LITTLE: HELIOPSIS LONGIPES
273
size and quantity for harvest should be
ready within 2 or 3 years after planting.
Under care, transplants grew better than
wild plants. One small plant with a few
short stems about 5 cm long in a block of
soil 15 cm square and 10 cm thick was
transplanted in Mexico City on June 8.
It grew rapidly and opened its first flower
head on July 21. By July 30, 5 flower heads
were open, and by the end of August there
were 10 open heads and about 10 more
flower buds. More than 40 flower heads
had matured by October 5, when 2 flower
heads were still open.
SUMMARY
“‘Chilcuague,”’ a Mexican herbaceous
plant species of possible commercial value
as a source of insecticide and previously
designated as ‘“Erigeron affinis,’ has been
identified as Heliopsis longipes (A. Gray)
Blake (family Compositae). This species of
restricted geographic «distribution was
known botanically from only two collections
in southern San Luis Potosi but now has
been found also in northeastern Guanajuato
and has been reported from northern
Querétaro. In Guanajuato it is rare and
scattered in forests of Quercus spp. at about
1,825 to 2,250 meters in altitude. The
fleshy roots, which produce a strong numb-
ing, burning sensation in the mouth when
chewed, are used locally as a spice and are
the source of the insecticidal principle.
Because of the limited occurrence, cultiva-
tion would be necessary to supply com-
mercial quantities of the roots. Wild plants
were transplanted successfully on a small
scale.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Acres, Frep, Jr., Jacopson, Martin,
and HauuER, H. L. An amide possess-
ing insecticidal properties from the roots
of Erigeron affinis DC. Journ. Org.
Chem. 10: 236-242, illus. 1945.
(2) —————_.._ The structure of affinin, the
insecticidal amide from Erigeron affinis
DC. Journ. Org. Chem. 10: 449-451.
1945.
(3) Escospar, Romuto. Enciclopedia agricola
y de conocimientos afines, 3 vols., illus.
Eo ead |
(4) HernAnpEz, Francisco. De historia
plantarum Novae Hispaniae, 3 vols.
Matriti, 1790.
274
(5) Jacopson, Martin, AcREE, FReEp, Jr.,
and Hauuer, H. L. Correction of the
source of ‘“‘affinin” (N-isobutyl-2, 6, 8-
decatrienoamide). Journ. Org. Chem.
12: 731-732. 1947.
(6) McGovran, EK. R., Borrerr, G. T., Gers-
porFF, W. A., and Fauss, J. H. In-
secticidal action of Heliopsis longipes
and Krigeron spp. U.S. Dept. Agr.,
Bur. Entom. Plant Quar., E-736. 5
pp. 1947. [Processed.]
(7) Martinez, Maximino. Plantas utiles de
México, ed. 2, 400 pp., illus. México,
1936.
(8) Catdlogo de nombres vulgares y
cientificos de plantas mexicanas, 551 pp.
México, 1937.
(9) Las plantas medicinales de Méx-
ico, ed. 3, 630 pp., illus. México, 1944.
(10) Mexico, SecRETARIA DE AGRICULTURA Y
FomrEntTo. Catdlogo alfabético de nom-
bres vulgares y cientificos de plantas que
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
existen en México, 670 pp.
1923-1929.
(11) Norieca, JuAN Manugu. Curso de his-
toria de drogas, 837 pp. México, 1902.
(lla) Roark, R. C. Some promising insectict-
dal plants. Keon. Bot. 1: 437-445, illus.
1947.
(12) SanrTaMARIA, Francisco J. Diccionario
general de Americanismos, 3 vols.
México, D. F., 1942.
(13) Sranpuey, Paut C. Trees and shrubs of
Mexico. Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 23:
1,721 pp. 1920-1926.
(14) Vrntuasenor, F. F. Chilcudn (Erigeron
affinis). Inst. Méd. Nac. [Méx.] An. 6
(1): 237-254. 1903.
(15) XimpNzEZ, Francisco. Cuatro libros de la
naturaleza y virtudes de las plantas y ani-
males, de uso medicinal en la Nueva Es-
pana, 342 pp. México, 1888. (Re-
_ printed from edition published in Mex-
ico in 1615.)
México,
ENTOMOLOGY.—New species of Metachroma and other chrysomelid beetles
from the West Indies.'
This paper contains the description of
six new black or dark metallic colored spe-
cies of Metachroma Dejean, a small pale spe-
cies of Aphthona Dejean, and the second
species of Megasus Jacoby to be described,
all of which are from the West Indies.
Megasus semivittatus, n. sp.
Fig. 1
Length 3 mm, faintly shining, pale yellow-
brown with a dark median spot extending from
occiput down front of head, a dark stripe on
each side of prothorax bordering on the expla-
nate margin and a stripe along the sides of the
elytra, a short sutural vitta at base and another
interrupted one at the middle; also running
diagonally across each elytron from apex to
humerus a faint orange band. Basal sulcus on
prothorax not very distinct and not limited at
the ends. Antennae as long as beetle.
Head with interocular space a little more
than half its width; occiput smooth, impunc-
tate, a broad median dark stripe extending to
above tubercles; tubercles faintly marked,
without median groove, bulging slightly over
antennal sockets: a fovea on each side near
eye. Below antennal sockets on each side a
shallow excavation divided in the middle by a
narrow, slightly produced carina. Antennae as
1 Received April 21, 1948.
Doris H. Buaxs, Arlington, Va.
long as body, joints 2 and 3 short, joints 4-7
long, remainder a little shorter; the basal joints
pale, apices of joints 4-11 slightly darker. Pro-
thorax approximately twice as broad as long,
with slightly rounded sides, obtuse anteriorly
and a sharp tooth at basal angle; a very in-
distinct and shallow basal groove, not limited
at the ends by a longitudinal fovea; surface
impunctate, pale, with a dark stripe along the
side next to the explanate margin. Elytra a
little broader than prothorax and also with
a dark stripe along the side extending to the
suture at the apex, and at base extending
around and down suture but not to th: middle,
also a short interrupted median stripe at base
and middle, and a faint orange diagonal stripe
across the elytron; surface impunctate and
faintly shining. Body beneath pale, with paler
legs. Anterior coxal cavities open, hind femora
enlarged, hind tibiae slightly grooved, a short
spur at the tip, first tarsal joint long, claws ap-
pendiculate. Length 3 mm, width 1.3 mm.
Type male, U.S.N.M. no. 58777,
Type locality—Mandeville, Jamaica, col-
lected by Van Duzee in April 1906 (from the
Wickham collection).
Remarks.—The genus Megasus was described
by Jacoby? to accommodate a beetle from Gua-
2 Jacosy, Biologia Centrali-Americana, Coleop-
tera, 6(pt. 1): 321. 1884.
Ava. 15, 1948 BLAKE: NEW SPECIES OF METACHROMA 27
A
i}
}
Z
f
\
, x
hi i
l. Megasus semivitiatus 2. Metachroma schwarzi 5. Aphthona elachia
4. Metachroma piceum 9. Metachroma hottense 6. Metachroma nigroviride
: d-b
4
1 Metachroma felis 8.™Metachroma longitarsum (ark form) 9. “Metachroma Flavolimbatum
Figs. 1-9.—New West Indian Chrysomelidae.
Or
276
temala that did not quite fit into the genus
Lactica because of its very long antennae and
the thoracic groove, which was not limited at
the ends by a longitudinal fovea. This second
species closely corresponds with Megasus bi-
maculatus in all but marks of coloration. The
strikingly long antennae, the head with its
poorly developed frontal tubercles and closely
set antennae, the transverse thorax with its ob-
tuse anterior angles, and with the basal groove
in this species rather more indistinct than in
bimaculatus and without limiting side fovea,
the large scutellum, the legs with the hind
tibiae grooved and with a spur at the end, the
appendiculate claws, the open anterior coxal
cavities, all fit into this genus erected by
Jacoby. I have compared the beetle with a
specimen labeled by Jacoby as M. bimaculatus
in the Bowditch collection at Cambridge.
Aphthona elachia, n. sp.
Fig. 3
About 1.3 mm. in length, ovate, shining pale
yellow-brown, eighth and ninth antennal
joints dark; thorax finely punctate, elytral
striae fine and disappearing before the apex.
Head polished, a short sulcus on each side
of front, interantennal carina narrow, slightly
produced, interocular space about half width
of head. Antennae not reaching the middle of
the elytra, pale yellow with eighth and ninth
joints and tip of last black. Prothorax not quite
twice as broad as long, moderately convex with
rounded sides and obliquely cut anterior angles,
basal margin at sides obtusely angulate; sur-
face shining, finely and shallowly punctate.
Elytra broad and somewhat convex, shining,
striate punctures fine and becoming indistinct
at apex. Body beneath pale, shining, lightly
pubescent. Length 1.3-1.4 mm; width 0.7 mm.
Type female and one female paratype,
M.C.Z. type no. 27828.
Type locality —Morne:Trou d’Eau, Haiti, col-
lected by P. J. Darlington, November 19, 1934.
Other locality: Port-au-Prince, Haiti, collected
by P. J. Darlington, October 6, 1934.
Remarks.—This is a smaller, paler, less con-
vex species than A. fraterna Blake and has only
the eighth and ninth and tip of the last joint
of the antennae dark; in that species joints
6-9 are dark.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
Metachroma schwarzi, n. sp.
Fig. 2
About 4.5 mm in length, oblong, shining
black with reddish-brown mouthparts, anten-
nae, and tarsi; elytral striae distinct to the
apex.
Head with interocular space about half its
width, shining above, alutaceous in lower front,
densely punctate, no distinct transverse line
between antennal sockets, groove about inner
side of eye distinct. Antennae not extending
halfway down the elytra, deep reddish brown,
of the usual proportions. Prothorax not twice
as wide as long, with arcuate sides and a small
tooth at apical and basal angles, an impressed
line along basal margin and behind the eyes on
the anterior margin; surface polished, finely
punctate. Elytra entirely dark, shining, a very
slight lateral depression below the humerus,
striate punctures coarse and distinct to the
apex and rather deeply impressed. Epipleura
distinct almost to the apex. Body beneath
shining, piceous with the tip of the abdomen a
little paler, legs dark with pale tarsi, a tiny
tooth on hind femora. Length 4.4-4.5 mm;
width 2.5 mm.
Type female, U.S.N.M. no. 58778, and one
female paratype in M.C.Z.
Type locality —Cayamas, Santa Clara Prov-
ince, Cuba, collected by E. A. Schwarz.
Remarks.—Dr. Schwarz himself labeled this
as a new species. It strongly resembles M. adus-
tum Suffrian but has entirely black elytra and
black legs. The elytral punctation is coarser
and distinct to the apex and the eyes are
smaller and more widely set.
There is a series of seven specimens taken
by Darlington at Soledad (Cienfuegos), Cuba,
in 1929 and 1936 that also have entirely dark
elytra, but which are clearly very closely re-
lated to M. adustum, if not a color variety.
They seem a little less deeply and coarsely
striate-punctate than M. adustum, and the tip
of the aedeagus is a little thinner. Whether this
is a subspecies of adustum Suffrian or merely a
color form is not clear.
Metachroma felis, n. sp.
Fig. 7
About 5 mm in length, oblong, shining black
with pale antennae, legs, and elytral apex.
Aug. 15, 1948
Head with interocular space less than half
the width, shining on occiput and front, more
alutaceous on lower front, densely punctate, no
distinct transverse line between antennal
sockets, a slight, short, median vertical groove
and the usual groove around eye, labrum and
mouthparts reddish or yellowish brown. An-
tennae pale, extending about to the middle of
the elytra, of the usual proportions. Prothorax
not twice as wide as long with arcuate sides
and a small tooth at each corner, and an im-
pressed line along the sides and basal margin
and up behind the eyes on anterior margin;
surface polished, with obsolete and moderately
dense punctation. Elytra very shining, rows of
punctures distinct in basal half but becoming
indistinct after the middle and vanishing at
the apex, the striate punctures on the sides
regular but short. Elytra entirely dark except
for a narrow strip along the apex. Epipleura
vanishing shortly before the apex. Body be-
- neath deep brown, shining, legs pale with the
narrowed apex of femora dark and a dark
streak down the tibiae. Hind femora with a
small tooth. Length 4.7-5.5 mm; width 2.5-
3mm.
Type male and one female paratype, M.C.Z.
type no. 27827.
Type locality—Arthurstown, Cat Island,
Bahamas, collected July 23, 1935, by W. J.
Clench.
Remarks.—This is one of the species very
closely related to M. adustum Suffrian. It dif-
fers from the others in having only a narrow
pale apex to the elytra and no pale area along
the sides or on the humeri, which are usually
pale in the Florida and Cuban beetles. It is also
slightly larger than either-of them, and the tip
of the aedeagus is broader than that of M.
adustum and more like that of M. terminale
Horn. The elytral striae are not so impressed
as in the other closely related species. There is
one specimen, a female, in the National Mu-
seum collection from Eleuthera, Bahamas, col-
lected in July by H. F. Wickham, that seems
to be the same species.
A single specimen, a female, from Constanza,
Dominican Republic, elevation 3000—4000 feet,
collected in August 1938 by P. J. Darlington,
represents another closely allied species or sub-
species. In this specimen the head is more
BLAKE: NEW SPECIES OF METACHROMA
277
polished and finely punctate, the punctures of
the elytral striae are not so dense, and the pale
area on the elytra extends broadly along the
sides and at the apex. This single specimen,
however, does not present such distinct dif-
ferences as occur in M. schwarzi and felts.
Metachroma flavolimbatum, n. sp.
Fig. 9
About 5 mm in length, oblong, shining pice-
ous with head in part, basal antennal joints,
anterior margin of prothorax, margin of elytra
and legs reddish, femora banded near apex.
Head with interocular space less than half
its width, no distinct line between clypeus and
front, a median depression on front, the usual
groove around eye; surface alutaceous and
rather densely and obsoletely punctate, the oc-
ciput and a median area down front piceous,
rest reddish brown, jaws piceous. Antennae
extending to the middle of the elytra, second
and third joints subequal, remainder longer
and with only apices pale. Prothorax not twice
as broad as long with arcuate sides and a small
tooth at basal and anterior angles, an impressed
line along basal margin and on sides of anterior
margin behind the eyes; surface very finely and
obsoletely punctate, mostly shining piceous but
reddish brown anteriorly. Elytra with small
humeri and a slight basal callosity and depres-
sion below it, striate punctures deeply im-
pressed and dense, becoming finer and
shallower in apical half, in short, regular rows
on sides; shining piceous with the sides from
humerus to apex pale, the pale area wider at
apex. Body beneath reddish brown, shining,
almost glabrous, legs pale yellow with a dark
band around narrowed part of femora and a
dark streak down tibiae; hind femora with a
faint trace of tooth. Length 5 mm.; width
2.8 mm.
Type male U.S.N.M. no. 58779.
Type locality—Mess Castle near Antully,
St. Thomas Parish, Jamaica, collected No-
vember 5, 1928, by C. R. Orcutt.
Remarks.—This is another of the adustwm
group of species. It is slightly larger than
adustum, and the aedeagus has a shorter point
to the tip. Unlike most of the species in the
adustum group it has the antennae mostly
dark.
278
Metachroma piceum, n. sp.
Fig. 4
About 4.5 mm in length, ovate, shining, deep
reddish brown to piceous with pale legs, the
femora banded at the narrowed apex, tibiae in
part darkened, elytra with paler streaks along
the basal margin and on humeri and pale along
the sides at the apex, base of antennal joints
3-11 dark. All femora mucronate.
Head with interocular space about half its
width, rounded over occiput with broad front
having a short median depression between the
nearly obsolete frontal tubercles; dark piceous
with a reddish-brown area on each side of front,
lower front and labrum also reddish; surface
dull and alutaceous with fine, shallow punc-
tures. Antennae not reaching the middle of the
elytra, third joint shorter than fourth, basal
joints pale reddish and joints 3-11 darker at
the base. Prothorax wider than long with arcu-
ate sides, a small tooth at each corner and an
impressed line along basal margin and behind
the eyes on anterior margin; surface polished,
very minutely punctate; piceous with deep
reddish brown streaks along anterior and basal
margins, possibly in pale specimens only a
piceous transverse band. Elytra_ striately
punctate, the punctures coarsest in transverse
depression below basal callosity, becoming fine
at apex; shining deep piceous with reddish
brown streaks along short raised basal costae
and on humeri and a pale margin along the
apex, and partly along the sides. Epipleura
disappearing before the apex. Body beneath
deep reddish brown with tip of abdomen and
legs paler, femora near apex banded and tibiae
with deeper shading in basal half, all femora
with a small tooth, tibiae ridged and emargi-
nate in two hind pairs, claw joint very long.
Length 4.4-4.6 mm; width 2.6 mm.
Type male, M.C.Z. type no. 27824; one
paratype.
Type locality—Main Range, Blue Moun-
tains, 5,000—7,388 feet elevation, Jamaica, col-
lected August 17-19, 1934, by P. J. Darlington;
paratype collected at Whitfield Hall, Blue
Mountains, near 4,500 feet elevation, Jamai-
ca, August 138-20, 1934, by P. J. Darlington.
Remarks.—Although the pale coloration at
the apex of the elytra is suggestive of beetles
of the M. adustum alliance, M. piceum does not
belong to that group, being more oval and with
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
reddish-brown markings and with more widely
set eyes.
Metachroma longitarsum Blake
(dark color form)
Fig. 8
Metachroma longitarsum Blake, Journ. Washing-
ton Acad. Sci. 36: 24. 1946.
A dark color form of this species, represented
by three black specimens not associated with
the pale reddish-brown spotted female in the
original working up of the material, has come
to my notice. Except for the dark color these
three specimens agree in every way with the
pale spotted form, having similar size, shape,
and punctation, and furthermore they were
collected at the same time and place. They are
entirely dark except for the mouthparts,
frontal tubercles in part, antennae, and tarsi.
Metachroma nigroviride, n. sp.
Fig. 6
From 4 to 4.5 mm in length, broadly oblong,
shining, deep reddish brown to dark metallic
green with reddish antennae and legs varying
from reddish brown to metallic green, pro-
thorax lightly punctate; elytral striate punc-
tures becoming very fine at apex.
Head with interocular space about half its
width, smoothly rounded over occiput and
down front, no distinct transverse sulcus be-
tween antennal sockets, a faint median vertical
line down front in some specimens, the usual
groove about inner side of eye; finely and ob-
soletely punctate, more distinctly in lower
front. Antennae reaching about to the middle
of the elytra, reddish, the distal joints tending
to be darker. Prothorax not quite twice as wide
as long, smoothly convex, with arcuate sides
and a small tooth at apical and basal angles,
surface polished, finely and not densly punc-
tate. Scutellum polished. Elytra with a slight
basal callosity, well-marked humeri, and a
short intrahumeral depression and slight trans-
verse depression below basal callosity; rows of
striate punctures distinct but not very coarse
and becoming finer towards apex; epipleura
disappearing shortly before apex. Body beneath
deep reddish brown to piceous, shining, lightly
pubescent, hind femora with a small tooth,
tibiae ridged and in middle and posterior pair
emarginate near apex. Length 4-4.5 mm; width
2.0-2.6 mm.
Ava. 15, 1948
Type male, M.C.Z. type no. 27825; 6 para-
types, 1 paratype (no. 58781) in U.S. National
Museum.
Type locality—Puerto Plata, Dominican
Republic, collected by Hurst. Other localities:
Villa Altagracia, collected in July 1938 by P.
J. Darlington; Constanza, elevation 3,000—
4,000 feet, collected in August 1938 by P. J.
Darlington, both in Dominican Republic.
Remarks.—Three of the eight specimens ex-
amined are deep reddish brown without trace
of the metallic green of the others. Possibly
these are immature specimens.
Metachroma hottense, n. sp.
Fig. 5
About 3 mm in length, broadly oblong,
polished dark metallic green with dark brown
mouthparts, antennae, legs, and undersurface;
head and thorax impunctate, striate punctures
on elytra coarsest below basal callosity, on
sides and at apex becoming indistinct.
Head with interocular space more than half
its width, front broad, flat, impunctate, no
transverse groove between antennal sockets;
the usual groove running up on inner side of
DEIGNAN: RACES OF RED-WHISKERED BULBUL
279
eye. Labrum reddish brown. Antennae scarcely
reaching the middle of the elytra, five basal
joints reddish, distal joints deep piceous, joints
2-4 subequal and shorter than the remainder.
Prothorax not twice as broad as long, moder-
ately convex, with arcuate sides and small
tooth at each angle, surface polished, im-
punctate, basal margin lightly sinuate, an im-
pressed line along it and behind the eyes on
anterior margin. Elytra a little broader than
prothorax with a short intrahumeral sulcus and
a transverse depression below basal callosity,
the striate punctures in this coarser than else-
where, at sides and apex becoming rather in-
distinct; surface polished. Epipleura disappear-
ing shortly before apex; body beneath dark,
shining, lightly pubescent, femora not toothed,
tibiae ridged; middle and hind tibiae emargi-
nate near apex. Length 3.2 mm; width 2 mm.
Type male, M.C.Z. type no. 27826.
Type locality—Desbarriere, Morne La
Hotte, Haiti, near 4,000 feet, collected Octo-
ber 12—14, 1934, by P. J. Darlington.
Remarks—This_ beetle is considerably
smaller than M. nigroviride and the thorax
differs in not being punctate at all.
ORNITHOLOGY .—The races of the red-whiskered bulbul, Pyecnonotus jocosus
(Linnaeus).1 H. G. Deianan, U.S. National Museum.
The red-whiskered bulbuls may be con-
veniently divided into two main groups, in
one of which adults have the red feathers of
the infraocular tuft long and. brighter,
while in the other they have them short and
darker. To the first category belong only
fuscicaudatus, abuensis, pyrrhotis, emeria,
and peguensis. A tentative arrangement of
the races, with descriptions of two new
forms, is offered below.
For the privilege of examining their series
of this species, my thanks are hereby
tendered to the authorities of the American
Museum of Natural History and of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-
delphia.
1. Pycnonotus jocosus fuscicaudatus (Gould)
Otocompsa fuscicaudata Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc.
London, for 1865, pt. 3: 664. March 1866 (‘‘The
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received January
16, 1948.
southern portion of the peninsula of India...
very common in many parts of the Madras
Presidency’’; type locality restricted to the
Nilgiri Hills, Nilgiri Hills District, Madras
Presidency, by Whistler and Kinnear, Journ.
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 756. July 15, 1932).
Range.—Western India, from the Tapti
River south to Cape Comorin and the Salem
District of the Madras Presidency.
2. Pycnonotus jocosus abuensis (Whistler)
Otocompsa jocosa abuensis Whistler, Bull. Brit.
Orn. Club 52: 40. Dec. 1, 1931 (Mount Abu,
Abu District, Sirohi State, South Rajputana
Agency, India).
Range.—Southeastern Rajputana.
Remarks.—This race and the precedent one
differ from all others in the absence of con-
spicuous white tips from the outer tail feathers.
3. Pycnonotus jocosus pyrrhotis (Hodgson)
[[xos] pyrrhotis Hodgson, in J. E. Gray, Zoological
Miscellany, No. 3: 84. “June’’ 1844 (Nepal).
Izxos jocosus v{el]. pyrrhotis “Hodgs.”’ J. E. Gray,
280
Catalogue of the specimens and drawings of
Mammalia and birds of Nepal and Thibet:
89. 1846 (Nepal).
I [xos]. pyrrhotis ‘““Hodgs.’’ Bonaparte, Conspec-
tus generum avium 1: 265, 1850 (India; type
locality here corrected to Nepal, ex Hodgson).
Otocompsa jocosa provincialis Whistler, Bull. Brit.
Orn. Club 52: 40. Dec. 1, 1931 (‘‘Kumaon
Bhabar,”’ United Provinces, India).
Range.—The Valley of Nepal, and northern
India from the eastern Punjab to Bihar.
Remarks.—Under [Ixos] pyrrhotis Hodgson,
1844, we find “J. jocosus? viel]. pyrrhotis,
209.” This seems by the narrowest margin to
validate the name from 1844; if, however, the
reference is rejected, it seems certain that, by
analogy with Opinion 53 of the International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, the
name must be taken from J. E. Gray, 1846.
The first proper description attached to pyr-
rhetis was given by Bonaparte in 1850.
4. Pycnonotus jocosus emeria (Linnaeus)
[Motacilla] Emeria Linnaeus, Systema naturae,
ed. 10, 1: 187. 1758 (Bengal).
[Lantus] Emerita Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed.
12, 1: 1387. 1766 (Bengal).
[Muscicapa] Emeria Linnaeus, Systema naturae,
ed. 12, 1: 326. 1766 (Bengal).
Haematornis erythrotts ‘‘Swains.” J. E. Gray,
Catalogue of the specimens and drawings of
Mammalia and birds of Nepal and Thibet: 89.
1846. Nomen nudum!
I{xos]. erythrotis “Bp. ex Sw. Mus. Lugd.”’ Bona-
parte, Conspectus generum avium 1: 265. 1850
(Java, error; type locality here corrected to Cal-
cutta, Bengal Province, India).
Range.——Lowlands of eastern India from
Madras to Calcutta and possibly farther.
Remarks.—The name erythrolis was, at its
first appearance, a nomen nudum, treated as a
synonym of ‘“‘yocosus”’ of J. E. Gray (not the
true jocosus of Linnaeus), which equals pyr-
rhotis of Hodgson. Since the specimen upon
which Swainson based his MS. name is the
same as served for type to Bonaparte and is,
according to information courteously furnished
me by Dr. G. C. A. Junge, almost certainly an
example of emeria, I feel justified in sinking
the name in synonymy with emeria rather than
with pyrrhotis.
Chasen (Handlist of Malaysian Birds: 204.
1935) altered the type locality of J[xos). ery-
throtis Bonaparte from Java to Tavoy, Tavoy
District, Tenasserim Division, Burma, but Dr.
Junge’s examination of the type specimen has
shown that this ‘‘correction” can not stand.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
5. Pycnonotus jocosus peguensis
(Stuart Baker)
Otocompsa emeria peguensis Stuart Baker, Fauna
of British India, Birds, ed. 2, 1: 396. Aug. 16,
1922 (Pegu Division, Burma, by implication,
and so stated by Stuart Baker, Fauna of British
India, Birds, ed. 2, 7: 81. May 14, 1930; type
locality here restricted to Rangoon, Rangoon
Town District, Pegu Division, Burma).
Range.—Lower Burma from Arakan (San-
doway District) to Tenasserim (Thaton Dis-
trict).
Remarks.—The range given for this form at
the original description was ‘South Chin
Hills and South Kachin Hills to Tenasserim,
Arrakan and the whole of the Central Hills of
Burma, Siam and Shan States. Andamans and
Nicobars.’”’ My material indicates that no less
than four races divide this territory among
themselves, of which one, the bird of Pegu,
differs strikingly from the other three on its
bright, elongated infraocular tufts.
Although I have accepted peguensis as a
valid subspecies here, I am not at all convinced
that this name should not be synonymized
with emerza.
6. Pycnonotus jocosus whistleri, n. subsp.
Type.—U. S. N. M. no. 178729, adult male,
collected at the Cinque Islands (southeast of
Rutland Island), Andaman Islands, Bay of
Bengal, on January 18, 1901, by William L.
Abbott.
Diagnosis.—Nearest P. j. peguensis in the
brownish tone of the upperparts, but easily
separable from that race by having the feath-
ers of the infraocular tuft distinctly shorter and
usually darker, and by having the bill, sex for
sex, decidedly longer and more robust.
Range.—Andaman Islands; Nicobar Islands
(introduced, fide Davison, in Hume, Stray
Feathers 2: 225. 1874).
Remarks.—Thirteen winter-taken specimens
of P. j. whistleri have been compared with 5
similar examples of P. 7. peguensis and 29 of the
Malayo-Siamese race. For distinctions between
the last-mentioned and whistlert, see below.
7. Pycnonotus jocosus pattani, n. subsp.
Type—vU. 8S. N. M. no. 330406, adult male,
collected at Pattani (lat. 6°50’ N., long. 101°-
15’ E.), Pattani Province, southernmost Siam,
on January 26, 1931, by Hugh M. Smith (ori-
ginal number 4479).
Ava. 15, 1948
Diagnosis.—Nearest P. j. fuscicaudatus in
the cold grayish-brown tone of the upperparts,
but immediately separable from that race by
having the feathers of the infraocular tuft short
and dark and the majority of the rectrices con-
spicuously tipped with white.
From P. 7. whistleri distinguished by having
the brown of the upperparts paler and grayer,
and by having the bill, sex for sex, shorter and
less robust.
From P. 7. monticola easily separated by
having the brown of the upperparts much
paler and grayer.
Range.—Indochine south of central Annam
and Haut-Laos, all Siam, and Malaya south to
Penang Island and Kelantan State.
Remarks.—I can find no character by which
southern birds can be distinguished from more
northern ones. Specimens before me from the
Malay Peninsula seem to have the broken pec-
toral band more nearly joined across the breast,
but this could easily result from their having
the body less tightly stuffed with cotton.
8. Pycnonotus jocosus monticola (McClelland)
Ixos monticola McClelland, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon-
don, March 1840, pt. 7: 160 (‘‘Kossia moun-
tains,’ Khasi and Jaintia Hills District, Surma
Valley and Hill Division, Assam Province,
India).
Otocompsa jocosa hainanensis Hachisuka, Orn.
*"S
PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY
281
Soc. Japan Supp]. Publ. No. 15: 74. Oct. 30,
1939 (Nauchan, Hainan Island).
Range.—Sikkim; Bhutan; Assam; northern
Burma and the Shan States; Yunnan; Indo-
chine north of the range of P. 7. pattani.
Remarks.—I was at first inclined to place all
birds from localities between Sikkim and Hong-
kong under the name jocosus, as has been done
by British ornithologists, but three Kwantung
specimens have the upperparts so much paler
than the rest, that for the present I shall keep
them apart. McClelland’s name is available
for the darker populations, but it must be re-
gretted that his type did not come from north-
easternmost Assam, where the saturate colora-
tion of the upperparts reaches its highest de-
velopment.
It is extremely difficult to believe that the
unique specimen of hainanensis is anything but
an escaped cage bird. Whether Hachisuka’s
name should be synonymized with monticola
or with jocosus cannot be decided without
examination of the type.
9. Pycnonetus jocosus jocosus (Linnaeus)
[Lanius] jocosus Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed.
10, 1: 95. 1758 (China; type locality here re-
stricted to Canton, Kwangtung Province).
Range.-—Hongkong, Kwangtung, and ad-
jacent areas of Kwangsi.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
THE ACADEMY
419th MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS
The 419th meeting of the Board of Mana-
gers, held in the Cosmos Club, June 7, 1948,
was called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the Presi-
dent, Dr. Frepmrick D. Rossini. Others
present were H. S. Rappiteye, H. A. Reuper,
W. L. Scumitt, W. W. Dieut, F. M. Deran-
porF, W. N. Fenton, WALTER RaMBERG, C. E.
Wurtz, W. A. Darron, C. A. Berrs, F. B.
SiusBEE, M. A. Mason, O. B. Frencg, C. L.
Gazin, and, by invitation, FRANK THONE.
The Secretary read the following minutes of
the Executive Committee:
The Executive Committee met in Dr. Rossini’s
office at the Bureau of Standards at 8:05 p.m. on
May 26, 1948. The President, Dr. F. D. Ros-
SINI, presided. Others present were: WALTER
RaMBERG, H. 8. Rappteys, W. L. Scumirt, and
C. L. Gazin.
The meeting was called to consider matters per-
taining to the annual meeting, intersociety affairs,
the Index to the JoURNAL, and the ‘“‘Red Book.”
The subject of the annual meeting in January
was discussed, and it was decided to recommend
to the Board of Managers that instead of the cus-
tomary lecture an Academy dinner be held in con-
junction with the regular business of the annual
meeting.
Dr. Schmitt exhibited a page proof of the ‘‘Red
Book”’ and announced that the cost of publication
had been determined as follows: Cost of printing,
slightly less than $2,000; incidental bills including
typing, approximately $500; cost of cuts, a little
over $900; totaling approximately $3,400. Dis-
cussion then arose as to the adequacy of 1,000
copies and it was suggested that the approximately
$200 difference from the maximum of $3,600 al-
lowed for the publication of the ‘‘Red Book’’ be
used to print extra copies and absorb the cost of
distribution. The cost of additional copies was
quoted as $584 per 1,000 and about 60 cents per
copy for a smaller number. Upon further discus-
sion it was proposed that a price of $1 be charged
for outside purchases but that a prepublication
282
price of 75 cents per copy be offered to the Af-
filiated Societies prior to a fixed date, up to which
the printer will agree to keep the type set up. The
motion was then approved that the Committee
recommend to the Board of Managers that the
number of copies above 1,000 to be printed be
determined by the balance remaining from. the
original $3,600 as stated above, allowing approxi-
mately $75 for distribution costs, and increasing
the number still-further by whatever quantity is
ordered by the Affiliated Societies during the pre-
publication period.
The matter of an index to the first 40 volumes
of the JouRNAL, referred to the Executive Com-
mittee by the Board at its 418th meeting, was in-
troduced. After considerable discussion, the Exec-
utive Committee voted to recommend to the
Board that it authorize, for the necessary expenses
of preparing the manuscript, including the mate-
rials, a sum not to exceed $2,000, dispersable as
required during the period 1949 to 1951, inclusive.
It was the feeling of the Committee that outside
funds might be secured for the cost of publication.
The matter of the request on the part of the
Joint Committee on Press Relations that the
Academy pay half of its operating expenses, re-
ferred to the Executive Committee by the Board
of Managers at its 418th meeting, was intro-
duced. The Committee decided to recommend to
the Board that the Academy appropriate to Dr.
Frank Thone for discharge of the Academy obli-
gation $62.10 covering the last part of 1947 and
all of 1948. The Committee then recommended
that the Affiliated Societies be approached con-
cerning the future of the Science Calendar, and if
the response accounts for at least 70 percent of the
annual cost, that the Academy proceed to act as
a collection agency for these contributions from
the Affiliated Societies, add the necessary amount
from its own funds, and continue to support its
share of the project.
The subject of the Science Fair for the sec-
ondary-school children was introduced and after
some discussion of past arrangements and the
manner of its operation in certain other cities, the
Executive Committee approved the motion that a
recommendation be made to the Board that the
Academy appropriate $100 to forward the Sci-
ence Fair in Washington for 1949, provided that
the Fair is sponsored by Science Service, and pro-
vided that the necessary balance is secured from
other soures.
In consideration of the matter of the Science
Calendar and of the Science Fair, discussion was
introduced regarding implementation of inter-
society activities, and the means whereby a closer
coordination might be secured with the Affiliated
Societies in such matters. The Executive Com-
mittee then agreed to recommend to the Board
that the president be authorized to appoint a com-
mittee of vice-presidents to study the question of
providing a more effective bond between the
Academy and the Affiliated Societies.
The Board of Managers considered sepa-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
rately the various recommendations of the
Executive Committee and all were approved
by vote of the Board, with the exception that,
with regard to the recommendation of an
annual dinner, the Board approved, providing
the dinner be less than $5 per person and pre-
ferably less than $3 per person.
As a result of the discussion which ensued
with respect to recommendations regarding the
Joint Committee on Press Relations, the Sec-
retary was instructed to write letters of ap-
preciation to Mr. Darnell for his work in get-
ting up the “Science Calendar’ and to the
three Washington newspapers in which it has
appeared for their cooperation in its publica-
tion. The Secretary was also instructed to
contact the Affiliated Societies in the fall, in
an attempt to secure their cooperation in the
matter of contributions to operating expenses
of the Joint Committee on Press Relations, as
outlined in the recommendation of the Exec-
utive Committee.
The 27 persons nominated for resident mem-
bership in the Academy at the 418th meeting
were elected.
Upon recommendation of the Treasurer,
Howarp S. Rapp.eyYe#, the following resolution
was passed.
RESOLVED, that the Washington Academy of
Sciences transmit its certificates of stock owned in
the Washington Sanitary Improvement Co. to the
Washington Loan and Trust Co., Transfer Agent,
for reissue on the basis of two shares of new stock
for each share of old stock, in accordance with the
plan outlined in the letter of the Washington
Sanitary Improvement Co. under date of May 27,
1948, and that Howard S. Rappleye, Treasurer,
be authorized to prepare the necessary transmit-
tal letter, deliver the certificates, and receive the
new certificates when issued.
Dr. THONE, representing Science Service,
recommended to the Board of Managers that
the Academy extend its interests to participa-
tion in the annual Science Talent Search for
the District of Columbia. Upon discussion, the
Board decided that before committing the
Academy to this program a committee be
appointed by the President to study the gen-
eral matter of encouragement of Science Talent
in the schools of the Washington area, the
manner in which the Academy might partici-
pate, and make recommendations to the Board.
The meeting was adjourned at 10:20 P.M.
C. Lewis Gazin, Secretary.
Aug. 15, 1948
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
1286th Meeting
The 1286th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, October 11, 1947,
President Mouumr presiding.
Program: E. U. Conpon, National Bureau
of Standards: Nuclear forces—There was pre-
sented a general review of the present position
of our knowledge with regard to the nonelec-
tromagnetic forces of interaction between the
fundamental particles of physics, electrons,
protons, and neutrons. The different sources
of experimental information about strength
and range of such forces, such as nuclear mass
defects and angular scattering data were cor-
related. (Author’s abstract.)
1287th Meeting
The 1287th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, October 25, 1947,
President Mou.emr presiding.
Program: Rosuey C. WiuuiAms, University
of Michigan: Recent developments in electron
microscopy.—Some of the recent developments
in electron microscopy during the past three
years have been: (1) the successful microtomy
of sections thin enough to allow 60 kv electrons
to penetrate them, (2) the tissue culture of
cells of sufficient thinness to allow the nucleus
to be observed, (3) the ‘“‘shadow-casting”’ of
minute particulate specimens to improve the
contrast between them and their substrate
background, (4) the microincineration of
biological specimens to afford an estimate of
their ash content, (5) the improvement in
substrate smoothness to allow particles of diam-
eters less than 50A to be photographed, and
(6) the beginnings of an electron lens technique
to allow radioactive specimens to be photo-
graphed by means of their own beta particles.
Development (5) has particularly interested
the author and his colleagues. They have found
that glass is an almost perfectly smooth sub-
strate, with maximum deviations of less than
10A from perfect smoothness. The technique
most adaptable to the photography of ex-
tremely small objects appears to be to cause
the objects to adhere to a cleaned glass surface,
shadow-cast them with uranium sulphide, and
then strip the particles and the uranium sul-
phide film from the glass with a thin film of
collodion. (Author’s abstract.)
PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
283
1288th Meeting
The 1288th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, November §8,
1947, President Mou.er presiding.
Program: D. C. Ginnines, National Bureau
of Standards: The Bunsen ice calorimeter in
modern heat measurements——There was de-
scribed an improved form of a Bunsen ice
calorimeter constructed for use in connection
with measurements of specific heats at high
temperatures (up to 1,000°C.). The ice calorim-
eter was investigated carefully from the
standpoint of high reproducibility and high
accuracy. The calibration factor of the calorim-
eter (from a large number of electrical cali-
bration experiments) was established to be
270.37 +0.06 international joules per gram of
mercury. Using this factor, the density of ice
at 0°C. and one atmosphere pressure was cal-
culated to be 0.91671 +0.00005 g/ml.
The ice calorimeter was used to measure
specific heats at high temperatures by the
“drop” method, that is, heating the sample
in a furnace to a known temperature, dropping
the sample into the calorimeter, and measuring
the heat given up by the sample to the calorim-
eter. Measurements were made in this man-
ner on uranium, uranium trichloride, uranium
tetrachloride, aluminum oxide, p-xylene, and
isopropyl] alcohol. Although the resulting values
of enthalpy were reproducible to about 0.02
percent, an over-all accuracy of about 0.2 per-
cent was estimated from consideration of sys-
tematic errors such as temperature measure-
ment, ete. (Author’s abstract.)
A. I. Dau, National Bureau of Standards:
Temperature measurements in gas streams.—The
temperature indicated by a thermocouple junc-
tion immersed in a stream of hot gas will not,
in general, be that of the gas but will be an
equilibrium temperature representing the state
at which the heat transferred from the gas to
the junction by convection and impact is
balanced by the heat transferred from the
junction to the surroundings by radiation and
conduction. In applications involving temper-
atures above 1,000°F. and velocities up to 200—
300 ft/sec, the radiation effect is generally the
chief source of error.
The effect of gas velocity on temperature
measurements becomes appreciable at veloc-
ities in excess of 300 ft/sec, and increases as
the square of the velocity. At a gas velocity of
284
1,000 ft/sec, the difference between the total
and the static temperature of an air stream is
about 80°F. A thermocouple immersed in the
stream will attain a temperature somewhere
intermediate between the total and static tem-
peratures—assuming no radiation or conduc-
tion losses.
The National Bureau of Standards is con-
ducting a research project for the development
of means of reducing and determining accu-
rately the effects of radiation, conduction, and
gas velocity on temperature measurements in
large-velocity, high-temperature gas streams.
(Author’s abstract.)
1289th Meeting
The 1289th meeting was held jointly with
the Washington Academy of Sciences in the
auditorium of the Cosmos Club, November 20,
1947, President Scumirr of the Academy pre-
siding.
Program: I. I. Raxsi, Columbia University:
The hyperfine structure of the hydrogens and
other atoms.
1290th Meeting
The 1290th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, November 22,
1947, President Moutmr presiding.
Program: J. Howard McMrtuan, Naval
Ordnance Laboratory: Spark shadowgraphy in
hydrodynamics.—The impact of an object on a
water surface compresses the water and
generates a compression wave which spreads
out from the point of impact with the velocity
of sound. If the wave is formed by a fast-mov-
ing sphere, the wave travels as a shock wave
and has a velocity greater than the acoustic
velocity. These shock waves were investigated
by obtaining their spark shadowgrams. Spheres
were shot vertically downward from a rifle
into a tank of water 12 x6 X12 inches with
plexiglass sides. The spark was an electroni-
cally operated noninductive discharge from a
condenser.
The shadowgrams have shown that when
steel spheres with a velocity of 1,000 to 3,000
ft/sec strike the water a compression wave with
a peak of several hundred atmospheres is
generated. The distribution of pressure along
the wave front can be inferred from the shadow-
gram. These impact waves are very strong near
the center of the wave and become quite weak
(acoustic) near the water surface.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
A steel sphere is also set into vibration when
it strikes the water. These vibrations have a
frequency of nearly a megacycle per second,
and a pattern of secondary shock waves ap-
pears on the shadowgram. The frequency of the
waves depends on the velocity of the elastic
wave in the sphere and on the sphere diameter.
By shooting two spheres simultaneously, these
secondary waves interfere to produce areas
of diminished intensity resembling the double-
slit optical diffraction pattern.
By permitting the shock waves in water to
strike walls having varying acoustic impedanc-
-es lower than that of water, the waves are
observed to reflect with a change in phase.
This change in phase also appears at glancing
reflection for walls of large acoustic impedance.
If specimens of various elastic media, such
as steel and rock, are placed in the water and
struck with a missile, dilatation waves and
Rayleigh surface waves are produced in the
elastic solid. These waves pass into the water
and are recorded on the shadowgram. The
orientation of the wave in water permits an
evaluation of the elastic-wave velocity in the
solids.
Spheres shot into water at velocities of 7,000
ft/sec produced shadowgrams of supersonic
travel in water, the velocity of sound in water
being 5,000 ft/sec. From the refraction of the
optical rays the pressure distribution around
the missile and shock wave was inferred. It was
observed that the pressure did not fall off
monotonically in front of the sphere but showed
evidence of small ripples in the pressure distri-
bution. (Author’s abstract.)
A.G. MeN1su, National Bureau of Standards,
presented an informal communication on a new
theory of the origin of cosmic radiation recently
proposed by Menzel and Salisbury. He pointed
out that the low frequency electromagnetic
radiation from the sun, hypothesized for the
theory, could not produce particles of cosmic-
ray energies. Particles would have limiting
velocities equal to that of light and could not
fall far enough in the electric field of the radia-.
tion to acquire the necessary energies. Charged
particles, however, injected into an electro-
magnetic wave at suitable velocities would
travel with the wave in accordance with
the laws of motion of a charge of particle in
crossed electric and magnetic fields. Such par-
ticles might acquire cosmic-ray energies, but
the process could occur only in interstellar
Ava. 15, 1948
space, not within the confines of the solar
system. |
1291st Meeting
The 1291st meeting, the 77th annual meet-
ing, was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos
Club, December 6, 1947, President Mou.er
presiding.
The report of the Treasurer, confirmed by
the report of the auditing committed, showed
an income from dues and interest on invest-
ments of $1,659.41 and expenditures of $1,683.22
leaving a net deficit of $23.81 on ordinary ex-
penses. The ordinary expenses were at the rate
of $3.75 per member. The total estimated as-
sets of the Society showed a decrease of $403.01
from $16,377.48 as of December 1, 1946, to
$15,974.42 as of December 1, 1947.
The joint report of the Secretaries showed
an active membership of 449 as of December 1,
1947, a net gain of 90 active members during
the year.
The following persons were elected to mem-
bership during the year: P. ABrE.son, A. B.
AuLEeNn, R. A. ALPHER, J. ARIsTEI, J. M. Asx-
crorr, J. V. Aranasorr, W. H. Avery, T. F.
Bai, L. I. Barsier, H. C. Beaman, W. G.
Bert, C. L. M. Buocuer, F. G. BRAMMER,
C. W. Brown, V. A. Brown, B. H. Buckine-
HAM, S. A. BuckineHam, D.S. Carper, A. C.
CuartTers, B. F. Coeypieur, E. U. Connon,
J. H. Curtiss, R. K. Dauustrom, S. M. Darr,
Bessiz B. Day, J. Dr Launay, M. F. Distap,
R. L. Dolecek, R. B. Dow, W. H. Dusric,
W. R. Douryes, G. E. Fark, 8. N. Foner, L.
W. Frassr, R. C. Grsss, 8. GirHens, M. P.
Givens, J. W. Granam, D. E. Gray, J: B.
GREEN, S. Harris, G. K. Hartman, H. M.
Hayuor, F. B. Haynes, R. C. Herman, H. G.
Hertz, F. K. Hitt, W. B. Hotton, J. J. Hop-
_ «kins, G. A. Hornbeck, C. R. Horner, B. M.
Horton, J. J. JENSEN, Myrrte R. KELuING-
TON, EvELYN M. Kennepy, R. B. KersHner,
wy) WwW. Krrenens,-J. H. Kuck, C.. J. Lapp,
P. J. Larsen, D. P. Le Gatiey, A. LEVINE,
E. S. Manson, W. H. Marswatt, L. L. Mar-
ton, H. Mason, F. T. McCuurs, E. E. Msr-
KEL, 8. J. Merzimr, C. F. Meyer, H. R. Mrr-
CHELL, T. F. C. Mucumors, G. C. Munro, D.
Netson, P. G. Nuttine, Jr., R. M. Parkes, W.
PERINE, B. Perxins, Jr., R. B. PeTeRsEn,
H. H. Porter, J. W. Ray, Mina Ress, O. F.
Ritzman, A. L. Ropertson, H. M. Ryper, S.
N. Sampurorr, T. W. SHEPPARD, S. SILVER-
PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
285
MAN, EH. F. Smeviizn, E. H. Smiru, 8S. W.
SmitTH, J. H. Srus, C. E. Swartz, H. Tatet,
G. R. Tatum, H. A. Tetuman, H. A. Temr.in,
A. L. THomas, C. A. TRUESDELL, E. A. TurR-
NER, JR., A. J. Wapman, G. V. Wa.po, C. N.
WaARFIELD, F. D. Werner, R. E. Witson, A.
W. WUNDHEILER, C. F. Yost.
The Secretaries reported the deaths of H. G.
Avers, C. A. Bricas, H. 8. Roperts, GEORGE
SINGER, D. F. WINDENBURG.
Following the report of the Committee on
Elections, the following officers were declared
elected for the year 1948: President, WALTER
RaMBERG; Vice Presidents, Francis E. JoHN-
sTON and Frank C. KRraAceExK; Corresponding
Secretary, Autvin G. McNisu; Treasurer,
Arcute I. Manan; Members-at-large of the
General Committee, A. E. Ruark and W. J.
ROONEY.
Program: SHIRLEIGH SILVERMAN, Johns Hop-
kins University Applied Physics Laboratory: A
cinema-spectrograph for photographing rapid
spectral sequences.—A simple spectrograph de-
signed around a 16-mm camera was described.
This spectrograph was built for the purpose of
obtaining spectrograms from light sources
showing transient phenomena, in particular
such light sources as the new types of rocket
and jet combustion engines. The study of the
light emitted from an acetylene-oxygen flame
as a function of time illustrated its usefulness.
(Author’s abstract.)
1292d Meeting
The 1292d meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, December 20,
1947, President RAMBERG presiding.
Program: J. B. Green, Naval Ordnance
Laboratory: The spectra of atoms.—During the
past 50 years, the spectra of atoms have fur-
nished the most fruitful sources of information
regarding the structure of atoms. Even before
the isolation of the electron, the discovery of
the Zeeman effect and its explanation by Lor-
entz gave the physicist a measure of the ratio
e/m.
The very rapid developments in the theory
of atomic spectra, beginning with Bohr’s ex-
planation of the spectrum of hydrogen on the
basis of the Rutherford atom, and the similari-
ties and dissimilarities of this spectrum with
those of other atoms illustrate the correlation
of spectra and atomic structure.
The work of Hund on complex spectrashowed
286
how the entire electron configuration was neces-
sary to define the problem. The variations in
parameters which determine the coupling co-
efficients among the electrons can be deter-
mined theoretically, and measurements of the
Zeeman effect can be used to verify the calcula-
tions.
The study of hyperfine structure and its
Zeeman effect gave us the first clue that the
nucleus of the atom had an intrinsic spin, just
as the study of fine structure led to the first
evidence of intrinsic spin of the electron.
The ionization potentials of atoms were
among the first successes of early theory. It is
recommended that the investigation of broad
lines excited by atoms in states with sufficient
energy to cause auto-ionization be undertaken
as a matter of immediate interest in the de-
velopment of the theory.
During the war great advances in the devel-
opment of near infrared sensitive materials
has given us a powerful tool for the study of
atomic spectra in a region which has hitherto
been practically unexplored. (A uthor’s abstract.)
1293d Meeting
The 1293d meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, January 17, 1948,
President RAMBERG presiding.
The retiring president, Frep L. Mouumr,
National Bureau of Standards, delivered his
presidential address on the subject Mass spectra
of hydrocarbons. This address was published in
this JOURNAL 38: 193-199. 1948.
1294th Meeting
The 1294th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, January 31, 1948,
Vice President JOHNSTON presiding. -
Program: Auvin G. McNisu, National
Bureau of Standards; Radio observations of
meteor trails—Observations of radio echoes
from meteor trails by various investigators
were summarized. It was then explained how
ionization produced by the*impact of meteors
on the upper atmosphere affords a means for
studying processes of recombination, diffusion,
and attachment of electrons in the ionosphere.
(Secretary’s abstract.)
1295th Meeting
The 1295th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, February 14,
1948, President RamBeEre presiding.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8
Program: FREDERICK Seitz, Carnegie Insti-
tute of Technology: The theory of plastic flow
in solids—The high degree of plasticity ex-
hibited by single crystals of metals and close-
packed salts presents a fore-front problem of
the physics of solids. Elementary reasoning
shows that this plasticity must be associated
with the presence of lattice imperfections which
either exist or can be induced with ease in even
the most perfect and pure crystals which are
available at the present time. It was suggested
by Taylor and Orowan in the last decade that
these imperfections are lattice dislocations of
the type first introduced by Prandtl to explain
internal damping in metals. The theory sur-
rounding dislocations has gradually evolved
since it was first proposed, important develop-
ments being introduced by Burgers during the
early years of the recent war. The relationship
between the theory of dislocations and the
observed phenomena of plastic flow in single
crystals of metals is surveyed in a manner that
places particular emphasis upon some of the
most recent developments. (Author’s abstract.)
A. G. McNisuH presented an informal com-
munication describing the peculiar behavior of
the F.-layer in the ionosphere over regions of
the earth’s magnetic equator.
1296th Meeting
The 1296th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, February 28,
1948, President RAMBERG presiding.
Program: JoHN Strrone, Johns Hopkins
University: An extension of the application of
evaporated films.—In this illustrated lecture the
extension of the applications of aluminizing the
astronomical mirrors was traced from its be- ©— |
ginnings, when amateur Philip 8. Fogg’s 6-inch
reflector was aluminized in January 1931, to
its culmination in the aluminization of the 200-
inch Palomar reflector in November 1947. The
first metal tank used to coat mirrors to 12-inch
diameters was shown by lantern slides. The
speaker, together with Dr. Enrique Gaviola, of
the Observatory of Cérdoba, used this tank to
develop methods of parabolizing spheric mir-
rors, and of correcting the figure of imperfect
reflectors, by the deposition of suitably non-
uniform aluminum films. The 40-inch alumi-
nizing tank was illustrated in which the mirrors
of Dr. Hale’s observatory and many mirrors of
the Mount Wilson Observatory were coated.
The use of this equipment culminated in the
Ave. 15, 1948
aluminizing of the Crossley reflector of the
Lick Observatory in December 1933. The 108-
inch aluminizing tank used for coating the 60-
inch and 100-inch telescope mirrors of Mount
Wilson Observatory in February 1935 was
illustrated. Finally Mr. Porter’s excellent draw-
ings of the new Palomar telescope were pro-
jected together with photographs of the alu-
minized 200-inch mirror. Various details of these
large scale operations were discussed. (Author’s
abstract.)
In an informal communication, MIcHAEL
GoupBERG, Navy Department, exhibited sev-
eral models of surfaces resembling ellipsoids of
large eccentricities which share with the sphere
the property of being rotatable through all
possible orientations in space while remaining
in contact with the four faces of a regular tetra-
hedron. The equations of the surfaces and a
mathematical demonstration of their unusual
property were shown.
A second informal communication was pre-
sented by Luoyp Jonns, Naval Gun Factory,
on the use of certain misleading notations in
vector analysis.
1297th Meeting
The 1297th meeting was held in the audi-
torium of the Cosmos Club, March 13, 1948,
President RAMBERG presiding.
Program: JoHn C. Huspparp,! Catholic Uni-
versity of America: Ultrasonic propagation and
its measurement.—The application of ultra-
sonics during the late war to testing and loca-
tion of faults in materials, the finding and
continuous recording of depths in the sea, and
the measurement of position and velocity of
enemy ships, particularly submarines, has
raised the subject to a level of popular appreci-
ation and official support little dreamed of at
the outbreak of hostilities. The great impor-
tance of the subject as compared with audible
sound lies in the range of wave lengths which,
in general, are small compared even with the
dimensions or ordinary tools or apparatus.
The recent development at the University of
Virginia of electric sparks of extremely short
duration has made it possible to photograph
progressive ultrasonic waves,” showing clearly
the effects of diffraction and interference, the
1 Assisted by the Office of Naval Research.
aa. © Hoursarp, I. F. ZARTMAN, and C. R.
Larkin, Journ. Opt. Soc. Amer. 37: 832-836.
1947,
PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
287
spacing of waves in a transparent medium, and
the attenuation and change of form of the
waves as they progress through the medium.
All the experience in this field emphasizes the
making of measurements, where accuracy is
required, at the lowest possible level of inten-
sity. The application of ultrasonics to the study
of elastic and viscous properties of liquids and
amorphous and crystalline solids was discussed
briefly and the usefulness to the physicist and
chemist of ultrasonic data of great precision
was shown by means of a number of illustrative
examples.
1298th Meeting
The 1298th meeting was the occasion of the
Seventeenth Joseph Henry Lecture and was
held in the auditorium of the United States
National Museum, March 27, 1948, President
RAMBERG presiding.
Program: Ropert B. Brops, University of
California: Cosmic-ray mesotrons. This address
will be published in full in this JouRNAL.
1299th Meeting
The 1299th meeting was held in the audi-
torlum of the Cosmos Club, April 10, 1948,
President RAMBERG presiding.
Program: F. ZeRNIcKE, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity: Tolerances in lens errors.
Special Joint Meeting with the Washington
Academy of Sciences
This meeting was held in the auditorium of
the Cosmos Club, April 15, 1948, President
RAMBERG presiding.
Program: Puitipp FRANK, Harvard Univer-
sity: Philosophical interpretations of physical
theories.
1300th Meeting
The 1300th meeting was held in the audito-
rium of the Cosmos Club, April 12, 1948,
President RAMBERG presiding.
Program: Col. Lrsuiz E. Simon, Aberdeen
Proving Ground: Organization and Adminis-
tration of German research in World War II.—
The physical conditions for German research
in World War II, with emphasis on the most
successful kind of research, 1.e., for the Air
Force, were first discussed. Inasmuch as nearly
all research during that time was war research,
research agencies sought to identify themselves
with the armed services; this, combined with
competition between government offices for
288
research services, caused considerable confusion
in the over-all organization for research.
In order to appraise the German effort, the
logical flow of contributions to new articles
was next discussed. Three defects in the Ger-
man system appear. First, organizations re-
sponsible for development and manufacture did
not take research into their confidence. Sec-
ondly, research received too little over-all
supervision, resulting in unwise duplication.
Thirdly, research failed to establish com-
munication with military plans and trends.
Therefore, most new articles originated in the
design state which was based on past research
and were independent of contemporary re-
search. Hence, an enormous amount of research
was unremunerative in this respect.
Study of Germany’s war research demon-
strates that we can not continue to rely on re-
sults of past research. It is the duty of indus-
tries and government to support currently
reasonable amounts of basic research. (Author’s
abstract.)
1301st Meeting
The 1301st meeting was held in the audito-
rium of the Cosmos Club, May 8, 1948, Presi-
dent RAMBERG presiding.
Program: O. S. Durrenpack, Philips Lab-
oratories, Inc.: Magnetic ferrites——Although it
was known that certain ferrites have magnetic
properties, systematic investigation by Snoek,
Verwey, and their co-workers at the Research
Laboratories of the Philips Company at Eind-
hoven, Holland, resulted in the development of
magnetic ferrites having desirable character-
istics for use as cores of transformers and in-
ductance coils. These ferrites, under the trade-
name ‘‘Ferroxcube,”’ are of different’ types for
different applications, but they are all char-
acterized by high resistivities resulting in low
eddy current losses without the necessity of
laminating the cores. The hysteresis losses of
these materials are low also and special types
of ‘‘Ferroxcube”’ have considerable permeabil-
ity at frequencies in the megacycle range.
Typical characteristics of ‘“‘Ferroxcube III,”
which is now in limited production in Eind-
hoven, are:
Initial permeability up 1,000 to 1,500.
Losses, at 60 ke tan 6/u (9.08 to 0.12) X10.
Hysteresis coefficient, at 2 ke (2 to 5) X10~%.
(Author’s abstract.)
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 8 —
H. M. O’Bryan, Research and Development
Board, presented an informal communication
in which he demonstrated a special Perot-
Fabry interferometer.
= =
1302d Meeting
The 1302d meeting was held in the audito-
rium of the Cosmos Club, May 22, 1948, Presi-
dent RAMBERG presiding.
Program: Raurx E. ALpHER, Johns Hopkins
University Applied Physics Laboratory: The
origin of chemical elements.—It is generally
accepted that the present relative abundance of
elements was established in a prestellar stage
of the universe. The direct correlation of rela-
tive abundance with nuclear binding energies
has suggested to several investigators that the
elements were formed in thermodynamic equi-
librium at some high temperature and density
in this prestellar stage. However, without as-
sumptions difficult to justify physically, it is
not possible to explain the abundance of both
light and heavy elements as corresponding to
equilibrium at a given temperature and density.
Because of the rapid change in physical con-
ditions due to the universal expansion, Gamow
suggested several years ago that some non-
equilibrium process must have been respon-
sible for the formation of elements. A process
of successive neutron captures, with interven-
ing beta-decay to correct the neutron-proton
ratio, is indicated by the correlation of nuclei
of large abundance with small neutron capture
cross sections for these nuclei, and vice versa.
Preliminary calculations indicate that a neu-
tron-capture theory leads to the correct relative ©
abundances.
The neutron-capture theory suggests that
the cosmological model for the early stages of —
the universe is one of black body radiation, —
with a trace of matter present in the form of ~
neutrons, protons, and electrons. Some 300 —
seconds after expansion began, the temperature ~
had dropped to 10°°K., below which tempera- |
ture building up of nuclei by successive neutron |
captures could go on. At this time the density —
of matter was of the order 10~* gm/cm3. The ©
process was terminated in a time of the order
of a neutron decay lifetime by neutron decay —
and by the expansion. (Author’s abstract.)
Water L. CHEnry, Recording Secretary.
a a —
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2
Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences
President...... fT lsea in cis aie .- FREDERICK D. Rossin1, National Bureau of Standards
DPR OSES Seen Lie pe eats scp ales eleam « bares C. Lewis Gazin, U. S. National Museum
TE Sea a a ie a st ca .-.- HOWARD S. RAppLEeYeE, Coast and Geodetic Survey
REMI rns Es nig hE gy 5:'a00'S Sa. 0 bate NatTHan R. Suiru, Plant Industry Station
Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications...........0c cece cece ccc scces
TTT ait cto wos iie' ees Hiss apemte Haraup A. Reuper, U. 8. National Museum
Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies:
Philosophical Society of Washington..............-2.000200% WALTER RAMBERG
Anthropological Society of Washington.................... T. Dap STEWART
Biological Society of Washington.............0cc cc eee ees JoHN W. ALDRICH
Chemical Society of Washington. .......... 000 cece cee ees CHaries E. WHITE
Entomological Society of Washington.................00- C. F. W. MuESEBECK
National Geographic Society............c0evceees ipetaton = ALEXANDER WETMORE
Geological Society of Washington...............000ceeees Wiiiiam W. Rusey
Medical Society of the District of Columbia................ FREDERICK O. CoE
Perret: HIsLOrical DOCIECY. 625.5 eos we ces boc ne ees 8a GILBERT GROSVENOR
PoLanies! society of Washington. io... se ccc ewes eaes RONALD BAMFORD
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters........ Wiui1am A. Dayton
Washington Society of Engineers............00e cece cecces CuirrorD A, BETTS
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...............
ec aia As ate of OF deh sia. Rte a sarc a ieee eee ie ase'e 8a OU 8 Francis B. SILSBEE
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers...............
Meme laa e co cae less es a ee Bieié. via at Wa ao fetale nee in Gave Martin A. Mason
Helminthological Society of Washington. Sey ididio Aatee WO. wcas eer AUREL QO. FosTER
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RoGERS
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DoRSEY
Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OwEN B. FRENcH
Elected Members of the Board of Managers:
Meereeraary 1040 eT oo Si oe hee Cee we Max A. McCatu, Watpo L. Scumirr
To Paouery 1950. c's ve ec eee ee F. G. BrRicKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DIEHL
momentary 1951.6 of... ace t es Francis M. Dreranporr, WILLIAM N. FENTON
REGUS Of PICNAQETS 26. oo a sls ion oda ewe bine All the above officers plus the Senior Editor
Board of Editors and Associate Editors......... 0c cece eee e eee eeee [See front cover]
Executive Commitiee......... FREDERICK D.. Rossini (chairman), WaLTER RAMBERG,
RM a a oon S's a Wa.po L. Scumirt, Howarp S. Rappieye, C. Lewis Gazin
LEP RIE OR one 6 aig Ad a gi) cate “a. aw Bie ais wiv! dle wo 's.e Wie'ad wp o'brogan's
Harotp E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Butz, C. WyrHE Cooxz, WILLIAM
...+.... W. DigeHL, Luoyp D. FEtton, REGINA FLANNERY, Grorcr G. Manov
Committee PEL TSONAT, 2S te edhe the ong SOA Saha oe"s we RayMonpD J. SEEGER (chairman),
he! ae FRANK P. CuLLINAN, Frep L. Mouumr, Francis O. Ricz, FRANK THONE
Committee on M onographs:
To January 1949.........0. Lewis V. Jupson (chairman), E>warp A. CHAPIN
me nary L950... Wane cs bn eae ees RoitanD W. Brown, Haraup A. REHDER
MME LOG) eae ak kaa ob we ae ee WiuuiaM N. FENTON, EMMETT W. PRICE
Commitiee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HeERzrE.p, general chairman):
For A MORIUE DRINMEER foe's PL Oke ack ans wie ee a cele hea Undine Wailea agers
C. F. W. Mursssecx (chairman), Harry S. BeERnNToN, CHESTER W. Emmons,
— ELMER Hiceins, Mario Mo.uari, GoTrHoLp STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum
For the Engineering Bech i ho Oe ay eR UE se
Harry Dramonpd (chairman), Luoyp V. BERKNER, Ropert C. Duncan,
HERBERT N. Eaton, Arno C. FIELDNER, FRANK B. Scutrrz, W. D. SUTCLIFFE
ITS ERC: CII WAN Ss ob, gG.c Gong Re vieleie oie acd 4s eke B ohare Ks ewan vb Sew cals
Kart F,. Herzretp (chairman), NarHan L. Drake, Luoyp D. FEtton,
HERBERT INSLEY, WiuuraM J. Rooney, RoBertT SimuHa, Micuarn X, SULLIVAN
Committee on Grants-in-aid OME SEMPER A220 5 Py ered Sg aa Sg Bn wg 5 hee SU Wine
..F. H. H. Ropsrts, Jr. es ie ANNA E. JENKINS, J. LEON SHERESHEVSKY
Representative on Council of NN ews vin WRN wie Pye bina gots ek wa ae FRANK THONE
EME SU RUIDIOT Se ak Cre arse lnc aS ws a's le ORS checks Wiss bp ie dias owed dale tne
Witi1aM G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), Haroup F. Stimson, Hersert L. HALLER
IEEE “MEMLEY Se gh ieee OO, ie ee os oa a hE OS Sh me we aks eee Cees
.JoHN W. McBurney (chairman), Roger G. Bares, Wituiam A. WILDHACKE
CONTENTS
ErHNOLOGY.— Utilization of marine life by the Wampanoag Indians of
Massachusetts. Frank G. Speck and Ratpo W. DExTER.....
Puysics.—Transition from international to absolute electrical units as
it affects the physical chemist. GrorGE W. VINAL............
Botrany.—Heliopsis longipes, a Mexican insecticidal plant species.
Evbert L. revi, di. os ee A ee ee
EnToMOoLoGy.—New species of Metachroma and other chrysomelid
beetles from the West Indies. Dorts H. Buake..............
ORNITHOLOGY.—The races of the red-whiskered bulbul, Pycnonotus
jocosus (Linnaeus). H. G. DEIGNAN J AES 3 6% a er
PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 2). fo 2322 De Vee ae ee eee
PROCEEDINGS. PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY... .....-..2-cc+e cece tes uses
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257
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4
Supremper 15, 1948 No. 9
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vout. 38
SEPTEMBER 15, 1948
No. 9
GEOLOGY .—Some aspects of the geology, petrology, and mineralogy of Switzerland.1
Pau. Nieeu, Mineralogisches-Petrographisches Institut der Eidgenossischen
Technische Hochschule und Universitat Zurich.
T. Faust.)
The Alps are the youngest mountain
range of Europe. Deep valleys, due to
river erosion, allow the study of sequences
of rocks, their metamorphism and folding
within a thickness of some 2,000 to 4,000
meters. In many places a sparse covering of
forest, scree, or snow is present; bare rocks
can be found everywhere. So by climbing
up the cliffs and gullies, by following the
contacts of the rocks, and by collecting
samples of rocks, fossils, and minerals,
Swiss geologists and mineralogists have
been able to build up a geological and petro-
graphical synthesis of their country, based
on evidence that can be directly investi-
gated in the field.
Taken from north to south, the main
zones found in Switzerland are as follows:
(1) The southern part of the Schwarz-
wald (Black Forest), a massif of Hercynian
age, not folded in Tertiary times, upon
which lies the Jura tableland.
(2) The folded Jura or Jura Mountains
proper, resembling a virgation of the Alps
and composed of rocks varying from Trias-
sic to Tertiary age.
(3) The Swiss Plateau or Plain consisting
of a huge thickness of relatively undisturbed
marine and fresh water deposits dating
from the Middle Tertiary. This rock assem-
blage is called ‘‘Molasse,”’ a word originally
meaning soft sandstone in the local Swiss
dialect. Most of this material is derived
from the Alps, in which erosion was setting
in as folding and uplifting gradually began.
Here also we find the more recent glacial
1 Presented before the Geological Society of
Washington, January 14, 1948.
(Communicated by GEORGE
deposits. fluvioglacial gravels, and sands
of Quaternary age, filling out the deeper
part of the broad valleys which traverse the
Swiss Plateau. :
The southern part of the Molasse region
has been affected by the northward push
of the Alps. The layers are no longer hori-
zontal but steeply tilted and sometimes
folded. The Alpine mountain chain had
started to override its own debris.
(4) The fourth important zone in Swit-
zerland is that of the High Calcareous Alps,
which include rocks from the Perm or Trias
to the Tertiary. These mountains belong to
the main chain of the Alps. They show folds,
nappes, and clean-cut thrusts of the sedi-
mentary cover. The latter originates from
the central massifs and is more or less
autochthonous or may derive from the
southern parts of these massifs. These sedi-
ments are said to be of Helvetic origin.
From a general petrographic standpoint we
can unite with the Helvetic High Calcar-
eous Alps the so-called Prealps. These con-
stitute an overlying mass of Mesozoic and
Tertiary rocks, which in some cases are
reduced to isolated outliers (Klippen), re-
maining in certain synclines of the Helvetic
Alps. In other cases they form mountain
areas built of material entirely foreign to
the district in which they stand. The Pre-
alps are composed of nappes piled up on one
another, and there seems to be no doubt
that they must be considered as frontal parts
of Pennine or east-Alpine nappes that have
traveled far to the north in Oligocene and
Miocene times.
(5) In the western part of Switzerland,
south of the Calcareous Alps, lies a broad
289
290
zone of little-altered old igneous rocks,
eneisses, and schists of pre-Triassic age.
These are interrupted by zones of meta-
morphosed post-Triassic sediments. Con-
spicuous in this zone are the so-called cen-
tral massifs, which bear the names Aarmas-
sif, Gotthardmassif, Mont Blanemassif, and
Massif of the Aiguilles Rouges. These mas-
sifs are composed of crystalline rocks of
Hercynian age and were originally cov-
ered by others of post-Hercynian age, rang-
ing from Permian to Tertiary. The Alpine
folding pushed up, often as a series of
slices, the rigid part of the massifs with
the granite nuclei and old schists, while the
softer and more pliable sedimentary cover
was thrown into the succession of folds and
nappes just referred to in connection with
the Helvetic High Calcareous Alps. Be-
tween the crystalline wedges some of the
roots of the Helvetic nappes are still to be
found as more or less highly metamorphosed
sedimentary synclinal zones.
(6) On the whole, the central massifs with
their original sedimentary cover of epi-
continental post-Carbonic rocks belong to
the foreland of the great alpine geosyncline.
To the south of the central massifs, how-
ever, we find the so-called Pennine Nappes,
formed in the geosyncline itself. The rocks
called ‘“‘schistes lustrées’ or ‘‘Bindner-
schiefer’’ represent the metamorphosed
sediments deposited in this geosyncline.
But the older rocks now also form a series
of nappes of which the Simplon-Ticino
nappes are the lower elements. The Casanna
schists of the higher nappes do not belong
to the schistes lustrées of Triassic to Ter-
tiary age, but are Paleozoic. Since they
originate from similar sedimentary rocks,
they often bear a strong resemblance in
their metamorphic state to these schistes
lustrées.
(7) In the eastern Alps the Pennine
Nappes are overridden by the thrusts and
nappes of the Austrides or eastern Alps.
The lower part of this great overlap is very
well developed in the Canton of Grisons,
whence the name Grisonides that has been
given to these units. The main part of the
Austride nappes belongs generally to the
southern coast or Hinterland of the main
Pennine Syncline. And elements of this
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 9
tectonic zone are also to be found in the
western Alps in the zone of the nappe-roots
and in the higher nappes. The Alpine geo-
syncline had, perhaps, a highly complicated
structure and was divided into two main
parts. It seems likely that the Austro-Al-
pine nappes belong to the so-called ‘‘Be-
twixt-mountains” and not to the hinterland
of only one syncline. In any case the sedi-
ments of the Austrides are different in
facies from the Pennine sediments, and
there is no question of the foreward drive of
these rocks over those of the northern main
syncline and the northern foreland.
(8) In the Canton of Ticino and to the
south of the steeply tilted zone of nappe
roots lies a complex of old and younger
rocks in fairly undisturbed position. They
are regarded as belonging to the Dinarides
and are called in Switzerland the rocks of
the ‘‘lake district’? (lakes of Lugano, Lo-
carno, and Como).
From the standpoint of sedimentary pe-
trography five examples are to be found in
Switzerland of sedimentary provinces of
the following types:
(1) The Alpine diluvial-alluvial type of
continental sediments.—This is found in the
topographically young region of high moun-
tains and in the elevated features surround-
ing the Swiss Plateau. It is an association
of residual and talus breccia, cave deposits,
landslide deposits, cobble and boulder beds
deriving from mountain rivers, pebble beds
of fluviatile or fluvioglacial character,
glacial boulder layers of various types,
glacial drifts, grits, sands and silts of fluvia-
tile, lacustrine, glacial, and aeolian deriva-
tion, loam of the slopes, muds, marls and
clays, and freshwater or lake marls called
‘‘Seekreide”’ (that is, ‘ake chalk’’) with
layers of peat and schistose lignites. These
sediments are more or less unconsolidated
and lend themselves readily to the study of
mechanical and statistical analysis. Thus
the shapes and mineralogical composition
can be analyzed and determinations made
of the origin and behavior of the material
during the different kinds of transport.
(2) The molassic or paralic type of sedi-
mentation in a continental trough, the last
marginal deep of the alpine belt. The matter
brought down by rivers and streams from
Sept. 15, 1948
the alpine ranges which had been folded
and uplifted during and after the Oligocene
epoch, provides the constituents of the
Molasse. The coarser conglomeratic depos-
its (Nagelfluh) are of the nature of shore or
delta sediments, deposited under fresh-water
or marine conditions. They play an impor-
tant role in the topography, forming great
cliffs as on the Righi. Sandstones, marls,
and clays, sometimes with lignites and
fresh-water limestones, are the other im-
portant rocks. Two continental periods are
separated by a marine transgression and
ean be correlated with contemporaneous
movements of the Alps. Interior compres-
sion persisted in the Alps during the Plio-
cene and led to the overthrust of the Hel-
vetic Nappes over the Molasse. It can be
seen from the nature of the pebbles and
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NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND
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291
detritic minerals that the uplift and folding
of the Alps began in the south. The first
layers of the Molasse contain material
from the higher tectonic elements only and
were formed before the central massifs
were pushed up and denuded of their sedi-
ments. At the close of the Pliocene the Alps
finally rose up as a huge and lofty mountain
range subjected to erosion by glaciers and
rivers. Much work has been done on the
characterization of the pebbles and heavy
minerals, the processes of diagenesis, lithi-
fication, ete.
(3) The true geosyncline (engeosyncline)
type of sedimentation, represented by a
comprehensive series of sediments of great
thickness and persistent facies, called
schistes lustrées, Biindnerschiefer, and the
younger Flysch. Interbedded in these sedi-
+ % caf
Schaffhausen (65> >
fr
L
x =
‘os
10 20 30 60 S0hkm
Fig. 1.—Sketch map showing the tectonic zones of Switzerland:
Zone 1: Swiss Plateau (Molasse Region)
Zone 2: Zone of folded Molasse
Zone 3: Jura Mountains
Zone 4: Black Forest-Massif (Hercynian)
Zone 5: High Caleareous Alps
Zone 6: Zone of the Prealps:
Zones 7, 8, 9: Central Massifs (7, Aarmassif; 8, Gotthardmassif; 9, Aiguilles-Rouges Massif)
Zone 10: Zone of the Pennine Nappes
Zone 11: Zone of the East Alpine Nappes
Zone 12: Lake District Mountains (Dinarides)
Zone 13: Tertiary Granite of Val Bregaglia,
292
ments are layers of basic igneous rocks,
The whole mass was afterward folded and
transformed into calcareous phyllites, and
greenstones or ophiolites. The series in-
cludes representatives of Triassic, Jurassic,
Cretaceous, and in some regions also of
Tertiary formations. Radiolarites with man-
ganese ores and greenstones are found in
some places, but a typical abyssal or bathyal
facies is lacking. During the sedimentation
the basin was steadily sinking, but in some
zones the folding began to form islands,
arches, and geanticlines. The Flysch fur-
nishes ample proof that in the Eocene some
folded chains were raised up and subjected
to denudation. ;
(4) The epicontinental type of sedimenta-
tion 1s especially to be found in the Calear-
eous Alps and the Jura Mountains. It is
characterized by regressions and trans-
gressions and cyclical changes of facies. The
sediments were laid down on continental
shelfs and are of more or less neritic facies
with frequent reef limestones, greensands,
and oolithic rocks.
The Perm and Trias of northern Switzer-
land include continental and desert sand-
stones, dolomites, beds of gypsum and salt.
They make it probable that evaporations
occurred in lagoons and basins shut off
from the sea.
This great variety of sedimentary prov-
inces, the remarkable changes of facies,
and the stratigraphical sequences have been
an invaluable aid for the geological syn-
thesis of the country. But for the petrolo-
gist the metamorphism of rocks during the
Alpine orogenic cycle and the formation of
mineral parageneses of a peculiar type have
provided the more fascinating subjects to
study.
As the Swiss part of the Alps is, from a
tectonic point of view, one of the best-
known young mountain ranges, it seemed a
promising undertaking to study the rela-
tions between the tectonic events and what
is called alpine dynamic and dynamic-re-
gional metamorphism (dislocation meta-
morphism of the Swiss petrologists). It is
to be remembered that we find in the Alps
rocks of pre- and postcarbonic age and that
many of the older rocks were folded in
Hercynian time. This period of the Upper
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 9
Carboniferous was also a time of great mag-
matic intrusions. All rocks older than Per-
mian have for this reason undergone not
only the Mesozoic-Tertiary dislocation, but
at least one older dislocation metamor-
phism as well. In addition to these, an old
contact metamorphism has left its traces at
many places.
The rocks are, therefore, typically poly-
metamorphic, and at first sight it seems
difficult to establish which of their present
features are due to the influence of the
young Alpine tectonic movements.
Three groups of observations have in the
course of time helped in unraveling of the
phenomena:
(1) In the Schwarzwald are to be found
old rocks quite similar to those occurring
in the central massifs and in the cores of
many nappes. As the Schwarzwald region
lay outside the Alpine orogenic area, such
rocks have there been practically undis-
turbed since Carboniferous times. A com-
parison of the two regions gives clear indi-
cation of any changes the rocks have under-
gone since that time.
(2) Many of the great magmatic intru-
sions in the central massifs and in the nappes
are in respect to the Hercynian folding of
postorogenic character. The magma in-
truded at the end of the Hercynian folding
and remained more or less unaffected by the
latter. Analogous rocks in the Schwarzwald
are true, unmetamorphosed igneous rocks.
All changes suffered by their alpine coun-
terparts must be ascribed to the alpine oro-
genic cycle.
(3) There can be no doubt that in many
parts of the Alps the great masses of solid
rock piled up to form the various nappes
prevented magmatic solutions from ascend- -
ing during the main period of mountain
building and tectonic activity. Triassic and
Mesozoic rocks are wedged between or
folded as a whole into the older rocks and
their metamorphism can only be of the
pure Alpine dislocation type without any
influencing by truly magmatic solutions.
In other parts, especially in the zone of
nappe roots, magmatic migration was con-
temporaneous with some phases of the
tectonic movements. There we find Triassic
and Mesozoic rocks bearing the signs of
Sept. 15, 1948
magmatic contact metamorphism com-
bined with dislocation-metamorphism.
These indications will suffice to show that
Swiss petrologists have a splendid working
field in which to study the metamorphism
of rock masses, subjected to external stress
forces and when brought under new condi-
tions of load and temperature.
You know that the results arrived at
during the petrological exploration of the
Alps have brought with them great ad-
vances in the science of metamorphism. I
need only mention the names of Heim,
Duparc, Grubenmann, and Koenigsberger
in this connection.
The post-Permian rocks of the superficial
nappes of the High Calcareous Alps, the
Prealps, and the Eastern Alpine thrusts —
include dolomites, limestones, marls, clays,
sandstones, and siliceous limestones. They
have generally not suffered much alteration
and resemble normal consolidated sedi-
ments. They do, however, show greater
lithification and hardening than the rocks
of the same age in the Jura Mountains and
are often superior as building stones. But
at the same time they have suffered an ap-
parently plastic deformation and often
exhibit very fine folding and overfolding.
Such folding is often unharmonious, hard
limestones or sandstones being frequently
thrown into few large folds while marls and
clays are puckered into numerous smaller
ones. Harder strata also show the tendency
to glide over the marls and clays and to fold
separately or to break into pieces. But even
in the folded rocks with flowage textures,
joints, and fissures are everywhere to be
found. When the latter occur in limestone,
they are filled with calcite, while those in
siliceous limestones, cherts, and sandstones
predominantly contain quartz. Taken as a
whole the rocks were during the period of
folding a solid aggregate of crystals with
increasing diagenesis. To a large extent the
plastic behavior of the rocks was not due to
the plasticity of the individual crystals.
Different parts of each crystal and different
crystals suffered different stresses. There
was not only a differential movement of the
grains, but also a recrystallization pro-
moted by an interstitial liquid solvent,
present in all these rocks. The solubility
NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND
293
of a crystal is very sensibly increased under
the influencing of shearing stress. Material
can thus be dissolved where minerals or
parts of minerals are under high stress and
added to others or other parts, which at a
given moment are not subjected to the
Same shearing stress. That solutions are
effective even under these epithermal and
not hypabyssal conditions is proved by new
erystallizations out of solutions along
cracks and fissures and in the pressure
shadow of larger crystals or pebbles. Quite
commonly open cavities or crevices were
formed by tensional stresses in the anticlines
and synclines of small folds and were then
suddenly filled with crystallizing solutions.
This seems to be analogous to the well-
known quartz-filled saddle reefs, but the
crystallizing material is always of the same
nature as the rock minerals. There is no
essential transport of material from depth,
no material foreign to the rock to be found
in such formations. This is the first what
we may call embryonic stage in the forma-
tion of the so-called Alpine mineral fissures,
taking place in this case under strongly epi-
thermal conditions. Indeed at many places
in the zone of the Calcareous Alps larger
fissures are met with containing great
crystals of calcite and sometimes of fluorite
or quartz. Even in the Jura Mountains
fissures occur with fine specimens of calcite,
quartz, fluorite, pyrite, marcasite, celes-
tite, and strontianite. There can be no
doubt that they are the product of lateral
secretion. In normal,sedimentary rocks and
in the small fissures only the minerals typi-
cal of diagenetically altered sediments are
found. The temperature was too low to give
more varied reaction products. But in some
intercalations of peculiar composition, the
same filled fissures, originally produced by
stress, now contain a paragenesis of special
minerals which can only derive from the
surrounding medium. Thus at the Gonzen
for example a bedded layer of iron man-
ganese minerals, including hematite, mag-
netite, ferroan-calcite, hausmannite, rhodo-
chrosite, calcite, and quartz, is intercalated
between limestones belonging to the Malm.
The Alpine dislocation metamorphism pro-
duced folding and fracture with a system of
fine joints, cracks, and fissures in the ore
294
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 9
Fig. 2.—Typical alpine mineral fissure. Note the quartzband and the more or less vertical
position in respect to the schistosity of the country rock.
deposit and adjoining rocks. In the iron
ore the small veins and joints contain:
(1) Quartz, siderite, calcite, sometimes
pyrite, or
(2) Stilpnomelane or ripidolite with cal-
cite + quartz.
In fissures within the manganese-rich
part, the minerals are rhodochrosite and
calcite, while in the limestone itself the
filling of the fissures is restricted to calcite
and sometimes a little quartz. Stilpnome-
lane, ripidolite, siderite and rhodochrosite
are in this case the new epithermal vein
minerals and correspond in composition
to that of the mother rock.
A slightly higher degree of deformation is
met with in an east Alpine complex of radio-
larites, red shales, and aptychus-limestones
with a concordant intercalation of man-
ganese minerals, chiefly braunite. The fer-
ruginous shales and the radiolarite (con-
taining some amounts of sodium) are the
rocks directly adjoining the manganese de-
posit. Within the radiolarites many of the
very small fissures are filled with milky
quartz; but in the manganese-ore, quartz 1s
accompanied by new and peculiar hydro-
thermal minerals such as piedmontite, sur-
sassite (a peculiar Mn-zoisite), parsettens-
ite, manganiferous stilpnomelane, tinzen-
ite, a Ca-Mn-silicate with water, sometimes
rhodochrosite, magnanocalcite and rhodo-
nite, also occasionally albite. Some of these
minerals were first found in the fissures of
this locality. As the dislocation and defor-
mation of the rocks took place in several
phases, veins of slightly different age can be
observed with a normal succession of the
minerals quoted. This is due to the fact that
the temperature also was changing during
the period of deformation.
Some illustrations will give you a good
insight into the fissure system and its con-
tent of crystals. It must be added that the
manganese minerals are only found in the
fractured massive ore rock.
Thus we see that the content of the solu-
tions had its origin in the rock itself and
that the local formation of such solutions
proceeded side by side with the processes
of deformation and metamorphism which
in this particular case was slight (forma-
tion of braunite out of silica- and manganif-
erous gels and recrystallization of the
radiolarian ooze with partial destruction of
the organic structure). The filling of and
crystallization within the fissures and open-
ings along the lines of fracture took place
as temperatures tended to fall as a result
of the gradual cessation of the mechanical
strains and of increasing denudation by
erosion.
This is, as we can prove by many exam-
ples, also the history of the formation of the
Alpine fissures in the crystalline rocks of the
central massifs and the pennine nappes.
And it is these which contain the beautifully
developed crystals so characteristic of the
Alpine region, which have found their way
into mineral collections all over the world.
Sept. 15, 1948
Before giving a short summary of the
parageneses of these interesting fissure-
deposits (clefts) or ‘‘Zerrklifte,”’ as they
are called in Switzerland, we must deal with
the alpine metamorphism as manifested
by the rocks in the central massifs and
pennine region. To what extent the meta-
morphism assumes different grades accord-
ing to the position within the system of
uplifts and foldings, is best seen by a study
of the wedged in or folded in syncliness of
younger sediments.
Between the Aar- and Gotthardmassifs
occurs a steeply tilted syncline composed of
Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic strata. A
crystalline thrust-wedge, the Tavetsch-
massif, divides the eastern part of this
syncline into two parts. The southern part
is called the zone of Tavetsch or Urseren
and can be followed over a distance of more
than 90 km along the northern edge of the
Gotthardmassif from the Alp Nadels in the
Canton of Grisons to the valley of the
Rhone. The passes of the Oberalp and Furka
as well as the Urseren valley have been
carved out of it or the schists of the Ta-
vetschmassif. The sediments are those of the
normal cover of the Gotthardmassif with a
SR.
ESE
NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND
295
thick layer of Permain facies called Ver-
rucano, made up of detritus deriving from
the Hercynian folding. The Trias is repre-
sented by quartzites, dolomites and dolo-
mitic marls, and to the Lias belong sandy,
often ferruginous limestones, sandstones,
shales, echinodermal breccia, or compact
limestones. The same strata, but without
the Permian, are present in a sedimentary
zone called the Nufenen Piora zone on the
south side of the Gotthardmassif. Especially
at the east end of the Gotthard pass, in the
neighborhood of Lake Piora and Mount
Scopi, parts of this zone are intensively
folded and squeezed between the rising
Gotthardmassif and the partly inverted
frontal units of the deepest Pennine nappes.
The push exerted by these nappes was
very intensive in this region, and the
erosion enables us to gain an insight into
regions which were originally covered by
higher elements of the upper Pennine
nappes. There can be no doubt that this
southern zone and also the southern parts
of the crystalline rocks of the Gotthard-
massif were subjected to higher stress and
temperatures than were the zone of Ta-
vetsch, Urseren, and the Aarmassif.
Fig. 3.—Quartzband with mineral fissures which have been opened up and emptied.
296
The metamorphic derivatives of the
Triassic and Liassic sediments with rem-
nants of fossils are as follows:
Northern zone:
Dolomite: sometimes converted to marble,
sometimes crushed.
Dolomite marls: metamorphosed to chloritoid
schist with chloritoid porphyroblasts and a
groundmass of quartz, sericite, chlorite,
hematite.
Calcareous sandstones and argillaceous sand-
stones: metamorphosed to: so-called cipo-
lin, a sericite quartzite with or without carbo-
nate.
Clays: converted to phyllite.
Limestones: slight formation of marble and
some crushing.
Southern zone with higher grade of metamorphism:
Dolomites: mainly converted to marble, some-
times squeezed out into lenses. Newly formed
minerals include grammatite, actinolite and
in some places phlogopite.
Dolomite marls: metamorphosed to mica-
schists with biotite, hornblende and often
garnet as porphyroblasts with often a little
sodic plagioclase. In some zones it can be ob-
served that chlorite and biotite were formed
together while in a transitional zone sericite-
albite-chlorite schists occur.
Calcareous marls and limestones: newly formed
minerals are zoisite, epidote, garnet.
Sandstones furnish mica quartzites.
Clays: are transformed into beautiful mica-
schists with biotite or cyanite and staurolite
or garnet as large porphyroblasts. Sometimes
hematite is replaced by magnetite.
All these schists have a freely developed
crystalloblastic, porphyroblastic, or poicilo-
blastic structure with crystal growth under
stress. As a result of differential movement
the growing porphyroblasts often show a
marked rotation with S-shaped inclusions.
The same is true of the chloritoid porphyro-
blasts in the chloritoid schists of the north-
ern zone. Indeed, the movement of the
chloritoid porphyroblasts in respect to the
fine-grained ground mass may be so pro-
nounced as to lead to the formation of
crevices on both sides of the porphyroblast
crystals. Such spaces became filled with
solutions out of which crystallized un-
strained individuals of quartz, chlorite, or
sericite. This is another proof that already
in the stage of metamorphism solvents were
active and that solution followed by re-
newed crystallization was proceeding on a
considerable scale.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 9
In the southern zone the metamorphosed
sediments are often of a coarse-grained
nature and show no relicts of the original
textures. Typical isometric porphyroblasts
such as garnet may have diameters of 1 to
3cm, whereas the length of cyanite, stauro-
lite, or hornblende crystals may attain
several centimeters in length. But in some
of the folded and twisted rocks irregular
open spaces are frequently found. They
were filled with solutions from which quartz,
idiomorphic cyanite, staurolite, and garnet
free from inclusions have crystallized. So
here again there can be no doubt that sol-
vents were active during the period of meta-
morphism. Nevertheless, the succession of
different metamorphic rocks, even when
extreme folding has occurred, accurately
reflects the original sedimentary sequence
with very sharp boundaries between the
original layers. No signs of long distance
diffusions or metasomatism with solutions
coming from below are to be found, and all
observations point to recrystallizations
from locally formed solutions during a long
period of deformation.
Swiss petrologists call metamorphism of
the type found in the northern zone of the
Gotthardmassif epimetamorphis. The rocks
there constitute an epithermal metamorphic
facies. The metamorphism found on the
southern border of the Massif and especially
in the Lukamnier-Piora region, is termed
mesometamorphism, and produces a meso-
thermal metamorphic facies. A study of
the pre-Permain rocks in the Massif itself
and of the rocks of the deepest Pennine
nappes shows that the tectonic events there
are correspondingly more intense. Judged
from the same point of view it is to be
expected that the metamorphism of the
higher and more superficial Austride nappes
will be of epizonal character, while in the
Pennine roots katametamorphism is likely
to prevail. For here intrusions of magma
(basic at first, acidic later on) took place
during the folding and invaded areas in
which a slackening of pressure made itself
felt. The reason for the latter was the
squeezing out by the compressing forces of
material, which making its way northward
went to build the nappes. |
It is not possible in this paper to discuss
<=. _
Supt. 15, 1948
in detail the correctness of these deductions.
We must limit ourselves to an examination
of the metamorphism exhibited by the old
crystalline units of the central massifs,
these being important as containing the
chief localities at which fissure-minerals are
found.
The older rocks of these massifs are as
follows: .
(1) Great complexes of diorites, grano-
diorites, granites and quartz-porphyries of
the post-Hercynian epoch were found in
upper carboniferous times. In the Aarmassif
they are accompanied by syenites and mon-
zonites with an intrusion of related magmas
of rather greater age. Pegmatites, aplites
and lamprophyres as well as porphyritic
rocks are plentiful.
(2) The Hercynian magma was intruded
into old paragneisses and mica schists with
basic intrusions of amphibolitic or perido-
titic character.
(3) A series of old orthogneisses with local
occurrences of old hornfelses, conglomer-
atic gneisses, eclogites, and rarely of Paleo-
zoic limestones.
Apophyses of the old orthogneisses and
of the younger intrusive rocks have pene-
trated, digested and metamorphosed the
schists. At some places fine examples of an
old magmatization are visible and old in-
jection gneisses are frequent.
(4) The permocarboniferous is often con-
cordantly enwrapped and consists of sericite
and muscovite gneisses and schists, con-
glomeratic gneisses, psammitic to pelitic
eneisses with intercalations of permocar-
boniferous quartz porphyries, spilites and
diabases.
The rigid masses of the Hercynian in-
trusive rocks and a great part of the old
gneisses were not folded by the Alpine tec-
tonic movements, which merely compressed
these old Hercynian massifs.
The push of the Pennine nappes from the
Alpine geosyncline was naturally stronger
in the more southern massifs of the Mont
Blane and Gotthard than in those of the
Aiguilles Rouges and Aar farther to the
north.
The old massifs were uplifted and de-
veloped a more or less vertical schistosity.
- However as the push made itself most felt
NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND
297
at the base, a fan-shaped structure has
been produced at many places.
Phenomena of destructive metamor-
phism in the epizone are very widespread
and include the formation slices, zones of
mylonitic or crushed rocks, etc., features
which are very conspicuous in the present
morphology.
Every massif has one or two transversal
anticlines, that is, culminations in the up-
lift, whose axes sink down on each side, pro-
ducing a domelike shape. The greatest cul-
minations are situated on a line running
from north to south, from the valley of the
Reuss to the valley of the Ticino and the
Simplon-Ticino culmination. To the south
of these massif culminations the deepest
nappes outcrop in the depressions, while on
each side the highest nappes are exposed at
the surface and the deeper ones remain in-
visible in depth.
But the schists of the massifs have, as a
result of the compression, everywhere been
brought into a more or less vertical position.
Only at the east end of the Gotthardmassif
could the Pennine and Austrian nappes in
the course of their northward movement
thrust the sinking massif over the rocks of
the Aarmassif.
In the main part of the Gotthardmassif
the metamorphism of the old rocks often
exhibits the following typical features: In
rocks of massive texture quartz has suf-
fered internal fracturing and possesses a
cataclastic structure with some signs of re-
crystallization. Along the planes of strong
differential movements the relicts of larger
quartz crystals have assumed a lenticular
or eye shape (augen) with mortar-structure
in a finely crushed and sometimes recrys-
tallized ground mass. In the mylonites the
intensive crushing is combined with a
schistose texture. But everywhere the de-
structive processes are followed by construc-
tive ones, comprising not only recrystalliza-
tion of the original constituents such as
quartz, but also chemical reactions giving
rise to new minerals. Sericite or muscovite
is formed from alkali-rich feldspar, zoisite,
and epidote from plagioclase, the mixture
of these minerals with newly formed albite
constituting what is called saussurite.
Chlorite develops at the expense of biotite,
298
serpentine and tale from olivine and ortho-
pyroxene, actinolite from augites and the
more complex hornblendes etc. Many min-
erals of complex composition suffer un-
mixing accompanied by the formulation of
iron-ore minerals, rutile, etc. Analogous
mineral changes accompany the metamor-
phism of already metamorphic rocks and,
as we have seen, the newly formed minerals
in the younger sediments exhibit the same
epimetamorphic character.
In the southern part of the Gotthard-
massif in the so-called ‘“Tremola-schists”’
and also in the deepest Pennine nappes a
complete recrystallization of old and young
rocks has taken place under mesozonal
conditions. Granites have been transformed
into two-mica gneisses. And in the zone of
the nappe-roots where pegmatites strike
across the schists, contact metamorphism
of katazonal character is combined with the
dislocation metamorphism.
One effect of the strain of the great tec-
tonic movements, especially in the regions
of the greatest uplifts, was the formation of
torsion cracks and fissures. These developed
in directions more or less perpendicular to
the foliation or schistosity of the rocks and
consequently lie horizontally in the central
massifs and nearly vertically in the nappe-
regions. Larger fissures resulted in massive
rocks under relatively small loads than in
finely foliated paragneisses or paraschists or
in the region of the deepest nappes. Rela-
tively large dimensions were attained by
the fissures especially in the slightly epi-
metamorphic granites of the central mas-
sifs. Here open cavities of the size of caves
were sometimes formed. The solutions cir-
culating in the pores of the metamorphosed
rocks filled the crevices and effected a very
marked decomposition of the surrounding
rocks. It thus often happens that the crev-
ices are surrounded by narrow zones of
altered or leached rocks. As the tectonic
stresses gradually diminished and increas-
ing erosion resulted in a reduction both in
load and temperature, conditions were
attained under which crystallization could
take place out of these solutions or from
others of low temperature which had
joined them. The resulting crystals were
able freely to develop into the spaces occu-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 9
pied by the solutions and thus to attain the
size and perfection often characteristic of
the alpine specimens. In many cases the
leached zone became impregnated with
newly formed crystals. This had the effect
of sealing off the cavities and the contained
solutions from their surroundings. Koenigs-
berger was the first to prove that the newly
formed minerals found in the fissures are
derived chiefly from the surrounding rocks.
Lateral secretion during the period of tec-
tonic deformations followed by ecrystalliza-
tion from the cooling solutions are the fac-
tors leading to their formation. According
to his estimates crystallization may have
started at temperatures of about 350° and
proceeded at intervals down to tempera-
tures of 100° or lower. Many investigations
(some not yet published) by students of the
Federal School of Technology at Ziirich
have confirmed his results and furnished
many additional details about the processes
involved.
The best description and systematic ar-
rangement of the various mineral paragen-
eses found in the alpine fissures were given
in the book published in 1940, Die Mzne-
ralien der Schweizeralpen, by my friend and
collaborator Prof. R. L. Parker, who is also
keeper of the well-known collection of
Swiss minerals at the Swiss Federal Insti-
tute of Technology in Ziirich. He divides
the Swiss section of the Alps into twelve
characteristic areas as follows:
1. Maderanertal
. Guttannen-Goppenstein
. Fellital-Giuf
Géschenera]p and Grimsel
. Oberwallis and Urserental
Tavetsch and Vorderrheintal
. Gotthardpass and Greina
. Adula
. Southern and easterly Grisons
10. Ticino
11. Binnental-Simplon
12. Zermatt
OWOIAD MNP ww
In each region he distinguishes a number of
groups of localities comprising occurrences
belonging to the same mother rock and of
similar paragenesis. The connection that is
thus brought out between mother-rock and
mineral assemblages, is a typical feature of
the Alpine-type localities and one that is
only to be expected if Koenigsberger’s
Sper. 15, 1948
theory of lateral secretion is correct. Of the
_ 58 groups described in the book only a few
can be selected for mention here as illus-
trating the occurrence of typical Alpine
minerals.
In the Maderanertal area, which is situ-
ated in the northern zone of schists in the
Aarmassif, fissures in the paraschists show
the following paragenesis of minerals:
Quartz, adularia, albite, calcite, brookite,
anatase, rutile, apatite, ilmenite, pyrite,
sphene, and monazite. Of the TiO, minerals
brookite is certainly the most conspicuous
and these localities, which include the
famous Grieserntal, furnish the best Swiss
specimens today. Anatase is also frequent
and the two minerals frequently show the
phenomenon known as differentiation in the
fissures. That is to say they either occur on
different walls of the same fissure, or else
appear separately in adjoining fissures.
Cases are, however, frequent in which both
minerals occur in close association, and are
even joined by the third TiO. mineral,
rutile. This is a quite anomalous state of
affairs as according to physical chemical
theory only one of these phases can be
stable. Investigations in the laboratory has
proved rutile to be the actually stable
phase, and this is borne out by the obser-
vation that both brookite and anatase may
be wholly or partially changed into aggre-
gates of fine acicular crystals of rutile. Of
the other minerals quartz may be men-
tioned as very frequently showing ghosts
or phantoms as many as seven or eight be-
ing sometimes visible within a single crys-
tal.
The importance of the Ti02 minerals in the
fissures of para-rocks is confirmed by the
reappearance of similar parageneses in
other areas. Thus in the now largely ex-
hausted fissures of the Adula (area of Vals
Platz) magnificent brookites 3 to 4 cm in
length were found. Here also anatase oc-
curred, and rutile often contained as
needles in the quartz crystals has been
found in superb specimens of rutilated
quartz. In the Tavetsch valley, again, a
similar paragenesis is found in para schists,
though in this case anatase and rutile are
generally far more important than brookite.
The same is true of the fissures in the para-
NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND
299
rocks of the famous Alpe Lercheltini near
the village of Binn in the Valais. Here the
conditions for the crystallization of anatase
must have been ideal ones, for crystals of a
size and richness in form development are
found, which surpass anything found at
other Swiss localities.
It is thus seen that while a given para-
genesis may repeat itself at several or even
many widely separated localities, each one
of these exhibits its own local particularities
as regards the mineral selection, form and
habit development.
Returning to the Maderanertal, we find
intercalated between the schists amphibo-
lites deriving from basic igneous rocks. The
assemblage carried by the fissures in these
rocks is totally different from that just
mentioned and can be given as follows:
Calcite, adularia, quartz, albite, chlorite,
amiant,? sphene, epidote, apatite, prehnite,
pyrite. Especially the appearance of amiant,
sphene, and epidote accurately reflects the
change in chemical composition of the
mother rock and gives rise to crystalliza-
tions as interesting in their way as the ones
just described. In many of the valleys and
ravines at the west end of the Maderanertal
quite unusually rich crystallizations of
amiant occur. The mineral is often of al-
most hairlike habit and may occur in loose
heaps or in a more or less fluffy or felted
state of aggregation, often resembling ani-
mal fur. On the other hand, it may also
assume a more leathery consistence. At
some localities in the west, but especially
to the east of the Maderanertal at the Alp
Cavrein, epidote is found in large crystals
rich in faces and the same is true for crystal
lizations found in the frame work of this
paragenesis in other areas, for instance at
the Kammegg near Guttannen. But quite
the most famous instance of this type of
epidote occurrence lies in the Tyrolese
Alps in the eastern Alps. The Knappen-
wald locality in the Untersulzbachtal pro-
duced what were certainly Europes finest
epidotes in exactly the association given
above and formed under just the conditions
and in a similar mother rock as at the Swiss
localities.
2 An exceedingly fine silky variety of asbestos.
300
Sphene is a very notable constituent of
fissures of this type in some areas, three
well-known examples being the Drun Tobel
just north of Sedrun in the Tavetsch valley,
the Motta Nera in the val Nalps and the
Alpe della Sella. The first and last named of
these places have been famous for large
sphene crystals, in fine V-shaped twins, for
many years. They are often of yellow color.
passing abruptly to green at the ends where
the binary axis passes through the crystal.
The Motta Nera area is a comparatively
recent discovery which has supplied not
only excellent dark brown sphene but also
prehnite in profusion and sometimes very
large crusty specimens. An interesting
feature of the calcite found in this paragen-
esis is the fact that the early crystallizations
are tabular in habit, while at later stages
the chief rhombohedron tends to develop
strongly. Thus calcite plates are sometimes
found covered by rhombohedral elevations.
Rather similar to the amphibolite para-
genesis is that carried by the fissures in the
_ so-called potash-syenite of the Piz Giuf
area. The following list of minerals shows,
however, that the zeolite minerals are often
much more plentifully represented than in
the last case where they are of more inci-
dental occurrence. The mineral assemblage
for syenite fissures is as follows: quartz,
adularia, calcite, chlorite, desmine, scole-
cite, stilbite, apophyllite, laumontite, chab-
azite, amiant, apatite, sphene, epidote, mil-
arite, etc.
Amiant is one of the first minerals to
crystallize and in these fissures is often
shorter and stiffer in form that in the oc-
currences mentioned just now. A point of
genetic interest is the very intimate rela-
tionship between this fissure mineral and
the hornblende in the rock which some-
times shows signs of recrystallization on the
fissure walls with transitions into amiant
fibers. At the other end of the sequence of
crystallization lie the zeolites which are
among the last minerals to separate. In rich
associations comprising all the species just
mentioned, they form crusts covering the
other minerals and especially the quartz
crystals, following every detail of their
contour. It is as though a semiplastic mass
had been molded around the earlier formed
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 9
minerals. An interesting specimen in the
Ziirich collection is a fairly large quartz
crystal which, having attained a certain
weight, broke off from the wall of the fissure
at the bottom of which it was found. The
fractured surface has become covered by
aggregates of desmine which proves that
the break occurred while crystallization was
still in progress. It is in fissures of all types
a common occurrence for quartz to break
off and then regenerate the fractured sur-
face, producing finally crystals without any
apparent center of growth.
In the syenite fissures the quartz crystals
are colorless to dark brown or even black,
the latter being called morion. These vari-
eties appear at quite different localities,
the general rule being that the darkest col-
ored crystals come from the highest points
and usually from such at least 3,000 m
above sea level. This peculiar fact is ex-
plained by Koenigsberger as follows: The
dark coloration is produced by the radio-
active influence of certain constituents in
the mother rock. In order for these to be
effective, low temperatures are required
which is, of course, the case at the highest
localities. Strict comparisons on these lines
are only possible when, as in the Giuf area,
higher and lower localities within the same
mother rock are available. Many of the
quartzes from here are beautifully de-
veloped with several broad trapezohedron.
forms beside the S-faces. They nearly always
show signs of Dauphiné twinning, the com-
bination of two right crystals being, as
several statistical counts have shown, of the
same frequency as the left+left combina-
tion. It must, however, be added that ex-
tensive research, carried out on quartzes
from these and other Swiss localities, have
shown the individuals to possess a very
much more complicated system of twin-
ning (including the brazil law) than can be
inferred from the face development alone.
The Giuf localities are one of the main
sources of what Swiss collectors call ‘“‘Gwin-
del,” that is, twisted quartz crystals. These,
as is well known, consist of a series of indi-
viduals each slightly rotated in position
against their neighbors. The degree to which
these various crystals are intergrown varies
very much from specimen to specimen.
Supt. 15, 1948
Some show very clearly where each indi-
vidual ends and the next one begins and are
called ‘‘open’’ specimens. ‘‘Closed”’ speci-
mens are those in which the intergrowth is
so complete that all individual points have
disappeared and have been substituted by
one long curved edge.
In some fissures from marginal areas of
the syenite the quartz crystals often con-
tain long hollow cavities of rectangular
cross section. It has been shown that they
originally contained anhydrite which has,
however, been redissolved, leaving the hol-
low shape of its crystal form. This redis-
solution took place fairly early as zeolite
minerals have often been deposited within
these ‘‘air pipes” as we call them.
Let us finish this brief survey of the Val
Giuf minerals with a mention of the inter-
esting mineral milarite, so-named by one of
my predecessors in Zirich after the Val
Milar. Unfortunately the mineral does not
occur at the locality after which it is
named, Professor Kenngott having been the
victim of a deception on the part of the
original finder. The actual locality, as is
now known, was the Giuf glacier, and a
pupil of mine, Mr. Huber, has recently
found new occurrences with some excep-
tionally large crystals. Milarite was orig-
inally considered to be a potassium-cal-
cium-aluminium-silicate, but Prof. Charles
Palache in 1931 showed that it contains
beryllium in addition to these elements.
Of the greatest importance for their
mineral fissures are the great granite areas
of the Aar and Gotthard massifs. In the
Aarmassif the granite forms one connected
mass, stretching from the Grimsel area in
the west to beyond the Reuss valley in the
east. The fissures throughout this broad
expanse of mountains all bear much the
Same paragenesis consisting of: Quartz,
calcite, chlorite, fluorite, apatite, hematite,
pyrite. Adularia and albite are not plentiful
in these fissures, which in this respect form
a contrast to most others. Accessory min-
erals are zeolites, epidote, sphene, Ti02-
minerals, and, rather strangely, galena, a
clump or two of which is often found with
the ordinary minerals.
The fissures in this area are often of quite
exceptional size and have sometimes at-
NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND
301
tained the dimensions of caves in the rock.
This was the case at the famous locality
found in 1866 at the Tiefenglacier and again
at a spot quite recently discovered in the
same neighborhood. It must not be thought
however that on entering such a cavern the
discoverers found the walls covered by beau-
tiful crystals. Quite the reverse was the
case. For in the available free space the
quartzes had grown to a size and weight
Ausheutung der Kryliallhéhle
* ? :
« Siefertglet{cber , Carlow ‘Lat «tte Quicjiiot iS;
Fie. 4.—Exploitation of the large mineral fis-
sure on the Tiefenglacier in August 1866 (con-
temporary etching).
which caused them to break off from the
walls and fall on to the floors of the cavities.
However, as there had previously been
copious crystallizations of sandy chlorite
material, they feel on to a soft yielding mass
and so remained imbedded in this material
and quite undamaged. Crystals from the
old Tiefenglacier locality attained a length
of 23 to 3 feet and in some cases a weight of
250 to 260 pounds.
These very large fissures are remarkable
also for their very broad quartzbands.
These consist of granular or massive quartz
which forms as an early crystallization at
the tapering ends and around the fissure-
302
cavities proper. Most fissures possess more
or less quartzband and are frequently dis-
covered by the appearance of this massive
quartz on the rock surface. But in these
cases the bands attained unusual dimen-
sions, sometimes as much as 7 feet. The
exploitation of this fissure assumed the
proportions of a small mining operation,
regular adits being driven into the rock.
That was late in the seventeenth century,
a time when the collectors were only in-
terested in the rock crystal. What is really
the most beautiful mineral of this paragen-
esis, the fluorite, they threw aside and it has
remained for collectors of later generations
to appreciate and study this mineral. It
possesses a very remarkable rose red or pink
color quite unlike the fluorite found else-
where. Many crystals are uniform in color,
but in a beautiful lot of specimens in the
Ziirich collection the cores of the crystals
are pink and the surrounding layers quite
colorless. The commonest form is the octa-
hedron, though the bicolored crystals just
mentioned show the cube also, and others a
trace of the rhombic dodecahedron. It was
long believed that the Aarmassif alone pos-
sessed these pink fluorites, but material of
similar color has been found in pennine
series of the Adula, and in an occurrence in
the Gotthardmassif (Nalps glacier) which
aroused much interest in 1938.
The granite of the Gotthardmassif is (in
contrast to the Aarmassif) not one con-
nected mass, but divided into several sepa-
rate units of rather different mineralogical
and structural composition. To the min-
eralogist one of the most interesting varie-
ties is the Fibbia granite, a rather por-
phyritic rock, building the mountains sur-
rounding the Hostel on the Gotthard pass.
It contains many fissures whose character-
istic paragenesis is as follows:
Adularia, quartz, albite, muscovite, chlo-
rite, hematite or apatite (these minerals very
seldom occur together), and accessories
such as zeolites, pyrite, some Ti02-minerals,
etc. The term adularia as we understand it
generally applies to a colorless transparent
potash feldspar with rather pronounced
pearly luster and a typical crystal habit
dominated by (110)(101) and small to
medium faces of the basal plane (001).
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 38, No. 9
The general aspect is sometimes rather
pseudorhombohedral in character. But
many occurrences of adularia show that
these features do not always appear to-
gether. Thus many fissures contain milky
white crystals of only translucent or even
nontransparent character. On the other
hand, the fissures of the Gotthard granites
show that typically transparent adularia
may assume the elongated prismatic habit
of the Baveno type. The fine crystals found
in this area are very often complex twins,
consisting of four individuals of which ad-
jacent ones are twinned on the Baveno law
while opposite ones show twinning after
Manebach. The appearance of muscovite
in the paragenesis is a characteristic feature
not found in the more northerly Aarmassif.
But undoubtedly the main interest of these
occurrences concentrates on the minerals
hematite and apatite which are found in
specimens of outstanding quality.
The hematite of the Gotthard pass is of
pronouncedly tabular habit and on the
whole not very rich in faces. It shows the
tendency to form subparallel aggregates
much resembling the arrangement of petals
in a filled rose bloom, and this comparison
has caught the imagination of the collectors,
who have long since chosen the name of
iron roses for these groupings.
Very notable specimens have come from
these fissures, some of the finest being as big
as a fist and showing brilliant metallic
luster. Comparisons could be made between
these hematite crystals and the crystallo-
graphically very much more complex speci-
mens occurring at the Alp Cavradi south
of Tschamutt in the Tavetsch valley, but
this would take more time than we can
spare now.
Turning to the apatite crystals, we can
only suppose that the conditions for the
formation of this mineral were quite ideal
ones, for in some fissures it occurs in very
numerous individuals, of sometimes large
size and always very complex development.
It is no rare thing to find 50 or 60 per-
fectly reflecting faces on one small crystal
which may be tabular, short or long, pris-
matic or occasionally bipyramidal in habit.
The crystals are colorless or sometimes of a
pale violet color which, however, like the
Sep. 15, 1948
violet of the rare Swiss amethyst, fades in
sunlight. Some recently found large crystals
are practically opaque and milky white.
In a granite area farther east called the
Cristalina granite, a paragenesis of other
character is found in rather plentiful oc-
currences. It contains the following min-
erals: Adularia, albite, quartz, chlorite,
calcite, muscovite, axinite, apatite, epidote,
sphene. It is the axinite which distinguishes
these localities and often appears in excel-
lent large-sized crystals. Many of them are
chlorite covered and then gray green in
color and without luster; but on specimens
free of chlorite the crystals are of a brilli-
ant purplish to reddish-violet color, and in
every respect equal to the famous ones from
Bourg d’Oisans in the French (Dauphiné)
Alps. The appearance of this boron-silicate
in some quantity is interesting and not easy
to explain satisfactorily out of the mineral
and chemical composition of the mother
rock.
To the south of these granites follows the
zone of the so-called Tremola schists, which
have many fissures with the following min-
eral assemblage: Albite, quartz, calcite,
siderite, ripidolite, rutile, tremolite or
amiant, tourmaline, pyrite, etc. A remark-
able feature of the specimens from these
localities is the morphological development
of the quartz crystals which contrast sharply
with those found in all the more northerly
occurrences. The faces of the prisms and of
the unit rhombohedra are often reduced to
fairly small dimensions, while those of
numerous acute rhombohedra dominate the
habit. This gives the erystals a peculiar
tapering aspect, which is quite typical for
the zone 1n question, but is also found in the
Pennine areas of the Ticino. The habit has
therefore been called the Ticino-habit and
constitutes a classical example of how the
development of a crystal habit depends upon
the surroundings and circumstances under
which it is formed. These quartzes are of
quite unusual limpidity in spite of the fact
that they are often full of inclusions, these
latter consisting chiefly of chlorite, tremo-
lite and tourmaline.
Passing to the fissures of the Pennine
nappes, we can only briefly mention the
famous locality of Campo Lungo, where
NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND
303
the white saccharoid dolomite marble con-
tains many fissures with grey grammatite,
bright green tourmaline, reddish or bluish
crystals of corundum, diaspore and beauti-
fully developed and twinned crystals of
dolomite. Near here a unique paragenesis
was found in fissures of a calcareous phyl-
lite. It contained scapolite crystals of gem
quality which are quite unlike any other
alpine occurrence of this mineral.
A few words must be devoted to the
contents of the fissures found during the
‘3
<&
Fig. 5.—Iron rose (Binnental area). Typical
subparallel aggregate of tabular hematite crystals.
construction of the Simplon tunnel. The
paragenesis included very rich crystalliza-
tions of calcite, dolomite, and siderite be-
side beautiful violet crystals of anhydrite.
Quartz, adularia, albite, chlorite, rutile,
muscovite, and the rare hamlinite (Al-Sr-
phosphate) were other minerals. Both in
composition and aspect these crystalliza-
tions are markedly different from the min-
eral assemblages found in more superficial
fissures. It is worth remarking, however,
that in other tunnels such as the Gotthard
and also in some underground workings as
for instance at Monte Piottino, rather simi-
lar formations have been met with. This
raises the question whether with increasing
depth the character of the fissure fillings
undergoes a certain change and whether
these ‘‘tunnel parageneses’”” as we some-
times call them, are indicative of the type
of mineral formation prevalent in lower
levels than those usually accessible.
304
The most famous locality in the Pennine
area west of the Ticino is, of course, the
Binnental. Reference has already been
made to the superb anatase crystals from
here and I shall presently return to the
unique mineral assemblage found in the
white saccharoid dolomite rock at Lengen-
bach.
Let us now conclude this very rapid sur-
vey of the Alpine fissure deposits with a
brief glance at the famous minerals from the
Zermatt area. These are contained in fis-
sures of basic rocks (metamorphosed gab-
bros, peridotites, etc.) and also in rocks pro-
duced by contact metamorphism of the
basic igneous rocks on limestones. Garnets,
both red and green, the latter sometimes in
large nodular masses, idocrase in lustrous
beautifully developed green or brown crys-
tals, epidote and large well-developed pseu-
dorhombohedral crystals of pennine are
among the minerals more commonly met
with. Perovskite is rarer but also of fairly
frequent occurrence, sometimes in honey
yellow or orange colored nodular masses,
sometimes in well formed reddish brown
cubes. Another mineral sometimes met with
is lasulite in sky blue masses, which can be
cut and polished to make attractive gem
stones.
It is in general true to say that all the
important chemical elements found in the
rocks are also represented in the fissure
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 9
minerals. In what particular mineral or
minerals each element is contained, can
best be seen from Table 1. Under epi to
meso conditions the metamorphic processes
run more or less concurrently with the for-
mation of the crystals in the fissures.
The general succession of order of crys-
tallization of the fissure minerals is given
in Table 2.
The observed facts can be summarized as
follows: The crystallizations often begin
with the formation of alkali feldspar or epi-
dote or amiant. In later stages water-rich
minerals such as muscovite and the zeolites
are formed beside oxides such as hematite,
rutile, etc. From the residual solutions which
have become poor in alkalis and rich in Mg
and earbonate ions, chlorite and the ear-
bonates are the chief minerals to crystallize.
Quartz is in the fissures of silica-rich rocks,
an ‘‘ubiquitous”’ mineral, that is to say one
that can appear in practically all paragen-
eses and at all periods of the crystallization.
In especially quartz-rich rocks, quartz is
without doubt the dominant fissure-min-
eral. Fluid and gaseous inclusions in which
the bubbles disappear on heating, some-
times enable estimates to be made of the
temperatures and pressures prevailing at
the time of crystallization.
The fissure minerals of the Alpine type
are scarcely found elsewhere in the same
parageneses and development. Even in the
TABLE 1. CuHreF PRocESSES LEADING TO THE FORMATION
oF FissuRE MINERALS
Original minerals Processes
Alkali-feldspars. . .
tion
Biotite x ist =a: ay
oxides; release of potash
Augites and
hornblendes........ decomposition and solution
Olinvaner jobs pee Hydrolysis, loss of Fe oxida-
tion
Quartagias. genes Partial solution
Carbonates "57 2 of Partial solution
Decomposition of the calcian
feldspar molecules; solution
Unmixing and partial solu-
Separation of TiO, and Fe-
Loss of Al, Ti, Ca, often Fe-
Crystallization of:
Epidote, prehnite, calcian zeolites. albite,
carbonates, quartz
Potassian feldspar (adularia) and sodian
feldspar (albite), rarely of alkali-zeolites
Chlorite, hematite, limonite, Ti-oxides, be-
side adularia and quartz; sometimes forma-
tion of Fe- and Mg-carbonates
Epidote, hornblende asbestos, calcian zeo-
lites, calcite, dolomite, Fe- and Ti-oxides, or
titanite, quartz
Serpentine or tale and magnesite together
with Fe-oxides
Renewed crystallization of quartz
Renewed crystallization of carbonates
Sept. 15, 1948
NIGGLI: GEOLOGY OF SWITZERLAND 305
TABLE 2. SEQUENCE OF CRYSTALLIZATION OF MINERALS IN FISSURES OF
GNEISSES AND Mica-ScHISTs
(Early stages of crystallization:
First succession:
Water-free or
water-poor
silicates
sometimes hematite, anhydrite.
Muscovite, titanite,
-( Second succession:
fluorite, chlorite, carbonates.
Water-rich
silicates, oxides,
carbonates
Final crystallization:
Calcite, chlorite, prehnite, zeolites.
Alps conditions favorable for their forma-
tions were not everywhere present. They are
found especially in the following regions:
The central massifs from Pelvoux, Grandes
Rousses; Belledone in the Dauphiné to the
Mont Blanc-, the Gotthard- and Aar-mas-
sifs, the Pennine nappes from the Simplon
to the Adula and the great culminations of
the Zillertal alps, Grossvenediger and Sonn-
blick-Hochalm in the eastern Alps. All these
regions are transversal culminations or anti-
clines of the Alpine arc. In the neighborhood
of these great anticlines (and not in the tec-
tonic depressions) conditions were favor-
able for the formation of open fissures dur-
ing the uplift. This in turn was a necessary
condition for the circulation of the solutions
which having gathered their material, were
able to deposit it in the open spaces and
give rise to the mineral specimens we now
admire.
As the chief rocks of the Alps are of nor-
mal chemical composition, the common
fissure minerals themselves are of quite
usual composition also. But where rocks of
special character and chemical composition
were concerned, the peculiar genesis of the
fissure minerals finds its expression in the
appearance of rare mineral species.
This has already been pointed out in
connection with the manganese ore de-
posits and further confirmation is furnished
by the classic mineral locality of Binn in the
Canton of Valais. With the Triassic dolo-
mite rock, found there, is incorporated a
sulphide layer containing as primary min-
Albite, tourmaline, apatite, rutile, anatase,
Amphibole-asbestos, epidote, adularia, usually also quartz.
[Continued crystallization
jot adularia and epidote
| Continued
crystallization
of quartz
hematite, beomaaites some minerals of the
|
Continued Pere ee Wel
J
) first succession
erals pyrite, a little argentiferous galena
and blende, chalcopyrite, and arsenopyrite.
During the Alpine metamorphism the dolo-
mite was converted into a_ saccharoidal
marble while in small cavities new minerals
of the sulpho-salt-type were formed which
are for the most part exceedingly rare spe-
cies. They include lengenbachite, rathite,
hutchinsonite, seligmanite, baumhauerite,
dufrenoysite, jordanite, and sartorite, most
of which were first described from this local-
ity and some of which have never been
found elsewhere. Tennantite, realgar, orpi-
ment, proustite, barite, hyalophane, and
dolomite are other minerals occurring in
these fissures.
Such special paragenes allow a compari-
son to be made with those of the ore de-
posits, as given for instance in Lindgren’s
classification. Judged by their mineral con-
tent and temperature of crystallization the
alpine fissures may be called an autoch-
thonous hydrothermal type of deposit of
meso- to epithermal character. They are
related to ore deposits formed near the sur-
face and also to the deposits of native cop-
per and zeolites in the Lake Superior region.
What is essential is the recognition of the
fact that the fissure minerals were formed in
a more or less closed system during the dis-
location and metamorphism of the rocks
without the participation of substances
contained in solution by ascending waters
or liquors.
Let us recapitulate:
After the chief system of nappes had
306
already developed in the Alps, a very pro-
nounced longitudinal corrugation came into
being during the last phase of the compres-
sion of the Alpine chain. As a result of the
obstruction offered by the crustal masses in
the foreland great culminations and de-
pressions gradually took shape while the
flat mountain land was erected into a sys-
tem of high mountains. Erosion set in and
became increasingly active, though it could
not keep pace with the uplift or carry away
what the folding had built up. In the cul-
mination zones and particularly on the
flanks of the chief uplifts fissures were
formed and quickly filled with aqueous
solutions. These thermal waters had _ be-
come charged with substances previously
dissolved from the surrounding rocks. Crys-
tallization from these solutions set in as the
effects of gradually diminishing pressure and
BIOLOGY.—The principle of priority in biological nomenclature.'
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 9
temperature made themselves felt. In the
course of long crystallization processes crys-
tals of unusual perfection were formed
which today are the ornaments of the
high Alps. The composition and associations
of these minerals give indications as to the
temperatures which must have prevailed in
the mountain area at the time of their for-
mation. Crystal species which at an earlier
period had been formed in the rocks are
found to have become unstable and to have
undergone unmixing and decomposition,
thus giving rise to other minerals. The
search for and collection of these crystals
not only provide aesthetic pleasure but also
furnish much valuable information about
the formation of the Alps themselves, of the
mountain range, which is the backbone of
Switzerland.
RIcHARD E.
BLACKWELDER, U.S. National Museum.
An article under this title by Dr. A. C.
Smith of the Arnold Arboretum appeared
in Chronica Botanica 9: 114-119. 1945. It
consists largely of a critical review of a
paper from the zoological viewpoint by
Franz Heikertinger, published in 1942 in
Germany” which is ‘‘an undisguised attack
on the principle of priority’”®
Both Dr. Heikertinger’s proposal of a
principle of continuity and Dr. Smith’s
critique are of interest to taxonomists in
zoology as well as in botany. The present
remarks are intended to expand Dr. Smith’s
review and to carry on the arguments
against Heikertinger’s proposal.
The goal which Dr. Heikertinger hopes
to attain with his new proposal is very at-
tractive. It is that within 30 years every
species of animal will have one single uni-
versal name in use. This is the millennium
in nomenclature, the goal of complete sta-
bility which has seemed so far away to
most taxonomists. This goal is to be at-
1 Received May 14, 1948.
* HEIKERTINGER, FRANz. Das Nomenklatur-
problem der Gegenwart. Zugleich ein Aufruf an alle
Biologen. Der Biologe, 1942: pp. 20-27.
§ Direct quotations are from Dr. Smith’s paper.
tained by discarding the principle of pri-
ority and substituting for it the so-called
principle of continuity, that ‘“‘the valid
name of a genus or species is the one which
the monographer finds in scientific usage,
regardless of whether or not this is the ear-
liest name.”
This statement of principle immediately
raises several questions which must be
satisfactorily answered before the principle
could be applied in actual practice. (1)
Who is to be accorded the status of monog-
rapher with authority so much above the
ordinary taxonomist? (2) If monographers
disagree, which is to be accepted? (3) How
can biological considerations be kept sepa-
rate from nomenclatural ones, or, as Dr.
Smith implies, are biological facts to fall at
the monographer’s whim along with the
nomenclatural ones? (4) What will happen
when the monographer bases his work on-
totally inadequate bibliographic or taxo-
nomic research and makes an obvious and
demonstrable error? (5) Would complete
stability be reached even with the elimina-
tion of purely nomenclatural changes?
(1) Apparently the question of who is a
monographer is not discussed by Heiker-
Sept. 15, 1948 BLACKWELDER: PRIORITY IN BIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
tinger. There is an implication that the
monographer is someone special, readily
distinguished from other workers. One
group of “monographs’”’ is mentioned that
may give us a clue. Heikertinger states that
zoological nomenclature was more or less
established about 1850, because of the
thorough monographs of that _ period.
Since Heikertinger is an entomologist,
these monographs were probably the large
regional works such as the Naturgeschichte
der Insecten Deutschlands, and the nu-
merous large works of Erichson, Kraatz,
Redtenbacher, Mulsant, and others.
These works were of restricted geographi-
cal scope, being in fact not true monographs
at all but revisions of the species of one re-
gion. They doubtless helped to fix names in
use locally for a few years, but their in-
fluence in the long run depended upon their
accuracy in a broad sense. Stable nomen-
clature can not be based upon the names in
use in one region, and it is to works of this
sort, based on less than a world viewpoint,
that we owe much of the confusion in names
with which we now contend, because the
names were thereby brought into common
usage. A monograph of a genus or large
group for the world will give the only
sound results, both taxonomically and
nomenclaturally. There have been works
of this nature in many groups and at many
times, but no decade produced enough to
claim a stabilizing effect on all zoological
nomenclature.
A publication that has the appearance of
being a monographic study may fall far
short of complete or adequate treatment.
For example, a recent work on a world-
wide genus of insects, purported to deal with
all the known species. It gives keys and
descriptions and distribution and was based
on extensive material obtained from all
over the world. The work thus purports to
be a monograph of the genus. Yet on closer
examination it appears that at least half
of the specific names that had previously
been used in the genus are not mentioned,
and numerous cases of homonymy and ob-
jective synonymy are completely over-
looked. Even if the zoological aspect of this
study is thoroughly and competently
treated, the nomenclatural treatment is so
307
bad that the revision is nearly useless. It is
even possible to find the genotype of one
subgenus listed in a different subgenus! To
accept this work as a monograph for the
purpose of stabilizing names would mean
throwing overboard not only the principle
of priority but also the concept of geno-
types as the anchor of generic names and
the requirement of thoroughness and ac-
curacy for general acceptance.
In short, the only way to define a mono-
graph in the sense of Heikertinger would
be to set up an authority to pass on each
publication. Acceptance of any given work
as a monograph on a certain group of ani-
mals would automatically set up a list of
nomina conservanda for both genera and
species in that group, except for changes
required on taxonomic grounds, as will be
discussed under question 5.
(2) Disagreement between monographers
would be taken care of by the authority
mentioned above. If the acceptance of one
work as a ‘“‘monograph”’ did not serve to
discourage a later work on the same subject,
the authority would have to pass on the
later work when it appeared. Rejection of
the later work would uphold the earlier one,
but acceptance of the later one would per-
haps reverse some nomenclatural as well as
taxonomic decisions and cause name
changes.
(3) Many apparently nomenclatural de-
cisions are based at least in part on purely
taxonomic considerations. Under the law
of priority, the correct name for any species
is the oldest nonpreoccupied name that
has been applied to it, assuming that un-
recognized biological 1dentity with another so-
called species does not exist. This assumption
is seldom expressed but always exists. When
it can be demonstrated that there zs taxo-
nomic identity, there is certain to be a
change in the status of one of the names.
This change is nomenclatural and is made
because of the law of priority, and yet
abolition of that law would not prevent the
change because of the biological considera-
tions.
Nomenclaturally we hold that each
genus must have a type species. The actual
identity of that species cannot be deter-
mined nomenclaturally, however, for it is
308
necessary to make at least a morphological
study of the type specimens of that species
to demonstrate its characteristics. Under
a recent interpretation, apparently em-
ployed by the International Commission
in Opinions 168, 169, 173, 175, 177, 179, and
181, it is even necessary to examine the
specimens that were before the worker who
subsequently selected the genotype. These
are biological considerations, although the
problem of genotype fixation is generally
thought of as primarily nomenclatural.
It is simply impossible in many cases to
separate taxonomic from nomenclatural
considerations, and if nomenclatural prob-
lems are to be decided by the whim of a
monographer, it is difficult to see how we
can prevent confusion of the taxonomic
facts. Dr. Smith interprets Heikertinger’s
position thus: “These zoological mono-
graphs, one is led to believe, should be
preferred to the older often superficial
works, even when the monographic con-
cept of a species differs from the original
concept, and even when this difference in
concept is caused by the monographer’s
misinterpretation of an earlier writer’s
type specimen.”’
(4) Heikertinger appears to believe that
a monographer will always be in a position
to make a sound decision on which name
is in current use. Yet very few studies take
into account all the previous literature and
all the previous specimens. In actuality
our monographs vary from this down to
mere compilations or condensations which
critically evaluate none of the previous
work.
Some decisions of some monographers
would inevitably be demonstrated to be
based on inadequate or erroneous data. To
refuse to reverse such a decision would be
ridiculous, yet the principle of continuity
would require just that.
If writer Jones finds that P. niger is in
use and is to be retained over the older P.
obscurus, does this decision give perma-
nence to P. niger even when it is pointed out
that Jones failed to note that niger is a
junior homonym? This is a strictly nomen-
clatural change, but if both nzgers are in
current use, continuity could save only one
of them.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 9
In view of the low quality of the biblio-
graphic work of some monographers, it is
likely that in some cases a later monog-
rapher would be able to prove that the
first monographer failed to consider a large
number of pertinent works which would
tend to reverse his decision. One world
authority on a family of insects is unable to
keep track of even his own proposals. He
has repeatedly used a name in one genus
not twice but three times. In one case, dis-
covering the homonymy of two of his
names he renamed the younger. The new
name was promptly recognized (by another
worker) as a homonym of another of his
and renamed. Several years later this
writer rediscovered the original homonymy
and again renamed it, using the same new
name as before, now twice a homonym as
well as a junior synonym. This same writer
habitually pays no attention to genotypes.
It is not difficult to believe that any
nomenclatural decision he made in a mono-
graph or elsewhere is at least likely to be
seriously defective.
(5) It is a popular pastime among cer-
tain biologists to ridicule the taxonomists
for the large number of name changes that
are made, generally implying that it is
because of religious fervor for certain Rules
of Nomenclature that such changes are
proposed. In this way nomenclature is often
made to take the blame for all changes of
name. There can be little doubt that this is
a most misleading assumption. Many names
are changed because of discovery of older
synonyms or the recognition of forgotten
homonyms of prior date. These are the only
truly nomenclatural changes. But many
more changes are made (at least in some
groups of organisms) because of generic
transfer, proposal of segregate genera,
recognition of generic equivalence, and
similar purely biological considerations.
And many are made because of nomen-
clatural requirements growing out of zoo-
logical actions, such as renaming of con-
current homonyms produced by union of
genera. In many groups it is not difficult to
demonstrate that a substantial majority of
changes of names over a period of years has
been caused by the second and third means
listed above, namely those involving zoo-
Sept. 15, 1948 BLACKWELDER: PRIORITY IN BIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
logical actions rather than exclusively
nomenclatural ones. These changes can not
be prevented at all by the ‘‘principle of con-
tinuity.”
If Heikertinger’s proposition were to be
adopted and means provided to make it
work, we would still have changes of names
as long as students search out new facts of
relationships of organisms. Some changes
would be prevented, it is true, but these
could probably be prevented more easily by
other means.
The overemphasis on the need for com-
plete stability of nomenclature is demon-
strated by a quotation by Dr. Smith from a
German botanist. This botanist contends
that we fail in our responsibility to our
studying youth by making them unlearn
the names each semester to follow the
latest changes. Dr. Smith replies that this
exaggerated statement “‘scarcely causes us
to shed a tear, since this same (student) is
expected to discard preconceived notions of
all other branches of biological science at
the drop of a chromosome. Why is it that
workers in other fields of biology expect ab-
solute stability of systematics (that is,
~ comparative morphology and its attendant
nomenclatural expression), while they are
willing to accept any degree of flux in the
fields of genetics, physiology, cytology, and
... sociology?”
The reason for this emphasis on stability
is doubtless the desire of these scientists
to have means of tying their experiments
and theories definitely to specific kinds of
organisms, in order to use them for synthesis
and generalization. But this desire for fixed
names is impossible of gratification under
any system as yet dreamed of and should
not be given consideration over the neces-
sity of the science of taxonomy for growth
and development itself. All means should
be found to prevent unnecessary changes
of names, but it is not to be expected that a
rapidly growing science like taxonomy can
309
be for long conducted with an unchanging
set of tools. Nomenclature will become
stable only when monographs of high
quality have been produced, based on all
possible material, bibliographic sources,
and techniques, and even these cannot be
expected to stand indefinitely against new
information and conceptions.
Dr. Smith criticizes the attitude of cer-
tain non-taxonomists as follows: ‘“Too many
criticisms of the present Rules of Nomen-
clature are based upon the assumption that
professional systematists are playing a ma-
licious game which has no relation to the
biological sciences. The authors of these
criticisms tacitly assume that systematists
already have reached all the conclusions
necessary regarding the classification of
plants and animals, and that only their
innate perversity prevents them from pub-
lishing a final and immutable list of the
“correct”? names of all living things. Im-
mutability is not to be found in science,
least of all in a virile branch like sys-
tematics, which builds upon facts disclosed
by many other disciplines, each of which in
itself is vigorous and, as human endeavor
goes, young.”
Systematists can find many reasons for
wanting to reduce to a minimum the
changes of scientific names, but this does
not mean that absolute stability is the
principal goal of systematics or of nomen-
clature. The goal of systematics is to dis-
cover the relationships between organisms
so they may be classified in a usable system.
The goal of nomenclature is to provide a
method of designating the organisms ex-
plicitly, with as much uniformity and
permanence as the growth of the classifica-
tion permits. Any proposal that rates
stability ahead of the advancement of the
science of systematics or the development of
one of its myriad components is a backward
step and one doomed to ultimate failure and
discard.
310
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 9
BOTAN Y.—Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, IV: The Lonchocarpus
rugosus complex and additional Middle American species.'
FREDERICK J.
HERMANN, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
In Part IT of this study (Journ. Washing-
ton Acad. Sci. 38: 11-14. 1948) an attempt
was made to dispose of the various species
of Lonchocarpus described from Middle
America since.the publication in 1917 of
Pittier’s monograph of the species known
from that area. Because of lack of herbar-
ium material, however, 17 of these names
could not at that time be taken into con-
sideration. Specimens of 10 of these have
subsequently become available, through the
courtesy of Dr. C. L. Lundell and of the
Chicago Natural History Museum, and the
result of their study is presented herewith.
Several of the names prove to be referable
to the protean L. rugosus Benth., so a brief
discussion of the variations exhibited by
that species is appended.
Lonchocarpus apricus Lundell, Lloydia 2: 90.
1939 = L. Rucosus Benth., Journ. Linn. Soc.
4:92. 1860; Standley & Steyermark, Fieldi-
ana, Botany, 24(5): 283-284. 1946.
It was not found possible to correlate with
other characters the “numerous approximate
lateral veins of the leaflets” by which L. apricus
was originally set off from L. rugosus and L.
hintoni, nor is this character constant or of
geographical significance. Further ‘‘differences
in pubescence flower size, number of ovules,
and leaf form’’ ascribed to the plant were not
detected except in so far as the cited material
showed a somewhat more appressed pubescence
than most of the collections from Campeche
where Bentham’s type originated. This, how-
ever, is clearly a tendency only and is appar-
ently an ecologic response rather than the
result of geographic factors.
Lonchocarpus belizensis Lundell, Wrightia 1:
55.1945 = L. LUTEOMACULATUS Pittier, Contr.
U.S. Nat. Herb. 20: 64. 1917.
Although the petals of ZL. belizensis are de-
scribed in the original description merely as
dark red, the standard shows a well-defined yel-
low area in the center. This and the large size of
the standard indicate that the alliance of the
plant is with ZL. luteomaculatus rather than
with L. latifolius.
1 Received June 15, 1948.
Pittier’s key (Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 20:
51-52. 1917) does not satisfactorily separate
L. latifolius from L. luteomaculatus. One of the
few reliable differences between the two ap-
pears to be in the shape of the pods. In L.
latifolius these are elliptic and pointed at both
ends; in L. luteomaculatus they vary from al-
most circular to oblong with rounded ends.
The length of the standard (6 mm in L. lati-
folius, 10 mm in L. luteomaculatus) also seems
to be constant. L. latifolius frequently has a
yellow-centered standard like that of L. luteo-
maculatus but when it does it is a less well-
defined ‘‘spot’”’ or area and shades off into the
red background. The inflorescence in L. lati-
folius tends to be in the form of simple racemes
in the upper leaf axils; in L. luteomaculatus
the racemes are more often compound, or the
upper internodes are so greatly shortened that
the numerous racemes become crowded and
appear to be fastigiate and terminal or nearly
so, and at times the inflorescence actually be-
comes a terminal panicle.
Lonchocarpus chiapensis Lundell, Wrightia 1:
152. 1946 =L. PENINSULARIS (Donn. Smith)
Pittier, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 20: 56. 1917.
The specimen (Inst. Fis. Geogr. Costa Rica
13966) from which the characteristics of the
fruit in Pittier’s description of L. peninsularis
were drawn. (Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 20: 57.
1917) has ovate, 1-seeded pods only (and these,
incidentally, are decidedly overripe, hence the
“remarkably recurved carinal margin” which is
consequently an infrequently seen condition).
Plants with oblong, 2- and 3-seeded legumes
are also common, and often both types are
found in a single inflorescence as in the type
of L. chiapensis (Matuda 5008). A similar
situation obtains in L. luteomaculatus. The
leaflets in ZL. chiapensis are conspicuously
punctate, a characteristic omitted from the
original description. In other respects, as well,
the type collection closely matches authentic
material of L. peninsularis.
Lonchocarpus cruentus Lundell, Wrightia 1:
55. 1945 =L. spricreus (Poir.) HBK. Nov.
Gen. & Sp. 6: 383. 1823.
The type of L. cruentus has the nerves on the
Sepr. 15, 1948
upper surfaces of some of the leaflets as strongly
impressed as any to be found in L. sericeus.
Truly impressed nerves in L. sericeus, however,
are not the prevailing condition; only in un-
usual cases can they be said to be plainly im-
pressed. The one difference detected between
L. cruentus and the prevalent form of L. seri-
ceus was in the calyx length of 2.5-4 mm,
rather than 5 mm, but the form with shorter
calyx not infrequently turns up elsewhere, as
in Eggers 1432 from Trinidad (calyx 3 mm
long).
Lonchocarpus gillyi Lundell, Wrightia 1: 56.
1945 =L. rucosus Benth., Journ. Linn. Soc.
4: 92. 1860.
Leaflet size appears to be an altogether un-
reliable diagnostic feature in L. rugosus. In the
majority of instances they may be larger in that
species than are those in the form proposed as
L. gillyt, yet in some specimens of otherwise
typical L. rugosus they are even smaller. The
fact that the racemes are borne on the old
wood in the type of L. gillyi is taxonomically
meaningless. Among others Matuda 4020, re-
ferred by the author of L. gillyi to his L. apri-
cus, likewise has the racemes borne on the old
wood; and the type of L. hidalgensis Lundell
has inflorescences on both the old and the
new branches.
Lonchocarpus hidalgensis Lundell, Wrightia 1:
153. 1946 = L. Rucosus Benth., Journ. Linn.
Soc. 4: 92. 1860.
The purportedly distinguishing character of
axillary racemes in L. hidalgensis is found also
in L. gillyz; in the Chicago Natural History
Museum sheet of Lundell 857, referred by its
collector (Lloydia 2: 92. 1939) to typical L.
rugosus, and in Matuda 4525, referred in the
same paper to L. apricus. Other peculiarities
characterizing L. hidalgensis represent varia-
tions too unstable to merit nomenclatorial
recognition.
Lonchocarpus hintoni Sandwith, Kew Bull.
Mise. Inf. 1936: 4. 19836 =L. RuGosuUS var.
hintoni (Sandwith) comb. nov.
This appears to be the only variant of L.
rugosus, of the several recently proposed as
specifically distinct, deserving of taxonomic
status. So far as known, it is geographically
segregated in the Mexican States of Michoacan,
Guerrero, and México, and is distinguished
from typical L. rugosus by the cinereous stri-
HERMANN: THE LONCHOCARPUS RUGOSUS COMPLEX
oll
gosity of the leaves (except the upper surfaces
of the leaflets which tend to be glabrous and
shining at maturity)and inflorescence, this
being especially pronounced on the pods which
are firmer and more coriaceous than in other
forms, and by flowering before the leaves ex-
pand. These characteristics are striking in their
extreme form, particularly in flowering or
fruiting specimens, but they show considerable >
variation and sterile material very often is
decidedly intermediate.
The locality cited for the Langlassé collection
(No. 108) in the original description of L.
hintont apparently is in southeastern Michoa-
can rather than in Guerrero.
Lonchocarpus nicaraguensis Lundell, Wrightia
1: 154. -1946=L. PENINSULARIS (Donn.
Smith) Pittier, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20:
56. 1917.
The nonimpressed nerves and the clearly
punctate leaflets (the latter feature, however,
not noted in the original description) of the
type material of L. nicaraguensis may well
have been the reason for its affinity having
been surmised to be with L. michelianus rather
than with L. peninsularis. The misplacement
of the latter species in Pittier’s key (Contr.
U.S. Nat. Herb. 20:51, where it is placed under
section Spongoptert of series Impressinervi
instead of under section Punctati of series
Planinervi) was the apparent cause of the
proposal of at least two other synonyms, L.
kerberi Harms and L. purpusiit Brandegee
(cf. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 38: 13.
1948), of this common species.
Lonchocarpus phlebophyllus Standl. & Stey-
erm., Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 23(2): 56. 1944.
This appears to differ from L. ertocarinalis
Micheli only in its apparently consistently
5-leaflets (rather than 7-11) with more numer-
ous nerves. The vein-number has proved to be
of negligible diagnostic value in the closely
related L. rugosus, but it is possible that when
flowering material of L. phlebophyilus has been
collected additional characters may be found
which could be correlated with the anomalous
leaflet number.
Lonchocarpus whitei Lundell, Wrightia 1: 154.
1946 =L. mMinimiFLoRUS Donn. Smith, Bot.
Gaz. 44: 110. 1907.
In the publication of this name no affinity
with other species was suggested, but the type
312
material (in fruit) compares well in all respects
with typical L. minimiflorus, and White &
Gilly 5367 shows the very short, densely sericeus
standard which sets off this species from its
allies in the Series Pubiflort.
LONCHOCARPUS RUGOSUS Benth.
This is the most plentiful of the Middle Amer-
ican Lonchocarpi. It is also the most poly-
morphic of all the species in the genus, not only
in shape, size and venation of the leaflets, in
vesture and in stipule characteristics but also
strikingly so in its pods. Consequently its
variations include much greater extremes than
those that have been singled out as the bases
for most of the recently proposed segregates.
On the basis of a single character most of the
specimens may be readily assorted into two
groups, but the substitution of a second, equal-
ly well-marked, characteristic results in a
very different composition of the two groups.
Furthermore, as soon as a correlation is at-
tempted between two or more of the differ-
entiating features (with the single exception of
var. hintont), the number of recalcitrant in-
termediates becomes disconcerting, as has been
pointed out by Standley and Steyermark in
their discussion of LZ. apricus (Fieldiana, Bot-
any, 24(5): 284. 1946).
Among the most outstanding forms of the
species are those characterized by divergence
in type of pubescence. A copious, shaggy type
of villosity found in combination with very
large (9X2.5 cm), few-nerved leaflets and
large, widely divaricate, persistent stipules
in Steyermark 45744 from Guatemala is so
striking that this plant at first appears to have
little in common with L. rugosus. This villosity
BOTAN Y.—New species of Salix from Szechwan, China.
tional Szechwan University, Chengtu,
Ee@srert H. WALKER.)
The four new species of willows de-
scribed herein were found among the nu-
merous collections that have been made in
Szechwan Province, China, in recent years.
The types are deposited in the herbarium
of the National Szechwan University at
Chengtu. Duplicates are being distributed
to various herbaria in China and the United
States.
1 Received April 22, 1948.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 9
reappears in a similarly pronounced degree in
Schipp 508 from British Honduras, but is
here associated with small, ascending caducous
stipules and moderately nerved leaflets of
average size (4X2 cm). Between this overde-
veloped villosity and the prevalent form with
short, only moderately dense villosity, an
extensive series of transitional stages is found
in innumerable combinations with other char-
acters. In other collections the vesture fluc-
tuates toward either of two additional ex-
tremes; a dense tomentum in such individual
plants as Hinton 6325 from Mexico and Steyer-
mark 51554 from Guatamala, or a compara-
tively sparse strigosity represented by Standley
19254 from El Salvador.
A similarly extensive range of fluctuation is
evident from a comparison of the legumes, from
the standpoint of their shape, size, texture,
type of pubescence or number of seeds; of the
leaflets, from the standpoint of number, size,
texture, venation, or type of apex or base;
or of the characteristics of the inflorescence.
And in each case a similar lack of consistency,
a refusal to submit to the taxonomist’s pen-
chant for pigeon-holing, will be noted.
Extensive field acquaintance with Loncho-
carpus rugosus would doubtless be helpful in
suggesting explanations for its seemingly un-
predictable behavior. From herbarium evi-
dence alone conjectures are risky, but it seems
not altogether improbable that frequently suf-
ficient allowance has not been made for the
influence of environmental factors upon the
species, since it is not only one of the most
widely distributed of the Lonchocarpi but is to
be found in a greater diversity of habitats than
the majority of its congeners.
WeEN-PEI Fane, Na-
Szechwan. (Communicated by
1. Salix triandroides Fang, sp. nov.
Frutex parvus, 2 m altus, cortico laevi,
flavescenti- vel fusco-cinereo. Ramuli erect,
cylindrici, hiemales dense nigrescenti- vel
fusco-tomentosi, vernales glabrescentes. Gem-
mae ovoideae, 8 mm longae, perulis late ovatis
extrinsecus dense cinereo-tomentosis. Folia
alterna, chartacea, glabra, lanceolata vel
oblanceolata, rarius oblongo-ovata vel oblongo-
obovata, 8-5 cm, rarius ad 12 cm longa, 1-1.5
Sept. 15, 1948
em, rarius ad 2.2 cm lata, apice caudato-
acuminata vel breviter acuminata, basi late
cuneata, margine glanduloso-serrulata, supra
atroviridia, subtus pallidiora; costa media
supra obscura subtus prominens; nervi laterales
utrinsecus 5-20, obsoleti; petioli cylindrici, 8
mm longi, glabri, supra canaliculati, subtus
rotundati. Flores coetanei, amenta mascula
2-2.5 cm, rarius ad 3 em longa, flava vel viridi-
flava, densiflora, rhachi albo-pilosa et albo-
pubescente; pedunculi 5-8 mm longi, pube-
scentes, foliis 2 vel 3 suffulti; bracteae flavae
vel fusco-flavae, obovatae, 2 mm _ longae,
utrinque pilosae. Stamina 3, filamentis gracili-
bus 3 mm longis basi villosis, antheris flavis
ovalibus, glandula ventrali simplici flava
oblongo-conicali, glandula dorsali simplici flava
oblonga. Amenta feminea alterna, 2.5-3 cm
longa, viridia, densiflora, rhachi cinereo-pube-
scenti vel pilosa; pedunculi 1-1.5 cm longi,
foliis obovatis 2 vel 3 suffulti; bracteae flave-
scenti-virides, oblongae, 2-3 mm longae, ex-
trinsecus albo-pilosae, intrinsecus glabrae;
ovaria conico-ovoidea, 5 mm longa, viridia,
glabra; pedicelli 1-1.5 mm longi, glabri; stylus
brevior; stigmata divergentia; glandula ven-
tralis flava, oblongo-ovoidea. Amenta fructifera
3-3.5 cm longa, capsulis conico-ovoideis 5 mm
longis flavescenti-viridibus: bractea extus albo-
pilosa; pedicelli 1-1.5 mm, longi, tenues,
glabri.
East or CueEnctu: Tsing-chu-ssu, W. P.
Fang 194279, 19598 3, K. Y. Ning 76602;
Kuan-ying-chiao, W. P. Fang 19411 4%; Wu-
kuai-chiao, K. Y. Ning 79109, 79189.
SOUTHEAST OF CHENGTU: Near Wang-kiang-
meee YY. Ning 7953. 0, 79548, 7955 2;
campus of National Szechwan University, W.
P. Fang 19604 9, 19605 2, 19605A 3%, 19606 &,
19608 #, 19611 9, 19617 9; T’ou-wa-you, W.
foi 769% 9, 7695 9, W. P. Fang 19876.9,
MOHGO 19/15 S, 19417 @, 194184, K. Y.
Ning 7917 3, 7938 3, 7939 3; Chung-shu-chiao
W. K. Hu 76383 3, 7639 %; Kao-pan-chiao, W.
Eee rong 1939/70 8, 19879 0, 198838 9, 19885
(type) 9, 19435 2, 19516 9, 19637 9. SouTH
or New VILLAGE or Cuenectu: W. P. Fang
19322 9, 19393 %, 19440 2. West oF CHENGTU:
Chia-tien-tzu, K. Y. Ning 7962 7. NorTHWEST
of CurEeneTu: Tu-chu-miao, K. Y. Ning
TILT SF, TE48 So.
This new species is nearly always found by a
stream, occasionally by the roadside. All the
cited specimens were collected in the month of
FANG: NEW SPECIES OF SALIX FROM SZECHWAN
313
March, 1945-1947, except K. Y. Ning 7917
and 7933, staminate specimens collected on
February 16, 1946. Fruiting specimens may be
found late in March.
This species is quite distinct from all the
known species. It may be near Salix triandra
L., from which it differs in its shrubby habit
with blackish-gray, densely tomentose branch-
lets in winter, in its short staminate catkins
with oblanceolate bracts which are pilose on
the outer surface, in its pistillate catkins with
glabrous ovaries and oblanceolate bracts which
are longer than the pedicels, and in the lanceo-
late leaves which are pale green but not glau-
cous below. Salix triandra L. is widely dis-
tributed in Europe, northern Asia, and north-
ern Africa, but in China it occurs only along the
eastern coast from Manchuria to. Kiangsu. This
new species is fairly common along the streams
in the vicinity of Chengtu. The young leaves of
the flowering branchlets are ovate or obovate,
but adult ones on the leafy branches are usually
lanceolate, and those from the stout branches
are exceptionally large in size.
2. Salix neowilsonii Fang, sp. nov.
Arbor 6-15 m alta, cortice fusco-cinereo
sulcato. Ramuli erecti, teretes, graciles, glabri;
hornotini purpureo-virides, annotini fusco-
virides vel pallido-virides. Gemmae conoideae,
6 mm longae, perulis late ovatis fuscis pube-
scentibus; bracteae 2, obovatae, membrana-
ceae, fusco-virides. Folia alterna, chartacea,
glabra, lanceolata, 6-14 cm longa, 2.5-4 cm
lata, apice acuminata vel abrupte acuminata,
basi cuneata, margine adpresse glanduloso-
serrulata, supra atroviridia, subtus pallidiora,
costa media supra distincta, subtus prominente,
nervis lateralibus utrinsecus 25-30 obsoletis;
petioli graciles, 1-2 cm longi, supra canaliculati,
primum pubescentes et purpurescentes, adulti
glabri et virides, tandem rubri, apice 2- rarius
4-olandulosi; stipulae deciduae. Flores coetanei;
amenta mascula viridi-flava, cylindrica, 3.5—4.5
em, rarius ad 6.5 em longa, laxiflora; rhachis
albo-pubescens; pedunculi 7-10 mm _ longi,
albo-pubescentes, foliis 2—6 suffulti; bracteae
oblongae, 2 mm longae, flavescenti-virides, ex-
trinsecus sparse pubescentes, intrinsecus pube-
scentes et margine ciliatae. Stamina 3-5, in-
aequalia, plerumque 2 longiora circa 4 mm
longa, 3 breviora circa 2 mm longa; filamenta
gracilia, sursum glabra, basi villosa; antherae
subovoideae, flavae, glandulis ventralibus et
314
dorsalibus flavis pseudodiscum formantibus.
Amenta feminea et fructus ignoti.
Kast oF Cuenetu: Near Tsing-chu-ssu, W.
P. Fang 19408 (type). SoUTHEAST OF CHENGTU:
Wang-kiang-lau, near Lei-shun-miao, K. Y.
Ning 7956, W. P. Fang 19616, 19628, 19378,
19405; campus of National Szechwan Univer-
sity, W. P. Fang 19414, 19610; T’ou-wa-you,
Ke iin Ning TOSI 7982,. 7984, We Phang
19414: near the Arsenal, K. Y. Ning 7937, W.
P. Fang 19438, 19434; Kao-pan-chiao, K. Y.
Ning 7948. SouTH oF CuENGTu: Outside the
new south gate, W. P. Fang 19390; Hua-hsi-pa,
W. P. Fang 19390A. West oF CHENGTU:
Tsing-young-kon, K. Y. Ning 7981; Tao-chu-
miao, K. Y. Ning 7949; Cha-tien-tzu, K. Y.
Ning 7964; King-niu-pa K. Y. Ning 7972,
7976. NoRTHWEsST OF CHENGTU: Chiang-chun-
pao, kK. Y. Ning 7981; Chung-cheng Memorial
Park of Chengtu, W. P. Fang 19634 (culti-
vated). SouTHWEST OF CHENGTU: Pei hua-
tan; WoPR. Fang, 12041, 18272:
This new species is closely related to Salix
wilsonit Seemen but is separated easily from
that species by the branches and leaves which
are glabrous even during the young stage, by
the petioles which are provided with 2 or 4
glands near the apex, and by the oblong bracts
which are pubescent on the inner surface. Al-
though we have not yet found the pistillate
flowers, the material on hand is sufficient to
indicate an undescribed species. The tree is
usually cultivated as an avenue-tree in the
vicinity of Chengtu.
3. Salix hsinhsuaniana Fang, sp. nov.
Frutex 1 vel 2 m altus, cortice nigrescenti-
cinereo laevi. Ramuli graciles, teretes; horno-
tini pubescentes; annotini glabrescentes, pur-
pureo-virides. Gemmae conicae, fusco-pur-
pureae, glabrescentes. Folia decidua, alterna,
chartacea, elliptica vel elliptico-oblonga vel
elliptico-oblanceolata, 2-2.5 em longa, 8-10
mm lata, apice obtussa vel subrotundata, basi
obtusa vel late cuneata, margine integra, supra
atroviridia, glabra, costa media puberula ex-
cepta, subtus viridia, juvenilia sparse tomentosa
vel villosa, maturitate glabrescentia; costa
media supra depressa subtus conspicua; nervi
laterales utrinsecus 8-10 supra obsoleti, subtus
conspicul; petioli 2-3 mm longi, juveniles
pubescentes, maturitate glabri. Flores sero-
tini; amenta masculina fusco-flava, densiflora,
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 9
cylindrica, 2—2.5 em longa, 7 mm crassa, rhachi
albo-villosa; pedunculi 1-1.2 cm longi, pube-
scentes, foliis normalibus 3—4 suffulti. Stamina
2 plerumque 3 mm longa; filamenta gracilis,
glabra nisiad medium villosum; antherae sub-
globosae, fusco-purpureae; bracteae ovatae,
0.8 mm longae, glabrae, margine ciliatae;
glandulae ventrales purpurescenti-flavae, ob-
longae, plerumque 0.2 mm longae. Amenta
feminea densiflora, cylindrica, 3-4 em longa,
6 mm crassa, rhachi villosa; pedunculi 1—1.5
em longi, cinereo-villosi, foliis normalibus 2-3
suffulti; ovaria sessilia longo-conico-ovoidea,
2 mm longa, fusca, glabra, stylis gracilibus
2-lobatis, stigmate subcapitato; bracteae sub-
orbiculares, 0.4 mm longae, glabrae, margine
sparse ciliatae; glandulae ventrales flavae
oblongae, quam bracteae breviores. Capsulae
sessiles, 5 mm longae.
SzEcHWAN: Mount Omei: Chin-ting, alt.
3135 m, H. C. Chow 7670 June 27, 1938 (pistil-
late flower, type); en route from Chin-ting to
Chien-fu-ting, alt. 3150, common in thickets,
C. L. Sun 445, June 10, 1939, Chien-fu-ting,
alt. 3,150 m,-T..C.. Lee. 28467 July cameo
(typical of fruit), W. P. Fang 19002, June 18,
1942 (typical of staminate flower).
Srtkana: Tien-chun-hsien (formerly known
as Mupin), K.0G. Chu_2317,2Apmiai 2 ieee
This new species is near Salix luctuosa
Léveillé, from which it differs in the bracts of
both staminate and pistillate flowers, which are
glabrous on both surfaces, although they are
ciliate on the margin, and in the ventral glands
which are much shorter than the bracts.
This new species is named in honor of Prof.
Hsin-hsuan Chung, of the National Wuhan
University, under whose direction H. C. Chow
made several expeditions on Mount Omei.
The pistillate flower is here described from a
duplicate set of their collections kindly sent by
Professor Chung.
4, Salix chuniana Fang, sp. nov.
Frutex 38-5 m altus, cortice nigro-fusco.
Ramuli graciles, teretes; hornotini virides vel
purpureo-virides, pubescentes; annotini flave-
scenti-fusci vel nigro-fusci, glabri. Gemmae
conicae, 7 mm longae, fuscae, sparse pube-
rulae. Folia alterna, chartacea, lanceolata, basi
late cuneata vel subrotundata, margine leviter
appresso-serrulata, supra atroviridia, juvenilia
sparse pubescentia, maturitate glabrescentia,
Sept. 15, 1948
costa media pubescenti excepta; nervi laterales
plerumque obsoleti; folia subtus cinerescenti-
viridia, leviter glauca, flavescenti- vel albo-
sericeo-tomentosa; costa media prominens;
nervi laterales utrinsecus 11-13, conspicui,
incurvati; petioli graciles, 5-8 mm longi, supra
canaliculati, subtus rotundati, tomentosi vel
pubescentes. Flores serotini; amenta masculina
ignota; amenta feminea laxiflora cylindrica,
4.5-5 em longa, 4 mm lata, basi efoliosa;
rhachis pubescens; pedunculi 5-7 mm longi
albo- vel flavescenti-pubescentes; bractae ob-
longo-ovatae 0.5-0.8 mm longae, utrinsecus
albo- vel flavescenti-sericeo-tomentosae; ovaria
subsessilia, conico-ovoidea, 2 mm longa, sparse
glandulosa ad basin et plerumque sparse vil-
losa, stigmate 3- vel 4-lobato, glandula ven-
trali flava, lineari, 1 mm longa, plerumque
quam bractae longiore ovarium medium ae-
quante. Fructus subsessilis; capsula 5 mm longa
sparse villosa.
SzecHWAN: Mount Omei: Tsuan-tien-po,
alt. 2000 m, in thickets, C. L. Sun 284 (type);
Opien-hsien, Wa-shan, in forests, C. L. Sun
FOX: TWO NEW ITHOMIINAE
O15
1073; Mount Omei, W. C. Cheng 10314, C. W.
Yao 2315, 2345, 3866.
All were pistillate specimens collected in
May except Sun 1073 in fruit collected in
August.
Although the staminate flower has not been
seen, this is a very distinct new species in the
section Chingianae Hao. It is near Salix reh-
deriana Schneider in general appearance but
differs in the habit of flowering after the leaves
and in the pedunculate long and narrow pistil-
late catkins, which are leafless at the base. The
flowers of Salix rehderiana are precocious and
the sessile catkin is just 2.5 cm in length and
8 mm in width, and provided with two or three
normal lanceolate leaves at the base of the
inflorescence.
This new species is named in honor of my
former teacher, Prof. Woon-Young Chun, the
founder of the Botanical Institute of the Na-
tional Sun Yatsen University at Canton, and
the leading systematic botanist in China, for
his unceasing devotion to floristic investigation
and his encouragement to young botanists.
ENTOMOLOGY .—Two new Ithomiinae in the Schaus collection (Lepidoptera:
Nymphalidae)
EK. A. CHAPIN.)
The two butterflies described here are
from the collection of the late Dr. William
Schaus, which is now part of the United
States National Museum collection of
Lepidoptera. A few years ago the writer was
invited by Dr. Schaus to study the itho-
mines he had accumulated, and through
the courtesy of the National Museum and
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia was enabled to do so. Some of
the species and subspecies discovered
among this material already have been
published upon.’ |
Pteronymia schausi, n. sp.
This series, labeled ‘‘Colombia,’”’ approxi-
mates P. tucuna (Bates),? a number of speci-
mens of which I have seen from northern Peru.
1 Received March 7, 1948.
* Fox, R. M. New Ithomiinae, Sci. Publ. Read-
ing Public Mus. 2: 34 pp., 2 pls. 1941.
3 Bates, H. W. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 23:
544. 1862. (SAo Paulo, Amazons.)
Ricoarp M. Fox, Pittsburgh, Pa.
(Communicated by
There are many points of difference, however:
The opaque costal spot of the forewing is less
briliantly yellow, is only half as long as in
tucuna, and is cut off by the brown R, (this is
yellow in tucuna). The end of the cell, is yellow-
transparent, the base yellow-orange-transpar-
ent and R and the cubitus are very narrowly
red-tawny. The spots in the transparent areas
of the rest of the wing are smaller, more trans-
lucent than in tucuna; these are located as
follows: A yellow-transparent spot beyond the
narrow, pointed brown discocellular band,
crossing the base of My, cut off at M2; a tiny
yellow-white-transparent spot halfway to the
margin in M.-M3; a series of submarginal
whitish-transparent spots R, to Cus, the last
of these elongated. The anal border fills the
space posterior of cubitus-Cus.
The hind wing has an even border, brown-
black, 1 to 2 mm wide, the cell and part of the
disc toward the anal margin suffused with
yellow-orange, the veins here yellow-brown.
Between this suffused area and the opaque
316
marginal color there is a colorless transparent
lunate line traversed by brown veins running
from Cuz to the wing apex.
Beneath as above, but the borders filled with
rusty-tawny; three tiny white admarginal spots
in the forewing apex; the hind wing with a
series of oval white admarginal spots M, to
Fig. 1.—Pteronymia schaust, n. sp.: Type male,
from Colombia; collection William Schaus.
Fic. 2.—Hypoleria meridana, n. sp. Type female,
from Mérida, Venezuela. (Detached wings on left
are under sides; wings on right are upper sides.)
ZOOLOGY.—A new subspecies of tree frog from Pernambuco, Brazzil."
CocHran, U.S. National Museum.
While studying the small hylas of Brazil,
I noted differences between examples of
Hyla bipunctata Spix from the state of Rio
de Janeiro and four Pernambuco examples
received from Dr. Thomas Barbour likewise
identified as bzpunctata. The Museum of
Comparative Zoology kindly lent 16 addi-
tional frogs of the original series from
Pernambuco. Their characters are stable
enough to warrant their description as a
new subspecies.
Hyla bipunctata branneri, n. subsp.
Diagnosis —Closely related to Hyla wh-
punctata Spix, differing from it mainly in the
1 Received May 12, 1948.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 9
2A, paired Cu.-2A; costal margin rusty-tawny,
the humeral angle yellowed.
Antennae black with orange-brown clubs;
thorax black-brown with white scaling; abdo-
men brown above, yellow beneath.
Type.—Male; Colombia; coll. Wm. Schaus;
U.S.N.M. no. 58560.
Paratypes.—5 males, same data; 2 Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 2 U. S.
National Museum.
Hypoleria meridana, n. sp.
This is related to H. vanilia (Herrich-
Schaffer), and might be taken for an aberrant
individual. The postdiscal dark band is placed
farther apicad, however, reducing the size of
the subapical transparent spots R; to My» and
eliminating entirely the one in M,-M;3. The
white discal band is stronger; the tawny on the
hind wing is reduced to a narrow edging on the
proximal side of the border between Cu; and
2A. The white band of the forewing crosses
Rs, Mi, and Mo, whitening these veins proximad
and nearly filling the cells between the disco-
cellular band and the postdiscal band, entirely
filling M3-Cuy, although M3; is narrowly black.
In other respects the colors and markings
are exactly as in H. vanilia, of which this may
be relegated eventually as a subspecies.
Type.—Female; Mérida, Venezuela;
U.S.N.M. no. 58561.
4 HERRICH-SCHAFFER, G. A. W. Corr.-Blatt.
Regensburg 18: 175. 1864. (New Grenada.)
Doris M.
¥
absence of the purple areolate pattern on the
sides of the snout, in the presence of a single
silvery-white spot under the eye, in a less pro-
nounced dorsal pattern, and apparently in
smaller adult size (21.5 mm for 9, 18 mm for
3 in branneri, compared to 25 mm for 9, 25.5
mm for & in typical bipunctata).
Type-—U.8.N.M. no. 48861, an adult fe-
male from Bonito, Pernambuco, Brazil, col-
lected by J. C. Branner for the Museum of
Comparative Zoology, and donated to the
U. S. National Museum in 1912. Paratypes:
U.S.N.M. Nos. 48862-4 and M.C.Z. nos.
2827A—P, all with the same data as the type.
Description of the type—Vomerine teeth in
two small, well-separated patches between the
choanae; tongue a little more than half as wide
Supt. 15, 1948
as mouth-opening, rounded, notched and
slightly free behind; snout short and rounded
when viewed from above, truncate in profile,
the upper jaw extending only slightly beyond
the lower; nostrils superolateral, projecting,
their distance from end of snout about one-
third that to anterior border of eye, separated
from each other by an interval equal to their
distance from eye. Canthus rostralis not well
defined, merging with the loreal region which
is flat. Eye large, prominent, its diameter equal
to its distance from end of snout; interorbital
diameter about 1? times the width of upper
eyelid, greater than distance between nostrils.
Tympanum distinct, about one-third the eye
diameter, separated from eye by an interval
equal to two-thirds its own diameter. Fingers ~
one-third webbed, fourth considerably longer
than second; disk of third finger just covering
tympanum; no rudiment of a pollex visible;
toes three-fourths webbed, third a little longer
than fifth; disk of fourth toe covering tym-
panum; a distinct, projecting inner meta-
tarsal tubercle, but no outer one; no true tarsal
ridges or heel appendages; metacarpal and
metatarsal tubercles present. Body somewhat
elongate, in the postaxillary region slightly nar-
rower than greatest width of head; when hind
leg is adpressed, heel reaches to nostril; when
limbs are laid along the sides, knee and elbow
COCHRAN: A NEW TREE FROG FROM PERNAMBUCO
o17
touch; when hind legs are bent at right angles
to body, heels considerably overlap. Skin of
upperparts nearly smooth, with small pustules
on shoulders and back of head; no pronounced
ridge encircling upper part of tympanum; skin
of throat and chest smooth in the female; in
the male the throat is finely plicate because of
the large vocal sac which covers the center and
sides of the throat; skin of belly coarsely granu-
lar, that of posterior femur and anal region less
heavily granular. A skin fold across the chest.
Color (in alcohol): Dorsum pinkish vinaceous
to fawn color; a light-brown cross bar between
the eyes, followed by a pale )(-shaped mark on
the back extending to the sacral region. A
metallic white mark below the eye extending to
the upper lip border; remainder of upper lip
finely punctate with gray dots, but with no
alveolar pattern like that found in bipunctata;
a wide dark canthal line edged narrowly with
white above, continuing behind the ear and
along the side of the body where it becomes less
distinct as it approaches the groin; femur im-
maculate; upper surface of tibia with faint
darker markings.
Variations: The white spot below the eye is
very prominent in 18 of the 20 specimens at
hand; in the remaining 2 it is somewhat. re-
duced. The heel reaches from between center of
eye to tip of snout, most often to nostril. In 3
TaBLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS OF 20 SPECIMENS OF HYLA BIPUNCTATA BRANNERI, N. SUBSP.
% %
Specimen ee a ees | ead seal repiat Woot)| Hand || Head aa % | % | % %
length} length| width || : Femur} Tibia} Foot | Hand
| length width |
U.S.N.M. 48861 2 PALS GE5 Gro |e LOsou | ll s5 9 5.5 SOPAelsOs2 te on lt Osean) 4109 51-2526
48862 Q 20 5.5 6 Visi yh ala! 8.5 6 Zed 0020) |eAeo. C5020) | 42/25) | 300
48863 Q 19 - 6 6.5 9 11 8 6 SG Of 20 14704 Dee On 42 le STAG
48864 Q 14.5 4.5 5 7 1.5 5.0 4 Se ten ete Olen nlinond sons urate
M.C.Z. 2827 A Q 18 6 GES 9 10 8 HAs Soon OOO mOOLON ODED E | 440 sOno
2827 B Q 16.5 5 6 8 9 a 4.5 30.3 | 36.4 | 48.5 | 54.6 | 42.5 | 27.3
2827 C fof eG 3.0 3.5 8 8.5 7 5 || 32.4 | 32.4 | 47.1 | 50.0 | 41.2 | 29.4
2827 D Q 19 6.5 6 9 9.5 8 Ro 34.2 | 31.6 | 47.4 | 50.0 | 42.1 | 29.0
2827 E of 17 5 SO 8 8 7.5 5 ZORA Soham |e Ad | AAs 2 OR:
2827 F ot 17 5 5.5 8 9 G5 5 QORSY |e So2eoy ptt |p oocO) | 44 cial 2OR4:
2827 G of 16 5 5.5 (AR) 8 7 4.5 SISSeoteo |) 4059 15020. 4358) (2 28n 1
2827 H 2 19.5 6 6 QSsy HOSE ((Be) 5.5 || 30.8 | 30.8 | 48.7-| 53.9 | 38.5 | 28.2
2827 I fof 17/ 5.5 5.5 8 9 @ 5 S2he) | oso +ie8 | ooLOn|) 4he2 2954
2827 J ot 16.5 5.5 20 7.5 8 C5 4.5 333358) |) Goes || eas |) Zkesaks 4) G5) A768
2827 K fof 16 5.5 DEO 8 9 7 5 SFOuIOs oO. | OOROmmoOe Zn Ao on |ilese
2827 L of i765 5.5 Deo 8 9 7 5 31.4 | 31.4 | 45.7 | 51.4 | 40.0 | 28.6
2827 M e) lp fei59 5.5 5.5 9 10 Uo 5 Sle olee | oN S242 97 286
2827 N oe 16 5 5.5 8 9 7 5 Sl OMIMOA on OOO MmoOGrom| roo cure ise
2827 O on 18 6 6 (hee 9 6.5 5 S08) [Peace |) ZBL | SOO | S1ORO) yh Az/ ote:
2827 P ofl 17 5.5 5.5 8 8.5 8 4.5 So soa Ome aie se OOs OnE aye. lonte Ome
N =20 MC SSW BL PSAs Wh eb ore | bere i) Abe Ss Bf
o 1.6 2.0 2.98) 2.3 eS:
Nes} 4.2 Ne7/ 5.4 5.3
0.3 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.3
318
specimens no dorsal pattern was visible; in 3,
faint mottlings appeared; in 2, scattered spots
occurred, while in the remaining 12, the
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 9
)(-shaped pattern found in the type was
fairly apparent.
ZOOLOGY.—American Caudata IV: Allocation of the name Bolitoglossa mexi-
cana.!
HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)
The most .recent discussion (Smith,
Herpetologica 3: 17. 1945) of Bolztoglossa
mexicana Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril
1845 (Erp. Gen. 9: 93, pls. 104. 1845) con-
cludes by allocating the name with B.
platydactyla Gray, an earlier (1831) name.
This action was based chiefly upon Brocchi
(Miss. Sci. au Mexique, Batr., livr. 3: 113,
pl. 18 bis. 1883), who illustrated four speci-
mens, presumably cotypes of mexicana, one
of which was indicated as “type,” while
each of the others was called “‘variété.”’ All
were stated to be from Veracruz, where only
platydactyla (of the involved species) occurs.
In reality, as discovered by the senior
author, the locality citation in the plate
explanation is obviously in error. On page
114 Broecchi clearly selects (from the ex-
traordinary mixture of specimens of belliz,
platydactyla, and a species from Petén,
Guatemala, that together comprise the co-
types of B. mexicana) the two Petén speci-
mens as types. Brocchi’s text may be trans-
lated literally as follows (1883: 114):
Coloration.—The coloration varies considera-
bly. In the type, the body is a uniform reddish
brown; the same coloration is found on the upper
parts, but there may be made out numerous spots
of a distinct light hue. These spots, which are
orange, are disposed to form three longitudinal
and parallel bands in one of the examples sent by
M. Morelet, and form a kind of mantle in the
other specimen; in this latter, there are on the
surface of the mantle a number of spots which
again show the basic reddish brown color (figs. 3
and 4).
That Brocchi in this discussion actually se-
lected one of the two as the type is debat-
able, but he may be considered to have
clearly indicated his type through a com-
bination of the above text, plus the legend
to his plate 18 bis, and figure 3 of this plate,
which the legend designates as the type
from ‘‘Vera Cruz.’ This figure exactly
matches the description for the first
Morelet specimen (‘‘These spots, which are
orange, are disposed to form three longitu-
t Received June 4, 1948,
M. B. MirrteEMAN and Hospartr M. Smiru.
(Communicated by
dinal and parallel bands in one of the ex-
amples sent by M. Morelet.’”). Brocchi’s
reference to figures 3 and 4 in the passage
quoted above, as well as his ascribing a
Veracruzan origin to the type, figure 3, in
the accompanying legend, seems explain-
able as a simple lapsus. That this is the case
is borne out by comparing his figure 4 with
- his description of “Variété I,” which fits
the figure very well. This specimen is listed,
under ‘“Variété I,” as coming from
‘‘Mexico”’ (although the plate legend states
“Vera Cruz’’), and of it Brocchi says, ““it
is a dark gray, and not reddish brown as in
the specimens of M. Morelet. All of the
upper surface of the body and tail is covered
with an orange mantle, the surface of which
has a few dark gray spots.”’ Brocchi thus
succinctly summarizes the difference be-
tween this specimen and that figured above
it on the same plate (figure 3).
Figure 1 of Brocchi’s plate is listed on the
legend as being from ‘‘Vera Cruz,” and is
similarly cited in his discussion of “‘Variété
II,” which almost certainly refers to the
specimen illustrated as figure 1, since the
discussion states that the specimen—unlike
the others shown—has distinct orange mac-
ulations on its limbs, and the delineation in
figure 1 clearly shows this. Figure 2 of the
plate is described in Brocchi’s text under
“Variété III.’ The description given there
fits the figure perfectly, even to the strongly
annulated tail shown in the plate, and which
Brocchi specifically mentions as “les annu-
lations de la queue sont tres marquées
(hee 2) 2’
Figures 1, 2, and 4 of Brocchi’s plate 18
bis are clearly Bolitoglossa platydactyla.
Figure 3, although described in the plate
legend as being from ‘‘Vera Cruz,” is clearly
associated through textual reference with
one of those sent to Duméril, Bibron, and
Duméril by Morelet from Dolores, Ptéen,
Guatemala. Moreover, the specimen de-
scribed by Brocchi as the first of the two
sent by Morelet, and which we believe is
Sept. 15, 1948 MITTLEMAN AND SMITH: THE NAME BOLITOGLOSSA MEXICANA
depicted in figure 3 of Brocchi’s plate, is
described by the original authors in much
the same terms: ‘‘...in the other, these
spots are united to form two black bands on
the trunk, and between these bands there
are distributed many spots of the same
eolor.”’ Brocchi of course described three
orange bands, while Duméril, Bibron, and
Duméril described the dark ground color
between the orange bands. In either case,
the general effect is the same, namely
alternating bands of orange and black.
So far as Brocchi is concerned, then, the
conclusion that he validly restricted the
name mexicana to the Petén species is not
reasonably contestable. Even if the word
“type” in the plate explanation is con-
strued to mean only ‘“‘typical’’ instead of
“the type’’—as indeed is implied by various
facts, including citation of the other figures
as ‘‘variété’’—the restriction of the name
to at least the series from Petén is unequivo-
eal.
Smith’s conclusion, on the basis stated,
that mexicana is a synonym of platydactyla
is therefore incorrect. On the evidence given
it is a valid name for the Petén species and
moreletz (Smith, 1945) is a later synonym.
If Brocchi’s action were the only one to
be considered the nomenclature of these
species would be clearly evident. Un-
fortunately, two other factors throw doubt
upon the permanence of any conclusion
now reached.
First, Duméril et al. (1854, p. 94), after
discussing the “‘Caractéres”’ of B. mexicana,
cite the following: ‘“Synonymre. 1838.
Oedipus platydactylus? Tschudi, Class.
Batrach. p. 93, no. 7.’’ Had the question
mark not been included, there is little doubt
that this citation could automatically place
mexicana in the synonymy of platydactyla.
The question mark actually, however, in-
troduces a situation for which there is no
policy recommended by either the Opinions
or Rules of the International Commission
on Zoological Nomenclature. Moreover the
identity of Oedipus platydactylus Tschudi is
not absolutely clear, inasmuch as he cites a
nomen nudum (Salamandra_ platydactyla
Cuvier) for the source of the specific name,
although the genus Oedipus (monotypic)
was new. One realizes that the reference is
to Gray’s work (Reptilia, in Griffith’s
Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, 1831, p. 107), in
319
which ‘‘Salamandra platydactyla Cuvier”
is very briefly described. In reality Cuvier
never described the species; Gray was,
apparently, accepting the names on certain
museum labels of Cuvier. So far as Cuvier
is concerned, the name may be considered
a nomen nudum, although most authors,
even a recent monographer of the group
(Dunn, Salam. Fam. Plethodontidae, 1926,
p. 400) have accepted Cuvier as the author
of the name. The point is perhaps academic,
but as long as it remains a debatable point
the proper allocation of the name mexicana
remains in doubt.
A second complicating factor is the action
of Boulenger in 1882 (Cat. Batr. Grad.
Caud. Batr. Apoda Brit. Mus., ed. 2), one
year prior to the publication of Brocchi’s
work. In the synonymy of Spelerpes belliz
Gray 1850 (p. 68) he cites the following:
‘“‘Bolitoglossa mexicana Dum. & Bibr., p.
93, pl. 104, f. 2.” The allocation is correct;
certain specimens, including the one whose
figure was cited, did belong to Spelerpes
belliz Gray [=Pseudoeurycea belliz (Gray)
as of today]. But on page 73 he cites the
following in the synonymy of Spelerpes
variegata Gray |=Bolitoglossa platydactyla
Gray]: “‘Bolitoglossa mexicana, part., Dum.
& Bibr., pl. 104. fig. 1.’’ Actually the figure
cited does not belong to platydactyla, but to
the Petén species. Not until 1936, however,
was it realized that the Petén species was
different from platydactyla; even a recent
monographer (Dunn, Salam. Fam. Pletho-
dontidae, 1926, p. 400) was not aware of
their distinctness. Whether Boulenger was
correct at all, or correct even by the in-
terpretation of his time, in allocation of the
cotypes of mexicana other than those repre-
senting belli: is perhaps immaterial; the
point is one, again, open for debate since no
procedure is specified by taxonomic rules.
This is certain: that as the species was then
(1882 up to 1936) thought of, all the cotypes
of mexicana, other than those of belliz, were
correctly placed by Boulenger with platy-
dactyla. The really important action by
Boulenger, however, was the inclusion of
the word “part” with reference to Duméril
et al. under variegata, and omission of any
qualification in the reference under bellzz.
Does this constitute a restriction of the
name to the synonymy of belli: by Bou-
lenger? It seems quite possible. Is Bou-
320
lenger’s restriction, if admitted, superseded
by Brocchi’s?
Until these questions are settled, there is
absolutely no certainty whatever of the
proper name, under the Rules, for the Petén
species. A request has been submitted, ac-
cordingly, to the International Commission
fora ruling on each of the three chief princi-
ples involved on which a decision is necessary
prior to definite establishment of the name.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The name _ Bolitoglossa mexicana
Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril is not a
synonym of b. platydactyla because of any
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 38, No. 9
action by Brocchi.
2. Said name may, however, possibly be
regarded a synonym of Bb. platydactyla on
the basis of inclusion of the latter name in
the synonymy of B. mexicana by Duméril
et al.
3. Said name may also, if No. 2 is not
true, be regarded a synonym of Pseudo-
eurycea bellit, on the basis of the supposed
restriction of that name by Boulenger.
4. Said name, finally, if neither No. 2 nor
No. 3 is true, may be regarded as a valid
name for the Petén species (of which B.
moreleti would then be a synonym) on the
basis of type designation by Brocchi.
Obituary
Harry Diamonp, chief of the Electronics Di-
vision of the National Bureau of Standards,
died suddenly at his Washington home on
June 21, 1948.
Mr. Diamond was -born on February 12,
1900, and attended schools in and around
Quincy and Boston, Mass. He received his
bachelor of science degree from the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology in 1922, where
he served in the SATC during World War I,
and took his master’s degree in electrical en-
gineering from Lehigh University in 1925.
After Mr. Diamond joined the staff of the
National Bureau of Standards as a radio en-
gineer in 1927, his brilliant scientific achieve-
ments led to rapid advancement. He was chief
of the Bureau’s Ordnance Development Divi-
sion during the war, and later of the Electronics
Division, which now includes the ordnance
work. During the five years between gradua-
tion from M.I.T. and entry on the bureau staff,
he was at first employed by various industrial
concerns in the Boston area and later taught for
four years at Lehigh University, where he or-
ganized the first radio course at the Univer-
sity.
His work at the National Bureau of Stand-
ards was diversified, including aviation radio,
radio aids to meteorological observations, radio
direction finding, electronic ordnance, and gen-
eral electronics. One of the inventors of the
radio proximity fuze (No. 2 secret weapon of
World War II), Mr. Diamond was widely
honored for his work. Among the acknowledg-
ments he had received were the 1940 Award for
Engineering Achievement of the Washington
Academy of Sciences; the Naval Ordnance
Development Award for Exceptional Service,
1945; and the War Department Certificate for
Outstanding Service, 1945. He was a fellow of
the Institute of Radio Engineers; a fellow of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers; a
division member of the National Defense Re-
search Committee; a panel member of the
Joint Research and Development Board; a
director of the American Ordnance Association;
and a member of the Washington Academy of
Sciences and Sigma Xi.
Mr. Diamond played a large part in the de-
velopment of the Instrument Landing System
(ILS) and participated in the first completely
blind flight and landing of an aircraft in
March 1933. His ILS is now operating at many
airports, and wide adoption throughout the
world is planned. Another development of
world-wide importance in which he had a major
role is the radiosonde, which automatically col-
lects weather information from the upper at-
mosphere. This device was a vital element in
weather forecasting during the past war.
Late in 1942 Mr. Diamond was asked to form
a new division within the Bureau of Stand-
ards, primarily for research and development
on electronic devices for Government and in-
dustry. It was this division that worked on the
radio proximity fuze for bombs, rockets, and
mortar shells. Other contributions of the divi-
sion to the radio art include visual beacons for
aircraft guidance, antenna systems, range-
beacon course-alignment procedures, a simul-
taneous phone and range-beacon system, air-
craft-engine ignition shielding, automatic
weather stations, upper-air wind-velocity de-.
termination by radio, a method for measuring
direction-finder polarization errors, and an
electronic bomb director.
=
4
|
;
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-
SS EE Se ES
Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences
President..........++++++++.FREDERICK D. Rossrnt, National Bureau of Standards
Secretary...... PEDLS Wi a whic ask otal a's Wetteyal ¢ i C. Lewis Gazin, U. S. National Museum
PP CREMT OR ir iia sis ne ois dc on eh vegies LLOWARD ©. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey
PMMIRE De at ls ioial ale Sct ols we sible els So NaTHAN R. Smita, Plant Industry Station
Custodian and Subscription Manager of FUMRERIONS oe NEC ae ial a Ris 6 Wk aka a Nr
rm NE Coser ss sc hla pee uke . HARALD A, REHDER, U. S. National Museum
Vice-Presidents Representing the A ‘filiated Socteties:
Philosophical Society of Washington.......... wigan shake Oe ..... WALTER RAMBERG
Anthropological Society of Washington Cire os seers ERSTE EY T. DaLE STEWART
Biological Society of Washington............... Dat das ae apa mins JOHN W. ALDRICH
Chemical Society of Washington..... Baebes ste oie Pee aiatwte Wie CHARLES E, WHITE
Entomological Society of Washington................ ...C. F. W. MursEBEcK
National Geographic Society............ee00- »ee2eeee.- ALEXANDER WETMORE
Geological Society of Washington................ veecesss WILLIAM W. RUBEY
Medical Society of the District of Columbia....... sesee.--FREDERICK QO. Cor
Columbia Historical Society.............. ee eee eeeveese» GILBERT GROSVENOR
Botanical Society of Washington. 3... 62. de cee enc celeess RONALD BAMFORD
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.....-.. WiLi1aAM A. Dayton
Washington Society OE SP MRPRCEIS gt bd mele ela Gon ee ata 2 bs CuiFForD A. BEetTTs
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...............
PN ay ee parte AV. dn MIR ahs Brera Bid te wie als a cw Om Ara a FRANCIS B, SILSBEE
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers...............
Meee aig att ine) aia sale aisrelaly ia are. ala le stay duties dt wiv ee 6's MLABTIN: A MEASON
Helminthological Society OR W ASHI ETON. ee Oia takes ation ..- AUREL O. FostER
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RocErrs
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DorsEY
Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers..... OwEN B. FRENcH
Elected Members of the Board of M dake
PRIMEY AOA ec eee av cewek Max A. McCaut, Waupo L. Scumitt
eer ariery 1950.5. oc ee PeBLG Lox F. G. BricKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DirHu
To January 1951..... athe ecckalent es Francis M. Deranporr, WiLLiAM N. Fenton
AGP OF DI OHGGESS), .. ioie vice niu sv cacces All the above officers plus the Senior Editor
Peara a, westors and Associate Fditors.. 0. he oe ee nee cease [See front cover]
Executive Committee......... FREDERICK D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG,
seta Relat IN Wate: x xe’ ww ws Watpo L. Scumirt, Howarp 8. Raprpieys, C. Lewis GazIn
Committee on M Sachorslie Pune eRe EEO Le aD Ata ate eaaye od sede eat fe fel adetkOdiw b's aera
Haroutp E. McComs (chairman), LEwis W. Butz, C. WYTHE Cooxs, WILLIAM
......- W. Dies, Luoyp D. Fetton, REGINA FLANNERY, Grorce G. Manov
Commiitee on M MCA IRM Diet ATbha Noh iRe a aiid) va sdhfafdie ogre, 6 RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman),
. FRANK P. CULLINAN, Frep L. Mouter, Francis O. Rice, FRanK THONB
Committee on M pag uphe
To January 1949. .....-LEWIs V. Jupson (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN
To January ET UU Ee ee Roitanpd W. Brown, Haraup A. REHDER
MRR BOs ei. iS inikie ome, ble Wiui1aM N. Fenton, Emmett W. Price
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. HERzFELD, general chairman):
MOE MAIICHE OMIONERS. O05. Pe res els eine gic elocaisiad be Welded cia lea SSK wikis
C. F. W. Mursrpeck (chairman), Harry §. BERNTON, CHESTER W. Emmons,
EuMER Hiaeins, Mario Mo.uuari, GorrHoLpD STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum
For the Engineering Bee er ast wiekahs Mme Ue rig eatin |
Harry Diamonp (chairman), Luoyp V. BERKNER, RopErT C. DUNCAN,
HERBERT N. Eaton, ARNO C., FIELDNER, FRANK B. ScHEETZ, W. D. Surciirre
For the Physical SE od OS GEOR RETR TE Sie UE Tal ee aR
Kart F. Herzre vp (chairman), Naraan L. Draxe, Luoyp D. FELTON,
HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. RooNEyY, ROBERT SIMBA, Micuazt X. SULLIVAN
enero AIT ANtS-1N-O40 JOP WeSEArChe ou bs aie og d alee dle a vices dine eice ue dueeee dices
..F. H. H. Rozsrts, Jr. (chairman), ANNA E. Jenkins, J. Lron SHERESHEVSKY
Representative on Council of PUES UNH eNO EO kel sigle ict miele aus « FRANK THONE
BONS SIGS MIDAS: SECT 8 CV CTR cede Sn Se en URL PERO DI se raga
WiiuiaAM G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), Haroup F. Stimson, Hersert L. HALLER
Pesenitier Shey PSS Thy AS TE pt LE Cale moa a a Ph Aen eC OO
.. JOHN W. McBurney (chairman), Roger G. Bates, Wiuiiam A. WILDHACK
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7
Gua, —Some aspects of he geology, petrology, and as
of Switzerland. as ibe ccc
weed me Beuillee'; in Tohchpostons aa dbiteldy genera, IV:
_chocarpus rugosus complex and additional arin America
aM a Aes. Frmpmrion, J) HERMANN. aon ered eereeee
\ | } * ay
_ Borany. —New species of Salix from Suechwan, hina. —
WAAING foci in wih & adage te ala ee ea sae cs
ENnToMmonoey. Cries 4 new Ithomiinae i in the Schaus ode 1
doptera: Nymphalidae). (Ricnanp- M. Fox. Bieta PPLE,
- Zoowoey. —A new subspecies L tree frog from. » Pemambu 10, 1 Bra 1
py ee gts Mi COCHRAN I. ie Bite el oo UE gut tat ee Bai
- Zoouoey. =A mericain Caalee IV: Ailapatia of te
. mexicana. M. B. MrrrLEMan and Hoparr M.
‘Oprrvary: Harry Diamond. copimcave ie bed sere ante ne es
; Tus Journa 1s INDEXED taf goreul Tovrecepaeeohea INDEX ° TO
4 “Aso
Tae
VoL. 38 OcToBER 15, 1948 No. 10
JOURNAL
OF THE
_ WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
James I. HorrmMan ALAN STONE Frank C. Kracex
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PLANT QUARANTINE
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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
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BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Evsert L. Lirtte, Jr. Watpo R. WEDEL
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Irt C. ScHOONOVER
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‘Shee SAE ~e-
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 38
ARCHEOLOGY.—Palachacolas
OcToBER 15, 1948
Town,
No. 10
Hampton County, South Carolina.!
JOSEPH R. CALDWELL, River Basin Surveys, Bureau of American Ethnology,
Smithsonian Institution.
The importance of the archeological site
Palachacolas Town on the lower Savannah
River lies in the certainty of its historical
dating and ethnological identification. Pend-
ing the development of a general method of
dating archeological materials in eastern
North America,” the only absolute chronol-
ogy available is for localities known to have
been occupied by specific groups of Indians
in historic times. Archeological materials
and artifacts from sites which were not re-
occupied or inhabited prior to the docu-
mented dating can be presumed to have
been in use during the period of the recorded
dates. Conversely, such artifacts can then
help date other undocumented sites at
which they may be found.
Palachacolas Town, later called Paracho-
colas Fort or simply Parachuckle, was situ-
ated on the right bank of the Savannah
River about 50 miles from the mouth. The
site had been occupied sometime during
1680-1716 A.D. by a band of Appalachicola
Indians, who were Lower Creeks speaking
the Hitchiti dialect.
The Creek Migration legend places these
people in southwestern Georgia when they
were first encountered by the invading
Muscogee, and Swanton has pointed out
that they later composed an important
town in the Creek Confederacy?:
. shown by the Creek name which it bears,
Talwa lako, “Big Town,” and from Bartram’s
1 Received August 16, 1948. This paper is pub-
lished by permission of the Secretary, Smithson-
ian Institution. The bulk of the material de-
scribed is in the United States National Museum.
2 See Martin, QuimBy, and CoLuisErR, 1947, pp.
9-13, for arecent summary of methods of archeo-
logical dating. Also Kelly, 19389.
3 SWANTON, 1922, p. 129.
(Communicated by Frank H. H. Roserrts, JR.)
statement that it was the leading White or Peace
town .. .in Chiaha Square, September 18, 1768, a
Lower Creek speaker says: There are four head
men of us who have signed our names in the pres-
ence of the whole lower Creeks as you will see:
Two of us out of Pallachicolas which is reckoned
the head town of the upper and lower Creeks. .
The Appalachicola remained in southwest
Georgia at least until 1680+ but Milling has
marshalled data to show that they arrived
on the Savannah River no later than 1684.°
Certain it is that these people were located
on the Savannah River for some time prior
to 1716 and abandoned the town in that
year, after the Yamassee War. According
to Swanton:
...the Apalachicola, and part of the Yuchi and
Shawnee, abandoned their settlements on the Sa-
vannah and moved over to the Chattahoochee.
The Apalachicola chief at that time was named
Cherokee Leechee (Cherokee killer). The date is
fixed by a manuscript map preserved in South
Carolina. They settled first at the junction of the
Flint and Chattahoochee Rivers, at a place known
long afterwards as Apalachicola Fort. Later they
abandoned this site and went higher up; in fact,
they probably moved several times.®
Evidence to substantiate a dating be-
tween 1680 and 1716 is found at the Pa-
lachacolas site itself, for the fragments of
Indian clay pottery there closely resemble
potsherd material from the historic (Hit-
chiti) Trading Post, at Ocmulgee near Ma-
con, Ga., dated 1680-1718, and resemble
sherds from the Kasita site, near Columbus,
Ga., late seventeenth to early eighteenth
centuries.’
4 Ibid., p. 130.
5 MiLuinG, 1940, pp. 176-177.
6 SWANTON, 1922, p. 131.
7 Keuiy, 1939, p. 332. See also Newsletter,
Southeastern Archaeological Conference, pottery
321
NOVS 1948
322
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
Fig. 1.—Historic Indian pottery from Palachacolas ca. 1680-1716 a.p.
In 1901 D. Roland Steiner sent two small
pottery vessels and some glass beads from
Palachacolas to the United States National
Museum. We do not, unfortunately, know
the circumstances under which this material
was found. A much larger collection was
received in 1943 through the courtesy of
Marmaduke H. Floyd, of Savannah, Ga. A
few potsherds were also obtained by the
writer when he accompanied Mr. Floyd to
the site in 1939.
POTTERY
The larger of the two pottery vessels
found by Steiner is shown in Fig 2, A. Both
have a similar form which is characteristic
of the western Georgia type Kasita Red
Filmed.® They are fired to a reddish color
extending through the paste, and the smaller
types: Ocmulgee Fields
Filmed, Walnut Roughened.
8 See preceding footnote.
Incised, Kasita Red
vessel appears as if it might have been
painted. This specimen shows no tempering
material, but grit particles are present in the
larger. Both have their surfaces carelessly
smoothed, but the coil fillets on the exterior
of the one shown were left partly unobliter-
ated, perhaps for the effect.
The sherds in Fig. 1 are all from the
writer’s collection, but the description here
includes Floyd’s ceramic material as well. Al-
together there are seven sherds decorated by
incising (B, F, G, H, I) conforming closely
to the type Ocmulgee Fields Inctsed. Six are
from shallow bowls, two with a carinated
shoulder. The firing colors range from red-
dish buff to dark gray. The two dark gray
sherds are burnished, and nearly all the
rest are carefully smoothed on both sur-
faces. No tempering material can be seen,
but some small lacunae are present.
The 16 plain sherds have the same paste
features as those decorated by incising, but
Oct. 15, 1948 CALDWELL: PALACHACOLAS TOWN, HAMPTON COUNTY,
S. C.
323
Fig. 2.—Historic artifacts from Palachacolas.
324
three of the four rimsherds in the sample
are from flaring rim vessels, and the form
of the other is uncertain. One has an in-
dented rim band, and another has a handle
suggesting Mississippian influence (Fig. 1,
C). No historic plain type has yet been de-
scribed from Ocmulgee or Kasita, but un-
decorated sherds are represented in the
collections there.
Three sherds show a roughening of the
exterior by the use of short incised or
scratched lines (Fig. 1, D, E) and are evi-
dently counterparts of the Ocmulgee type
Walnut Roughened. They have the same
paste characteristics as the sherds described
above. One shows a pinched rim band.
There are six shell-tempered sherds. The
specimen illustrated (Fig. 1, A) is from a
flaring rim vessel with a thickened lip,
notched at the lower edge. Four sherds are
decorated with a carelessly applied cord-
wrapped stick or paddle, the impressions
somewhat smoothed over. Another is the
rounded base of a vessel, again showing the
use of cord.
There was one sherd of the type Lamar
Complicated Stamped, a type slightly earlier
than those we have been discussing.®
OTHER ARTIFACTS
The glass beads in Fig. 2, B, E, are a
small portion of a number found by Floyd
with a burial 18 inches deep in the exposed
face of the bluff. Similar beads and other
objects were sifted from sand at the foot of
the bluff and were presumably from the
° Newsletter, Southeastern Archeological Con-
ference, 1939, pottery type Lamar Complicated
Stamped.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
same interment. There were two massive
conch columella beads similar to the string
shown in Fig. 2, I. The group of small red
beads shown adhering to an iron fragment
(C) was apparently from beadwork sewn to
clothing. The wrought-iron nail (D) is one
of two which, if actually associated with the
burial, may indicate that it was originally
in a wooden coffin.
With another burial 12 inches deep in the
bluff Floyd found many glass beads, two
massive columella beads, and three of the
shell-tempered sherds mentioned earlier.
Also present were a conch shell disc, Fig. 2,
H, an iron ringlike object (G), and a part of
a copper cauldron (F).
With a third burial which had fallen out
of the bluff Floyd found glass beads sim-
ilar to those shown, as well as the shell
beads (I), pipestem (K), and lead bullet (J)
illustrated in Fig. 2.
On the surface but near the bluff Floyd
found, in addition to some of the Indian
pottery described, crockery (L, P), china-
ware, glass (M, N), and trade pipe frag-
ments.
REFERENCES
Kewiuiy, ArtHur R. The Macon Trading Post,
an historical foundling. Amer. Antiq. 4(4)
328-33. 1939.
Martin, Pau 8., QuimBy, GEORGE L., and CoL-
LIER, Donaup. Indians before Columbus.
Chicago, 1947.
MILLING, CHaPpMAN J. Red Carolinians. Chap-
el Hill, 1940. .
SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONFERENCE.
Newsletter (mimeographed), University of
Kentucky, Lexington. 1939.
SWANTON, JOHN R. Early history of the Creek
Indians and their neighbors. Bur. Amer.
Ethnol. Bull. 73. 1922.
ARCHEOLOGY .—A_ seventeenth-century fireplace at Maspeth, Long Island.
RaupH 8S. SoLecki, River Basin Surveys, Bureau of American Ethnology,
Smithsonian Institution.
In April 1935 an early colonial fireplace
dating from cirea 1650 was found by the
writer and a companion, Stanley Wisniew-
ski, in an open lot at Maspeth, Long Island.
The material found in the fireplace links the
historic with the prehistoric periods there.
1 Received August 16, 1948.
(Communicated by Frank H. H. Rosperts, JR.)
Maspeth is an incorporated town situated
within the limits of Greater New York City
in the Borough of Queens. It is on a trib-
utary of Newtown Creek, which is part of
the boundary line between the Boroughs of
Brooklyn and Queens, and opens at the
Kast River opposite lower Manhattan. The
tributary, Maspeth Creek, was _ called
Oct. 15, 1948
““Mespat Kill’ in the seventeenth century,
and the land adjacent to it was called
“English Kills” in recognition of the first
English settlement made in this locale.
Newtown Creek today is one of New
York City’s most important unloading
points for sea traffic in coal, oil, and lumber.
Maspeth, now only half an hour from Times
Square, was the backwoods and outlying
settlement of New Netherlands 300 years
ago.
Maspeth, the present name of the town,
is derived from both the English and Dutch
versions of Mespaetches or Maspechtes,
which approaches the idiom of the aborig-
ines. The names ‘‘Mespat’”’ and ‘‘Mispat’’
appear in seventeenth century writings and
maps, and in keeping with this practice we
will use the name Mespat. Mispat appears
on A. Van der Donck’s map of 1656 (see
Fig. 1), which apparently had been copied
by later cartographers.
The Canarsee Indians, with whom the
early settlers had many dealings, were a
strong western Long Island tribe of the
Metoac or Matouwac confederacy. They
had one of their principal villages on
Mespat Kill.
Aboriginal artifacts attesting to occu-
pancy in pre-historic times were there
prior to the development of Newtown Creek
and environs. These artifacts were quite
numerous, suggesting that a fairly large
Indian village had been there (Bolton, 1922,
pp.173-175). The situation was favorable
enough, with creeks, hills, forests, and
pleasant country. Game.of all kinds was
plentiful, according to early records.
The first settlement within the bounds of
Newtown was made in 1642 by a Reverend
Francis Doughty, a newcomer to New
Netherlands from New England, where he
had experienced difficulty with the founding
fathers. He and his associates were granted
settlement privileges at Mespat by William
Kieft, the Director-General of New Nether-
land (Riker, 1852, pp. 17-19). Reverend
Doughty and his flock had barely time to
establish house, when the native Indians,
instigated into war in 1643 with the colo-
nists by the gross blunders of Kieft, attacked
the settlements around New Netherland,
including Mespat. Its inhabitants were
SOLECKI: A 17TH-CENTURY FIREPLACE AT MASPETH, L. I. O20
forced to flee, and their homes and farms
were devastated and ruined. Thus was
broken up one of the budding English
settlements on Long Island.
Director Kieft made overtures to the
Indians and, with the help of several wiser
men, placated them. The settlers returned
to Mespat, but the settlement never re-
covered from the shock of warfare.
Mespat was seized with terror again in
1653, during the Dutch and English war
(1652-1654), when the English settlers
learned that the Dutch were negotiating
with the Indians to destroy the English on
Long Island. The Mespat settlers once
again fled, this time to Stamford, Conn.,
a strong English settlement. The war ended,
and the settlers dribbled back again. An-
other alarm was made in 1656, when this
time the Dutch neighbors of the English at
Mespat, in fear of retaliations from the
Indians, banded together for safety. They
concentrated themselves for mutual pro-
tection on Smith’s Island at English Kills.
This island appears on later maps as Fur-
man’s Island, or Maspeth Island (now a
part of the mainland, and covered by an
aluminum plant).
This new settlement was called Aernheim
in honor of the leader’s birthplace on the
Rhine. The leader was Nicasius De Sille,
one of the governor’s council, who had
obtained the patent to the island on March
27, 1656. By April the diligent villagers
were mowing the meadows.
Brief excitement occurred when a small
group of Raritan Indians killed a family at
Mespat Kill in 1659.
Director Stuyvesant and his council
terminated the existence of Aernheim on
Smith’s Island in 1661, because they feared
that it might hinder the growth of Bush-
wick, which was planted in 1660 by the
French and a few Dutch.
There were no further Indian troubles,
and the Canarsees settled the last piece of
their reservation to the English in 1666 for
£66 and some change. A scattering of
Indians remained, ‘‘some of whom had their
wigwams at Mespat Kills” (Riker, 1852, p.
73) for several years later. Disease, wars,
pestilences took their toll of the Indian
population within the first 50 years of the
326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, No. 10
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Description of New Netherlands.
Ocr. 15, 1948
colonization of New Netherland, as it did
everywhere on New England, and Indian
survivors into the eighteenth century were
few indeed.
THE FIREPLACE
The .site of the fireplace was located
between what was formerly known as
Shanty Man’s Creek and Maspeth Creek,
or Mespat Kill, on the road to old Aern-
heim. The present road is called Maspeth
Avenue. The fireplace faced the northeast
about 30 feet south of Maspeth Avenue in
line with Milton Street. When found, the
fireplace was covered (Fig. 2, F) except fora
corner of yellow brick protruding from the
slope, by an eroded sand bank 3 feet deep.
The hearth and back and sides of the fire-
place were uncovered easily in the sandy
soil. It was 34 feet long and 14 feet high. A
6-inch layer of wood ashes and black earth
was found at the top, lying over a care-
fully laid arrangement of yellow bricks on
the left side of the hearth. Directly be-
neath them was a large flat oblong stone,
weighing about 150 pounds. To the right
of it, at the same level, were several smaller
flagstones, obviously part of the hearth
also. The bricks and paving stones were sur-
rounded by ashes and charcoal. The major-
ity of the specimens recovered were found
in the ash bed above the floor of the fire-
place.
In clearing around the outside on a level
with the fireplace, we found the remains of
what probably had been a shelter at the
southwest side. To judge from the amount
of ashes and charcoal present, this shelter
had evidently burned down. Enough identi-
fiable wood material remained to ascertain
that pine was used in the structure. Un-
fortunately, more could not be determined
about it, as the sand bank had been con-
siderably eroded in this part of the area. An
iron hammer resembling a cobbler’s ham-
mer with iron shanks at the handle end was
found in association with the ashes.
Both native Indian and Colonial mate-
rials were found in the fireplace.
The Indian material consisted of 25 flakes
and chips of red and black flint, and a
broken reject artifact of dark flint.
Among the European material were 22
SOLECKI: A 18TH-CENTURY FIREPLACE AT MASPETH, L. I.
327
pieces of white kaolin pipestems, 7 complete
pipe bowls of which three were marked with
the initials PG on the heel, 1 fragmentary
pipe bowl, 17 lead buckshot balls about .26
caliber, 8 balls about .38 caliber, 2 lead balls
about .70 caliber, a dark gunflint, 6 small
pieces of blue china plate, 39 hand-wrought
iron nails, and 26 pieces of clay bricks,
mentioned above. These were crudely fash-
ioned, not all of the same dimensions and
somewhat smaller than modern building
bricks. There were five whole bricks in the
collection. There were also found two pieces
of reddish-clay pipe bowls, which seem to
have been fashioned in crude imitation of
the European kaolin pipes.
Leisure time at the hearth was not only
spent in “‘drinking smoke,” as the custom
was known in the early seventeenth century
but apparently also in more artistic pur-
suits. This evidence we find in the form of a
flat bit of diamond-shaped bone, three
quarters of an inch in length, carefully cut
to shape and carved on its face with a sharp
tool Fig. 2, D).
The dating of this fireplace may be brack-
eted by the finds through comparing the
specimens with similar objects of known
date.
It is a matter of history that the Dutch,
during the colonization of New Netherland,
imported numerous lots of bricks from the
Continent. These bricks served as ballast in
the holds of their ships, which went back
laden with products of the New World,
especially furs. The white kaolin pipes, how-
ever, are a more sensitive time indicator,
because clay pipes are not so indestructible
as the bricks. In addition, it is known and
recorded that several styles of pipes were in
vogue among the pipemakers since the first
“Hlizabethan” or ‘‘fairy’’ pipes appeared in
the latter part of the sixteenth century, with
the introduction of the smoking habit by
Ralph Lane in 1586. Tobacco at this early
date was quite an expensive luxury, and
pipe bowls were thus necessarily small. The
pipe bowl illustrated (Fig. 2, A) is one of the
typical bowls found in the fireplace. The
bowl is barrel-shaped, slanting upward
obliquely from the stem. It has a milled
edge around the rim, as if made with a small
coin. The bottom of the bowl terminates in
328
a flat “‘heel,’’ which was typical of the seven-
teenth-century pipes and was supposed to
hold the pipe in an upright positon when
placed on a flat surface. The fact that this
heel changed its shape into a pointed spur a
century later may belie the efficacy of the
TOP VIEW
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
heel for supporting the pipe. Of particular
interest for the antiquarian are the pipe-
makers’ trade marks, generally found on the
heel (Fig. 2, C). These were usually the
pipemaker’s initials impressed in relief with-
in a circle. A search through the lists of
’s impres-
s. C, Heel of pipe bowl with maker
VERTICAL SECTION
SCALE- FEET
rought-iron nails. F, Top view and vertical section of the fireplace.
, B, European pipe bowl and stem
al
SCALE - INCHES
ia. 2.—The Maspeth fireplace and artifacts: A
sion “PG.” D, Worked bit of bone. I
4y
Oct. 15, 1948
pipemakers of Hull and Bristol, England,
will identify many of the pipes brought to
America. A good many of these were used
in the Indian trade. The Dutch had lively
pipe manufactories also, which they seem to
have copied from the English. They also
kept a brisk business in pipes overseas. We
do not have any data on the pipemaker
“PG,” whose stamp was found on three of
the pipebowl heels, but from comparison
of the type bowl with pipes of known date
we can place the date of manufacture about
the middle of the seventeenth century. The
fleur-de-lis design found on eight of the
pipestem pieces (Fig. 2, B) is also a good
time marker, as it was popularly impressed
on stems about this period. The holes in the
pipestems were large, and the stems were
about 8 inches long, tapering toward the
mouthpiece. The so-called ‘‘church-warden”’
pipes, with the long stems for the cool
smoke, did not make their appearance until
considerably later in pipemaking history.
CONCLUSION
We may well speculate whether this fire-
place had been part of Reverend Doughty’s
settlement and had been destroyed by the
CHEMISTRY.—A study of dithizone as a reagent for indium.
MAY AND HOFFMAN: DITHIZONE AS A REAGENT FOR INDIUM
329
Indians during their depredations here, as
the material evidence seems to be coeval.
This is important to the historian, but of
interest and significance to the archeologist
is the presence of the flint chips. These
point to associations of the whites with the
Indians. We cannot say definitely that the
fireplace was not of Indian construction,
but from what we know of early Colonial
and Indian fireplaces, the possibilities are
greater that this fireplace had been made by
the settlers. How to explain the presence
of the flint chips other than that they
demonstrate the contact period between the
whites and Indians is a moot point. This
borderline phase of our early history had
not received the research and attention it
justly deserves by archeologists.
REFERENCES
Boiron, REGINALD PELHAM. IJndian paths in
the Great Metropolis. Indian Notes and
Monographs, Museum of American Indian.
New York, 1922.
RimKER, JAMES. Annals of Newtown.
1852.
VAN DER Donck, A.
erlands (1656).
Soc., new ser., l.
New York,
A description of New Neth-
Collections New York Hist.
1841.
Irvine May? and
JAMES I. HorrMan, Lecturer in Chemistry at The George Washington Uni-
versity.
Indium is generally found in nature as a
trace constituent of zinc ores and is ob-
tained commercially from the residues of
zinc distillations. Sensitive methods for de-
termining indium in the presence of zinc
are therefore of importance in the analysis
of indium-bearing materials.
The spectrographic method is the most
common one in use for determining small
amounts of indium, and only a few colori-
metric methods are described.
Therald Moeller (1) developed a colori-
1 From a thesis submitted by Irving May to the
faculty of The George Washington University in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the de-
gree of master of science, February 1948. Re-
ceived August 13, 1948.
2 Present address, U. S. Geological Survey,
Washington 25, D. C.
metric procedure for estimating small a-
mounts of indium based upon a chloroform
extraction of the indium derivative of 8-
hydroxyquinoline. This method has the
disadvantages of being somewhat insensi-
tive and of being subject to numerous inter-
ferences. Nevertheless, it is capable of effect-
ing a number of important separations and
is useful for isolating indium from many
metals.
The reaction of dithizone with mdium
was first reported by Hellmut Fischer in a
brief statement which is given in transla-
tion:
Indium is one of the few trivalent cations which
react with dithizone. To be sure, solutions of tri-
valent indium salts, upon shaking with a solution
of dithizone dissolved in carbon tetrachloride,
give a red coloration in the carbon tetrachloride
3900
phase only when a very definite and narrow pH
range (between 5 and 6) is maintained. The reac-
tion also proceeds in the presence of cyanide ion,
if the solution is previously brought to the above
mentioned pH range. The dithizone complex is
decomposed merely by washing with a dilute am-
monia solution (1 part of ammonia to 1000 parts
of distilled water). Further investigation of the
composition of the complex and its analytical ap-
plication have not yet been carried out (2).
Subsequent investigators of the dithi-
zone reagent have not published any ad-
ditional material on its reaction with in-
dium. Wichmann (3), in a comprehensive
review of the dithizone system, stated that
indium, as well as ferrous iron, manganese,
and trivalent thallium “react with dithi-
zone under certain conditions, but their
dithizonates are of limited stability and
probably of no analytical significance. The
field for further investigation is still wide
open.”’
It was thought that a more thorough in-
vestigation of the reaction of indium with
dithizone than had been made by Fischer
might lead to a useful method for the deter-
mination of indium. A general study was
therefore made of the reaction of indium
with dithizone. Tentative procedures were
then developed for separating indium from
other metals and its determination with
dithizone.
The authors are aware of the fact that
further work on this subject would be highly
desirable. Unfortunately, it is unlikely that
they will be in a position to pursue this
study any further, but enough new informa-
tion concerning the reaction of indium with
dithizone has been developed to make its
publication of value to others interested in
this subject. It is believed that the tenta-
tive methods developed will be useful for
determining indium in many types of ma-
terials.
THE REACTION OF INDIUM WITH DITHIZONE
IN CARBON TETRACHLORIDE SOLUTION
The optimum conditions for the extrac-
tion of indium by carbon tetrachloride solu-
tions of dithizone were determined. The ab-
sorption characteristics and the stability of
indium dithizonate were next investigated.
Similar studies were also made employing
chloroform as the solvent.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 10
The color of indium dithizonate in carbon
tetrachloride and in chloroform solutions is
rose-red. It was observed that carbon tetra-
chloride solutions of indium dithizonate
underwent a visible reddening in color on
standing exposed to afternoon room light.
The absorption curve of indium dithizo-
nate in carbon tetrachloride medium was
measured. A solution for this purpose was
prepared by shaking a carbon tetrachloride
solution of dithizone (0.001 percent wt/vol,
that is, carbon tetrachloride containing 10
mg. of dithizone in a liter) with an excess of
an indium nitrate solution at pH 5.8, avoid-
ing any exposure to light. Part of the dithi-
zone layer was drawn off and the absorption
curve was measured. The absorption curve
was also determined on another portion of
the sample which had been permitted to
stand for 22 hours in the absence of light.
These curves are shown in Fig. 1 as is the
curve of the 0.001 percent dithizone solu-
tion.
The curve for the dithizone solution
agrees closely with similar ones previously
published (4, 5). The absorption curves
for indium dithizonate are very similar to
those for other metal dithizonates. The
maximum absorption of indium dithizonate
is at 510muy, at which wavelength dithizone
has a minimum absorption.
Comparison of the two indium dithizo-
nate curves reveals that, on standing, there
is a small but definite increase in optical
density in the regions of 510 and 600mu. The
aging effect over a short period of time, such
as an hour or less, is not likely to result in
serious errors in quantitative work.
Indium dithizonate solutions in carbon
tetrachloride were found to be sensitive to
light. A portion of indium dithizonate solu-
tion, prepared as described above, was ex-
exposed to afternoon room light for 13 -
hours. The optical density at 510 my
changed from 0.688 to 0.713, whereas an
unexposed portion of the sample changed to
0.693.
Exposure to the intense light of a 750 W
projection bulb resulted in appreciable de-
composition of the dithizonate. The light
was focused on the sample, and heat was
removed by heat-absorbing filters. Samples
were exposed for 5 and for 15 minutes. The
Ocr. 15, 1948
samples looked green when first removed
from the light, and some recovery of color
was apparent in the short interval that
elapsed before the measurements could be
made. The optical density changed from an
initial value of 0.688 to 0.664 for a 5-minute
1.00
.5O
OPTICAL DENSITY
500
MAY AND HOFFMAN: DITHIZONE AS A REAGENT FOR INDIUM
331
exposure and to 0.465 for a 15-minute ex-
posure. After standing in the instrument for
10 minutes, the density of the 15-minute
sample increased to 0.512 and then re-
mained unchanged. This behavior is similar
to that of mercury dithizonate.
600 700
WAVELENGTH (mz)
Fig. 1.—Absorption curve of indium dithizonate in carbon tetrachloride solution:
a, Absorption curve of freshly prepared indium dithizonate solution; 6, Absorption curve of indium
dithizonate solution after standing for 22 hours; c, Absorption curve of the dithizone reagent, in carbon
tetrachloride. (The same general form of curve is obtained with chloroform as the solvent.)
1.00
.§0
OPTICAL DENSITY
00
400
500
WAVELENGTH (mz)
Fig. 2.—Absorption curve of indium dithizonate in chloroform solution.
600 700
302
The optimum pH range for the extrac-
tion of indium by carbon tetrachloride solu-
tions of dithizone was found to be between
5.2 and 6.3, agreeing with the values given
by Fischer (pH 5-6). Some extraction oc-
curs on either side of this range. Thus, at a
pH of 4.8 or 6.7, about 60 percent as much
indium could be extracted bya givenvolume
of dithizone, compared with what would
extract at the optimum pH. There was some
evidence that small amounts of indium
would extract at as low a pH as 2 and possi-
bly even at as high a pH as 8.
Indium dithizonate in carbon tetrachlo-
ride solution was found to obey Beer’s Law.
Solutions containing 0 to 14 micrograms of
indium at a pH of 5.5 were extracted with
15-ml portions of a carbon tetrachloride
solution of dithizone (16 mg of dithizone
per liter of carbon tetrachloride). A plot of
the transmittancies of the dithizone layers
at 490 my against concentration of indium
showed that the solutions adhered to Beer’s
Law.
It was found that the presence of citrates
or tartrates prevented the extraction of
indium by dithizone, but extraction did
proceed readily in the presence of hydroxyl-
amine-hydrochloride.
The conditions which were established
for the optimum extraction of indium by
carbon tetrachloride solutions of dithizone
are the very ones which favor the extraction
of zinc. Attempts to find a complexing rea-
gent which would prevent extraction of zine
and yet allow indium to be extracted by the
dithizone solution were fruitless. A method,
however, was desired for indium in the
presence of zinc. Since there was nothing
in the literature on the extraction of indium
with chloroform solutions of dithizone, it
was decided to investigate the extraction,
employing chloroform as the solvent.
THE REACTION OF INDIUM WITH DITHIZONE
IN CHLOROFORM SOLUTION
Investigation of the reaction of indium
with chloroform solutions of dithizone re-
vealed that indium formed a dithizonate in
the presence of moderate concentrations of
cyanide, at a higher alkalinity than in the
ease of the carbon tetrachloride medium.
Maximum extraction of indium occurred
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
in the pH range 8.3 to 9.6. Extraction of
indium was very incomplete at pH below 7
and above 10.
The absorption curve of a chloroform so-
lution of indium dithizonate was measured
(Fig. 2). The dithizonate was prepared by
extracting a solution of indium nitrate
containing potassium cyanide (pH=9.1)
with chloroform containing 10 mg of dithi-
zone in a liter. The absorption peak of the
dithizonate in chloroform is at 510-—520muz.
The hump in the curve in the region of 600
my is probably caused by the presence of
unreacted dithizone.
A study was made of the stability of
indium dithizonate in chloroform solution.
On standing in the absence of light, there
was a slow decrease in optical density at
510mu, accompanied by a slight increase in
density at 620my. At 510myu the density
dropped from an initial value of 0.845 to
0.822 after a lapse of 37 minutes, and to
0.798 after 22 hours.
Unlike carbon-tetrachloride solutions of
indium dithizonate, chloroform solutions of
the dithizonate were found to be fairly sta-
ble to light. Exposure to room light for 45
minutes resulted in no greater change in
density at 510 my than in the case of the
sample standing for a similar period pro-
tected from light. Exposure to intense light
resulted in a change in density at 510 mu
from an initial value of 0.839 to 0.862 after
a 5-minute exposure, and from 0.820 to
0.840 after a 15-minute exposure.
CUPFERRON AS AN AID TO THE EXTRAC-
TION OF INDIUM WITH DITHIZONE
It was discovered that if cupferron is
present and dithizone absent in aqueous
cyanide solutions of indium, lead, or bis-
muth, all these metals could be readily
extracted by chloroform at pH 8.5 The re-
sulting chloroform solutions are colorless.
It was then observed that if dithizone solu-
tions were added to the chloroform-cupfer-
ron extracts, the corresponding dithizonate
colors were obtained. The dithizonates are
therefore stronger complexes than the cup-
ferrates. As a result of a number of experi-
ments, the following conclusions were
reached concerning the extraction of indium
Oct. 15, 1948
from solutions at a pH of 8.5 containing
cyanide:
(1) In the presence of cupferron, but in
the absence of citrate, indium is extracted
by chloroform even if no dithizone is pres-
ent.
(2) In the presence of both citrate and
cupferron, the extraction is sufficiently re-
tarded to require dithizone in the chloro-
form for efficient extraction of indium.
(3) Indium is extracted more readily
with chloroform solutions of dithizone in
the presence of cupferron and moderate
concentrations of citrate than when both
are absent.
When extractions are made from alka-
line solutions with dithizone, it is generally
advantageous to have citrates (or tartrates)
present to avoid the precipitation of a large
number of metals. The use of cupferron en-
ables one to overcome the very pronounced
retarding effect of citrates on the extrac-
tion of indium by dithizone.
SEPARATION OF INDIUM FROM ZINC AND
OTHER METALS
The conditions established above for the
extraction of indium by chloroform solu-
tions of dithizone are essentially those gen-
erally employed for the extraction of lead.
Bismuth, bivalent tin, and univalent thal-
lum also form dithizonates under these
conditions. Zinc, in moderate concentra-
tions, is not extracted with this group.
It was determined that concentrations of
cyanide greater than 0.3 g of KCN in 60
ml of solution at a pH of 8.5 hinder the ex-
traction of indium by chloroform solutions
of dithizone. It was also found that at this
pH and in the presence of 0.3 g of KCN
in 60 ml of solution, up to 10 mg of zine
may be present without any zinc being ex-
tracted by chloroform solutions containing
10 mg of dithizone in a liter.
Moeller (1) found that on extraction of
indium with chloroform solutions of 8-
hydroxyquinoline (oxine) at a pH range of
3.2 to 4.5 the interfering ions were alumi-
num, gallium, thallic, stannous, bismuth,
cupric, ferrous, nickel, and cobalt. He re-
ported that the ions not extracted under
these conditions were magnesium, calcium,
strontium, zinc, cadmium, mercuric, stan-
MAY AND HOFFMAN: DITHIZONE AS A REAGENT FOR INDIUM
339
nic, lead, manganous, chromic, and silver.
It can be seen that, with the exception of
bismuth, extraction with oxine will separate
indium from the metals which otherwise
would interfere with the extraction of in-
dium by dithizone. A procedure published
by Hubbard (6) for the separation of bis-
muth from lead by extracting bismuth with
dithizone from a solution at a pH of 3 would
also serve to separate bismuth from indium.
On the basis of the foregoing considera-
tions, tentative procedures for determining
indium were evolved. The general plan was
to first extract indium at a pH of 4 witha
chloroform solution of oxine, free indium
from the oxine complex, and then deter-
mine indium by extraction with a chloro-
form solution of dithizone.
PROCEDURES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
INDIUM
Detailed instructions for the preparation
and purification of most of the following
reagents are to be found in papers by
Clifford and Wichmann (4), and Bambach
and Burkey (7).
Water—Double-distilled in an _ all-Pyrex
still, or otherwise prepared so that it yields a
satisfactory blank.
Nitric acid, conc.——Reagent nitric acid dis-
tilled in a Pyrex still.
Nitric acid, 1:99——Ten ml of conc nitric
acid made up to a liter with water.
Sulphuric acid, conc.—Select a bottle having
a low blank value for lead and indium.
Perchloric acid, 60 percent.
Potassium cyanide, 10 percent.—Potassium
cyanide frequently has a high metal content
and may require purification.
Ammonium hydroxide, conc. (sp. gr. 0.9).—
May be purified by distilling reagent am-
monium hydroxide into double-distilled water.
Ammonia-cyanide mixture—Two hundred
ml of a 10-percent solution of KCN and 150 ml
of concentrated ammonium hydroxide made
up to 1,000 ml.
Chloroform.—U.S.P. or C.P. grades are gen-
erally satisfactory.
Dithizone solution. 0.001 percent.—Ten mg of
dithizone dissolved in 1,000 ml of chloroform.
8-Hydroxyquinoline. 0.02 M.—Diissolve 1.5
g of reagent in 500 ml of chloroform.
Buffer. pH 4.—Dilute 115 ml of acetic acid
334
with about 500 ml of water, titrate with am-
monium hydroxide to a pH of 4.0, and dilute to
2 liters with water.
Cupferron, 1 percent.—Dissolve 1 g of cup-
ferron in 100 ml of water. A clear colorless solu-
tion should be obtained with a good grade of
cupferron. Prepare immediately before use.
Sodium citrate, 20 percent—Two hundred
grams of the dihydrate in a liter of water.
M-Cresol purple wndicator, 0.1 percent.
Methyl orange indicator, 0.1 percent.
DOUBLE EXTRACTION PROCEDURE
WITH OXINE SEPARATION
The following procedure permits the
presence of more than 10 mg of zinc. Lead,
thallium, and tin are separated from in-
dium and do not interfere. The presence of
large amounts of tin and aluminum may
give low results.
1. Dissolve the sample in nitric acid and
evaporate. If tin is present, dissolve in hydro-
chloric acid, add bromine, and evaporate to
dryness.
2. Dissolve the residue in a few drops of
nitric acid (hydrochloric, if used in no. 1) add
0.5 ml of sodium citrate solution and 10 ml of
water. (If thallium is present and the treatment
of the sample has resulted in its oxidation, add
1 ml of 20-percent hydroxylamine-hydrochlo-
ride.)
3. Add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator
and adjust to orange color (pH 4) with 1:4 am-
monium hydroxide.
4. Add 25 ml of the buffer solution and
transfer the sample to a separatory funnel.
5. Extract with four 5-ml portions of a 0.02-
M chloroform solution of oxine.
6. Wash the oxine extracts with 25 ml of the
buffer solution.
7. Drain the oxine extracts into a 100-ml
Kjeldahl flask, wash the buffer solution with a
5-ml portion of the oxine solution, and add the
oxine wash to the flask.
8. Add 1 ml of sulphuric acid and heat until
the chloroform is volatilized. Destroy organic
matter by adding 1 ml of nitric acid and heating
gently until the reaction subsides. Add 1 ml of
perchloric acid, heating gently at first and then
vigorously until fumes of sulphuric acid are
evolved.
9. Add 25 ml of water and 1 ml of 20-percent
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
sodium citrate solution. If iron is present, add
1 ml of 20 percent hydroxylamine-hydro-
chloride. Heat the solution and boil gently for a
few minutes.
10. Cool and add 2 drops of m-cresol purple
indicator and then ammonium hydroxide until
the indicator turns orange. Add 3 ml of 10-per-
cent potassium-cyanide solution and then add
ammonium hydroxide until a purple color is
obtained.
11. Wash the sample into a separatory fun-
nel and add 5 ml of a 1-percent cupferron solu-
tion.
12. Extract with 5-ml portions of 0.001-per-
cent chloroform solution of dithizone until the
dithizone no longer changes color.
13. Add 50 ml of 1:99 nitrie acid to the di-
thizone extracts and shake for 1 minute.
14. Discard the dithizone layer, wash the
nitric acid extract with 5 ml of chloroform, and
then remove the chloroform completely.
15. Add 5 ml of the ammonia-cyanide mix-
ture to the nitric acid extract, or to an aliquot
of it made up to 50 ml with 1:99 nitric acid.
16. Add 15.0 ml of a standardized 0.001-per-
cent dithizone solution and shake for 1 minute.
17. Read the dithizone layer in a spectro-
photometer at 510mu.
The dithizone solution is standardized by
taking solutions containing 0 to 15 micro-
grams of indium and 1 ml of sulfuric acid
through the procedure, beginning at step
no. 9. A blank determination should be run
through the entire procedure.
If bismuth is to be separated, the above
procedure should be followed through step
no. 14. Then adjust the pH to 3.0 by adding
dilute ammonium hydroxide, using m-
cresol purple indicator. Extract the bis-
muth with dithizone (the extraction is slow).
Wash the aqueous layer with chloroform.
Add the proper volumes of ammonium hy-
droxide and potassium cyanide solutions to
bring conditions to step no. 16 and continue
with steps nos. 16-17.
SINGLE EXTRACTION PROCEDURES
In many cases it would be quite possible
to use a simpler procedure than the one
outlined above. Thus, the following modi-
fications could be made in a limit test for
indium in zine samples:
TRANSMITTANCY (%)
510 mp
Oct. 15, 1948
A dilute nitric-acid solution of the sample
is adjusted with ammonium hydroxide (m-
cresol purple) to an orange color. Three ml
of 10-percent potassium-cyanide solution
are added, and the adjustment of pH is
continued until a purple color is obtained.
The sample is extracted for 3 minutes with
15.0 ml of 0.001 -percent dithizone solution.
The dithizone extract is then compared
with indium standards, 0 to 15 micrograms
of indium, which have been taken through
the same procedure. This comparison may
be made visually, or in a spectrophotometer
at 510 mu. Lead, bismuth, and thallium, if
present, would be read as indium. High
concentrations of tin, iron, and aluminum
would probably cause low results. A varia-
ation of this simplified procedure would be
the addition of sodium citrate before neu-
tralization, and cupferron before extrac-
bons *
Another variation in the procedure may
be employed where the greatest accuracy
and sensitivity are not necessary. The pro-
cedure outlined above is followed through
step no. 11. Then the sample, or a suitable
100
50
30 20
to) 10 15
INDIUM (MICROGRAMS)
Fig. 3.—Indium dithizonate standards:
a, Single extraction procedure. Extraction in
presence of sulphate, citrate, cyanide, and cupfer-
fon;
-b, Double extraction procedure;
c, Single extraction procedure. Extraction in the
presence of citrate, cyanide, and cupferron (sul-
phate absent).
MAY AND HOFFMAN: DITHIZONE AS A REAGENT FOR INDIUM
3390
aliquot thereof, is extracted with 15.0 ml
of dithizone-chloroform solution, and the
transmittancy is read at 510 my. Standards,
containing 1 ml of sulphuric acid, should
be run beginning with step no. 9.
TABLE 1
Foreign metal |
initially present Indium Indium
sats added found
Metal Amount
micrograms micrograms
— — 1.0 ie?
— — 33 0) 3.0
—— — 5.0 5
— — 9.0 8.7
— — 10.0 9.2
— — 14.0 13} 311
Cu 10 mg 10.0 10.5
Pb 10 10.0 9.3
Fe Oo 10.0 10.2
Ni 5 10.0 9.3
Co 5 10.0 9.0
Zn 10 10.0 9.0
Ga 5 10.0 Wi se)
Sn 10 10.0 5.0
Al 5 10.0 aay
Al 10 10.0 68)
Mn 5 10.0 8.4
Cd 5 10.0 8.4
“bi 5 10.0 8.1
RECOVERY OF KNOWN AMOUNTS OF
INDIUM
Standardization of the same batch of
dithizone solution by three of the above-
mentioned procedures is shown in Fig. 3.
Comparison of curves a and ¢ indicates
that there is a loss of sensitivity when the
extraction is performed in the presence of
high concentrations of ammonium sulphate.
The results for the recovery of known
amounts of indium obtained with the pro-
cedure employing an oxine separation fol-
lowed by a single extraction of indium are
given in Table 1.
It will be observed that poor recoveries
of indium were obtained in the presence of
high concentrations of tin and aluminum.
Samples containing much tin could prob-
ably best be handled by completely vol-
atilizing the tin as stannic bromide from
perchloric acid solution by the procedure of
Wichmann and Clifford (8).
SUMMARY
The extraction of indium by carbon tetra-
chloride and chloroform solutions of dithiz-
306
one has been studied. Indium was found to
be extracted with chloroform solutions of
dithizone under the same conditions as the
lead, tin, thalhum, and bismuth group.
Tentative procedures have been presented
for the separation of indium from various
metals and its determination by dithizone
methods.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) MoELLER, T. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed.,
15: 270. 1948.
(2) FiscHeR, H. Angewandte Chemie 50: 919.
1937.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 10
(3) WicuMANN, H. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal.
Ed., 11:66. 1939.
(4) CuirForp, P. A., and WicumMann, H. J.
Journ. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem. 19: 130.
1936.
(5) FiscHer, H., and Wryt, W. Wiss. Verdf-
fentlich. Siemens-Konzern 14: 41. 1935.
(6) Huspsparp, D. M. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal.
Ed., 11: 344. 1939.
(7) BampBacn, K., and BrukeEy, R. E.
Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 14: 904. 1942.
(8) WicoMANN, H. J., and Cuirrorp, P. A.
Journ. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem. 18: 315.
1935.
Ind.
PLANT PATHOLOGY.—Bacillus megaterium de Bary from the interior of
healthy potato tubers... BENJAMIN FRANKLIN LUTMAN and Harry E. WHEELER,
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Louisiana State University.
(Communicated by NATHAN R. SMITH.)
For several years the writers have been
attempting to grow microorganisms from
the filamentous plant intercellular inclu-
sions which had been described by Lutman
(6, 7). Various methods were used to induce
them to leave their intercellular habitat and
grow in another medium, but without suc-
cess. Although a few actinomycetes were
occasionally obtained, no assurance could
be given that they were not accidentally
introduced in the transfer of material from
tubers to medium.
The technique that was used in the fol-
lowing work was neither new nor compli-
cated. Burbank Russet tubers, grown in
Idaho, were used for much of this work be-
cause they were available in the market and
their long shape made them easy to break.
At the time most of these trials were made
these mature tubers showed sprouts, indi-
cating that the rest period had been passed.
Clean, selected tubers were disinfected for
2 hours in 0.5 percent formaldehyde solu-
tion. They were dried and then cut on one
side so that they could be broken readily.
Disks of tuber tissue were removed with a
sterile cork borer and a scalpel. Usually
three or four of these circular disks (1 cm
across and 1—2 mm thick) were taken from
the broken surfaces and removed to bottles
1 Received August 5, 1948.
of sterile water. After washing they were
placed in a small, sterile porcelain mortar,
ground to a fine paste, and transferred to
another similar flask of sterile water. The
material from these flasks was plated out on
nutrient agar to which had been added 2 per-
cent dextrose and 1 percent yeast extract.
The broken tubers were placed between
layers of sterile filter paper in a glass dish
for five or six days, and then they were again
used for samples. In this time the cut sur-
faces had developed a new cork layer from
a cork cambium. The walls of the new cork
cambium were filled with strands of hyphae,
indicating that the microorganism had re-
newed its activity after being dormant in
the tuber. The broken surfaces were washed
off in 95 percent alcohol and the adhering
alcohol burned off. Tissue disks, removed as
just described, were broken up in the
mortar to a fine paste and diluted 1 to
10,000 before plating.
The number of organisms obtained in the
3 operations varied widely with the tubers
used. In one set of trials were 100 colonies
per disk from the wash water, 700 colonies
after the disk had been broken into frag-
ments, and 33,000 from the disks taken
from the regenerated skin. In another trial
the numbers were 300 from a washed disk,
1,200 from a ground-up one, and 48,000
from a disk from a regenerated skin layer.
Oct. 15, 1948
The organisms obtained, however, were
not actinomycetes, but a large, curved-rod
bacillus which was easily identified as the
highly pleomorphic de Bary organism,
Bacillus megaterium.* Occasionally, colonies
of other organisms appeared on the plates,
but the predominant form was always this
bacillus.
For a long time these organisms were re-
garded as intruders from the soil and were
disregarded. But, since they were so fre-
quent, even with all precautions taken
against the introduction of soil bacteria, a
more careful examination was made of the
colonies and of the individuals composing
them. For this purpose the colonies that re-
sulted from plating out the tissues were
used, their age usually being 24 to 72 hours.
Colony margin.—The filaments protrud-
ing from the margins of the colony fre-
quently showed branching, although in
some colonies the individuals were pressed
together in parallel, concentric circles to
form a smooth margin. The most striking
variation from an ordinary bacterial colony
was the long filaments that would break
away from the colony margin to push out
across the agar to some distance, where
they would bud off a new, small daughter
colony. Rettger and Gillespie (9) gave the
appropriate name of “‘runners”’ to these long
nonseptate and unfragmented hyphae and
offered the explanation that their appear-
ance was stimulated by a lack of oxygen in
the parent colony.
Reproduction and unusual individuals.—
The unusually large size. of the organisms
(1.2 to 1.7 microns in width and averaging
5 to 10 microns in length) gave an oppor-
tunity to observe the details of cell repro-
duction by budding. Smith, Gordon, and
Clark (10) in their monograph of this
group state that B. megatercum produces
apical and side buds. This description of
bud formation is shorter and clearer than
that of de Bary (2) who goes into consider-
able detail in the growth of the buds and
the curvature of the rods: ‘‘The rods divide
by the formation of a transverse septum
into two members, the transverse septa are
2 The authors will use the original de Bary
spelling.
LUTMAN AND WHEELER: BACILLUS MEGATERIUM FROM POTATO
Oo”
extremely delicate when young. When two
sister rods begin to separate transversely
from one another, the curvature usually
becomes more pronounced at the extremi-
ties where division takes place, and the ends
of the rods become slightly oblique to one
another and overlap each other a little, or
one thrusts itself laterally past the other, like
the short commencement of a so-called false
branch in Syctonema and similar genera of
the Nostcaceae.”’ His figure, however, shows
clearly side buds, although all buds origi-
nate near cell apices.
Budding would automatically deny the
name of the group to which it had been -
assigned, the Schizomycetes (fission-fungi).
As a result of the buds and continued apical
growth, true branching is common in the
cells of these colonies derived directly from
potato tissue. On replating these colonies,
however, the branches or buds were shorter,
so that the curved rods usually considered
typical for this species now predominated.
Rettger and Gillespie (9) had noted that
these so-called ‘‘abnormalities” were always
more frequent near the colony margins
where oxygen supply was more abundant.
At the centers and in the depths of the
colonies fragmentation into short curved
rods introduced the ‘‘normal,” i.e., the lab-
oratory type, of the species. The long fila-
ments, branching cells, etc. were not per-
manent, but would resume their normal
form if returned to any of the standard
media (4).
Spore formation and sheath.—Occasional
long filaments may be seen in the colonies.
They fragment by the introduction of bi-
convex vacuoles. The protoplasm retreats
and the empty space enlarges and becomes
biconcave. This fragmentation is marked
near the end of a filament where the proto-
plasm frequently fragments in a_ short
branch into three or four capsule-shaped
spores enclosed in a clear sheath. These
short rows of spores are usually curved as
are those of the actinomycetes. These
spores would be the conidia of these latter
filamentous species and are to be distin-
guished from the endospores described in
some strains of B. megatervwm but which
are absent in other strains, and may be lost
occasionally from those having them (8).
398
No endospores were observed on these
strains when grown on dextrose agar.’
Rettger and Gillespie (8) noted so-called
“empty sausage” skins (sheaths empty of
protoplasm) but did not consider them of
special importance, presenting their ob-
servations ‘‘as a matter of general interest,
rather than as evidence of the occurrence of
a highly specialized cell membrane or en-
velope in bacteria.”’ They did not call atten-
tion to the fact that the actinomycetes have
such an envelope or sheath, even if other
microorganisms do not. This envelope or
skin has been investigated by a number of
electron microscope workers. Dubin and
Sharp (3) arrived at the conclusion that
“electron micrographs indicate plainly the
presence of two structures constituting the
bacterial cell, an inner dense substance and
outer less dense substance. The outer sub-
stance of the bacterial cell is invisible in
light micrographs.” To the latter statement,
the authors would in part disagree, since
this sheath may often be seen between the
fragments of protoplasm, especially after
dense staining.
Germination of the intercellular strands.—
The best proof of the origin of the colonies
from the intercellular filaments would be to
grow them from between the cells out into
a culture medium. In order to demonstrate
this point a somewhat different technique
was used.
Some of the ground-up regenerated cork
layer in a 100-cc water suspension was
pipetted on large (24 by 50 mm) cover
glasses, where it was allowed to air dry. A
thin layer of the nutrient agar used in the
plates was then spread over these dried tis-
sue fragments. After it had hardened the
cover glass was inverted over a slide, the
ends of the cover glass being suspended by
fine glass rods. The slide was then placed in
a damp chamber.
In a warm room germination would be-
gin in about two to three hours. Probably
more than 90 percent of the germinations
would have no connection with bits of tis-
3The writers wish to thank Dr. Nathan R.
Smith for the additional information that the
three isolations sent to him after this work was
done readily produced spores on the ordinary beef
agar.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
sue. They seemed to originate in frag-
ments of mycelium loosened from their
intercellular attachments by the pounding
in the mortar. No indication of remains of a
spore could be seen even in the early 1- and
2-celled stages. They were bits of mycelium
free from all tissue connections. This fact
would indicate that the mycelium is not
deeply imbedded in the pectin of the inter-
cellular region.
An occasional filament can be traced
back into strands inside the tuber tissue.
Such a filament will be seen to break up in
the culture medium into the rods of B.
megaterium. In the two figures shown, the
dried tissue had been covered with agar at
11:30 a.m. When examined and _ photo-
graphed at 2:30 p.m. the filament was pro-
jecting into the medium and had thrown
off a long bud, which lay parallel to it. The
growth was rapid during the first half hour,
but a series of five exposures were made of
which only one, that at 4:30 is reproduced.
At this time the true point of origin of the
cluster of bacilli could be determined only
by referring back to the earlier stage.
A careful study of such filaments ger-
minating from tissue showed that in every
case the part in the tissue lay close to the
margin and that all connection with the
hyphae of the cells had been broken. In no
instance was a germination observed from |
the end of a hyphae extending unbroken
back into the tissue.
Occurrence in other parts of the potato plant
and in other plants—No extended efforts
were made to isolate B. megaterium from
other parts of the potato or from other
plants. It was noted that, with the same
technique used, this organism was common
in disinfected sweet potatoes and also in
potato roots after they had been washed
and dipped in 95 percent alcohol from 10 to
15 seconds before crushing them up in the
mortar. The same is true of garden carrots.
Since the Burbank Russet potatoes were
mature and had been in storage for at least
four months, the same technic was used on
small Bliss’ Triumph tubers taken fresh
from the soil and larger tubers of the same
variety grown in Florida. The same organ-
isms appeared as when the storage tubers
had been used.
Oct. 15, 1948
Sheath on the hyphae in the tubers.—No
note was taken of the occurrence of a sheath
on the filaments stained in the intercellular
regions of the potato tuber by Lutman (7),
but such a sheath shows distinctly in many
of the photographs, especially those of sec-
tions of mature tubers. In one of the illus-
trations of these filaments in the turnip, the
tube is shown cut through in such a manner
that the organism inside it was missed and
the tube in part seemed empty. As shown
in the same paper the enclosed filaments
were also Gram-positive, although a special
timing and technique had to be used to
demonstrate them.
Tissue cultures with sterile matertal.—The
interior of healthy plants was formerly held
to be free from bacteria and sterile. Tissue
cultures have been made of many organs
without any evidence of bacterial growths
on the bits of tissue. The reason for this
apparent freedom from bacteria is due, so
far as B. megaterzwm is concerned at any
rate, to its marked aerobic habit. It will not
grow in a stab in a solid culture medium to
a depth of much more than two millimeters.
In tissue-culture technique, the bits of
tissue are covered with the nutrient fluid to
a depth sufficient to stifle the growth of this
highly aerobic species. If growth should
start, the colonies would be so small owing
to lack of oxygen that they have been over-
looked.
Systematic position of the organism.—The
question arises at once in the mind of any
systematist of microorganisms of the nam-
ing and grouping of the. pleomorphic spe-
cies which lives part of its life as a branching
mycelium inside plants and breaks up into
short, motile bacilli in culture media.
In the sixth edition of Bergey’s Manual
of determinative bacteriology (1), Order II.
Actinomycetales Buchanan has as family I.
Mycobacteriaceae Chester, a single genus:
I. Mycobactervxum Lehmann and Neumann.
This group contains many important or-
ganisms such as those associated with tuber-
culosis and leprosy. These organisms are
also filamentous at times but break up
readily into nonmotile rods. Bacillus mega-
tercum would not fit into such a genus
since the organisms are typically motile. It
can not be regarded as a true Actinomyces,
LUTMAN AND WHEELER: BACILLUS MEGATERIUM FROM POTATO
339
although it has a sheath and the rest-
ing spores are similar to those of the latter
group. No member of the Actinomyces
Figs. 1-12.—Pleomorphic forms assumed by
Bacillus megateritum in culture media, aqueous
crystal violet stain: 1, ‘‘Runner” type with vacu-
oles; 2, types of short bacilli; 3, budding, and 4,
bud almost separated; 5, extreme branching with
variation in size of branches; 6, end of filament
with empty “sausage’’ skin; 7-10, resting spores
formed by fragmentation, spores still enclosed or
connected by clear-walled sheath; 11, filament
arising from a bit of potato tuber tissue with a
parallel branch or bud at right, taken at 2:30
P.M.; 12, same, at 4:30 p.m. (Figs. 1 and 5-9 mag-
nified 1,100 times, Figs. 2-4 magnified 1,350 times;
11 and 12, 400 times.)
340
is known, however, to have a motile stage
or endospores. The intermediate position
of this microorganism is clearer than its dis-
position in any present classification.
The middle lamellae.—To the botanist the
fundamental contribution of these obser-
vations is that the denser material between
plant cell walls is not a chemical (calcium
pectate), as suggested by Mangin who dis-
covered these bodies, but living microor-
ganisms that may be grown in culture
media outside the plant. Further, the old
conception that the interior of plants is
sterile is not tenable. The role which these
microorganisms play in the physiology of
the higher plants will have to be determined
by future experiments, but the abundance
of the filaments in enlarged roots (carrots,
beets, turnips) and tubers (potato, sweet-
potato, and Jerusalem artichoke) suggests
the formation of some type of growth-
stimulating substances. It may be pointed
out that the invasion of the cork cambium
of young potato tubers by a similar microor-
ganism stimulates the cork cells to produce
hypertrophied tissue known as common or
corky scab.
ADDENDUM
The day following the receipt of the manu-
script for transmittal to the editors of the
JOURNAL, word was received of the fatal illness
of the senior author of this paper. In the mean-
time it has come to my attention that G. B.
Sanford recently published a paper in Scientific
Agriculture, vol. 28, pp. 23-25, 1948, entitled
The occurrence of bacteria in normal potato plants
and legumes. In addition, I am informed that a
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
manuscript by Tervet and Hollis along the
same line has been accepted for publication and
will shortly appear in Phytopathology. These
and former papers seem to leave little doubt
that healthy plant tissues may contain micro-
organisms. The frequency of their occurrence
and their function still remain to be discovered.
—NatTpan R. SMITH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) Berery’s Manual of determinative bacteriol-
ogy, ed. 6. Baltimore, 1948.
(2) pE Bary, AnToN. Vergleichende Morpholo-
gie der Pilze, Mycetozoan und Bakterien.
Leipzig, 1884. (English translation of
same, Oxford Press, 1887.)
(3) Dupin, I. N., and SHarp, D. G. Compari-
son of the morphology of Bacillus megathe-
rium with light and electron microscopy.
Journ. Bact. 48: 313-328. 1944.
(4) GILLESPIE, Hazeu B., and Retrcer, Leo F.
Bacterial variation: formation and fate of
certain variant cells of Bacillus megathe-
rium. Journ. Bact. 39: 41-60. 1939.
(5) Knaysi, GEorGE. Morphological and cul-
tural studies of Bacillus megatherium.
Journ. Bact. 26: 623-644. 1933.
(6) Lurman, BENJAMIN F. Actinomyces in po-
tato tubers. Phytopath. 31: 702-717. 1941.
(7) Actinomycetes in various parts of
the potato and other plants. Vermont
Agr. Exp. Stat. Bull. 522. 1945.
(8) Rerreer, LEo F., and GILLESPIE, HazeEu B.
Bacterial variation with special reference to
pleomorphism and _ filirabtlity. Journ.
Bact. 26: 289-318. 1933.
(9) ——————.._ Bacterial variation: an inquiry
into the underlying principles concerning
the cell morphology of Bacillus megathe-
rium. Journ. Bact. 30: 213-234. 1935.
(10) SmitH, NaTHaNn R., Gorpon, Ruta E., and
CLARK, Franotis E. Aerobic mesophilic
sporeforming bacteria. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Mise. Publ. 559. 1946.
ZOOLOGY.—Hesperochernes thomomysi, a new species of chernetid pseudoscor-
pion from California.
C. Cuayton Horr, University of New Mexico.
(Communicated by Epwarp A. CHAPIN.)
Pseudoscorpions are common in the nests
of burrowing rodents. The species found in
rodent nests have received relatively little
attention, however, perhaps as a result of
difficulties encountered in making species
determinations in the groups to which most
of these forms belong. In the present paper,
1 Received June 7, 1948.
a new species of the genus Hesperochernes
is described from the nest of Thomomys
monticola from California, the description
being based on material submitted by Dr.
Edward A. Chapin, of the United States
National Museum. The type specimens
mounted on microscope slides are deposited
in the National Museum. As a result of our
very inadequate knowledge of chernetid
Oct. 15, 1948 HOFF: A NEW SPECIES OF PSEUDOSCORPION FROM CALIFORNIA
pseudoscorpions, the inclusion of the generic
description is considered advisable.
Suborder MonospHyronipA Chamberlin, 1929
Family CHERNETIDAE Menge, 1855
Genus Hesperochernes Chamberlin,
1924
Hesperochernes Chamberlin, Pan-Pacific Ent. 1:
89-90. 1924; Beier, Das Tierreich 58: 174. 1932;
Hoff, Bull. Ilinois Nat. Hist. Survey. (In
press. )
Cephalothorax clearly longer than wide;
carapace granular, with two transverse cara-
pacal furrows. Tergites divided, granular.
Palpi stout, femur with well-defined pedicle.
Setae of body and palps usually lightly, but
clearly clavate. Flagellum with four setae;
setae b and sb of hand of chelicera thickened
and denticulate. The sensory seta ist of the
fixed chelal finger is distal to est; st of the mov-
able chelal finger is found nearer to ¢t than to
sb. The tarsus of the fourth leg is without a
true sensory seta, although a short toothed
pseudotactile seta may be present.
Genotype: H. laurae Chamberlin,
(through original designation).
1924
Hesperochernes thomomysi, new species
Female.—The description of the female is
based on two specimens, the holotype and a
paratype. The measurements of various struc-
tures of the holotype are followed in parenthe-
ses by the corresponding measurements of the
paratype whenever the two differ significantly.
Body stout, light yellowish brown in color;
palpi deeper brown, often golden brown to
reddish brown, and moderately stout; body
length 3.1 (2.7) mm. Carapace light yellowish
brown to golden brown, transverse furrows
well marked, posterior furrow nearer to the
posterior carapacal margin than to the median
furrow; posterior margin well rounded, lateral
margins convex and passing without interrup-
tion into the anterior margin; carapace some-
what subtriangular in shape; dorsal surface of
carapace virtually smooth except for very fine
netlike markings, lateral surfaces moderately
granulate; setae very numerous, well scattered,
terminally denticulate, not clavate; eyes not
distinguished; length of carapace 0.98 (0.92)
mm, width 0.96 (0.83) mm; greatest width in
the posterior half of the carapace. Abdomen
oval in shape, very stout; tergal halves well
separated by rugose and nonsclerotic areas;
041
setae small, mostly nonclavate, terminally
denticulate, similar to those of the carapace;
each tergal half of tergite 1 with eight or nine
setae, maximum number of setae on any tergal
half is 10; tergite 11 not divided; surface of
tergites marked much like the dorsal surface
of the carapace. Ventral surface of abdomen
with the sternal halves well separated medially;
halves of sternite 4 with two setae in holotype,
with three or four in paratype; each half of
sternite 5 with seven to nine setae; maximum
number of setae on any sternal half is 10; setae
longer and more conspicuous than on the
tergites; setae of sternites acuminate. Each
anterior stigmatic plate with two or three
acuminate setae; each posterior plate with one
seta; pleural membranes with rugose and wavy
parallel striations. Abdomen 2.1 (1.8) mm in
length; width 1.73 (1.42) mm.
Chelicera: Yellow in color; moderately
stout; 0.28 (0.27) mm long, base 0.17 mm wide;
subbasal seta of base stout, widened, with
numerous terminal and subterminal denticu-
lations; basal seta more slender and with
fewer denticulations, in some instances the
denticulations are difficult to observe; internal
and laminal setae very long and acuminate;
surface of hand unsculptured except for a
roughened area in the region of the insertion
of the subbasal seta; flagellum with the largest
seta distinctly bladelike, a little curved, and
deeply serrate along one margin throughout
almost the entire length of the blade; the two
proximally placed setae subequal in length and
each longer than half the length of the longest
blade of the flagellum. Fixed cheliceral finger
with well-developed lamina exterior, markedly
convex near the center of the finger; apical
tooth with three or four small and rounded
denticles on the inner margin; inner finger
margin with four or five denticles in the distal
third of the margin, the distal two heavy and
conical in shape, the proximal two or three
more weakly developed and more retroconical;
serrula interior with four distal plates free,
others fused. Movable finger stout, little curved;
0.22 (0.23) mm long; serrula exterior of 17 to
19 ligulate plates, of which the proximal one
is much longer than the others; galeal seta
almost reaching the tip of the galea; galea
with a stout base, antlerlike, with six somewhat
curved branches confined to the distal half of
the galea; apical tooth sclerotic and terminally
342
bicuspid; subapical lobe just basal to the apical
tooth and distal to the base of the galeal seta,
somewhat smaller than the apical tooth and
frequently blunt.
Palpus: Moderately stout; surface of podo-
meres virtually unmarked and almost non-
granulate except the maxilla; maxilla with
weakly granulate surface and with numerous,
short and stout setae, many of which have a
few terminal denticulations; setae of podo-
meres in general subclavate and fairly stout
on the proximal podomeres, longer, more
slender, and nonclavate on the distal podo-
meres, each seta with a few terminal and sub-
terminal denticulations; investing setae of
chelal fingers acuminate; color variable, deep
golden brown in holotype to light yellowish
brown in paratype. Maxilla 0.48 (0.43) mm
long, 0.34 (0.31) mm wide. Trochanter some-
what club-shaped; pedicle stout, two protu-
berances present, 0.44 mm long, 0.26 (0.24) mm
wide in strict dorsal view. Femur with pedicle
about as long as wide and well set-off from the
rest of the podomere; extensor margin very
little convex in the center, more convex near
the ends; flexor margin weakly S-shaped
femur widest near the center; greatest over-all
length 0.74 (0.73) mm, length along either the
extensor or flexor margin 0.68 (0.66) mm; width
0.275 (0.26) mm. Tibia with stout pedicle;
flexor margin somewhat evenly convex except
towards the distal end and in the region of the
pedicle; extensor margin markedly convex near
the ends; length 0.67 (0.64) mm, width 0.28
(0.26) mm. Chela with hand stout and fingers
fairly well separated from the hand; extensor
margin of hand flatly convex, flexor margin
more or less evenly and distinctly convex;
hand somewhat bulging in the flexor-basal
angle and the pedicle far displaced towards the
extensor margin; fingers gently curved and
narrowed regularly and decisively from base
to distal end; length of chela 1.14 (1.08 )mm,
width 0.43 (0.40) mm; length of hand 0.57
(0.55) mm; length of movable finger 0.57
(0.55) mm. From the side, the chela has a
subrectangular hand, with the pedicle almost
at the ventral-basal corner; ventral margin
weakly and evenly convex; dorsal margin more
convex and, with the basal margin, forming
a well-rounded angle; depth of hand 0.43
(0.41) mm; fixed finger nearly straight, more or
less cone-shaped in outline and broadly joined
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
to the hand; external aspect of fixed finger near
the inner margin is conspicuously granulate;
the movable finger less stout but well curved,
especially in the proximal third of the finger.
Each finger with between 40 and 45 marginal
teeth, all with cusps and contiguous; the mar-
ginal teeth of the distal end of the row more
acute and with better developed cusps than
those at the proximal end of the row; fixed
finger with four or five internal and four or five
external accessory teeth, all confined to the
distal one-half of the finger; movable finger
with two internal and three to five external
accessory teeth, all found in less than the distal
half of the finger; nodus ramosus of movable
finger somewhat nearer tactile seta ¢ than st
in the holotype and nearer st than ¢ in the para-
type. Tactile setae as usual in the genus; st
varying from a little (holotype) to consider-
ably (paratype) closer to ¢ than to sb; other
tactile setae as shown in the figure.
Legs: Moderately ‘stout; yellowish brown,
often very light in color; surface of podomeres
nongranular; setae except on tarsi fairly heavy,
subclavate, with numerous subterminal and
terminal denticulations; setae of tarsi like
those of other podomeres basally and on the
extensor surface, but distally and on the flexor
surface relatively stout and acuminate; ter-
minal tarsal claws well curved and slender.
First leg with trochanter subquadrate, 0.185
mm long, 0.147 mm deep; pars basalis distally
deepened, flexor margin more or less evenly
rounded, length measured along the flexor
margin 0.245 (0.24) mm, depth 0.175 (0.165)
mm; pars tibialis with both flexor and extensor
margins evenly convex, deepest near the center,
length measured along the extensor margin
0.37 (0.36) mm, depth 0.147 (0.135) mm; tibia
with extensor margin weakly S-shaped, flexor
margin somewhat evenly convex, 0.405 (0.39)
mm long, 0.118 (0.105) mm deep; tarsus sub-
cylindrical, flexor margin a little convex, length
0.41 (0.40) mm, depth 0.083 (0.076) mm. Fourth
leg with trochanter having a very weakly but
evenly convex flexor margin, extensor margin
much more convex, especially in the central
portion, entire podomore somewhat quadrate
in outline, length 0.34 mm, depth 0.195 (0.178)
mm: pars basalis subtriangular, flexor margin
weakly convex to almost straight, length meas-
ured along the flexor margin 0.27 (0.25) mm,
depth 0.18 (0.17) mm; pars tibialis with
Oct. 15, 1948 HOFF: A NEW SPECIES OF PSEUDOSCORPION FROM CALIFORNIA
flexor margin nearly straight, extensor margin
evenly or flatly convex, deepest near the center,
length measured along the extensor margin
0.52 (0.50) mm, depth 0.20 (0.18) mm; length
of entire femur 0.73 (0.70) mm; tibia shaped
much as in the first leg but much more slender,
very weakly S-shaped or extensor margin
virtually straight except near the proximal
end, length 0.60 (0.61) mm, depth 0.125 (0.12)
mm; tarsus subcylindrical but the flexor margin
343
somewhat convex, podomere deepest near the
center, length 0.47 (0.46) mm, depth 0.095
(0.09) mm.
External genitalia: Simple; anterior oper-
culum with 14 closely clustered setae, posterior
to which is found a group of 13 (11) well-spaced
and well-separated setae; posterior operculum
with a single row of eight (13) setae.
Male.—The collection contains four males,
one of which is designated the allotype. The
HESPEROCHERNES THOMOMYSI, NEW SPECIES
Fic. 1.—Tip of movable finger of chelicera, female holotype; scale 0.05 mm. Fie. 2.—Dorsal view
of palpus, female holotype; scale0.6 mm. Fic. 3.—Lateral view of chelal hand, female holotype; scale
as in Fig. 2; marginal and accessory teeth omitted. Fic. 4.—Dorsal view of tibia and chela of palpus,
male allotype; scale as in Fig. 5.
marginal and accessory teeth omitted.
Fic. 5.—Lateral view of chelal hand, male allotype; scale 0.5 mm;
344
measurements given are the limits of range of
the four specimens. In general, male similar to
female but smaller; body length 2.0—-2.4 mm;
earapace 0.76—-0.82 mm long, 0.62-0.73 mm
wide. Abdomen usually with seven setae on
each half of tergite 1, other tergal halves
usually with eight or nine setae; each half of
sternite 4 with three to four acuminate setae,
each half of sternite 5 with seven to ten setae,
maximum number of setae on any sternal half
is ten, In some specimens only eight or nine;
anterior stigmatic plate with three setae, ©
posterior plate with one seta; length of ab-
domen 1.19—-1.60 mm.
Chelicera: Much as in the female; serrula
exterior with 17 to 19, but usually 18, ligulate
plates; length of chelicera about 0.24 mm,
width of base between 0.14 and 0.15 mm,
length of movable cheliceral finger 0.18—0.195
mm.
Palpus: Variable but much like that of the
female except podomeres a little smaller, tibia
and chela distinctly stouter and of different
shape, and a tendency for the flexor surfaces
of the femur and tibia to be very weakly gran-
ulate. Some specimens with palpi dark reddish-
brown in color. Maxilla 0.38-0.43 mm long,
0.27-0.28 mm wide. Trochanter 0.37-0.39 mm
long, 0.195-0.23 mm wide. Femur with flexor
margin more S-shaped and extensor margin
more irregular and more flattened near the
center than in the female; greatest length
0.57-0.66 mm, length measured along either
margin 0.53-0.58 mm, width 0.23-0.25 mm,
greatest length between 2.5 and 2.8 times the
width, length along either margin 2.25 to 2.5
times the width. Tibia with slight to well-
marked concavity just proximal to the distal
end of the flexor margin, length 0.53-0.59 mm,
width 0.24—0.26 mm, length 2.2 to 2.3 times the
width. Chela very stout;extensor margin evenly
and markedly convex, the flexor margin more
rounded and convex, giving the hand a sub-
spherical appearance when viewed from the
dorsad; flexor-basal corner distinctly swollen;
fingers from the dorsad as in the female; length
of chela without pedicle 0.97-1.07 mm, width
0.415-0.52 mm, length 2.05 to 2.35 times the
width; length of hand 0.50-0.53 mm, length
of movable finger 0.53-0.62 mm. From the side,
the chela of the male relatively deeper than
in the female, depth 0.44-0.55 mm; ventral
margin evenly but not greatly convex, dorsal
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
margin bulging and rounded, especially in the
area where it merges with the basal margin;
marginal teeth about 40, varying from 35 to
45; accessory teeth extremely variable, each
row with three (in one instance two) to as
many as eight accessory teeth; on movable
finger tactile seta st is nearer to ¢ than to sb
and the nodus ramosus in most individuals is
conspicuously nearer to st than to ¢; tactile
setae somewhat variable in the fixed finger but
in general as shown in the figure.
Legs: Conspicuously smaller than in the
female, otherwise very similar; some podo-
meres possibly a little more slender but limited
material precludes definite statement regarding
the condition in all podomeres. First leg with
trochanter 0.14-0.155 mm long, 0.12-0.135
mm deep, length 1.15 to 1.25 times the depth;
pars basalis 0.185—-0.2 mm long, 0.135-0.15 mm
deep, length 1.3 to 1.4 times the depth; pars
tibialis 0.29-0.31 mm long, 0.12—0.13 mm deep;
length 2.35 to 2.5 times the depth; tibia 0.31-
0.35 mm long, 0.09-0.105 mm deep, length 3.3
to 3.4 times the depth; tarsus 0.32-0.345 mm
long, 0.07—-0.075 mm deep, length 4.55 to 4.75
times the depth. Fourth leg with trochanter
0.25-0.275 mm long, 0.135-0.155 mm deep,
length 1.7 to 1.85 times the depth; pars basalis
0.195-0.22 mm long, 0.135-0.155 mm deep,
length 1.35 to 1.4 times the depth; pars tibialis
0.39-0.46 mm long, 0.155-0.175 mm deep,
length 2.45 to 2.65 times the depth; entire
femur 0.54-0.62 mm long, length 3.35 to 3.65
times the depth; tibia 0.45-0.55 mm long,
0.10-0.122 mm deep, length 4.4 to 4.7 times the
depth; tarsus 0.39-0.41 mm long, 0.08—0.09
mm deep, length 4.55 to 5.0 times the depth.
External genitalia: 20 to 25 fine and acu-
minate setae on the anterior operculum anterior
and lateral to the genital slit; the posterior
operculum with four setae in a row immedi-
ately posterior to the genital slit and 16 to
25 setae, many in a single row but a few scat-
tered, behind the four setae; chaetotaxy vari-
able. “+e
Tritonymph.—Measurements are given as
the limits of variation of five individuals.
Measurements of the legs are not included since
these may be considered of little importance to
the species description. Tritonymph much like
the female but smaller and lighter in color;
length of body 1.9-2.5 mm. Carapace possibly
a little more granulate than in the female and
Oct. 15, 1948 HOFF: A NEW SPECIES OF PSEUDOSCORPION FROM CALIFORNIA
the investing setae a little more clavate; length
of carapace 0.67—0.76 mm, width 0.51—0.62
mm. Abdomen with each half of tergite 1
having five to seven setae, other tergal halves
usually with six to eight setae; each half of
sternite 4 with two to five setae, of sternite 5
with six or seven setae; maximum number of
setae on any sternal half is seven; each anterior
stigmatic plate with one or two setae; posterior
stigmatic plate with one seta; abdomen other-
wise much as in the female; length 1.35-1.8
mm, width 0.9-1.4 mm.
Chelicera: General structure like that of the
female. Tactile seta b noticeably smaller than
sb, less stout and with very few denticulations
or appearing acuminate perhaps as a result of
being in a position unfavorable for study; inner
margin of fixed finger sometimes with three or
six teeth but usually four or five; galea rela-
tively stouter than in the female, four or five
antlerlike branches in the distal half; 14 to 16,
usually 15, plates in the serrula exterior; length
of movable cheliceral finger 0.17—0.18 mm.
Palpus: In general like that of the female but
on the average lighter in color; podomeres
smaller in size; tibia and femur stouter; setae
much less numerous but of the same type as in
the adult; surface of all podomeres, especially
the flexor surfaces, moderately granular; pedicle
of all podomeres relatively stouter than in the
adult; pedicle of chela nearer the center of the
base of the hand than in the adult; trochanter
0.28-0.32 mm long, width 0.175—0.20 mm,
length 1.6 to 1.75 times the width; femur
0.48-0.54 mm long, 0.195-0.21 mm _ wide,
length 2.25 to 2.55 times the width; tibia 0.40-
0.49 mm long, 0.20—0.23 mm wide, length 2.0
to 2.25 times the width; chela 0.72-0.85 mm
long, 0.27—-0.32 mm wide, length 2.6 to 2.7
times the width; length of hand 0.34—0.43 mm,
depth of hand 0.31—0.34 mm; movable chelal
045
finger 0.39-0.45 mm in length. From the side,
the chelal hand is much more like that of the fe-
male than the male; marginal teeth of fingers
nsually between 30 and 35 in a number; acces-
sory teeth variable, one to four in each row.
Movable chelal finger with nodus ramosus just
proximal to tactile seta ¢; one tactile seta absent;
the center one of the three tactile setae may be
closer to the basal (6 or sb?) or to the distal
seta t. Fixed finger with ist missing; other tac-
tile setae much as in the adult except it is
relatively farther removed from et.
Legs: Lighter in color, with fewer setae,
smaller, and stouter than in the adult, but
otherwise very similar. Tarsus of first and
fourth legs somewhat fusiform, narrowed dis-
tally.
Type Locality—Fresno County, Calif. The
female holotype, one female paratype, the male
allotype, three male paratypes, and five trito-
nymph paratypes were taken from a nest of
Thomomys monticola on January 27, 1947, at
Huntington Lake, elevation 7,000 feet, by I.
G. Ingles.
Remarks.—Our new species, H. thomomysi,
may be separated from other species of the
genus by the shape and size of the palpal podo-
meres as well as other characteristics. The
species seems somewhat closely related to
H. sanborni (Hagen, 1869) from the New Eng-
land states and to H. pallipes (Banks, 1893)
from California. No difficulty is experienced in
separating this form from the two closely re-
lated species on the basis of characteristics
given in the above description. From the type
of the genus, H. lawrae Chamberlin, 1924, our
form is easily separated by the smaller and
stouter palpal podomeres. Only two species,
H. laurae and H. pallipes, have been reported
previously from California.
346
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
ZOOLOGY .—Three new eastern millipeds of the family Xystodesmidae.! RicHARD
L. Horrman, Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (Communi-
cated by E. A. CHAPIN.)
Through the kindness of Drs. Edward A.
Chapin, Waldo L. Schmitt, and Alexander
Wetmore, I have been enabled to carry on
extended work on the diplopod collection
of the U. 8. National Museum. During the
course of identifying and arranging ma-
terial, a number of undescribed species have
been discovered. Three of these are de-
scribed below, representing three genera of
the large Holarctic family Xystodesmidae.
In one instance personal field work has
resulted in the independent discovery of
one of the new forms, and in this case my
specimen has been designated holotype,
since it is a fresh one and in better condi-
tion. It has been deposited in the National
Museum collection.
Two of the species are of considerable
interest from a systematic standpoint, and
remarks on their relationships are included.
A key to the known species of the genus
Tucoria, based on males, is also appended.
The figures illustrate the configuration of
the left male gonopod, and are made from
cephalic and mesial aspects following re-
moval and orientation of the appendage.
Setae have been removed in order to show
basal structure.
Apheloria intermedia, n. sp.
Figs. 1, 2
Diagnosis.—Male gonopod with lateral proc-
ess produced upward in the manner of Delto-
tarva, lateral spine scarcely perceptible at end;
mesial process low, rounded; blade of telopo-
dite forming a loose curve, tip of blade not
bent out of line with rest of the structure.
Description of male holotype—Length 34,
width 8.2 mm. Body rather slender, gently
tapering caudad, more abruptly cephalad.
Segments 4 through 14 of full width.
Collum large, almost semicircular in dorsal
aspect, caudal margin almost straight (lateral
portion swept slightly forward), cephalic
margin rather evenly rounded and swept back.
Marginal ridge perceptible on lateral extrem-
ities of collum.
1 Received July 28, 1948.
Second and third segments with cephalo-
lateral corners of keels widely rounded, margi-
nal ridges well developed. Posterior edges of
tergites straight except in being tapered for-
ward on keels.
Segments 4 through 14 subsimilar, anterior
corners rounded, slightly lobed cephalad;
lateral margins of keels somewhat convex in
dorsal aspect, marginal thickenings prominent,
smooth. Posterior corners of keels not pro-
duced; caudal margins of keels but little caudad
of rest of tergite across body. Dorsum well
arched, keels not especially wide, but con-
tinuing slope of dorsum, particularly on the
anterior half of the body. Repugnatorial pores
dorsal in position.
Segments 15 through 19 with keels becoming
increasingly produced caudad, those of nine-
teenth being small, somewhat angular lobes.
Anal segment triangular in dorsal aspect,
somewhat longer than broad; distally truncate.
Anal valves inflated, smooth, glabrous; mesial
ridges conspicuous. Preanal scale semicircular,
terminal lobe sharp, lateral tubercules small.
Bases of last pair of legs almost in contact.
Sternites between other legs wide, those poste-
rior to seventh pair of legs smooth and glabrous,
not produced into lobes or spines. Trochanti
and femora bearing large and sharp ventral
spines. Distal tarsal joint equal in length to
basal two, much shorter than femur. Legs
bearing slender curved terminal claws.
Coxae of second legs of males with the usual
cylindrical distally flattened seminal processes.
Gonopods large, protruding from large oval
aperture; at rest retracted snugly against
sternites and lying against one another, usually
with the blades interlocked. Lateral process
unusual for the genus, strongly produced up-
ward suggesting the development found in the
genus Deltotaria; basal spine represented by a
slight acumen at the terminal end of the
process; mesial process low, rounded, rather
large, the cephalic margin very setiferous.
Blade of telopodite highly arched, slightly
compressed dorsoventrally toward the end;
distal portion not bent either laterally or
mesially.
Ocr. 15, 1948
Color in life not known, appearing to have
been blackish with most if not all of the dorsal
surface of keels yellow or red.
Description of female allotype-—Agreeing in
most respects with the male. Differs as follows:
Body more arched and compact; keels of seg-
ment 19 more rounded; femoral spines longer.
Length 35, width 7.6 mm.
Type locality —Asheville, Ashe County, N.C.
Type specimens.—Male holotype and female
allotype, and a paratype of each sex in the
HOFFMAN: THREE NEW EASTERN MILLIPEDS
347
U. 8. National Museum collection, no. 1833.
These specimens were collected in August 1896,
presumably by Dr. L. M. Underwood, of
Syracuse University, although no collector is
indicated on the label. Underwood collected
many specimens in the Southeast during the
summer of 1896.
Remarks.—The discovery of this strikingly
disjunct form of Apheloria is of considerable
importance. In addition to providing a link be-
tween the hitherto widely separated coriacea
+
Figs. 1-6.—1, Cephalic view of left gonopod of male type, Apheloria intermedia, from Asheville,
N. C.; 2, mesial view of same; 3, cephalic view of left gonopod of male paratype, Nannaria morri-
soni, from Page County, Va.; 4, mesial view of same; 5, cephalic view of left gonopod of male
type, Tucoria viridicolens, from Greensburg, Ky.; 6, mesial view of same. Pubescence has been re-
moved from all structures figured.
348
and trimaculata sections of the genus (hence
the specific name), A. intermedia seems to
represent an ancestral stock from which the
genera Apheloria and Deltotaria have been
derived. It furthermore inhabits an area where
one would expect just such a form to be found
—western North Carolina, from whence many
species of both genera have been described.
Detailed information on the relationships
and phylogeny of this species is reserved for in-
clusion in a future publication treating the
entire genus A pheloria.
Nannaria morrisoni, Nn. sp.
Figs. 3, 4
Diagnosis.—Size small; processes between
fourth pair of legs greatly developed; gonopods
of male with main branch of telopodite distally
bifurcated, and lateral branch long, flattened,
and directed mesiad.
Description of holotype-—Length 21, width
4.1 mm. Body with sides subparallel, both ends
abruptly tapering; segments 3 through 16 of
full width.
Collum large, trapezoidal, almost as long as
succeeding two segments; lateral marginal
thickenings large; lateral extremities slightly
rounded; posterior margin straight across
body.
Segments 2 through 4 similar, dorsal margi-
nal ridges large, posterior edges of keels swept
forward, caudal margins of tergites slightly con-
cave. Segments 5 through 15 subsimiiar, ante-
rior corners rounded, posterior corners right-
angled or somewhat acutely angled, with a
weakly indicated dentation; tergites about
same width at edges of keels as at midline, and
keels well separated, giving impression of
evenly rectangular segments; segments 16
through 19 with keels becoming more produced
caudad, those of segment 19 into subangular
lobes about equal in length to one-half the
distance between their bases. Dorsum not
strongly arched, keels rather small, continuing
slope of dorsum, the lateral edges directed
cephaloventrad. Repugnatorial pores very
small, not in a noticeable depression, on the
ventral side of the edge of the keel.
Anal segment triangular in dorsal aspect, its
sides concave, the usual subterminal lateral
tubercules prominent, the tip more truncate
than usual, directed ventrad. Anal valves sub-
plane, finely wrinkled, the usual setiferous
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
tubercules not observed, mesial ridges very
large. Preanal scale large, subtriangular, the
median terminal lobe largest and well set off.
Bases of last pair of legs well separated. Legs
of segments 8 through 18 subsimilar, sternites
broad, glabrous, produced into conspicous
sharp lobes at bases of legs; coxae and tro-
chanti unarmed, femoral spines large, becoming
more elongated caudad. Those of last several
pairs of legs as long as femora; tarsal joints
with terminal as long as basal two, almost as
long as femur, tarsal claw short, strongly
curved at right angle to axis of legs.
Coxae of second pair of legs with the usual
seminal projections, these unusual in becoming
swollen distally; sternites between fourth pair
of legs with two greatly developed lobes, these
being as long as seminal projections but evenly
tapered distad. Pregenital limbs hairy and lack-
ing femoral armature, tarsal claws heavy,
blunt.
Gonopods project from a large oval aperture,
directed cephalad between bases of fifth pair of
legs; in situ with the telopodite blades crossed
at midline, the entire appendages twisted so
that the small accessory branch is lowermost,
in contact with the sternites. When in use the
gonopods are forced out slightly and stand
parallel to each other and perpendicular to the
plane of the sternites, with the smaller branch
lateral in position. Coxal joint of gonopod rela-
tively undifferentiated, higher (longer) than
broad; telopodite with 4 somewhat elongated
basal portion, mesial process or shoulder large,
heavily setiferous, merging into blade of the
appendage; lateral process small, inconspicu-
ous, much lower than mesial; a narrow groove
between the two, extending distad; blade of
telopodite long, slender, curved cephalad over
base, distally bifurcated into a larger, lateral,
apically mucronate branch and a smaller,
spiniform, mesial one. A secondary division
of the telopodite, arising from the lateral side
of the basal portion is elongated, flattened
slightly expanded distally, and bent mesiad
from the base across the larger branch. For
exact configuration of the. gonopods, coasult
the accompanying figure.
Color in life as follows: tergites dark olive,
suffused with black, a suggestion of a median
dark line on the posterior part of the body;
anterior and posterior corners of keels, lateral
ends of collum, and distal half of anal segment
Ocr. 15, 1948
bright pink; top of head light brown to about
level of antennal sockets, front of head, includ-
ing sockets and first antennal segment very
dilute brown; antennae mostly olive with last
article dark gray in striking contrast. Under-
parts entirely whitish gray.
Type locality—Saddle Hollow, about 3
miles west of Crozet, Albemarle County, Va.,
elevation about 2,000 feet, on the east side of
the Blue Ridge. Dominant vegetation Lirioden-
dron tulipifera, Quercus spp., and Cercis cana-
densis.
Type specumens.—Male holotype, U.S.N.M.
no. 1834, collected on March 28, 1948, by the
writer; two male paratypes collected in April
1936 by Drs. Irving Fox and J. P. E. Morrison,
U.S.N.M. no. 1836.
Remarks—The paratypes were collected
along Skyline Drive, 4 miles north of Thornton
Gap, Page County, Va., and still another
locality is afforded by a female tentatively as-
signed to this form, collected on the Blue Ridge
about 5 miles southeast of Charlestown, Jeffer-
son County, W. Va. The range is thus seen to
be restricted to the Blue Ridge Physiographic
Province between the Potomac and James
Rivers, but of course the species may be found
elsewhere as well. The Blue Ridge in Virginia
is occupied by several distinct, probably
endemic, forms of animals, so that the addition
of this milliped to the list is interesting but not
surprising.
Nannaria morrisoni is so manifestly different
from most of the other members of the genus,
such as media, minor, conservata, fowleri, and
terricola, that its inclusion in that genus may
be questioned. I place it here for the following
reasons: except for the greatly produced sternal
processes morrisoni can be separated from other
forms only by the small size and nature of the
gonopods. These processes are present in other
species as small lobes and probably will be
found to vary in size in the different forms. As
regards the gonopods, while they seem very dis-
junct, I am describing elsewhere a species from
Mountain Lake, Va., which is perhaps inter-
mediate between morrison and the other spe-
cies. Judged from the material I have exam-
ined, and from species figured in the literature,
Nannaria can be divided into several groups
on the basis of the gonopods—one based
on media and its relatives, one on scutellaria,
and one to include morrisoni and the related
HOFFMAN: THREE NEW EASTERN MILLIPEDS
349
species mentioned above. Recognition of
those groups as genera may become convenient
when numerous species have been described in
Nannaria. A thorough treatment of the genus
is much needed, and in fact is contemplated,
but must be preceded by extensive field work.
This species is named in honor of Dr. Joseph
P. E. Morrison, of the U. 8. National Museum,
whose diligence and interest in securing
myriapods incidentally to collection of land
snails have enriched the Museum collection
with much valuable material.
Tucoria viridicolens, n. sp
Figs. 5, 6
Diagnosis.—Size small for the genus; gono-
pods of the splendida type, apical process small,
upper part of telopodite distad of constriction
bearing three sharp teeth.
Description of holotype —Body robust, length
about 40 mm (specimen broken), width 9.3
mm; sides subparallel, segments 4 through 14
of full width; body tapering abruptly cephalad,
very gradually caudad. Tergites well arched,
keels wide, continuing slope of dorsum.
Collum crescentic in dorsal aspect, caudo-
lateral edges tapering slightly cephalad; lateral
marginal thickenings absent.
Segments 2, 3, and 4 similar, caudal margins
of tergites straight, of keels swept forward,
smoothly rounded; dorsal marginal thickenings
present only on fourth, very obscure.
Segments 5 through 14 similar, caudal mar-
gins of keels produced slightly caudad, caudo-
lateral corners of keels not produced into lobes;
sides of keels smooth, rounded, somewhat con-
vex; cephalolateral corners broadly rounded
off. Dorsal marginal thickenings rather poorly
developed, smooth; upper surface of keel finely
granular, of dorsum slightly wrinkled.
Segments posterior to twelfth agree with
those preceding, but with keels becoming in-
creasingly produced caudad, and segments be-
coming narrower; keels of the nineteenth form
short, bluntly triangular lobes.
Anal segment triangular in dorsal aspect, tip
slightly truncated, two tiny subterminal lateral
tubercules present. Anal valves slightly in-
flated, smooth, the setiferous tubercules almost
obsolete; mesial ridges very prominent. Preanal
seale broadly triangular.
Bases of last pair of legs separated. All
sternites smooth, glabrous, very weakly pro-
350
duced into lobes at bases of legs, those posterior
to gonopods broad, those between third, fourth,
and fifth pairs of legs with conspicuous, low,
pointed lobes. Coxae small, unarmed; trochanti
weakly armed; femora with well developed
spines. Terminal tarsal joint shorter than
proximal two, but slightly longer than the unu-
sually short femur.
Gonopods large, conspicious, projecting
cephalad and in contact mesially. Mesial
process large, very setiferous, area immediately
posterior on the mesial side trilobed; lateral
process very small, not produced apically;
blade of telopodite flat, curved forward over
base, strongly constricted about one-third its
length from distal end; terminal portion bent
laterad, very flattened, a small apical projection,
outer surface with three conspicuous sharp
teeth in an oblique row. Configuration of
gonopods as shown in the accompanying draw-
ings.
Second pair of legs with the usual cylindrical
distally truncate seminal lobes. Pregenital
limbs hairy, without spines on the femora;
tarsal claws short, heavy, blunt.
Color faded from long preservation, but ap-
pears to have been black or very dark brown
in life with caudolateral halves of the keels
orange or yellow.
Type locality—Trace Creek, Greensburg,
Green County, Ky.
Type specuomen.—Male holotype, U.S.N.M.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 10
no. 1835, collected by L. Garman on July 15
(no year given).
Remarks.—This species is the smallest mem-
ber of the genus to be described so far. Its rela-
tionships seem to be clearly with T. ken-
tuckiana and T. splendida rather than with T.
dynama.
Following is a key to the known species of
Tucoria, based on males. Females of all of the
species are not known, and the genitalia of the
others not figured.
KEY TO SPECIES OF TUCORIA
1. Lateral process of male gonopod small, incon-
spicuous, not produced upward nto any sort
of spine or projection ~~ ....+..49) 1. 2
Lateral process of male gonopod larger, pro-
duced upward into a noticeable, occasionally
sharp, projection... }.2 5%. = 2.20 eee )
2. Apical process on telopodite of gonopod small,
simple; distal portion of telopodite with
three denticies on outer side...............
oe eyes 2 ep ace a viridicolens, n. sp.
Apical process larger, curved, slightly crenu-
late; distal portion of telopodite without
denticles):3 445% ae kentuckiana (Causey)
3. Lateral process of gonopod produced into a
broadly triangular spine; distal portion
gently curved; dorsum black, trimaculate
with yellowiit See os ee splendida (Causey)
Lateral process of gonopod produced into an
upright slender peg, distally slightly acumi-
nate; distal portion of telopodite strongly re-
curved toward base, much expanded;
dorsum with yellow cross bands...........
» Shoes ee eee dynama Chamberlin
ZOOLOGY .—More about Mexican urocoptid mollusks.1 Pauu Bartscu, U. §.
National Museum.
The tireless efforts of Miss Marie E.
Bourgeois in personally collecting mollusks
and interesting her friends in this group
have brought to light two species of urocops
not heretofore known to science. These are
here diagnosed. A detailed description of
Oligostylus hegeweschi is also made possible
from topotypes that she collected.
Oligostylus hegewischi Bartsch
In my paper Notes on some Mexican urocoptid
mollusks, with the description of new species in
this JourNAL.2 I renamed Bulimus truncatus
1 Received July 8, 1948.
* Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 37: 284-288,
1947.
Pfeiffer, 1841 (preoccupied by Bulimus trun-
catus Bruguiére, 1792), calling it Oligostylus?
hegewischt. No material from the type locality
being available, I placed a query after the gen-
eric designation. I closed my remarks under
that species with the statement: ‘“‘It is to be
hoped that Miss Bourgeois will rediscover it
at Angangueo.”’ Miss Bourgeois took this to
heart and paid a visit to Angangueo, Michoa-
cAn, and secured a fine series of specimens of
this species and donated a splendid lot (No.
488018) to the U. S. National Museum which
makes it possible for me to confirm the state-
ment made in my paper and to remove the
question mark after the generic name, for these
topotypes prove to be a typical Olzgostylus.
Ocr. 15, 1948
Miss Bourgeois tells us that the specimens
were found ‘‘well buried in the leaf mold, or
humus (perhaps they were depositing eggs)
under dead agave leaves, always well buried in
the earth, near the roots, or center of almost
every agave (or maguey plant).’’ These plants,
she says, “strange to say, were far up on the
mountainside of Cerro Guadalupe, just north
of town.” This mountain contains no limestone,
and the superintendent of the mines told her
that there was no limestone within 40 kilo-
meters of Angangueo, which is 2,800 meters
above sea level.
Fic. 1.—Coelocentrum anconai, n.
sp. Fie. 2.—
Inocentrum wilmoti, n. sp.
To my translation of Pfeiffer’s description
I may now add:
The eggs are white, symmetrically oval,
finely, microscopically granulose, measuring
in length 4.2 mm, diameter 2.3 mm.
The first 5 whorls of the shell form a cylindri-
eal apex; beyond this the shell gains very
gradually. The apex is blunt. The first turn and
a half are smooth; the whorls thereafter be-
come axially ribbed and are at first weakly,
then more strongly, retractively curved. The
BARTSCH: MORE ABOUT MEXICAN UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS
Jol
ribs are sinuous and average about half the
width of the spaces that separate them. They
are strongest in the middle turns and weaken
toward the end, where the surface shows irregu-
lar, small malleations. Fifty of them are
present on the last turn of the young speci-
mens here figured. Suture well impressed,
Periphery of the last whorl weakly angulated.
Base short, with a small umbilical chink, well
rounded, and marked by the continuations of
the axial ribs. Aperture subcircular. Peristome
white, thickened at the outer margin, adnate
to the preceding whorl. The columella is slen-
der. The shell on the later turns is chestnut
brown, gradually paling to horn color near the
summit of the whorls, contrasting markedly
with the yellowish-white peristome.
The young specimen figured has 10.1 whorls
and measures: Length 10.3 mm, diameter 4.1
mm. The adult shell figured has 7.5 whorls re-
maining and measures: Length 29.2 mm, diam-
eter 10 mm.
This species resembles Olzgostylus mariae
Bartsch but is readily distinguished from it by
its much weaker ribs and by the malleation
of the later turns.
Coelocentrum anconai, n. sp.
Pies
Shell large, elongate-turreted. Our bleached
specimens are yellowish white with the peri-
stome buff. Early whorls decollated. The 9.5
whorls remaining in the type are slightly
rounded and crossed by numerous closely
spaced, retractively curved axial ribs, which are
best developed near the periphery and summit
of the whorls, becoming decidedly reduced on
the middle of the turns. More than 200 of these
are present upon the penultimate turn.
Suture weakly impressed. Periphery obscurely
angulated. Base well rounded, with an umbili-
cal chink, marked by the feeble continuation
of the axial ribs. Aperture subquadrate. Peri-
stome slightly thickened and reflected at the
edge, free for about 1 mm from the preceding
whorl. There is a slight carina present on the
outside at the posterior angle. A fold is appar-
ent on the columella deep within the aperture.
Columella narrow with a decided twist, bearing
distantly spaced, sigmoid, and sublamellar
folds. The type, U. S. N. M. no. 589052, has
9.5 whorls remaining and measures: Length 61
mm; diameter 20 mm. It was collected in the
352
woods of Ocote, at Ocozocoantla, Chiapas, and
donated to the Museum by Prof. I. Ancona,
whose name I am pleased to attach to the
species.
A second specimen somewhat less perfect is
in Professor Ancona’s collection.
The large size and slender columella will
readily distinguish this from the other known
species of Coelocentrum.
In the narrowness of the columella it re-
sembles Coelocentrum pfeiffert Dall from the
same general region. That species, however, is
very much smaller. The type measures: Length
38 mm, diameter 16 mm. The largest specimen,
a topotype, having 8.2 whorls, measures:
Length 44.8 mm, diameter 16 mm.
Liocentrum wilmoti, n. sp
Fig. 2
Shell of medium size, white. The truncated
specimen almost cylindric. The remaining
whorls are slightly rounded and marked by
numerous slightly curved, retractively slanting
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 10
axial ribs separated by spaces about as wide as
the ribs, of which 140 are present upon the
penultimate whorl. These riblets pass un-
diminished from the summit to the periphery.
Suture slightly impressed. Periphery with a
weak keel. Base short, well rounded, with an
umbilical chink, marked by the continuation
of the axial ribs. Aperture obliquely subcircular
with a columellar fold deep within; peristome
adnate to the preceding whorl at the parietal
wall. Columella slender, twisted, smooth. The
type U.S.N.M. no. 589051, was collected by
George Wilmot in Oaxaca, on a mountainside
near the auto highway, between the cities of
Oaxaca and Tehuantepec. It has 8.1 whorls re-
maining and measures: Length 27.3 mm;
diameter 10.4 mm.
In outline it somewhat resembles von
Martens’ Coelocentrum champion: from the
Cerro Zunil, Guatemala, differing from this,
however, in the aperture, which is solute in von
Martens’ species, the size of columella, and
other details.
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as
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Sty ee
hig
gt SIE RR ee ta
Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences
Peenhas: see ecceceseesss++-PREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards
De ic dik cacela seks eee KE hs C. Lewis Gazin, U. 8. National Museum
PMEUNI as oc nv se leh ce pe os es HOWARD DO, RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey
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Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies:
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Entomological Society of Washington...... Or Le A .....C. F. W. Murseseck
National Geographic Society................ seeeeeees+ALEXANDER WETMORE
Geological Society of Washington.............. SPs sean WiiuiaAM W. Rupey
Medical Society of the District of Columbia..... iat Sisal abner oes FREDERICK O. CoE
Columbia Historical Society.. epee ih Wiavekkt are aare oct 6 GILBERT GROSVENOR
Botanical Society of Washington 2 Sie hg SAR CRS SET gp hy GRINS eo RoNALD BAMFORD
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters Pie ie tan ee Witiiam A, Dayton
Washington Society Gr ammetnerrs: oe baer tec ye eee 2 CiirrorpD A. BETTS
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...............
RMON rate) dire Bind SSM: chin le & Hee ache simi dwn mba to oid .e’ de ayy s Francis B. SILSBEE
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers..............
SERN ie a Poise a oS oak bce 6 Sook 66 Hla“a! v0.8 se obo dessa se5o. Mapmn AS Mason
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MAURY: LOD | ie 6's 6 sine aise 'e 00 Francis M. Deranporr, WiLtLtIaAM N. Fenton
PRADO P OVI OR AICTS og cs cn Gs wine e bus All the above officers plus the Senior Editor
Board of Editors and eae Tp I LENGE AEs EE ase 9 oe a ae a WE [See front cover]
Executive Commitiee......... Freperick D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG,
Sl a a Sea Wa.po L. Scumirt, Howarp 8. Rarrisys, C. Lewis Gazin
‘ Committee mE CSUPECUEWE LC. c MMPS cute we PhS oy a tok oll teak a op lord Cate elete acta 2
Haroup E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Butz, C. WrTHE Cooxn, Winuam
etd ss 5 W. Dieut, Luorp D. Freiton, Recina FLANNERY, Grorcr G. Manov
MMT COR IOTE AVL COLENGS 250) 5 aon cies'e ss! eideels 's'chw'y vie a'b a's Raymonpd J. SeecerR (chairman),
sis ot Frank P. Cunuinan, Frep L. Mouwimr, Francis O. Ricg, FRANK THONHE
Committee on M Spa anla:
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rad Eimer Hieeins, Marto Mouuari, GoTttHoLD Steiner, L. Epwin Yocum
eee Wsinecring SCHEER 2. i). yk cick fs bea a wae We aback te oe dee en ta con
Luoyp V. BERKNER, (chairman), Ropert C. Duncan, Hersert N. Eaton,
Arno C, FIELDNER, FRANK B. Scurxrtz, W. D. Sutciirre
For the Physical eee ea ae i en AOL a ami ea al
. Karu F. Herzreip (chairman), Naruan L. Drake, Liorp D. FELTON,
HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. RoonzEy, RoBERT S1MHA4, Micuany X. SULLIVAN
Committee on Grants-in-aid LOT LESCOTEUD gives seis lace aide ae eee LU Ree Spumiaia tks rahe Bink
..F. H. H. Roserts, Jr. eee Anna KE. JENKINS, J. LEON SHERESHEVSKY
Representative on Council of Mp A ah ee tala gate So as nid ce ape ece «Wie eae FRANK THONB
IRIE EOF A ULATIONS 1 Agen Ss Nie ow ate olds foie aula» okie ts tee via ens Meld en ageimictaeg ‘ay
Witi1am G. BroMBACHER (chairman), Harotp F. Stimson, HerBert L. HALLER
ee GRU NEUET Se po oe Cee leis Dae Wial Swiss nie uersaneelnalh gies com Gee wee pga
..JOHN W. McBurnny (chairman), Rocmr G. BatTss, WILLIAM A. WILDHACK
CONTENTS
ARCHEOLOGY.—Palachacolas Town, Hampton County, South Caro- —
lina.-. Josepa: KR. CALDWELL. 2% os F i oi eee
ARCHEOLOGY.—A seventeenth-century ArepIegs at Maspeth, Long Is-
land; Raper 8: Soumows 00) Soi he Hos 0 eet oe
CHEMISTRY.—A study of dithizone as a reagent for indium. Irvine
May and James J; HorrmMan 0.0) fo. ep) a
Piant PatHotocy.—Bacillus megatertum de Bary from the interior of
healthy potato tubers. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN LUTMAN and
Harry E. WHEELER....... ee EN aay pert gs ey)
ZooLtoay.—Hesperochernes thomomysi, a new species of chernetid
pseudoscorpion from California. C. CLayTon HorFr...........
ZooLtocy.—Three new eastern millipeds of the family Xystodesmidae.
RicHarn.:L. TIORFMAN Ss ae wetness Co ee
ZooLogy.—More about Mexican urocoptid mollusks. Paut BartscH
Tis JOURNAL I8 INDEXED IN THD INTERNATIONAL INDEX TO PERIODICALS
qe
~
* AR # <4
Page
321
324
329
346
350
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or
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 38
NOVEMBER 15, 1948
No. 11
ANTHROPOLOGY .—Glossary of names used in colonial Latin America for crosses
among Indians, Negroes, and Whuites.'
(Communicated by T. D. StEwart.)
paign, Ill.
Society in colonial Spanish and Portu-
guese America was divided into several
groups, each of which had its own privileges
and social position. First and foremost were
the chapetones? or gachupines® or the Span-
iards from Spain, to whom the important
government and church positions were
usually given. Next were the criollos,* who
were those born in the colonies of European
or Spanish parents. The Indians, the Ne-
groes, who were often slaves, and the off-
spring of the mixing of these races—White,
Indian, and Negro—were the other impor-
tant groups of this diversified society.
This brief note is not interested in the su-
perior position occupied by the first two
classes of society mentioned above, nor will
it be attempted here to trace the reasons
1 Received August 16, 1948.
2 The origin of chapeton is still an undecided
matter, though all would accept the definition
“the European or Spaniard, who has recently ar-
rived in the New World.” The word was evidently
first used at the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
tury and was more commonly used in South
America than in Spanish North America, where
the term gachupin was more frequent.
3 The bibliography of gachupin or cachupin is
enormous; authorities differ on whether it is de-
rived from the Portuguese, cachopo, or from the
Aztec words cacitlt and tzopinia, which mean in
the contracted form “‘he who pricks with or wears
spurs.” The present writer can only state that the
majority of some 30 studies consulted favor the
Aztec derivation of the word.
4 The word criollo was introduced to Spanish
America by Negro slaves and is to be found in the
works of Garcilaso de la Vega, el Inca, early in the
seventeenth century. The Dic. leng. esp. (1947, p.
369) notes that the word has the following mean-
ings: (1) “Offspring of European parents, no mat-
ter where born,” (2) ‘‘Negro born in America in
contrast to the one born in Africa,”’ (3) ‘‘Used to
designate Americans, the offspring of Europeans.”’
In Spanish America the last of these three mean-
ings is the most frequent one.
303
HENSLEY C. WoopBRIDGE, Cham-
for the antagonisms, which existed between
the gachupines and the criollos. Excellent
studies already exist dealing with the his-
tory and position of the Indian® and Negro®
in colonial society, and there seems to be no
reason to review these facts even briefly.
Yet only a few studies have appeared
that have attempted to define or explain the
various designations applied to the off-
spring of racial mixtures.’ It is interesting,
though confusing, to note that these terms
vary from region to region, century to cen-
tury, and that the same word can have a
variety of meanings, which might then cause
one to agree with Aguirre Beltran (1946, p.
177) that these ‘‘erudite classifications had
the defect of being unintelligible and im-
practicable, as the logical product of minds
filled with affectation.”? However, these
terms cannot be ignored, for they appear
in Spanish and Portuguese works, written
since the sixteenth century, as well as in
the works of Humboldt, Mantegazza, and
other foreigners who have written of their
travels in Spanish and Portuguese America.
It shall, therefore, be the purpose of this
5 For a bibliography on this subject see Haring
(1947, pp. 360-362). G
6 The volumes by Saco (1938), Aguirre Beltran
(1946), Ramos (1943), Tannenbaum (1947), and
Freyre (1946) are useful for the study of the Ne-
gro in this hemisphere. Haring (1947, pp. 362-363)
gives a very short bibliography, while the Jour-
nal of Negro History and Phylon can often be con-
sulted with profit.
7 The historian usually uses the word caste to
designate the offspring of these racia] mixtures.
See the studies by Nicolas Leén and Laureano
Vallenilla Lanz listed in the bibliography. The
White, Indian, and Negro races are the only ones
here considered, though it is true that a few Chi-
nese are to be found in Mexico as early as the first
part of the seventeenth century.
HOV 18 1948
354
glossary to define well over a hundred terms
denoting racial mixture; most of these are
Spanish, a few are Portuguese, though stud-
ies on{this subject in!Portuguese appear to
be rather rare.®
One must make a few general remarks
about the number of individuals who were
the product of racial mixture. Humboldt
(1941, 2: 30-31) notes that in Spanish
America, as a whole, 45 percent of the popu-
lation was Indian; 42 percent was composed
of mixed races; 19 percent of members of
the White race; and 4 percent of Negroes.
He and Bonpland® estimated the popula-
tion of Venezuela at the beginning of the
nineteenth century at 800,000; of which
12,000 were chapetones; 200,000 crzollos;
406,000 persons of mixed races; 62,000
Negro slaves, and 120,000 Indians. In other
words, more than half of the Venezuelan
population was composed of mixed races.
In regard to New Spain, or Mexico,
Aguirre Beltran (1946, especially p. 237)
has conclusively shown, from a study of the
various historians, censuses, and other data,
that the percentage of the White and Negro
population remained almost stationary and
that the population formed of racial mix-
tures constantly grew. His tables show that
the racial mixtures formed 0.44 percent of
the population in 1570; 22.6 percent in 1646;
36.6 percent in 1742; 38.7 percent in 1793;
and 39.5 percent in 1810.
The above statistics are indicative of the
numerical position of these mixed groups,
though it is true that in Brazil the propor-
tion might have been higher than the 42
percent mentioned above, but in Chile and
the Rio Plata area, for a variety of historical
reasons, the proportion of inhabitants off-
spring of racial intermarriage was corre-
spondingly smaller.
The various racial mixtures were con-
sidered to possess different physical and
moral characteristics. Aleedo (1786-89, 5:
184) notes that the zambo was the group
most scorned because of the perverse cus-
toms of its members; while Humboldt (1941,
8 Aguirre Beltran (1946, p. 178) notes that “‘the
Brazilian classification ought to have been as com-
plicated as that used in the Spanish colonies:
nevertheless, there does not exist a systematic
study of Brazilian nomenclature.”
9 Quoted by Baralt (1939, p. 361).
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 11
2: 140) notes that 'the mulatos are distin-
guished by the violence of their passions and
by a peculiar talkativeness. Viceroy Enri-
quez in the sixteenth century states that
the mulatos pardos have the three following
characteristics: Great fecundity, outstand-
ing strength, and cleverness. He finds that
the mestizos are, on the whole, well behaved,
agile, and courageous. The Spanish writers
of the colonial period had no respect at all
for the Negro and for the racial mixtures
formed from the union of Negro and Indian.
They were called lazy, vile, insolent, and
other insulting names, which later came
even to be applied to the mulatos and
mestizos “‘because they are universally so
evilly inclined.” However, after Mexico
became independent, Lucas Alam4n! wrote
that “these castes, defamed by the laws,
condemned by prejudice, were nevertheless
the most useful portion of the population.”
Space forbids the listing of the so-called
characteristics of each racial group. The
racial mixtures were plagued with the same
diseases which carried off so many Indians
and Negroes. Smallpox, dysentery, matlaza-
huatl and other diseases identifiable only
with difficulty made enormous inroads on
the population. The Indian, Negro, and ra-
cial mixtures appear to have been able to
resist malaria and yellow fever to a much
greater degree than the White element of
the population.”
Passing from one group to another was
carefully watched, though at the end of
the viceroyalty in Mexico members of cer-
tain of the racial mixtures passed to the
crtollo and Indian groups. It is impossible
here to study the economic, social, and legal
reasons which would cause an individual to
prefer to be a member of one caste rather
than another. Suffice it to mention that
the mulatos were subject to the payment of
tribute and a head tax, while the mestizos
were exempt from these taxes (Aguirre
Beltran, 1946, pp. 154, 172).
10 Quoted by Aguirre Beltran, p. 190.
1 The identification of matlasahuatl has aroused
great controversy. The writer purposely refrains
from presenting a 2-page bibliography on the sub-
ject and desires only to point out that the major-
ity of the recent writers such as Aguirre Beltran
(1946) and Ashburn (1947) identify it as typhus.
2 These two paragraphs have been based on
chapter 10 of Aguirre Beltran (1946).
©
Noy. 15, 1948 WOODBRIDGE: CROSSES AMONG INDIANS, NEGROES, AND WHITES
No detailed studies have been found con-
cerning the social position of the individual
castes. Haring (1947, p. 218) notes that
“free mulatos and zambos were regarded as
peculiarly inferior” and that they were for-
bidden to appear on the streets after dark,
carry arms, have Indians as servants, hold
public office or be admitted to the craft
guilds; Laureano Vallenilla Lanz (1921, p.
113) remarks that members of the castes
could not be lawyers, priests (this applied
especially to the pardos), or members of
the religious orders, nor could they wear
jewels, silks, or laces or use carpets in the
churches, swords, pistols, or umbrellas;
Millau (1947, pp. 42-438) states that the
Negroes and mulatos were, for the most part
slaves and that they served as water car-
riers; as for the Indians and mestizos, their
occupations were working in the brick
kilns and serving on the ranches and as
cartmen. At the end of the colonial régime
certain of these groups were permitted to
serve in the militia.
The glossary that follows is based on the
terms denoting the offspring of racial mix-
ture to be found in the various volumes men-
tioned in the bibliography as well as in a
series of tables or collections of portraits
to be found in various museums and repro-
duced by a number of authors.
Lack of space forbids the reproduction of
the 15 tables that have been gathered.
138 The Coleccié6n Riva Palacio: Humboldt (1941,
2: 118); Leén (1924, 47-48); Espasa (34: 1090-
1094); Aguirre Beltran (1946, pp. 175-176).
The Coleccién del museo nacional de México:
Humboldt (1941, 2: 113-114), Leon (1924, pp.
42-47); Aguirre Beltran (1946, pp. 176-177).
The Coleccién Larrauri Montano: Aguirre Bel-
tran (1946, p. 176); Leén (1924, p. 41).
Flores (1886-1888, 2: 407) reproduces the table
in México a través de los siglos (2: 472).
Leén (1924, pp. 39-40). gives the titles of the
Coleccién Magon, while five other tables are to be
found in his book: pp. 37—38; 40—41; 58-66; 29, 9.
Saco (1938, 2: 68) reproduces Gumilla’s table
359
However, the Coleccién Larraurt Montafo
is as follows:
Father Mother Offspring
Spanish! India Mestizo
Spanish Mestiza Castizo
Spanish Castiza Spanish
Spanish Negra Mulato
Spanish Mulata Morisco
Spanish Morisea Albino
Spanish Albina Torna atrAs
Spanish Torna atrAs Tente en el aire
Indio Negra Cambujo
Chino cambujo India Lobo
Lobo India Albarazado
Albarazado Mestiza Barnocino
Barnocino India Sambaigo
Mestizo Castiza Chamiso
Mestizo India Coyote
No attempt has been made to deal with
the various nicknames which were applied
only to the Spaniards in the different parts
of America, and the Portuguese portion of
the glossary is decidedly weak in its nomen-
clature. The Spanish portion of the glossary
is more complete than any of the attempts
of this type that have preceded it. Though
the glossary is composed chiefly of terms re-
corded as having been used in Mexico, the
writer has attempted to list the other areas
in which the word was used, if and when the
word was found among the authorities
studied.
(n.d., p. 85); another table is to be found in Gu-
milla (n.d., pp. 86-87).
Saco (1938, 2: 66-67) reproduces Unanue’s ta-
bles (1940, pp. 50-51).
Jaime Jaramullo-Arango (1948) gives a brief
list of 12 racial mixtures. -
The Espasa enciclopedia (n.d., 34: 1094) pre-
sents information from which a table of Brazilian
nomenclature could be formed, and Aguirre Bel-
tran (1946, pp. 177-178) reproduces Saint Méry’s
French table.
Humboldt (1941, 2: 142) also gives a short ta-
ble.
14 The above is an exact reproduction of the
table, except that the word espafiol has been
translated by Spanish. Barnocino is probably
another spelling for barcino and has so been
treated in the glossary.
Term Used in
Aca Brazil
Ahi te estas (or Alli Mexico
te estas)
a a
Albarazado (or alba- =
rasado alvaraza-
do)
“ “
“ “
« “
Albarazado +
Albino Mexico, Brazil,
Santo Domingo
“ Mexico
= Brazil
Ariboco Brazil
Aracuaba Bahia, Brazil
Barcino (or baroina, Mexico
barzino barquina)
“« “
« “
Bujamé Ceara, Brazil
Caboclo Brazil
« “
Caboré Brazil, especially
the Sierra del
Norte region
Caboverde Brazil
Cabra =
<4 “
Cabre .
Cabrocha =
Cafus (or cafuso, ca- ss
fuzo)
“ “
Calpamuato Mexico
“ “
« “
a a-
“ a
a «
Calpamulo :
Cambujo “
& Rio de la Plata
region
= Mexico
“ “
Oaxaca, Mexico
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 11
GLOSSARY
Father Mother Remarks Sources
Negro White Another term for mulato claro Ramos-Vivé, 359; Freire, 1: 94.
Coyote Mestiza Santamaria, 1: 64; Espasa, 34: 1093;
Leén, 21.
Coyote-mestizo Mulata Coleccién Riva Palacio.
Noteentiendo Indian Flores, 2: 407
Cambujo Mulata Santamaria, 1: 74.
3d White .
= Indian .
Tente enelaire Mulata 25 percent White; 40.6 In- Santamaria, 1: 74; Ledén, 21.
dian; 34.4 Negro
Chino Genizara Santamaria, 1: 74; Dic. hist. leng. esp.,
1: 376; Dic. leng. esp., 48.
Zambaigo Indian Espasa, 34: 1094.
Gibaro Mulata Aguirre Beltran, 176-177.
Lobo Indian Coleccién Larrauri Montafio.
Gibaro Indian Flores, 2: 407; Ledn, 9.
Coyote Morisca Coleccién Magon.
Morisco White Espasa, 34: 1094; Santamaria, 1: 75;
Dic. hist. leng. esp., 1: 383; Dic. leng.
esp. ,00; Ledn, 21.
Negro Negro Negro born White Malaret, 82.
os White “Tncorrect’”’ designation for Ramos-Vivé, 335.
Brazilian mulato
€ Indian } Saco, 2: 65.
z White Regonal term for mulato claro Ramos-Viv6, 359.
Albarazado Mulata Espasa, 34: 1094; Santamaria, 1: 189.
sd Indian 12.5 percent white; 70.3 In- Santamaria, 1: 189; Ledn, 21.
dian; 17.2 Negro
2 White Santamaria, 1: 189.
“ Mestiza Coleccién Larrauri Montano.
Gibaro Loba Santamaria, 1: 189.
Negro White Regional term for mulato clare Ramos-Vivé, 364.
White Indian 11 percent of the Brazilian Gran.enc. port. tra., 5:278; Ramos-Viv6,
population 364-365; Freyre, 49, 67, 481
Indian Negro Freire, 2: 1131; Santamaria, 1: 248
Negro Indian Freire, 2: 1131; Ramos-Vivé, 365;
Freyre, 481; Gran. enc. port. bra., 5:
279.
= “ Ramos-Viy6, 335.
« Mulata Gran. enc., port. bra., 5: 297; Freire, 2:
1132; Ledn, 21; Espasa, 34: 1094.
¢ White Sometimes applied to mulato Ramos-Vivé, 335, 365.
- Mulata Santamaria, 1: 248.
Feminine dark-skinned mes- Freyre, 481.
tizo type
# Indian Freire, 2: 1152; Freyre, 481; Ramos-
Viv6é, 365; Espasa, 34: 1092; Santa-
maria, 1: 264; Gran. enc. port. bra., 5:
400.
= Mulata Freire, 2: 1152.
Zambaigo Loba Santamaria, 1: 276.
Mulato Mestiza S
iz Zamba Flores, 2: 407.
Barcino Indian 6.25 percent White; 85.15 In- Ledn, 22; Santamaria, 1: 276; Espasa
dian; 8.6 Negro 34: 1094.
Mulato =: Coleccién Magon.
Sambaygo Mulata Leén, 9.
Albarazado Negro Santamaria, 1: 276; Dic. leng esp., 224;
Dic. hist. leng. esp., 2: 537
Lobo Indian - Santamaria, 1: 281.
Chino 5 62.5 percent Indian; 37.5 Ne- Leén, 21-22.
gro.
Negro & Malaret, 197.
5 2 Dic. hist. leng. esp., 2: 564.
x Albarazado Santamaria, 1: 281.
= White Regional term for mulato Aguirre Beltran, 169.
pardo
Nov. 15, 1948 WooDBRIDGE: CROSSES AMONG INDIANS, NEGROES, AND WHITES
Term
Cambujo
“
Cariboca
Carafuso
Castizo
“«
Castizo cuatraluo
Cobrizo
Cocho
Coyote
“
Coyote
“
C oyote-mestizo
Cuacterén
“
Cuarterén de chino
Cuarterdén de mestizo
Cuarteron de mulato
“
Cuarter6én de salta
atras
Curiboca
Chamiso (or chamizo)
“«
“
“«
Chino-cholo
Cholo
“
Cholo-chino
Espanol ~
“
Galfarro
Genizaro
Gente blanca
Used in
Mexico
“
Various regions
Brazil
“
Spanish-A merica
Brazil
Mexico
Brazil
Michoacan, Mex-
ico
Mexico
a
ce
“
Spanish-America
Especially Cuba
Colombia, Mex-
ico, Brazil
Mexico
Northern Brazil
Mexico
“
“
Mexico
Mexico, Cuba
Cuba
Mexico
| Peru
Argentina, Uru-
guay, Paraguay
Argentina
“
Peru
Costa Rica
Peru
Chile, Peru, Ec-
uador, Bolivia,
Argentina
Peru
Mexico
“
Father
Zambaigo
“
White
Negro
Mestizo
“
Mestizo
White
Mestizo
“
Mulato
Chamiso
White
Cambujo
Terceron
White
Coyote
Mestizo
Indian
White
Lobo
Mulato
Salto atras
Mulato
Negro
«
“&
Indian
Negro
White
“
Quinterén de
mulato
Negro
Barcino
White
Mother
Mulata
China
Indian
“
White
Indian
White
Indian
«
Cuarterén
Barcina
Mestiza
Mestiza
Mulata
Tercerona
Mestiza
China
Mestiza
Mulata
China
Negro
Indian
Indian
Castiza
Zamba
Morisca
Negro
Indian
Indian
White
Indian
White
Chinese or other
oriental
Castiza
Quinterona de
mestizo
Requinterona
de mulato
Mulata
Zambaiga
Requinterona
de mulata
Remarks
Anyone with a dark complex-
ion
Regional term for mulato
pardo
25 percent White; 75 Indian
Used for mestizo pardo and
mestizo blanco
36.3 percent White; 52.7 In-
dian; 11 Negro
87.5 percent White; 12.5 Ne-
gro
56.25 percent White; 6.25 In-
dian; 37.5 Negro
75 percent White; 25 Indian
75 percent White; 25 Negro
22.6 percent White; 55.5 In-
dian; 21.9 Negro
25 percent Indian; 75 Negro
Used for mestizo
Indian or any dark individual
Mestizo, with Indian features
predominant
Sometimes used for requinte-
rén de mestizo
25 percent White; 75 Negro
17.975 percent White; 72.65
Indian; 9.37 Negro
96.87 percent White; 3.13 Ne-
gro
307
Sources
Santamaria, 1: 281.
Dic. hist. leng. esp., 2: 564; Dic. leng. esp.,
229.
Santamaria, 1: 281; Malaret, 197; Dic.
hist. leng. esp., 2: 564.
Freyre, 483.
Ramos-Viv6, 335.
Malaret, 226; Leén, 22; Espasa, 12: 346;
34: 1093; Dic. leng. esp., 269; Dic.
hist. leng. esp., 2: 854.
Santamaria, 1: 334; Espasa, 34: 1094.
Leén, 22.
Ramos-Viv6, 366.
Aguirre Beltran, 169.
Leon, 22; Espasa, 15: 1447.
Espasa, 15: 1447.
“
Aguirre Beltran, 171.
Leon, 22.
Macias, 392; Malaret, 271; Saco, 2: 66;
Unanue, 50; Santamaria, 1: 419; Dic.
leng. esp., 376.
Ramos-Viv6, 367; Malaret, 271; Macias,
392; Santamaria, 1: 419
Le6én, 22; Espasa, 34: 1094; Ulloa, 1: 30.
Coleccién Magon.
Leén, 22; Santamaria, 1: 419.
«“
Santamaria, 1: 419.
Leon, 22.
Santamaria, 1: 419; Espasa, 34: 1094.
Freyre, 483.
Le6n, 22; Santamaria, 1: 461.
Coleccién Larrauri Montafo.
Lenz, 1: 295; Dic. leng. esp., 399.
Espasa, 17: 521.
Espasa, 17: 521; Santamaria, 1: 510.
Leén, 22-23.
Malaret, 327; Dic. leng. esp., 399; Santa-
maria, 1: 510.
Flores, 2: 407; Leon, 9; Espasa, 17: 521;
Santamaria, 1: 510.
Santamaria, 1: 510.
Malaret 327; Mantegazza, 50; Santa-
maria, 1: 510.
Santamaria, 1: 510; Espasa, 17: 521.
Santamaria, 1: 510; Espasa 17: 521.
Malaret, 327.
Malaret, 340; Santamaria, 1: 531.
“
Dic. leng. esp., 401; Espasa, 17: 608; Ma-
laret, 327; Lenz, 1:311; Granada, 199;
Roman, 2: 49.
Santamaria, 1: 531.
Coleccién Larrauri Montano.
Leon, 37-38.
«
Leén, 23.
Leén, 23; Espasa, 34: 1094; Santamaria,
722 OXG,
Leoén, 23.
358
Term
Gibaro
Harnizo
Hay te estas
Indio alobado
Jagunco
Jarocho
«
Jibaro (see Gibaro)
Ladino
«
Lobo torna atras
Loro
Mameluco
«
Mestizo
Mestizo blanco
Mestizo castizo
Mestizo claro
«a
Mestizo pardo (or
mestizo amulata-
tado)
Mestizo prieto (or
’ mulato amestiza-
do)
Mestindio
“
Mocorongo
«
Morisco
Mulato
“
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Used in
Mexico, Puerto
Rico
Mexico
West Indies
Mexico
Northeast Brazil
Veracruz, Mexico
Mexico-
Parts of South
America
Central America;
Tabasco, Mex-
ico
Mexico
RR? RR.
«
Chiapas, Mexico
Brazil
«
Spanish and Por-
tuguese Amer-
ica
Cuba
Rio de la Plata
region
Mexico
«
Brazil
“«
Mexico
«
~
Interior of Brazil
«
Mexico
Cuba
Peru
VOL. 38, No. 11
Father Mother Remarks Sources
Albarazado Calpamulo Espasa, 34: 1094; Santamaria, 2: 145-
146; Dic. leng. esp., 744.
e Grifa Espasa, 34: 1094.
Lobo China 67.19 percent White; 12.5 In- Ledén, 23.
dian; 20.31 Negro
4 Mulata Leén, 9.
Chino 5 Flores, 2: 407.
Calpamulato Indian Coleccién Magon.
Zaimbo Grifa Espasa, 34: 1094.
Lobo Indian 30 percent White; 20.7 In- Leén, 23; Espasa, 34: 1094,
dian; 49.3 Negro
Used for mulato Aguirre Beltran, 177-178.
Used to designate a colored Malaret, 440.
person
Coyote White 82.4 percent White; 12.5 In- Ledén, 23; Espasa, 34: 1094; Santamaria,
dian; 3.1 Negro 2: 90.
No te entiendo Indian 59.38 percent Indian; 15.62 Ledn, 9, 23.
White; 25 Negro
Mulato alobado * Aguirre Beltran, 170.
Caboclo with Negro blood Ramos-Viv6, 373.
Applied to mulato pardo Aguirre Beltran, 169; 178-179.
Negro * Leén, 23-24,
White $ Boudin, quoted by Mantegazza, 50.
s € Used for mestizo Malaret, 498; Santamaria, 2: 168.
Used by Indians to designate Malaret, 498.
mestizos or Whites
White Gente blanca 99 percent White; 1 Negro Leén, 24.
Negro Indian Espasa, 30: 1244; Ramos i Duarte, 337;
Torna atras
Mulato
Chino cambujo
Chino
Lobo
White
«
Mestizo blanco
White
79
Mestizo blanco
“«
Salta atras
Indian
Mulata
Indian
Negro
Indian
White
Indian (Caribe)
Mestiza
Mulata parda
Negro
See mulato pardo
Generic term for every type of
racial mixture
Used instead of mulato
Generic term which includes
the zambo, chino, and the
mulato
25 percent White; 75 Indian
75 percent White; 25 Negro
Espasa, 34: 1094; Leén, 24.
Coleccién Riva Palacio
Coleccién del museo nacional de Mexico.
Coleccién Larrauri Montafio.
Ledn, 9.
Santamaria, 2: 189.
Aguirre Beltran, 169.
Saco, 2: 65; Freyre, 489; Espasa,
34: 1092, 1095.
Freyre, 489.
Leon, 24-25; any of the dictionaries and
encyclopedias.
Ramos-Viv6, 377.
Mantegazza, 50.
Aguirre Beltran, 170-171
Aguirre Beltran, 171.
Espasa, 34: 1094.
«
Aguirre Beltran, 171.
Aguirre Beltran, 172; Leén, 24.
Leon, 58.
Ramos-Viv6, 377.
«
Dic. leng. esp., 866; Leén, 25; Ramos-
Viv6, 377; Santamaria, 2: 299.
Santamaria, 2: 314.
5 «
aye
Nov. 15, 1948 WooDBRIDGE: CROSSES AMONG INDIANS, NEGROES, AND WHITES
Term Used in
Mulato Argentina, Bra-
zil, Mexico,
ete.
¢ Dominican Re-
public
Mulato blanco Mexico
Mulato claro Brazil
Mulato lobo Mexico
Mulato morisco oS
Mulato obscuro &
Mulato pardo «
Mulato prieto (or x
mulato anegrado)
Mulato tornatras
Muxuango
«“«
Coastal Brazil
No te entiendo Mexico
Octavén (or ocha- Mexico, Vene-
yon, octar6n) zuela, Cuba
Pardo Cuba
= Brazil
S Argentina, West
Indies, Brazil
2 Brazil, Cuba,
Puerto Rico
Pardavasco Brazil
“ “
“ “
Paréara &
Postizo Mexico
Puchuel “
“«
«
Puchuela Mexico
4 Venezuela
Puchuela de negro Mexico
Quinterdén Mexico
“ “
Quinterén de mestizo “
“ “
Quinterén de mulato &
«“ “
Quinterén salta atras ae
Requinterén S
Requinter6n de mes- &
tizo
a “«
Requinterén de mu-
lato
Salta atras (some-
times written sal-
to atras)
Father
Negro
Mulato
Negro
Negro with Se-
mitic or Ha-
mitic blood
Mulato pardo
Mulato blanco
Mulato
Negro
“
Mestizo
White
Tente en el aire
White
“
Indian
White
Negro
“
“
Indian
Castizo
“«
Postizo
Mestizo
Octavén!5 indio
Ochavoén
Octavon!é
gro
Ne-
White
“
Cuarter6n
White
Quinterén de
de mestizo
Quinterén de
mulato
Chino
Mother
White
Mulata
White
“«
Indian
White
Indian
o
Mulata parda
Mulata
Tupi and Tapu-
yas Indians
Mulata
Cuarterona
Mulata
“
Negro
Indian
“
Mulata
White
“
Cuarterona
Terceron negra!’
Castiza
Cuarterona de
mestizo
Morisca
Cuarterona de
mulato
Negro
Quinterona
Requinterona
de mestizo
White
Requinterona
de mulato
Indian
Remarks
25 percent White; 25 Negro;
50 Indian
May occasionally be part Ne-
gro
87.5 percent White; 12.5 Ne-
gro; last two sources limit
word’s use to Cuba.
Used for mulato, which has an
unpleasant connotation for
some people
General designation for mes-
tizo and colored individuals
See mulato
Caboclo, who migrated north
93.75 pereent White; 6.25 In-
dian
All white, in regard to color
93.75 percent White; 6.25 Ne-
gro
87.5 percent White; 12.5 Ne-
gro
87.5 percent White; 12.5 In-
dian
93.75 percent White; 6.25 In-
dian
93.75 percent White; 6.25 Ne-
gro
359
Sources
Mantegazza, 50; Ramos-Viv6, 377; Ma-
cias, 875; Dic. leng. esp., 876; Espasa,
37: 216; Aguirre Beltran, 158, 167-
170; Santmaria, 2: 314; Le6on, 25;
Alcedo, 126; Freire, 4: 3525.
Santamaria, 2: 314.
Aguirre Beltran, 167.
Ramos-Viv6, 334.
Aguirre Beltran, 170.
Aguirre Beltran, 167.
Leon, 25.
Aguirre Beltran, 169.
Aguirre Beltran, 168-9.
Espasa, 34: 1094; Santamaria, 2: 314.
Ramos-Viv6, 377.
Leon, 25, 9; Santamaria, 2: 335; Espasa,
34: 1093.
Leén, 25; Ramos-Vivé, 379-380; Saco,
2: 68; Gumilla, 85; Malaret, 597; Es-
pasa, 39: 669; Dic. leng. esp., 905.
Macias, 935.
Santamaria, 2: 411.
Santamaria, 2: 411; Malaret, 624;
Ramos-Viv6 ,381; Espasa, 34: 1093-4
Freire, 4: 3820.
Santamaria, 2: 411; Ramos-Vivé, 381,
Dic. leng. esp., 947.
Santamaria, 2: 411.
Freyre, 493.
Freire 4: 3820.
Ramos-Viv6, 381.
Santamaria, 2: 520; Espasa, 34: 1093;
Leén, 25.
Espasa, 34: 1093.
“«
Santamaria, 2: 528.
Le6én, 25.
Gumilla, 85; Saco, 2: 68.
Leén, 25.
Santamaria, 2: 553; Malaret, 695.
Leon, 26.
Espasa, 34: 1093.
Leén, 26.
Espasa, 34: 1093.
Leén, 26, 37-38.
Espasa, 34: 1094.
Santamaria, 3: 31.
Leén. 26.
Leén, 37-38.
Leon, 26.
Torna atréds more common in Santamaria, 3: 60.
Mexico
% Though none of the sources consulted discuss this mixture as a separate term, it is obvious that it is 12.5 percent Indian and
87.5 percent White.
16 Octavén negro is a More accurate way of expressing octavon, 1.e., an individual 87.5 percent White; 12.5 percent Negro.
17 This term does not appear to be discussed in the sources consulted; a tercerén Negro would be an individual 33.3 percent Negro
and 66.7 percent White.
360
Term Used in
Salta atdrs Mexico, Peru,
Cuba
Mexico
= Venezuela
a Mexico
Salta atras cuarterén .
Salta atrds quinterén J
Sambayo (or sam- «
baigo, sambahigo)
Saraca Brazil
Sarara i
“ “
Septer6n
Tapanuna :
Tapuio a
Tente en el aire!8 Peru
“ “
“& “
« Mexico
“ “
“ “
“ “
“ “
a “
“ “
“ “
“ «
a“ “
Tercer6n Colombia, Mex-
ico
Tercer6n (or cuarte- Brazil
ron cuatraluo)
Tornatras!’ (or torna Mexico
atras)
Torna atras
“ “
“
Tresalbo (or tresa- Mexico, Peru
vo)
Xibaro Brazil
“ “
“ «
18 The comment of Alcedo (p. 172) accords with that of Saco (2: 69) who writes:
Father
Cuarter6n
White
Indian
Cambujo
White
Cafuzo
Civilized Indian
Cuarterén
Mulato
Mestizo de indio
White
Calpanmulato
“
Indian
White
Gibaro
Zambo
Salta atras
Cuarter6n
White
«
No te entiendo
White
Mestizo
Cafuso
Cariboca
Caboré
Mother
Mulata
Albina
Mestiza
White
Tercerona
Cuarterona
Indian
Negro
Cuarterona
Mulata
Mestiza de india
Torna atras
Sambaygo
Cambuja
&
Loba
Requinterona
Albarazada
Calpamulata
Albarazada
Mulata
“
Indian
Albina
Indian
Negro
“«
“
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Remarks
An individual whose parents
are seemingly White, but
who reveals by his color,
skin, or features that in his
remote ancestry there ex-
isted some Negro blood
(Macias)
95.75 percent White; 4.25 Ne-
gro
The offspring is so-called, “‘be-
cause instead of advancing
somewhat (i.e., in white-
ness), it goes backward to a
great or lesser degree.”
So called “because instead of
increasing its color, it goes
backward; and the same
‘throw back’ occurs when
the Indian and Negro races
are mixed.”
Offspring with the character-
istics of a Negro
62.5 percent Negro; 37.5
White
43.75 percent White; 56.25
Negro
23.45 percent White; 75 In-
dian; 1.55 Negro
See mulato claro
“
Light-colored Negro with
kinky hair
12.5 percent White; 87.5 Ne-
gro; term coined by Saco
81.25 percent Indian; 18.75
Negro
Used for salta atrds
More common in Peru
VOL. 38, NO. 11
Sources
Alcedo, 164; Macias, 1074.
Leén, 26.
Gumilla, 85.
Saco, 2: 69.
Flores, 2: 407.
Leon, 26.
Ramos-Viv6, 383.
“
Freyre, 497.
Saco, 2: 67.
Espasa, 34: 1094.
Ramos-Viv6, 385.
Alcedo, 172.
“
“
Coleccién Laurrauri Montano.
Leén, 9.
Santamaria, 3: 155.
Santamaria, 3: 155; Ledn, 26.
Santamaria, 3: 155.
“«
Santamaria, 3: 155; Dic. leng. esp., 1209.
Espasa, 34: 1093.
Coleccién Magon.
Dic. leng. esp., 1209.
Espasa, 60: 1164; Ulloa, 1: 29.
Santamaria, 3: 161; Espasa, 34: 1093.
Santamaria, 3: 204.
Santamaria, 3: 204.
Alcedo quoted by Leon, 26.
Santamaria, 3: 216; Espasa, 34: 1093;
Aguirre Beltran, 177; Ledén, 26.
Ramos-Viv6, 387.
«
Freire, 5: 5246.
“When a mestizo has offspring by a mestiza the
offspring is mestzzo too, and it is commonly called tente en el atre, because it neither advances nor retrogresses’”’ (i.e., in color). Gumilla
(p. 85) also advances the above idea as to the expression’s origin.
19 ‘‘Torna atrds implies a regression to Negro features in the offspring of the racial mixture, which modern investigations have
demonstrated to be absolutely without basis’”’ (Aguirre Beltran, 177).
Noy. 15, 1948 WOODBRIDGE: CROSSES AMONG INDIANS, NEGROES, AND WHITES 361
Term Used in Father Mother Remarks Sources
Zambaigo (or zam- Mexico Chino Indian Santamaria, 3: 309; Espasa, 70: 917;
baygo, zambayo, Dic. leng. esp., 1316.
zambo de indio,
sambaloo, sam-
baigo)
& g Lobo “ Coleccién Riva Palacio.
% £ Cambujo us Le6én, 9; Flores, 2: 407.
& £ Barnocino fe Coleccién Larrauri Montano.
Zambo Spanish and Por- Negro id Espasa, 70: 920; Mantegazza, 50; Ma-
- tuguese Amer- laret, 829; Santamaria, 3: 309; Dic.
ica leng. esp., 1316; Freire, 5: 5255.
= Chile, Colombia, Used for mulato Mantegazza, 50; Malaret, 829.
Bolivia
f Brazil Used for cabra Espasa, 34: 1094.
2 Peru Negro White Santamaria, 3: 309.
£ € & Mulata “The most despised of all ra- Alcedo, 184.
cial mixtures because of
their perverted customs”
Zambo Peru Negro China Saco, 2: 67; Unanue, 51.
s Mexico. Used for cambujo Santamaria, 3: 309.
& Parts of Spanish Generic term for designating Malaret, 829-830
America racial mixtures which are
part Negro
Zambo cabra Brazil Mulato Negro Santamaria, 3: 309.
Zambo claro « Cabra Indian Santamaria, 3: 309; Espasa, 34: 1094.
Zambo grifo Mulato Negro Santamaria, 3: 309.
Zambo prieto — Brazil, Peru, Zambo a Santamaria, 3: 309; Saco, 2: 67; Leén,
Mexico 27; Flores, 2: 407; Unanue, 51; Es-
pasa, 34: 1093.
= Brazil Cabra ie Espasa, 34: 1094.
« Cuba, Mexico Lobo g Santamaria, 3: 309; Espasa, 34: 1093.
Zambo retorno Mulato # Santamaria, 3: 309.
Zambo de indio Mexico Indian s Used for cambujo Alcedo, 184; Leén, 27.
Zambo de Negro Northern South Quinterén # Ulloa, 1: 30.
America
Zambo de mulato € £ « s
Zambo de tercer6n & « “ e
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BOTAN Y.—Diagnosis of the Elsinoé on flowering dogwood.'
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. Ll
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ANNA E. JENKINS,
Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, Beltsville,
Md., and A. A. Brrancourt, Instituto Biolégico, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
In June 1948 we reported (4) the exist-
ence of a spot anthracnose affecting flower-
ing dogwood (Cornus florida L.) and showed
particularly by specimens then available
that this had been found in Maryland, Vir-
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and
Georgia. Specimens have since been re-
ceived from Delaware. In our preliminary
account (loc. cit.) we described the symp-
toms of the disease. A diagnosis of the path-
ogen is here provided. This Elsinoé (Elsino-
aceae, Myriangiales) not only constitutes
another species of the genus on a tree host,
but also it is the first to have been discov-
ered on Cornaceae.
Elsinoé corni sp. nov., Jenkins and Bitancourt
Maculis in foliis paucis abundantibusve,
usque 100 vel pluribus in lamina una, dispersis
1 Received August 25, 1948.
vel interdum nervisequentibus, circularibus
usque angularibus vel irregularibus, typice
parvis, usque ad 1 mm, rarius 1.5-2 mm in
diam., superne prominentioribus et rubro-
griseis, demum centro pallide flavo-griseo de-
hiscenti et lacunas vel lacerationes relinquenti;
maculis in bracteis floralibus paucis numero-
sisve, dispersis, interdum in vel circa nervos
dispositis, circularibus vel ellipticis, usque 1
mm in diam., singulis vel pauce aggregatis,
pallide alutaceis, margine angusto brunneo
usque purpureo et ultra zona indistincte aluta-
cea circumdatis; cancris in petiolis, pedunculis,
fructibus et caulibus parvis paucis vel plurimis,
maculis foliorum similibus, planis vel valde ele-
vatis, interdum leniter depressis. Ascomatibus
comparative rarissimis, saepe 1—7 in superficie
superiori maculae unae, circularibus usque leni-
ter irregularibus, interdum _ coalescentibus,
brunneis vel nigris, obscuratis, intraepidermi-
Fig. 1.—Elsinoé corni, pathogenic on flowering dogwood: A, Severely diseased shoot showing the
typically smal]l spots abundant on blade a; b, remnant of a diseased leaf; c, d, leaves that have become
lacerated, c also showing infection along the midrib and d less distinct spotting on lower leaf surface; e,
e, inconspicuous stem cankers; X1. B, Petiole (a) and stem cankers (e, e), same as A, e, e; X13. C-E,
Various leaf spots, some showing ‘‘shot-holes,’’ on upper third on a young leaf (C), basal part of a leaf
includinz grooved petiole (D), intermediate region, with spotting on leaf margin; C’, a, young ascomata
(small dots); H, mature ascomata a, dotting pale centers of spots or remnants of them; X13. F, In-
fected bract; X1. A—H, Specimens from Highlands, N. C.; F, from Atlanta, Ga. Drawings by H. G.
Stueler, based on photographs by R. L. Taylor and original specimens.
Fig. 1.—(See opposite page for legend.)
o64
calibus, erumpentibus, 25—-100u in diam., usque
50u crassis; epithecio tenui, atro-brunneo, pseu-
doparenchymate inferiori hyalino; ascis singulis
vel multis, globosis, in stratum unum saepe dis-
positis, circa 16 mm in diam., usque octo-
sporis; ascosporis 3-septatis, 12-15 X5y, hyal-
inis; statu Sphacelomate; conidiophoris cae-
spitosis, subulatis, hyalinis in palis dense com-
pactis usque 39u in diam., 20u crassis, coloratis,
conidiis oblongo-ellipticis, usque pyriformibus,
4.5-6 X2.5u, hyalinis.?
Distribution.—On living leaves, small stems,
floral bracts, and fruits of Cornus florida L.
(Cornaceae), causing the disease named
“flowering dogwood spot anthracnose,” Dela-
ware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina,
South Carolina, and Georgia.
Specimens examined—DELAWARE: Vie.
Bridgeville and vic. Laurel, July 21, 1948, R.
A. Jehle. Maryuanp: Beltsville, Plant Indus-
try Station Grounds, September 1946; A. A.
Bitancourt; R. A. Jehle collections, 1948,3 vic.
Somerset County, near Pocomoke, June 15;
vic. Pocomoke, Worcester County, June 30;
Pocomoke and vic. Hebron, July 16; vic. Den-
ton, July 21; vic. Upper Marlboro, July 29; vic.
Waldorf, vic. Helen, vic. Chaptico, and
Charles County, 10 miles north of Cobb Island,
August 6: vic. Wye Mills, August 12; Hurlock,
August 13. NortH Carouina: Highlands,
Highlands Biological Laboratory Grounds,
September 2 and September 5 (type U. 8. My-
cological Collections 90489; Seccao de Fitopa-
tologia, Instituto Biolégico 5167), 1947, J. A.
Stevenson. SouTH CaRoLina: Georgetown,
October 12, 1943, A. W. Blizzard. Groretra: At-
lanta, April 1948, Comm. J. H. Miller (Spha-
celoma stage on floral bracts; Savannah, August
4, 1939, A. A. Bitancourt).4 Virernta: Norfolk,
May 9, 1948, H. T. Cook.
In connection with our Myriangiales selecti
exsiccatt we (3) have noted that usually the
symptoms of diseases caused by Elsinoé, i.e.,
spot anthracnoses (cf. 2), ‘‘are distinct and per-
mit identification of the disease.’’ The state-
2 Translated into Latin by Edith K. Cash.
5 These specimens represent a survey for this
disease being made by Dr. Jehle in collaboration
with one of us (Jenkins).
* In citing this specimen in our preliminary re-
port (4), through a misunderstanding, we gave
“Athens” instead of ‘“‘Atlanta’’ as the place of
collection. The sentence on page 254, line 11, be-
ginning with “Dr. Miller” should be omitted.
Since this paper was written Dr. Miller has col-
lected Elsinoé at Athens.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 11
ment continues: ‘‘In some cases because of
lack of fructifications it is particularly because
of the lesions that the specimen is of interest.”
The specimens of Elsinoé here cited, repre-
sent precisely this situation. The earliest
(Savannah, Ga., August 4, 1939) is without
fructifications and was taken because the le-
sions were typical of a spot anthracnose. The 12
ample specimens collected by Jehle were se-
lected chiefly on the basis of symptoms.
Ascomata are comparatively rare, although
they are present on a few leaves of several dif-
ferent specimens. On some leaves of the gather-
ing of August 13, they are actually numerous,
with asci and ascospores visible as illustrated
in Fig. 2, A. This contrasts with the specimen
from Highlands dated September 5, in which
many of the ascomata are overmature and asci
cannot be detected in them. The inconspicuous
Sphaceloma stage was clearly discerned on a
few leaf spots of the specimen of August 13.
That of August 12, appears to be more or less
sterile. What apparently are fructifications of
the fungus are developing on some of the stem
cankers.
pl. 4, figs. C, D). B, Section of asmaller ascoma; a,
epithecium; b, ascus; c, ascospores; d, leaf-spot
tissue; 450. Drawings by Stueler; A based on a
photomicrograph by Bitancourt and original ma-
terial; B on a photomicrograph by M. A. Jaeger
and original material.
Nov. 15, 1948
SABROSKY: ELACHIPTERA AND RELATED GENERA
365
LITERATURE CITED
(1) ARNAuD, G. Les Astérinées, IV¢ partie. (Etude
sur le systématique des champignons pyré-
nomycetes.) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. 7: 643-
422. 1925.
(2) JENKINS, A. E. A specific term for diseases
caused by Elsinoé and Sphaceloma. Plant
Dis. Reporter 31: 71. 1947.
(3) JENKINS, A. E., and Brirancourt, A. A.
Myriangiales selectt exsiccati, Fasciculos 2-
6 (Numeros 51-300). Bot. Soc. Bras.
Agron. 9: 157-164. 1946.
C—O SL OTTO SE
on flowering dogwood. Plant Dis. Reporter
32: 253-255. 1948.
ENTOMOLOGY .—A synopsis of the Nearctic species of Elachiptera and related
genera (Diptera, Chloropidae).'
tomology and Plant Quarantine.
Flies of the genus Elachiptera Macquart
(sensu lato) are common in general collect-
ing, and an up-to-date key for their ready
identification should be useful. Certain spe-
cles, apparently abundant and widely dis-
tributed, have in the past been generally
identified upon certain gross features, a
practice that has concealed the presence of
some unnamed species with less apparent
characteristics, such as the presence or
absence of pollen on the ocellar tubercle.
The frequent appearance of these flies in
rearing cages has sometimes caused them
to be recorded in the literature as pests of
various plants. Available evidence suggests,
however, that the larvae probably feed
upon decaying organic matter, such as old
leaf sheaths, or decaying plant tissue and
grass following damage by other insects.
Generic limits are difficult to define, es-
pecially when more than one faunal region
is considered, in the large group of species
that may be referred to as the ‘‘Elachiptera
complex.” The flattened arista and the
marginal scutellar tubercles, two of the
most distinctive features of ‘“‘typical”’
Elachiptera (brevépennis, costata, etc.), are
subject to a wide range in development in
different species. Whatever the character
used, there seems always to be an otherwise
characteristic species that is an exception.
As for the various genera that have been
erected for species of this complex (Elachip-
tera Macquart, Melanochaeta Bezzi, Dolio-
myia Johannsen, Crassiseta Loew, Eribolus
Becker), the definition of what is a distinct
genus, what a subgenus, and what a syno-
nym is extremely difficult. In this paper
' Received August 18, 1948.
Curtis W. Saprosky, U. 8. Bureau of En-
Ertbolus is recognized as a distinct genus,
and Crassiseta and Doliomyia are consid-
ered as synonyms of Elachiptera (sensu
stricto). Doltomyza has a peculiar type of ab-
domen that might seem to merit separate
status for that name, but many species of
Klachiptera show some lengthening of the
basal segment, and in Africa there are sev-
eral species which nearly match the extreme
condition in D. longiventris Johannsen.
The status and relationships of Melano-
chaeta need much further study, and its
species have not been included here. In
recent years it has often been considered a
subgenus of Hlachiptera. One new species,
M. kaw, is described here because the past
confusion with Monochaetoscinella nigricor-
nts (Loew) would otherwise leave a common
form without a name.
Recognition of the relation of EH. (Me-
lanochaeta) nigricornis (Loew) to Mono-
chaetoscinella Duda brings the latter name
into the Elachiptera complex. Its genotype,
the Neotropical M. anonyma (Williston),
has a slender, Oscinella-type arista, and its
affinities had been supposed to be with
Oscinella. It is now realized, however, that
nigricornis (with flattened arista) and
anonyma (with slender arista) have the
same fundamental features of generic sig-
nificance, and that the development of the
arista in the former is only a specific char-
acter in that case. Because of other distinc-
tive characteristics, and because the few
known species are Neotropical to southern
United States, I recognize it here as a genus
distinct from Elachiptera.
All ratios used in the key and descrip-
tions are based on measurements with an
ocular micrometer, and not on estimates.
366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
For greater precision in the measures used,
the width of the front is defined as the dis-
tance between the eyes across the posterior
ocelli, the length of the front is the distance
from the anterior margin of the front at the
midline to an imaginary line between the
posterior ocelli, and the basal width of the
scutellum is measured between the two
lateral points where the disk of the scutel-
lum touches the mesonotum. It is espe-
cially important to note the last, for some-
times the sides of the scutellum as they slope
downward and outward from the base make
the basal width appear greater in propor-
tion to the length than it really is.
Most of the species of this complex will
pass to Crassiseta in Curran’s The families
and genera of North American Diptera
(1934) and to Elachiptera in Williston’s
Manual (1908), on the basis of the follow-
ing characters: Costa extending to the
fourth longitudinal vein, hind tibia with-
out a spur, second costal sector longer than
the third sector or at least not remarkably
abbreviated, and arista flattened and ensi-
form. The species which will be difficult to
place here without comparative study are
those with slender, atypical arista. The 1
+1 notopleural bristles, erect and cruciate
ocellars and post-verticals, and the presence
(except in #. alzena) of 1 or 2 pairs of out-
standing fronto-orbitals (Figs. 5, 6) are
other features that will aid in segregating
this group.
KEY TO THE NEARCTIC SPECIES OF
ELACHIPTERA MACQUART AND
RELATED GENERA
1. Frontal triangle subshining or with a leaden-
gray luster, the entire surface covered with
fine gray tomentum or pollen; mesonotum
and scutellum with same habitus as trian-
gle, the former characteristically flattened
between the dorsocentral lines on posterior
half to two-thirds of notum; scutellum flat-
tened and short, less than 0.7 times as long
as broad at base (Hribolus Becker)....... 2:
Triangle entirely or predominantly smooth
and polished, sometimes with pollen on and
around ocellar tubercle; mesonotum usually
polished black, or with three stripes of
pollen, occasionally broadly pollinose be-
tween and including the dorsocentral lines
2. Legs predominantly bright yellow, fore coxa
VOL. 38, No. 11
always, fore femur entirely or predomi-
nantly, and mid and hind femora basally,
yellow; palpus yellow in males, more or
less infuscated in females (eastern half of
North America)... ..: s.. 4's sede
1. EHribolus longulus (Loew)
Legs predominantly black, fore coxa always,
and all femora except knees narrowly, black
(northern and northwestern)........... 3
3. Antenna entirely black, or virtually so; pal-
pus black in both sexes... JU. a) ene
ate ie ees 2. EHribolus sudeticus Becker
Antenna in large part yellow to orange, often
only the dorsal fourth of third segment
black; palpus yellow in both sexes......
AS URD S25 Dah he 3. Hribolus nearcticus, n. sp.
4. Scutellum of Oscinella type (Fig. 9), short and
broadly rounded apically, 0.67—0.8 times as
long as width at base, the disk gently con-
vex; marginal scutellar bristles not borne
on tubercles, one pair of widely separated
apicals and one pair of weak subapicals;
mesonotum and scutellum smooth, the pi- ~
liferous punctures fine and inconspicuous,
the regularly convex surfaces never densely
and coarsely punctured orrugose........ 5
Scutellum not as above, more or less trape-
zoidal in outline and often apically sub-
truncate (Figs. 10-12), usually somewhat
elongate, typically 0.9—-1.25 times the width
at base (if as short as 0.75, then the margi-
nal scutellars on distinct tubercles); mar-
ginal scutellar bristles borne on more or less
distinct tubercles, with somewhat approxi-
mated apicals and 2-3 pairs of subapicals;
mesonotum and scutellum almost always
coarsely punctured, usually so densely that
the surface appears strongly rugose, in pro-
file the posterior half of mesonotum and the
disk of scutellum obviously flattened
(Elachiptera, sensu stricto).............. 7
5. One pair of long, unusually strong, black, and
outstanding fronto-orbital bristles (Fig. 5);
cheek divided by a diagonal line into a whit-
ish pollinose anterodorsal and a polished
black posteroventral portion (Monochaeto-
scinella Duda). J. : . 1D. eee 6
Not as above, usually with two pairs of slen-
der, pale fronto-orbitals that are longer
than the others in fronto-orbital row (cf.
Fig. 6), sometimes with none that are out-
standing; cheek not so divided, pollinose
along entire lower margin of eye.........
nodes dP Ab Ow as by ee Melanochaeta spp.
(eunota Loew, melampus Becker, kaw, n. sp.
6. Arista slender, eet gee not at all thickened
(Neotropical).:...... 2... 6
4, Monochaetoscinella anonyma (Williston)
Arista broadly flattened basally, strongly ta-
pering, densely and evenly long haired, the
appearance that of typical Elachiptera (as
in Fig. 7, but tapering from base to apex)
(southeastern United States).............
..9. Monochaetoscinella nigricornis (Loew)
Nov. 15, 1948
ts:
10.
i.
12.
13.
14,
ELACHIPTERA, SENSU STRICTO
Basal segment of abdomen peculiarly elon-
gated and developed as a basal plate occu-
pying, in dorsal view, all but tip of abdo-
men, its length greater than that of meso-
notum and scutellum combined........
6. Elachiptera (E.) longiventris (Johannsen)
Abdomen without such an elongated basal
plate, the basal segment at most half the
PEN IGHADGOMEN 220. 2 0k ee sevice es 8 8
. Fronto-orbitals hairlike, short and all of ap-
proximately the same length, none out-
standing; mesonotum densely and finely
punctured, with no obvious rows of punc-
tures; arista as in Gauraz, slender and
Spano SNOtanaIired 2... 2. seen oe cee ee
Bere. 7. Elachiptera (E.) aliena Becker
Two pairs of bristles long and outstanding in
fronto-orbital row (Fig. 6); mesonotum less
densely punctured, at least median and
dorsocentral rows distinct; arista usually
thickened and densely pubescent, often
MappeMed ANG -CNSHOLM.... 02. ....-s006- 9
. Pleuron entirely or largely reddish yellow, or
CMmhipennorax reddish. .. . 2... ee eke 1
aarirmecmrrey black. ... 0.2.2... eee 15
Scutellum reddish yellow; mesonotum usually
reddish yellow, at most narrowly black at
LiiZ.. .. 20a eee aaa 11
Scutellum black; mesonotum at least partly
SUM se ees, ese os et Se as 13
Mesonotum almost entirely polished, with
only a notopleural spot and a narrow pre-
Semeee band of pollen.........:......
nJondghaeaiaa 8. EHlachiptera (E.) willistont, n. sp.
Mesonotum with a broad median stripe of
fine bright pollen, or entirely pollinose. .12
Scutellum like LH. costata (cf. Fig. 12), with
two pairs of strong marginal tubercles and
a weak, basal third pair; mesonotum ap-
parently pollinose on its entire surface...
.9. Elachiptera (E.) sp. (North Carolina)
Scutellum like Z. willistonz (cf. Fig. 10), trap-
ezoidal, apical pair of tubercles weak and
subapical scarcely distinguishable; meso-
notum with a broad median stripe of fine,
bright pollen, between and including the
G@erseceminral lines... 20.225. 6. eee
10. Elachiptera sp. (District of Columbia)
Mesonotum reddish on sides, with a broad
median black stripe, gray pollinose; scutel-
lum long conical with three pairs of strong
tubercles. .11. Elachiptera (H.) tau, n. sp.
Mesonotum entirely black, only the pleuron
TeV MOW «acs 0 s,2 3s Se eeg ee e608) SS oe 14
Mesonotum typically with three stripes of
gray pollen, in median and dorsocentral
positions; scutellum as in £. costata (cf. Fig.
12), with three pairs of strong marginal tu-
(DED CLES RSI ee pgs 8 ee ae oe te
..13. Elachiptera (E.) erylhropleura, n. sp
Mesonotum polished, without stripes of pol-
len, and with only a narrow prescutellar
band of pollen; scutellum strongly nar-
SABROSKY: ELACHIPTERA AND RELATED GENERA
15.
16.
17.
18.
LO:
20.
367
rowed, three pairs of tubercles close to-
gether on distal half, the tubercles less dis-
tinct than in costata and erythropleura....
....14. Elachiptera (EH.) angusta, n. sp.
Scutellum flattened and elongate, trapezoidal
in outline, with three pairs of long, well-de-
veloped scutellar tubercles, the apical tu-
bercles strong, obviously longer than broad
(Fig. 12); disk of mesonotum broadly pol-
linose...12. Elachiptera (E.) costata (Loew)
Scutellum usually shorter and somewhat
rounded apically, sometimes narrowed
apically, the 2 or 3 pairs of marginal tu-
bercles distinct but small, each not as long
as broad (Fig. 11); mesonotum entirely
shining or with three stripes of gray pollen
rarely the stripes merged together...... 16
Both frontal triangle and ocellar tubercle
smooth and polished, without pollen; disk
of mesonotum never with stripes of pollen
eR Leae SRS UNSER OS WE aS sss eee en 17
Frontal triangle polished; ocellar tubercle dis-
tinctly gray pollinose,? or if shining, the
mesonotum with 2 or 3 stripes of gray pol-
Pera SONS E EN ey PRS, sates 20
Front obviously longer than broad, length 1.1
times the width at vertex (Fig. 14); meso-
notum likewise appearing longer than
broad, length actually 1.09-1.1 times its
WERE HNL) cape Cte San, SAE Wee eater
....17. Elachiptera (E.) angustifrons, n. sp.
Front appearing approximately as long as
broad, length usually 0.83-0.96 times the
width at vertex, occasionally the length and
width subequal (Fig. 13); mesonotum ap-
pearing nearly square, measuring 0.90—1.04
times.as long as broad. . is. 08:2 eee. 18
Legs predominantly yellow, including all
coxae and femora; fore and hind tibiae
black; frontal triangle shorter and with sides
less convex than in nigriceps and angustt-
SELUITES SOA, cue SCS Sg PT eee ae
...16. Elachiptera (E.) pechumani, n. sp.
Legs more extensively patterned with black,
including distal one-third to two-thirds of
mid and hind tibiae; frontal triangle large
and occupying most of front (Fig. 13),
reaching anterior margin of front, or nearly
so, and with strongly convex sides...... 19
Arista broad and flat, ensiform, sides parallel
nearly to tip, its width one-half to four-
fifths that, of cheek (Fig. 7). <s.. .oss26:
....15. Elachiptera (E.) nigriceps (Loew)
Arista narrower, in female two-fifths or less
the height of cheek, in male slender and
only slightly thickened, in both sexes nar-
rowing from base to tip (Fig. 8)........
.18. Elachiplera (E.) angustistylum, n. sp.
Hind femur strongly incrassate, its greatest
width 2—2.8 times the diameter of hind
tibia; disk of mesonotum with three dis-
tinct stripes of gray pollen; frontal triangle
2 In greasy or rubbed specimens, the shiny ap-
pearance may be misleading.
368
long; arista broad and flat on its entire
length.19. Hlachiptera (E.) formosa (Loew)
Hind femur not strongly incrassate, its great-
est width about 1.5—-1.85 times the diameter
of hind tibia; at least one other character
NOt: AS AOWOVE Rt sen cld Whee ee Ge ee 21
21. Arista broad and flat for its entire length,
sides parallel nearly to apex (ef. Fig. 7), its
width equal to at least half the distance be-
tween posterior ocelli, usually fully equal
to the distance; frontal triangle only three-
fourths the length of front; mesonotum
with 2 or 3 stripes of gray pollen........ 22
Arista narrower and tapering from base to
apex, not broad and flat as above, its width
midway only subequal to a single posterior
ocelliss xsi inept awit tee ee eee oes 23
22. Ocellar tubercle distinctly bright gray polli-
nose (widespread, northern United States)
....20. Hlachiptera (E.) vittata, n. name
(=E. bilineata Adams, preoc.)
Ocellar tubercle polished black (California). .
jk thal 21. Hlachiptera (E.) californica, n. sp.
23. Frontal triangle long, its apex nearly reaching
anterior margin of front; front relatively
long, its length 1.0—-1.07 times the width at
....22. Elachiptera (E.) penita (Adams)
Frontal triangle shorter, only three-fourths
the length of front; front relatively broad,
its length only 0.87—0.96 times the width at
24. Thorax polished, without pollen except on
notopleura and around bases of wings....
Kh eone 23. Hlachiptera (EH.) knowltoni, n. sp.
Thorax typically with two narrow stripes of
gray; pollens ye Ve See eo eee ee 25
25. Frontal triangle black, and cheeks and poste-
rior portion of front predominantly brown
to blackish, the head appearing dark
(Alaska-to: Colorado) ie 2a 2a ae
Re erea 24. Hlachiptera (E.) decipiens (Loew)
Triangle reddish to brown, and front, face and
cheeks bright yellow, the head appearing
bright (California, Oregon, Idaho).......
OR EOL 25. Elachiptera (H.) flaviceps, n. sp.
Genus Eribolus Becker
ribolus Becker, Archivum zoologicum 1: 127.
1910. (Type, H. sudettcus Becker, by designa-
tion of Enderlein, 1911.)
Becker, followed by Enderlein, Duda, and
other workers, recognized this as a distinct
genus, based on three European species with a
rather uniform habitus of flattened, leaden-
gray mesonotum, leaden-gray frontal triangle,
and slender, slightly thickened arista. Other-
wise, its fundamental characters are the same
as in Elachiptera, notably the 1+1 notopleural
bristles, ocellar and postvertical bristles erect
and cruciate, two pairs of fronto-orbital bristles
well developed and standing out over the ad-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 11
joining orbital hairs, eyes with minute and
sparse pubescence, and similar wing venation.
The slightly thickened arista seemed distinct
enough in the Palearctic fauna, compared
with the broadly flattened, ensiform arista of
most of the European species of Hlachiptera. In
North America, however, there is a species
which is unquestionably congeneric with Eri-
bolus species of Europe, but the arista is some-
what variable, and sometimes, especially in the
female sex, it may be definitely (though nar-
rowly) ensiform, as in typical Elachiptera. This
species, which is quite common in eastern
North America, has usually been recorded as
Elachiptera longula (Loew), or sometimes in
combination with the names Crassiseta or
Melanochaeta, but it is placed here in Eribolus.
1. Eribolus longulus (Loew), n. comb.
Crassiseta longula Loew, Ber]. Ent. Zeitschr. 7: 34.
1863. (Centuria III, No. 64.) (District of Co-
lumbia. )
Melanochaeta longula (Loew) Becker, Ann. Mus.
.Nat. Hung. 10: 83. 1912.
Melanochaeta intermedia Becker, ibid. 10: 83.
1912. (Pennsylvania.) New synonymy (from
holotype in Melander Collection).
The typically bright yellow legs will dis-
tinguish this form from either sudeticus or
nearcticus. A few northern and northwestern
specimens have been seen in which the areas of
infuscation on the mid and hind femora are
somewhat more extensive than usual, and even
the fore femur may be dusky on the distal half,
but the fore coxa and the bases of all femora
are always characteristically yellow. The male
genitalia are easily distinguished from either of
the dark-legged species by the widely spaced
cerci (Fig. 4), which are separated from each
other by a distance greater than the width of
either. The genital forceps, in side view, are
narrower than those of nearcticus, and are
proportioned approximately like those of
sudeticus, being about four times as long as
broad (cf. Fig. 2).
The species is one of the most common and
widely distributed chloropids east of the Rocky
Mountains. Numerous records are available
from Ontario, Quebec, the District of Colum-
bia, and 28 states: Arkansas, Colorado, Florida,
Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kan-
sas, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Min-
nesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire,
New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio,
Nov. 15, 1948 SABROSKY: ELACHIPTERA AND RELATED GENERA 369
| 2 S) 4
Fies. 1—-4.— Male genitalia of Eribolus: 1, E. sudeticus, posterior aspect; 2, H. sudeticus, side view of
forceps; 3, H. nearcticus, side view of forceps; 4, EH. longulus, posterior aspect. Fies. 5, 6.—Profile of
upper half of the head of Monochaetoscinella nigricornis (5) and Elachiptera moriceps (6). Fias. 7, 8.—
Side view of arista of Elachiptera nigriceps (7) and E. angustistylum (8). Fras. 9-12.—Outline of dorsal
aspect of scutellum of M. nigricornis (9), Elachiptera willistont (10), E. nigriceps (11), and E. costata
(12). Fires. 13, 14.—Front and frontal triangle of HL. nigriceps (13) and E. angustifrons (14). Drawings of
willistoni and angustifrons from holotypes, angustistylum from female paratopotype. nearcticus from
male paratopotype, others from determined material.
370°
Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Ten-
nessee, Texas, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wy-
oming.
2. Eribolus sudeticus Becker
Eribolus sudeticus Becker, Archivum zoologicum
1: 127, 138. 1910. (Europe.)
Oscinella planicollis Becker, Ann. Mus. Nat.
Hung. 10: 114. 1912. (Idaho.) New synonymy.
From Duda’s detailed redescription, and
from European material available for compari-
son, I accept sudeticus as a Holarctic species.
The male genitalia (Fig. 1) are distinct from
those of longulus or nearcticus in the nearness of
the cerci, which are separated from each other
by a space only one-third the width of the base
of a cercus. Each genital forceps in side view is
relatively narrow (Fig. 2), about three and one-
half times as long as broad and obviously nar-
rower than in nearcticus, the other dark-legged
species.
The synonymy of planicollis had already
been noted by Malloch and accepted by Al-
drich (Aldrich Card Catalogue), but it does not
appear to have been published. I have seen the
type, and concur in the conclusion as to its
status.
Distribution: Northern, especially north-
western. Numerous specimens have been seen
from 12 states (California, Colorado, Idaho,
Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, North Da-
kota, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wis-
consin, Wyoming), from six Canadian prov-
inces (Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba,
Northwest Territory, Ontario, Quebec), and
from Alaska (Fairbanks, Matanuska, Healy).
3. Eribolus nearcticus, n. sp.
Near LEribolus sudeticus, with black coxae
and femora, but the antenna largely yellow to
orange and the palpus yellow in both sexes.
Male, female—Head predominantly black,
anterior third of front and basal segments and
lower two-thirds to three-fourths of the third
segment of antenna yellow to orange, palpus
bright yellow in both sexes; frontal triangle
slightly shorter than in longulus, only 0.78—0.85
times the length of front; the two pairs of well
developed fronto-orbital bristles distinctly
longer than the adjoining hairs, but relatively
short and inconspicuous compared with species
of Elachiptera; arista pubescent, thickened at
base and slightly thickened the rest its”
length, but not at all flattened.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. il
Thorax black, the entire dorsum, metat.o-
tum, and upper half of the pleuron thickly
covered with dully shining, lead-gray pollen.
Abdomen brown, only sparsely covered with
gray pollen and thus rather shining. Legs with
all coxae and femora, except knees narrowly,
black, the tibiae and tarsi yellow, in dark speci-
mens the distal tarsal segments infuscated and
the hind tibia with a median brown band.
Wing venation as in longulus. Halter lemon
yellow.
Male genitalia intermediate between those of
sudeticus and longulus (Figs. 1 and 4), the
cerci separated from each other by a space ap-
proximately the width of one cercus; genital
forceps broad and paddle-shaped, only 2.3
times as long as broad (Fig. 3).
Length, 1.5-2.5 mm.
Type——Male, U.S.N.M. no. 58861.
Holotype male, and allotype, near Bot-
tineau, Turtle Mountains, N. Dak., June 21,
1918 (J. M. Aldrich) [U.S.N.M.]. Paratypes: 8
(670%, 22 9), same data as type; 12, New
Ulm, Minn., May 30, 1916 (Aldrich); 12,
Buckeye, Wash., June 21, 1930 (Aldrich);
50°, Fairbanks, Alaska, July 1-3, 1921
(Aldrich); 1 2, Treesbank, Manitoba, August
27, 1915 (N. Criddle); 2 (#, 2), Aweme,
Manitoba, September 4, 1916 (N. Criddle);
1¢, Toronto, Ontario, October 6, 1891 (Wm.
Brodie) [U.S.N.M.]; 2¢@¢, East Lansing,
Mich., May 28, 1940 and April 29, 1942 (C. W.
Sabrosky); 1%, Ramsey County, Minn., Sep-
tember 14, 1925 (Sam Kepperley) [Sabrosky
Coll.].
The new species is distinguished from longu-
lus and from the Holarctic sudeticus as out-
lined in the key. Of the two other species known
from Europe, hungaricus Becker has an unusu-
ally short frontal triangle (usually about half
the length of the front) and black palpi in both
sexes, and both hungaricus and _slesvicensis
Becker have the anterior basal cell more or less
broadened. I have seen no material of the latter
species, which is apparently similar to nearcti-
cus in most respects, but the series of hungari-
cus sent me some years ago by Dr. Duda shows
clearly the distinctly broadened cell. Inasmuch
as slesvicensis was described as having the same
type of cell as hungaricus, and our American
form does not have this type of cell, I accept the
latter as a distinct species, even though only
that one difference can be stated at the mo-
:
/
Nov. 15, 1948
ment. All three species occurring in North
America have the basal cell elongate and nar-
- row, not at all broadened.
Genus Monochaetoscinella Duda
Monochaetoscinella Duda, Folia Zool. Hydrobiol.
2: 107. 1930. (Type, Oscinis anonyma Williston,
by designation of Duda, 1931.)
The genus Monochaetoscinella was segregated
from Oscinella particularly on the basis of the
single pair of long, strong fronto-orbital bristles
(Fig. 5). Because the hitherto known species
have a slender arista (anonyma, nigripes Duda,
zernyi Duda), it has been considered that they
are related to Oscinella. However, recognition
of the fundamental relationship of Elachiptera
nigricornis (Loew) to anonyma and the others,
and the flattened, typically Elachiptera-like
arista of niaricornis, now seem to place the
genus Monochaetoscinella in proper perspective
in the Elachiptera complex.
The generic characters, other than the amele
pair of strong fronto-orbitals, are like those of
Elachtptera: eye distinctly pubescent; ocellar
and postvertical bristles erect and cruciate, the
former short and weak, the latter long and
strong, like the outer verticals; inner verticals
weak and hairlike; notopleural bristles 1+1;
- scutellum short and broadly rounded, as in the
subgenus Melanochaeta and the genus Oscinella,
only three-fourths as long as width at base,
with one apical and one subapical pair of
bristles, the former long, strong, and widely
separated, the latter weak and hairlike, neither
on tubercles.
In both anonyma and nigricornis, the cheek
is divided into two distinct areas by a slight
ridge or line running from the postero-ventral
angle of the eye to the vibrissal angle. The
anterodorsal area, between the vibrissa and the
eye, is whitish pollinose; the posteroventral
area is black, smooth and highly polished.
4. Monochaetoscinella anonyma (Williston)
Oscinis anonyma Williston, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lon-
don for 1896; 423. (St. Vincent, West Indies.)
Monochaetoscinella anonyma (Williston) Duda,
Folia Zool. Hydrobiol. 2: 107. 1930.
This species is Neotropical, but it is included
here for comparison with nigricornis because it
is the genotype of Monochaetoscinella and also
because it is known to occur in Bermuda, and
at Key West, Fla., and Tampico, Mexico, and
may be expected to be found, at least occa-
SABROSKY: ELACHIPTERA AND RELATED GENERA
ovl
sionally, in southern Texas and southern Flor-
ida.
The frontal triangle and thorax are pre-
dominantly shining and highly polished black,
but the ocellar tubercle and scutellum are pol-
linose and there is a narrow prescutellar band
of pollen. The legs are predominantly deep yel-
low, including all coxae and femora, the fore
tibia and fore tarsus are black, and mid and
hind tibiae and tarsi are predominantly yellow
but may be slightly infuscated.
The species is apparently quite common, for
there are a number of published records from
Puerto Rico, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, Costa Rica,
Panama, and the Canal Zone, and I have seen
numerous examples from Puerto Rico, Cuba,
Jamaica, Mexico, Guatemala, Panama, Bo-
livia, Brazil, and Bermuda. This is probably
the species recorded as Oscinis umbrosa Loew
by C. W. Johnson (1913) in a paper on the
Diptera of Bermuda (Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 6:
443-452. 1913).
5. Monochaetoscinella nigricornis (Loew),
n. comb.
Crassiseta nigricornis Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr.
7: 34. 1863. (Centuria III, No. 65.) (Louisiana.)
Melanochaeta nigricornis (Lw.) Becker, Ann. Mus.
Nat. Hung. 10: 83. 1912.
This species agrees with the description given
for anonyma, but differs mainly by its flattened
and densely haired, Elachiptera-like arista. The
present writer and other dipterists have erred
in identifying nigricornis as a wide-ranging
species of eastern United States. On the con-
trary, careful reexamination of the material
shows that two species have been confused by
close superficial similarity, and that true
migricornis is in reality distinctly a species of
southeastern United States, and belongs in the
genus Monochaetoscinella. The other species
belongs in Melanochaeta and is described below.
Distribution: Southeastern United States. I -
have seen material of typical nigricornis from
Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisi-
ana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Caro-
lina, Tennessee, and Texas. The northernmost
records that I have are Raleigh, N. C., Knox-
ville and Nashville, Tenn., and Fayetteville,
Ark.
Melanochaeta kaw, n. sp.
Crassiseta (Melanochaeta) nigricornis Loew, in
part, of Sabrosky, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 61:
246. 1935.
372
Shining black species with bright yellow legs,
resembling Oscinella umbrosa (Loew) except for
the flattened and long-haired arista, and differ-
ing from the superficially similar Monochaeto-
scinella anonyma as noted in the key.
Male, female —Head, including antenna and
palpus, black, the cheek and anterior half of
front paler, brown to dark reddish; thorax en-
tirely black; abdomen brown; legs, including
all coxae, bright yellow, at most the distal seg-
ment or two of each tarsus browned; halter
pale lemon yellow to whitish yellow; wing hya-
line, lightly tinted with brown.
Eye short pubescent; front at the vertex one
and one-half times the width of an eye and
0.40-0.45 times the width of the head, but ap-
pearing relatively narrow because the length of
the front is slightly greater than the width;
frontal triangle smooth and polished, large and
occupying most of front, the basal corners
nearly touching the eyes at the vertex and the
apex reaching the anterior margin of front;
cheek narrow, almost linear, dull and finely
pollinose; third antennal segment reniform, 1.7
times as broad as long; arista rather broadly
flattened basally but narrowing to apex, the
entire length densely covered with long hairs
whose length is subequal to the greatest width
of the flattened portion, the total effect as seen
under low magnification being that of an arista
broadly flattened clear to the apex.
Thorax smooth and polished, only the scutel-
lum subshining and covered with gray pollen:
piliferous punctures on mesonotum fine and
inconspicuous, rather sparse.
Second costal sector of wing 1.3 times the
length of third sector: third vein gently curved
forward apically, the third and fourth veins
diverging slightly: fore crossvein at the middle
of the discal cell.
Length, 1.5-1.75 mm.
Type.—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 58870.
Holotype male and allotype, Manhattan,
Kans. (C. W. Sabrosky), the type collected
June 9, 1934, the allotype September 20, 1933.
Types deposited in the U. 8. National Museum.
Paratypes: 4 (270%, 229), Manhattan,
Kans., October 4, 1933, May 21, 26, and June
26, 1934 (C. W. Sabrosky); 6 40x, 29 9),
Manhattan, Kans., August 29 and September
15, 1930, June 1 and 4, 1932 (D. A. Wilbur);
2929, State Lake, Ottawa County, Kans.,
June 24, 1984 (C. W. Sabrosky); 1, Falls
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 11
Church, Va., June 16 (N. Banks) [Sabrosky
Coll.]: 2 9 9, Chesapeake Beach, Md., August
19 and May 30, 1919 (J. M. Aldrich); 19,
Gatlinburg, Tenn., 5600 ft., July 2, 1947 (R. H.
Whittaker); 2 9 9, Plano, Tex., June 1907 (E.
S. Tucker, determined as Elachiptera nigri-
cornis) [U.S.N.M.]; 19, Cheboygan County,
Mich., July 18, 1940 (R. I. Sailer) [Kansas
Univ. Coll.].
The species is named for an Indian tribe
which formerly lived along the Kansas River.
Genus Elachiptera Macquart
Elachiptera Macquart, Histoire naturelle des in-
sectes: Diptéres 2: 621. 1835. (Type, Chlorops
brevipennis Meigen, by original designation and
monotypy.) :
6. Elachiptera (E.) longiventris
(Johannsen)
Melanochaeta (Doliomyia) longiventris Johannsen,
Can. Ent. 56: 89. 1924. (New York.)
The peculiar abdominal structure will sepa-
rate this species from any other chloropid in
North America. In most respects, it is some-
what intermediate between Elachiptera and
Eribolus, but favoring the former. As noted in
the introduction, I regard the subgenus Dolio-
myta, proposed for longiventris, as a synonym
of typical Elachiptera, rather than of Melano-
chaeta as Johannsen placed it.
The bristles of the head are greatly reduced,
as in E. aliena, the ocellars, postverticals and
fronto-orbitals being minute and scarcely dis-
tinguishable from hairs.
The species is rare in collections. Aside from
the three original specimens, all from Ithaca,
N. Y., I know of only one other example, a
female, College Station, Tex., February 1891
(Webster), labeled ‘‘from wheat’’ [U.S.N.M.].
From this, it may be inferred that the species
ranges throughout eastern United States,
though rarely collected.
7. Elachiptera (E.) aliena Becker
Elachiptera aliena Becker, Ann. Mus. Nat. Hung.
10: 81. 1912. (Massachusetts. )
Despite its decidedly atypical arista, this
species unquestionably belongs in the genus
Elachiptera, from the general body structure,
wing venation, and chaetotaxy. The bristles are
reduced in size, however, and thus they do not
stand out as strongly as in typical species. The
short ocellars and postverticals are convergent
Nov. 15, 1948
to the tips instead of cruciate, and the usually
distinct two pairs of fronto-orbitals are dis-
tinguished under relatively high magnification
only by being slightly thicker than neighboring
fronto-orbital hairs.
The ocellar tubercle is gray pollinose. The
humeri are polished black, and under low power
the disk of the mesonotum also appears shining
and without pollen, though under high power
there are sparse, minute flecks of gray pollen
on the anterior half. The legs are predominantly
yellow, marked with black on the distal half of
the mid and hind femora and median third to
half of the mid and hind tibiae in the male, and
on the distal two-thirds of the corresponding
femora and virtually all the corresponding
tibiae in the female.
Despite its generally atypical habitus, it is
probably best associated with the nigriceps
group.
The species does not appear to be very com-
mon. Relatively few specimens have been seen,
though a number of localities are represented.
Records are available from nine northeastern
states, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Michigan,
Missouri, New York, Ohio, South Dakota, and
Virginia, and from the Province of Ontario.
Western record: Custer, 8. Dak., July 15, 1924
(F. M. Hull) [South Dakota State College Coll.].
8. Elachiptera (Elachiptera) willistoni, n. sp.
(=E. flavida and E. attenuata of
United States records)
Reddish yellow species, only the ocellar
tubercle, a divaricate spot on the occiput, dor-
sal margin of the third antennal segment, and
arista, black or dark brown; fore tibia and fore
tarsus brown, and apices of other tarsi slightly
infuscated.
Front moderately broad, twice the width of
an eye and half the width of the head; frontal
triangle smooth and polished, both triangle and
ocellar tubercle without a trace of pollen, the
triangle nearly touching the eyes at the vertex
and the apex reaching the anterior margin of
the front, the sides slightly convex; in profile
the long axis of eye slightly diagonal; width of
cheek 0.15-0.2 times the height of the head,
commonly 0.17; arista broadly flattened for its
entire length, sides parallel nearly to apex.
Thorax slender, narrower than the width of
the head and 1.2 times as long as broad, shining
and polished except for the sparsely pollinose
SABROSKY: ELACHIPTERA AND RELATED GENERA
379
scutellum, a narrow prescutellar band of pollen,
and a little pollen along the lower margin of the
notopleuron; bristles long and strong, including
1+1 notopleural, 1 postalar, 1 posterior dorso-
central, and | apical scutellar, the humeral and
1 subapical scutellar weak and little longer
than hairs; scutellum trapezoidal, 0.8 times as
long as broad at base, the apical bristles widely
separated at the apical angles (Fig. 10).
Wing venation as usual in the genus; second
costal sector slightly longer than the third;
third vein nearly straight, third and fourth
veins diverging from the base, fore crossvein
opposite or only slightly beyond the middle of
the discal cell.
Length, 2 mm.
Type.—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 58862.
Holotype male, and allotype, Orlando, Fla.,
February 9, 1918 (G. G. Ainslie). In the collec-
tion of the U. 8. National Museum. Paratypes:
FLoRIDA: 19 (6070, 139 2), Orlando, Feb-
ruary 7-19, 1918 (G. G. Ainslie); 1 9, Gaines-
ville, February 238, 1918 (G. G. Ainslie); 10,
Paradise Key, February 23, 1919 (Schwarz and
Barber); 1 #, Orlando, April 30, 1908 (Russell),
“bred from onion’ (det. Coquillett as £.
flanda); 2 (¢%, ¢@), Lake Worth, and 14,
Biscayne Bay (Mrs. Slosson) (det. Coquillett as
E. flavida) [U.S.N.M.].
Texas: 1o, Santa Maria, April 1, 1908
(McMillan), ‘‘bred from celery” (det. Coquil-
lett as EL. flavida); 8 (1%, 72 2), Brownsville
(EK. C. Greene) (det. Malloch as Crassiseta
flavida); 1%, Brownsville, November 20, 1939
[U.S.N.M.]; 1, Hidalgo County, August 2,
1928 (R. H. Beamer) [Kansas Univ. Coll.].
Elachiptera willistont is very close to several
Neotropical species with all reddish body color.
The specimens from the southern United
States have in the past been determined either
as E. flavida (Williston) or FH. attenuata Adams,
but the former has a slender, scarcely thickened
arista and the latter has the arista flattened at
the base but strongly attenuated distally.
Available specimens of attenuata also show a
slightly narrower cheek than in willistoni, the
width measuring only 0.097-0.11 times the
height of the head.
This is the form which I referred with some
doubt to E. attenuata in 1938 (Journ. New
York Ent. Soc. 46: 425), based on specimens
from Brownsville, Tex., and Everglades and
Lakeland, Fla.
374
9. Elachiptera (E.) sp.
1, Benson, N. C., August 9, 1934 (R. H.
Beamer) [Kansas Univ. Coll.].
Apparently a new species, but the only ex-
ample before me is headless. The species will
not be described until additional material
makes it possible to state the important head
and antennal characters, but it is included here
to make the key as complete as possible for the
Nearctic species. In addition to the characters
listed in the key, the abdomen is strongly ru-
gose, appearing pitted when viewed from be-
hind.
10. Elachiptera (E.) sp.
Po. Washineton, 10. Cl) Aaroust Sia wl:
Aldrich) [U.S.N.M.].
The example agrees with H. willistoni in all
particulars except the presence of a broad
median stripe of fine, bright gray pollen. Be-
cause of the consistency of this character else-
where in the genus, it is reasonably certain that
an undescribed species is involved here. In view
of the single difference, however, and the possi-
bility that it might be an aberrant condition in
this case, I shall defer naming the species until
an adequate series is available. As with the pre-
ceding form, it has been included in the key for
the sake of completeness.
11. Elachiptera (E.) tau, n. sp.
Yellow to orange, with the arista, apex of
third antennal segment at base of arista, an
ocellar spot, a broad transverse band on the
occiput between the eyes, a T-shaped mark
covering the anterior fourth of the mesonotum
and a broad stripe between the dorsocentral
grooves, entire scutellum, metanotum, and the
abdomen mesally and laterally, black; thorax
and frontal triangle orange, rest of the head
yellow, legs pale yellow.
Front approximately as long as broad, the
width at the vertex not quite half the width of
the head (0.45); frontal triangle and ocellar
tubercle entirely polished, without pollen, the
base of the triangle only 0.8 times the width of
the front, the apex reaching the anterior mar-
gin of the front; cheek narrow, only 0.14 times
the height of an eye; eye large, long axis nearly
vertical; arista broadly flattened, the sides
parallel nearly to the tip.
Mesonotum gray pollinose on the entire sur-
face, though sparsely so in the intra-alar posi-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 11
tions; scutellum even more strongly developed
than in costata (cf. Fig. 12), elongate conical,
1.25 times as long as broad at base, with three
pairs of strong marginal tubercles, the apical
pair twice as long as broad at base, and closely
approximated, separated by the width of the
base of one tubercle.
Abdomen rugose, as described for Hlachip-
tera sp. from North Carolina.
Veins yellow: second costal sector 1.16 times
the third sector; third vein nearly straight, third
and fourth slightly divergent from their bases;
fore crossvein beyond the middle of the discal
cell, as 15:10.
Length, 2.25 mm.
Holotype—Female, Benton, Ky., June 30,
1939 (R. H. Beamer). Type in the Snow Col-
lection, University of Kansas.
Besides the distinctive color pattern, this
species has the longest scutellum and strongest
scutellar tubercles of any American species of
the genus.
Elachiptera punctulata Becker
Elachiptera nigroscutellaita Becker, Ann. Mus.
Nat. Hung. 10: 80. 1912.
E. punctulata Becker (=nzgroscutellata Becker,
1912, preoc.), zb¢d. 10: 645. 1912.
Becker described the species from a single
specimen in the Winthem Collection in Vienna,
said to be from North America. I have seen the
type, and it bears only a small square of dark
blue paper and a label, ‘‘Coll. Winthem.”’ It is
unlike anything that I have seen in thousands
of American specimens, the black scutellum
being short and broadly rounded with two pairs
of long, fingerlike, yellow tubercles arising from
the lower margin of the scutellum. The cheeks
are linear. In these characters it is like the
Ethiopian Cyrtomomyia Becker, and it is close
to the genotype, C. pulchra Becker. I believe
that punctulata was listed erroneously as North
American, and that it is more probably of
African origin. It was included in my key to the
reddish species of Elachiptera of the Western
Hemisphere (Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 46:
421. 1938), but at that time I had not studied
the African fauna and did not recognize the
true affinities of the species. If it should ever be
discovered as a rare and aberrant American
species, it will run in the present key to E. tau,
from which it can easily be separated by the
form of the scutellum and scutellar tubercles.
Tey
aw
Nov. 15, 1948
Recognition of the status of punctulata is
especially important because of the discovery
of the new American species with black scutel-
lum and predominantly reddish thorax (E. tau).
The latter is a typical Elachiptera, and is re-
lated to costata and erythropleura, but from the
generalized description of punctulata one might
easily have confused the two.
12. Elachiptera (E.) costata (Loew)
Crassiseia costata Loew, Ber]. Ent. Zeitschr. 7: 33.
1863. (Centuria III, No. 62.) (District of Co-
lumbia.)
The name costata is here definitely restricted
to what has always been regarded as the “‘typi-
cal form,” that with entirely black thorax. The
so-called ‘“‘variety”’ with reddish pleura is found
to consist of two unnamed species, a relatively
common one here described as erythropleura,
and a less frequently collected form which I
have called angusta.
Loew knew the form with red pleura, but he
regarded such specimens as immature indi-
viduals of costata. The type series of costata, in
the Museum of Comparative Zoology, contains
one female with black pleura and a male and
female with reddish pleura; the first female is
hereby selected as lectotype of Crassiseta cos-
tata Loew.
The typical form of costata is further dis-
tinguished from erythropleura by having the
disk of the mesonotum broadly pollinose, only
the sides narrowly without pollen and shining.
In no case have I found the pollen divided into
stripes as in erythropleura, except of course in
badly rubbed specimens which may appear
striped because of pollen remaining in the dor-
socentral depressions. The strong scutellar
tubercles (Fig. 12) are characteristic of costata,
erythropleura, and tau, besides a species left un-
named for the present.
Distribution: Common and widely distrib-
- uted throughout eastern North America, and
west to Arizona and Idaho. Specimens have
been determined from 28 states, the District of
Columbia, and five Canadian provinces: Ari-
zona, Arkansas, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Indi-
ana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Mary-
land, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota,
Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey,
New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio
Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vir-
ginia, Washington; Alberta, Manitoba, On-
tario, Quebec, Saskatchewan.
SABROSKY: ELACHIPTERA AND RELATED GENERA
379
13. Elachiptera (E.) erythropleura, n. sp.
Elachiptera costata var. ‘“‘a’’ Becker, Ann. Mus.
Nat. Hung. 10: 78. 1912.
Crassiseta costata var. Sabrosky, Trans. Amer.
Ent. Soc. 61: 245. 1935.
Like costata, especially in the form of the
scutellum, but the pleuron reddish yellow, and
the gray pollen on the mesonotum typically in
three stripes, on the median and dorsocentral
lines.
Male, female—Head predominantly yellow,
only the occiput, frontal triangle except for
apex and basal corners, broadly flattened arista,
and third antennal segment narrowly at base of
arista, black; cheek narrow, one-fifth to one-
sixth the height of an eye and one and one-half
times the breadth of the arista: front broad, its
length only 0.9 times its width at the vertex;
frontal triangle large, occupying almost the en-
tire front, the apex attaining the anterior mar-
gin of the front and the sides convex; both tri-
angle and ocellar tubercle smooth and polished,
without trace of pollen.
Mesonotum and scutellum black; pleuron
predominantly reddish yellow, only the pro-
pleuron and metapleuron black; prosternum
yellow; mesonotum chiefly shining, typically
with three stripes of bright gray pollen on the
median (acrostichal) and dorsocentral lines;
scutellum as in costata (cf. Fig. 12), slightly
longer than broad (1.05—-1.2 times), with three
pairs of marginal tubercles, the apical pair
strongest, and each of the latter one and one-
half times as long as broad at base. Abdomen
shining brown to black.
Legs yellow, typically the fore tibia with a
narrow and hind tibia with a broad median
brown band, fore tarsus and the apical segment
of mid and hind tarsi more or less browned.
Wing clear, veins brown, second costal sector
nearly one and one-half times the third sector,
third and fourth longitudinal veins parallel, fore
crossvein joining the discal cell shghtly beyond
the middle. Halter pale yellow.
Length, 2—2.25 mm.
Type.—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 58863.
Holotype, male, and allotype, East Lansing,
Mich., May 25, 19387 (C. W. Sabrosky). Type
and allotype deposited in the U. S. National
Museum. Paratypes, 152 specimens (6107 <¢,
91 2 9). CoLtorapo: 1 2, Holly, September 6,
1938 (D. E. Hardy) [Kans. Univ.]. District oF
CotumBiIA:3 (10,2 2 2), Washington, April 8,
376
1945 (M. T. James) [James Coll.]; 6 (4072,
29 2), Washington, August 14, 1906, July 11,
May 1, 1922, and August 5 [U.S.N.M.].
GEORGIA: 1, Prattsburg, July 25, 1930 (P.
W. Oman) [Sabrosky Coll.]; 1 9, Perry, March
17, 1945 (P. W. Fattig) [U.S.N.M.]. Iuuinotis:
19 (l1l1é?oev, 82 ¢), Algonquin, Carlinville,
Carbondale, Centerville, Dubois, Forest City,
Freeport, Golconda, Grand Tower, Muncie,
Urbana, and White Heath, various dates,
April 3-November 11 [Illinois Nat. Hist. Sur-
vey and U.S.N.M.]. Inprana: 1 9, Vincennes,
May 9 (Aldrich); 27 (1l1¢ %, 162 9), Lafa-
yette, April 12—October 22 (Aldrich) [U.S.N.M.].
Iowa: 1, Jefferson County, May 18, 1934
(H. Knutson); 12, Henry County, May 20,
1935 [Sabrosky Coll.]. Kansas: 1, Law-
rence (Aldrich) [U.S.N.M.]:2 9 9, Manhattan,
April 2 and October 8, 1932 (Sabrosky) [Sab-
rosky Coll.]. Maryuanp: 17 (80°07, 92 9),
Cabin John, Glen Echo, Riverdale, and Plum-
mers Island, April 28-October 21 (Shannon,
McAtee, Malloch) [U.S.N.M.]. Massacuu-
SETTS: 29 9, Beverly, September 10, 1870
(Burgess); 19, Cambridge, April 27, 1870
[U.S.N.M.]. Micutean: 4 (80°, 19), De-
troit, April 18, 1938, and May 11, 1941 (G.
Steyskal); 19, Lapeer, August 5, 1936 (Stey-
skal) [Steyskal Coll.]; 192, Battle Creek (Al-
drich) [U.S.N.M.];6(5¢% 0,1 2), East Lansing,
April 28—June 4 (Sabrosky);2 (<<, 9),Lapeer,
May 30, 1937 (Sabrosky); 1, Albion, May 16,
1936 (Sabrosky) [Sabrosky Coll.]. Missourt:
14, Atherton, September 18, 1915 (Aldrich)
[U.S.N.M.]. New Jersey: 19, New Bruns-
wick, July 20 [Rutgers Univ. Coll.]. Norru
CaRoLina: 6 (1o7, 5 2 9), Raleigh, June 9-17,
1942 (C. S. Brimley): 1 @, Wilmington, March
7, 1939 (Harris and Wray) [North Carolina
Dept. Agr. Coll.]. On10: 1 9, Columbus, July 9,
1886 (Wm. B. Alwood) [U.S.N.M.]; 7 Q¢¢,
52 9), Summit County, June 24-September 1
(L. J. Lipovsky) [Kansas Univ. Coll.]. Penn-
SYLVANIA; 19, Germantown, May 2, 1909
(Harbeck); 2 9 2, Philadelphia, April 25, 1897
(G. M. Greene) [U.S.N.M.]. Sour Daxora: 4
(1¢, 3992), Elk Point, September 29,
1915 [U.S.N.M.]. Tennessee: 1 9, Knoxville,
March 30, 1917 (Aldrich); 1 2, Union City, (G.
I. Reeves); 1 2, Reelfoot Lake, April 14, 1944
[U.S.N.M.]; 8 4@%¢, 492 2), Clarksville,
July 1-15) 1939 (Dak & A. Lardy, J.D:
Beamer) [Kansas Univ. Coll.]. Vrreinra: 1 9,
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 11
Falls Church, May 17 (N. Banks) [Sabrosky
Coll.J; 17 (4¢7 0, 132 2), Rosslyn and Dead
Run, Fairfax County, April 21-November 18
(R. C. Shannon) [U.S.N.M.].
I have also seen examples from Minnesota,
North Dakota, and Rhode Island, but these
are not at present available.
This species has usually been recorded as an
unnamed color variety of costata, but I am con-
vinced that the different pattern of pollen on
the mesonotum and the distinctive pleuron
mark it as a separate species. In costata, also,
the head is much darker, the face and cheeks
are usually well infuscated, and the median
clypeal plate (anteclypeus of Townsend) is
shining black. Loew knew the form with red
pleuron when he described costata, but he con-
sidered such individuals to be immature (cf.
discussion under costata).
The characteristic color pattern of this and
the following species (angusta) resembles that
of E. sibirica (Loew) of Europe and Asia. All
three seem to be related, but they are definitely
distinct. The European species has the humeri,
propleuron and sides of the mesonotum reddish
yellow, the ocellar tubercle gray pollinose, and
the entire mesonotum gray pollinose except for
a small area on the anterior slope just behind
the head.
Variation: In a few specimens, the sides of
the frontal triangle are margined with red,
leaving only the central area black. In such
individuals the humeri may also be partly
reddish. In pale specimens (possibly somewhat
teneral), the legs seem entirely yellow. The
three mesonotal stripes of pollen vary in width,
but are almost invariably distinct: in only three
atypical specimens is the pollen more generally
distributed and not clearly trivittate.
14. Elachiptera (E.) angusta, n. sp.
Near E. erythropleura, but without the
stripes of pollen on the mesonotum, with nar-
rower front, and with short, rather inconspicu-
ous scutellar tubercles.
Male, female—Color, general structure,
wing venation, and size as described for erythro-
pleura, differing in the following particulars:
Head longer than in erythropleura, the front
slightly longer than broad (1.1 times), the
frontal triangle narrower than in that species
and contributing to the obviously longer ap-
pearance of the front; apex of the triangle
Nov. 15, 1948
barely failing to attain the anterior margin of
the front; cheek narrower, barely wider than
the arista and one-eighth to one-ninth the
height of an eye; mesonotum with no trace of
pollen in the median and dorsocentral posi-
tions, only the notopleuron and a narrow pre-
scutellar band sparsely gray pollinose, as is the
scutellum; scutellum strongly narrowed in
dorsal aspect, its length and width subequal
(0.94-1.1 times), three pairs of scutellar
tubercles close together on the distal half, the
tubercles obviously smaller than in costata and
erythropleura, the largest tubercle only about.
as long as broad.
Holotype-——Male, Woods Hole, Mass., Sep-
tember 1922 (A. H. Sturtevant). Allotype, Ur-
bana, Ill., June 21, 1888 (Marten; Accession
No. 14, 488; ‘‘swept from catalpa’’). Paratypes:
2%, Woods Hole, Mass., September 1922,
and July 5-21, 1922 (both collected by Sturte-
vant). Holotype and one paratype in the
American’ Museum of Natural History, allo-
type in the collection of the Illinois Natural
History Survey, one paratype in the U. 8. Na-
tional Museum.
From the few available specimens, this spe-
cies seems to be much less common than eryth-
ropleura, though the similarity in the distinc-
tively reddish pleuron would undoubtedly have
caused it to be recorded along with that species
as a color variety of costata. Greasy specimens
of erythropleura will appear to be without pollen
and hence might be confused here; if the speci-
mens are not in good condition, one should al-
ways check the scutellar tubercles to avoid mis-
identifications.
15. Elachiptera (E.) nigriceps (Loew)
Crassiseta nigriceps Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr. 7:
33. 1863. (Centuria III, No. 63.) (Pennsyl-
vania. )
Male, female—Head dark, the face and
cheek usually predominantly black; frontal
triangle large and broad, the sides convex (Fig.
13), both triangle and ocellar tubercle entirely
polished black and without pollen; front broad,
the length usually 0.85—0.95, occasionally up to
1.0, times the width at the vertex; palpus
bright yellow in male, brown to black in fe-
male; arista broad, flat and parallel-sided to
the tip (Fig. 7), sword-shaped, one-half to
four-fifths as wide as the height of the cheek,
slightly narrower in the male than in the fe-
male.
SABROSKY: ELACHIPTERA AND RELATED GENERA
old
Thorax polished black except for inconspicu-
ous gray pollen on the notopleuron and about
the base of the wing, with piliferous punctures
in slightly irregular rows, about two rows be-
tween the median and each dorsocentral row;
mesonotum nearly square in appearance, and
measuring 0.90—-1.04 times as long as broad;
scutellum short and broadly rounded, 0.75—0.9
times as long as width at base, with three pairs
of minute tubercles bearing the short marginal
scutellar bristles (Fig. 11); prosternum black.
Legs predominantly yellow, strongly marked
with black, the black areas varying somewhat
in extent between the sexes and among indi-
viduals of the same sex, but always with a
fundamental pattern as follows: Distal third of
the mid femur except for the knee, distal one-
half to two-thirds of the hind femur, proximal
one-half to two-thirds of the hind tibia, a vari-
able distal portion of the fore tibia, fore tarsus,
and the distal segment of the mid and hind
tarsi. Occasional individuals may be paler, es-
pecially if teneral, or darker than the indicated
extremes, but the constant presence of some
black distally on the mid and hind femur and
hind tibia seems to mark this form.
Length, 2.25-2.5 mm.
Very common and widely distributed in
eastern North America, with a few specimens
known from as far west as Manitoba and Wash-
ington. Records are available from the Ca-
nadian Provinees of Manitoba, Ontario, and
Quebec; from the District of Columbia, and
from 27 states (predominantly eastern), as fol-
lows: Alabama, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana,
Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Maryland, Massachu-
setts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Mon-
tana, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North
Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania,
South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee,
Texas, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin.
16. Elachiptera (E.) pechumani, n. sp.
Male, female.—As described for E. nigriceps,
but the frontal triangle slightly shorter and its
sides less convex, not occupying as much of the
front as that of nigriceps; front yellowish to
orange, and face yellow on sides only, centrally
black, the general color of the head brighter
than in nigriceps; palpi deep yellow to orange
in both sexes; all coxae and femora bright yel-
low, the fore and hind tibiae and fore tarsus
black, hind tarsus browned distally. To the eye,
378
a series of this form appears slightly larger and
sturdier that specimens of nigriceps.
Type.—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 58864.
Holotype male, and allotype, 6 miles south of
Middleport, N. Y., July 3, 1941 (L. L. Pechu-
man), “larvae breeding in large numbers in the
base of the flowers of the wild iris, Jris versi-
color.’ Types and paratypes deposited in the
U. S. National Museum through the courtesy
of Dr. Pechuman. Paratypes: 39 (2102,
18 2 2), same data as type [U.S.N.M., Cornell
Univ., Pechuman Coll., and Sabrosky Coll.];
22 2, 13 miles south of Lapeer, Mich., May
30, 1937 (C. W. Sabrosky); 1¢, Eaton Rapids,
Mich., May 30, 1942 (Sabrosky) [Sabrosky
Coll.J; 1¢@, Algonquin, Ill., September 19,
1894 [U.S.N.M_]. .
17. Elachiptera (E.) angustifrons, n. sp.
Species somewhat intermediate between
nigriceps and costata, differing from the former
in having both frontal triangle and scutellum
long and relatively narrow and all femora yel-
low, and from the latter in lacking pollen on the
disk of the mesonotum.
Male, female—Frontal triangle, occiput,
lower margin of cheek, face centrally, and
arista black, the rest of the head yellow, front
deep yellow to orange, palpi yellow in both
sexes; triangle and ocellar tubercle entirely
polished black; front obviously longer than
broad (Fig. 14), the length 1.1 times the width
at vertex, the triangle likewise appearing
longer and narrower than in species of the
nigriceps group; eye distinctly emarginate op-
posite the lunule; cheek narrow, only 0.15
times the height of an eye; arista broad and
flat, parallel-sided nearly to apex, its width al-
most equal to the height of the cheek.
Thorax as described for nigriceps, but obvi-
ously narrower, the length 1.09-1.1 times the
width; scutellum decidedly longer and narrower
than in nigriceps, 1.1-1.2 times as long as
broad at base, the three pairs of marginal
scutellar tubercles slightly longer than those of
nigriceps but not as long and distinct as in
costata (cf. Figs. 11, 12). Abdomen dark brown,
with a large yellow spot above at-the base, the
basal segment elongated, occupying nearly half
the length of the abdomen.
Legs predominantly bright yellow, the pat-
tern as described for pechumant.
Length, 2-2.25 mm.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 11
Type.—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 58865.
Holotype male, and allotype, Orlando, Fla.,
February 18, 1918 (G. G. Ainslie) [U.S.N.M.].
Paratypes: 5 (370%, 22 2), same data as
type; 2 (a, 2), Wilmington, N. C., June 29
(C. S. Brimley) [Sabrosky Coll.]; 1 2, Paradise
Key, Fla., February 21, 1919 (Schwarz and
Barber); 2 (@, 2), Bertrandville, La., Feb-
ruary 12, 1944;2 9 9, Chesapeake Beach, Md.,
July 27, 1913 (R. C. Shannon); 1¢, Near
Plummers Island, Md., April 7, 1915 (Shan-
non); 1 9, Cabin John Bridge, Md., April 28,
~1912 (Knab and Malloch): 14, San Antonio,
Tex., April 8, 1907 (F. C. Pratt) [U.S.N.M.].
18. Elachiptera (E.) angustistylum, n. sp.
Male, female—As described for typical
nigriceps, but the arista not as broadly flat-
tened, in the female only two-fifths or less the
height of the cheek, in the male slender and
only slightly thickened, and in both sexes
gradually tapering from base to tip, not paral-
lel-sided as in nigriceps (Fig. 8, compared with
Fig. 7). .
Length, 2—2.25 mm.
Type.—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 58866.
Holotype male, and allotype, Spanish Fork,
Utah (D. Elmo Hardy). Types and paratypes
deposited in the U. 8S. National Museum
through the courtesy of Dr. Hardy. Paratypes:
8 (1l¢@, 72 2), same data as type [Kansas
Univ. and Sabrosky Coll.]; 1¢, Cedar, Utah,
July 30, 1929 (G. F. Knowlton); 4 2 9, Geneva,
Utah, April 28, 1933 (Knowlton), Hyde Park,
Utah, June 11, 1938 (D. E. Hardy and G. S.
Stains), Wellsville, Utah, May 11, 1939
(Knowlton), and Lakeview, Utah, September
20, 1930 (Knowlton) [Utah State Agr. College
Coll. and U.S.N.M.]; 24% #, Scappoose, Oreg.,
April 23, 1938 (Schuh and Gray); 19, St.
Helena-Scappoose, May 6, 1938 [Sabrosky
Coll.].
Because of the unusually slender arista, not
at all flattened, the males may be mistaken for
the genus Oscinella, until one becomes used to
the characteristic habitus of the genus Elachip-
tera, and to the character of the two pairs of
well-developed fronto-orbital bristles.
This form is like typical nigriceps in all re-
spects but the arista, and because of the rela-
tively small difference might be considered only
a subspecies, with a western range. Specific dif-
ferentiation does not necessarily require large
Nov. 15, 1948
differences, however, and in the absence of any
evidence of subspeciation in the present case, I
have regarded it as a distinct species.
THE DECIPIENS GROUP
The “decipiens group,’’ which includes
the remaining species, comprises a number
of closely related forms which are charac-
terized by a nigriceps-type of scutellum
(Fig. 11: flat, rugulose disk, in dorsal view
broadly rounded apically with 2 or 3 pairs
of small tubercles), and usually the ocellar
tubercle bright gray pollinose and meso-
notum with 2 or 3 distinct stripes of gray .
pollen. In calzfornica Sabrosky, the stripes
are distinct but the ocellar tubercle is
shining, andin penzta Adams the stripes are
‘absent but the ocellar tubercle is strongly
pollinose.
In the Palearctic region, the group is
represented by Hlachiptera cornuta (Fallén)
and its ‘‘varieties”’ (five recognized by Duda,
the latest reviser). Typical cornuta and its
“varieties’’ seem to parallel the forms of the
decipiens group in North America, and it
is possible that some of the European and
American forms are the same and should
be given the same name. Only material of
typical cornuta is available to me, however,
and while vittata (=bzlineata Adams) is
close, the slight differences have led me to
continue to recognize the latter as distinct.
Elachiptera decipiens, which is especially
abundant in northwestern North America
(Alaska to Colorado), and which might be
expected to be a Holarctic species, seems
to resemble HE. cornuta var. strobli Corti
(1909), but I have no examples of the latter
for comparison. If they are the same, it
should be noted that the name decipiens
(1863) has priority by many years, and we
are thus justified in any case in using the
name decipiens here. The race or species
which I have called EL. flaviceps is apparently
paralleled in Europe by cornuta var. rufi-
frons Duda; again, no material is available
for critical comparison.
In view of Duda’s classification of appar-
ently parallel forms in Europe as merely
“varieties” of one common and widespread
species, the question also might well be
raised whether the American species of the
decipiens group are only varieties of one
SABROSKY: ELACHIPTERA AND RELATED GENERA
319
species. In North America, however, (1)
the segregates recognized here differ from
each other in more than one character, (2)
they show reasonable uniformity within
the segregate in their significant characters.
and (3) the available evidence suggests that
the several segregates may have charac-
teristic ranges. It is concluded, therefore,
that the American forms are either good
species, or at the very least, recognizable
geographic races (i.e., subspecies).
In most members of this group, the two
dorsocentral stripes of pollen are broad and
distinct, but the median or acrostichal stripe
is narrow, often tapered posteriorly, and
frequently appearing to be absent. In gen-
eral, in formosa the median stripe is rela-
tively broad, in vzttata it is usually present
and evident though narrow, and in decipi-
ens it is usually not at all evident and the
dorsocentral lines are also narrow. Some
intraspecific variation exists in the width of
the stripes, however, and the appearance
may be further influenced by the condition
of the specimens.
19. Elachiptera (E.) formosa (Loew)
Crassiseta formosa Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr. 7:
32. 1863. (Centuria III, No. 61.) (District of
Columbia.)
This is one of the rarest species of the genus
in North America, judged from the paucity of
records. The unique feature of the strongly in-
crassate hind femur is strikingly distinct. Un-
fortunately, no published description or key
has described it with sufficient exactness to
avoid possible confusion with EH. decipiens or
other species in which the hind leg is normally
slightly enlarged.
Arista broad and flat as in vittata; frontal
triangle polished black, but ocellar tubercle and
posterior corners of triangle gray pollinose;
triangle long, its apex barely failing to reach the
anterior margin of the front; cheek narrow,
only 0.12 the height of an eye; palpus yellow in
both sexes. Thorax black, predominantly shin-
ing and polished, the disk of the mesonotum
with three distinct stripes of gray pollen, the
dorsocentral stripes broad, the median nar-
rower, broadest anteriorly and tapering pos-
teriorly, ending opposite the postalar calli, the
prescutellar space between the dorsocentral
Stripes polished and without pollen; humeral
380
callus predominantly shining; mesonotal hairs
more numerous than in the nigriceps and cos-
tata groups, with 4 or 5 irregular rows of pilifer-
ous punctures between the median and each
dorsocentral position; mesonotum longer than
broad, by over 1.15 times; scutellum gray
pollinose, its outline like that of nigriceps,
moderately short and broadly rounded, 0.9
times as long as broad at base, with three pairs
of short and inconspicuous marginal tubercles,
the tubercles equidistant from each other. Ab-
domen with basal segment elongate, longer
than the next two combined and nearly half the
total length of the abdomen, and yellow with
sides narrowly brown; second abdominal seg-
ment dorsally chiefly yellow with a median
brown spot; remaining segments brown. Fore
and middle legs chiefly yellow, the fore tibia
distally and fore tarsus dark, hind leg reddish
yellow with darker tibia; hind femur markedly
incrassate, its greatest width 2.0—2.8 times the
diameter of the hind tibia and 1.5 times the
greatest width of the fore femur.
I have seen only 10 specimens of true for-
mosa, in addition to the two cotype females in
the Museum of Comparative Zoology: 0,
North Carolina; #, Atlantic Beach, Fla. (Mrs.
A. T. Slosson); 92, Lafayette, Ind., August 8
(J. M. Aldrich) [U.S.N.M.]; 9, Havana, IIl.,
May 1, 1912 [Ill. Nat. Hist. Survey]; 42 9,
Mount Vernon, Va., February 28, 1915 (W. L.
McAtee); 1 9, Dyke, Va., May 28, 1915; 19,
North Carolina [Malloch Coll.].
A specimen from Mount Washington, N. H.
(Mrs. Slosson) [U.S.N.M.], determined by
Coquillett as formosa, is actually E. vittata
Sabrosky. This specimen is undoubtedly the
basis for the record published by Mrs. Slosson
(Ent. News 7: 264. 1896) and repeated by
Johnson (List of the Diptera or two-winged flies of
New England: 279. 1925).
20. Elachiptera (E.) vittata, n. name
Crassiseta bilineata Adams, Kansas Univ. Sci.
Bull. 2: 453. 1904. (Arizona.)
Elachiptera bilineata (Adams) Becker, Ann. Mus.
Nat. Hung. 10: 79. 1912.
Preoccupied by Chlorops bilineatus Bigot (Bull.
Soc. Zool. France 16: 279. 1891), referred to
Elachiptera by Becker (1908, 1910), as a syno-
nym of EL. bimaculata (Loew).
This species is characterized by the broad,
flat arista, short frontal triangle, gray pollinose
ocellar tubercle, 2 or 3 stripes of gray pollen on
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 11
the mesonotum, and broadly rounded scutel-
lum with 2 or 3 pairs of small marginal tuber-
cles. The legs are predominantly yellow to red-
dish yellow, with some infuscation on the fore
tibia distally, the fore tarsus, hind tibia, and
hind femur toward the knee, rarely extensively
infuscated. Some variation has been observed in
the number of rows of hairs between the median
and dorsocentral lines, 1 to 3 rows, and this
varies the appearance from relatively sparsely
to relatively densely haired.
It is the most widely distributed species of
the decipiens group, for records are available
from New York and New Jersey to California
across the northern United States. The north-
ward limits are uncertain, but it is interesting
to note that all Alaskan material of the de-
cipiens group thus far examined has been only
typical decipiens.
The holotype, a female from Oak Creek
Canyon, Ariz., now in the Snow Collection at
the University of Kansas, has been personally
examined.
Of all American forms, vittata is closest to the
European £E. cornuta (Fallén). I have been un-
able to satisfy myself that the two are the
same species, however, and wittata has thus
been regarded here as a distinct species.
Distribution: Records are available from Al-
berta, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and from 14
states: Arizona, California, Idaho, Maryland,
Michigan, Montana, New Hampshire, New
Jersey, New York, Nevada, Ohio, Oregon,
Utah, and Washington.
21. Elachiptera (E.) californica, n. sp.
As characterized in the key, and as described
for E. vittata, differing from that species only in
having the ocellar tubercle polished, not polli-
nose.
Type.—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 58867.
Holotype, male, Ellery Lake, Tioga Pass,
Calif., 9,400 ft., July 3, 1927 (J. M. Aldrich).
Allotype, Sequoia National Park, Calif., June
11, 1985 (P. W. Oman), Type and allotype in
the U. 8. National Museum. Paratypes: 1 @,
Carmel, Calif., July 8, 19388 (M. Cazier);2¢ 0,
San Jacinto, Calif., July 21, 1929 (Ro
Beamer) [Kansas Univ. and Sabrosky Colls.].
22. Elachiptera (E.) penita (Adams)
Crassiseta penita Adams, Journ. New York Ent.
Soc. 16: 152. 1908. (Wisconsin.)
Nov. 15, 1948
I have seen only one specimen that can be
referred here, a female, Falmouth Heights,
Mass., August 13, 1924 [Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist.]. It is 3 mm in length, somewhat larger
than the other species of Elachiptera, and with
the following characteristics: Arista narrow,
ouly slightly broadened basally and strongly
attenuated from base to apex; frontal triangle
long, its apex nearly reaching the anterior mar-
gin of the front; ocellar tubercle gray pollinose;
front relatively long, not appearing broad and
square as in the other species of the group
(except formosa), by actual measurement the
length 1.0—1.07 times the width at the vertex;
mesonotum without pollinose stripes, the disk
polished black, the humeri, notopleura, supra-
alar area, a narrow prescutellar band, and the
scutellum, gray pollinose; median and dorso-
central lines and the entire posterior slope of
the mesonotum punctured and rugose; scutel-
lum shorter than broad, the length 0.9 times
the width at base and appearing subtruncate.
I have not seen Adams’s cotypes (two males
from Wisconsin), but Dr. Aldrich examined
them in the University of Arkansas Collection
in 1915. He thought that they were probably
formosa Loew, but he noted that there were no
gray stripes on the dorsum. This fact, with
several points mentioned in the original de-
scription (large size, large triangle, etc.) makes
it reasonably certain that the above specimen
represents penita Adams. It is not a synonym
of formosa, but a distinct species.
23. Elachiptera (E.) knowltoni, n. sp.
Male, female —As described for E. nigriceps,
except as follows: Head lighter in color, the
front, face except for central depression, and
lower and anterior margins of cheek, yellow;
front broad, the length usually 0.92—0.96 times
the width at vertex; frontal triangle shorter
than in nigriceps, the apex not reaching the
anterior margin of the front and sides less con-
vex, obviously occupying less of the front than
that of nigriceps; triangle polished black, but
ocellar tubercle distinctly gray-pollinose: pal-
pus bright yellow in both sexes; arista in both
sexes only slightly thickened, short pubescent,
not at all flattened, and thus resembling that of
Oscinella; scutellum short and broad, 0.8—0.87
times as long as broad at base.
Legs usually rather extensively infuscated,
all femora and tibiae, except bases and apices,
SABROSKY: ELACHIPTERA AND RELATED GENERA
381
brown to black, fore tarsus black and other
tarsi browned distally: in the palest specimen,
the mid and hind femora broadly yellow at
each end, and the fore femur infuscated only on
outer surface.
Length, 2.25-2.5 mm.
Type.—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 58868.
Holotype male, and allotype, Randolph,
Utab, September 21, 1938 (G. F. Knowlton ard
F. C. Harmston). Type and allotype deposited
in the U. S. National Museum through the
courtesy of Dr. Knowlton. Paratypes: 2 (2,
2), same data as type [Utah Agr. College
Coll.]; Cotorapo: 1 9, Electric Lake, La Plata
County, June 28-30, 1919, about 8,400 ft.
[Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.]: 1 9, Holly, September
6, 1938 (D. E. and A. Hardy) [Kansas Univ.
Coll.]: 1 29, Monument, August 6, 1938 (M. T.
James, Urless Lanham) [James Coll.]. Ipano:
1 #, Kellogg, August 14, 1926, altitude 2,305 ft.
(R. W. Haegele) [Univ. of Idaho]. Monrana:
ro, “Drummond: “Auweust il, 1931° (Gee
Beamer) [Kansas Univ. Coll.]. Nevapa: 1 9,
Austin, August 12, 1940 (R. H. Beamer)
[Kansas Univ. Coll.]. UTAH: 1 2, Blue Creek,
September 2, 1938 (Knowlton and Harmston) ;
1¢@, Salina, August 16, 1938 (Knowlton and
Harmston); 12, Lewiston, April 27, 1938
(Knowlton and Hardy); 1¢, Juab, April 23,
1935 (Knowlton and C. F. Smith); 1, Hurri-
cane, August 13, 1938 (Knowlton and Harm-
ston) [Utah Agr. College Coll.]; 1 2, Spanish
Fork (D. E. Hardy) [U.S.N.M.].
24. Elachiptera (E.) decipiens (Loew)
Oscinis decipiens Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr. 7: 40.
1863. (Centuria III, No. 76.) (Sitka, Alaska.)
Diagnosis: Arista usually somewhat flat-
tened nearly to the apex, sometimes flattened
basally and narrowing on the apical half or
three-quarters, but in any case decidedly nar-
rower than in wittata (cf. key, couplet 21);
frontal triangle short, approximately three-
fourths the length of the front; ocellar tubercle
gray-pollinose; front appearing short and
broad, or nearly square, by actual measure-
ment the length only 0.87—0.96 the width at the
vertex; mesonotum typically with two rela-
tively narrow dorsocentral stripes of gray
pollen. The species usually has a dark appear-
ance, for the yellow on the head is dark, the
posterior portions of the front and cheeks are
more or less infuscated, and the legs are usually
082
rather extensively browned, the femora and
tibiae more or less predominantly so with vary-
ing extent of reddish yellow at base and apex of
each. Alaskan specimens are usually darker
than those from localities in the United States
and southern Canada.
This is definitely not typical cornuta Fallén,
for the arista is narrower and the legs darker.
Whether it is the same as some of the described
“varieties” of cornuta remains to be determined.
As already pointed out, it seems to be near
cornuta var. strobli Corti (1909), and if they
prove to be the same, Loew’s name has prior-
ity.
The considerable amount of Alaskan ma-
terial that I have seen in the genus Elachiptera
has consisted entirely of decipiens, except for
an occasional specimen of Eribolus sudeticus.
Other than Alaska, I have seen the species
from Alberta, Manitoba, Northwest Territory,
and Saskatchewan, and from the States of
California, Colorado, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, and
Washington.
25. Elachiptera (E.) flaviceps, n. sp.
As characterized in the key; near E. decipiens
but the arista slender, scarcely flattened be-
yond the basal segment; head with bright ap-
pearance, predominantly bright yellow, the
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 11
triangle reddish to brown; legs typically yel-
low, with scarcely any infuscation.
Length, 2—2.25 mm.
Type.—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 58869.
Holotype, male, Moscow, Idaho, June 2,
1908 (J. M. Aldrich). Allotype, Smith River,
Calif., July 17, 1930 (Aldrich). Type and allo-
type in the U.S. National Museum. Paratypes:
CALIFORNIA: 1c’, Del Norte County, May 27
[Deutsch. Ent. Museum, Berlin-Dahlem]; 2
(%, @), Berkeley, June 20, 1947 (A. E.
Pritchard); 1@, Eureka, March 6 (H. S. Bar-
ber) [U.S.N.M.]. OreGon: 14, Hood River
(Childs); 1%, 5 miles west of Sisters, June 26,
1939 (Gray and Schuh); 1@, Vernonia, April
23, 1988 (Gray and Schuh) [Sabrosky Coll.].
The only specimens that have been seen are
from far western United States. It is possible
that this is only a southern subspecies of deci-
piens. The relation to cornuta var. rufifrons
Duda of Europe cannot now be determined.
Examples of this species could easily be mis-
taken for Oscinella, and would be so placed in
most generic keys. Despite the slender, atypi-
cal arista, however, the presence of the usual
two pairs of strongly developed fronto-orbital
bristles and distinct though small marginal
scutellar tubercles links the species unques-
tionably with Elachiptera.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY
Minutes oF 420TH MEETING oF BoaRD oF MANAGERS
The 420th meeting of the Board of Managers,
held in the Cosmos Club, September 27, 1948,
was called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the Presi-
dent, Dr. FrepERIcK D. Rosstnt. Others pres-
ent were: H. 8. Rappinysn, N. R. Smriru, J. I.
Horrman, M. A: McCatu, W. L. Scumirt,
F. G. Brickweppb#, F. M. Deranporr, W. N.
Fenton, T. D. Stewart, C. F. W. MusssE-
BECK, W. W. Ruspry, W. A. Dayton, M. A.
Mason, C. L. Garner, H. G. Dorssy, C. L.
Gazin, and, by invitation, H. E. McComs,
L. V. Jupson, K. F. Herzrevp, and J. E.
GRAF.
The following appointments were announced
by the President:
Committee to study question of providing a
more effective bond between Academy and affili-
ated societies: To be identical with Committee
on Functions and Policies of the Academy (see
Minutes of 417th Meeting of Board).
Committee on encouragement of science talent
in the schools of the Washington area: M. A.
Mason (chairman), A. T. McPuErson, B. D.
Van Evera, and Frank THONE.
The President also announced that L. V.
BERKNER had been appointed as chairman of
the subcommittee for the Engineering Sciences
of the Committee on Awards for Scientific
Achievement, succeeding the late Harry
DIAMOND.
The chairman of the Committee on Member-
ship, H. E. McComp, presented six nomina-
tions, five resident and one nonresident.
The chairman of the Committee on Mono-
graphs, Dr. L. V. Jupson, reported that all
galley proof for the monograph on parasitic
cuckoos of Africa had gone back to the printer,
the first quarter of the page proof had been re-
turned, and the second quarter of the page
proof was in the hands of the Committee. He
announced that printing of the monograph was
progressing rapidly and that it would very
likely be out this year. _
Dr. W. L. Scumirt reported that publication
Nov. 15, 1948
of the Red Book, which is now in the hands of
the members, had cost more than was estim-
ated at the last report in June and that
$3,522.55 of the allowed $3,600 had been spent,
leaving only $77.45 for the purchase of addi-
tional copies. Dr. Schmitt also reported that
two members who had their photographs taken
by Hessler for the Red Book called attention to
the fact that their pictures were not included
in the final publication. The Board voted to
have the Academy reimburse those two mem-
bers $5 each for the cost to them of having their
pictures taken. The Board of Managers also
expressed its gratitude and thanks to Dr.
Schmitt for his work in getting out the direc-
tory. Moreover, the Secretary was asked to
write a letter to Dr. GILBERT GROSVENOR ex-
pressing the Academy’s appreciation for the
-map of Washington which was issued as a sup-
plement to the Directory.
The Chairman of the Committee on Science
Legislation, Joun E. Grar, reported that legis-
lation before Congress on the proposed Science
Foundation had passed the Senate but did not
clear the House before adjournment, and that,
owing to the volume of other matters, it was
not brought up during the emergency session
this past summer. To be presented before the
next Congress it must now necessarily be rein-
troduced as a new bill.
In the absence of Chairman CRITTENDEN of
the Committee on Functions and Policies of
the Academy, M. A. Mason presented the
Committee’s report, which is here included as
an appendix to these minutes.
The Board accepted the report of the Com-
mittee and recommended its publication in the
JOURNAL as an appendix to the minutes of the
420th meeting. By separate vote the Board
approved the new Article I of the Bylaws (to
precede the old Article I, which becomes Arti-
cle II, and so on) and ordered that the amend-
ment be submitted to a vote of the Academy
membership, as required by the Bylaws.
Adoption of the proposed Standing Com-
mittee on Policy and Planning, requiring an
amendment to the Standing Rules, was referred
to the Committee on Bylaws for definition and
phrasing preparatory to its incorporation into
the Standing Rules.
H. T. Herrick was transferred to the retired
list of members, effective December 31, 1948.
’ The Secretary reported the following deaths:
Ernest C. ANDREWs, honorary member,
formerly of the Geological Survey of New
South Wales, on July 1, 1948.
Harry Diamonp, of the National Bureau
of Standards, on June 21, 1948.
PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY
385
ALBERT K. FisHER, honorary member, form-
erly of the U.S. Biological Survey, on June 12,
1948.
Francois E. Matrues, formerly of the U.S.
Geological Survey, on June 21, 1948.
Oscar E. Mutnzmr, formerly of the U. S.
Geological Survey, on June 14, 1948.
-Harotp W. Murray, of the U. 8. Coast and
Geodetic Survey, on June 15, 1948.
Ricuarp C. Toitman, of the California In-
stitute of Technology, on September 5, 1948.
The Senior Editor, Dr. Jamus I. Horrman,
made a progress report on the matter of secur-
ing a new printer for the JourNAL. The George
Banta Publishing Co., because of the volume of
other work handled, recently notified the Board
of Editors that they would be unable to con-
tinue printing the JourNnauL. Dr. Hoffman se-
cured bids from certain other printers, and al-
though his conclusions could not be made
definite at this time, it appeared likely that the
cost of printing the JouRNAL elsewhere would
be approximately 10 percent higher than in the
immediate past. He expected to have more
complete data and formal bids to present at
the next meeting of the Board. .
The meeting was adjourned at 10 p.m.
C. Lewis Gazin, Secretary.
APPENDIX
REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON
FUNCTIONS AND POLICIES OF THE
ACADEMY
APPOINTMENT AND SCOPE OF COMMITTEE
This committee was appointed on April 6,
1948, in accordance with authorization given
by the Board of Managers at its meeting of
March 15, 1948 (JourNaL 38: 188. May 15,
1948), ‘“‘to study the functions of the Academy
and to formulate a program that will integrate
these functions, including the JouRNAL.” This
action was taken in accordance with one of the
recommendations submitted by a Committee
on the JouRNAL and its Improvement, under
the chairmanship of Dr. R. J. SEEGER (JOURNAL
38: 80. February 15, 1948). President Rossin1
indicated also that the committee should
formulate an introductory article for the By-
laws setting forth the aims and functions of the
Academy.
At the meeting of the Board of Managers on
June 7, 1948, the Board authorized the ap-
pointment of a Special Committee ‘“‘to improve
the ties and relations binding the Academy and
its Affiliated Societies.’ Since this assignment
involves policies and functions of the Academy,
President Rosstnr has made this new com-
084
mittee identical with the one previously estab-
lished, and the present report deals with both
subjects.
ARTICLE FOR BYLAWS
In the Act of Incorporation of the Academy
its purposes are indicated by the following
paragraph:
3. That its particular business and objects are
the promotion of science, with power:
a. To acquire, hold, and convey real estate and
other property and to establish general and
special funds.
. To hold meetings.
To publish and distribute documents.
. To conduct lectures.
To conduct, endow, or assist investigation
in any department of science.
f. To acquire and maintain a library.
g. And, in general, to transact any business
pertinent to an academy of sciences.
Cee On Ce
The Bylaws, however, are often reproduced
without the Act of Incorporation. It seems ap-
propriate therefore to include a statement of
purposes in the Bylaws, and the committee
suggests the text below as a new Article I. Its
adoption would of course require renumbering
all present Articles and preferably changing
“The Washington Academy of Sciences” in
Section 1 of the present Article I to ‘The
Academy.”’
ARTICLE I.—Purposes
Section 1.—The purposes of the Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences shall be:
(a) To stimulate interest in science, both
pure and applied.
(b) To promote the advancement of science
and the development of its philosophical as-
pects, through cooperative action by the
affiliated societies and by individuals.
These objectives may be attained by:
1. Publication of a periodical and of occa-
sional scientific monographs;
2. Public lectures of broad general scope and
interest;
3. Symposia, both formal and in the form of
small informal gatherings;
4. Scientific conferences;
5. Awards of prizes and citations for special
merit;
6. Grants of funds for special research proj-
ects;
7. Organization of, or assistance in, scien--
tific expeditions;
8. Cooperation with other Academies and
scientific organizations.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 11
SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES (OTHER THAN PUBLICATION
OF THE JOURNAL)
The committee has reviewed the various re-
ports on activities of the Academy which have
been presented during the past decade at meet-
ings of the Academy and of the Board of
Managers. It has few novel proposals to ad-
vance. In fact it believes that the Academy has
done very well and has well justified its exist-
ence.
As the body of scientific knowledge has
grown more vast and diverse, with correspond-
ing pressure for specialization both among in-
dividual workers and among scientific and tech-
nical societies, the need for connecting links
like the Academy has become greater. This
need has been intensified by the changes in
personnel and in scientific projects which have
taken place in the last decade. In Washington
and vicinity, in addition to changes in previ-
ously existing institutions, there have grown
up several large new research laboratories. The
present greatly increased interest of the govern-
ment and the public in science also makes the
time appropriate for active prosecution of the
Academy’s functions.
Meetings.—In view of the large number of
meetings held by scientific and technical groups
in Washington, it is recognized that the Acad-
emy can not well make any considerable in-
crease in the number of its meetings. It is obvi-
ously desirable, however, that the Committee
on Meetings give special attention to the
possibility of obtaining speakers who will pre-
sent broad philosophical aspects of science as
well as those who represent fields of work cut-
ting across the boundaries of the traditional
divisions of science. The organization of sym-
posia with speakers from different but related
fields is another possible method, perhaps more
generally practicable, for bringing together
groups of members whose interests are diverse,
and this is recommended.
The holding of more joint meetings with
affliated societies has been urged as a means of
developing closer relations between the Acad-
emy and those societies. Undoubtedly such
meetings serve also to bring the Academy to the
attention of members of the societies and thus
assist in gaining desirable members for the
Academy. The Committee on Meetings should
take the initiative in maintaining liaison with
the program committees in the societies and in
arranging joint meetings when appropriate
speakers can be found by either committee con-
cerned.
A problem related to arrangements for meet-
ings is that of furthering the development of
Nov. 15, 1948 PROCEEDINGS
acquaintanceship among members. Even those
members who attend the meetings usually see
each other infrequently. While not proposing
to make a social club out of the Academy, your
committee believes that definite efforts should
be made to stimulate a greater degree of ac-
tivity in introductions and revivals of acquain-
tance following the formal meetings. To facili-
tate this, means might be devised for tagging
members with their names and connections,
and the Academy might arrange a meeting of
some kind once a year purely for acquaintance
sake.
With regard to subjects of meetings, the his-
tory of the Academy shows a fairly good dis-
tribution over the various fields of science.
W. A. Dayton when chairman of the Commit-
tee on Meetings prepared a detailed classifica-
tion of subjects dealt with from 1923 to 1943,
inclusive, a total of 151 meetings. With the
addition of 30 held in 1944~47, the distribu-
tion into very broad classes as set up by Mr.
DayTON is shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1.—CLASSIFICATION OF SUBJECTS OF
AcADEMY MEETINGS
Class of Subject ae ee Percentage
Meetings
Biological sciences. ............... 61 33.7
Economic, historical, and social..... 8 4.4
Engineering sciences............... 13 oe
Be grICiSCICHCES ~~). <<: <-.------- 68 37.6
Awards, exhibitions, and general... . 31 ily ea
TURD 4s SRE GU AS Dene 181 100.0
In the very broad class of biological sciences,
however, were included 16 meetings, or 8.8
percent of the total, devoted to anthropology,
archeology, and ethnology. If this group is
deducted, biology filled only 24.9 percent of the
meetings.
Another type of meeting which members
found most interesting in prewar times was a
visit to a research institution or a field trip.
Such a program involves much work on the
part of the hosts, but it has some compensating
advantages for them. There are several labora-
tories or operating plants in Washington which
many members of the Academy would be inter-
ested to see and which would probably not be
averse to.a visit in ordinary times. Just at
present there would be some special difficulties,
and this kind of meeting is therefore suggested
as a desirable feature for some future years.
Publications (monographs)—Your commit-
tee has noted with interest the careful steps
which have been taken toward publication of
the monograph on The parasitic cuckoos of
Africa, by Dr. HerBeRT FRIEDMANN, this be-
: THE ACADEMY
388
ing the initial venture in a program originally
approved in 1939 (JoURNAL 29: 545-546.
December 15, 1939). Caution is obviously
necessary in embarking upon such a program
involving considerable financial risks, but the
committee believes that this is a highly ap-
propriate activity, being one which can both
serve a useful purpose for science and enhance
the prestige of the Academy. The New York
Academy of Sciences has apparently carried on
successfully an extensive program of this kind.
The Washington area should be a _ prolific
source of specialized monographs of a kind
which would not appeal to commercial pub-
lishers but which should have a sale sufficient
to cover the cost of printing and distribution.
From a business point of view it must be recog-
nized that such an undertaking initially de-
pends to a large extent upon voluntary service
by members who combine good business judg-
ment with a high degree of altruism, but the
committee believes that the Academy has
many such members.
Memberships——The committee believes that
the membership of the Academy may well be
substantially increased in view of the growing
importance of Washington as a_ scientific
center. A considerable part of the increase of
100 in active members permitted by the recent
amendment to the Bylaws (JouURNAL 38: 188-—
189. May 15, 1948), may appropriately be used
to round out the membership in fields and in
institutions where there are disproportionately
small numbers. No general campaign for new
members is proposed, nor should there be any
lowering of the scientific qualifications required
for membership. The committee recommends,
however, that emphasis be placed on taking in
young men who have shown ability in original
research or other scientific attainment.
The distribution of members among different
branches of science is indicated to a consider-
able extent by the memberships held in affili-
ated societies as shown in Table 2 herewith,
although the data supplied for the 1947-48
Directory appear to be incomplete.
The fields from which new members have
been received during the past five years are
shown in Table 3.
While there are some apparently significant
trends shown in these tables a more important
problem is presented by the tabulations of
members in different organizations as given in
the 1947-48 Directory. In spite of the changes
in organization of the Department of Agricul-
ture, the bureaus of that Department have
maintained a good representation in the Acad-
emy, but four other great research organiza-
386
TABLE 2.—MEMBERSHIP OF MEMBERS OF WASHINGTON
ACADEMY IN AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
(As indicated in Directories of the Academy, including
both resident and nonresident members)
Number of Memberships
Affiliated Societies 1941 1947-48
Philosophical §; a ctssb as kaeeerae 105 125
Chomicaln ne .cc-ac stint a enh am eae 102 97
Brolowieale ss OM Tae wee ee 87 76
Gecloricals is: 2h us. ct te. 75 74
Botaniior len cp seks ok p Saxe ene ee ee 71 76
PMNeInbersin toes rae ies ase 28 26
Hntomologieals .\.\, os. td ele atte eae aT 33
Helminthological’): :).\rectrcere creole a tees 23 26
Whedieal 5: c0N6 ens RL ae se eee 23 17
Bacteriological. sare wns gies cemleouciace 22 28
Anthropolopicalis.c. iene eae alee 18 20
I OTESUOIS sts cose oie cotire uae UF Gata chee cess 15 13
Blectrical Engineers. ......62... 05.0 10 13
Mechanical Engineers................ 6 11
Radio cHneineers< .cecuien relate cee 5 9
Military “Hnpineerss... <2 sas. oe 4 5
FRISLOTICAS FEOG Salat ots, cease eet ene Satomi 3 yi
Arehacolosieal.o 7 oR Se eee 1 0
Giyil’ Bngmeersin aon Me lo 0 20
TRO LAS eee See ee 625 671
No society memberships shown........ 58 225
Members of Academy................ 640 713
TABLE 3.—FIELDS OF WORK OF NEw MEMBERS 1942-47
CLASSIFIED AS IN REPORTS TO ANNUAL MEETINGS
Biological Physical Geological
Botany... .o2-. 5-20. Chemistry, so. 6. 24- Geology....... 10
Entomology..... 137 Ibhysiese 5 eet 23 Paleontology... 5
Zoology=.% “s.2h. 7 Engineering..... 10 Mineralogy.... 2
Bacteriology..... 6 Mathematics.... 8 —
BiolOSy = ete = 3 Biochemistry... 5 Totals cers 17
Physiology...... 3 Geophysics..... 4
Plant pathology.. 3 Geochemistry... 3 Anthropology. .15
Gytolosy--c2-0 = 2 Hydraulies..... 3 Archeology.... 1
Ichthyology..... 2 Astronomy..... 2 —
Geneties....5..... 1 Geography..... 2 di Way ree eee 16
IMedicme® .2).% 22: 1 Meteorology.... 2
Plant physiology. 1 Ceramics....... 1
Total idee 67 Ro talers arses 87
tions which have grown since 1940 to have
hundreds of professional employees are repre-
sented in the Academy by one to three mem-
bers. These are the Naval Research Labora-
tory, the Naval Ordnance Laboratory, the
David Taylor Model Basin, and the Johns
Hopkins University Applied Physics Labora-
tory. As the staffs of these institutions come to
consider themselves really part of the Wash-
ington scene more of them should be drawn into
the Academy.
Another problem which the Committee has
considered, but one on which opinions differ,
is the question whether the scope of the Acad-
emy should be stretched to include men work-
ing in the social sciences, particularly econom-
ics and statistics. It must be admitted that
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 11
ideas and methods in these fields, and even
more in other branches of sociology, are still in
an inchoate state, but considering their grow-
ing influence in determining governmental poli-
cies and economic activities of the country
some members of the committee believe that
the Academy should be receptive to “social
science.” Perhaps a first step should be to de-
vote a meeting of the Academy to some sub-
ject in this field for which qualified speakers
should not be lacking in Washington.
Public policy and publicity —One of the aims
of the Academy is to get the public, including
public officials, to appreciate the importance of
scientific work and to give science the place
which it should have in our national life. At this
time when the National Government is taking
so large a part in sustaining and directing scien-
tific research it is especially important that the
Congress and high executive officjals should
have the best possible advice on governmental
policies affecting science. The location of the
Washington Academy at the National Capital
gives it a strategic position both for obtaining
information on trends of opinion in Govern-
ment circles and for supplying information and
advice to those who are to determine policies.
On the other hand, the fact that a large part of
its members are employees of the Government
lays the Academy open to suspicion of lobbying
for the benefit of its own members.
In view of these conflicting considerations
the committee believes that the Academy,
while giving serious and active study to govern-
mental policies affecting scientific work, should
be conservative in publishing any proposals or
recommendations in this field. However, the
formation of study groups or committees such
as that appointed last year to keep in touch
with legislation on science is recommended
(see reports in JOURNAL 38: 79. February 15,
1948; and 38: 220. June 15, 1948), and it is the
opinion of the committee that the Academy
should engage more actively in preparation and
publication of factual studies and surveys bear-
ing upon public policies affecting science.
Junior Academy of Science-—The committee
has considered with much sympathy the pro-
posal for the organization of a Junior Washing-
ton Academy of Science or such other related
activities as the annual science fair, the science
talent search, and general cooperation with
secondary schools and colleges in the Washing-
ton area to stimulate interest in science among
young people. This field of activity certainly
has promise of great usefulness, but plans for
entering upon it need to be considered with care
because a vital element is the availability of
Satay
Nov. 15, 1948 PROCEEDINGS
members qualified to carry on the work more
or less permanently and able to give the nec-
essary time for it. The situation is well sum-
marized in the report of the annual meeting of
January 15, 1948 (JouRNAL 38: 220-222. June
15, 1948). It may be significant that the report
indicates the temporary suspension of the
Junior Academy in Maryland for lack of a
director.
THE JOURNAL
As a basis for considering the status of the.
JOURNAL of the Academy and determining the
policies to be adopted for the future, it is de-
sirable to review reports on past issues. Recent
annual reports of the editors and an examina-
tion of the 1948 numbers of the JoURNAL give
the following data for the postwar period:
TABLE 4.—PERCENTAGE OF PAGES OF JOURNAL DEVOTED
TO VARIOUS FIELDS OF SCIENCE
Subjects 1945 1946 1947 1945 (6 mos.)
Biological. ..... 53.4 41.4 53.8 36.0
Physical..... pee Cell 18.2 8.3 38.8
Anthropological. 23.8 26.4 20.1 5.9
Geological...... 5.4 5.6 2.7 Matl
Other (misc.)... 0.8 Dae 4.2 Pheidl
Obituaries
Proceedings;.... 8.5 8 10.0 12.8
Notices
intel exange esos 24: 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.0 (assumed)
The distribution so far in 1948 is abnormal
because some long papers in physics happened
to be included in two of the numbers. A break-
down somewhat more detailed and showing
trends in specific subjects over a period of years
has been made in Table 5 by listing papers (not
pages) for the last three 5-year periods.
TABLE 5.—NUMBER OF PAPERS IN VARIOUS FIELDS AS
CLASSIFIED IN JOURNAL INDEX
(Abstracts in society proceedings not included; also subjects
which averaged less than one paper per year are omitted.)
Subject 1983—37 1938-42 1943-47 Total
Anthropology...... il Zi 7 15
IBObany A ake. TO 66 50 195
@hemistry.....-..- =» 20 18 3 41
Entomology....... PX 37 55 119
phnology.....-.-- 3 1 38 42
(inel. linguistics)
ener ee cs bes 7 6 5 18
(history, etc.)
(Cealla ae eae 23 10 3 36
Ichthyology....... 2 14 20 36
Ornithology........ 8 7 13° 28
Paleobotany....... Dili 17 4 48
Paleontology....... 36 30 11 ida
NPIVSICS fs crc hs er 20 11 11 42
WOoOlOgy:, <.-.-.-.-. 90 52 55 147
It should be noted that this tabulation exag-
gerates the preponderance of biological papers
because those papers quite uniformly average
less than half as long as those in physical sci-
; THE ACADEMY
387
ences. Averages for a number of years are as
follows: Biological, 4.5 pages; physical, 10.5;
anthropological, 8.0; geological, 5.0; other
papers, 8.0. This systematic difference in length
of papers in the various fields arises from dif-
ferences in character of the papers, which in
turn arise from the distinct purposes which the
JOURNAL serves for the various sciences. In
biology it provides a place of quick publication
for notes on new or redescribed species and
other taxonomic papers; in the physical sci-
ences the papers are usually of broader type,
many of them being authoritative and com-
prehensive surveys or summaries of the status
in given fields of science or engineering. Both
of these classes are useful, and in publishing
them the JouRNAL performs a valuable service.
The two classes naturally appeal to different
groups of readers; in any journal covering so
many diverse fields any one reader must expect
to find many articles which are of no interest
to him, but this fact does not justify a low
rating for the journal.
Nevertheless it should be possible to make
the Academy JouRNAL more interesting for the
general reader by carrying out the recommen-
dation made by the special Committee on the
JouRNAL and Its Improvement that the Editors
“be continuously vigilant in seeking papers of
general interest, in securing copies of outstand-
ing Academy papers, and in selecting papers
from different fields for any particular issue”’
(JOURNAL 38: 80. February 15, 1948). A sug-
gestion supplementing this recommendation is
that the JouRNAL might obtain more presi-
dential addresses as delivered before affiliated
societies.
The Boards of Editors have repeatedly sur-
veyed the situation of the JouRNAL and made
recommendations for its improvement. (See,
for example, JouRNAL 33: 113. April 15, 1943;
35: 234. July 15, 1945; 37: 441. December 15,
1947; and 38: 218. June 15, 1948.) The Editors
have repeatedly pointed out that only about
one-half of the papers published in the JoURNAL
are written by members of the Academy. The
committee would recommend that good papers
be accepted or sought without regard to mem-
bership of the authors. In brief, publication of
articles in the JouRNAL should be considered
as marking possible future members, rather
than having membership considered a desirable
prerequisite for acceptance of papers.
RELATIONS WITH AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
As a first step toward finding ways ‘“‘to im-
prove the ties and relations binding the Acad-
emy and its affiliated societies” in accordance
388
with the action of the Board of Managers on
June 7, 1948, the Committee has sought advice
from the Vice-Presidents who represent the
affiliated societies in the Board, and has already
received cordial replies from two-thirds of them.
It is especially noteworthy that a majority
of the Vice-Presidents replying have suggested
more meetings arranged jointly by the Acad-
emy and the societies. The records of meetings
in the annual reports for the past 16 years show
considerable fluctuations in the proportion of
joint meetings. Out of an average of about
seven meetings per year the number reported
as jointly arranged has varied from none to a
maximum of five in one year, the average being
only a little more than one joint meeting per
year. One specific suggestion is that the meet-
ing of the Academy at which the address of a
retiring President is delivered be arranged as a
joint meeting with the Society which represents
the major scientific field of the retiring President.
Several of the Vice-Presidents have also men-
tioned the desirability of getting announce-
ments of Academy meetings to members of
affiliated societies who are not members of the
Academy. Possible procedures suggested in-
clude purchase of announcement cards by the
individual societies and reports to the respec-
tive societies by the Vice-Presidents represent-
ing them in the Board. The expense involved in
the one case, and the long advance notice
needed in the other, make it questionable
whether either of these plans can be worked
effectively.
In fact, this problem of informing diverse
groups of the many scientific or technical meet-
ings which might interest them is one which
affects other bodies in addition to the Academy.
The plan which seems at present to give most
promise of solving it is the Academy’s joint
effort with the District of Columbia Council of
Engineering and Architectural Societies to have
a weekly calendar of meetings published in the
local newspapers. (See JOURNAL 37: 412. Nov-
ember 15, 1947; 37: 444. December 15, 1947;
and 38: 255. July 15, 1948.)
In considering relations with affiliated socie-
ties the question arises whether there may now
be additional societies in Washington which
should be affiliated. The Committee is not pre-
pared to make any recommendation on this
point, but for reference would direct attention
to the careful study of this question made
shortly before the war (JouRNAL 30: 46-47,
448, 534. 1940).
RECOMMENDATIONS
Your Committee believes that establishment
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 11
of policies and detailed planning for their exe-
cution over a period of years should be a re-
sponsibility of a continuing group. The general
responsibility and authority, of course, rest
with the Board of Managers. However, the
Board as a whole is a rather large body to deal
with details, and the present Committee recom-
mends that the Board consider the establish-
ment of a standing Policy and Planning Com-
mittee of six members appointed for overlap-
ping 3-year terms and including members who
have had experience on the editorial board of
the JOURNAL.
Summarizing other recommendations and
suggestions in the preceding text we propose
the following:
(1) The text of a new Article I of the By-
laws;
(2) Meeting directed toward (a) correlating
diverse traditional fields of science or (b) deal-
ing with subjects in a broad way so as to be of
general interest;
(3) More meetings arranged in cooperation
with affliated societies, and more adequate ad-
vertisement of meetings;
(4) Special attention to promotion of ac-
quaintanceship among members, both of the
Academy and of affiliated societies;
(5) Further trial of the plan for special pub-
lications;
(6) Expansion of the membership especially
to get more adequate representation from new
laboratories and with emphasis on attracting
promising young men;
(7) Study of public policies and govern-
mental actions affecting scientific work, and
publication of factual reports on these sub-
jects;
(8) Promotion of interest in science among
young people, as for example, by supporting the
establishment of a Junior Academy of Science,
provided a sufficient group of members appears
likely to take a continuing interest in this un-
dertaking;
(9) Efforts to develop the JouRNAL along
lines already recommended by the special com-
mittee on that subject; and
(10) Collaboration with all other organiza-
tions interested in the promotion of science and
its application, even taking a sympathetic at-
titude toward the development of the so-called
“Social sciences.”
E. C. CritTENDEN, Chairman.
AusTIn H. CLARK
WitiiamM A. DayTon
Martin A. Mason
LELAND W. PARR
F. B. SILSBEE
cae Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences
_ _—President..............+.+..+.FREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards
TE MICEIEIOLY 6 oe eee cc enedeeaccsccevcscs+C. LEWis Gazin, U. 8. National Museum
_ -‘Treasurer...........55+.+++5++++ HOWARD 9. RAPPLEYE, Coast and Geodetic Survey
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Gases alee bos os s0ee cis ues aes>ss- HARALD A. RenpeEr, U: 8. National. Museum
Vice-Presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies:
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Anthropological Society of Washington....................1. DALE STEWART
“Biological Society of Washington....................2+.+.+-JOHN W. ALDRICH
Chemical Society of Washington.................++....+..CHARLES E, WHITE
Entomological Society of Washington...................C. F. W. MUESEBECK
National Geographic Society.............e+e20+e+++++- ALEXANDER WETMORE
Geological Society of Washington..................+..2+... WILLIAM W. RuBBY
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Washington Society of Engineers.................+..+++++.++CLIFFORD A, BrETTs
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ara tewrs WC os 4 bene of bieie o. vcc% Seb acc es swe dee evil RANGCIS B,SHSBES
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers...............
RD Ghia oad eccla es oie cee ON ps xv eyic Awe s ¥t-au bee ve oe SEMARTIN A, MASON
' Helminthological Society of Washington....................-AUREL O. FostErR
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. Rogers
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.....Hersert Grove DorsEy
_.. Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers.....QwEN B. FrenNcH
Elected Members of the Board of Managers: ; ;
To January 1949....................»Max A. McCaut, Waxtpo L. Scumirtr
To January 1950..................+--F. G. BRICKWEDDE, WILLIAM W. DikHL
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Board of Managers....................All the above officers plus the Senior Editor
Board of Editors and Assoctate Editors..............0++200++-+.... pee front cover]
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eeeeceesssee-e+-+- WALDO L. Scumitt, Howarp S. Raprieye, C. Lewis Gazin
I CMU ENON a acy), So Se heey we RE ae a EOE Oke abe ble os eae ae
Haroup E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Butz, C. WytuHEe Cooxr, WILLIAM
.........W. Drent, Luoyp D. Fre.itron, Reeina FLANNERY, GEorcE G. Manov
Committee on Meetings. ............2..++2++++-++- RAYMOND J. SEEGER (chairman),
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Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (Karu F. Hprzrevp, general chairman):
+s For the Biological Sciences. .... Se Se ak Dae Sa Se ety als Sater «Ny Coats
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Extmer Hicerns, Marto Mouiari, GoTTHoLD STEINER, L. Epwin Yocum
eee Phe PinmINGCTINE SCICNCER. f .. . . Su os Sik es we lee ss cw Sete de er och ee cle eis ois
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Arno C. FIELDNER, FRANK B. Scutetz, W. D. Surciirre
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EE ESOS SO te oe ee pee Pec een ew are ey
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- ,,.JoHN W. McBurney (chairman), Rocsr G. Batses, Witiiam A. WILDHACK
ay oe
ANTHROPOLOGY.—Glossary of names ‘used i in canna’ Latis
for crosses among Indians, Negroes, and Whites. H
WooDEMDG 20.5 .4esssutscsnseesssueteeserstias
Pee —Diagnosis of the Elsinoé « on n omer ngweh
7 Lad f ty
EntomoLocy.—A synopsis ‘ae the Necue species: caf. El,
relatee genera (Diptera, Chloropidae). Is
is
ot ne
Penceauon: Pee etme
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vou. 38
DECEMBER 15, 1948
No. 12
ETHNOLOGY .—The antiquity of the Northwest coast totem pole. PHiLir DRUCKER,
Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution.
The problem of the antiquity of the so-
called “totem pole’ on the Northwest coast
is not a simple one, and yet it is of impor-
tance from several points of view: for in-
terpretations of art history of the area; and
for appraisals of interareal relationships as
well. Barbeau has in various papers as-
sembled evidence which he interprets as
indicating the very recent inception of the
complex. Other writers have been influenced
by his conclusions: Herskovits, for instance,
in a discussion of cultural dynamics in his
recently published work, was led by
Barbeau’s view to cite the Northwest coast
totem pole as a particularly neat example
of a historically documented product of ac-
culturative influences deriving from Euro-
pean contacts.? Likewise, Quimby, in a
well-considered appraisal of sources and
types of extraneous influences on North-
west coast culture during the period of the
maritime fur trade, weakens his position
slightly by citing the debatable point of
historic period origin of the totem pole as a
fact along with the far more certain de-
velopments he points out.? As far as
Quimby’s thesis is concerned, this one item
is of slight importance; the significant
points he himself develops as to varieties
of racial types and sources of cultural in-
1 Published by permission of the Smithsonian
Institution. The writer wishes to express his
_ thanks to the director of the Massachusetts His-
torical Society, Boston, and the director of the
Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass., for permission
to examine and utilize materials from the invalu-
able records in the archives under their charge.
Received October 12, 1948.
2M. J. Hersxovirs, Man and his works:
480-481. New York, 1948.
. 3 GEORGE QuimBy, Culture contact on the North-
west coast, 1785-1795. Amer. Anthrop. n. s., 50:
_ 247-255 (254). 1948,
389
RE i OR Ea
fluence are for the most part beyond dis-
pute. However, because of this dangerous
tendency for interpretations to be accepted
as proved facts, it seems important to point
out available evidence that suggests a con-
clusion quite different from Barbeau’s. The
aim of the present paper will be to review
critically what information can be as-
sembled on the problem.
Barbeau’s views as to the recent (historic)
beginnings of the art of carving the totem
poles on the northern Northwest coast are
pretty well summarized in one of his earlier
discussions of the problem:
The art of carving poles is not really as ancient
as is generally believed. Its growth to its present
proportions is largely confined to the nineteenth
century, that is, after the traders had introduced
Kuropean tools, the steel ax, the adze, and the
curved knife, in large numbers among the natives.
The lack of suitable tools, wealth, and leisure in
earlier times precluded the existence of elaborate
structures. The benefits that accrued from the
fur trade, besides, stimulated ambitions and
rivalries between the leading families. Their only
desire was to outdo the others in wealth and the
display of prestige. The totem pole became, after
1830, the fashionable way of showing one’s power
and crests, while commemorating the dead or
decorating the houses. The size of the pole and the
beauty of its imagery published abroad the fame
of those it represented.
That is really a pretty moderate state-
ment especially if the phrase “its growth to
its present proportions” is stressed, for few
persons familiar with Northwest coast
culture of the historic period would deny
that the tall carved poles, with their in-
4M. Barseav, Totem poles of the Gitksan,
Upper Skeena River, British Columbia. Nat.
Mus. Canada Bull. 61 (Anthropological Ser. no.
12): 12. Ottawa, 1929.
JAN 6 1949
390
volved, stylized, but powerful motifs, be-
came most abundant after 1830, just as
Barbeau says, as one of the results of the
breakdown of native social patterns brought
about on the one hand by the decimation
of population (from disease and from in-
creased efficiency of intergroup warfare
due to introduction of firearms) and on the
other by the enormous influx of new riches
brought about by European trade. We
know fairly certainly that the pole complex
spread southward to Coast Salish territory
during historic times.® Yet elsewhere Bar-
beau indicates that he believes the entire
complex of carving poles must have come
into being since the ‘‘day of the early cir-
cumnavigators, that is, after 1778’ and
points to a possible source of influence in
the ‘‘Kanakas’”’ (whom he describes in a
footnote as “Slaves or serfs from the Sand-
wich Islands who were used in fairly large
numbers by the ancient traders,” doing
something of an injustice to the adven-
turous spirit that led many Hawaiians to
ship aboard the trading vessels to see some-
thing more of the world):
We may wonder whether the insertion of aba-
lone pearl segments as decoration for wood carv-
ings—and this is a notable feature of many of the
finest Haida, Tsimsyan, and Tlingit carvings—is
not to be traced to this source, since the large,
deep sea, shells themselves, from which they are
cut, were imported, so we understand from the
south sea in the course of transoceanic trade.’
And in another place he states:
. . we may draw the attention of the reader to
the close similarities existing between the plastic
arts of the North West Coast and those of various
people around the edges of the Pacific ocean. An
instance will suffice here. The early navigators
noticed, about 1780-1790, the striking resem-
blances between the fortresses of the Haidas, the
Kwakiutl, and other coast natives, to the hippah
of the New Zealand natives. The totem poles, as
fairly recently carved and erected on both sides of -
the Pacific, offer the same compelling evidence
5H. G. Barnert, The southern extent of totem
pole carving. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 33:
379-889. 1942.
6 M. BarBEAU, Alaska beckons: 248. Caldwell,
Idaho, 1947.
7 BARBEAU, 1929, p. 24. ““Kanaka”’ influence is
also stressed in Barbeau’s paper The modern
growth of the totem pole on the Northwest coast.
Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 28: 385-398. 1938.
(Also in Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rept. for 1939:
491—498. 1940.)
e . .*
sets Hab
wl * ,
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
(See Plate xxx figures 2—5 [reference is to figures
showing Northwest Coast totem poles and Maori
carved poles and house entry-posts, the latter re-
produced from Best’s ‘‘The Pa Maori, New Zea-
land.”’ PD]). The technique for their erection was
also identical (See Plate xxx1, figures 1, 2)
(figures showing strikingly similar methods of
raising a tall pole, from Tsimshian and Maori.
PD].§
There appear to be several flaws in the
argued derivation from ‘‘Kanaka”’ sources,
to which we shall return later on. More
important is the line of reasoning that
Barbeau follows in arriving at his conclu-
sions. One of his basic points is that totem
poles are not described in the accounts left
by early European and American explorers.
The other is that while aboriginal tools
may have sufficed for the carving of small
objects, massive carvings such as those of
the totem poles were not practicable until
the introduction of iron and steel tools by
the maritime traders. The reader is in some-
thing of a quandary, in regard to the first
point, when he reads the quotations from
Bartlett and Fleurieu that Barbeau him-
self cites, describing tall elaborately carved
entry-poles of Haida winter houses in the
vicinity of Cloak Bay, seen in 1791.° It
appears, however, that Barbeau draws a
distinction between the detached memorial
poles, which are his “totem poles,” and
carvings which were integral parts of the
houses, such as the carved house posts,
and the entry or frontal-poles that con-
tained the doorway by means of which one
entered the house. We may perhaps grant
him the distinction between carved house
posts, and the much taller memorial and
entry-poles, carved with multiple figures,
but to separate the memorial or com-
memorative poles from the entry-poles
rather vitiates his argument as to the neces-
sity for iron or steel tools for the carving of
the former. While from the functional
point of view the two varieties of tall
carved poles may have been distinct, they
were stylistically alike, and one type in-
8 Barbeau, 1929, pp. 26-27.
° Op. cit., pp. 16, 17. The Bartlett drawing is in
a manuscript in the possession of Col. L. R.
Jenkins, Director of the Peabody Museum,
Salem. It has been published in E. Snow’s The
sea, the ship, and the sailor, Salem, 1925.
Dec. 15, 1948 DRUCKER: ANTIQUITY OF NORTHWEST COAST TOTEM POLE
volved no more labor than the other in its
execution. It is worth noting that the dis-
tribution of the entry-pole, set against the
outside of the house with the open mouth
of a huge figure forming the doorway, had a
rather wide if sporadic distribution (and
the sporadicity may be due in part to in-
completeness of our information from the
early historic period). In addition to its oc-
currence among the Haida,’° it is reported
by a number of observers among the
Central Nootkan Clayoquot: Meares, in
1788, and Haswell and Boit, in 1799, were
all impressed by the Clayoquot portal pole
in “Wikannannish’s” house." Haswell’s
peculiarly punctuated but graphic descrip-
tion of the Clayoquot village is worth
quoting:
Their Towns are larger and much more numer-
ously inhabited than those of the Sound (i.e.,
Nootka Sound. PD) they are better bult. And are
cleaner their Clumas or carved pillers are more
numerous and better exicuted some of these are
so large that the Mouth serves as doarway into
their houses some of their ridgpoals which are of
incredable length and bulk are neatly Fluted
others are painted in resemblance of various sorts
of beasts and birds we met with resemblences of
the Sun both painted and carved the rays shoot
from every side of the orb which like our Country
Sign painters they pictur with eyes nose and
mouth and a round plump face.”
In addition to the fact that the memorial
poles and the entry-poles must be accounted
as essentially the same, technologically, at
least, there is the fact that memorial poles
themselves are reported from several local-
ities during the 1790’s. Barbeau himself
quotes a passage from Ingraham’s Journal
of the Hope in which Ingraham relates that
he went to see ‘2 pillars in front of a Haida
village .. . about 40 feet in height, carved
in a very curious manner, indeed, represent-
10 Marchand, Bartlett, and others have given
us descriptions of tall Haida portal poles, elabo-
rately carved, seen in the early 1790’s. These de-
scriptions, which Barbeau (1929) has reproduced
in full, make clear that the objects were tall poles,
not “posts through which a round mouthlike en-
trance had been cut,” as Barbeau phrases it
(1947, p. 235).
11 Meares, quoted by Barbeau, loc. cit., p. 16;
Haswell and Boit in: F. W. Howay, Voyages of
the Columbia, Massachusetts Hist. Soc. Publ. 61,
69 pp. Boston, 1941.
12 HASWELL, loc. cit.
O91
ing Men, Toads, etc... .’’!® There can be
little doubt that these were totem pole; of
the same type as those erected in the
middle of the 19th century. Fleurieu refers
somewhat vaguely to ‘‘monuments in
honor of the dead” seen at several Haida
villages, but does not make clear whether
these are the ‘‘mausolea or tombs”’ he de-
scribed elsewhere (platforms on top of 10-
foot poles, and boxes ‘“‘wrought with art”
supported on four short posts). At Lituya
Bay, in 1793, the Malaspina expedition
saw, and the artist Tomas de Suria sketched,
a huge mortuary carving, very clearly rep-
resenting a grizzly bear, set up alongside of
some elaborately carved mortuary boxes
raised on poles. In 1794 there occurred the
interesting circumstance of a trading ship
captain’s assisting a Haida chief in setting
up a memorial pole. The captain was
Josiah Roberts, of the ship Jefferson, out
of Boston; the Haida chief was ‘‘Cunneah,”’
a well-known personage among the mari-
time traders of the day, whose village was
situated on North Island, on Parry Passage.
Howay has summarized the very interest-
ing journal of this voyage, which was kept
by Bernard Magee, the first officer.
Thanks to the courtesy of the director of
the Massachusetts Historical Society,
where the original manuscript journal is
preserved, I was permitted to read and ex-
tract pertinent passages from Magee’s ac-
count. They run as follows:
[June 17th, 1794]. . . in the afternoon the Capt.
with the Carpenters & some hands in the pinnace
went to the village at the request of Cunneah to
Me INGRAHAM, quoted in Barbeau, 1939, p.
496.
14 FLEURIEU, quoted by Barbeau, op. cit., pp.
17-18, 203.
14 This Suria drawing was noted some years
ago by Wagner in a paper on Suria’s journal (H.
R. Wa@neER, The voyage of Tomas de Suria to the
Northwest coast, 1791-1793, Pacific Hist. Rev. 5:
234-276. 1936. The drawing appears in a publica-
tion of the Museo Naval de Madrid, 1932; it has
recently been reproduced by Wolfgang Paalen
in a very enlightened article on Northwest coast
art published in the magazine DYN (no. 4-5,
Mexico, 1943).
16 F, W. Howay, A Yankee trader on the North-
west coast, 1791-1795, Washington Hist. Quarterly
21: 83-94. 1930. Barbeau, 1947, p. 250, appar-
ently refers to this incident when he speaks of “‘a
seaman named Jefferson” who helped the Haidas
erect a carved pole.
392
plane and smooth a monumental pillar of wood—
previous to its erection on the morrow—in the
evening returned on board...
[18th] . . . in the morning I went in the pinnace
with the Carpenters and 2 hands to the village
took along with us 2 spair topmasts for sheers &
sufficient Tackling to set up the pillar—which in
the afternoon got in its place—after finishing the
necessary requisites for its intended purpose of
sepulture of a daughter of Cunneah’s—I returned
to the’ ship. /':) *
On the 19th, Cunneah and his wife in-
vited Captain Roberts and his officers to
the village. The captain, the ship’s doctor,
and the supercargo attended the mortuary
potlatch. Cunneah gave each of the officers
a sea-otter skin, the dead child’s father
(Magee seems to have erred in his state-
ment of the relationship made the previous
day) likewise made them gifts, and other
chiefs followed suit. Cunneah then re-
quested the captain to have the pole
painted. This passage with the description
of the potlatch has been published ver-
batim by Howay in his paper on the journal.
Some days later, Magee was again sent by
the captain to the village:
[July 8th] ...in the afternoon I went to the
village with some hands at the desire of Cunneah
in the morning—to raise an image on the monu-
ment lately set up—which they cut and carved
with a great deal of art—being the representation
of some wild anemile—unknown to us—somewhat
the resemblance of a tode...
Several interesting details may be re-
marked in this account in addition to the
fact of the erection of a mortuary pole,
which we may suppose to have been (and
as a slightly later journal makes clear
definitely was) a pole like the famous re-
cent Old Kasaan Bear pole, with the addi-
tion of having a small excavation chopped
out in the back to contain the dead child’s
body, Haida-fashion. We note that even in
1794, after some years of contact and trade
in the Parry Passage vicinity, where nearly
all ships that made the coast put in, the
Indians, despite their appreciation of white
carpenters’ and riggers’ superior techniques,
had not acquired the manual dexterity to
use the European tools, which of course
require a completely different set of motor
habits. As a matter of fact, ethnographic
accounts show that the adz in one or
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
another of its local forms remained in use
until the latter part of the nineteenth
century. It persisted despite the fact that
for close work it is a much more laborious
and a much slower implement than the ~
plane and spokeshave. The same _per-
sistence of old tool patterns is documented
at Nootka Sound, not far to the south,
where white contact was even more intense
than in Haida territory. Jewitt relates that
during his enforced stay at Nootka, 1803 to
1805, the natives continued felling trees
with their iron-bladed chisels, although it
took several of them two or three days to
fell a tree, chipping away around and
around it beaver-fashion, that he and
Thompson could have laid low in a few
hours with their axes. And yet, being a
practical people, the Northwest coast na-
tives recognized the advantages of the
superior tools it took them so long to get the
knack of using.
It should be noted too, in Magee’s ac-
count, that the initiative in the matter
came from Cunneah; Captain Roberts
simply had the base pole cut and “‘planed”’
and set up as the Haida chief wanted it
done. Roberts’s aim was clear. All he cared
about was cultivating the chief’s goodwill,
in the hope of being given preference when
the latter had furs for trade. The ‘“‘wild
anemile”’ figure that surmounted the post
was carved by native craftsmen; certainly
there is no intimation that the ship’s car-
penters had the least thing to do with it.
We are fortunate in having a description
of this same pole from the pen of a more
articulate writer than Magee. In 1799, the
ship Hliza, Captain James Rowan, out of
Boston, was trading along the Queen
Charlotte Islands. On March 22 of that
year, her ship’s clerk, whose journal is
preserved in the Massachusetts Historical
Society archives, went ashore to spend the
night at Cunneah’s invitation.!”7 The journal
gives a lively sketch of Haida house-life, as
17 As Howay has pointed out (in the Voyages of
the Columbia, p. 96, note 3. 1941), the attribution
of this journal to William Sturgis is incorrect.
Sturgis was first officer of the Eliza on this voyage,
and his log is in the same archives, but it is a real
deck log—his ‘‘Remarks”’ columns contain almost
nothing but winds, sails set, depth of water and
type of ground at anchorages, and the like.
393
ANTIQUITY OF NORTHWEST COAST TOTEM POLE
Dec. 15, 1948 DRUCKER
"AZOIDOY [BOLIOFSIFT SPPOSNYOVsse
ay} Jo Asoz.1n09 oY} YSnoIyy poonpoidoy (6621) 02274 drys 94} Jo [eurnol oy} wos ‘oseTTIA _.s,MvouuNngD,, Jo
Y Ped es ee “st Pty
MIA—T “OWT
394
witnessed on that occasion, then under the
date of March 23, goes on to say:
In the morning I rose early to examine the
village, and take a sketch of it... [this sketch
s reproduced in Fig. 1 of the present paper. PD]
the village consisted of 8 houses of which Cun-
neaws was the largest, being about 50 feet long,
30 broad and 15 to the rise of the roof. to the
peak of it I suppose was about 22 or 3 feet. At
the right hand of the village as you go to it were a
number of wooden structures raised I suppose over
the bodies of their dead chiefs. some were exactly
like a gallows, some a solid square piece of timber
about 15 feet high on which were carved the
figures of men and children. but the only thing I
saw which had any idea of proportion, was a
Pillar by the side of Cunneaw’s house on top of
which was a figure intended to represent a bear;
the figure and Pillar were both painted red with
Ochre. the teeth, eyes, nostrils, and the inside of
the ears (which were stuck forward) of the animal
were made of mother of Pear] shell; which gave it a
very beautiful appearance, in comparison to what
North West Sculpture generally has...
This pole, consisting of an animal figure
surmounting a straight plain shaft, along-
side the same chief’s house, must have been
the one Magee told of, even though he
thought the ‘‘wild anemile”’ figure repre-
sented a ‘‘tode.’”? His remark that it was
“carved with a great deal of art’ is signifi-
cant. In other words, the bear figure, which
called forth both men’s admiration, was a
pretty gaudy, not to say garish, item. This
fact, together with the utter lack of com-
ment on the other carved poles by most
writers (and the very casual mention by the
writer of the journal just quoted), suggests
that the few data we have on Northwest
coast carving from the early historic
period are more justly to be attributed to
the poor artistic taste of the seafarers than
to the nonexistence of the sculptures at
that time. A few days before the writing
of the above passage, the journal has a
description of ‘‘Altatsee’s village of Ta-
tanee,’”? near Cloak Bay, which, we are
informed, ‘‘consisted of the large Number of
two Houses...’ Going ashore in the
evening, the keeper of the journal spent the
night, and then, under the date of March
11, relates:
I rose at daybreak and having taken a sketch
of the two houses, to save the length of descrip-
tion [this sketch unfortunately is missing from
the journal. PD], and seen two images that were
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
at a short distance from them which Altatsee
told me were intended to represent two Chiefs,
that were his relatives (or rather they were his
ancestors for they looked as if they were upwards
of a hundred years of age) that had been killed
in battle... (etc.)
In addition to the lack of appreciation of
native art, we have so few mentions of
carved poles for another very obvious
reason. The winter villages, where such
poles stood, were situated in sheltered
coves with sloping sand or gravel beaches
on which canoes were easily landed and
launched. These sites are often actually
partly drowned alluvial fans. The sailing-
ship people sought anchorages in coves and
harbors of quite another sort: they needed
sheltered but deep water, so that they
could pay out plenty of cable and swing
with the tides without going aground.
Sometimes they moored, of course, usually
by a bower anchor and a hawser run from
aft to the shore, made fast to a tree, but
this was an emergency measure, really, and
dangerous because at times the Indians
cut the hawsers, either to steal them or
with the hope of wrecking the vessel. Ac-
tually few people on board, aside from those
who deliberately went by boat or canoe for
the purpose, ever saw the winter villages.
In addition, many of the traders stayed on
the coast only through the summer season,
and lay to off localities where the summer
camps of the natives were, running down to
the Hawaiian Islands to winter if they
wanted to trade a second season.
However, even from the few accounts
mentioned, it seems fairly clear that in the
1790’s, when the traders first began to
comb the coast, and visited the winter
villages, there were not only elaborately
carved portal or entry poles in Haida ter-
ritory (and at Clayoquot), but there were
also mortuary and memorial poles standing
at the Haida villages and among the
northern Tlingit. It seems that such poles
were more common!y to one side of the
village (among the Haida and at Lituya
Bay), rather than directly in front of it, as
the later custom developed, but they were
being put up, nonetheless. I am not familiar
with any journal that describes Tsimshian
winter villages of this period. The Eliza
Dec. 15, 1948 DRUCKER: ANTIQUITY OF NORTHWEST COAST TOTEM POLE
appears to have been one of the first trading
vessels, if not the first, to trade with the
Nisga up Observatory Inlet, but her people
never went up the mouth of the river to the
village and have left no description of it.
There is another line of evidence con-
cerning use of memorial poles which may
be considered. De Laguna has recently
traced use of such features—most of them
are, to be sure, less ornate than those of the
northern Northwest coast, but many of
them involved some carving of simple
figures, and/or painting—from as far south
as the Columbia River Basin northward
along the coast to southwest Alaska and
down the coast of northeast Asia.!® On the
basis of such a distribution, the Tlingit-
Haida-Tsimshian memorial pole complex
(and the intimately related entry-pole pat-
tern) would seem to be but a local in-
tensification and elaboration of what has
all the earmarks of a moderately old trait.
To return a moment to the question of
“Kanaka”’ influence on Northwest coast
art, it is necessary to consider the route of
the English and American traders. After
beating their way around Cape Horn they
sometimes put in for wood and water at
islands off the South American coast. The
Americans were a little chary of doing this,
the English dared not, for their ships were
sure to be confiscated and they themselves
interned by the jealous Spanish authorities.
Whether they put in there or not, however,
they stood for the Hawaiian Islands run-
ning before the Southeast Trade Winds,
where they were sure of plenty of water,
fresh stores, and wood. Many ships that
planned to spend several seasons trading
on the Coast ran down to the Islands to
winter. By and large the traders main-
tained good relations with the Hawaiians,
being very conscious of the latter’s numbers
and warlike proclivities—besides those
natives had no treasures by which the
traders might be tempted. The captains
soon learned that when they were short a
hand or two, replacements could be re-
cruited easily (very early in the trade, a
18 F, pE Lacuna, The prehistory of northern
North America as seen from the Yukon. Soc. Amer.
Arch. Mem. 3 (Suppl. to Amer. Antiquity 12:
no. 3), pp. 90 ff. 1947.
395
chief’s son who wanted to see the world
was taken to the Coast, to China, and back
to Hawaii, which may have set a precedent),
and the Hawaiians seem to have made good
hands. We know that several Hawaiians
made more than one voyage to the North-
west coast, for at times they acted as in-
terpreters between Indians and whites.!
Yet there seem to be no records—at least I
know of none—of Maori being taken to the
Northwest coast. Yet the Maori carved
portal poles and carved house fronts are
the ones whose similarity to Northwest
coast totem poles is pointed out by Bar-
beau; the Hawaiians, so far as we know,
did no such elaborate monumental carving.
The use of abalone-shell inlays is more
easily understood as the transfer of the
inlay technique from sea-otter teeth and
the opercula of a sea snail, which was noted
by the earliest voyagers on the Northwest
coast,?° to a new and attractive material.
The shells themselves seem to have been
imported from California by the Spanish—
not from the ‘South Seas’—they are
usually referred to in the accounts as
‘“Monterrey shells.”
Barbeau also brings up the question of
Russian influence on the Northwest coast
at a very early period.”! That too is a doubt-
ful point. The Russians were in ‘‘Alaska”’
by the middle of the eighteenth century,
but the part of Alaska they were in is a
long way from the Northwest coast. They
were reaping a golden harvest in southwest
Alaska, and so far as available records go
made no attempt to cross the Gulf of
Alaska until well along in the 1790’s (estab-
lishing a short-lived post at Yakutat 1796
and an ill-fated fort near Sitka, in 1799).
Native trade along this wide unfriendly
reach of coast did occur—as witness the
Cross Sound atlatls, Aleut in type carved
with Tlingit designs, and the wmzak, per-
haps Chugachmiut in origin, seen at Port
Mulgrave by La Perouse,” but there is no
19 QuiMBY, 1948, refers to a number of cases of
Hawaiians who shipped to the coast.
20 Cf. JAMES Cook, Voyage to the Pacific Ocean
(etc.) 2: 327.
21 BARBEAU, 1929. p. 22.
22'The atlatls are figured by O. M. Datron,
Ethnographic collections from the northern coast of
North America. Internat. Archiv fiir Ethnogr.
396
evidence that such trade occurred on a
scale sufficient to account for the abun-
dance of iron on the Northwest coast as
having simply been passed on from the
Russian establishment on Kodiak: Island.
After all, Nootka Sound is many miles and
a multitude of hands, in hand to hand ex-
change, from Kodiak Island, and it was at
Nootka that Cook saw iron-bladed tools to
the practical exclusion of all other forms.
There is no evidence, in short, that the
Russian influence on Tlingit and other
Northwest coast tribes was of any impor-
tance until the very end of the eighteenth
century, by which time the natives had
learned a smattering of English and had
acquired vast quantities of American and
British-made trade goods.
Nor can trade from Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany posts be considered a very likely
source. For one thing, in Cook’s time, and
for some years, the nearest Hudson’s Bay
post was many days’ travel inland, to the
east of the Rockies. For another, the types
of the iron implements themselves—the
heavy-bladed, rapidly tapering daggers
(on the northern coasts, at least, double-
pointed ones were in vogue at the time of
first European visits) and the well-known
curved knives—do not appear to have been
forms made and traded by Hudson’s Bay
Company. And finally, if any coureur de
bois who had any contact with outlying
Hudson’s Bay posts had ever crossed the
mountains, Mackenzie, who was a practical
as well as a bold explorer, would surely
have got information that would have saved
him many of the painful mistakes he made
on his heartbreaking “journey to the
Pacific Ocean.”
It seems evident, in short, that the source
of Northwest coast iron tools can not be
attributed either to Russian or to Hudson’s
Bay Company sources but must have Jain
in some earlier iron-using contact, from
which the precious pieces came along well-
10: 227-245, pl. 15. 1897. C. H. Reap, Account of
a collection ..., Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. 21:
99-108, fig. 3, 1891. A. P. NipuacKk, The Coast
Indians of Southern Alaska..., U.S. Nat. Mus.
Rept. for 1888, pp. 225-386. 1890. The umiak is
described and figured by La Perouse, Voyage
autour le monde... , 1: 390. Paris, 1797.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
established trade channels, dribbling slowly
down the length of the coast. One is tempted
to suggest some late (A.D.) Siberian ‘Iron
Age’’ culture as a source, despite present
lack of knowledge of the eastward extent
of such cultures. Collins has discussed in
some detail the most likely source of the
iron found in the Punuk horizon of western
Eskimo culture; the metal made its ap-
pearance at the beginning of that period,
more than a thousand years ago.” Iron
from the same Asiatic source may have
been transmitted along a route that even-
tually brought it to the natives of the
Northwest coast in ancient times. That
iron from a non-European source was in
use in the Alaska Peninsula at the begin-
ning of the historic period is made clear by
Steller’s remarks concerning the iron knives
carried by the natives he saw on the
Shumagin Islands in 1741. He states:
From the distance I observed the nature of the
knife very carefully as one of the Americans un-
sheathed it .... It was easy to see that it was of
iron, and, besides, that it was not like any Euro-
pean product.”4
The persistent tradition among North-
west coast natives that their forefathers
first obtained iron from timbers containing
spikes or bolts or other fittings that drifted
up on the beach—presumably timbers of
wrecked vessels—has suggested to some
writers that this material may have come
from junks—Chinese or Japanese—swept
from the Asiatic coast by the Japanese
Current. The possibility of such craft
reaching the Northwest coast periodically,
with iron implements aboard, and perhaps
survivors of their crews to teach the use of
them, can not be dismissed. We have not
only the evidence of the Japanese glass
net floats, and more recently, mines, that
drift ashore in quantities on the outer
beaches from the Queen Charlotte Islands
to the Oregon, and perhaps northern Cali-
fornia coasts, but there is the well-docu-
mented incident of the Japanese junk
23 Henry B. Coxuuins, Jr., Archeology of St.
Lawrence Island, Alaska. Smithsonian Mise.
Coll. 96, no. 1, pp. 304-305, 329. 1937.
24 STELLER, 2n F. A. Golder, Bering’s voyages,
Amer. Geogr. Soc. Research Ser. No. 2, 2: 97.
1922.
———
Duc. 15, 1948 MILLER: ARCHEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF BUGGS ISLAND RESERVOIR
wrecked on Cape Flattery with three crew-
men still alive.” Or perhaps both these
possible sources were involved, including
the Siberian Iron Age one.
This discussion seems to have gone
pretty far afield from its avowed theme of
Northwest coast totem poles. Yet all the
facts are pertinent. Even if the hypothesis
is allowed that the origin of Northwest
coast art was intimately linked with the
use of metal tools, it is not necessary to as-
sume that these tools, and the beginnings of
the art style and even its maximum ex-
pression in the great carved poles, mus! be
2 C. M. Drury, Early American contacts with
the Japanese. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 36:
319-330. 1945.
However, despite Quimby’s statements (1948,
p. 247), there are no known records of Japanese
reaching the coast during the period of the mari-
time trade, let alone before. As for timbers with
iron in them, however, wrecks of junks seem
doubtful possibilities. At least it is my under-
standing that one of the characteristics of junks,
in addition to their bluff lines, shallow keels, and
lug sails, is the lack of metal involved in their
construction. For iron-bearing timbers the best
possibility would seem to be wreckage from the
occasional lost ‘‘nao de Manila’’—the galleons
that plied between Manila and Acapulco begin-
ning nearly two centuries before Cook stood in to
Nootka Sound.
397
dated after the period of first European con-
tacts in the closing decades of the eight-
eenth century. Three separate sets of
facts indicate that Northwest coast art,
and the carving of totem poles themselves,
antedated all European influences in the
area. First, not only small objects carved
in best Northwest coast style but totem
poles themselves were seen by the first
Europeans who had the curiosity to go
visit the winter villages where such poles
might be found, in northern Tlingit coun-
try, among the Haida, and in a related
form, among the Nootkan Clayoquot.
Second, these poles, or at least the poles in
their memorial function, seem to represent
an elaboration of a burial complex involving
use of memorial poles set up by the graves
that extended from the Northwestern
United States clear around the Pacific rim
into northeastern Asia. And finally, even
if such carving was dependent on the use of
iron (as of course can not be conclusively
proved), it seems most probable that the
tribes of the Northwest coast obtained their
iron from some Asiatic source long before
the entry of Europeans or Russians into
the North Pacific. |
ARCHEOLOGY .—Early cultural manifestations exposed by the archeological survey
of the Buggs Island Reservoir in southern Virginia and northern North Carolina.
CaRL F. Miuuier, River Basin Surveys, Bureau of American Ethnology,
Smithsonian Institution.
During the months of February through
April 1947, three governmental agencies,
the Corps of Engineers, the National Park
Service, and the Smithsonian Institution
conducted an archeological survey of the
area to be flooded by the Buggs Island dam.
The dam is being constructed 178.7 river
miles above the mouth of the Roanoke
River in Mecklenburg County, Va., about
20.3 miles downstream from Clarksville,
Va., and 18 miles upstream from the
Virginia—North Carolina boundary, taking
in part of Mecklenburg, Halifax, and
Charlotte Counties in Virginia and Warren,
Vance, and Granville Counties in North
Carolina.
! Received September 2, 1948.
(Communicated by MarruHEw W. STIRLING.)
The Roanoke River rises on the eastern
slopes of the Appalachian Mountains, flows
in a southeasterly direction toward the
Atlantic coast, and empties into Albemarle
Sound, N. C. The principal tributary, the
Dan River, rises in Patrick County, Va.,
flows into North Carolina, and ultimately
returns to Virginia where it enters the
Roanoke at Clarksville. A small portion of
the drainage basin lies in the rugged terrain
of the Allegheny and Blue Ridge Moun-
tains, the remainder is in the Piedmont
Plateau. The latter is a rolling to hilly
country with elevations ranging from 300
to 900 feet above mean sea level. The river
channel varies in width from 100 feet in the
upper to about 800 feet in the lower reaches.
Ninety-four sites were listed by the
398
survey, these comprising 34 village sites, 17
camp sites, 41 flint work shops, and 2
historic iron-working sites. In addition,
eight other sites were located outside of the
reservoir proper, which will be affected by
the reservoir action.
The survey shows that most of the in-
habitants preferred to settle on the bottom
lands usually on’ ground high enough to
aftord enough drainage yet close to the river
or its tributaries. It is upon the hills away
from the streams that the oldest manifesta-
tions were found. No mounds were noted
within the Basin.
Evidence gathered during the survey
points to two main cultural horizons, an
extremely early culture characterized by
an eastern variant of Folsom, as dis-
tinguished from the true Folsom found in
the western part of the United States, and
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
accompanying groups, besides a very much
later pottery-making group. Evidence of
early man is not new, as former workers
have noted his remains in Virginia and
other parts of the Kast. Large numbers of
points (Fig. 1, a-d) attributed to the east-
ern variant of Folsom have been noted as
coming from this particular section of
Virginia and North Carolina. The possibil-
ity of two Folsom camp sites within the
basin makes the area more interesting.
In the interval between the Folsom oc-
cupation and the later occupants of the
area, it seems that other early groups were
present. This evidence occurs in the form of
projectile points having characteristic out-
lines, peculiarities of chipping—readily rec-
ognized out of context, and are comparable
to a number found in sites in the western
part of the United States.
Fig. 1.—Types of early projectile points from the Buggs Island Reservoir: a—d, eastern variant of
the Folsom; e-g, Gypsum Cave; h-l, pentagonal; m, n, Manzano points.
7
Saas ilinak dia orien
Dec. 15, 1948 STONE: SIMULIUM VIRGATUM AND A NEW RELATED SPECIES
Harrington? in his exploration of the
Gypsum Cave in Nevada located a number
of points attributed by him to early oc-
cupants of the cave and were called Gypsum
Cave points. These resemble a number of
points, similar in outline and chipping,
found in southern Spain and assigned to
the Solutrean Period. Points resembling
these were recovered from the surface of
sites in the Buggs Island basin; the best of
these are shown in Fig. 1, e-g.
Hibben,’ while excavating a cave in the
Manzano Mountains in New Mexico, found
another distinctive type of point which he
attributes to early man in that section.
Similar points (Fig. 1, m. n) were recovered
from the surface of a site in the Buggs
Island basin. These points resemble those
found by Harrington at Gypsum Caves
with the exception that the Manzano
specimens seem to have considerably more
flare and definition of shoulder and appar-
ently can be assigned to the same relative
period, that is, later than Folsom. In this
ease the makers of this type of point came
into southern Virginia and northern North
2 HARRINGTON, MarK RAYMOND, Gypsum Cave
Nevada. Southwest Museum Papers, no. 8. 1933.
3 HipBEN, FRANK C. Evidences of early occupa-
tion in Sandia Cave, New Mezico, and other sites
in the Sandia-Manzano region. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll. 99 (23). 1941.
ENTOMOLOGY .—Simulium virgatum
(Diptera: Simuliidae).! ALAN STONE,
Quarantine.
Since considerable confusion exists as to
the identity of the simuliid fly Simulzwm
virgatum Coquillett, this paper is offered
to facilitate determination of the species
and to describe a closely related new species
that has been confused with it. The species
here treated fall into the subgenus Dyarella
Vargas, Martinez, and Diaz (1946) (type,
Simulium mexicanum Bellardi), and this
paper deals with the only two species of the
subgenus now known from the United
States. This subgenus may be diagnosed as
follows:
Usually rather large species; antenna with
11 segments; anterior veins of wing with
1 Received October 8, 1948.
399
Carolina at a time when Folsom points were
no longer manufactured and possibly when
Folsom man had vacated this section of the
country.
Various pentagonal types are found as-
sociated with the eastern variant of the
Folsom which show fluting and comparable
base treatment. These are best illustrated
by types h, 2,7, k, and l, of Fig. 1.
Apparently there was a time, after these
early occupants, when no settlements were
established in the area. At a much later
date a possible prepottery group infiltrated
and occupied certain sections of Virginia
and North Carolina which in turn were fol-
lowed by pottery-making groups whose cul-
ture compares favorably with that of the
Watts Bar and Candy Creek Foci of
Tennessee.
At the time of the coming of white man a
Siouan group is reported to have occupied
the Occaneechi Island at the confluence of
the Dan and Roanoke Rivers. This site was
abandoned before or about 1700 for in 1701
they were reported to be occupying sites
in northern North Carolina.
The archeology of this section of the East
is practically unknown, and until actual ex-
cavation of the various sites has been ac-
complished and a thorough study of the
data obtained, no definite tie-in with known
cultures can be made.
Coquillett and a new related species
U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant
both hairs and spines; vein R with or with-
out setae; radial sector not forked; vein
Cu. curved; postnotum without pilosity;
hind basitarsus with a_ well-developed
calcipala; second hind tarsal segment with
a distinct pedisulcus; each claw of hind
tarsus of female with a subbasal tooth;
anterior gonapophyses of female genitalia
large, their inner margins subparallel; para-
procts small; dististyle of male genitalia
large and somewhat flattened. not more than
3 times as long as wide with no basal process
but with lateral margin sinuous.
The species of this subgenus are not
known to attack man, but several have been
found feeding on horses.
+00
The references given in this paper are by
no means complete, only those of real signifi-
cance being listed.
Simulium (Dyarella) virgatum Coquillett
Simulium virgatum Coquillett, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 25: 97. 1902 (9, o); Dyar and Shannon,
Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 69(10): 39, figs. 82, 83,
126, 127, 128. 1927 (9, o); Fairchild, Ann.
nt. Soc. Amer. 33(4) 718, figs. 5, 7, 32. 1940
(2, pupa); Stains and Knowlton, Ann. Ent.
Soc. Amer. 36(2): 274, fig. 75. 1943 (9 only).
Simulium hippovorum Malloch, U. S. Bur. Ent.
Tech. Ser. no. 26: 28, pl. 2, fig. 12. 1914 (9).
Simulium rubicundulum Knab, Insecutor In-
scitiae Menstruus 2(12): 178. 1914 (9);
Vargas, Martinez, and Diaz, Rev. Inst. Salub.
y Enferm. Trop. 7(3): 105, 106, 111, 163, 179,
figs. 1382, 160. 1946 (<7, larva).
Simulium virgatum chiapense Hoffmann, [Mex.]
Univ. Nac. An. Inst. Biol. 1(4): 293-297, figs.
2, 9. 1930 (2 pupa).
Simulium mathesont Vargas, Rev. Inst. Salub. y
Enferm. Trop. 4(4): 360, figs. 39-43. 1943 (7)
(new synonymy).
Simulium virgatum may be distinguished
from all of the species now placed in the sub-
genus Dyarella by the following diagnostic
characters:
Male: Scutum with stripes, when viewed
posteriorly the pale stripes broad and distinct
to the prescutellar depression; wing at least
3.5 mm long; all hairs at base of costa dark.
Genitalia: Adminiculum (Fig. 3) with a strong
median projection from the posterior border
nearly half as long as dististyle; lateral angle of
adminiculum a rounded rectangle, the space
between central process and lateral margin not
strongly concave; dististyle (Fig. 5) when flat-
tened with inner margin nearly straight, outer
margin distinctly curved; distal spine very
small.
Female: Scutum with distinct curved stripes;
wing at least 3.5 mm long; hairs at base of
costa on dorsal surface dark; tibiae rather
broadly orange-brown medially, not mostly
dark with a narrow subbasal pale ring. The
female is not separable externally from bricefiot
V.M. & D., or hinmani V.M. & D. Genital fork
(Fig. 1) with strong inwardly directed tooth
from each arm near base as well as a strong
outwardly directed projection; handle with
swollen knob at end; paraprocts with strong
hairs confined to posterior margin.
Pupa: Respiratory filaments (Fig. 9) 8
(6 in two groups of 8, 2 single); dorsum of
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 12
thorax smooth, not strongly reticulated. Co-
coon (Fig. 7) with dorsal aperture surrounded |
by numerous projections connected distally.
Type data: Simulium virgatum Coquillett:
27°9%,29 9, Las Vegas Hot Springs, N. Mex.
August 4 to 14 (H. 8. Barber). U.S.N.M. no.
6183. The male, collected August 4 with the
genitalia mounted on a slide and bearing the
label “Type” and Coquillett’s determination
label, is here designated lectotype.
Simulium hippovorum Malloch: One female
in ear of horse, head of Rio Piedras Verdes,
altitude about 7,300 feet, Sierra Madre, Mexico
(C. H. T. Townsend). U.S.N.M. no. 15407.
Simulium rubicundulum Knab: Cérdoba,
Mexico, December 17, 1907, one 2 (F. Knab);
Las Vegas Hot Springs, N. Mex., August 7,
one 92 (H. S. Barber), U.S.N.M. no. 19112
The Cérdoba specimen was selected by Dyar
and Shannon (1927) as type. The other speci-
men is presumably one of the females of the
type series of virgatum, only the specimen of
virgatum here selected as lectotype having
received a type label.
Simulium virgatum chiapense Hoffmann:
Only the female originally described. As far as
I can discover no lectotype has been selected
for this nor is it certain where the original
material is now. The pupal filaments of vir-
gatum were first figured in this paper under the
name virgatum chiapense.
Stmulium mathesoni Vargas: Holotype male,
1,400-1,500 m elevation, November 21, 1943,
Temixco, Morelos, Mexico (A. Martinez P.).
Instituto de Salubridad y Enfermedades
Tropicales, Mexico. In addition to the holotype
two pupae were also described.
DIsTRIBUTION. United States: California:
Alameda, Calaveras, Fresno, Lake, Los Angeles,
Madera, Mariposa, Monterey, Napa, Placer,
San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Clara,
Siskiyou, and Solano Counties. New Mexico:
San Miguel County. South Dakota: Fall
River County. Texas: Edwards, Medina,
Travis, Uvalde, Williamson, and Zavala Coun-
ties. Utah: Grand, Utah, and Washington
Counties. Washington: Yakima County. Mez--
ico: States of Chiapas, Veracruz, and Chi-
huahua.
The above distribution is based only on
specimens actually seen by me. Fairchild also
reports it from Guatemala and Panama and
Stains and Knowlton from Oregon. A recent
Dec. 15, 1948 STONE: SIMILIUM VIRGATUM AND A NEW RELATED SPECIES 401
communication from Dr. Dfaz N. lists the
species under the name rubicundulum only
from the states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Vera-
cruz in Mexico. In view of the wide distribution
8
of the species in the Western United States, it
is strange that it has not been collected in the
more northern states of Mexico. The extensive
California records are mostly due to the col-
Figs. 1-10.—Simulium virgatum Coquillett and S. solarti, n. sp.: Genital fork of 1, virgatum; 2,
solarzi. Adminiculum of 3, virgatum, 4, solariz. Dististyle of 5, virgatum, 6, solariz. Cocoon of 7, vir-
gatum, 8, solariz. Respiratory filaments of 9, virgatum, 10, solariz. Figs. 1-6 drawn to same scale.
402
lecting of T. H. G. Aitken and Bernard Brook-
man to whom I am indebted for material. Most
of the Texas specimens were collected by me
in April 1941.
Malloch placed Simulium hippovorum in a
different group of species from virgatum be-
cause of the presence of hairs on the pleuron in
addition to and anterior to the pleural tuft.
It is true that the type of hippovorum does show
distinct pale hairs at the top of the anterior
anepisternum, while these are not present in
the specimens of virgatum from Las Vegas Hot
Springs. Material from Texas reared from ap-
parently identical pupae shows these hairs
present or absent and it is my opinion that this
character has no real significance. Dyar and
Shannon (1927) also mentioned the variability
in this character. Malloch also stated that the
claw of hippovorum is untoothed, but a distinct
but small tooth is visible on all three pairs of
legs. The type of hippovorum would go to
virgatum in the key to females of Vargas and
Diaz (1948). The genital fork of the female is
exactly as figured by Hoffmann (1930) for
Simulium virgatum chiapense and agrees with
that of one of the females of the type series of
virgatum, and with those of two specimens
from Chiapas, Mexico.
The type of rubicundulum shows a few fine
hairs on the anterior anepisternum on one
side. The genital fork of the female is exactly
as in hippovorum and the other examples cited
in the preceding paragraph. It runs to hinmani
in the key of Vargas and Diaz (1948), but in
that species the handle of the genital fork has
no knob at the base.
It is not certain what specimen was used by
Dyar and Shannon (1927) in figuring the geni-
tal fork of virgatum, but it could have beer.
from the type series. The figure is slightly in-
accurate since it fails to show the abrupt knob
at the base of the handle. The male genitalia
are also poorly drawn, and it is impossible to
determine from what specimen the drawings
were made. The specimen listed from Clio.
Calif., is not now in the virgatum collection, and
so its identity can not be verified. That from
Devils River, Tex., is the new species described
in this paper.
The description and illustrations of vzrgatum
chiapense show this to agree in every detail
with the females of the type series of virgatum.
It is not clear what Hoffmann took to be the
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
type of virgatum when he compared chiapense
with it, but he probably thought that Dyar and
Shannon’s figures were accurate.
There seems to be nothing to distinguish
Simulium mathesoni from virgatum, the slightly
more rounded shoulders of the adminiculum, as
figured by Vargas, being found in some speci-
mens of virgatum. A comparison of the species
here treated as virgatum with males, females,
pupae, and larvae of specimens from Cérdoba.
Mexico, determined as mathesont by Vargas,
and kindly sent to me for that purpose, show
no differences of any consequence.
The female description and the distribution
of the species as given by Stains and Knowlton
(1943) agree with virgaltum, but the male is the
following species and will be discussed there.
Vargas, Martinez, and Diaz (1946) made two
errors in discussing Simulium virgatum. The
first was in stating that the name virgatum
was proposed to replace the preoccupied name
Simulium cinereum Bellardi. This was not the
case, since it was described as a new species
with no mention of cinerewm. Secondly, they
assumed that the figures by Stains and Knowl-
ton of the male of virgatum were correct so they
based their identification of virgatum on the
wrong species and resurrected rubicundulum
for the true virgatum. It is possible that
tephrodes Speiser (1904), a substitute name for
cinereum Bellardi, is the same as virgatum
since Morelia, the type locality of cinereum,
is not outside the range of virgatum, but until
the type of cinereum can be dissected and
studied there seems to be no possibility of
fixing its identity. It is outside the known
range of the new species here described, but
not of several of the other species of the group.
The topotype females of virgatum run to
hinmani in the key of Vargas and Diaz (1948),
differing from that species in the same manner
as did rubicundulum previously discussed.
Simulium (Dyarella) Solarii, n. sp.
Simulium virgaium Coquillett: Stains and Knowl-
ton, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 36(2): 274, figs. 90,
91. 1943 (o@ only); Vargas, Martinez, and
Diaz, Rev. Inst. Salub. y Enferm. Trop. 7(3):
106, 111, 164, 180, figs. 161, 162. 1948 (2,
larva).
Male: Thoracic length 1.3 mm; wing length
3 mm. Antenna yellow-brown, the scape and
pedicel paler; clypeus gray-pollinose with pale
hair; proboscis yellow; palpus brown with
Dec. 15, 1948
brown hair. Scutum dark reddish brown, with
fine, pale yellow, appressed hairs, the humeri
pale yellowish; a slender median and a pair
of curved submedian dark lines on scutum;
when viewed from in front a small, subrec-
tangular pollinose spot on each side of the
median line at anterior margin of scutum, and
sublaterally a short curved pollinose line just
outside of the curved dark line but extending
posteriorly only a short distance; a velvety
- dark brown spot in front of wing base; scutel-
lum slightly paler than scutum, with longer,
nearly white hairs; postnotum dark brown with
gray pollinosity: pleuron yellowish to dark
brown with thin grayish pollen; no anepisternal
hair tuft, the mesepimeral tuft pale yellow;
stem of halter yellow-brown, knob white.
Wing veins yellowish brown; hairs at base of
costa mostly pale yellow, a few dorsally darker;
hairs of basal vein brown; no hairs on vein R;
fore coxa yellow, mid and hind brown; femora
yellow, narrowly, obliquely darkened apically;
fore tibia yellow-brown sometimes somewhat
variegated with yellow, with pale pile; mid and
_ hind tibiae yellow-brown, with basal and sub-
basal paler rings; fore tarsus dark; mid tarsus
with basal three-fifths of first segment white,
the rest dark; hind tarsus with basal halves of
first and second segments white, the rest dark.
First abdominal tergite yellow, the rest brown;
sublateral spots of whitish pollen on some of
the segments; sternites pale yellow. Genitalia
dark brown, the dististyle large, broad, with
both margins curved (Fig. 6); adminiculum
with a short median projection and acutely
pointed lateral angles (Fig. 4).
Female: Thoracic length 1.5 mm; wing 3.5
mm. Antenna yellow-brown, the scape and
pedicel yellow; frons grayish-pollinose; clypeus
yellowish brown with thin gray pollen and pale
hair: palpus brown with brown hair. Scutum
when viewed from in front pale reddish brown,
with a very slender median dark line and a
pair of narrow curved dark lines merging with
a dark prescutellar area, and usually connected
at their closest proximity near anterior third of
scutum by a narrow dark, transverse line;
viewed from behind the dark pattern becomes
nearly white on a darker ground; humeri pale
yellow; a dark brown, rather small, velvety
patch in front of wing base; pleuron yellowish
to brown. with whitish pollinosity; no anepise
ternal hairs; mesepimeral tuft yellowish: halter
STONE: SIMULIUM VIRGATUM AND A NEW RELATED SPECIES
403
yellow, the stem darkened. Wing veins yel-
lowish brown; hairs at base of costa mostly
pale yellow, some dorsally darkened; hairs of
stem vein dark. Leg color essentially as in male,
but foretibia more frequently somewhat varie-
gated. Abdomen dark brown, with grayish
posterolateral bands on most segments; last
three tergites subshining, brown; paraprocts
with coarse hairs over most of surface; genital
fork as figured (Fig. 2); the end of the handle
may be somewhat swollen, but usually not as
abruptly or strongly so as in virgatum.
Pupa: Respiratory filaments (Fig. 10) 15,
(14 paired and 1 single) about 1 mm long, held
in a tight, forward-curving clump. Dorsum
of thorax smooth with no spicules or rugosities.
Cocoon (Fig. 8) with a smooth anterior rim
and no narrow projections. Total length 4
mm; dorsal length 3 mm.
Larva: This is not described in full at this
time because my knowledge of simuliid larvae
is not sufficient to evaluate the significant
characters. The submentum of this species,
lacking strong, sublateral teeth has been
figured by Vargas, Martinez, and Diaz (1946,
figs. 161 and 162) under the name of virgatum
and that of virgatum, with strong sublateral
teeth (fig. 160) under the name of rubicun-
dulum.
Holotype: Male, San Saba River, Menard
County, Tex. April 23, 1941 (A. Stone no. 68).
Paratypes: Texas: Same as holotype, 270,
19; Los Morros Creek, Menard, May 22,
1939, 92 @ (Roy Melvin), April 12-14, 1943,
lo, 22° 9 (C. L. Smith); August 10, 1942,
2% (Roy Melvin); Menard, June 21, 1939,
27%, 102 9 (Roy Melvin); Upper Little
Walnut Creek, Austin, 19386,1¢,49 9 (A. B.
Griffen); Nueces River, Uvalde County, April
21, 1941, 1o, 32 9 (A. Stone no. 57); Frio
River at Con Can, Uvalde County, April 21,
1941, 27% o%, 119 9 (A. Stone no. 59-60);
ex breast of horse, Con Can, July 29, 1914,;
25959 (DP Co Parman & > ©) Bishopp):
Uvalde, June 7, 1938, 8a oa (W. L. Barrett,
Jr.), April 18, 19389, 27¢%, 22 2 (Deonier &
Barrett); at light, Devils River, Valverde
County, May 5, 1997, 1 @ (Bishopp & Pratt);
Junction, Kimble County, February 21, 1938,
1¢, 12 (F. C. Bishopp); Kerrville, Kerr
County, April 6, 1948 (C. W. Sabrosky) 1 ¢:
Shovel Mount, Burnet County, April 12,3 ¢ 9.
Mexico: Xicotencatl, Tamaulipas, May 1944,
404
io, 19 (M. Macias G.); Las Cascadas, San
Luis Potosf, December 22, 1943 (A. Diaz N.);
wings, legs, and genitalia of male and female
on slides. Holotype and paratypes, U.S.N.M.
no. 58956; paratypes, Instituto Salubridade y
Enfermedades Tropicales, Mexico.
Also in the Museum but not designated as
paratypes are numerous larvae and pupae from
Uvalde, Edwards, and Menard Counties, and
the male genitalia from Austin mentioned
below.
Then
or terrace in the sun.
most abundant in t
of Texas.
The figures of the
ame is derived from solarium, a balcony
This species appears to be
he Balcones Escarpment
male genitalia of virgatum
published by Stains and Knowlton (1943) were
apparently based upon a specimen of solari
from Austin, Tex. The slide from which I
believe the drawings were made is labeled
“Simulium virgatum Coq. Det. G. 8. Stains
194, Austin, Tex. 10.18.22. Painter No. 60.”
Vargas, Martinez, and Diaz accepted these
figures as correct and determined solariz in
Mexico as virgatum.
The male of this species can be most readily
ZOOLOGY.
poda),
PAUL
ScHMITT.)
s Pharodes, instituted by C. B.
assigned to the family
The species proposed
then, P. tortugensis, alludes to the vicinity
of the Tortugas Laboratory, the locality of
the original collection of six female speci-
mens. These came from three common
species of host fish. The series is preserved
in the U.S. National Museum and has been
used in the present study to provide ampli-
fication of generic and specific characteris-
tics. This report adds to the genus Pharodes
biakensis, based upon a single pair. These
were found as parasites of a small reef fish,
Caracanthus unipinnus (Gray), collected at
Biak, New Guinea, by F. M. Bayer. Par-
asites and host have been deposited in the
and a des
The genu
Wilson in 1935, was
Chondracanthidae.
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received August 5,
1948.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 12
distinguished from virgatum by the pale hhivs
at base of costa, the scutal pattern, the shape
of the dististyle, and the acute inter an (a
of the adminiculum. The female may be dis.
tinguished by the narrower curved stripes of
the scutum, the usual connection between
these near front of scutum, the usually paler
hair at base of costa, the more extensivel
distributed hairs on the paraproct, and the
shape of the genital fork.
LITERATURE CITED
Dyak, H. G., and SHANNON, R. C. The North
ne ae flies of the family
imuliidae. Proc. U. 8. N :
saver at. Mus. 69(10):
Spreiser, P. Zur Nomenklatur blut
é saugender Di
teren Amerikas. Insectenbérse 21: i
Stains, G. S., and Know.tton, G. F. A taxonomic
and distributional study of Simuliidae of
Western United States. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer
2 36(2): 259-280. 1948.
Tarcas, L., Martinez P., A., and Diaz N
Simulides de Mezico. Rev. Inst. Salub *
vag Enferm Trop. 7(3): 101-192. 1946.
/aRGAS, L., an faz N., A. Notas sobre la identi-
fication de los Simulidos de Mézico. El bt &
genero Mallochianella n. n. Rev. Inst. Salub
y. Enferm. Trop. 9(1): 65-75. 1948. ‘f
__Pharodinae, a new subfamily of Chondracanthidae (Crustacea: Cope-
cription of Pharodes biakensis, n. sp., from New Guinea.
1-alid.G. we aere National Museum. (Communicated by WaLpo =
National Museum. The identification of the
host was provided by Dr. L. P. Schultz
curator, division of fishes. Dr. Schultz ie
made available a series of examples of the
host from various Pacific locations, but
examination of these failed to yield Pestle
specimens of the parasite. The Biak speci-
mens furnish the first description of the
male for the genus.
| The assignment of the genus to the
Chondracanthidae is accepted, but the
characters of Pharodes are so strongly dis-
tinctive and several represent sufficient
departure from the anatomical details of
hitherto described chondracanthids that it
is considered appropriate to set forth its
basic features as diagnostic of a new sub-
family. The definition of the family Chon-
dracanthidae then requires emendation to
include these characters.
Dec. 15, 1948 ILLG: PHARODINAE, A NEW SUBFAMILY OF CHONDRACANTHIDAE 405
Family CHONDRACANTHIDAE
Milne Edwards
Cyzlopoida; in the female presenting sup-
pression of segmentation and great expansion
of the body into a fleshy mass with various
protrusions. Body regions a cephalothorax,
trunk and abdomen. Antennules inflated or
prolonged, not prehensile. Antennae terminat-
ing in prehensile uncirate claws or tripartite
anchoring structures. Upper lip a flat plate or
produced medially as a proboscis-like tube. No
lower lip. Mandibles reduced, falciform, usually
two-segmented, margins with or without serra-
tions, in some cases bearing rows of spinules.
Maxillules reduced, palplike, or absent. First
pereiopods prominent maxillipeds, borne on the
cephalothorax. Swimming pereiopods vari-
ously reduced. Abdomen with caudal rami, of
one or more segments; these may be unarmed
or ornamented with one to several inconspicu-
ous setae. Marked sexual dimorphism. Male
body conforming more to the cyclopoid facies,
but dwarfed and with great reduction of seg-
mentation and: appendages. Maxillae and
~ maxillipeds of more prehensile nature than
those of female. Abdomen small, segmentation
suppressed.
This definition is mainly based on that of
Oakley, 1930. A very slight departure from the
earlier diagnosis is the acceptance here of the
recently widely prevailing view of the second
oral appendage as the vestigial maxillule,
rather than as a mandibular palp. The infor-
mation contained in the present study has no
bearing on the partition by Leigh-Sharpe and
Oakley of the chondracanthids known in 1928
as two subfamilies, the Chondracanthinae and
the Lernentominae. These groups are here ac-
cepted as completing the family subdivision.
PHARODINAE, n. subfamily
In the female, great expansion and inflation
of the thoracic portion of the body, the abdo-
men reduced to a vestige placed relatively near
to the midpoint of the thoracic mass. Oviducal
openings ventral on the thorax at the level of
the abdomen. Upper lip produced at its center
into a prolonged, distinctly proboscislike tube,
prolonging ventrally the food opening. Man-
dibles reduced, no marginal ornamentation.
Maxillules absent. In the male, great inflation
of the cephalothorax. Antennules and antennae
ind
placed well ventrally. A single pair of pereio-
pods, the maxillipeds.
One genus included, the type of the sub-
family, Pharodes C. B. Wilson, 1935.
Genus Pharodes Wilson
Generic characters.—Female, head fused with
segment of the maxilliped to ferm a cephalo-
thorax. Dorsal carapace present. Main mass of
body a trunk formed of thoracic segments
coalesced and produced laterally and posteri-
orly as lobes and extensions. Abdomen borne
ventrally as a vestige at about the midpoint of
the trunk. Two pairs of pereiopods on the
trunk, consisting of inflated, sac-like lobes.
Male a dwarf, although not necessarily at-
tached to the body of the female. Two main
body regions, a roughly hemispherical cephalo-
thorax and a narrow, short, curled, tail-like
trunk. Antennule as in the female. Maxillae and
maxillipeds of markedly prehensile nature.
Genotype.—Pharodes tortugensis Wilson, 1935.
Pharodes tortugensis Wilson
Only the female of this species has so far been
collected. A partial revision of the characters
as originally described as well as the addition of
a number of details have been provided by the
present study.
The usual chondracanthid character of great
fleshy expansion and inflation of the body, ac-
companied by suppression and simplification of
the appendages, is borne out in this form. Visi-
ble segmentation delimits two body regions—a
head, actually a cephalothorax, since it bears
maxillipeds, and a trunk, consisting of ex-
panded thoracic somites. There is a sharply
constricted neck. The characteristic appear-
ance of the head is due to its expansion later-
ally, producing the aspect described originally
as that of an inverted triangle. The middorsal
surface of the head is set off as a highly chiti-
nized carapace, apparently serving in part as a
site of attachment for the considerably de-
veloped oral appendages.
The head is apparently freely moveable on
the neck articulation. A position noted in sev-
eral specimens was one of dorsal flexion, in the
extreme producing nearly a right angle between
the plane of the oral surface and the main axis
of the body. In this position, the antennules
and antennae protrude prominently, as seen in
dorsal view. When the axis of the head is
406
aligned with that of the trunk, none of the ap-
pendages is visible dorsally.
The trunk, which actually is the free thorax,
in dorsal view could be interpreted as a series of
three globose enlargements, separated by con-
strictions and expanded laterally into vari-
ously developed lobes. Each of these three di-
visions, further, bears dorsally a rounded knob.
The lateral processes of the first division are
extremely extensive and flare out widely to the
sides and then posteriorly, each nearly equal-
ling in bulk the main mass of the thorax proper.
The much less produced lateral processes of the
second division are slightly curved, posteriorly
directed, lappets. The lateral processes of the
third division are just like those of the second,
but exceed the latter somewhat in length. A
posterior lappet, protruding directly posteri-
orly, also arises from the third division. This
terminal division, with its pair of lateral lobes
and single median projection, was interpreted
originally as the abdomen. This view will be
seen to be contradicted by further details of
the present study.
All the contours of the dorsal surface are
rounded and fleshy, as is characteristic among
chondracanthids. In the original description,
and cited as a generic character, it is stated
that the posterior portion of the body is
covered. by two tripartite plates. The accom-
panying figure supported the description as
given. However, comparison of the figure with
the type specimen readily resolves the de-
picted appearance as the oversimplified linear
rendition of the dorsally knobbed globular di-
visions with their lateral lobes and the pos-
terior process. In agreement with other mem-
bers of the Chondracanthidae, this genus pos-
sesses no rigid cuticular structures which
might be interpreted as plates.
Ventrally, the subdivision of the free thorax
or trunk is complicated by the inflated pereio-
pods and their basal structure. The expanded
bases of the largest lateral lobes meet medially
forming a ridge, the posterior edge of which
roughly bisects the longitudinal axis of the
trunk. Just anterior to this margin are the two
flattened knobs which form the ornamentation
of the oviducal openings, and between these is
the slight eminence which is the vestigial ab-
domen. The posterior ventral portion of the
trunk does not show distinct demarcation into
globose segments as seen in dorsal view.
The antennules are very much unlike the
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
usual inflated sacs characteristic of the family,
bearing, rather, a greater resemblance to those
found among the ergasilid parasites of fishes or
among some of the chondracanthid males. They
are strongly chitinized. The complicated articu-
lations make it difficult to establish the seg-
mentation accurately, but apparently there are
four segments. The most distal segments are
inconspicuously ornamented with a number of
rather reduced setae.
The antennae (Fig. 1) are 2-segmented and
strongly prehensile. The distal portion is a
heavily chitinized, stout hook. As was pointed
out in the original description, there is an in-
conspicuous outgrowth on the basal segment,
representing perhaps a modified seta.
The upper lip is a most distinctive structure
in the genus. It differs strikingly from the
flattened crescentic plate of all the other mem-
bers of the Chondracanthidae. Here there is a
prolonged proboscislike structure, supported
by a complicated chitinous framework and ap-
parently capable of a limited amount of ma-
nipulation, as indicated by the presence of two
slender muscle strands. The lateral margins are
rolled and folded inward as thin chitinous flaps,
forming a considerably prolonged mouth tube
(Fig. 2). There is no comparable elaboration of
an under lip. Posterior to the oral opening there
is only an abrupt edge formed by the inturning
of the integument of ventral surface of body.
The mandibles (Fig. 3) are so located that
their bases are just lateral to the mouth. They
are minute and inconspicuous, but distinctly of
cyclopoid type. They differ from those of all
other chondracanthids in the absence of mar-
ginal serration or spinulation. The surface of
the mandible is very much thickened, but the
constant appearance, in all preparations seen,
of a much crumpled and wrinkled aspect would
seem to indicate great flexibility rather than
rigidity of the integument. The exact subdivi-
sion of the appendage, due to this wrinkling, is
impossible to determine, but the appearance
most consistently seems to indicate a 2-seg-
mented condition, corresponding to the usual
arrangement in nearly related copepods.
Examination of the limited material pro-
duced no evidence of the presence of maxillules.
More refined dissections, when a la: g2r number
of specimens is available, may disclose the rudi-
ments of these appendages among the com-
plicated structures formed by the bases and
chitinous supports of the mouthparts. The
Dec. 15, 1948 ILLG: PHARODINAE, A NEW SUBFAMILY OF CHONDRACANTHIDAE 407
0.25MM
-_—+——__+—__+—__| 8
——*\ fae
Sone
CISEY)
5
Le,
Ficgs. 1-6.—Pharodes tortugensis Wilson, female: 1, antenna; 2, oral area, showing upper lip and
mandibles; 3, mandible; 4, maxilla; 5, maxilliped; 6, caudal ramus.
Figs. 7-15.—P. biakensis, n. sp., holotypic female: 7, dorsal view; 8, semidiagrammatic drawing of
ventral view; 9, antennule; 10, mandible; 11, maxilla; 12, maxilliped; 13, caudal ramus; allotypic male:
14, ventral view; 15, antennule.
The 0.25-mm scale refers to Figs. 1 and 15; the 0.2-mm scale to Figs. 2, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12; the 0.05-mm
scale to Figs. 3, 6, 10, 13; the 0.5-mm scale to Fig. 14.
~
408
maxillae (Fig. 4) were described originally as
maxillules (first maxillae). These are bimerous
and heavily chitinized. The terminal segment
is apparently rigid. It is tapered and presents a
curved outline, faintly resembling the spout of
a teapot. The tip is concavely truncate. This
segment bears at its expanded base a minute
accessory structure which may represent a
modified seta. :
The maxilliped (second maxilla of Wilson) is
stout and is the most conspicuous of the mouth-
parts (Fig. 5). The highly irregular, thickly
chitinized surface and the complicated articula-
tions cause difficulty in determining the seg-
mentation. There would seem to be three seg-
ments, the most distal produced into a strong,
slightly curved, apical hook. The second seg-
ment bears a reduced, apparently articulated
process.
The posterior limit of the area bearing the
mouthparts is strongly set off by a prominent,
rounded ridge, running in a gentle curve. In-
dentation at the midline produces a bilobed
appearance of this ridge. It was interpreted in
the original description as the vestige of the
first pair of so-called swimming legs, that is,
the non-oral pereiopods. There seems to be
little ground to interpret these inconspicuous
prominences as limb rudiments, although final
decision will have to await the determination of
the sequence of development in the larval
stages. A necklike constriction Just behind the
described ridge strongly delimits the cephalo-
thorax from the more posterior free thoracic
region.
The ventral outgrowths of the trunk were
interpreted originally as two pairs of thoracic
limbs. There is no strong evidence other than
their occurrence in pairs that these are limbs,
but such a convention is regularly applied to
other chondracanthids with similar structures.
The first of these processes or limbs are set just
to each side of the midline immediately pos-
terior to the neck constriction. These are small
knobs protruding considerably ventrally. More
lateral to these, in fact well out toward the
edges of the lateral processes of the first tho-
racic division, are the very much inflated second
pair of trunk limbs. These are long and thick
and directed slightly posteriorly. |
Posterior to the pereiopods and slightly to
each side of the midline are the oviducal open-
ings. These are set off conspicuously by much
enlarged perforated, disklike structures, to
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 12
which the ovisacs are attached. Just between
the oviducal structures is the rudiment of the
abdomen, a minute eminence bearing tiny, but
setiferous, caudal rami. These are most incon-
spicuous and very difficult of detection when
the ovisacs are present. The reduced abdom-
inal remnant is significant in the clarification
it affords of the unique modification of the
thorax. Among all the bizarre body forms seen
in chondracanthid genera there is no other in
which there is a comparable expansion of the
thorax posterior to the genital openings. The
enlargement is obviously occupied to a great
extent by reproductive structures or tissues.
The determination of the true segmentation of
this region, if such could be derived from study
of the ontogenetic stadia, should be of great
theoretical interest.
The caudal rami (Fig. 6) are compressed,
monomerous laminae. They are ornamented
with small, but well-developed, simple setae.
Each bears three setae, the stoutest of which is
apically placed. Of the subterminal and most
proximal of the setae, it was impossible to de-
termine from available preparations which was
dorsal and which ventral. The caudal rami are
placed terminally on the reduced convexity
which is the abdominal vestige.
The six specimens of the original series have
been measured to establish roughly the char-
acteristic proportions of the species. The total
length and greatest width (to the edges of the
lateral processes) of each were as follows: type
specimen—3 mm long, 4.4 mm wide; specimen
2—3 mm long, 3.9 mm wide: specimen 3—
3 mm long, 3.3 mm wide; specimen 4—2.8 mm
long, 3.3 mm wide; specimen 5—2.8 mm long,
2.9 mm wide; specimen 6—3 mm long, 3.8 mm
wide. In every case the greatest width was
measured at a point practically at the pos-
terior extent of the wide-flaring lateral processes
of the first division of the trunk. A truncate
triangular outline of the trunk mass would
thus be seen to be characteristic for the spe-
cies. In every specimen the lateral processes of
the second trunk division were well developed
and conspicuous.
An unpublished distribution record of the
species is provided from the National collection.
A single female was collected from the gills of
Scoliodon terrae-novae, from the Gulf of Mexico,
by C. B. Wilson, exact date and locality not
known. A new host record is established also.
As the specimen at some time had been sub-
Dec. 15, 1948
jected to drying, it was not feasible to attempt
to measure the bodily proportions.
Pharodes biakensis, n. sp.
Female (holotype).—The body consists of
the head and trunk, a characteristic aspect be-
ing produced by the presence of expansions and
lobes. The head bears a pair of processes which
protrude considerably anteriorly as well as
laterally, with the appearance of ear-like lobes.
A middorsal chitinized carapace is present.
-Ventrally there is an elevation of the posterior
margin of the cephalothorax as a low ridge,
with a suggestion of bilobed division in the
central portion. The trunk in dorsal view is a
series of three globular sections, all in their
main masses of roughly equivalent size. Of
these, however, the first and third are further
produced into processes. The processes of the
first division are extended widely laterally and
then produced posteriorly to an extent nearly
equalling the length of the central trunk proper.
Three low dorsal knobs appear serially along
the longitudinal axis of each process. The sec-
ond division of the trunk appears dorsally as a
simple globe. The third division is globose, but
is also produced posteriorly as an unpaired
wide lobe. Further, it bears a pair of blunt
lateral lobes, which curve considerably poste-
riorly as well as extending laterally. Fig. 7 de-
picts these details.
On the ventral side, the apparent segmenta-
tion is more complicated (Fig. 8). There is a
distinct limit ventrally between the cephalo-
thorax and the trunk but this juncture is com-
pressed to a tightly closed groove in the type
specimen. Just posterior to this is a transverse
ridge, in extent of about half the width of one
of the central trunk divisions. Laterally on this
ridge are the paired ventral protrusions which
represent the second pereiopods (counting the
maxillipeds as first). Immediately posterior to
this ridge is a second which extends across the
main portion of the trunk and extends almost
to the outer margin of each of the large lateral
processes. This ridge is produced at its sides as
the two large third pereiopods. These take a
broad basal origin and protrude posteriorly and
ventrally as long, thick, blunt lobes. In the
ovigerous female these processes partially en-
fold the egg sacs. The medial portion of the
second ridge cuts across the trunk at a level
which would be about midway on the length of
the second central division. However, the ven-
ILLG: PHARODINAE, A NEW SUBFAMILY OF CHONDRACANTHIDAE
409
tral segmentation of the anterior portion of
the trunk is obscured by the complicated ar-
rangement of ridges and outgrowths.
Lying at an oblique angle, directed ventrally
and posteriorly, and fitted tightly against the
posterior face of the second ridge, are the two
prominences which surround the oviducal aper-
tures. These thus are set on the ventral side of
the posterior half of the second trunk division.
Between the oviducal structures is the vestigial
abdomen, bearing minute caudal rami. The
constriction between the second and third
central trunk divisions is fully visible ventrally.
There is no complication of structures on the
ventral side of the third trunk section. :
The ovisacs are firmly attached on the discs
surrounding the openings of the oviducts and
are most characteristic in outline and position.
The egg sac is a long, slightly tapering cylinder
with a rounded tip and is curved along the
longitudinal axis. Each thus extends laterally
outward from just back of the midpoint of the
body, protrudes considerably beyond the sides,
and extends anteriorly to a level markedly in
front of the point of origin. The eggs are mi-
nute and arranged in numerous, slightly irregu-
lar rows. The eggs contained in the pair of
Ovisacs number well into the thousands.
The dimensions (as well as the described as-
pect) of the single available specimen cannot be
given with precision because of the markedly
contracted position in which it is fixed. An at-
tempt at establishing the relative proportions
of the various parts and regions has been made,
however. The total length is 8 mm. The great-
est width is just slightly less than this. The
parallel outer edges of the lateral processes give
the outline of the main portion of the body pro-
nouncedly squarish proportions. The lateral
processes are 2.2 mm in length. The width of
the head, from the edges of its processes, is 1.8
mm. The length of the head, along the central
axis is .45 mm. The tips of the processes extend
anteriorly about .15 mm beyond the central
margin of the head. The width of the central
globular mass of each of the trunk subdivisions
is roughly 1 mm. The egg sacs measure 2.55
mm along the main axis and have a maximum
diameter of about .75 mm.
The antennules (Fig. 9) are 4-segmented.
The basal segment is longer than the terminal
three together. It is three times as long as its
greatest width, which is seen at two thirds of
the length of the segment from its base. The
410
second segment is slightly longer than the
third and about equal in length to the fourth.
The segments decrease in their greatest widths
in linear order. The antennule is not conspicu-
ously inflated or saclike. A fairly heavy degree
of chitinization is apparent and the articula-
tions between segments are very complicated,
indicating possibly some restriction as to planes
of freedom of motion. There is a slight degree of
compression of the appendage in the frontal
plane of the body. The ornamentation consists
only of reduced, inconspicuous setae. The basal
segment seemingly lacks setae: the second and
third each bear a lateral and medial seta at the
distal corners. The terminal segment has a
distal row of four, perhaps more, setae. The
length of the antennule is 4385 micra.
The single female specimen (as well as the
accompanying male) had lost the antennae.
Evidently these were sufficiently effective pre-
hensile organs that they were completely torn
away in the removal of the parasites from the
host. Large, circular, articulating bases remain
to indicate the proportion of the basal segment.
It seems reasonable to assume that these ap-
pendages differ slightly, if any, from those of
Pharodes tortugensis.
The upper lip is prolonged in the midline as
a proboscis-like organ, with a folded-over, cir-
cular tip. In the intact specimen, the structure
was held at approximately right angles to the
body axis. The mouth opening lies just pos-
terior to the upper lip with the bases of the
mandibles set well to each side. The condition
of the integument of the mandibles makes de-
termination of the number of segments dubious
but there are probably two. The base is rather
stout and short, slightly longer than wide. The
terminal portion is narrower and longer than
the base, and consists of a slightly tapering
cylinder with a bluntly rounded tip (Fig. 10).
There is no serration of the margins, nor any
detectable ornamentation. The length of each
mandible is approximately 125 micra. No
maxillules could be found.
The bimerous maxillae (Fig. 11) are much
larger than the mandibles. The proximal seg-
ment is wide and short, its articulation with the
main body mass forming a steep slant across
its breadth. The length of the segment along
its center axis is about 100 micra. The integu-
ment is heavily sclerotized. Internally are
numerous bands of muscle attached to the base
of the terminal segment, which forms an angle
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
of attachment of about 90 degrees. The distal]
segment is expanded basally, then constricted
sharply to a prolonged, slightly tapered, rigid
terminal process, 200 micra in length over all.
The tip is truncate and sharply indented. A
short, stout seta is borne on the base of this seg-
ment.
The maxillipeds (Fig. 12) are characterized
by great thickening of the integument. This
causes difficulty in establishing the segmenta-
tion accurately. There is a large, clearly de-
limited basal segment, 1£0 micra long, with a
~ width of 45 micra. This roughly rectangular,
slightly curved, segment has a distinctly sub-
terminal articulation with the remaining por-
tion of the appendage, which is of the same
total length. The most probable interpretation
of this distal section would be as a single seg-
ment, 110 micra in length, bearing distally a
distinctly articulated, blunt spine 40 micra
long. At a level about 75 micra from its base
this section exhibits transverse furrows of the
integument and interruptions of the internal
bands of muscle which would seem strong evi-
dence of coalescence of an originally bimerous
structure. The greatest width of the terminal
section is slightly greater than half that of the
proximal segment. The distal half of the ter-
minal section is tapered sharply to the base of
the articulated spine. ;
The trunk pereiopods are fleshy lobes, with
little semblance remaining of articulated ap-
pendages. Those of the anterior pair are placed
close to the midline and are far anterior on the
trunk. They are very short lobes protruding
directly ventrally. The slightly more posterior
third perieopods (second pair of trunk appen-
dages) are very long fleshy lobes, 1.1 mm in
length, and each is placed well out on the ap- -
terior lateral process of the trunk.
The caudal rami (Fig. 13) are laminae, com-
pressed in the sagittal plane of the body. The
ornamentation of each consists of two ter-
minal setae, placed close together; a rounded
process, which is possibly a modified seta,
placed somewhat subterminally; and a long
slender seta placed slightly. beyond the mid-
point of the ramus. Whether this most proximal
seta is dorsal or ventral on the ramus could not
be made out from the available preparation.
Each caudal ramus is 55 micra long, with the
greatest dorsoventral measurement slightly
over 40 micra. The rami are borne very close
together on a low convexity, placed between
Dec. 15, 1948
the eminences bearing the oviducal apertures.
This convexity, with its appendages, consti-
tutes the vestige of the abdomen. At a point one
fourth of its length from its base each ramus is
conspicuously marked on the surface by elabo-
rate chitinous convolutions. These do not seem
to constitute a complete subdivision of the
ramus into a bimerous condition. The exact
significance of this complicated integumentary
pattern remains doubtful.
Male (allotype)—vThe cephalothorax is
greatly arched and rounded dorsally, and its
general outline is ellipsoidal. The narrow trunk,
consisting of an indeterminable number of
thoracic and abdominal segments forms a
curled tail-like process, of only a quarter of the
width of the cephalothorax. The greatest width
of the cephalothorax is 1.4 mm. The length
along the central axis is 1.1 mm. The trunk is
nearly parallel-sided, 0.41 mm in length and
about 0.3 mm in width, with a short wide flar-
ing at the point of juncture with the cephalo-
thorax.
All the appendages of the cephalothorax are
placed well on the ventral side (Fig. 14). The
antennules (Fig. 15) are markedly subapical
and their bases are widely spaced laterally.
Each is 650 micra long. The number of seg-
ments is here interpreted to be four, although
complicated grooving of the integument dis-
tally makes it impossible to determine the ar-
ticulations exactly. The basal segment is
distinctly set off. It is slightly longer than the
rest of the segments together. It is 350 micra in
length and the width at the most expanded
point is just one third of this measurement. The
second segment is 100 micra long and 85 micra
wide at the widest point. The third segment is
markedly narrower than the preceding, measur-
ing 55 micra in width and 80 micra in length.
The remainder of the appendage is 135 micra
long and measures 45 micra at the greatest
width, at the base. This sector tapers gradually
and terminates, by a sharp constriction, in a
slender spine. The exact metamerism is ob-
secure, but this portion seems to represent a
coalescence of three segments or perhaps of
two segments and an articulated spine with a
greatly expanded base. Complete details of the
ornamentation were not made out. The second
and third segments each bear a distal seta. The
distal segment, in addition to its apical spine,
bears two reduced subterminal setae.
The antennae of the single specimen were
ILLG: PHARODINAE, A NEW SUBFAMILY OF CHONDRACANTHIDAE
411
lost in removal from the host. Of considerable
significance here is the fact that this male was
not attached to the body of the female as is the
usual case among the chondracanthids. The
basal sears left by the tearing away of the
antennae were comparable to the same arte-
facts in the case of the female.
The upper lip is produced considerably
ventrally, but does not take the tubular pro-
boscislike form like that seen in the female.
The mandibles, as in the female, are inconspicu-
ously placed anterior to the bases of the larger
and more prominent remaining oral appen-
dages, and are set to each side of the rather
large mouth opening. The mandibles measure
about 120 micra in length. They are slender,
tapering falciform appendages, with no orna-
mentation. No trace of maxillules detected.
The maxillae present the appearance of ex-
ceedingly powerful prehensile organs. The
basal portion is a stout segment, about 300
micra in length and of slightly greater width.
Set at nearly right angles on the distal surface
of this segment and directed medially is a very
massive claw, 400 micra long. This claw tapers
from a base about 275 micra in width to a keenly
pointed, stoutly spinous apex. The whole ap-
pendage is heavily sclerotized, and the ter-
minal claw appears to be nearly completely solid.
The maxillipeds are tripartite. The basal
segment is about 450 micra long and has a
maximum width of about 300 micra. The out-
line of the segment is roughly rectangular. The
second segment is so articulated or the first as
to be directed considerably medially and ven-
trally. It is about 200 micra long and its width
is about 175 micra. On its distal surface is set a
strong, tapered claw. The base of the claw is
about 125 micra in extent. Its length is 25)
micra and it curves in a smooth taper to a
stout point. This appendage, like the preceding,
is heavily sclerotized. No other thoracic ap-
pendages could be made out.
The caudal rami are minute, roughly rec-
tangular, about 90 micra long, and each bears
apically a rather stout, short, tapered seta.
The rami are borne on a broadly flattened area
at the tip of the tail-like trunk. There is no
evidence from the adult condition for deter-
mining the degree of inclusion of anatomically
thoracic or abdominal segments in the trunk
structure; except, of course, that the tip, in
bearing the caudal rami, is marked as of ab-
dominal origin.
412
Type locality—Biak Island, Schouten Is-
lands, Netherlands New Guinea.
Types.—Holotypic female, U.S.N.M. no.
86009, and allotypic male, U.S.N.M. no.
86010; from the gill cavity of Caracanthus
unipinnus (Gray), collected April 3, 1945, by
F. M. Bayer.
Remarks.—The two species of Pharodes un-
fortunately must be based upon an extremely
small number of representatives. When more
adequate series are available and the range of
variability of the two forms is established, it
may well be that some of the distinguishing
features found here will be discarded as no
longer significant. However, the consistent con-
formation to the structure of the chondracan-
thids in general, in various forms of which
extensive information as to variability is avail-
able, is good grounds for the prediction that the
differentiation of these forms will continue to
be supportable.
Pharodes biakensis is easily separated from
P. tortugensis by a number of features of body
form. The more extreme production of the
lateral processes of the head, the much more
nearly quadrate aspect of the main mass of the
body with its expansions, and the lack of a
pair of lateral processes on the second division
of the trunk provide a ready basis of recognition
of the former.
The differentiation of the appendages in the
two species is in the main a series of subtle
variations on a basic plan of structure. In the
female Pharodes biakensis, as compared to its
congener, the mandible is shorter in propor-
tion and somewhat more blunt apically. The
maxilla bears a well-developed accessory seta,
represented in P. tortugensis by a modified ele-
ment of characteristic appearance. The maxilli-
ped exhibits a greater suppression of segmen-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, No. 12
tation and the terminal spine is somewhat
slighter and simpler. The caudal rami have a
different pattern of armature and an indication
of subdivision.
The sexual dimorphism in Pharodes biakensis
has a number of features of interest by com-
parison with the condition in other chondra-
canthids. The general rule is a by far greater
absolute size disparity. The male is typically
a minute dwarf and usually is to be found at-
tached on or near the genital aperture of the
female. In Pharodes the male is of large size and
obviously is capable of independent existence
on the host. Also worthy of note is the fact
that the antennule, maxilla, and maxilliped
of the male reach actually greater absolute
dimensions than the counterparts in the fe-
male. The basically similar pattern of structure
of the antennules in the two sexes is a contrast
to the usual chondracanthid situation of an
inflated sac-like appendage in females and a
less modified male antennule. The scars re-
maining indicate that the antennae were of
about equivalent size, at least at the base, in
the two sexes. The mandibles show little dis-
parity. The different degree of development of
the tubular upper lip indicates the highly spe-
cial character of the modification as seen in the
female.
REFERENCES
(1) EIGH-SHARPE, W. H., and OakLeEy, C. L.
Lernentominae, a new subfamily of Chondra-
canthidae (Crustacea: Copepoda), with a de-
scriplion of Oralien triglae (Blainville 1822).
Parasitology 19: 455-467, figs. 1-7. 1928.
(2) OaKLEy, C. L. The Chondracanthidae (Crus-
iacea: Copepoda); with a description of five
new genera and one new species. Parasitol-
ogy 22: 182-201, figs. 1-8. 1930.
(3) Wiuson, C. B. Parasitic copepods from the
Dry Tortugas. Carnegie Inst. Washington
Pub. 452: 329-347, pls. 1-6. 1935.
ZOOLOGY.—Two new species of polychaete worms of the family Polynoidae from
Puget Sound and San Juan Archipelago.’ Marian H. Perrispone, University
of Washington. (Communicated by Wa.po L. Scumirt.)
The two new species of Polynoidae herein
described were obtained in connection with
a study of the scaled Polychaeta in the San
Juan and Puget Sound region. The work
was carried out at the University of Wash-
ington Oceanographic Laboratories, Friday
Harbor, Wash. Dredging was carried out
1 Received September 8, 1948.
from the M.S. Catalyst and M.S. Medea.
The types are deposited in the United
States National Museum.
Family Polynoidae
Genus Harmothoé Kinberg
Harmothoé hartmanae, n. sp.
Fig. 1, a-f
This species is represented by three speci-
Dec. 15, 1948
mens from material dredged in the San Juan
Archipelago. I take pleasure in naming it after
Dr. Olga Hartman, who has done so much to
add to our knowledge of the Polychaeta.
Description —Thetype(U.S.N.M.no.21101),
the largest of the three specimens, has 37 seg-
ments. It is 23 mm long, 6.5 mm wide exclusive
of setae, and 9.5 mm wide inclusive of setae.
The smallest of the paratypes is 8.5 mm long
and 2 mm wide exclusive of setae. The body is
short, nearly linear, widest in segments 12-23,
tapering slightly anteriorly and posteriorly.
The body is without color in the middorsum,
greenish on the cirrophores and the parapodia.
The ventral surface is shiny iridescent and
without color except for a dark coloration
around the mouth.
Fifteen pairs of elytra nearly cover the
dorsum and are slightly imbricated, arranged
on segments 2, 4, 5, 7,9... 23, 26, 29, and 32.
The elytra are subcircular to subreniform in
shape, thin, and shiny, appearing smooth, but
furnished with conical blunt microtubercles
(Fig. 1, c-d). A dark border completely en-
circles the first pair of elytra and around the
posterior, median, and lateral borders of the
other elytra. Microscopically, this border ap-
pears as darker polygonal areas (Fig. 1, d).—
not present on Harmothoé imbricata (Linnaeus)
—the widespread cosmopolitan species. The
elytral border is smooth except for a few short
filiform and clavate papillae.
The bilobed prostomium is wider than long,
has a wide anterior median sulcus and prom-
inent cephalic peaks; the four eyes are large,
the anterior pair situated anteroventrally and
slightly posterior to the peaks (Fig. 1, a). The
median antenna has a large brown ceratophore
and a long slender style with a slight subter-
minal enlargement and very short scattered
clavate papillae; the style is dark, especially
above and below the enlargement. The lateral
antennae have short brown ceratophores, in-
serted ventrally on the prostomium; the styles
are brown, short, tapering gradually to filiform
white tips and furnished with very small
papillae. The palpi are long—up to five times
the length of the prostomium, slender, and with
short papillae.
The proboscis has the usual polynoid form,
with nine pairs of distal papillae and two pairs
of amber-colored interlocking jaws; it extends
the length of the first 12 segments; the proximal
half may be darkly colored. The segmental
PETTIBONE: TWO NEW SPECIES OF POLYCHAETE WORMS
413
papillae begin on segment 6 and continue pos-
teriorly; they are very small and bulbous in the
more anterior and posterior segments but long
and cylindrical in the segments of the middle
third of the body.
The basal lobes of the tentacular segment are
elongated, each bearing two setae; the tentac-
ular cirri are similar to the median antenna
(Fig. 1, a). The dorsal cirri have elongated
cirrophores with a bulbous base and narrower
distal part; the styles are long, slender, similar
to the median antenna, and extend beyond the
tips of the setae. The dorsal tubercles of the
cirri-bearing segments are prominent conical
lobes. The ventral cirri are thick proximally,
tapering to filamentous tips (Fig. 1, b).
The parapodia are biramous. The noto-
podium is a rounded lobe on the anterodorsal
face of the neuropodium, extending out into
an acicular lobe from which the aciculum pro-
jects (Fig. 1, 6). The notosetae are golden,
moderate in number (about 40), forming a
spreading bundle, thicker than the neurosetae
(45-62u in greatest diameter), slightly arched,
with long spinous regions—about half the
exposed length—and bare pointed tips (Fig.
1, 6, e). The neuropodium tapers distally to a
thick acicular lobe from which the aciculum
projects (Fig. 1, 6). The neurosetae are golden,
moderate in number, and more slender than the
notosetae (16—-44u in diameter in the stem
region: 22—48u in the enlarged distal part). The
supraacicular group of neurosetae (about 12
in number) are the longest, with long spinous
regions (20-24 rows), and a strong secondary
tooth on all the setae; the subacicular group
(about 26) range from longer dorsal to shorter
ventral ones, with short spinous regions (12-
14 rows), and with a strong secondary tooth
except on the lower ventral ones (Fig. 1, f).
Remarks—Harmothoé hartmanae resembles
the cosmopolitan species, H. imbricata (Lin-
naeus). It differs chiefly in the character of the
elytra as described above.
Locality —The specimens were dredged west
of Crane Island in the San Juan Archipelago
in 20 fathoms on a shelly bottom.
Genus Lepidasthenia Malmgren
Lepidasthenia berkeleyae, n. sp.
Fig. 2, a-f
This species is represented by three speci-
mens taken from three places in the south end
of Puget Sound—in Carr and Case Inlets. I am
414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 38, NO. 12
Fig. 1.—Harmothoé hartmanae, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium and first two segments, elytra
removed; b, sixteenth left parapodium, anterior view; c, fourth left elytron; d, part of posterior border of
elytron, enlarged; e, tip of notoseta; f, tip of middle subacicular neuroseta.
Fia. 2.—Lepidasthenia berkeleyae, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium, first two segments, and ex-
tended proboscis, with elytra removed; 6, dorsal view two segments from anterior third of body; ¢,
twenty-second left parapodium, anterior view; d, dorsal neuroseta; e, middle neuroseta; f, tip of same.
Seale measurements as follows: la, 1b, 2c=0.43 mm; 2a, 2b, lc=0.95 mm; 1d=30y; le=48y; If
=38u; 2d =9u; 2e=15y.
Dec. 15, 1948
naming this species after Edith Berkeley. She
and her husband, Cyril Berkeley, are workers
on the Polychaeta and have established the
commensal host of this species. Lepidasthenia
berkeleyae resembles L. longicirrata Berkeley
(Berkeley, 1923, 1942), a species that has been
found in the Puget Sound region also. The
differences are referred to in the text. E. and C.
Berkeley consider L. berkeleyae to be the com-
mensal form of L. longicirrata and not a distinct
species (Canadian Pacific Fauna: Polychaeta
Errantia. In press). They have found it com-
mensal with the mud tube-dwelling polychaete,
Prazxilella affinis (Sars) var. pacifica Berkeley
(family Maldanidae).
Description—The type (U.S.N.M._ no.
21099), of some 100 segments, is complete, al-
though the posterior end of 23 segments was
regenerating. The two paratypes are incom-
plete anterior ends (70 and 54 segments). The
type, of 100 segments, is 75 mm long, 4 mm
wide excluding setae, and 6 mm wide including
setae. The body is flattened dorsoventrally,
long, narrow, with sides nearly parallel, taper-
ing slightly anteriorly and posteriorly. Each
segment has a wide transverse middorsal
brown band, the anterior and posterior part of
which may be darker. The basal part of the
parapodia, the cirrophores and elytrophores
are darkly pigmented. The body is more darkly
pigmented anteriorly than posteriorly. The
ventral surface is without color. (The ventral
surface lacks the globose papillae found on
L. longicirrata.)
The 37 pairs of elytra of the type are ar-
ranged on segments 2, 4, 5, 7,9... 23, 26, 29,
32, 34, 37, 40... every third segment to the
end of the body. The elytra are small, oval,
and do not nearly cover the dorsum but leave
a median longitudinal zone uncovered—about
equal to the width of an elytron (Fig. 2, 5).
(In L. longicirrata, the elytral pairs are larger
and practically cover the dorsum.) The elytra
are thin, transparent, blotched with brown
pigment, especially around the place of attach-
ment to the elytrophore and the area medial to
it.
The bilobed prostomium is much wider than
long, with a distinct anterior median sulcus
(Fig. 2, a). The four eyes are large, the anterior
pair being larger and located just anterior to
the greatest width of the prostomium. The
lateral antennae are inserted terminally on
short anterior prolongations of the prosto-
PETTIBONE: TWO NEW SPECIES OF POLYCHAETE WORMS
415
mium; the styles are slender, approximately
equal in length to the greatest prostomial
width, and have slight subterminal enlarge-
ments and filamentous tips. The median an-
tenna has a short ceratophore; the style is
slender, long—about twice the prostomial
width—and with a fine filamentous tip. The
palps of one paratype are missing; those of the
type and the other paratype have one long
slender palp—about three times the greatest
prostomial width—and one shorter one (prob-
ably regenerating). Antennae and palps are
without color or papillae.
The proboscis has the usual polynoid form,
with nine pairs of distal papillae and two pairs
of dark amber-colored interlocking jaws; it
extends the length of approximately the first
12 segments. The paired segmental papillae
begin on segment 6 and continue posteriorly;
they are short and bulbous.
The large basal lobes of the tentacular seg-
ment are each furnished with an aciculum
which projects in a short achaetous fingerlike
process; the paired tentacular cirri are similar
to the median antenna (Fig. 2, a). The anterior
few pairs of dorsal cirri resemble the median
antenna; the more posterior cirri are slender,
transparent, evenly tapered, and extend slightly
beyond the tips of the setae (Fig. 2, c). The
paired ventral cirri of the second segment are
long, slender, similar to the tentacular cirri
(Fig. 2, a); those of the following segments are
short and subulate (Fig. 2, c). The paired anal
cirri are similar to the dorsal cirri.
The parapodia are moderately long and
slender. The notopodium is a short, fingerlike,
achaetous lobe, furnished only with an acicu-
lum; the tip of the lobe does not nearly reach
the dorsal cleft of the neuropodium (Fig. 2,
c). (This is in contrast to L. longicirrata in which
the notopodial lobe is more elongate and the tip
extends to the dorsal cleft of the neuropo-
dium.) The distal end of the neuropodium has
a dorsal cleft; the lobe anterior to the cleft and
the one which contains the aciculum is only
slightly longer than the posterior lobe (Fig.
2, b-c). (In L. longicirrata, the anterior lobe is
decidedly longer than the posterior lobe.) The
neurosetae are of two kinds: (1) a dorsal group
of setae (about four in number) are elongated,
slender (10 uw in greatest diameter), with long
spinous regions, tapering distally to fine tips
(Fig. 2, d); (2) a median and ventral group of
setae (18-25 in number) are shorter, stouter
416
(10-19 in greatest diameter—the more ven-
tral ones being shorter and thinner); they have
short spinous regions (8-12 rows), with no bare
distal tips; the distal tips are bifid—the second-
ary tooth blends in with the spinous rows or
it may be inconspicuous (Fig. 2, e-f). (This is in
contrast to L. longicirrata in which the middle
neuropodial setae are distinctly bifid, with bare
distal tips.)
Habitat—The specimens were dredged from
mud in 35 to 70 fathoms. E. and C. Berkeley
(in correspondence) have found them commen-
sal in the mud tubes of the polychaete Praz-
ilella affinis (Sars) var. pacifica Berkeley. (This
is in contrast to L. longicirrata which is usually
found free in dredge material. However, on
two occasions, I found them within parch-
mentlike tubes, agglutinated with bits of shell
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
and rock—a tube evidently of their own mak-
ing.) The extreme delicacy of the elytra and
body would indicate a somewhat protected
habitat for both species,
Locality —Type: off Green Point, Carr
Inlet, 51 fathoms in mud. Paratypes: near
Gertrude Island, Carr Inlet, 70 fathoms in mud;
off Herron Island, Case Inlet, 35 fathoms in
mud.
LITERATURE CITED
BERKELEY, Epita. Polychaetous annelids from the
Nanaimo district. Pt. 1: Syllidae to Sigalioni-
dae. Contr. Can. Biol. and Fish., new ser.,
1(11): 205-218, 1 pl. 1923.
BERKELEY, EpiTH and Cyrriu. North Pacific Poly-
chaeta, chiefly from the west coast of Vancouver
Island, Alaska and Bering Sea. Can. Journ.
Res., D, 20(7): 183-208. 1942.
ZOOLOGY .—American Caudata, V: Notes on certain Appalachian salamanders of
the genus Plethodon.! M. B. Mirrteman, New Rochelle, N. Y. (Communi-
cated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)
The action of Pope and Hairston (1948:
106-107) in describing two nominally new
races of salamanders, Plethodon shermani
rabunensis and P. s. melaventris, reflects a
taxonomic viewpoint radically opposed to
that of Grobman (1944) and some other
workers. As pointed out by their describers,
rabunensts and melaventris have been “for
many years... identified as P. metcalfi:
more recently by Grobman as P. clemsonae.”’
Obviously, the status and proper allocation
of Pope and Hairston’s new forms are con-
tingent upon the definitions of the species
clemsonae and metcalfi.
Based on topotypic material, the struc-
tural characters of clemsonae may be sum-
marized as follows: Costal grooves 15 or
16 (including inguinal and axillary branches
of the first and last grooves); appressed toes
sometimes meeting, but more often sepa-
rated by one or two costal folds; vomerine
teeth 9-12 per series. The color charac-
teristics of clemsonae, which are so im-
portant in differentiating it from certain
other related species of Plethodon, have
been subject to considerable discussion.
Brimley’s original description (1927: 73-
1 Received September 9, 1948.
74) shows that some of his type specimens
had white or grayish dorsal markings when
fresh, while others were uniformly black on
all dorsal surfaces. Two topotypes col-
lected by Arnold Grobman and myself
possessed whitish-gray (ashy) lichenoid
markings in life, which were particularly
prominent along the sides of the head and
body (see Bishop, 1943: fig. 64). Grobman
has discussed (1944: 294) the possibility
that the absence or presence of light pig-
ments in clemsonae may be associated with
the length of preservation, as is occasionally
the case in such species as Plethodon rich-
mond’, P. nettingt, and P. welleri. This is,
of course, a distinct possibility, but it is
likewise true that some clemsonae are quite
immaculate; pigmentation in clemsonae is
evidently subject to some variation, as in
other species of Plethodon. The color char-
acteristics of clemsonae are a black dorsum
and belly (belly varying from almost pure
black to a very dark slaty gray), with the
throat (and occasionally the anterior part
of the breast) whitish or grayish, with a
grayish white pattern of irregular lichenoid
maculations sometimes present on the
dorsum and sides of the head and body.
Brimley’s type of metcalfi is an adult
Dec. 15, 1948 MITTLEMAN: APPALACHIAN SALAMANDERS OF GENUS PLETHODON
male (snout-vent 60 mm), with 15 costal
grooves, no costal folds between the ap-
pressed toes, 11 or 10 vomerine teeth,
uniform bluish above and grayish tan or
fawn below. Salamanders agreeing closely
with this type are known from southwest-
ern North Carolina (Haywood County)
north through the southern Blue Ridge
Province to Beartown Mountain (4,500-
4,700 feet) near Burkes Garden, Tazewell
County, Va. (Hoffman and Kleinpeter,
1948: 603), and Mount Rogers (5,000-5,600
feet); Grayson County, Va. (collected by
Hoffman and Kleinpeter). On the other
hand, specimens from more southerly and
westerly points in the Carolinas and Geor-
gia possess characteristics that identify
them with clemsonae, as described above.
As pointed out originally by Grobman
(1944), these dark-bellied ‘‘metcalfi’”’ are
in fact conspecific with Brimley’s clem-
sonae, and the two forms—the light-bel-
lied metcalfi and the dark-bellied clem-
sonae—occupy predominantly vicarious
ranges (1944: fig. 5). The distribution of
clemsonae extends from Macon, Jackson,
and Transylvania Counties, N. C., to
Pickens and Greenville Counties, 8. C., and
Rabun and Habersham Counties, Ga.
Pope and Hairston (loc. cit.) have de-
scribed certain specimens of the dark-
bellied clemsonae from Rabun Bald Moun-
tain, Rabun County, Ga., as Plethodon
shermant rabunensis, diagnosing their new
salamander as ‘‘a member of the jordani-
metcalfi group with white spots on the
cheeks and along the sides of the body.
The legs are never red asin B. s. shermani.”’
The description points out further that the
type (adult female, 118 mm total length,
snout-vent 62 mm) has 13 costal grooves
and vomerines 10-7, and that “‘the color is
black above, shading into dark gray below;
the throat is paler than the belly.” As
given, the description of rabunensis offers
no tenable point of difference to distinguish
this nominal subspecies of P. shermaniz from
P. clemsonae, except for the presence of 13
costal grooves (as compared to 15 or 16
in clemsonae). Yet even this apparent
difference is illusory, and arises as a result
of the method used in counting costal
grooves, rather than indicating a true
417
meristic difference. In order to obtain the
full costal groove count in clemsonae the
axillary and inguinal branches of the first
and last grooves must be counted. Some-
times these are poorly developed or ob-
scure as a result of preservation; if they are
not included, a count of 13 or 14 is ob-
tained, rather than 15 or 16. In practice,
most herpetologists use the “‘maximum
count’’ method, which includes the axillary
and inguinal branches. Hence, with the
apparent costal groove count difference
negated, there appears to be no salient
difference between rabunensts and clem-
sonae, and I conclude that these forms are
identical.
The status of Pope and Hairston’s new
P. shermant melaventris likewise seems
poorly established. In this instance the race
is diagnosed as “‘An immaculate member of
the jordani-metcalfi group with a black
belly.” The type is further described as
being an adult male (total length 116 mm,
snout-vent 60 mm), with 14 costal grooves,
10 or 11 vomerine teeth, body and limbs
immaculate black above and below, throat
gray; Pope and Hairston state also that
their 112 paratypes from Macon, Jackson,
and Transylvania Counties, N. C., exhibit
no significant variation. The range of
melaventris is given as extending from
Swannanoa, Buncombe County, N. C., to
Greenville County, S. C., and westward to
Highlands, Macon County, N. C. As in the
case of rabunensis, the description of
melaventris offers no characters to set it
apart from clemsonae, save for the costal
groove count, and this again reflects a
method of counting rather than a real differ-
ence.
The fundamental difference between
metcalfi and clemsonae lies in the ventral
pigmentation, as previously discussed. In
addition, metcalfi is a slightly longer-toed
form, occasionally having one costal groove
between the appressed toes, but more often
none, while in clemsonae there is usually at
least one groove between the toes, and
only rarely do the toes meet or overlap
(in adult specimens). Of the two, metcalfi
tends to have shorter vomerine series, the
range of vomerine teeth counts in speci-
mens I have seen being 6-12, average 8.1,
418
whereas in clemsonae the variation is 6-16,
average 9.1. The examination of several
series of salamanders from the vicinity of
Highlands, Macon County, N. C., reveals
considerable variation in the degree of in-
tensity of the belly pigment. For example,
in a series of specimens from Mirror Lake,
near Highlands, U.S.N.M. no. 88010,
female (snout-vent 58 mm), has an
immaculately black back and belly, as do
also U.S.N.M. no. 88014 male (snout-vent
56 mm), and no. 88016, female (snout-vent
58 mm). On the other hand, three smaller
specimens taken at the same time and
locality (U.S.N.M. nos. 88011—138, all males,
snout-vent 40, 49, 46 mm) have black
dorsums and light grayish throats, but dark
yellowish gray bellies. Similarly, in
U.S.N.M. nos. 104527-31, from Little
Yellow Mountain, 4,100 feet, near High-
lands, two large females and a male (snout-
vent 50, 63, and 60 mm, respectively) have
black backs and bellies, while two smaller
females (snout-vent 39 and 44 mm) have
gray bellies. Another specimen, U.S.N.M.
no. 72825, female, Whiteside Mountain,
near Highlands (snout-vent 67 mm), is
black above and dark slaty gray below.
Specimens I have seen from Rabun and
Habersham Counties, Ga., and Pickens
County, S. C., are uniformly black above
and below (except for the throat), from im-
maturity (snout-vent 35 mm) to maximum
adult size (snout-vent 80 mm), although
they occasionally have grayish or grayish-
white fleckings on the head and body. Taken
in their entirety, the variations of metcalfi
and clemsonae, as well as the vicarious
ranges and apparent intergradation in
Macon County, N. C., make it evident that
these two forms are allopatric races of the
same species and accordingly should be
recognized as Plethodon metcalfi metcalfi and
P. m. clemsonae. The consistent types of
ventral pigmentation that characterize the
two races within their respective ranges, and
the apparent association in part between
size (age) and degree of belly pigmentation
in some Highlands specimens, may indicate
not only intergradation in the vicinity of
Highlands but may also be taken to indicate
in ontogenetic fashion the phylogenetic
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
process which has resulted in the deriva-
tion of clemsonae from metcal/fi.
While the arrangement suggested above
satisfies the situation so far as the majority
of known specimens is concerned, two speci-
mens are known that fall completely out-
side this system. These two examples,
U.S.N.M. nos. 127523-4, were collected by
H. J. Cole, on Black Mountain, ca. 4,000
feet, Harlan County, Ky. One (no. 127523)
is a sexually mature female (snout-vent 56
mm), while the other (no. 127524) is an im-
mature male (snout-vent 39 mm). Both
specimens are a uniform rich black above
and below, including the chin, throat, and
breast, except for a very few tiny, isolated
light flecks, and have whitish palms and
soles. In both specimens the costal count is -
15, and the toes overlap, while the vo-
merine count is 12—i4 in the female speci-
men and 10-10 in the male. In colorand
dentition these specimens are indistinguish-
able from clemsonae, except for the uni-~
formly black throat, while the overlapping
toes might suggest metcalfi. On purely geo-
graphic grounds it would be expected that
they would fall in the scope of metcalfi;
that they do not, and appear instead to be
more nearly identifiable with clemsonae,
raises a point of major importance. It is
possible that additional specimens from this
locality would provide sufficient charac-
teristics to distinguish a separate form.
But for the present, the status of these
Kentucky specimens is not properly deter-
minable; a reasonable decision as to their
identity must await additional material
from this critical area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Owing to the kindness of Dr. Doris M.
Cochran I have had available the extensive
collections and other facilities of the United
States National Museum; for this, and
many simi'ar courtesies, I am in Dr.
Cochran’s debt. ;
LITERATURE CITED
BisHop, SHERMAN C. Handbook of salamanders,
xiv+555 pp., 144 figs., 56 maps. 1943.
BRIMLEY, CLEMENT S. An apparently new sala-
mander (Plethodon clemsonae) from S. C.
Copeia, no. 164: 73-75. 1927.
Dec. 15, 1948 SCHULTZ AND WOODS: NEW NAME FOR SYNCHIROPUS ALTIVELIS
GROBMAN, ARNOLD B. The distribution of the sala-
manders of the genus Plethodon in eastern
United States and Canada. Ann. New York
Acad. Sci. 45(7): 261-316, figs. 1-11. 1944.
Horrann, Ricuarp L., and KLEINPETER, Hvu-
BERT I. Amphibians from Burkes Garden,
419
Virginia. Amer. Midl. Nat. 39(3): 602-57.
1948.
Pops, CLirrorp H., and Hatrston, NELSON G.
Two new subspecies of the salamander Ple-
thodon shermani. Copeia, 1948, no. 2: 106—
107.
ICHTHYOLOGY .—A new name for Synchiropus altivelis Regan, with a key to the
genera of the fish family Callionymidae.
Woops, U.S. National Museum.
During the course of our study of the
fishes of the northern Marshall Islands it
was necessary to review the genera of callio-
nymid fishes of the world. We observed
that Synchiropus altivelis Regan [Trans.
Linn. Soc. London 12: 249, pl. 30, fig. 1.
1908 (Seychelles); Norman, John Murray
Exped. 1933-34, Sci. Repts. Fishes, 7 (1):
75, fig. 27. 1939 (Gulf of Aden)] is preoccu-
pied by Callionymus altivelis Temminck
and Schlegel [Fauna Japonica, p. 155, pl.
79, fig. 1. 1845 (Japan)], now Synchiropus
altwelis (T. and 8.). We herewith propose
the new name Synchiropus normani to
replace S. altivelis Regan, 1908.
Although Fowler (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus.
90: 1-2. 1941) gave a key to the genera,
new facts have been found that require us
to present our different analysis, with syno-
nyms of genera. The species of this family
have not been revised, and they are in a
general state of confusion, somewhat as a
result of the differences between sexes. We
do not have the time or the specimens nec-
essary to revise carefully the several Cozen
species named but believe our analysis of
genera will aid in referring most or all of
the species to a defined genus. We have
examined the 54 lots of types and paratypes
of this family along with numerous other
nontype specimens in the National Museum.
That material forms the basis of the follow-
ing key:
KEY TO THE GENERA OF CALLIONYMIDAE
la. Two dorsal fins.
2a. No pelvic ray free or separate from others,
all connected by membrane.
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received August 13,
1948.
LEONARD P. ScHuLTz and LOREN P.
3a. Two lateral lines, lower one represented
by a fleshy keel or membranous fold
along lower side of body beginning op-
posite anterior base of anal fin; opercu-
lar membrane ending in a free flap;
posterior part of maxillary semitubu-
lar in form, convex side inward, open
side outward, with a very short ante-
rior and outwardly projecting concave
lobe, scarcely developed in small speci-
mens; opercular opening superior in
position, above opercle, in form of a
small foramen; pelvic fins connected to
pectoral base by a membrane attached
opposite base of 4 to 6 pectoral rays
from dorsal edge of fin; upper lateral
line simple; no orbital tentacle; pre-
opercular spine acute with small spines
dorsally and a small antrorse spine
basally; soft dorsal and anal rays all
unbranched except last one in each fin
which is branched to base...........
Calymmichthys? Jordan and Thompson
3b. Asingle lateral line located mostly in dor-
sal part of body, no thin fold of skin
along lower side.
4a. An orbital tentacle in combination
with a broad somewhat fleshy lower
lip folded under chin; opercular
opening a small foramen above oper-
cle; no free opercular flap; pelvic
membrane attached to base of pec-
toral fin; lateral line simple; pre-
opercular spine acute with spiny
points dorsally and an antrorse spine
ventrally and somewhat basally; all
rays of soft dorsal and anal fins un-
2 Calymmichthys Jordan and Thompson, Mem.
Carnegie Mus. 6(4): 296, pl. 36, fig. 2. 1914 (geno-
type, C. xentcus Jordan and Thompson). Their
figure lacks the lower lateral line described twice
in the text.
Diacallionymus Fowler, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus.
90: 29. 1941 (genotype, Callionymus goramensis
Bleeker).
Dermosteira Schultz, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 180:
267, fig. 26. 1943 (genotype, D. dorotheae Schultz) ;
We believe C. cookez Giinther belongs in this
genus.
420
branched except last one in both fins
branched to its base. .. Amora’ Gray
4b. No orbital tentacle, or if a small one
occurs the lower lip not broadly
folded below chin.
5a. Pelvic fin membrane absent, no
membrane connecting pelvic fin
with pectoral base; preopercular
spine without a basal antrorse
spine.
5b. Pelvic membrane present and joined
with base of pectoral fin near its
middle; no free opercular flap; gill
opening a small foramen above
opercle; lateral line simple; no or-
bital tentacle.
6a. Opercle ending in a free dermal
flap; gill opening in a superior
position at rear of opercle; lat-
eral line without elongate side
branchings; body very robust;
all rays of soft dorsal and of
anal unbranched except last
one, which is branched to base
1M), OQ: PISS a eter Pech oe ere
eR ee Eleutherochir* Bleeker
6b. No free opercular flap of skin; gill
opening superior in position,
above opercle; all rays of anal
unbranched except last, which
is branched to its base.
7a. Lateral line with short branches
at right angles; all rays of soft
dorsal unbranched except
last, which is branched to its
PASE: ose thc i Aol aee eee eee
..Paracallionymus® Barnard
3 Amora Gray, Illustrations of Indian zoology,
Hardwicke, 2: pl. 90, fig. 1. 1833-34 (genotype,
Amora tentaculata Gray =Anaora Gray, zbid.,
probably typographical error for Amora in direc-
tions for arranging plates). (Reference copied.)
We refer Synchiropus tentaculatus Herre (Philip-
pine Journ. Sci. 35: 33, pl. 3. 1928) as asynonym
of Amora tentaculatus Gray. S. tentaculatus Herre
is a homonym also, but since we do not consider it
as distinct from tentaculatus Gray, we see no rea-
son to propose a new substitute name. In addition
Callionymus fimbriatus Herre (Herre Philippine
Exped. 1931: 94. 1934) is a synonym of both
tentaculatus Gray and tentaculatus Herre, in our
opinion.
4 Kleutherochir Bleeker, Versl. Medel. Akad.
Wet. Amsterdam, ser. 2, 14: 103. 1879 (genotype,
C. opercularioides Bleeker).
Brachycallionymus Herre and Myers, in Herre,
Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 49: 12. 1936 (geno-
type, B. mirus Herre = C. opercularioides Bleeker).
5 Paracallionymus Barnard, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 9, 20: 69. 1927, and Ann. South African
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
7b. Lateral line simple; soft dorsal
rays branched and last one to
its base... . Yerutius* Whitley
8a. Preopercular spine with a basal
antrorse spine or one near its
ventral edge; all rays of dorsal
and of anal fins unbranched ex-
cept the last one in both fins
which is branched to its base.. .
Sie a Callionymus’ Linnaeus
8b. No antrorse spine at base or on
ventral side of preopercular
spine; first soft dorsal ray usu-
ally unbranched, all _ rest
branched (except in young), the
last one to its base; anal rays
unbranched except last one,
which is branched to its base. .
bewtale 2 phew Synchiropus® Gill
2b. First pelvic ray not connected by a mem-
brane with the next ray; gill opening be-
hind oOpercie “2s oe Dactylophus® Gill
1b. Dorsal fin single, spiny part lacking; gill open-
ing superior in position at rear of opercle;
pelvic membrane not connected with pec-
toral base; lateral line simple; orbital ten-
tacle lacking; no antrorse spine near basal
part of preopercular spine; soft dorsal rays
branched, last one to its base; anal rays un-
branched, except last one, which is branched
t0:its' base. 2. se ee eee Draculo'® Snyder
Mus. 21: 448. 1927 (genotype, C. costatus Bou-
lenger).
6 Yerutius Whitley, Rec. Austral. Mus. 18: 115.
1931 (genotype, C. apricus McCulloch).
7 Callionymus Linnaeus, Systema Naturae, ed.
10: 249. 1758 (genotype, C. lyra Linnaeus).
Calliurichthys Jordan and Fowler, Proc. U. 8.
Nat. Mus. 25: 941. 1903 (genotype, C.japonicus
Houttuyn).
Repomucenus Whitley, Austr. Zool. 6: 323.
1931 (genotype, C. calcaratus Macleay).
Callimucenus Whitley, Suppl. checklist fishes
New South Wales, ed. 3, no. 398: 418. 1934 (geno-
type, C. macdonaldi Ogilby).
Velestonymus Whitley, zbid.: 418 (genotype, C.
limiceps Ogilby).
8 Synchiropus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-
delphia, 1859: 129. 1860 (genotype, C. lateralis
Richardson).
Foetorepus Whitley, Austr. Zool. 6: 323. 1931
(genotype, C. calauropomus Richardson).
® Dactylophus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-
delphia 1859: 130. 1860 (genotype, C. dactylophus
Bennett =D. benneiti Gill).
Vulsus Giinther, Catalogue of the fishes in the
British Museum 3: 15. 1861 (genotype, C. dacty-
lophus Bennett).
10 Draculo Snyder, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 40:
545. 1911 (genotype, Dracule mirabilis Snyder).
INDEX TO VOLUME 38
An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Anthropological Society of Washington. 191.
Philosophical Society of Washington. 25, 283.
Washington Academy of Sciences. 23, 79, 112, 188, 213, 254, 281, 382.
AUTHOR INDEX
AspEetson, P. H. *The transuranic elements.
30.
ALEXANDER, 8S. N. *High-speed digital comput-
ing machines, Pt. 2. 26.
ALPHER, RatpH E. *The origin of chemical ele-
ments. 288.
Avery, W.H. *Infrared spectra at low temper-
atures. 31.
Bartscu, Paut. More about Mexican urocop-
tid mollusks. 350.
Bates, Rocer G., and SmiTtH, EpGar REYNOLDs.
Standardization of the pH scale. 61.
BayYER, FrepERICcCK M. See Cuarx, Austin H.
143.
BEEBE, RatpH A. Dr. Stephen Brunauer’s con-
tributions in the field of adsorption. 117.
Bennett, A. H. *The phase contrast micro-
scope. 30.
Birancourt, A. A. See JENKINS, ANNAE. 362.
BLACKWELDER, RicHArRD E. An analysis of spe-
cific homonyms in zoological nomenclature.
206.
The principle of priority in biological
nomenclature. 306.
BuakKE, Doris H. New species of Metachroma
and other chrysomelid beetles from the West
Indies. 274.
Bricker, C.E. See Furman, N. Howey. 159.
BRIDGMAN, Percy W. General survey of certain
results in the field of high pressure physics.
145.
. Science and freedom: Reflections of a
physicist. 156.
BuRINGTON, RicHARD STEVENS. The role of the
concept of equivalence in the study of
physical and mathematical systems. 1.
CALDWELL, JOSEPH R. Palachacolas Town,
Hampton County, South Carolina. 321.
Cxiark, Austin H. Some interesting starfishes
and brittle-stars dredged by the Atlantis in
the mid-Atlantic. 75.
and BayER, FREDERICK M. Some echi-
noderms from Biak, Schouten Islands. 143
CocHRAN, Doris M. A new subspecies of tree
frog from Pernambuco, Brazil. 316.
Connon, E. U. *Nuclear forces. 283.
CurTIN, CHARLES B. The tardigrade fauna of
the District of Columbia. 251.
Curtiss, J. H. *High-speed digital computing
machines, Pt.1. 26.
Daunt, A. I. *Temperature measurements in gas
streams. 283.
DeranporFr, F. M. The measurement of high
voltage. 33.
Dertenan, H. G. Continental races of the bulbul
Pycnonotus dispar (Horsfield). 245.
. Some races of the babbling thrush,
Malacocincla abbott Blyth. 184.
. The races of the black-throated sun-
bird, Aethopyga saturata (Hodgson). 21.
The races of the red-whiskered bulbul,
Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus). 279.
The races of the silver-breasted broad-
bill, Serilophus lunatus (Gould). 108.
Deuacour, J. Note on the races of the black-
throated sunbird, Aethopyga saturata (Hodg-
son). 1883.
DExTER, RatpH W. See Speck, FRANK G.
257.
Drucker, Puiurp. The antiquity of the North-
west coast totem pole. 389.
DuFFENDACK, O. 8S. *Magnetic ferrites. 288.
DunkKLE, Davin H. An interesting occurrence of
fossil tracks in West Virginia. 130.
On two previously unreported selachians
from the Upper Cretaceous of North America.
173.
DuryEE, W. R. *A film on the mechanism of
cell division. 31.
Euuiott, Evucense W. The _ swarm-cells of
Myxomyeetes. 133.
Ewers, JOHN C. Self-torture in the Blood
Indian sun dance. 166.
Fanc, Wen-Per. New species of Salix from
Szechwan, China. 312.
Fano, U. *Contributions of physics to biology,
PRSE 229.
Forsusu, 8. E. *Cosmic rays from the sun?
30.
Fox, Ricoarp M. Two new Ithomiinae in the
Schaus collection (Lepidoptera: Nymphali-
dae). 315.
FRIEDMANN, HERBERT. A small collection of
birds from Eritrea. 137.
Furman, N. Howey; Bricker, C. E.; and Mc-
DuFFi£, Bruce. A method for the de-
termination of certain metals present in
minor concentration in various substances.
159.
GauHan, A. B. The Herbert H. Smith collection
of South American Chalcidoidea described by
W.H. Ashmead. 243.
Gamow, G. *Contributions of physics to bi-
ology, Pt. 2. 29.
Ginnines, D.C. *The Bunsen ice calorimeter in
modern heat measurements. 283.
Goeain, JoHn M. Florida archeology and re-
eent ecological changes. 225.
421
422
GREEN, J. B. *The spectra of atoms. 285.
HERMANN, FrepErRiIcK J. Notes on North
American Leguminosae. 236.
Studies in Lonchocarpus and related
genera, II: Miscellaneous Middle American
Lonchocarpi. 11.
Studies in Lonchocarpus and related
genera, III: Humboldtiella and Callistylon.
72.
Studies in Lonchocarpus and related
genera, IV: The Lonchocarpus rugosus com-
plex and additional Middle American spe-
cies. 310.
Hosss, Horton H., Jr. On the crayfishes of the
Limosus section of the genus Orconectes
(Decapoda: Astacidae). 14.
Horr, C. Cuayton. Hesperochernes thomomysi, a
new species of chernetid pseudoscorpion
from California. 340.
Horrman, James I. Purification of uranium
oxide. 238.
See also May,-IRvinG. 329.
HorrMan, Ricuarp L. Three new eastern milli-
peds of the family Xystodesmidae. 346.
and KLEINPETER, HuBEerT I. A collec-
tion of salamanders from Mount Rogers,
Virginia. 106.
HvuBBARD, JoHNC. *Ultrasonic propagation and
its measurement. 287.
Humpureys, W. J. Loose usage of weather
words. 123.
Inte, Paut L. Pharodinae, a new subfamily of
Chondracanthidae (Crustacea: Copepoda),
and a description of Pharodes biakensis,
n. sp., from New Guinea. 404.
JENKINS, ANNA E., and BiTaNncourt, A. A.
Diagnosis of the Elsinoé on flowering dog-
wood. 362.
KELLER, E. *Airborne magnetometer in geo-
physical explorations, Pt. 2. 28.
Kuaassk, JAMES M. *Airborne magnetometer
in geophysical exploration, Pt. 1. 28.
KLEINPETER, Husert I. See Horrman, Ricu-
ARD L. 106.
Larsen, EstHerR L. New species of Achaeto-
geron (Compositae) from Mexico. 199.
LirrLte, Evpert L., Jr. Heliopsis longipes, a
Mexican insecticidal plant species. 269.
. New species of treesfrom Ecuador. 87.
Loomis, H. F. Two new millipeds of Jamaica.
185.
LutTMaN, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, and WHEELER,
Harry E. Bacillus megatersum de Bary
from the interior of healthy potato tubers.
336.
Martin, G W. Two new species of Physarum.
238.
May, Irvine, and Horrman, JAMES I. A study
of dithizone as a reagent for indium. 329.
McDurriz, Bruce. See Furman, N. Howe Lt.
159.
McMituan, J. Howarp. *Spark shadowgraphy
in hydrodynamics. 284.
MenzeEL, D. H. *Problems of the sun. 32.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
Mixer, Cart F. Early cultural manifestations
exposed by the archeological survey of the
Buggs Island Reservoir in southern Virginia
and northern North Carolina. 397.
Miuiuiegan, L. H. Robert Hamilton Lombard
(obituary). 112.
MitrrLEMAN, M. B. American Caudata, Y:
Notes on certain Appalachian salamanders of
the genus Plethodon. 416.
and SmitH, Hopart M. American Cau-
data, IV: Allocation of the name Bolito-
glossa mexicana. 318.
Mou_er, Frep L. Mass spectra of hydrocar-
bons. 1983.
NEwELL, H. E. *Exploration of the upper at-
mosphere by rockets, Pt. 2. 28.
Nicer, Paut. Some aspects of the geology,
petrology, and mineralogy of Switzerland.
289.
Peterson, R. P. *Exploration of the upper at-
mosphere by rockets, Pt. 1. 27.
PETTIBONE, Marran H. Two new species of
polychaete worms of the family Polynoidae
from Puget Sound and San Juan Archi-
pelago. 412.
Ricuarps, O. W. *Applications of the phase
contrast microscope. 30.
RicHarps, RaupH W. George Rogers Mansfield
(obituary). 223.
Ross, Herspert H. Notes and descriptions of
Nearctic Hydroptilidae (Trichoptera). 201.
SaBrosky, Curtis W. A synopsis of the Nearc-
tic species of Elachiptera and related genera
(Diptera, Chloropidae). 365.
SaYLor, LAWRENCE W. Synoptic revision of the
United States scarab beetles of the sub-
family Dynastinae, No. 4: Tribes Oryctini
(part), Dynastini, and Phileurini. 176.
Synoptic revision of the United States
scarab beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae,
No. 5: Keys to tribes and genera. 240.
Scuuttz, Leonarp P., and Woops, Loren P.
Acanthurus triostegus marquesensis, a new
subspecies of surgeonfish, family Acan-
thuridae, with notes on related forms. 248.
. A new name for Synchiropus altivelis
Regan, with a key to the genera of the fish
family Callionymidae. 419.
SEEGER, R. J. *Shock-wave phenomena. 26.
Seitz, FREDERICK. *The theory of plastic flow
in solids. 286.
SILVERMAN, SHIRLEIGH. *A _ cinema-spectro-
graph for photographing rapid spectral se-
quences. 285.
Simmons, Perez. English-language surnames of
biological origin. 81.
Simon, Lesitiz E. *Organization and adminis-
tration of German research in World War II.
287.
SmiTH, EpGAR REYNOLDS.
61.
SmirH, Hopart M. See Mitrieman, M. B. 318.
SmitH, Newsorn. *Longitude effect in F2-
layer characteristics. 25.
See BaTEs, RocEr G.
Dec. 15, 1948
SoLEcKI, Raupu 8. A seventeenth-century fire-
place at Maspeth, Long Island. 324.
Speck, Frank G., and DeExtTrerR, RautpH W.
Utilization of marine life by the Wam-
panoag Indians of Massachusetts. 257.
Stewart, T. D. The true form of the cranial
deformity originally described under the name
“téte trilobée.” 66.
Stone, ALan. Simulium virgatum Coquillett
and a new related species (Diptera: Simu-
hiidae). 399. _
STRONG, JoHN. *An extension of the application
of evaporated films. 286.
SuMNER, JAMES BATCHELLER.
ture of enzymes. 113.
VinaL, Grorce W. Transition from
The chemical na-
inter-
INDEX
423
national to absolute electrical units as it
affects the physical chemist. 265.
Wacker, Pau. F. *Heat capacities of gases. 31.
Weis, H. W. *Panoramic ionospheric re-
corder. 25.
Wey, F. J. *Optical analysis of supersonic
flow. 27.
WHEELER, Harry E. See LutMan, BENJAMIN
FRANKLIN. 336.
WiuuiaMs, RoBLEy C. *Recent developments in
electron microscopy. 283.
WoopBRIDGE, HENSLEY C. Glossary of names
used in colonial Latin America for crosses
among Indians, Negroes, and Whites. 3583.
Woops, Loren P. See Scuuutz, Leonarp P.
248.
SUBJECT INDEX
Academy awards for scientific achievement, 1947.
255.
Anthropology. Glossary of names used in co-
lonial Latin America for crosses among
Indians, Negroes, and Whites. HENSLEY
C. WoopBRIDGE. 353.
The true form of the cranial deformity origi-
nally described under the name ‘‘téte
trilobée.” T.D.Stewart. 66.
Archeology. A seventeenth-century fireplace at
Maspeth, Long Island. Raupu §S. So-
LECKI. 324.
Early cultural manifestations exposed by
the archeological survey of the Buggs
Island Reservoir in southern Virginia and
northern North Carolina. Caru F. MIL-
LER. 397.
Florida archeology and recent ecological
changes. JOHN M. Goaain. 225.
Palachacolas Town, Hampton County, South
Carolina. JosEPH R. CALDWELL. 321.
Astronomy. *Problems of the sun. D. H.
MENZEL. 32.
Biochemistry. The chemical nature of enzymes.
JAMES BATCHELLER SUMNER. 113.
Biology. The principle of priority in biological
nomenclature. RIcHARD E. BLacK-
WELDER. 306.
Biophysics. *A film on the mechanism of cell
division. W. R. DuryYeEE. 31.
*Contributions of physics to biology, Pt. 1.
U. Fano. 29.
*Contributions of physics to biology, Pt. 2.
G. Gamow. 29.
Botany. Diagnosis of the Elsinoé on flowering
dogwood. ANNA E. JENKINS and A. A.
BiITaANcouRT. 362.
Heliopsis longipes, a Mexican insecticidal
plant species. Expert L. Litre, Jr.
269.
Botany. New species of Achaetogeron (Composi-
tae) from Mexico. EstHer L. Larsen.
199.
New species of Salix from Szechwan, China.
WeEnN-PEI Fane. 312.
New species of trees from western Ecuador.
Evsert L. Littxe, Jr. 87.
Notes in North American Leguminosae.
FREDERICK J. HERMANN. 236.
Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera,
Il: Miscellaneous Middle American Lon-
chocarpi. FREDERICK J. HERMANN. 11.
Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera,
III: Humboldtiella and Callistylon. FREp-
ERICK J. HERMANN. 72.
Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera,
IV: The Lonchocarpus rugosus complex and
additional Middle American _ species.
FREDERICK J. HERMANN. 310.
Chemistry. A method for the determination of
certain metals present in minor concentra-
tion in various substances. N. HowE.u
FurMAN, C. E. Bricker, and Bruce Mc-
Durriz£. 159.
A study of dithizone as a reagent for indium.
Irvine May and James I. Horrman.
329.
Dr. Stephen Brunauer’s contributions in the
field of adsorption. RaupH A. BEEBE.
Tle:
Purification of uranium oxide. JAMmEs I.
HoFFMaANn. 233.
Standardization of the pH scale. RoGeEr G.
Bates and EpGar REYNOLDS SMITH. 61.
*The transuranic elements. P. H. ABEL-
son. 30. ©
Entomology. A synopsis of the Nearctic species
of Hlachiptera and related genera (Dip-
tera, Chloropidae). Curtis W. Sasros-
KY. 365. ;
Entomology. New species of Metachroma and
other chrysomelid beetles from the West
Indies. Doris H. BLake. 274.
Notes and descriptions of Nearctic Hy-
droptilidae (Trichoptera). HERBERT H.
Ross. 201.
Simulium virgatum Coquillett and a new
related species (Diptera: Simuliidae).
ALAN STONE. 399.
Synoptic revision of the United States
424
scarab beetles of the subfamily Dynas-
tinae, No. 4: Tribes Oryctini (part), Dy-
nastini, and Phileurini. Lawrence W.
Sartor. 176.
Synoptic revision of the United States scarab
beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 5:
Keys to tribes and genera. LAWRENCE
W. Saytor. 240.
The Herbert H. Smith collection of South
American Chalcidoidea described by W. H.
Ashmead. A. B. GAHAN. 248.
Two new Ithomiinae in the Schaus collection
(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). RicHarp
NM Box.) Pop:
Ethnology. Self-torture in the Blood Indian sun
dance. JoHN C. Ewers. 166.
The antiquity of the Northwest coast totem
pole. Puitip Drucker. 389.
Utilization of marine life by the Wam-
panoag Indians of Massachusetts. FRANK
G. Speck and RautpH W. DExTER. 257.
General science. *Organization and administra-
tion of German research in World’ War II.
LesuiE E. Simon. 287.
Science and freedom: Reflections of a physi-
cist. Percy W. BripamMan. 156.
Geology. Some aspects of the geology, petrology,
and mineralogy of Switzerland. Pauvu
Nicer. 289.
Herpetology. A collection of salamanders from
Mount Rogers, Virginia. Ricuarp L.
HorrmMan and Huspert J. KLEeInpeTer.
106.
Ichthyology. Acanthurus triostegus marquesensis,
a new subspecies of surgeonfish, family
Acanthuridae, with notes on_ related
forms. LronarRD P. Scuuttz and LoREN
P. Woops. 248.
A new name for Synchiropus altivelis Regan,
with a key to the genera of the fish family
Callionymidae. Lronarp P. ScuHuttz
and Loren P. Woops. 419.
Mathematics. The role of the concept of equiva-
lence in the study of physical and mathe-
matical systems. RIcHARD STEVENS BuR-
INGTON. l.
Meteorolegy. Loose usage of weather words.
W. J. Humpureys. 123.
Mycology. The swarm-cells of Myxomycetes.
EucEnsE W. Exuuiott. 133.
Two new species of Physarum. G. W.
MartTIn. 238.
Obituaries.
Harry Diamonp. 320.
RoBERT HAMILTON LOMBARD.
GEORGE RoGEerRsS MANSFIELD. 223.
Ornithology. A small collection of birds from
Eritrea. HERBERT FRIEDMANN. 137.
Continental races of the bulbul Pycnonotus
dispar (Horsfield). H. G. Der8IGNAN.
245.
Note on the races of the black-throated sun-
bird, Aethopyga saturata (Hodgson). J.
DELacourR. 183.
112.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOL. 38, NO. 12
Some races of the babbling thrush, Malaco-
cincla abbotti Blyth. H. G. Derrenan.
184.
The races of the black-throated sunbird,
Aethopyga saturata (Hodgson). H. G.
DEIGNAN. 21.
The races of the red-whiskered bulbul,
Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus). H. G.
DEIGNAN. 279.
The races of the silver-breasted broadbill,
Sertlophus lunatus (Gould). H. G. Dete-
NAN. 108.
Paleontology. An interesting occurrence of fossil
tracks in West Virginia. Davin H.
Dunk«KLE. 130.
On two previously unreported selachians
from the Upper Cretaceous of North
America. Davin H. DuNKLE. 173.
Philology. English-language surnames of bio-
logical origin. PEREZ Simmons. 81.
Physics. *A cinema-spectrograph for photo-
graphing rapid spectral sequences. SuHtIR-
LEIGH SILVERMAN. 285.
*Airborne magnetometer in geophysical ex-
ploration, Pt. 1. James M. KiaasseE. 28.
*Airborne magnetometer in geophysical ex-
plorations, Pt. 2. F. KELLER. 28.
*An extension of the application of evapo-
rated films. JOHN STRONG. 286.
*Applications of the phase contrast micro-
scope. O. W. RicHarps. 30.
*Cosmic raysfrom the sun? §S. E. Forsusu.
30.
*Exploration of the upper atmosphere by
rockets, Pt.1. R.P. PETERson. 27.
*Exploration of the upper atmosphere by
rockets, Pt. 2. H.E. NEwELL. 28,
General survey of certain results in the field
of high pressure physics. Percy W.
BripGMAN. 145.
*Heat capacities of gases. Paun F. Wack-
ER. —31.
*High-speed digital computing machines,
Pt. 1... J. H. - Curtiss. 20: é
*High-speed digital computing machines,
Pt..2" 3S. N. ALEXANDER. | 26:
*Infrared spectra at low temperatures.
W. H. Avery. 31.
*Longitude effect in F2-layer characteris-
tics. NEWBORN SMITH. 25.
*Magnetic ferrites. O. S. DUFFENDACK.
288.
Mass spectra of hydrocarbons. FRrRep L.
Mouser. 193.
*Nuclear forces. E. U. Connon. 283.
*Optical analysis of supersonic flow. F. J.
Wey. 27.
Physics. *Panoramic ionospheric
H.W. Weis, -/25.
*Recent developments in electron micros-
copy. Rospuiey C. WiLuiaMs. 283.
*Shock-wave phenomena. R. J. SEEGER. 26.
*Spark shadowgraphy in hydrodynamics.
J. Howarp McMiuian. 284.
recorder.
Dec. 15, 1948 INDEX
*Temperature measurements in gas streams.
AI. Dann. 283.
*The Bunsen ice calorimeter in modern heat
measurements. D.C. GINNINGS. 283.
The measurement of high voltage. F. M.
DEFANDORF. 33.
*The origin of chemical elements. RawupuH E.
ALPHER. 288.
*The phase contrast microscope. A. H.
BENNETT. 30.
*The spectra of atoms. J. B. GREEN. 285.
*The theory of plastic flow in solids. FREpD-
ERICK SEITZ. 286.
Transition from international to absolute
electrical units as it affects the physical
chemist. GrEoRrGE W. VINAL. 265.
*Ultrasonic propagation and its measure-
ment. JoHN C. HupBarp. 287.
Plant pathology. Bacillus megaterium de Bary
from the interior of healthy potato tuber.
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN LuTMAN and Harry
E. WHEELER. 336.
Zoology. American Caudata, IV: Allocation of
the name Belitoglossa mexicana. M. B.
MirTLeMAN and Hopart M. SmirH. 318.
American Caudata, V: Notes on certain
Appalachian salamanders of the genus
Plethodon. M.B. Mirtiteman. 416.
Zoology. An analysis of specific homonyms in
zoological nomenclature. RicHarp E.
BLACKWELDER. 206.
425
A new subspecies of tree frog from Pernam.
buco, Brazil. Doris M. Cocuran. 316-
Hesperochernes thomomyst, a new species of
chernetid pseudoscorpion from California.
C. Cuayton Horr, 340.
More about Mexican urocoptid mollusks.
Pau. BartscH. 350.
On the crayfishes of the Limosus section of
the genus Orconectes (Decapoda: Asta-
cidae). Horton H. Hosss, Jr. 14.
Pharodinae, a new subfamily of Chondracan-
thidae (Crustacea: Copepoda), and a de-
scription of Pharodes biakensis, n. sp., from
New Guinea. PautL. Inia. 404.
Some echinoderms from Biak, Schouten
Islands. Austin H. CiarkK and FREpD-
ERICK M. Bayer. 1438.
Some interesting starfishes and brittle-stars
dredged by the Atlantis in the mid-
Atlantic. Austin H. CiarK. 75.
The tardigrade fauna of the District of
Columbia. CHARLES B. CurTIN. 251.
Three new eastern millipeds of the family
Xystodesmidae. RicHarp L. HOFFMAN.
346.
Two new millipeds of Jamaica. H. F.
Loomis. 185.
Two new species of polychaete worms of the
family Polynoidae from Puget Sound and
San Juan Archipelago. Marian H. Perr-
TIBONE. 412,
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4
‘Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences
President............+.+.-++-FREDERICK D. Rossrn1, National Bureau of Standards
IRENE GE acy ctu ss wile an ee an bine wa akan se C. Lewis Gazin, U. S. National Museum
MME air. os tan k's) oid ath es eee ...- Howarp S. Rappers, Coast and Geodetic Survey
WME aoe ie 2g Le/alel foe's wigs a's ace en NatHan R. Smits, Plant Industry Station
Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications..........0cc0ccceeescccee
Sk oie og Sets bs Haraup A. REHDER, U. 8. National Museum
Vice-Presidents ‘Representing the Affiltated Socteties:
Philosophical Society of Washington.......... Se cuba oan eniat .... WALTER RAMBERG
Anthropological Society of Washington....... ME RGB ge EB AL T. Dae STEWART
Biological Society of Washington..... ph, EE OE ek Lae EOS. JOHN W. ALDRICH
Chemical Society of Washington...... Bre ess “aA ed wissais Stance Cuarues E, WHITE
Entomological Society of Washington.........5....... ...C. F. W. MursesBreck
National Geographic Society..... SS elite: Marae atc eae eit 1avello Gas ALEXANDER WETMORE
Geological Society of Washington............... oeeeeee-. WILLIAM W. RUBEY
Medical Society of the District of Columbia......... ....... FREDERICK O. CoE
Columbia Historical Society.............. See ose 's 4 . GILBERT GROSVENOR
Botanical Society of Washington... 2... ine eee sec c eae eee- RoNALD BAMFORD
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters. . . WittiamM A. Dayton
Washington Society GigenOMCera GL ie. car a ides Gey cc Regrets Ge CuirrorD A, Betts
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...............
PE Re ME OES POR AG as URNS ees ola Francis B, SILSBEE
Washington Section, ‘American Society of Mechanical Engineers...............
ER SNe © stan os vinnie spice iri! oe SEM uy Ries ow Meee al Martin A. Mason
Helminthological Society of Washington................0.25. AUREL O. FostTER
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Lore A. RoGERs
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers. CLEMENT L. GARNER
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers..... HERBERT GROVE DORSEY
Washington Section, American Society of Civil Engineers.....QwEN B. FRENcH
Elected Members of the Board of Managers:
PEPE 1 DAS i ee a he to Sie. wane Max A. McCatu, Waxtpo L. Scumitrr
To January 1950....... PS Gla wihiataaa wecainio 8 F, G. Brick wEpDE, WILLIAM W. Di1EHL
remremnery LOOT, eS cid ww ene eee Francis M. DeranporrFr, WILLIAM N. FENTON
PPREIAEE) PP RA ERE oi ooo aig os ne sv ape tay All the above officers plus the Senior Editor
Board of Editors and Associate Editors..........ccccececnccesccess [See front cover]
Executive Commitiee......... Freperick D. Rossini (chairman), WALTER RAMBERG,
SRN Sa. aia ss g' Watpo L. Scumitt, Howarp 8. Rappieys, C. Lewis Gazin
Commiitee Ree LN MARTI POEMS SEALE, GN a vey eae whale Bau ae Us we Uy pace Ae 8 ie hie heraialete
_ Harowp E. McComs (chairman), Lewis W. Burz, C. WytHe Cooxks, WILLIAM
ee ee W. Diext, Luoyp D. Fe.iron, Recina FLANNERY, Grorce G. Manov
Committee on Meetings.....5...0...cccccecccvenes RayMonp J. SEEGER (chairman),
....- FRANK P. CULLINAN, Frep L. Monier, Francis O. Rice, FRanK THONB
Committee on M pace oehes,
To January 1949. .....- LEWIS V. JuDSON (chairman), Epwarp A. CHAPIN
To January BOSON Cu Ce Lee ecen Routanp W. Brown, HarRauD A. REHDER
Pee ROD ae Pata oa eee 5 kcare WiiuiaM N. Fenton, Emmett W. Price
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (KARL F. HerzFrexp, general chairman):
REO ICAL GINGER. 65 ON aa vie Me A ahs « Hike Mea Sek es Late tee aieteo nna s0%
C. F. W. Mugsmsecx (chairman), Harry §. Bernton, Coester W. Emmons,
Eimer Hiecins, Mario Moiuari, GorrHoLDp STEINER, L. Epw1in Yocum
For the Engineering CEES A TG ete Sig ks RU Re Pe Ue Fran nso) Te a co
Luorp V. Berxner, (chairman), Ropert C. Duncan, Hersert N. Eaton,
Arno C. FIELDNER, FRANK B. Scuzerz, W. D. SutcuiFrrs
For the Physical Se Se Re ee eee, eats ci Vt I
Kari F. Herzre.p (chairman), NarHan L. Drakes, Luoyp D. FELTon,
HERBERT INSLEY, WILLIAM J. ROONEY, RoBERT SIMBA, Micuart X. SULLIVAN
Committee on Grants-in-aid SOP UIUCSEOTE I OU NS Mh e es va eek ke Aas 8 6m aati ae
..F. H. H. Rozgerts, Jr. ar aa aBA Anna E. JENKINS, J. LEON SHERESHEVSEY
eo Representative on Council of MAW CeCe tie cereal ares Gy Sa SM Cie eb FRANK THONE
rn SRNR Ee Abt UACLONS So oc gt ie ww 0 a'd Main SA wee. 0's Dain eter shdia bs heads Skee ae eo ree
Witi1amM G. BroMBACHER (chairman), Haroup F. STIMSON, Hersert L. HALLER
fa ees CP RIL ORE er cs We ea oh ee Ae Me eae a nmeecrgak Sass Ret TS gi
-- JOHN W. McBurney (chairman), Rocer G. Barrs, WiLiiam A. WILDHACK
CONTENTS
4 |
Erunotocy.—The antiquity of the Northwest coast totem pole.
PHILIP DRVCK BR oe RP i eR err Ta. tak ie ee
ARcHEOLOGY.—Early cultural manifestations exposed by the archeo-
logical survey of the Buggs Island Reservoir in southern Virginia
and northern North Carolina. Carn F. MILupR..............
EnTomoLoey.—Simulium virgatum Coquillett and a new related spe-
cies (Diptera; Simuliidae).. ALAN STONE, .). 2.5.0.0. ...00. 02%
ZooLoGy.—Pharodinae, a new subfamily of Chondracanthidae (Crus-
tacea: Copepoda), and a description of Pharodes biakensis, n. sp.,
from..New Guinea. (“PAUL Tae en
ZooLoay.—T wo new species of polychaete worms of the family Poly-
noidae from Puget Sound and San J van Archipelago. Marian H.
PEPTIBONE oii g ur eUC as: eR AMOR CARON UNE TE UN SLURS rit ee a a
ZooLtocy.—American Caudata, V: Notes on certain Appalachian sala-
manders of the genus Plethodon. M.B. MIrrLeMaNn...........
IcnHTHyoLocy.—A new name for Synchiropus altwelis Regan, with a key
to the genera of the fish family pee ed ie LEONARD P.
ScHULTZand Loren P- Woops: 2.0 oe so een ee
ENDIUXLO VOLUMES eae Aga teint Rep bate ie.
Turis JoURNAL 18 INDEXED IN THE INTERNATIONAL INDEX TO PERIODICALS
Page
397
399
404
412
416
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